Full text of "Journal"
ijSresiuitrn to
®lje IHthrary
of the
Pnttierstty of {Eormtto
by
Mrs. M.L. Davies
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011 with funding from
University of Toronto
http://www.archive.org/details/journals11soci
cz^e>s^ ^5
THE JOURNAL
Society of Comical 3nbu$try,
TOL. XI. — 1892.
LONDON:
EYKE AND SPOTTISWOODE, HER MAJESTY'S PRINTERS,
EAST HARDING STREET, FLEET STREET, E.C.
. //
Cof.
journal of tf-jc Society of Cfymttcal 3nbustrv<
INDEX OF VOL. XI. — 1892.
INDEX OE AUTHORS' NAMES.
>T.B. — In this Index, (P) indicates that the matter referred to is an abstract of a Patent.
A
PAGE
-\;issili Effendi. Report on the Petroleum Trade of tlie
Caucasus 644
Abel, Sir F, Address to the Iron and Steel Institute 689
Speech at Annual General Meeting 571
Ahel, Sir P., ami Dewar, J. Manufacture of Explosives tor Am-
munition ( P) 709
Abraham, A. C. Ether 835
Achor, S. T. Soluble Chocolate ( P) 983
Acme Liquid Fuel Co., The. Manufacture of Gas ( P) 235
Actien Gesellschaft fur Anilin Fabrikation. Manufacture of
Colouring Matters ( P) 29
Adam. E. Malt Beverages ( PI 1023
Adams, M. A. Estimation of ( liygen Dissolved in Water 271
Adams, M. A., and Meacham, C. S. Preservation of Hops (P) . G2S
Addenbrooke, G. L. The TJsesand Applications of Aluminium 608
Alloying Aluminium with other Metals (P) 753
Adeney,' W. E. Treatment of Sewage Sludge ( P) 1130
Adler, J. J. Apparatus for Mixing Liquids I P J UliS
Aikman. C. M. Farmyard Manure. Its Nature, Composition.
ami Treatment 466, lot"
The Nitrate Fields of Chili 847
Aitken, A. P. Discussion on Celluloid 224
Aitken, H. Treatment of Stone, Ac., to Prevent Deterioration.
( P) cor.
Albert, E. Letter-press and Lithographic Processes based on
Photography. ( P) 634
Producing Two or More Coloured Prints (P) 634
Alberti and Ilempel. Estimation of the Inorganic Constituents
of Saw Sugar 273
Technical Analysis of Calcined Vinasse from Beetroot
Molasses 402
Alen, J. E. Preventing the Curdling of Albuminous Solutions
t PI 259
/mi- in Preserved Foods 363
A lcxander, J., and Co., and Laspce, H. de. Manufacture of
Soap and Toilet Preparations (P) 827
Allard. See Lezo 405
Allard, L. Fireproof Fabric (P) 51s
Allen, A. II. Commercial Organic Analysis 917
Allhusen, A. Discussion on Calcium Chloride in the Weldon
Process 884
Allison, S. B. Apparatus for Treating Vegetable Fibres (P) ... 804
Alsop, W„ and Blackall, W. Refrigerating Apparatus (P) 895
Alzugaray, J. B. Basic Furnace Lining and Basic Material
(P) 923
Manufacture of Refractory Materials (P) 443
Metal Alloys (P) 1115
Ambler, A S. and F. Treating Wool and other Fibres (P) 518
Amend. O. P., and Maey, J. H. Desulphuration of Oils (P)... 929
Amos, J. Manufacture of Wheaten Flour ( P) 629
Amthor, C. Wort and Beer 767
Anderson. E. W. Machinery for Manufacture of Explosives
(P) 517
Anderson, W. F. Discussion on the Acid Action of Drawing
Papers '. 214
PAGE
Andre, G. G. See Curtis 458
Andre. G. G., and Curtis. C, H. Manufacture of Gunpowder
(P) 180
Andreef, A. See Andres 705
Andres. G., and Andreef, A. Russian Peppermint Oil and
Methylauiine 705
Andrew, R. Aerators for Treating Liguids (P) 890
Andrews, T. The Passive State of Iron and Steel. Part II.
(illus.) 537
Part III 609
Annison, F. G. Treatment of Paper, Linen, and other Textiles
(P) 904
Appen/eller, B., and Filleul. K. Apparatus for Testing the
Si reugth of Fibres ( P) 680
Appert.L. Manufacture of Glass Pipes of large Diameter 38
Applegarth, E. See Atkins 43
Archbutt, L. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 420
Discussion on Pipeclay Triangle 326
Discussion on the Estimation of Silica in Clay 217
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting 577
See Deeley 595
The Estimation of Silica i;i Clay 215
Archbutt. L.. and Deeley, R. M. Treating Chemically Softened
Water (P) til
Arm and. A. See Grimaux 631
Armitage, Sir E., and Sons, (Liin.l, and Dunkei lev. P. Manu-
facture of Cloth for Press and Filtering Sheets ( P) . . . 908
Armour, L. H. Ovens or Retorts for Making Coke or Charcoal
or Distilling Carbonaceous Matter (P) 152
Ovens, Retorts, Furnaces, ir. (P) 806
Armstrong, C. Kilns for Burning and Glazing Sanitary Ware
(P) 524
Armstrong, G. E. Composition for Treating Fibrous Materia]
(P) 928
Armstrong, H. E. See Robertson 695
The Chemical Changes attending Photographic Operations 455
The Origin of Colour 512
Armstrong. H. E., and Kipping, F. S. Caniphrone : a Product
of the Action of Dehydrating Agents on Camphor 57
Armstrong, J. Manufacture of Tanks, &c„ of Glass (P) t;o5
Armstrong, R. Manufacture of Detergent Powder (P) 536
Arnaud, A, A New Unsaturated Fatty Acid. 619
See Grimaux 631
A ruaiidon, J. J. Note on Scouring Wool 3:i
Arnold, J. Discussion on the Acid Action of Drawing Papers. 214
Arnold, T. Utilisation of Slag (P) 810
Asboth, A. von. Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in Sulphates .. 711
Areharow, .1. Estimation of the Organic Substances in the
Air 461
Asehoff, K. See Jaunaseh 458, 458, S45, 845
Askham, J. V. Grinding and Crushing Apparatus (P) 994
Askenasy, P., and Meyer, V. Photo-Chemical Notes 1039
Slow Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures 1039
Astrop. W., and Parker, F. II. Manufacture of Carbonate of
Lead or White Lead (Pi 45
Atkins, G. A. Separating Gold, Silver, and other Metals from
Ores (P) His
Atkins, G. J., and Applegarth, E. Separating Alkaline and
Earthy Metals from their Salts, &c. (P) 43
Attout.P.A. Distilling, and Apparatus therefor (P) 50.8
H '2
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Aiibin, E. Separation and Estimation of Lead, Silver, and Zinc
in Minerals composed of Galena and Blende 775
Augustenhorg. L.J.. and Hansen, R. Apparatus for Testing
Milk (Pi 52
B
Bachem, A., and others. Apparatus for Glazing Paper (P).... 935
Bader, E. Method for Alkalimetrio Estimation of Phenol — -7;i
Badische Anilin und Soda Fab. Basic DyestutTs from Alpha-
naphtho-quinone-dichloriuride 599
Manufacture of Basic Naphthalene Colouring Matters,
and Sulpho-Acids thereof (P) 516
Manufacture of Hydrazine orDiamidogen and its Salts IF) 370
New Dyes of the Rnsanilin .Series and New Materials
therefor (P) 515
Production of Azo-Dyes and Materials therefor (P.I 1000
Production ' of Dyes belonging to the Rhodamine Series,
and Mat -rials therefor (P) 345
Production of Dyestuffs (P) 236
Production of Mordant-dyeing Colouring Matters related
to the Rosaniline Series (F) 236
Production of New Basic DyestutTs (P) 514
Production of New Diazo-Dyes, &c. IP) 514
Production of New Dyes related to the Rhodamine Series
i Pi 740
Production of New Sulpho-Acids and Colouring Matters
therefrom (P) 679
lladt., F. B. Practical Notts on the Electrolytic Refining of
Copper 926
Baoyer, A. ion. Quimtol, the Simplest Sugar of the Inositol
Group 760
Bailey, G. H. Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 414
The I ni| unities of Town Air 76?
Bailey, J. M. Apparatus for Production of Fuel Gas 899
Baker, H. B. Act ion of Light on Silver Chloride 634
Baldensperger, T. Turkey-Red Dyeing 237
Ball, E. J., and Wingham. A. Elimination of Sulphur from
Iron 751
Ball, J. B. The Manufacture of < til-Gas SMS
Ballantyne, H. See Thomson 506
Ballingball, D. &rtlirrlees 895
Baniber, H. K., and others. Portland Cement and Portland
Cement Concrete 1007
Bamberger, E. Addition of Hydrogen to Tricylic Systems 23
Bamberger, E., and Goldschmidt, C. Ethyl-a-Naphthylamino 23
Bamberger, E., and Kitschelt, M. Action of Hypochlorous
And on 0-Naphthaquinone 997
Bamberger. E.,andStettenheimer, L. "Aromatic " Octohydro-
a-Naphthoquinoline 24
Tetrahydro-a-Naphthoquinoline 23
Bamberger, M. Excrescent Resins 365
Bancroft, A. Manufacture of Textile Articles with Fringed
Edges(P) 51S
Bang. Asaprol 837
Banks, W.J. B. Compound for Insulating, &c. il'l 927
Barber, F. M. High Explosives in Warfare 59
Barclay, II. Determination of Loss of Coal in Washing
i iterations 325
Bardsley, It. Set Stones 1006
Barlow, E. Drying Brewers' Refuse(P) 932
Si i I unlilfe 150
Barnett, D. Apparatus for Treating Textile Vegetable Sub-
stances IP) 810
Barringer, H. See Redwood 59'.!
Barrow, .1. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 10
Purification of Sewage by Precipitation 4
Barrows, \. E.. and Turner, T. Estimation of Slag in Wrought
Iron 036
Barth, Dr. Report on the General Character of German Wines 763
Barton, J. Mashing and Brewing Fermented Liquors (P).... 833
Basanta, H. Coil tor feeding Syrup or Molasses into Vacuum
Pans (P) 542
Bastin, M. C. Estimation of Manganese in Spiegel Iron and
Ferro-Manganese 1037
Bates, F. G. Metallurgical Furnaces and Ovens (P) 615
Bates, H. Production of an Alimentary Product from Maize
i Pi 769
Ba i ii-ate, G. Closing Vessels for Preservation of Foods (P) . . 629
Bandiscli. J. Quantitathe Deteruiinutionof Mechanical Wood
Pulp in Paper 46 i
Bauer, 11.. and Gyiketta. .1. Production and Application of
Boron Sulphate Compounds i Pi 930
Bauer, T., and Mendheim, G. CokeOvens(P) 737
Baur, A. Discussion on Artificial Musk 308
Manufacture of Artificial Musk (P) 77 .;
Studies on Artificial Musk 306
Bant my. B. See Neucks 837
Baxter, .1. anil W. Means and Apparatus for Refining Paraffin
llus.) 424
PAGE
Bayaud, G. D. s,, Harvey 986
Bayrac,P.H. Indothymol: Preparation of Thymoquiuone . . . 996
Beadle, C. Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity Determina-
tion 304
Speech at Annual Dinner 583
The Acid Action of Drawing Papers 261
Beadle, E. See Huston 267
Beales, H. Copying Inks, Copying Books and Appliances (P) . 45
Beard, W. J. See Scott 90S
Beare.T. H. The Building Stones of Great Britain loll
Beauharnais, E. de. Manufacturing Illuminating Gas I Pi .... 231
Beanmann, A. Application of Coal-Tar Colours in Paper
Dyeing 1511
Bechamp, A. Action of Light on Silver Chloride 266
Becker. H. See Quertain 449
Becquerel, H. On the Measurement of High Temperatures. .. 709
Bedson. P. P.. and McConnell, W. On the Gases Enclosed in
Coal 882
Beilby, G. T. Manufacture of Cyanides (P) 747, 1004
Bell, ( . E. Coke Ovens (P) 096
Bell. J. Carter. Analvsis of Snow from Neighbourhood of
Chemical Works 320
Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Wool 131
Discussion on Estimation of Zinc 133
Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas tit
Bell, Sir Lowthian. The Manufacture of Iron in its Relations
to Agriculture 819
Belleroche, E. Durability of India-rubber Hot-water Pipes. . . 929
Benedikt.R. Ahalyseder Fetteund Wachsarten... 65
Analysis of Galena anil Lead Sulphate 181
Benoit, E. J. J. B., and Soler y Vila, J. Extracting Stearine
and Oleine from Tallow (P) 620
Bentz, E. Set Watson 430
Berg, C. Manufacture of Bronze Ingots, &c. (P) 1013
Berg6, A. H. J. Apparatus for Converting Amylaceous Sub-
3t ances into Soluble Products (P) 448
Bergh, A. Subjecting Liquids having Substances suspended in
them to Centrifugal Action (P) 337
Berkcnheim, A. Menthol 632
Berlioz. See Yven 264
Berly, A. Improvements in Analysing Columns (P) 803
Berk, H. Filtering Apparatus for Oil, See. (P) 536
Bei tin lot. Iron Carbonyl 909
Nickel Carbonyl 909
On the Oxidation of Nickel Carbonyl 43s, !>46
Persulphuric Acid and its Salts 946
On the Existence of Acid and Basic Salts in very Dilute
Solutions 465
Berthelot, Gantier. and Duclaux. Report on the Deplastering
of Wine 543
Bertram, J. obtaining the two Isomeric Monomethylethers
of Protocatechuic Aldehyde (P) 58
Bertram. J., and Walbaum, H. The Oils of Lavender and
Bergamot sis
Bertram, L. Extracting Glue and Grease from Hide and Skin
Waste and Bones at Low Temperature (P) 4t7
Bertrand. G. Identification of Xylose and Distinction from
Arabinose 1035
On some Colour Reactions of t he Carbohydrates 272
Bert rand-Leplat, J. Apparatus for Dyeing or Bleaching (P).. 161
Bert rand, P. H. Forming Magnetic Oxide on the Surface of
Iron (P) 094
Beste, E. Magnesium Flash-Light Apparatus (P) 899
Betting, C. F. Assay or Chemical Balances (PJ 635
Bevan, E. J. Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda 905, 966
1 discussion on the Acid Action of Drawing Palters 214
,SV< Cross 213, 211,903, 906
See Menzies 175
Beveridge, J. Treating Fibrous Plants for Manufacture of
Paper Pulp (P). 176
Beyer, B. .Manufacturing Varus, Ac. from Waste Silk (P) 158
Biliby, J. Manufacture of Compound Cakes for Cattle (P) ... 768
Bibby. J. H. Smelting Copper or Copper Ores, and Furnaces
therefor IP) 922
Bickes, T. See Jannasch 647
Bidder, G. P. Analytical and other Delicate Balances (P) 1035
Bidelmau, U. M. Manufacture of Gas (P) 996
Biedermann, Rudolf. Technisch-Chemisches Jahrbuch 185
Biernath.E. Heat Insulating and Waterproof Material (P).. 90S
Biggart, J. W. Composition of " Hunyadi Janos " Mineral
Waters 336
Discussion on Composition of Mineral Waters 336
Discussion on Vulcanisation of Rubber 335
Biggs, B. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood.... 403
Bigland, C. H. Paints for Ships' Bottoms, Sec. (P) 538
Bigot, C, and Schreiter, J. Manufacture of Sodium Borates (P) 434
Billings, A. W. Apparatus for Manufacture of -Malt Liquors
(P) 839
Manufacturing Beer and Ale (P) 62s
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Binder, P. Production of :v Discharge on Dyed Indigo 813
Binnej, B. Manufacture of Lamp-black Carbon-block (P) ... 171
Biolytic Gypse, Co., The. Insecticide and Fertiliser (P) 5U
Birch. W. Apparatus for Cleansing Sewage and other Liquids
(P) 364
Bird, F. Apparatus for Drawing off Liquid from Sewage
Tan k s ( P) 830
Bird, H. Manufacturing Blocks or Bricks from Purple Ore
(P) 694
Bisohoff, C. A., and HausdOrfer, A. p-Tolylglycocine B08
Bitto, B. von. Reaction of Sodium Nitroprusside with Alde-
hydes and Ketones 8-16
Black, A. F. Apparatus for Treating Sewage (P) 630
Blackall, W. See Alsop 895
Blackham. W. P. See Rees 704
Blair, G. Y. Evaporating Apparatus (P) 992
Blair, T. S., jun. Reduction of Ores (P) 614
Blakey, T. W. See Mason 436
Blaye, J. P. A. Treatment of Ramie Fibre, &c. (P) 903
Blenkinsop, W. E. B. See Hartley 170, 445
Bloemendal, C. Producing Hydraulic Mortar (P) 688
Blount, Bertram. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of
Wood 401
Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda 965
Bloxham.A. G-. Proceedings of the Annual General .Meeting . 577
Blutner, J. See Schlagenhaufer 699
Boake, A., and Roberts. F. G. A. Manufacture of Acid
Sulphites ( P) 907
Bonn, W. D. Apparatus for Leaching Ores (P) 352
Bolt, W. Tanning Hides or Skins (P) 171
Bone, W. A. See Lean 995
Bongartz, J. Percentage of Guaiacol in Wood Creosote, kc. . . 511
Bonta, J. W, Lears or Annealing Furnaces for Glass (P) .... 818
Borgarelli, G. Apparatus for Drying and Disinfecting Grain
(P) 230
Bomt nicer, A. Apparent Proportion between Dextrose and
Levulose in certain Wines 766
Effect of Presence of Lead Acetate on the Titration of
Lactose 778
Influence of Acetates of Lead on the Estimation of Invert
Sugar 778
Potassium Hydrogen-tart rate us a Starting Point for
Acidimetry and Alkalimetry 776
Borrger, C. Construction of Bricks (P) 689
Bott, J. E. Manufacture of Ferro-Bronze and other Alloys (P) 693
Manufacture of Salt (P) 1005
Bottome, T. D. Casting and Tempering Pure Copper (P) .... 615
Bouchardat, G.. and Lafont, J. Action of Benzoic Acid on
Turpentine 262
Bonlet, G. See Donard 804
Boult, A. J. Manufacture of Size Paint (P) 361
Bourne, T. F. See Morss 174
Bowers, W. H. Retorts for Carbonisation of Wood, &c. (P) . . 152
Bowes, A . Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 9
Bowley, J. W. Apparatus for Producing Cold (P) 992
Bowman, Dr. Discussion on Manufacture of Oxygen Gas 319
Bowman, F. H. Discussion on Testing Coal-gas 414
Bourgoin, N., and Decorce, H. Apparatus for Making Gas (P) 596
Boyd, N elson . Discussion on Galician Petroleum and Ozokerite 118
Boyer, C. S. Analysis of " Eggio " 447
Boyer, E. Determining Nitric Nitrogen and Total Nitrogen. . 182
Bradburti, J. A., and Pennock, J. D. Manufacture of
Alumina (P) 37
Brand, E. Manufacture of Animal Glue (P) 930
Brandt. Preventing Formation of Oxycellulose in Printing
Discharges on Indigo Blue 33
Brandt, C. F. Process for Discharge of Dyed Indigo-Blue 812
Red and White Discharge Prints on Dyed Indigo-Blue . . . 812
Brank, E. von. New Explosive Compositions (P) 456
Braun, O., and Liebreich, O. Manufacture of Fatty Matter
from Wool Fat (P) , 445
Bredel, F. See Klonne 597
Bredig, G. See Wagner ■, 1032
Brcstowski, A. Handworterbuch der Pharmacie. 275, 374. 641, 782
Breuer, A. Diaphragms for Electrolytic Decomposing Appa-
ratus ( P) 927
Breuer C. Manufacturing Artificial Stones with Glass Surfaces
(P) 241
Brewing Improvement Co., The. Treatment of Hops, and their
Use in Brewing (P) D32
Briant, L. See Hatschek 258
Briart, A., and Jacquemin, P. Enriching Calcareous Phosphates
and Manufacturing Superphosphates (P) 816
Briee, R. J. Using Galvanisers' Wastes (P) 443
Biidgman, H. L. Mixer and Divider for Ore Samples (illus.). 268
Brier, H. Means for Obtaining Oxygen and Nitrogen from the
Air (P) $38
PAGE
Briggs, E. Shower-Proof Fabric (P) 904
Briggs, J. Kilns for Burning Limestone. Cement, &c. (P).... 606
Briggs, W. A. Cement Composition for Interiors of Ships
(P) 719
Brindley. G, P. Solid Compounds of Sulphur Trioxide, Water,
and the Bisulphates or Acid Sulphates of Sodium or
Potassium (P) 1004
Brins Oxygen Company, Limited, and Murray, K. S. Prepara-
tion of Materia's for Separation of Oxygen and Nitrogen
from Atmospheric Air (P) 936
Brisson, G. Progress of Steel-making in Austria-Hungary 609
Brittingham, W. B. Bleaching Compound (P) 746
Detergent Compounds (P) 758
Broadbent, J. K. Apparatus for Regulating Admission of Air
and Steam to Furnaces (P) 896
Brochet. A. Pyrogenic Hydrocarbons formed in the Manufac-
ture of Compressed Gas 596
Brochocki,T. Manufacture of the Peroxides of Barium and
Hydrogen (P) 707
Brock, J., and Marsh, J. T. Manufacture of Carbonates of
Strontium and Barium (P) ; 1005
BrokhofF, R. Manufacturing Sugar ( P) 626
Bromilow, J. Gas Producers (P) 806
Brook, E. Machine for Dyeing ( Ine or More Warps (P) 1004
Brook, Simpson, and Spillor, Limited, and Green, A. G.
Production of New Bases ami of Azo-Colouring Matters
therefrom (P) ._ 513
Brookes, A. G. See Read, Holliday.aud Sou 679
Brookman. Geological and Economical Conditions of the
Westphalian Coal-Beds 338
Brooks., B. Machine for Preparation of Brewers' Finings (P) . 700
Brotherton, J., and Griffith, W. Holders for Quicksilver, Gas.
and Fluids under High Pressure (P) 993
Brougier, A. See Wilhelm 768
Brown, A. Crum. Discussion on Cellulose i!^3
Brown, A. J. Influence of Oxygen and Concentration on
Fermeutation 257
Brown, J. See Reynolds 165
Brown, J. Campbell. Discussion on Legislation on Noxious
Gases 123, 312
Discussion on Technology of India-Rubber 974
Models of Metallurgical Furnaces 312
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting r.71
Brown, S, H. Compound for Carburising Metals (?) 616
Browning, P. E, Quantitative Separation of Barium from
Calcium 777
Brownlow, R. S. Apparatus for Purifying Water and other
Liquids ( P) 769
Bruck, E. Detection and Removal of Protein Substances in
Beet Juice by Means of Tannin 830
Briibl, J. W. An Alcohol of Antipyrine 632
Determination of Specific Gravity of Viscid Substances ... 60
Investigations of Terpenes and their Derivatives 638
Terpenes and their Derivatives 705
Vacuum Desiccator with Heating Arrangements 60
Brunner, H. Address to Liverpool Section 874
Discussion on Technology of India-Rubber 974
Speech at Annual General Meeting 577
Brunner, L., and Zannor, A. Manufacturing Nitrate of
Ammonia or Chloride of Ammonia and Bv-Products
<P> 37
Simultaneous Production of Neutral Sulphate of Soda and
Precipitated Phosphate of Lime (P) 816
Brunner, O. Waterproofing Leather ( P) 253
Bruns, C. H. W. Manufacture of Colours, specially applicable
for Photographs ( P) 679
Buchanan, J., jun. Discussion on Noxious Gases Legislation . 312
Bucher, E. See Schweich 515
Buchet, C. Lead in Tartaric Acid 837
Buchner, E. The Chemistry of Fermentation 763
Bucket, M. Detection and Estimation of Lead in Commer-
cial Tartaric and Citric Acids 848
Buckley, W. Machines for Printing Calico, &c. (P) 160
Budenberg, C. F. On Risks attending Use of High-Pressure
Gases 319
Bugg, F. J. Improved Compound Fabric (P) 518
Bull, H. C. Electric Batteries ( P) 826
See Hossack 630
Burghardt, C. A. Pigments having a Lead Basis (P) 361
Biirkel, A., and Osterwald, C. Composition for Blotting or
Absorbing Liquids (P) 176
Burnet, L. Evaporators and Feed-Weter Heaters (P)
(illus.) 422
Burns, P. S., and Hull, C. S. Application of the a-Sulphonic
Acid of Naphthalene to Bating and Puring Skins (P) . 48
Buroni, L., and Marchand, P. Composition for Fixing Ammo-
niacal Nitrogen (P) 1018
Busch, A. Hydraulic Cements 164
Busch, M. See Fischer , 2t
iv
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
fDer. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Bush, T. W., and Donbledav, M. Cells for Storage Batt,
(I') 445
Butterfield, W. J. A. Discussion on Galician Petroleum and
Ozokerite 118
Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum 590
Butters, U., and Clcnnell, J. E. Chemistry of the Cyanide
Process ." 913
The Cyanide' Process in South Africa 916
Cabanyes, I. Galvanic Batteries (P) 354
Cabot, G.L. The Flameless Combustion of Natural Gas 801
Cadische, It. SfeeUbler 994
Calberla Fitz und Consorten. Drawing "if and Transporting
Sterilised Liquids (P) 173
Process and Apparatus for Sterilising Liquids (P) 25S
Caldwell, A. s. Apparatus for Evaporating or Incinerating
Spent Alkaline Lyes, &c. (P) 100G
Calmant. V. L, Manufacture of Charcoal, and Treatment of
Fermented Liquors therewith (P) 257
Campani, R. Extracting Iodine from Liquids (P) 1081
Candv. P. P. Apparatus for FilteringPolliited Liquids (P)... 933
Oxidation of Sewage and Impure Waters, and Material for
Treatment of such Sewage and "Waters (P) 769
Cannot, G. A. Bleaching and Treating T>eat Fibre, &c (P) . . . . 813
Cape Copper Company, Limited. SeaNieholls 413
Carbonating Company, The Universal, impregnating Beer
with Carbonic Acid (Pi 833
Carey. E. Discussion on Aluminium 128
Discussion on Legislation on Noxious Gases 123, 309
Carey, E. A. See Bamber 1007
Carnut, A. Analysis of Antimony Ores 636
Assay of Antimony Ores 941
I iceiirrence of Fluorine in Natural Phosphates 759
On the Estimation of Fluorine 711)
Carnot, A., and Le Chatelier, H. Report on a study of the
Calorific Power of Combustibles, by P. Mahler (illus.) sm
Carnrick, J. Manufacture of Kumyss Compounds or Tablets
(P) 259
Carpenter, Forbes. Speech at Annual General Meeting 569
Carpenter. R. E. Discussion on Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 497
Carre, L. Determination of Phenol 273
Casper. E. Sec Viarengo 904
Cassella, L.. and Co. Manufacl ure of Blue Dyestuffs (P) 740
Manufacture of Colouring .Matters from Aimdo-naphthoi-
sulphonic Acids f P) 741
Production of Amido-naphthol-sulpho Acids and of Dye-
stuffs t herefrom (P) 3 15
Production of Black Dyes for Wool (P) 516
Production of Blue Dyestuffs (P) 511
Triphenylmethane Colouring Matters (P) 28
Castner, H. V. Manufacture of the Oxides of the Alkaline
Metals (P) 11105
Cathrein, J. Manufacturing Soap ( P) 757
Causse, U. Solution of Chloride of Antimony in Saturated
Solutions of Sodium Chloride 600
Causse, M. H. Solubility of Tri- and Bicalcium Phosphates . . 760
Cazeneuve, P. Amethylcamphonitroketone (P) 900
A Nitro-ketone derived from Cainphosulphophenols 512
Is Magenta Poisonous? 900
The Tinctorial Properties of Amethylcamphonitroketone
and its Auxochrome Group 9110
Transformation of Gallic Acid into Pyrogallol ; and Melting
Point of Pyrogallol .* 1026
Cazeneuve. P., and Nicolle. A. Interaction of Ferrous Sulphate
with Phosphates of Calcium Employed in Agriculture. 1018
Chandler, J. C. Apparatus for Scrubbing Gas ( P) 5:17
Apparatus for Washing and Purifying Gas (P) 898
Chandor, L. Increasing the Illuminating Power of Flames
(P) S07
Chapman. A. Apparatus for Separating Scum from Liquors
(P) (illus.) .895
Multiple Effect Evaporating Apparatus (P) (illus.) it"
Chardonnet, H. de. Manufacture of Pyroxylines (P) 939
Chardonnet, M. de. The Specific Gravity of Textiles 640
Charon, P. F. Poisonous Gases from Dynamite 840
Chassy, A. On the Laws of Electrolysis 754
Chal field, H. E. Manufacture of Nitric Acid (Pi 007
Chenel, M. L. Estimation of Nitrogen in Inorganic and
Ethereal Nitrates, &c. by Kjeldahl's Process 943
Chenhall, J. W. Extraction of Metals fi 1 their Ores 1P1 924
Chenhall, W. and W. F. S. Solidification of Mineral Oils 1P1 . 670
Chesebrough. R. A. Manufacture of Perfumes (Pi 10:11
Chesterton, A. W. Tool for Cutting Glass Tubes (P) (illus.).. 168
Chicago Heat Storage Co.. The. Manufacture of Fuel Gaa I l'l 5:17
Chittenden, R. H.. and Osborne, T. B. The Proteids of the
Corn or Maize Kernel , 70I
IUGE
1 hoate,P.C. Producing Metallic Zinc (P) 619
Chorley, J. C. Note on the Analysis of Slag of Metallic Appear-
ance from the Manufacture of Phosphorus in Electrical
Furnaces 711
See Smith 591
Chorley, J. C, and Eamsay.'W. On the Destructive Distilla-
tion of Wood (illus'.) 395, S7J
Chuard. E. Mode of Formation of Sulphide Minerals 274
Church, A. H. The Chemistry of Paints and Painting 185
Ciamician, G., and Silber, P. Pseudopellesierine To:,
Clamond, C. Incandescence Gas Lamps and Apparatus (P) .. 21
Clark, c. P. Manufacture of Enamelled Ironware with
111 signs thereon (P) 434
Clark. E. A. " Voltaic Cells or Batteries { P I 250
Clark. J. Discussion on " Blown" Oils 507
Discussion on Mai/.e Oil 505
New Methods of Estimating Chromium in Ferro-Chromium
and Steel S01
The Separation of Arsenic. Antimony, and Tin 461
Clark, W. luglis. AnAttempt to place the Manufacture of Ink
on a Scienl ilic Basis 738
Clarke, E. L. Machinery for Manufacture of Peat Fuel (P) .. 340
Clarke. F. W. Set Schneider 709
Clans. 0. F. Manufacture of Alnminates, Sulphates, and Car-
bonates of S, ida and P. .tash (Pi BIS
Manufacture of Metal Wire. Sheets. Sfcc. 1 P) 922
Purification of Water- ami Producer Gas from Sulphur
Compounds (P) 231
1 ilaus, II. Enamelling Iron Plates (P) 1 35
Production of Enamelled Iron Ware ( P) 435
Clay Glass Tile Co., The. Plating Clay with Glass (P) SIS
Claypble, E. W. The World's Store of Tin 4"S
Clavton Analine Co., Lim.. and Hall, J. Manufacture of
Colouring Matters 1 P 1 679
1 llennell, J. E. See Butters 913. 916
Clotworthy. W. P. Packing Baking-Powders (P) 259
Clowes, F. Discussion on the Estimation of Silica in Clay 217
Simple Method of Calibrating a Delivering Pipette 327
Clowes,G.A. See Hatschek 258
Cochenhausen, von. Method for Valuation of Logwood
Extracts 32
Cock, F. de. See Johnson 700
Coen, E. Manufacture of Copying Ink ( P) 446
Coetlogon, A. A. C. de. Printing on Celluloid, Horn, &c. (P).. 253
Cohen. G. Galvanic Batteries (P) 755
Cohen, J. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Colin, E. Sterilising Apparatus (P) 257
Coinet, V.. ami Jones, A. Treatment of Salt to be 1'sed for
Curing Food (P; 629
Cole, E.G., and Keston, H. Means for Forming Clay into Vessels
(P) 719
Colefax, A. Action of Sulphurous Acid on Flowers of Sulphur 36
Coleman. J. B. An Improved Form of Pipe-Clay Triangle
(illu«.) 326
Distillation Flask for Estimation of Ammonia in Waters .. 327
Coleman, J B., and Granger, J. D. Volumetric Determination
of Calcium Phosphate 32S
Colgate, A. E. Secondary Batteries (P) 927
Collet, H. See Sawrey 230
Colley, J. Adding Substances I o Steel and Iron (P) 1013
Collin, A. Translation of Nietzki's " Chemistry of the Organic
Dyestuffs." 1010
Collin, F. J. Coke-Extinguishing and Loading Apparatus (P) 671
Collins, C. G. Process for Purifying Water (P) 770
Purification of Brine (P) * 604
Collins, J. W., and Kay,, A, Cages for Hydro-Extractors (P) 895
Colson, A. Column Stills for Distillation of Gas Liquor, &c.
(P) S07
Comp. des Fonderies et Forges de FHorme and Lencauchez.
Gas Generators for Motor Engines (P) 234
Connett, H. See Hard 618
i look, E. Rider, speech at Annual Dinner 581
Statement of Accounts at Annual General Meeting 569
Cooke, E. W. An Alloy (P) 695
Cooper, J. G. Treatment of Petroleum (P) 599
Corbett, Councillor. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 9
Coriel, V. Adulteration of Linseed Oil by Resin Oil 550
Cornaz, A. Milk Sterilisers (P) 768
Correns, E. Electrodes for Secondary Batteries (P) 555
Cosies, F\ E. Obtaining Commercial Products from Ores and
Residues containing Zinc (P) 352
Cotton, W. P., and Garrett, E. L. Evaporator and Surface
Condenser (P) 14S
Cotton, W. T., and Crowther, E. F. B. Gas Retorts (P) 421
Coubin, M. H. Homopyrocatechin 1 llomoeateehol) and Two
of its Nitro-Derivatives 735
Coulter, W. H. Hawking Machines for Indigo-Dyeing (P) si 3
Coulter, W„ and Rowley, T. Machines for Spreading India-
Rubber on Textiles (P) 588
Deo.31,18920 THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Cowper-Coles, S. O. Sec The London Metallurgical Company . 018
Coi. H. C. Apparatus for Control of Sulphuric Acid .Supply to
Carbonic Acid Generators (P) lc>2
Crafts, J. M. Separating the Xylenes 819
Craig. T. See Kimmins 169
Cramer, E. Dark Brown Glaze for Roofing Tiles 162
Crane. F. Sulphuretted Solutions for Production of Films
(P) or,
Cranev. T. Evaporating Apparatus (P) (illus.) 509
Crawford, W. Manufacture of Malt Bread, &c. (P) 030
Cressweli, C. G. Discussion on Schiirmann's Reactions S71
Creswick, \V. Arrangement of Coke Ovens and Betorts (P) .. 152
Crippin. Discussion on Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 497
Crippin, M. Discussion on Chairman's Address to Manchester
Section 878
Crippin, W. See Young 712
Crismer. L. Preparation of Crystallised Hydroxy lamine 202
Crookes, W. Translation of Wagner's Manual of Chemical
Technology 181
Cross, C. F. Discussion on Acetic Acid from Carbohydrates.. 969
Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood lid, s; t
Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda 965
Discussion on Schiirmann's Reactions 871
Cross, C. F.. and Bevan, E. J. Explosive Nitrates from the
Jute Fibre 214
(in the Electrolytic Production of Chlorine and Soda 963
The Acid Action of Drawing Papers 213
Cross, C. F.. Bevan, E. J., and Isaac. F. V. On the Production
of Acetic Acid from the Carbohydrates 900
Crosslev. A. Apparatus for producing Ferro-ferrio and Ferric
Oxides (P) 014
( 'rowdor. W. Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda. . . 935
Discussion on Stability of Organic Nitrogen Compounds . . 119
Crowther, E. F. B. See Cotton 421
Crowther, W. and J. Means for Preserving a Solution of Tan-
nin (P) 021
( Yoxford, S. A. Straining Brewers' Wort (P) 833
Cummins, G. W. Treating Copper and its Alloys to Prevent
Oxidation and Deoxidat ion during Heating or Annealing
(P) 753
Gondii], Lieut.-Col. Discussion on Manufacture of Explosives. 211
Cunliffe, It., and Barlow. E. Method and Apparatus for
Treating Refuse (P) 450
Currie, S. C. C. Manufacturing the Plates or Elements of
Secondary Batteries It
Curry, J. F. See Warner 007
Curtis. C. H. See Audi.- 180
Curtis. C. H., and Andre, G. G. Explosives (P) 450
Cutler, W. Manufacture of Gold, Silver, and Bronze Paints
( P) 829
t'nttrii. E. B. Production of Liquid Chlorine (P) 747
Production of Soda and Chlorine (P) 717
D
Dagger, J. H. J. Discussion on Aluminium 1*28
Discussion on Legislation on Noxious Gases 124
The Manufacture and Industrial Value of Aluminium .... 124
Dahl, G. A. A New Antipyretic and Antineuralgic Chinolin
Derivative (P) 59
Production of Fast Yellow Mordant Dyeing Azo Dyestuffs
(P) 516
Dnhm, O. See Reith 544
Dambmann, G. See De Mare 58
D'Andria, M. N. Manufacture of Barium and Strontium
Chlorides ( P) 36
Dauks, A. T. Apparatus for Saturating Air or Gases with
Vapours ( PJ 508
Darby, J. H. Basic Lined Furnaces (P) 614
Manufacture of Steel ( P) 42
Manufacture or Purification of Steel (P) 42
Darley, A. E. See Tiehborne 936
Darmstae dter, L. See Jafle , , .-. 928
Davies. Discussion on Agricultural Fertilisers and Legisla-
tion 412
Davies, J. L. Colour- Printing, and Apparatus therefor (P) ... 1004
Davies, P. J. Lead Plates for Secondary Batteries { P) 248
Davis, E. H. See Richardson 353
Davis. G. E. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 10
Discussion on Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 497
Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 415
Further Notes on Nitroeen in Coal-Gas 496
Testing the Illuminating Power of Coal-Gas 412
Davis; G. E. and A. R. Preparation of Chlorine (P) 348
Davis, T. S. Discussion on Vinegar Manufacture 491
Davy, A. S. Treating Smoke and Gases from Furnaces (P) . . . 21
Day, J. O. Alloys and Compositions for Coating Surfaces to
prevent Corrosion when submerged ( P) 694
PAGE
Daw, jun., J. Dyeing Fabrics (P) 131
Dawson, B. See Rowan 829
Dawson, J. Thermometers (P) 993
Dean, E. Manufacture of Eucalyptus Products (P) 179
Decesari, E. Compound for Destroying Blackbeetles (P) 770
Decode, E. Machinery for Dyeing Textile Materials in Hanks
(P) 160
DecorcGi H. See Bourgoin 590
Deeley, R. M. Sec Arehbutt 421
Deeley, R. M., and Arehbutt, L. Apparatus for Preparing
"Water for Use in Steam Boilers (P) 595
D.-ike, B. See Roeser-Milller 607
Delahaye, L. C. Enriching Pbnsphated Chalk,*&c. (P) 161
Deming, H. S. See Miles, jun 822
Dempster, R. and J. Apparatus for Manufacture of Sulphate
of Ammonia (P) 238
Deiuunur, V. Brewing Apparatus (P) 700
Deniges, G. Action of Pyridine Bases on Certain Sulphites. . . 772
Preservation of 7M-Phenylenediamine Solutions for Nitrite
and Hydrogen Peroxide Testing 848
Denny. T. See Shedlock 695
De Rackowski. See Trillat 997
Derrick, W. H. See Rennie 662
Dervaux. R. Clari.'ying Muddy Liquids (P) 451
Desboutin, A. Developing Tray for Photographs (P) 937
Desruelles, A. "\V. See Street 249
D9utecom. Recent Investigations on the Calorific Value of
Coals 897
Deutsche Gold nnd Silber-Seheideanstalt, The. Production of
Salts of Ferricyanogen (P) 1005
Devonshire, E. Apparatus for Treating Water (P) 451
Dewar, J. See Abel 709
St Lunge 433
Diekhutt, F. See Liebermann 426
Dickmann, F. See Mastbaum 760
Dienheim-Brochocki, Count T. de. Chlorine Compounds for
Bleaching ( P) 813
Dietal, R. Azolitmin Paper 635
Diffetot, F. H. Device for Containing Volatile and Inflam-
mable Liquids (P) 806
Digby, E. J. T. Manufacture of Soap (P) $28
Dinsmore, J. H. R. Manufacture of Gas (P) 735
Manufacture of Illuminating and Heating Gases (P) 149
Diss, C. J. See Kennedy 926, 927
Dittmar. W. A Porcelain "Water-Bath isi
Dobbie, J. J., and Lauder, A. Corydaline 264
Corydahne [T 633
Dobrzynski. Action of certain Chlorides on Portland Cement 525
Dodd, F. W. Charging Explosive Shells (P) 546
Dodd, "W. R. Manufacture of Soap ( P) 758
Dodge, W. S. See Lawton 768
Donard, E., and Boulet, G. Apparatus for Desiccation of Solid
Matters ( P) 804
Donath, E. Estimation of Aluminium in Ferro-AInminium. . . 459
On the Presence of Invertase in Wine and Beer 543
Dor, E. Regenerative Gas Furnace for Zinc Ores (P) 615
Doubleday, M. See Bush 445
Doulton, H. L., and Leech, S. H. Forming Undercut Projec-
tions and Recesses in Tiles and Pottery (P) 38
Drake, T. New Product Possessing the Properties of Spirits
of Turpentine (P) 45
Dreyfus, C. Discussion on Chairman's Address to Manchester
Si r t ion 878
Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 10
Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 414
M nuufacture of Coloured Rubber Goods ( PJ 446
Manufacture of Colouring Matters (P) 29
Recovery of By-Products from Coke Ovens 879
Drossbach, G. P. Electrolytic Determination of Copper 845
Drost, T. Manufacturing Crystallised Sugar (P) , 699
Drown, T. M., and McKenna, A. G. Direct Determination of
Aluminium in Iron and Steel 26s
Drummond, J. Apparatus for Purifying Sugar (P) 931
Dubbs, J. A. Manufacture of Asphaltum (P) 512
Du'ooseq, A. See Hermite 1015
Duclaux. See Berthelot 513
Dudley, C. B. Bearing-Metal Alloys 440
Dudley, "W. L. Removal of Lint from Cotton-Seed 619
The Colours and Absorption Spectra of thin Metallic Films
and Incandescent Vapours of Metals 924
Duffy, T. Generating Electricity and Producing Air in a Lumi-
nous State ( P) 619
Dugdale, E. See Hillyard 1022
Ditll, G. See Lintner 766, 1021
Duncan. Discussion on Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 497
Duncan, J. H. Manufacture of Butter (P) 834
Dunkerley, P. See Annitage ,.., 908
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31,1892.
PAGE
Dunstan, W. R. The Conditions which Determine Combina-
tion between the t'yanides of Zinc and Mercury, and
Composition and Properties of the Resulting Double
Salt 307
Dunstan, W. R., and Passmore, F. W. The Formation
and Properties of Aconine, and its Conversion into
Aconitine 366
Dunstan, W. R., and Umney, J. C. The Alkaloids of True
Aeon it a m napeUus 366
Duntze. J. C. Producing Colours on Glass Surfaces (P) 1007
Dupre\ F. Manufacture of Potassium Carbonate (P)a 604
Duiand. Huguenin, L., and Co. Bases for the Production of
Substantive Cotton Dyes (P) 809
Durio Brothers. Tanning Hides and Skins (P) 625
Dinning, J. S. Mains for Tempering and Hardening Metals
<P) 1014
Dvorkovitz, P., and others. Method and Apparatus for Dis-
tilling Liquid Hydrocarbons (P) 152
Dynamite Actiengesellschaft NcLtl, Manufacture cf Gun-
powder (P) 456
Production of Gunpowder or like Explosives (P) 267
E
Eager, H. T., and Milburn, R. P. Electric Cells or Batteries
(P) 248
Ebb, E. A. Combustion of Carbonaceous Fuel (P) 996
Ebert, A. E. Manufacture of Substitute for Leather (P) 625
Eckart, V. Chemical Study of German and Turkish Otto of
Roses 265
Eckenroth. Carbon Tetrachloride as a Solvent 757
Eckenroth, H. Carbon Tetrachloride 837
Edgerton.N. H. Storage Batteries (P) 249
Edwards, W. S. and J. W. Manufacture of Terra Cotta Ware
(P) 435
Effront. J. Conditions under which Fluorides exert Maximum
Effect in Solutions of Fermentable Matter 931
Studies on Yeast 50
Ehlis, J. Ozonising Apparatus (P) 769
Ehrenwerth, J. von. Manufacture of Iron and Steel (P) 612
Eichstadt, F. Production of Caustic Alkali Carbonates of the
Alkaline Metals, and Useful Bye-Products (P) 37
Einhorn, A., and Fischer, L. Action of Hypochlorous Acid on
Tropine 707
Nitro-Atropine. 706
Eitner, W. Contribution to our Knowledge of Sumac 539
The Weighting of Skins 253
Ekenberg, M, Apparatus for Fractional Distillation (illus.)... 1034
Elbs, K. Paranthracene 340
Eldridge, G. H . The Phosphate Deposits of Florida 255
Elieson, C. P. Storage Batteries (P) 354
Ellershausen, F. Treatment of Soda Waste (P) 433
Ellinger, H. O. G. Optical Determination of Albumen in
Urine 184
Elliot, Sir G., and MacGowan, J., jun. Manufacture of Coke
(P) 995
Elliott, S. Condensing Lead and other Metallic Fumes (P) . . . 822
Ellis, C. J. See Mills 695
Ellis. P. A Simplified Form of Magnesium Lamp (P) 807
Elmore, W. See Smith 45, 45, 360, 633
Elworthy, H. S. Apparatus for Cooling Liquids (P) (illus.)... 260
Preserving Meat, Fruit, &c. in Transit (P) 259
See Pullman 1022
Emmeus, S. H. Explosives and Ordnance Material 65, 939
Nickel Analysis 1035
Endlich, F. M. Manual of Qualitative Blow-pipe Analysis and
Determinative Mineralogy 1040
Engel, F. H. F. Magnesium Flash-Lights (P) 267
Engel, R. Action of Alkaline Bases on Solubility of Salts of the
Alkalis 237
Action of Ammonia on Solubility of Ammonium Chloride. . 238
Enghein, C. D., A. D., and S. D. d*. Kilns for Firing Terra-
Cotta.&c. (P) 524
Engledue, W. J. Galvanic Batteries (P) 617
Solution for Galvanic Batteries (P) 248
Engler. On the Formation of Petroleum 995
Entz, J. B. See Waddell 249
Entz, J. B., and Phillips, W. A. Secondary Batteries (P) .... 354
Epstein, M. Filtering Tubes for Purifying Molten Glass (P) . 241
Erdroeuger. Influence of Presence of Gypsum in the Raw
Materials of Portland Cement 241
Escbo, R. See Krizek 253
Eskuchen, T. H. J., and Haarmann, H. A. Burning Pressed
Blocks of Purple Ore (P) 695
Manufacturing Briquettes of Purple Oro (P) 695
Esop, J . V. Sulphocyanogen in Coal-Gas 337
Espeut, W. B. Manufacture of Dyeing Extracts (P) 680
PAGE
Essnrr, J. C. Note on Precipitation of Copper by Iron and
Action of Metallic Iron on Solutions of Saltsof Iron
Sesquioxide 165
Estrayer, A. Cages for Oil Press°s ( P) 446
Etard, A. Solvent Action of Liquid Organic Compounds 713
Etz, P. See Jannasch 710
Evans, Sir J. Speech at Annual General Meeting 577
Evans, P. Norman, and Wirtz, Q. The Acid Action of Drawing
1 *;t per 212
E veret t. < i . A. See Vickers 424
Evers, F. Condenser for Laboratory Use 635
Eversued, S. Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda .. 965
Evesque et Cic, La Soc. Rollers for Printing Fabrics (P) .... 1004
Fahlberg, C. Production of Pure Saccharine (P) 1031
Fahrion, W. Hubl's Iodine Test for Fats 183
Testing Boiled Linseed Oil 696
Fairh-y. T. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 420
Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum 688
Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 144
On the Impurities in Coal-Gas 419
Faleimagne, J. Preservation of Meat and Fatty Matters (P). . 630
Fanta, F. Apparatus for Automatic Production of Oxygen
(P) 773
Discussion i.n Manufacture of Oxygen Gas 319
The Manufacture of Oxygen Gas (illus.) 312
Farbenfabriken vorm. F. Bayer and Co. Colouring Matins
derived from Anthraquinone fP) 513
Colouring Mattel's derived from Benzidine and its
Analogues (P) 516
Colouring Matters from Anthraquinone and Alizarin Blue
(P) 514
Manufacture of Alpha.-Naphthol Sulpho Acids and Dioxy-
Naphthalene Sulpho Acids, and Dvestuffs therefrom
( P) 999
Manufacture of Azo Dyes (P) 158
Manufacture of Colouring Mat ters (P) 809
Manufacture of Colouring Matters (P) 1001
Manufacture of Colouring Matters derived from
Anthraquinone (P) 740
Manufacture of Dyestuffs from Anthracene and Anthra-
quinone (P) 29
Manufacture of Indigo-carmine (P) 28
Manufacture of Iodine Substitution Products of Phenols
and Cresols (P) 370
Production of Azo- Colouring Matters (PJ 345
Production of Azo-Colours on Fibre (P) 1004
Production of New Cotton or Substantive Dyestuffs (P)... 809
Production of New Derivatives of Alizarin and its
Analogues (P) 1000
Production of Pharmaceutical Compounds (P) 708
Production of Sulpho Acids and Colouring Matters (P) . . . 1000
Farb. vonn. Meister, Lucius und Bruning. Colouring Matters
from Protocatechnic Acid and Phenols ( P) 902
Disinfecting and Preservine Organic Substances (P) 1024
Dyeing Silk Solid Black (P) 515
Manufacture of Colouring Matters (P) 808
Manufacture of Meta-amido-Benzaldehyde and of Salts
thereof (P) 633
Manufacture of Nitro and Amidomethylphenylpyrazolone
and a Derivative (P) 545
Manufacture of Yellow Azo-Colouring Matters (P) 515
Production of Azo-Colours in Discharge Printing on Indigo-
Dyed Fabrics (P) 160
Production of Basic Gallate of Bismuth (P) 369
Product ion of Black Colouring Matters ( P) 344
Production of Blue Colouring Matter (P) 514
Production of Blue Colouring Matters (P) 514
Production of Blue-Green and Red-Violet Colouring Matters
from Alizarin Blue (P) 29
Farnsteiner, K. On the Volumetric Estimation of Sulphuric
Acid 548
Simple Extraction and Condensing Apparatus (illus.) 1034
Farrow, G. E. Improvements in Candles (P) 169
Faure\ J. See Filassier 695, 695
Faure, P. Machine for Decorticating Ramie' (P) 518
Fauvel. C. J. Furnace for Treatment of Refractory Ores (P) . 613
Fawsitt, C. A. Discussion on Antimony Smelting 19
Discussion on Pure Phosphoric Acid 228
Discussion on the Production of Cyanides 15
Discussion on Vulcanisation of Rubber 335
The " Dry Heat " Vulcanisation of Rubber 332
Fell, J. C„ and Stevens, C. A. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 46
Ferguson, J. Ceylon as a Source of India-Rubber Supply 718
Ferguson, P. Apparatus for Concentrating the Heavier
Constituents of Pulverised Ores (PJ 822
Fergusson, J. H. Manufacture of Illuminating Gas (P) 670
Ferreira da Silva, A. J. Ammonium Sulpho-Selenite as a Test
for Alkaloids 182
Ferrier, W. F. Discovery of Calcium Tungstate in Canada. . . . 190
Field, C. L. Manufacture of Superfatted Soap ( P) 446
Dec. 31.18M.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Fi«lden,J. KssPetrio ■'"*
Filassier. J. E., and Faurfi, J. Furnaces for Steel-making or
Cementation Purposes (P) 695
Manufacture of Cast Steel (P) 695
Fllleul, B. See Appenzeller 680
Fink. (". Purifving Smoke and Precipitating Products of
( 'ombustion thereof (P) 907
First brook, W. D. See Richardson S.j3
Fischer, E., and Stahel, R. ^-Sorbitol 40
Fischer, F. Jahresberieht neber die Leistungen der Chemi-
schen Technologie 047
Fischer, L. SecEinhorn 706,707
Fischer, O.. and Busch. M. A New class of Fluorescent Dyes
of the Quinoxaline Series III 24
Fischer. O., and Hepp. E. Studies' in the Indnline Group — 156
Fischesser, A. Producing Azo-Colouring Matters'(P) 344
Fisher, B., and Murgatroyd, A. Apparatus for" Cleaning and
laistrcin.it Silk and other Yarns (P) 905
And Murgatrovd.H. Apparatus for Cleansingand Lustreing
Tarns (P) 743
FitzOerald, D. G. Negative Elements of Voltaic Batteries
(P) 616. 616
Fleischer, E. Manufacture of Alkali Aluminates (P) 522
Fleissnir, F. See Lippmann 263
Fleming, Prof. Speech at Annual Dinner 583
Fletcher, A. E. Discussion on Legislation on Noxious Gases 124, 311
Modem Legislation in Restraint of Emission of Noxious
Gases 120
Fletcher, B. L., and Hoyle, J. Apparatus for Drying Sub-
stances (P) 894
Fletcher. F. W. Instruments for Determining Specific
Gravities of Liquids (P) 635
Receptacles for Storing and Immersing Hydrometers, &c.
(P) 635
Fluckiger, Von F. A. Reactionen 275
Fliigge, A Production of a Solution of Myrrhic Resin (P) . . . 370
Foehr. Iron Vessels for Molten Substances (illus.) 526
Foclsing, A. Preparation of Hop Extract (P) 51
Foerster, F. See Mylius 181, 690
Foesling, A. Clarifying and Bleaching Tannin Extracts f P) . . 237
Foester, O. Formation and Behaviour of Basic Calcium
Phosphates, and their Relationship to Thomas-slag . . . 460
Forell. C. von. Manufacture of Artificial Roman Cemenf(P). 39
Fortescue, F. H. Means for Collecting Hops, &c, when
Boiling or in Circulation in a Vessel (P) 51
Foster, H. A. and Frost, J. Dyeing, &c. Animal and Vegetable
Fibres (P) 237
Foster, W. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood 402, 874
Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum 589
Note on the Carbon deposited from Coal-Gas Flames 340
Foulis, W. Discussion on the Production of Cyanides* 16
Fourness, H. Manufacture and Storage of Gas (P) 149
Fraley, J. C. Rendering IroD, Steel, and similar Metals
Homogeneous (P) 695
Francke, G. See Nycander 1022
Francois, H. See Rolland 932
Frankel. L. K. The Electrolysis of the Metallic Sulpho-
Cyanides 61
Frankenburg, I. Manufacture of Aniline Lakes ( P) .829
Frankland, P. F., and Lumsden, J. S. The Decomposition of
Manitol and Dextrose by the Bacillus Ethaceticus . . . 449
Frankland, P. F.. and MacGregor, J. Fermentation of Arabi-
nose by Bacillus Ethaceticus 627
Frankland, P. F., and Ward, M. First Report of the Water
Research Committee of the Royal Society 704
Frayssc, A. Treatment of Samples of Crude Wool for Estimat-
ing Purposes (P) 518
French. A., and Stewart, W. Obtaining Gold, Silver, and
Copper from Ores (P) 612
Fresenius. W. Note on Wines containing Potato Glucose 766
Fresenius. W., and Ruppert, F. Difference of Solubility of the
Chromates of Strontium and Calcium in Dilute
Alcohol 776
Frey, E. Dyeing Black Hosiery -. . 31
Freyer, F., and Meyer, V. Ignition Temperature 'of Electro-
lytic Gas 780
Friedlander, P.. and St. Szymanski. The Nitration of g-Naph-
thylamine 908
Frist, R. P., and Ruper, C. G. Apparatus for making Pareh-
mentised Fibre Tubes (P) 1026
Frohlich, E. Clay Presses (P) (illus.) 436
Frost.J. See Foster 237
Fuchs, C. See Keseling 008
Fuchs. F. Preliminary Heater for Distillation of Petroleum.. 511
Fuller, H. and W. H. See Hawkins, W 823, 1004
Fullner, A. J. E. Pulp-catchers or Savers ( P) 1026
Fulton, H. B. Specific Gravity Apparatus (illus.) 305
G
PAGE
Gabriel, S. Determination of Fibrous Materials in a Crude
State 94ft
Gallenkamp. A New Colorimeter (illus.) oil
Gallon, R. Discussion on the Acid Action of Drawing Papers. 214
Gait, H. A. See Peacock 68i;
Gamble, D. Speech at Annual Dinner .",s2
Gamble. J. C. Discussion on Noxious Gases Legislation 310
Ganelin, S.. and Kostanecki, St. v. Constitution of the
o-hydroxyazo Compounds 425
Gardiner. J. B. Fluid for Primary Batteries, and Utilising the
Waste Products (P) 2t9
Garland. N. M. Increasing Lift* and Kltieiency of Arc Light
Carbons { P) 43
Gamier, J. On the Volatilisation of Iron and Nickel 243
Garrett, E. L. See Cotton 14S „
Garrett, J. D. Means for Delivering smd Distributing Polluted
Water (P) 364
Garros. M. F. Asbestos Porcelain (Porcelaine d'amunte) 162
Gas Economising and Improved Light Syndicate, The. and
Love, J. Apparatus for Carburising Gas or Air (P) . . . 898
Gassend, M. Boric Acid in Wines 767
Gattermann. L., and Neuberg. O. Synthesis of Dehydrothio-
toluidine 673
Gausse, H. On the Solution of Bismuth Chloride in Saturated
Solutions of Common Salt, and on Basic Salicylate of
Bismuth 262
Solubility of Tricalcium and Bicalcium Phosphates 685
Gautier. See Berthelot 543
Gayly, J. Blast Furnace Linings (P) 352, 353
Geduld, R. A New Enzyme : Glucase 627
Gee, G. E. The Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in
Gold 1039
Gehrke, H. Apparatus for Filtering Beer and other Liquids
(P) 833
Geigy, R. Report on Mafat's Essay on Plants capable of
Yielding Tanning Materials . .' 621
Geigy, R., jun. Report on Mafai's Memoir on Dyewood
Extracts 154
Gendron, P. Automatic Regulating Apparatus for Galvanic
Batteries (P) 854
Geneste, Herscher. and Co. Means for Sterilising Water
(P) 450
Genvresse, M. Synthesising Tartaric Acid 284
Genvresse, P. New Synthesis of Tartaric Acid 631
Geoghegan, S. See Tichborne 93fi
George, C, and Wernaer, C. Manufacturing Artificial Granite
and Marble ( P) 165
Georgi, Max. Coal-Dust Explosions at the Ziinckerode Colliery 93S
Georgievics, G. von. Behaviour of Tricalcium Phosphate
towards Carbonic Acid and Ferric Hydroxide 254
Gerard, J. M. A. Treatment and Desiccation of Peat (P) 423
Gerland, B. W. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 10
Gesellschaft ftir Linda's Eismaschinen. Apparatus for
Regulating the Supply of Volitile Liquids to
Refrigerators (P) 668
Effecting Interchange of Heat and Moisture by Means of
Liquid Spray and Air Currents (P) 668
Gessler, E. Treating Textile Fibres with Liquids and Vapours
or Gases (P) 680
Get'y, J. See Harvey 996
Gibbings, W. Electro-depositing ( P) 353
Gibbons, B. and W. P. Apparatus for Charging Inclined Gas
Retorts (P) 806
Gibbs, W. Electrolytic Determination of Metals as Amalgams 547
Gibney, B. J. Finishing Leather (P) 930
Giesel, F. New Alkaloid from Javanese Coca Leaves 177
Gilbaut, H. Compress ibdity of Saline Solutions 780
Gilbert, J. H. See Lawes 253
Gill, A. O. and W. S. Paints ami Lacquers (P) 1017
Gillischewsky, G. Fireworks (P) 939
Girard, A. Adherence to the Leaves of Plants of Copper
Compounds intended to Cure their Diseases (P) 770
Giraud, P. Thermo-electric Batteries ( P) 617
Gnuchtel, G. Marbling Enamelled Articles (P) 524
Godeffroy, R. Determination of Mechanical Wood Pulp in
Paper 464
Goetz, K. Producing Liquid Clay or Slip { P) 1013
"Slip" for Manufacture of Porcelain, Stoneware, &c. (P).. 38
Goldschmidt, C. See Bamberger 23
Goldschmidt, J. Dyeing, Tanning, and Mordanting Leather,
Ac. (P) 521
Goldschmidt, G., and Jahoda, R. The Substances contained
in the Petals of Gentiana verna 366
Goodacre, H. Filters (P) 421, 507
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Deo. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Gordon, I SwS rong 807
G age, F. II. Production of Monocarbonates rrom Bicar-
bonati ilis(P) 907
Gossart, E. Analysing Ucohols or other Liquids 71 li
On Certain Capillary Phenomena and the Spheroidal State 274
\. Apparatus for Making and Drying Malt (P) 8*3
Goward, P. Secondary Batteries IP) 43
Goyder, G., jun. Set Rennie 1039
Grabftu, L. Electrolytic Production of Aluminium (P) 617
Graemiger, A. nnd J. Apparatus lor Dyeing, Bleaching, Sec.
Yarn (P) 813
Graf, R. Fabrics of Asbestos, ,vc. for Roofing Purposes P ... 242
Gjuf, K- II. Rendering Lubricating Oils Incombustible (!')... 44(i
Granger, J. D. See Coleman 328
Grawitz, W. J. S. Dyeing and Printing Textile Fibres (P) — 813
Grebner, R. See Marcus 354
Green,A.G. Discussion on Artificial Musk SOS
Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood 408
See Brook, Simpson, and Spiller 513
Greenwood, H. Machinery for Compressing Gunpowder, &c.
(P) ;..- 54«
Git 'limit, N. Absorption of Carbon Monoxide by Blood 704
Physiological Research on Carbon Monoxide 260
Grerenbroich, The Maschinenfabrik. Crystallisation of
Saccharine and other Solution's (P) 543
Griffin, R. B. Treating Wool Washings (P) 743
Griilith. F. G. Candles and Night Lights (P) 1017
Griffith, W. &« Brofherton 998
Griinaux, E., and Irnaud, A. Homologues of Quinine 631
Preparation of Quinine-di-mcfchipdide from Cupreine 631
Grimshaw, II. Cost of some Processes of Sewage Treatment. 5. in
Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Wool 131
Discission on Estimation of Zinc 133
S . Sacrd skis
G ripper. II- Rapid Method of Determining Com position of
Lubricating Oils 182
Grittner, A. Estimation of Sulphur in Coal 711
Gronwald, J. F. H. Se, Ni uhass
Grosscurth and Luboldt. Exhibition of Betting's Balance .. . 21.1
Grosse.C. F. E. Producing Marbled Glass (P) 606
Grossman, J. Discussion on Estimation of Nitrogen in Coal-
Gas 417
1 liseussion on Manufacture of < Ixygen-Gas 319
Discussion on Test ing Coal-Gas 414
Grfidelbacb, W. Manufacture of Carbons for Electric Arc
Lamps (P) 7.11
Guignet. C. E. Conversion of Gallic Acid and Tannic Acid
into Benzoic Acid 261
Gnillemia, G. Micrographic Analysis of Alloys 7r4
Guiliot. Load ill Tartaric Acid 838
Guntz. Action of Carbonic Oxide on Iron and Manganese 690
Probable Presence of Iron Carbonyl in Illuminating
Gas 896
The Action of Carbon .Monoxide on Iron 909
Guntz,W. Action of Light on Silver I hloride 17a
Gutensohn, A. Production of Litharge from Metallic Lead
(P) 694
Guttmann, 0. Dangers in the Manufacture of Explosives .... 298
Discussion en Fluid Specific Gravity Determinations 804
I liseussion on Manufacture of Explosives 211
Discussion on Schiirn ami's Reactions 871
Guttmann, < L, andRohrniann, L. Apparatus for Condensation
oi Nitric Acid (PI 349
Preparation of Pure Nunc Acid (P) 1005
Gutzkow, F. Parting Bullion (illus.) 53i>
Gve, L. Apparatus for Drying Vegetable or Animal Products
(P) 595
Gyiketta, J. See Bauer 930
H
Haarmann, H. A. See Esk lichen
Haarman, L. Securing Asphalte Mastic as a Coating on
Buildings (l'l 819
Halicrniann, J. A Sensitive Reagent forCarbon Monoxide... 774
llackh, E. Magnesium Lights for Photographic and Signalling
Purposes (P) 5!I7
BaddOCk, A. G., and Keith. J. Manufacture of Alkali (P) 433
lladiield, R. A. Alloys of Iron and i fhromium, and Report by
F. Osmond 910
llaecht. G. V., and Ohozinski, C. Process and Apparatus for
Tanning (P) 1018
llacnlein, T. H. The New Ta eg School in Freiburg, Saxony 649
Hagemann, C. G. Production of Paper Pulp and Textile
Fibre (P) 1026
Hageman O.. and -Palmer, T. C. Treatment ofVarnish, Oils.
tc. (P) fififi
PAGE
Hagemann, O. C. Treatment of Soapmakers' Spent Lye for
Extracting Glycerin therefrom (Pi G2u
Haigh, F. G. mid W. C. Fluid Soap (P) 928
Haitinger, L. Incandescent Bodies for Incandescent Gas
Lamps (P) 149
Hake. C. Napier, and Maonab, W. Explosives and their Power 947
Hall, A. T. Treatment of Waste Liquors from Metallurgical
Processes to obtain Sulphurous or Sulphuric Acid and
Iron Oxide (l'l 613
Treatment of Waste Liquors from Metallurgical Pr( sses
to obtain Sulphurous or Sulphuric Acid and Zinc (P) . 613
Hall. J. See Clayton Aniline Co G79
Halskc .v,r Siemens 535
Hamilton, O. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood. 401
Hampe, W. Estimation of Manganese by the Chlorate Metho 1 4.17
Influence of Arsenic, Antimony, and Silicon on Copper .1014
Simultaneous Electrolytic Deposition of Copper and Anti-
mony (P) 695
Hmrord.C.C. Spraying Devices for Cooling Beer and other
Liquids (P) 833
Hannau, C. Occurrenceof not'. he Alcohol in Distilled Wool
Fa) 535
Hannay. J. B. Extracting Gold iron: Minerals (P) 2is
Extracting Precious Metals from Ores (P) 2 is
Hansen, E. c. Effect of Tartaric Acid on Brewery least 2.16
Hansen, R. See Augustenborg 52
Hanson, C. Extracting Deleterious Matters from Wool ( P) .. 810
Harbord. F. W. See Hutchinson 612
Harbord, F. W., and Hutchinson, W.. jun. Utilisation of Tin
Plate Scrap (P) '. 614, 7.13
Hard, J. R., and Connett, H. Galvanic batteries (P) 018
Hardwick, J., and Newton, L. A. Precipitating Solid Matter
in Sewage, Disinfecting the Effluent, and Preparing
the Sludge for L"vc as Manure (l'l 173
Hargreaves, J. Feeding Fuel-to Gas Producers and General.
ing Combustible Gas (P) 995
Generation and Combustion of (las i l'l 233
Inducing Combustion of Cases in Furnaces (P) 806
Hargreaves. J. 1L. and Hudson. J. G. Displacement Pumps
for Cases (PI (illus.) SOt
llariiack. E. Further Researches on Ash-Free Albumen 4.13
Harpe, C. de la. Se, B,everdin 157,778,902,997
Harpf, A. "Argentine" 55
Bisulphite Process: Boiler Tests 452
Harries, J. I». An Artificial stone (P) 7111
Harris, H. I., and Power, W. H. Electric Batteries (P) 3.14
Harris, W. II. Manufacture of Gas and Apparatus tl.ere.for
(P) 899
Hart. P. Method of Desulphurising Zinc Ores (P) 923
Treatment of Composite Ores containiug Zinc 1 P) 352
Hnrtl, H. Universal Thermometer (P) 995
Hartley, A. Cask Plant 363
Hartley, W. W. The Acid Action of Drawing Paperof Different
Makes 261
Hartley. W. J.V., and Blenkiusop, W. E. B. Preparation of
Dryersor Siccative Material for Mixing with Paints
(l'i 1711
Thickening of Oil <P) 415
Hartley. W. X.. and Rimage, H. Manganese Borate, its Con-
stii 1 lent s and Properties I'd 7
Hartmann, G. Preserving Meat, to, (P) 1024
Hartmann. H. Manufacture of a Resistible Material for
Building Purposes (P) 526
Hartog, P. Discussion on Chairman's Address to Manchester
Section 878
Hartridge, W. B. Washing and Purifying Smoke (P) 806
Harvey, C. H. G. See Wilson 433
Harvey.G. H.. and others. Apparatus for Burning Vaporisable
' Oils (P) 996
Harvey, R. Evaporating Apparatus (P) (illus.) 508
Manufacture of Sugar (PJ 699
Haseloff, B. Production of a Palatable Kola-Nut Powder (P) . .834
ii lever.R. Sulphuric Acid Manufacture in 1891 521
Haslam, A. See Hoyle 234
Ilaslam. J. Chemical Fire Extinguishers (P) (illus.) 230
Hnsselkuss, P. A. Influence of Moisture on Vegetable Sizing
of Paper 452
Hatschek.E. G.A. Machinery for Breaking or Scutching Flax
(P) 810
Hatschek, M. P.. and others. Preparation and Application of
Peptone Extracts (Pi 268
Haubensack. W. Determination of Total Alkaloids in Cinchona
Bark 7711
HaulT, J. Combined Substances for Developing Photographs
I ' '.'37
Preparation and Employment of Aromatic Amido Com-
pounds a- J> -\el"]n ts 1 P) 1032
Use of Aromatic Amido-Compounds and Derivatives of
Pyrogallol for Developing Photographs (P) 937
H ausdi irfer, A . See Bischoff 808
Hauser, II. Secondary Batteries (P) 249
Dec a. 1MB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Hausser and Muller. Rate of Decomposition of Diazo-Com-
pi 'u n lis 672
Haussermann, C. Analysis of Chrome Iron Ore 1S2
Preparation of ^-Trinitrotoluene 235
Hawitsky, I'. Dextro-Rotatory Terpens from the Leaves of
the Siberian Cedar 368
Hawkins B. M. See Meldola 640
Hawkins, T. See Hawkins, "W 823
Hawkins, W.r ami others. Generators for Production of
Hydrogen Gas (P) 1004
Metallic Block for Production of Hydrogen (Pi 823
Hawksley, G. W. Supplying Heated Air to Furnaces (P) — 096
Hayes, T. H. See Stones 100G
I la/en, A. New Colour-Standard for Natural Waters LOW
Heald, A. Appliances for Use with Incandescent Lamps (P) . 7:35
Healey, B. D. Cauldrons for Pitch and Tatty Substances I P) fct6
Heathfeld, R. Coating or Cleaning Metals (P) I B
Heeht, H. The Preparation of Gold Glaze tor Stoneware 1(2
Ueerlein, W. Caffeine and Coflcc Distillate and their Physio-
logical E Seel a 834
Heiizerlinir, C., and Pahl, W, Experiments to Determine the
Effect of Substances usually added to Caoutchouc (Pi . 536
Helbing, H. Modern Materia Medica 782
Helbing, H„ and Passmore. Artificial Salicylic Acid 455
Analysis of Coal-Tar Preparations . ... 848
Eucalyptus Oil 837
Helbing, II.. and Passmore, F, \V. Bromide of Potassium 705
Chloroform Pictel 836
Hellesen, W. Porous Carbon for Batteries and Filters (P) .... 1016
Hellstrtiin, C. D. Apparatus for Extracting Fatty Particles
from Emulsions <P) (illus.) 170
Hempel. See Albert i 273, 402
Hencke. II. Method and Apparatus for Drying and Evapora-
ting (P) 628
Henderson, G. See Trent 928
Henderson, G. G. Discussion on Composition of Mineral
Waters 330
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting 569
Henderson, J. F. Manufacture of Uufermented Wine ( P) 543
Henderson, N. A. C. Treatingand Purifying Paraffin Wax (Pi 599
Henderson, W. C, Water-filtering Apparatus (P) 894
Henneberg, W. See Pape 140
II en n in. A. Production of Heating Gas and Ammonia 734
Simultaneous Production of Ammonia, Tar. and Heating
Gas 233
Henrichsen, O. Dry Element fur Electrical Purposes (P) 248
Hen wood, E. N. Method of Using Hydrocarbon Oils for
1 1 e; iting <P) 735
Hepp, E. See Fischer 156
Herons, W. C. Apparatus for Concentrating Acids (P) 36
Hermite, B.. ami Duboscq, A. Electrolytic Production of
Alkaline or Earthy Bases and their Salts (Pj 1015
HerrcMschmidt, ff.'L. Treating certain Mattes for the Sepa-
ration of Nickel and Cobalt from Copper (P) 694
Treatment of Silicated Nickel Ores, and Pyritic Ores of
Nickel, Copper, and Cobalt ( P) 618
Herscbcr, ('. Apparatus for use in Disinfecting (P) 631
Hertkorn, J. On Testing " Liquor Ammonite " 457
Herz, A. See Miles, jun 822
Herzberg, W, Quantitative Determination of Fibres used in
1 'aper-making 638
S;iiviy Paper 034
simple Method of Estimating Rosin-Size in Paper 6:iS
Utilising Residue of Potato-Starch Works in Paper-making 934
Herzberg, W-, and Polonowsky, M. Action of Nitrous Acid on
Tel ramethyldiamidobenzophenone 150
Herzfeld, A. The Best Means of Valuing Raw Sugar 541
Hesketh. E..aud Mareet, A. Apparatus for Producing Cold
(P) lis
Heskin, T. Appliances for Producing Light by Incandescence
(P) (illus.) 21
Hess, A. Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 14*. 1 IS
Hesse, O. Action of Methyl Iodide on Cupreine and Quinine . 177
Carotin 1U27
Cincholine and Fluoroline 936
Compounds of Quinine with Hydrochloric Acid 170
Investigations on Coca Leaves 1020
Isocinchonine 177
Sulphonic Acids of some of the Cinchona Alkaloids 17<;
The Alkaloids of certain of the Solanacese 030
Heusler, F. The Chemistry of Brown-Coal Tar 071
Hewitt, D. B. Discussion on Chairman's Address to Man-
chester Section.... S7S
Hoyden, Nacbfolger, F. von. Manufacture of Isol-Eugenoland
PoIy-lso-Eugeuol ^3;}
Production of Mono- Bromo- and l)i-bromo-para-oxy-
benzoic Acid (P) ', . 3(59
Production of Ortho-oxydiphenyl-carbon-Acid (P) 344
Production of Salicylic Acid Derivatives containing
Chlorine and Sulphur (P) , 369
PAGE
Heyer, C. Technical Analysis of Calcined Vinasse from Beet-
root Molasses 162
Hi 'vnKUin, K. Synthesis of Indigo-disulphonic Acid (Indigo-
Carmine) 25
Hiekozi H. E. Polishing Composition (P) 170
Higgin, W. II. Utilisation of Esparto Liquor and Similar
Wastes (V\ 771
Higirins,C.N. Inks for Printing, Stamping, &c. (P) 302
Mucilages, Sizes, and Adhesive Compounds (P) 417
Hill, A. J. E. Enlarging Photographic Gelatine Films (PI ... 179
HiUyard, J., and Dugdale, E. Manufacture of Beer and Porter
(P) 1022
Hirsch, J. Manufacture of Cube and Loaf Sugar { P) 448
Hirsch, O. Jar or Cell for Galvanic Batteries (P) 1016
Hirzel.H. Still Columns (P) 663
Hlawatv. P.. and Kanitz, A. Manufacture of Washing Soap
(P) 827
Hodgkinson, W. R., and Limpach, L. Methoxyamido-1 :S-
Dimethylbenzene and some of its Derivatives 999
Hoepfner, C. Apparatus for Electro-Metallurgical Operations
(Pi 1015
Electrolytic Extraction of Metals (Pi 535
Hof, A. Apparatus for Carbonising Shoddy (P) 743
Hoffmann, H. Disacerbation of Kola-Nut Powder (P) 1024
Hoffmeister, W. On Cellulose and its forms 452
Herman, J. See Robertson S47
Hogarth, J. Testing and Recording the Properties of Flour
and Dough (P) 029
Hogben, W. Discussion on Celluloid 224
Properties and Manufacture of Celluloid 222
Hdhnel, F. von. On Fibres made from Leaves of Fir Trees 426
Testing Paper for Wood Fibre 1st
Holcroft, H. Apparatus for Washing Photographic Prints, Ac.
( P) 936
Holde. Apparatus for Extracting Liquids and Pulpy Sub-
stances (illus.) 939
Changes in Lubricating Oils and their Adulterants on
Keeping '. 619
Examination of Lubricating Vegetable Oils 037
The Qualitative Reactions of Vegetable Lubricating < His. . 271
Viscosity at Low Temperatures of Black Mineral Oils 941
Hi .llander. On Pental 453
Holliday, J. S. Artificial Stones ( P) 526
Holliday, T. See Read, Holliday, and Sons 344
Hollick, P. B. Fabrics for Sacks or Bags (P) 158
Holmes, J. Cinchona [-54
1 loca Leaves 454
Eucalyptus Oil 455
Holmgren-Holme, E. W. Holders for Jars, Carboys, Demijohns,
&c. (P) (illus.) 804
Honinan, A., and Vullier, V. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 361
Hood, J. J. See de Mosenthal 773
Hood, J. J., and Salamon, A. G. Manufacture of Cyanogen
Compounds (P) 816
Hope, A. P. Treating Sewage and other Noxious Matters (P) 934
Hfipfner. C. Treating Cupreous Liquors for Utilisation thereof
(P) 351
Hopkinson, J. Density of Nickel and Iron 603
Horn, F. M. Grape-seed Oil and its Technical Application 44
Horrobin, A. See Leech 446
Horton, W. H., and Taylor, E. M. Dry Soap or Soap-Powder
(P) 1017
Hossack. A , and Bull, H. C. Treatment of Sewage (P) 680
Houdas, J. Researches on Digitalein 454
Hovenden, P. G. See Orr 259
Howard, D. Analysis of Now Cinchona Barks 837
Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood 402
Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity Determination 303
Eulogy on the late Professor A. W. von Hofmann ^ 180
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting 577
Howe, H. M. The Copper Mines of Vermont 246
Howell, J. C. See The Rovello Syndicate 826
See Williams 217
Howitt. J. J. Apparatus for Manufacture of Carbonates of
Soda ( P ) 238
Hoyle, J. See Fletcher 894
Hoyle, S., and Haslam, A. Means for Consuming Smoke (P) . 2;;t
Hradil, J. Increasing the Formation of Cells during Fermen-
tation (P) 257
Hubener. H. Manufacture of Artificial Mineral Waters (P).. 258
Hudson. J. G. Apparatus for Producing Light (P) 806
See Hargreaves 804
Hughes, J. Painting Creosoted Poles, &c. (P) 020
Hughes, S., and Richards, W. Gas Works, their Construction,
Ac 465
Hughes, W. II., and Roa botbam, A. Cleaning. Restoring, and
Bleaching Damaged Cotton and Textiles (PJ 712
Hugues, L. Apparatus for Distillation «,f Fatty Acids (P) 757
Huillard, A. Decolorising and Clarifying Tanning Liquors and
Extracts (P) 539
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Deo. 31,1892.
PARE
Hull, C. S. See Burns 48
Hulme, J.V. Printing Calicos and Woven Fabrics (P) (illus.) 160
Hummel, J. J. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Discussion on Primitive Methods of Dyeing 992
Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 144
Fast and Fugitive Dyes 12
Primitive Modes of Dyeing 991
Hunaeus, P. Manufacture of Celluloid Balls (P) 935
Hunkel, 0. G. Fire-Extinguishing and Fire-proofing Com-
pound (P) 908
Hunt, A. E. Aluminium: its Manufacture and Uses from an
Engineering; Standpoint 752
Hunt. T. Sterry. Systematic Mineralogy 186
Hunting, N. Apparatus for Distilling Water in Presence of
Air (P) 509
Huntington, A. K., and Prestige. J. T.. jun. Copper Alloys
(P) 922
Huppertsberg. See Trobach 818
Hurst.G. H. A Dictionary of the Coal-Tar Colours 374
A Practical Manual on Printers' Colours, Oils, and
Varnishes 1041
A Viscometer for Oils (illus.) 418
Silk Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing 374
Hurter, F. Discussion on Legislation on Noxious Gases . . 123, :S11
Sisede Wilde 907
Husselbee, A. See Rylands 818
Hutchinson, C. C. See Johnson 590, 922, 993
Hutchinson, W., jun. See Harbonl 614, 753
Hutchinson. W., and Harbord, F. W. Manufacture of Iron
and Steel (P) 612
Hut ehiss, ,ii, K. Manufacture of Lubricants (P) 758
I
Icthyol Gesellscliaft Cordes, Hermann] and Co. Coatings for
Therapeutical Purposes (P) 179
Ideson, C. Gassing Silk and other Yarns (P) 903
Innuerbeiser, C. See Medicus 765
Isaac.F.V. See Cross 906
ltallie, L. van. The Alkaloids of Belladonna Extract 632
Jablen-Gonnet. Action of Benzyl Chloride on Meta-zylidine. . 230
Jahlochkoff, P. Voltaic Batteries (P) 617
Jacks, R. Composition for Coating Ships' Plates (P) 538
Jackson, C. N. A Substitute for Gutta-Percha (P) 697
Jackson, J. R. Notes on the Vegetable Products of Tropical
Africa 377
Jacobsen, Emil. Chemisch-Technisches Repertorium 05, 37 1, 460, 641
Jacquemin, P. See Briart 816
Jaehne, O. Manufacture of Superphosphate 698
JatK, B.. and Darmstaedter. L. Separation of Wool- Wax from
Wool-Fat, and Preparation of Lanolin (P) 928
Jahns, E. The Alkaloids of the Areca Nut 57
Jahoda, R. See Goldschmidt 366
James, < '. See Nicholls' 443
Smelting Complex Silver Ores (P) 922
Treating Plnmbiferous Copper Mattes and Ores (P) 353
Tames, W. H. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 620
Jauda, F. Effect of Heat on Mercury Compounds 751, <H9
Jandrier, E. A Nitre-Derivative of Antipyrine 706
Jannasch, P., and AschofT, K. Determination of Sulphur in
Galena, &c ; 158
New Direct Separation of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine. . 8 r,
Quantitative Separation of Iodine and Chlorine 846
Wit Methods of Analysis of Galena 158
Jannasch, P., and Bickes, T. Dry Method of Analysis of
Galena 547
Jannasch. P.. and El/.., P. Separation of the Metals of, the
Hydrogen Sulphide Group 710
Jannasch, P., and Niederhofheim. R. Estimations in Alkaline
Solution by Aid of Hydrogen Peroxide 270
Jannasch. P.. and Wasovricss, V. Quantitative Analysis of
Sulphides 457
Jay, M. H. Lixiviation of Apples in Cider-making 1019
Jayne, H. W. Synthetical Carbolic Acid 264
Jean, F. Analysis of Commercial Yolk of Egg 941
Manufacture of Tanning Liquors and Extracts i illus. t 46
( Optical and Chemical Analysis of Butter 915
Jean, F., and Trillat. Note on the Estimation of Potash 775
.leantv. V. Apparatus for Supplying Liquids to Series of
Electric Batteries (P) 617
PACE
Jefferies, s. Machine for Making Bricks, Tiles, fee. (P) ooo
Jettel.W. Progress of the Match Industry xr.i
Joannis. Some well-defined Alloys of Sodium OH
Johnson, G. M., and Cock, E. de. Treating Beer to Improve
its Quality and Colour (P) 7<m
Johnson. S. H., and Hutchinson, C. C. Air Compressors (P)
(illus.) :»:>3
Apparatus for Mixing Liquids with Liquids and Solids (P) 596
Leaching Ores and Apparatus therefor (P) 922
Johnson, S. W., and Osborne, T. B. Determination of Phos-
phoric Acid in Presence of Iron and Aluminium 777
Johnston. G. Apparatus for Drying Moist Substances (P)
(illus.) 803
Johnstone, W. Detection of Foreign Fats in Butter 1039
Jones, A. See Coinet' 029
St e Ridsdale 445
Jones, A. O. Manufacture of Artificial Fuel, using Sewage
therein (P) 597
Joues, C. Volumetric Estimation of Mercury 371
Jones, D. E. Lessons in Light and Heat 782
Jones, F.J. Production of Coke 151
Jones, H. P. A Non-oxidising Process of Annealing 608
Jones, T. Apparatus for Galvanising Sheets and Plates of
Iron (P) 614
Machine for Galvanising Pipes, Bars,1 Hoops, &c. (P) 612
Jolliffe, C. F. Means for Treating Brewers' Wort during
Fermentation (P) 257
Jordan, R. J. Compound for Cleansing Purposes o-JO
Juillard, P. The Composition of Turkey-Red Oil 355
Jungfleisch, E. Production of Sulphate of Quinine 177
Jury, F. See Lodge 749
Juterbock, G. Material for Making Amalgam for Filling Teeth,
and Manufacturing the same (P) 353
K
Kaflenberger, G. Digesting Apparatus (P) 422, 508
Kaiser, W., and Reissert, A. Juloles 073
Kalle and Co. Manufacture of Colouring Matters (P) 678
Kanitz, A. See Hlawaty 827
Karpinsky. The Gold and Platinum Industry of the Ural .... 532
Kast. H., and Lagai, G. Sulphur Compounds in Petroleum. . . 598
Kast, H., and Seiduer, S. The Formation of Solid Paraffin . . . 598
Kaufmann, H. See Witt 155
Kaydl. Inversion and Estimation of Raffinose 463
Kaye, A. See Collins 895
Kayser Patent Co., The. Manufacture of Caustic Alkali,
Carbonates of the Alkaline Metals, and Muriatic
Acid, and Apparatus therefor (P) 36
Keller. A. The Phosphate Beds cf Florida 539
Keller, A. L. A New Fuel (P) 149
Kelley, J. H. Comparative Value of Brimstone and Pyrites
in the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid in the LTnited
States 814
Kellner. C. Apparatus for Electrolytic Production of Chlorine
and Alkalis (P) 755
Bleaching Paper Pulp, Jtc. (P) (illus.) 431
Electro-Chemical Production of Bleaching Agents ( P) .... 755
Increasing the Bleaching Properties of Chlorine Gas (P) . . 354
Manufacture of Bleaching Powder (P) 239
Manufacture of Chlorine and Alkaline Carbonates (P)
(illus.) 523
Production of Hydrogen and Chlorine (P) 239
Separation of Electrolvtic Alkali from the Undecomposed
Electrolyte (P) 756
Kennedy. C. W. Plastic Compounds, Manufacture of (P) 1012
Kennedy.H. Coke Ovens (Pj 807
Kennedy, P., and Diss, C. J. Secondary Batteries (P).... 926,927
Kenyon, S. Composition for Dressing Belting, &c. (P) 1017
Kerckhove, A.V. Construction and Support of Large Electrodes
(P) 1015
Kerfoot, T. Manufacture of Granular Effervescible Mixtures
(P) 838
Kern, L. Preventing Escape of Noxious Gases during Bleach-
ing Textiles (P) 745
Production of Adhesive Substances from Tree Gums (P) . . .",42
Kerosine Co., Lim., The. See Dvorkovitz 152
Kerr. E. Metallurgical Furnaces (P) 015
Kerr, W. A. Composition for the Manufacture of Bricks,
Crucibles, &e. (P) 523
Kertesz. A. Applications of New Insoluble Azo-Colouring
Matters for Cotton Dyeing 31
Some New Dyes Fast to Milling anil Washing 741.
Keseling, J. E., and Fuchs, C. Artificial Stone Composition
(P) 908
Kessler, J. L. Apparatus for Concentration of Sulphuric Acid
(P) (illus.) 434
Dee.31,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Kestncr. P. Apparatus for Raising Liquid (P) (illus.) tint
Keston. H. See Cole 7«
Ketchum, J. Lubricating Compound (P) 170
Kiliani, H. Digitalin 771
See Miller 65
Kimniins. C. W., and Craig. T. Separation or Treatment of
Patty Matters from Wash-waters (P) 169
Kineh, E. The Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 701
King. J. Liquid Polish for Cleaning Metals (P) 020
Kipping, F. S. See Armstrong 67
Kirchoff, W. P. and J. W. Manufacture of Candy (P) 512
Kirkaldy, J. Apparatus for Distilling Water (P) 595
Kirsch, B. Tempered Copper 41
Kitschelt, M. See Bamberger 907
Kitson, A. Apparatus for Manufacturing Gas (P) 149
Fuel Gas ; its Production and Distribution 423
Kitson. Sir J. Discussion on Measures 221
Kjeldahl, J. Choline as a Constituent of Beer 181
Kliemetsehek, A. See Sobotka 700
Klingemanu, F. See Laycock 599
Klinka. P. Producing Flat Reliefs for Wall Papers, .to. (P) . . 935
Klobb, T. Mineralising Action of Sulphate of Ammonia 781
Klonne, A., and Bredel, F. Setting and Heating Retorts (P). 597
Knebel, E. Chemistry of the Kola Nut 5 15
Knecht, E. Amounts of Tannic Acid absorbed by Cotton .... 129
Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Woo] 131
The Action of Chlorine on Wool 131
Knorr, L., and Taufkirch, H. /3-Mcthylamidocrotonanilide
and its Relation to Antipyrine 706
Knorre, A. Manufacture of Artificial Manure (P) 541
Knowles, J. Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Wool 131
Laundry Blue (P) 45
Knowles, S. and J. Machines for Printing Sarees, Scarves,
&c. (P) 680
Robert, E. R. Blood-forming Substance and Production of
Same (P) 933
Robert, R. The Action of Beer on Aluminium 830
Kohlmann, B. Weighting of Leather 549
Kohn, C. A. Discussion on Aluminium 128
Discussion on Technology of India-rubber 974
Kohrmann, L. Apparatus for Ejecting or Withdrawing Gases
from Pipes and Chambers (P) 422
Kolb, J. Production of Chlorine (P) 238
Kclbe, C. Manufacture of Salols and Analogous Compounds
<F> 68
Konig, F. Manufacture of Champagne and other Beverages
charged with Carbonic Acid (P) 51
Konig, J. Fruit of the Wax Palm as a Coffee Substitute 172
KOnigs, W. Condensations of Chloral and Butylehlnral with
Paraldehyde and Ketones 640
Konther, F. A New Siphon (illus.) 181
Kopke, C. H. Fireproof Material (P) 165
Kostaneeki. St. v. Sec Ganelin 425
Koyd, T. Precipitation of Raffinose by Ammoniacal Lead
Acetate 778
Kraemer, G., and Spilker, A. Artificial Luliricating Oils — the
Condensation Pioducts of Ally] Alcohol with Methy-
lated Benzenes 22
Krantz. II., and Zeissler, II. Decorating Metal Articles with
other Metals deposited thereon (P) 616
Reproducing Photographs (P) i,:\:,
Photo-etching on Zinc and Copper (P) 635
Preparation of Lithographic Stones for Half-tone and
Colour Printing (P) t;35
Kranseder, F. and Lentsch, A. Apparatus for Drying Sheets
of Glue, i:c. (P) 1018
Kreinsen, A. F. W. Melting Metals, &c. by Electricity (P)... 1016
Kremers, E. On Citronellone 935
Kressel, E. Copal Resins 82S
Krizek, A. and Esehe, R. Improvements in Size (P) 253
Krug, W. H. Determination of Iron and Aluminium in
Presence of Phosphoric Acid ., 636
Kruss, G. Zeitschrift fur Anorganische Chemie 374
Kuchenmeister, E. Manufacture of Vinegar (P) 907
Kugel, Dr. Purification of Sulphuric Acid for Accumulators . . 826
Kuntze, P. Manufacture of' Ammonia and Tar, and Apparatus
therefor (P) .' 511
Kuriloff, B. The Terpenes of, the Oil from the Resin of the
Pine 869
Kynaston, J. W. Manufacture of Sulphate of Alumina (P) ... 161
Labatat. Photography in Colours 2C6
Laberie, P. Apparatus for Evaporating Saccharine Solutions
(P) 1019
PAGE
Labois, L. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 696
ReHning Sulphur anil Distilling Ores ( P) 687
Treatment of Sulphur Ores, Crude Sulphur, Ozokerites,
&c. (P) 694
Lachaud, M., and Lepicrre, C. New method of Examining
Chrome Yellows 269
Lafont, J. See Boucbardat 268
Lafontaine, C. M. Purifying Raw Sugar and Converting same
into Blocks or Ingots (P) 1019
Lagai, G. See Kast 598
Lainer, A. Quantitative Determination of Silver and Gold.. . 710
Quantitative Estimation of Silver and Gold by Means of
Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride 271
Laing, J. Discussion on Celluloid 224
Distillation of Mineral Oils and Light Bodies ( P) 341
Laire, et Cie, La Soc. de. Manufacture of Vanilloyl Carbonic
Acid and of Vanilline (P) ■ 1031
Lamarre, C. B. de. Manufacture of Illuminating Gas (P) 735
Lamattina, L. Converting Refuse into Manure (P) 364
Lamb, D. J. M. Electric or Galvanic Batteries (P) 249
Lambilly, P. R. de. Production of Alkaline Cyanides (P) .... 604
Larabilly, Viscount de. Production of Alkaline Cyanides (P) . 1006
Landener, E. Manufacture of Explosive Substances (P) 1032
Lange, B, See Selwig 635
Langen, E. Refining Sugar (P) 448, 1019
Langer, T. Softening Brewing Water.and Treatment of Hard
Water containing Soda (P) 543
Langville, L. S. Production of Carbon from Paper-Pulp
Residue (P) 935
Lares, K. Coke Furnace or Oven (P) 235
Laspee, H. de. See Alexander, J., and Co 827
Lauber, P. Electric Accumulators (P) 43
Lauboeck, G. Japanese Paper st;
Lauder, A. See Dobbie 264, 633
Laurie, A. P. Durability of Modern Pigments in Oil 251
The Pigments and Vehicles of the Old Masters 170
Lauth, C. New Method of Preparing Amido-alizarin 236
On Diamido sulphobenzide and some of its Derivatives. . . 737
Laves, E. The Colour Reactions of Furfurol, and a Modilica-
tion of Weppen's Veratrine Reaction 818
Lavollee, C. Report on the Petroleum Tariff in France 67
Lawes, Sir J. B., and Gilbert, J. H. The Sources of the
Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops 253
Lawrence, J. Extracting Nitroglycerin from Waste Acid (P). 773
Dawson, J. C. Manufacture of Oxygen (P) 58
Lawton, A. L., and Dodge, W. S. Manufacture of Salt (P) . . . . 768
Lawton, C. F. Improvements in Brewing (P) 628, 629
Laycock, W. F., and Klingemanu, F. Examination of
Products obtained by Dry Distillation of Bran with
Lime 599
Leader, W. Marking Glass by Acid (P) 524
Leaker, R. H. Distributing and Aerating Brewers' Wort (P) 51
Kilning Malt, and Apparatus therefor ( P) 932
Pneumatic Malting, and Apparatus therefor (P) iii>2
See Oakhill 259
Lean, B., and Bone, W. A. Behaviour of Ethylene on
Explosion 99,5
Leather, J. W. Discussion on Agricultural Fertilisers and
Legislation 411
Lebedeff, N. Extraction and Treatment of Metals (P) 923
Lebiedieff, N. Conversion of Cast Iron into Wrought Iron
and Steel 245
Direct Production of Metals from their Ores 245
Lecco, M. T. Determination of Glycerol in Sweet Wines loss
Estimation of Glycerol in Wine 550
Le Chatelier, H. Ferruginous Medicinal Preparations 1026
On the Optical Measurement of High Temperatures . . 774, 774
See Carnot 840
Temperatures Developed in Industrial Furnaces '.'. t;07
The Metallic Borates (303
Lederer, L. Synthesis of Oxygenated Pyrazole Derivatives ... 368
Le Due, A. On a New Hydrate of Copper, and on the Prepara-
tion of Pure Nitrogen 2119
The Composition of the Atmosphere, and Gravimetric
Method for Determining Same 270
Lee, J. See White S 700
Lee, J. B. Construction of Secoudary Batteries (P) 827
Leech, F. L., and Horrobin, A. Waterproofing and Rust Pre-
venting Composition (P) 44$
Leech, S. H. See Dotilton 35
Leeds, F. H. Notes on Rosin Oil 30s
Legenisel, E. See Walrand , 822
Lehne, A. See Noelting 276
Lehner, F. Manufacture of Artificial Silk and Mixed Threads
(P) 680
Leibeck , C. Lupanine 453
Leith.J. See Haddock 433
Lembach, A., and others. Soluble Quinoline Antiseptics (P).. 452
Lencauchez, A. See Comp. des Fonderies, &c 234
Lender, R. Rust- and Acid-Proof Paint (P) S6j
XU
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec 81, 1892.
PAGE
Le Neve- Foster, II. Manufacture of Iron (P) 922
Lengfeld, P., ami Paparelli, L. De termination of tlie Purity of
Olive «)iN 943
Lennard, F. Apparatus for Carburetting, Distilling;, &c. (I').. 2 ;i
Process and Apparatus for Distilling Tar, &c. (f) 151
Lentsch, A. See Krauseder 1018
I..- i. Krit-art.trv Pricks of Magnesia and Chrome Iron < (re ... L66
The "Ore "Process in the I la si- ■ Open-Hearth Furnace... 2t;i
Leon, J. T. X e Wright 245
Leonhardt, A., ami Co. Manufacture of Colouring Matters (P)
157, 516, SOS
Manufacture of Di-alkyl-ineta-aiuido-cresols (P) 28
Lepiei re, I '. Si e Lachaud 209
Le Roy, O. A. Action uf Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid on
Aluminium 166,918
Lesenberg, C.C., and Foppenberg, J. von der. Dr.\ Galvanic
I'.at teries (P) 927
Lespicah, K. On Picene 235
Le Sueur, A. Improvements in Electrolysis (P) 7 -"5
Leunig, F. Apparatus for Measuring Tensibility and Breaking
straining of Paper, &c. (P) 158
Apparatus for Measuring Tensibility of Paper, &<■. (P).... 175
Levat, D. Progress of the Metallurgy of Nickel P20
Le^er, E. E. Preparing Bleaching Powder ami Liquor by
Electrolysis ( P) 249
Levinstein, I. Address to Manchester Section 875
Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Wool 181
Discussion on Chairman's Address to Manchester Section. 879
Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 9, 10
Discussion on Estimation of Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 417
Discussion on Manufacture of Oxygen Gas 819
Material for Use in Production of Colouring Matters (P) . 29
L.vy, M. The Hops of the Year 1891 it'll)
Lewes, V. B. Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum. 590
The Luminosity of Coal-Gas Flames 231
The * Miu'iii of Acetylene in Flames 340
The Production of Od-Gas from Russian Petroleum 58t
Lewkowitsch, J. Contributions to the Analysis of Eats Kit
Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 419
Discussion on Measures 22!
Discussion on the Analysis of Eats 115
Leydeckcr, H. Utilising Heated Air in Drying Apparatus (P) 509
Leykauf. Compounds of Stannic and Chromic Oxides 748
Leze and Allard. On the Estimation of Fatty Matters in Milk
Products 465
Liebermann, ('., and Diekhutt, F. On Acetyl-Indigo While
andAcetyl-Indigo 426
Liebermann; <'.. and Limpach, L. i/>-Trop:n and some
^-Tropelus 706
Liebermann, C, and Schmolz, AV. Formation of Allocinnamio
Acid 077
Liebreich, I >. <s'< e Braun 415
Lifschutz, J. Simultaneous Production of Cellulose and
Oxalic Acid (P) 176
Lightfobt, T. R. Regulating Flow of Volatile Liquid in
Refrigerating Machines (!') S9G
Limpach, L. See Hodgkinson 999
See Liebermann 703
Linder, S. E. See Picton 64
Linder, S. P., and Picton, H. Metallic Hydrosulphides' 04
Linde's Eismaschinen, Gesellschafl fur. Apparatus for Regu-
lating the Supply of Volatile Liquids to Refrigerators
(P) 668
Effecting Interchange of Heat and Moisture by Means of
Liquid Spray and Air Currents (P) 6<pN
Lindsey, J. I!., and Tollens, B. Sulphite-Wood Liquor and
Lignin SU5
Lintncr, C. J. Estimating Intensity of Colour of Peers and
Mall Extracts (illus.) 1038
Formation of Dextrose from Starch, by Ferments 1021
Iso-Maltose and its Importance in Brewing i;^7
Iso- Maltose in Beer and Wort 171
The Fermentability of pextrins 765
Lintncr, C. J., and Dull, G. Separation of [so-Maltose 1021
Separa.ion of Iso-Maltose from the Dia.stq.tic Conversion
Products of Starch 7<ili
Lippmann, E. *>. von. Organic Ac uls from Beetroot Juice 50
Recent Inventions in the Beetroot Sugar Industry 541
Lippmann, E., and Fleissner, F. Action of Hydriodic Acid on
Cinchonine 2*13
Lister, A. A. Apparatus for Extracting Tar and Ammonia.
from Gas (P) 511
Livache, A. The Solid Produots which Result from the Oxida-
tion of Drying Oils 250
Lloyd, H.H. Secondary or Storage Batteries (P) 755
Lodge, E. Action of HypOOhloroUS Acid on Wool G01
Lodge, E., [and Jury, F. Chemical Treatment for Cleaning
Stone, &c. (P) 749
Lodge, 1'. II. Manufacture of Portland Cement (!') 688
Loe, W". <'. Treating Metal-bearing Bodies, and Recovering
Metals (Pj ;;.-,!
PAGE
Lohmaun, II, Behaviour of Explosives in Fiery Mines 179
London Metallurgical Co.. Limited, and Gowper-Coles. S. O.
Coating Articles with New Metallic Alloy l>y F-lectro-
depi 'sif ion (P) t;i8
Long, J. H. Adulteration of Turpentine 549
American Oil of Turpentine 545
Lomrmore. J., and Williamson, R. Dyeing Silk and other
Fibres (P) 906
Longsdon, A. Manufacture of (wis from Water Vapour and
Purification and Separal ion of Mixed Gases (PJ (171
Lorimer, J. H. See Lyon 74t;
Losada, C. G. Baking Ceramic Pastes and Pottery (P) 38
Love, J. See The Gas Economising Syndicate 898
Lowe, C. Manufacture of Crude Acetone (P) 1 907
Lowe, W. V. \ssav off talena in Iron Crucibles 133
Discussion on Estimation of Zinc 133
Estimation of Free and Albuminoid Ammonia in Water . . 133
Estimation of Iron in Presence of Alumina 133
Presenc' of Lead in Ammonia Solution 183
The Gravimetric Estimation of Zinc as Sulphide 131
Use of the A ssay Ton 133
Luboldt. See Grosscurth 215
Lucas, AV. T. Eilter-rress Cloth (P) 90S
Luck, E. Vacuum Distillatory Apparatus (P) 148
Luck, 13.. and Pott. R. and N. Treating Cereals to Arrest
Decomposition and Preserve Same (P) 51
Lueknw, C. On Volumetric Estimations and Methods of
Separation by Means of Potassium Ferro- and Ferri-
es mide 157
Lumiere, A. and L. Substances of the Aromatic Series Capable
of Developing the Latent Photographic Image 839
Lumsden. .) . S. See Franldand 4 to
Lunge, G. Concentrating Sulphuric Acid in Gold-lined
Platinum Stills 522
Determination of Nitrogen in Nitrocellulose (illus.) 77s
Gasvotumeter I illus.) 1033
On the Part Played by Calcium Chloride in the Weldon
Process B82
Taschennueh fur die Soda-, Pottasche-, unci Ammoniak-
Fabrikation 946
Tli.' Action of certain Liquids on Aluminium B43
Lunge, G., and Dewar, J. Recovery of Sulphur, &c. from
Double Sulphide ol Sodium andiron (P) 433
Lunge, <L. and Marchlewski, L. Influence of Nitrogen
Tetroxide on the Specific Gravity of Nitric Aeid 775
Variations in Specific Gravity of Nitric Acid Produced by
Nitrogen Peroxide 432
Lupton, S. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Discussion on Measures , 222
Measures 217
Lupton, S. C. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 420
Lurmann, F. W. Results on Improved Coke Ovens 379
Luse, H.(H. Filtering Faucets { P) 500
Lutschaunig, A. Manufacture of a Disinfectant, &c. (P) 451
Lii/.i. W. ( >n G ra] .hites 272
The Allotropy ot Amorphous Carbon 77!>
Treatment or Purification of Graphite (P) fd7
Lyon, A. S.. and Lorimer, J. H. Apparatus lor Skein Dyeing
( P) (illus.) 74G
Lyte. F. M. Production of Caustic Alkali and Chlorine (P) .. GS0
Production of Chlorine (P) 433
Lyte, F. M ., and Steinhart, O. J. Production of Chlorine and
Strong Hydrochloric Acid ( P) 101
M
Macadam, W. I. Discussion on Cellulose. 221
Mac E wan, I'. Discussion on Artificial Musk 307,308
Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda 965
Discussion on Indian Gum Samples 40t>
MacGowan, J., jun. See Elliot 995
MarGivgnr, J. Sec Frankland 027
Maclvor. It. W. E., and Smith, Watson. Production of White
Lead (P) 45
Maekay. Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 144
MacKay, R. See Orr 900
Mackey, W. McD. See Woodcock 754
MacNab, A. Manufacture of Bay Salt (P) 907
Macuab, W. See Hake 947
Macnair, U.S. Detection of Chlorine and Bromine in Presence
of Iodine 777
Macy, J. II. Se? A mend 929
Mafat, F. E. Dye wood Extracts and their Manufacture. . . 153, 341
Index of Plants capable of Yielding Tanning Materials 021
Mahally, G., and others. Mould for Leather, Paper, and other
Pulp(P) 75!>
Mahler, P. The Distillation of Coal 150
Maiden, J. II. The Oleo-Resin of CanariumMuelleri, Bailey ;
with Notes on Manila Elemi 758
riec. 31,1892.;] THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY, OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PACK
Main, W. Secondary Batteries (P) 1016
Mjijert. \Y. manufacture of Aromatic Glycoeol Derivatives
(P) 369
Manufacture of Piperazlne or Spermine (P) 773
Makinson, .1. Apparatus for Treating Pcul Air ami Gases i I'i. 704
Malster.W. Manufacture of Sulphate of immonia (P) 008
Malysehew, J. Mineral oil Residues as Fuel for Glass
Furnaces 510
tfangold,0. Analysis of Sealing "Wax M>1
Mansbridgc. Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 144
Maquay, S. W. Primary batteries (P) 248
Marcct, A. See Hesketr, us
Marchand. P. See Buroni 1018
Maicbant. G. M. Machinery for Scouring, Dyeing. &c. Hanks
Of Yarn I I'I 745
Marehlewski, 1.. St <■ Lunge i'i_. 775
Marcus, S., and others. Galvanic Batteries (P) 354
Mare], F. de, anil others. Production of Camphor (P) 58
Mariosa, J. Preservation of Meat (P) 7(18
Marix, P. Apparatus for Effecting by Centrifugal Force Ha'
Reaction of Bodies of Different Densities ( I'J 5115
Marriott, C. Apparatus for Manufacture of Sulphate of
Ammonia if) 23s
Marsh, .1. T. See Brock 1005
Marshall, \l. Combustion of Fuel, and Furnace Apparatus
therefor (l'l 7.i:l
Martin, E. Alloying the Surfaces of Metal Wots, strips, &c.
(1') 924
Filter 1 UK .Machinery I I') 20
Martin, E. L. C. Manufacture of Caustic Soda andlPotasb (1') sin
Martin, jr. C. Manufacture of Pigments or Paints il'i sj'.t
Martin, W. H., and Pethybridge, W. Extracting Precious
Metals from their Ores (P) 026
Martindalc, W., anil Westcott, W. M'.viin. The Extra l'llar-
macopseia 7s 1
Martins, V. \V. Manufacture of Alloys of Nickel with other
Metals (P) 822
Martyn. W. Discussion ott Calcium Chloride in the Weldon
Process 8S4
Mnrwitz.O. Wood Fibre Ropes (P) 610
Marx. J. Apparatus for Electrolysing and Bleaching (PI :;:-;;
Means for Use in Electrolysis (1') 353
Maschirienfabrik Grevenbroich, The. Treatment of Saccharine
Solutions ( P) 626
Mason, A. H. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood s;t
Mason, F. H. Extraction of Tin from Slags or Refuse (P) 3.12
Extraction of Tin from Tin Slags or Tin Refuse (P) 614
Mason, W. L., and others. Artificial Stone (P) 43G
Mason, W. P. Drinking Water and Disease 450
Mastbaum, H., and Diekmann, P. Beers Brewed in Portugal. 766
Masterman, C. I'I., and Woodhouse and Rawson United, Lint.
Oil Filter I P; 109
Mathee. See Philips 518
Mathieu, V. Producing Coloured Photographs (P) 631
Matitrnon. C. Substitutions in Groups Linked to Carbon and
to Nitrogen. Application to Explosives 937
Maxim, H. Manufacture of Nitro-substitution Compounds of
Cellulose 450
Maxwell, W. Multiple Effect Evaporating Apparatus (P) 830
< Mi Nitrogenous Bases Present in Cotton Seed 372
MeCauley, A. W. See Smith 1S1
McComiell, W. See Bedson 883
MoCowatt,A. Anti-fouling Composition for Ships' Bottoms (P) -10
McCullum. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 10
McDaniel, .T. J. Securing Continuous Time Record of Kate
of Distillation and Direction of Flow of Distilled Fluids
(P) 931
McDonough, J. W. Producing Coloured Photographs (P) 937
McDougal, A., and Meldrum, J. J. Method and Apparatus for
Treating Sewage (P) 130
McKayi A. I). A New Chemical Food (F) 430
McEenna, A. G. jSeeDrown ■ 208
McLaren, W. See Silverman 003
McLean. A. Transparent Coloured Materials for Decorative
Purposes. (P; 521
McMurray.T. Compounds for Disinfecting, Manuring, &c. (P) 77n
McNaught. J. and W. Machines for Scouring and Washing
Wool il'i 158
Meacham, C. S. See Adams 028
Medicus, L., and Immerheiser, C. The Fermentability of
Dcxtrins 705
Meichsncr, E. A. Crucible Furnaces (P) Olil
Meister, Lin ins. und Briming. Manufacture of Tropine (P).. 83S
Meldola, II., and Hawkins, E. M. Determining Number of
NH2 Groups ill Certain Organic Bases 010
Meldrum, J. J. See McDougal 4r,o
Mendheim, G. See Bauer 737
.\1> n/irs, ,1. A New Plastic Composition (P) 697
TARE
Monzios, R. C. and Bevan, E. .1. Manufacture of Paper for
Cheques (P) 175
Mcrau, J. E. G. Substitute f ir Pottery (P)
Mercadier, E. Determination of Constant:
.. li)07
... and Coefficient of
Nickel Steel i oo
Mercier, M. P. Gold Compounds for Photographic Purposes.. 031
Merck, E. Hydrastinine Hydrochloride 54.",
Terpene Hydrate from Eucalyptus Oil 632
The Secondary Alkaloids of Belladonna 632
Mcrczyng, H. The Flow of Water, Petroleum and Mineral
Oil through Tubes 274
Merichenski, M. Carburettors (P) 235
Meriug, .1. F. von. An Improved Anaesthetic and Hypnotic
(P) 708
Meritens, A. de. Galvanic Batteries (P) 43,43
Merz, Y. Magnesium Nitride -J7t
Messel, The Gewerkschalt, Production from Mineral Oils of
Sulpbonic Acids and Sulphoncs. and Manufacture of
New Product by Treating Gelatinous Matters with
Sulpbonic Acid (P) 22
Mennier-Dollfus. See Scheurer-Kestner 339
Meunier. J. Reduction of Benzene-hexachloride with Regene-
ration of Benzene 599
Mewburn.J.C. Centrifugal Machines (P) 931
Meyer.E. Extraction of Ah niuin Hydrate or Salts from
Aluminium Silicates or Clay (P) 747
Meyer, P. Apparatus lor Production of Dry Extract of Coffee
or Tea (P) 932
Meyer, R. Jahrbuch de Chemie tils
Meyer, Y. See Askenasy 1039,1039
St ' V reycr 730
Mieaultdela Yieuvillr. A. Preserving Eggs (P) 52
S3S
248
822
0.1
901
1011
907
826
921
590
Michael, A. A Direct Method for Preparing Ant ipyrine ...
Miiluirn. R. P. See Eagar
Miles, W. J., jun., and others. Metallic Alloys (P)
Miller, W. von, and Kiliani, H. von. Kurzes Lehrbuch der
Analytischen < 'hemic
Miller, W. von, and Ploclll, J. Schiil's Bases
Mills, E. J. A Manualette on Destructive Distillation
Discussion on Phosphoric Acid 22S
Mills, E. .1., and Ellis, C. J. Means for Regulation of Gaseous
Pressures (P) 595
Mills.W. Bleaching, 4c. Fats and Oils (P) 92s
Manufacture of Alkali (P) 433
Millies, .1. M. and A. Manufacture of Bleaching-Powder, &c.
(Pi :....
Mining and General Electric Lamp Co., The, and Niblett, J. T.
Elements for Secondary Batteries (P)
Minns, C. See Noad
Minto, J. H. Apparatus for Charging Liquids with Gases (P) ,
Mirrlees.W. J., and Ballinghall, D. Apparatus for Evaporating,
&c, Liquids (P) 895
Moerk, P. Colorimetric Determination of Vanillin 037
Mohlau, R. Oxazine Dyes 072
Mohrle, J. Method of Renewing ntid a Preparation for Fixing
Filaments in Incandescent Lamps (P) 42
Molinari, E. Extraction Apparatus for Determination of Fat
inMilk (illus.) 01
Mollenhoff, C. Antipyriiie-Sulphonie Acids 835
Mond. L. Eulogy 011 the late Prof. A. W. von Hofmann 186
Manufacture of Nickel Alloys (P) 613
Metallic Carbonyls (illus.) .' 750
I' eedingsof the Annual General Meeting '. . 577
Speech at Annual Dinner 583
Money, F. J. Malt Mashing Apparatus (P) 833
Monner, P. Manufacture of New Dyes (P) 510
Monnet, M. P. Anisolines, a Class of New Dyestuffs 077
Montgomerie, J. C. See Parkes 921
Montgomery, T. Y. Bleaching by Electrolysis (P) 535
Moody, G.T. Metaxylenesulphonic Acids (II.) 28
Morant, R. See Rylands 102
Mordaiint, G. Discussion on Galician Petroleum and
Ozokerite us
Moreillon, H. The Molecular Changes of Iron :; 19
Morel, J. Action of Boric Acid on Germination 707
MOrgenstern, M. M , and Pavlinoff. Determination of Phos-
phoric Action in Wine 777
Morrison, W. C. A. Crusher and Pulveriser (P) 147
Moritz, E. R., and Morris. G. II. A Text-Book on the Science
of Brewing oo
Morley. H. Foster. New Edition of Watts' Dictionary of
Chemistry \ 332
Morton, R. aud T. Pans for Boiling Sugar. &c (P) 1018
Morrell, J. A„ and Stringfeilow, W. R. Crystallising Sugar
and other Solutions I I'J so5
Morris, G. H- See .Moritz 66
Morris, G. II.. and Weils. .1. G. Fractional fermentation 701
Morns, R. Proceedings of the Annual General .Meeting 577
Morrison, J. The Valuation of Sulphuric Acid 989
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec.s1.1s92.
PAGE
Morrison. W. Electrodes for Secondary Batteries (P) 927
Morse, A. T. Distemper for Walls, &c iP) 536
i S. B., and Bourne, T. F. Sulphur Candles (P) 174
Mosenthal, EL de. Discussion on Manufacture of Explosives. 211
Mosenthal, II. de, and others. Improvements in Explosives
(P) 773
Mosher.G.A. Sec Sleicher 618
Mntte, A., A Co. Removing Patty Matters from Wool-
washing Waters ( P) 827
Mudd. T. Drying or Superheating Steam (P) 337
Muhlhauser, 0. Jute as a Substitute for Gun-cotton 937
Manufacture of Ammonium Salts (illus.) 676
Manufacture of Eosin Soluble in Alcohol (illus.) 075
Manufacture of Iod-Eosiu (illus,) 677
Manufacture of Xitrobroinlluoresce'iu (illas.) 739
Nitrojute, an Explosive 646
The Higher Nitric Ethers of Starch 70S
The Manufacture of Fluorescein (illus.) 675
The Manufacture of Tetrabromcfluorescein (illus.) 673
Muhr. F. See Smith 60
Muir, M. M. Pattison, New Edition of "Watts' Dictionary of
Chemistry . . . . 552
Muller. See Hauser 672
Muller, G. Producing Sterilised Butter (P) 834
Muller, H. Varnishes 250
Muller, J. A. Presence of an Aldehyde containing Four Atoms
of Carbon in " Eau-ue-Vie de Piquette " 256
Muller, M. Hydraulic Moitars from Slag 435
H nil er, M.. and Ohlmer, P. Determination of Small Amounts
or Sugar 77S
Muller, O. Determination of the Quantity of Iudigotine in
Commercial Indigo 778
Mullerus, J. Prevention of Weakening of Fibre in Discharge
Indigo Prints 6<i0
Minister. C. A. On the Possibility of Extracting the Precious
Metals from Sea- Water 351
Muntz, A. Ammonia in Rain-Water and in the Atmosphere.. 551
Murgatroyd, A. See Fisher i,(,5
Murgatroyd, H. See Fisher 743
Murray, G. Calculation of Slag Components 270
M array, K. S. See Bnn's Oxygen Co 936
Muspratt, E. K. Speech at Annual Dinner 5o2
Muthel, M. Exciting Fluid for Galvanic Batteries, and Re-
covering Useful Products from the Spent Fluids (P).. 618
Hylinsj F., and F'oerster, P. Behaviour of Glass Surfaces
towards Water, and Selection of Glass Vessels for
Chemical Purposes 1^1
Preparation and Estimation of Pure Platinum 690
N
Nadar, P. Producing Artificial Light for Photographic Pur-
poses (P) 634
Naeutukov. A. Witz's Oxycellulose 771
Nahnsen, G. Electro-Metallurgic Extraction of Zinc ( P) 535
Purifying Electrolytes containing Zinc (P) 535
Naumann, A. Conversion of Sensible Heat into Chemical
Energy in the Production of Semi Water-Gas and Car-
bon Dioxide Producer-Gas 669
Naylbr, W. Paper-making and River Pollution 3S0
Nelson, J. W. See Nunan 1016
Nettleton, .1. A. Discussion on Vinegar Manufacture 491
Vinegar Manufacture 487
Neuberg, O. >SVc Gattermann 673
Neucks, W.. and Bautmy, H. Influence of the Carboxyl Group
on the Toxic Action of Aromatic Compounds 837
Neuhass, G. H., and others. Apparatus for Sterilising Fluids
(P) 630
Pilling Sterilised Liquids into Vessels (P) 259
Neumann, G. a-Orthostaunic Acid 270
Neumann, G., and Streintz, F. Behaviour of Hydrogen
towards Metals 247
New, C. H. The Estimation of Nitrogen in Coal-Gas (illus.).. 415
Newton, L. A. See Hardwick 173
Newth. (;. S. Chemical Lecture Experiments. Non-Metallic
Elements 1040
Niblett, J. T. See the Mining and General Electric Lamp Co. 826
Nicol.W. W. J. Photographic Printing Processes (P) 456
Nicole, A. See Cazeneuve 1018
Nieolle, P. W., and Smith J. Treatment of Vegetable Fibrous
Matters (Pi 517
Nicholls, T. D., and others. Extracting Copper (P) 443
Nickel, K. Colour Test of Kaolin and Sand 1G2
Specific Gravity of Solutions of Acetic Acid 161
Niederhofheim, R. See Jannasch 270
PAGE
Nietzki, R. Chemistry of the Organic Dvestuffs. (Translation
by A. Collin.) 1U40
Nievsky, L. Apparatus for Developing. &c without Use of
Dark Room (P) 1032
Niewerth, H. Extracting Metals from Ore.* and Minerals (P) . 616
Nitze, H. B. C. The Magnetic Ores of Ashe County, N.C 246
Noad, J. H. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 538
Noad, W.. and others. Extracting or Recovering Metal from
Ores, &c. (P) 921
Nobel. See the Dynamite Aetiengesellschaft 207, 450
Nobel, A. Explosive Compounds ( P) 1032, 1032, 1032
Manufacture of Explosive Substances (P) 267
Noelting, E. Nitration of Butyltoluene- and Butybxylene-
Sulphonic Acids 707
Sealed Notes Deposited with the Industrial Society of
Mulhouse 343
Noelting, E„ and Lehne, A. Anilinschwarz 276
Noelting, E., and others. Examination of the Colouring
Matters of the Tnphenylmethane Group 25
Noelting, E., and Polonowsky. Studies on the Colour-Deriva-
tives of Triphenylmethane 343
Noelting, E., and Schwartz. Dyestuff Derivatives of Tri-
phenylmethane , 25
Noelting. E.. and Trautmann, E. Studies on the Derivatives of
Toluquinolines atid of Mctaxyloquinoline 27
Noelting, F. The Petroleum Trade in Upper Burma 950
Nbrdlinger, H. The Solid Fatty Acids of Palm Oil 445
Nordtmeyer, F. C. Filter Pump (P) (illus.) 422
Norris, J. Disposal of Sewage, &c. ( P) 45 1
Norton, E. Coating Metals (P) 923
Norton, L. M. Notes on the Estimation of Chlorine in Elec-
trolysed Solutions 54S
Norwood, N. Compound for Coating Walls (P) 606
Norwood, R. Compound for Coating Walls, &c. (P) 525
Noteman, A. Making Heating and Illuminating Gas (P) 899
Noyes, A. A. Determination of Electrolytic Dissociation of
Salts by Solubility Experiments 2 (7
Nunan, E., and Nelson, J. W. Galvanic Batteries (P) 1016
Nunn, F. C. Apparatus for Purifying Water (P) 450
Nycander, O. E. Preparation of Extracts for Use in Manufac-
ture of Yeast aud Spirits (P) 1023
Nycander, O. E., and Francke, G. Production of Yeast and
Spirit by Use of Ozonised Air or Oxygen (P) 1022
Nysscn, J. Hygienic Fabric, Tissue or Material (P) 904
Oades, E. Method and Apparatus for Removing Fog. Purifying
Air, Melting Snow, and Extinguishing Fire (P) 233
Oakhill, J., and Leaker, R. H. Preserving Milk ( P) 25!*
< >akman. R. N., jun. Gas Furnaces (P) 1018
Gas Puddling Furnaces (P) 1013
O'Beirne, W. G. Discussion on Phosphoric Acid 228
Obermuller, K. Estimation of Cholcsterin 183
Obozinski, C. .NV< Haerht 1018
Oehsenius, C. Petroleum and Asphalt at Palena 150
Odernheimer, E. Dyeing and Printing with Gold Salts 600
Printing and Dyeing Textiles, Fibres, &c., by Metal Salts
(P) 161
The Gilding and Silvering of Textiles 90S
Ody, J. C. Making Caustic Soda 604
Oehler, K. Dyeing or Printing Woollen or ot her Goods (P) . . . 745
Dyeing or Printing Woollen or other Goods (P) 746
Manufacture of Colouring Matters (Pi 515
Oehlmann, E. H. ' '. V c Neuhass 259, 630
( test. rr. Orange in Calico and Wool Printing 168
The Printing and Steaming of Woollen Tissues 601
Oettinger, L. See Schreiber 606
Ohlmer, F. See Muller 77s
Oliver Aluminium Co., The. Smelting Furnaces (P) 923
Ophoven, A. Colouring Pictures on Textile Fabrics (P) 743
Opitz, E. Fatty Matter and Ethereal Oil of Sabadilla Seed ... 177
Oppenheimer, C. Report on Chemical Industry in Germany . 717
Ormiston, J. W., A. R., aud J. Manufacture and Distribution
of Gaseous Fuel (P) 234
Orr, M. L., aud others. Manufacture of Carbonated Waters
(P) 259
Orr, R- and MacKay, R. Retorts for Distilling Shale and
Dealing with Resulting Products (P) 90o
(►it. El., and Sutherland, R. M. Retorts for Distilling Shale,
&C.(P) 737
Osborne. T. B. See Chittenden 701
See Johnson 777
Osbourn, T. R. Apparatus for Manufacture of Coke (P) S99
Apparatus for Quenching Coke (P) 899
Dec. si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xv
PAGB
Osmond, F. Calorimetrical Investigations of the State in
which Silicon and Aluminium Exist in Cast Iron 242
See Hadlield 910
Osterwald, C. See Biirkel 17«
O'Sullivan, 0. Researches on the ( iiuns of the Arabin Group.
Ptot II 48
O'Sullivan, J. On Dumas' Method of Estimating Nitrogen
in < hftanio Bodies 327
Specific Rotatory and Cupric Reducing Power of Invert
Sugar and of Dextrose 372
The Hydmlvtic Functions of Yeast. Part 1 628
Pari U 1021
Pahl, W. See Heinzerling 636
Paillard, A. E. M. L. Manufacturing and Regenerating Salts
of Peroxide of Iron (P) 434
Palmer, T. C. See Hageman 696
Panajotow. G. Detection of Turkish Geranium Essence in
Rose Oil 61
Panario, T. Supplying Disinfectants to Flushing Pipes (P) .. 151
Paparelli, L. Set lengfeld 943
Testing < Hive Oil for Adulterants 818
Pape, H-, and llenneberg, W. Centrifugal Separators (P) 149
Pape, R. Manufacture of a Hard Insulating Material (1') 249
Parker. E. M. Apparatus for Drying Brewers' Grains (P) .... 1023
Parker, F. H. See Astrop 46
Parker, G. Gelatinous Food Products (P) 1024
Parker, T. Electrical Furnaces for Manufacture of Phos-
phorus, 4c. (PI 827
Means for the Electrical Deposition of Copper (P) 43
Parker, T., and Robinson, A. E. Cells for Electrolysing
Chloride Solutions (P) 755
Parker, T., and Robinson, E. Treatment of Solutions contain-
ing Nickel and Iron (P) 755
Tarkes, 11.. and Montgomerie, J. C. Extraction of Gold and
Silver ( P) 921
Parkinson, J. H. Obtaining Oxygen from the Atmosphere
IP I 633
Separating Oxygen from Atmospheric Air (P) 1031
Parmentier, F. Determination of Small Quantities of Doric
Acid 182
New Instance of Abnormal Solution, Saturated Solutions. 780
Tlic Flameless Combustion of Coal-Gas 669
Parnell, E. B. Furnaces for Treating Ores ( P) 822
Passmore. F. W. See Dunstan 860
See Helbing 435, 705, 830, 837, 848
Patein. G. Rapid Tost for Alkaline" Bicarbonates 843
Paterson, J, B. Discussion on Celluloid 228
Paton, J. M. C. Indicators for Montejus and Similar Appa-
ratus ( P) 509
Patterson, T. L. Discussion on Composition of Mineral
Waters 336
Pattison, J. Discussion on " Blown " Oils 507
Pattinson, H. S. See Pattinson, J 321
Pattinson. J. and H. S. Note on Preparation of Samples of
Rich Argentiferous Lead for Assay 321
Patz, L. See Marcus 354
Pavlinoff. See Morgenstern 777
Pa\ nter, W. Discussion on Galicisn Petroleum and Ozo-
kerite lis
Peacock, S., and Gait. H. A. Obtaining Chromates and
Bichromates of Potash and Soda (P) 680
Pearson, S., and Pratt, J. H. Metallic Alloys ( P) 533
Pease, R. S. Manufacturing Glass Plates, Pipes. 4c. (P) 163
M anufacturing Glass Plates, Sheets, &c. (P) 240
Manufacturing Plate Glass (PI 163
Producing Cylinders and other Hollow Bodies of Glass
(P) 240
Pechard, E. Explosive Compound formed by the Action of
Baryta Water on Chromic Acid in Presence of Oxy-
genated Water 180
Pechinev. La Soc. A. R, fit Cie. Manufacture of Chlorine
(P) 239
Manufacture of a Mixture of Hydrochloric Acid Gas and
Air (P) 1006
Peck, O. B. Separating Finely-divided Particles containing
Mineral-bearing Substances of different Sp. Gr. ( P) ... 823
Pedder, J. Using a Combination of Sulphuric Acid and
Hydrochloric Acid for Decomposition of Chlorides,
Sulphides, &c. (P) 815
Pelatan, L. A. Treating Copper Ores and Mattes (P) 754
Pennell. A. Apparatus for Purifying "Water (P) 668
Pennock, J. D. See Bradburn 37
Pennstedt, M. Hardening Plaster Casts 38
Perdrix, L. A Ferment producing Amyl Alcohol from Starch. 699
tage
Pereira, A. F. von. Manufacture of Resinous Paint (P) 171
Perger, H. von. Applications of some New Dyes 30
Perkin, W. H. Eulogy on the late Prof. A. W. von Hofuiann Is;,
Peroche. The Porosity of Building Stones and their Resis-
tance to Frost 749
Perrenond, G. F. See Harvey 996
Perret, M. The "Bordeaux Mixture" for Vine Mildew and
Potato Disease 864
Perrier. O. Distilling and Rectifying Alcohol (P) 832
Pethybridge, W. See Martin 926
Petit, P. On the Formation of Dextrins 626
I'etrie. J., and Fieldcn, J. Machinery for Washing Wool, &c.
(P) (illus.) 903
Phuutlcr Vacuum Fermentation Co. The Manufacture of Beer
( P) 629, 629
Pfeilfer, F. Means for Blasting by Explosives (P) 939
Pfiitzner, H. Apparatus for Smelting Tallow (P) 620
Philip, A. Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity Determination 304
Discussion on Manufacture of Explosives 211
Philips and Mathce. Process for Cleansing Woollen Fabrics
(P) 518
Phillips, H. J. Fuels, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous 406
Phillips, W. A. See'EnH 354
See Waddell 249
Pick, S. Manufacture of Salt from Brine (P) 433
Pickhardt, G. Use of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys (P) . 508
Pickles, F. H. and R. H. Purification of Pyrolignites (P) .... 737
Pictet, R., and Co. Purification of Chloroform (P) 59
Picton, H. Physical Constitution of some Sulphide Solutions . 64
See Linder 64
Pieton, H., and Linder, S. E. Solution and Pseudo-Solution . . 64
Pieszczek, E. Simple Method of Preventing Tumultuous
Boiling 181
Piffard, B. Curing Fish, Meat, &c. ( P) 1024
Pike, C. F. Bleaching and Treating Textile Fabrics (P) 810
Pilkington, W.W. Kilns for Annealing Plate Glass (P) 606
Pim, E.' Drying Leather or Hides (P) 539
Pinette, J. Analysis of Linoleum Floorcloth 550
Examination of Tin-plated Iron Articles for Preservation
of Foods 51
Pinkney. C. W. Metallic Alloy for Articles subjected to Great
Heat (P) 754
Pinner, A., and Wolffenstein, R. Nicotine 705
Pionchon, J. Specific Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion of
Aluminium 752
Piontkowski, G. von. See Szczeniowsky 60S
Plant.F. Ovens for Piring Pottery, Earthenware, 4c. (P) 434
Pla.vfair, D. J. Discussion on the Production of Cyanides 16
Notes on the Production of Cyanides 14
Plochl, J. See Von Miller tun
Plugga, C. Sophorine 153
Pollard, .1. M. High Explosives for Mining and Military Pur-
poses (P) 267
Pollard, W. See Senbert 34
Pollok, J. H. Gold Extracting Reagents (P) 352
Polonowsky, M. See Noelting 25, 313
See Herzberg 156
Pontallie, L. J. P. Apparatus for Distilling and Separating
Volatile Liquids (P) (illus.) 230
Poppenberg, J. von der. See Lesenberg 927
Portheim. E. von. New Colouring Matters from Naphthol-
glycines (P) 236
Pott.R.andN. See Luck 51
Pettier, H. Electro-deposition of Metal on Glass. China, &c.
(P) 1007
Poudroux, F. Galvanic Batteries ( P) 248
Powell, J. S. See Thomson 431
Power, W. H. See Harris 354
Pratt.J.H. New Metallic Alloys (P) 822
See Pearson 533
Prestige, jun., J. T. See Huntington 922
Priestley. G. F. Preparing and Dressing Silk and other Fibre
(P) 518
Prior, E. Influence of Different Temperatures on Condition
of Malt and Composition of Wort 706
Prior, H. Apparatus for Cooling Beer during Fermentation
(P) 1023
Procter, H. R. Discussion on Impurit ies in Coal-Gas 420
Discussion on Measures 221
Discussion on Primitive Methods of Dyeing 992
Discussion on the Analysis of Fats 144
Note on the Technical Analysis of Gambier, &c 329
Proskauer, B. Estimation of Glycerin in Fermented Beverages 1038
Prud'homme. Peroxide of Sodium and its Application in
Bleaching 1003
Properties of Ainmoniacal Copper Hydrate 427
Properties of Cuprammonium 33
Prud'homme, M. Peroxide of Sodium 814
I
xvi THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, 1892.
PAGE
Pullman, J., and Elworthv, H. S. Collection and utilisation
of Carbonic Acid Gas given oil during Fermentation
( P) 1022
Pum, G. Action of Hydriodic Acid on Cinchonine 268
Punnnerer, A. G. Fluid Insecticide (P) 934
Puplett, S. Refrigerating and Freezing Apparatus (P) 803
Purcell, M. F. See Tichborne 936
Purccll, M. P. and G. Apparatus for Purification of Gaseous
Fumes (P) 1028
Purvis, G. C. Sewage Precipitation (P) 934
Quantin.H. Contribution to the Study of Deplastered Wines 764
Quertain. D.. and Becker, H. Process and Apparatus for
Brewing (P) +*9
Query, F. Kilns and Pottery, &c. (P) 435
R
Raabe, F. V. M. Treating Vegetable Textile Fibres for Manu-
facture of Yarns (P) 810
Rabley, W. -Sec Mahaffy 739
Raczkowski, de. See Trillat 737
Ragon, F. Manufacture of Material applicable as Blacking
(P) 620
Ramage, H. See Hartley 1017
Ramsay, W. Discussion on Destructive Distillation of
Wood 403, 874
Impurities of Chloroform 772
See Chorley 395, 872
Hand, A. C. Explosive Compounds (P) 939
Raoult, F. M. Determination of Freezing Point of Dilute
Aqueous Solutions 780
Raps, A. Mercurial Air-pumps (P) 60
Rawlins, T. J. D., and Walker, A, Electric Primary Batteries
(P) •' 43
Rawson, C. Discussion on Primitive Modes of Dyeing 992
Rawson, S. G. Discussion on Technology of India-Rubber 974
Ray, B. L. Apparatus for Purification of Water (P) 173
Raymond, R, W. Titaniferous Iron in the Blast Furnace 217
Rayner, G. H. See Webb 773
Read, Holliday and Sons, and others. Manufacture of a
Sulpho-Acid of Alpha Naphthol, and Colouring
Matters therefrom (P) 3 14
Read, Holliday and Sons, Lira., and Brookes, A. G. Mauufac-
1 ore of Azo-Colours (P) 679
Read, W. Solvent for Gums and Resins (P) 1017
Reade, T. Means of Colouring Liquid Weed Destroyers, &c.
(P) 541
Readman, J. B. Discussion on Antimony Smelting 19
Discussion on the Production of Cyanides 16
R^coura, A. Isomeric States of Chromic Sulphate 600
Redgrave, G. R. Manufacture and Properties of Slag Cement 163
Redmayne, R. N. Manufacture of Pulp for Paper-making, &c.
(P) 176
Redwood, Boverton. Discussion on Galician Petroleum and
Ozokerite 119
Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum 589
Speech at Annual General Meeting 577
The Galician Petroleum and Ozokerite Industries (illus.). 93
Redwood, B. and R., and Barringer, H. Measuring Depth of
Water in Oil Tanks (P) .' 599
Reeb, E. See Schlagdeuhauffen 632
Reed, J. Condensers (P) 803
Evaporating and Condensing Apparatus (P) 803
Rees. T. H., and Blackham. W. P. Manufacture of Blue and
and Bleaching Materials ( 1') 704
Rehnstrom, A. W. Fodder Cakes (P) 933
Reich. K. Solubility of Sodium Carbonate and Bicarbonate in
Solutions of Sodium Chloride 346
Reid, \V. T. Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda 964
Reinhofor. Preventing Action of Frost on Portland Cement
Concrete 165
Reis, M. A. von. Chemistry of Thomas-Slag 691
R«ith, R.. and Dahm, O. Manufacture of Artificial Human
Milk, &c. (P) 5H
Rennie, E. H., and Goyder, G., jun. The Resins of Ficus
Rubit/inos'i and F. Maerophylla 1039
Rennie, H. W., and Derrick, W. H. Notes on the Assay of Tin
Ores, &e 662
Rennoldson, W. L. Discussion on Calcium Chloride in the
Weldon Process 884
Discussion on Preparing Samples el Argentiferous Lead... 322
Reulaud, M. Manufacture of Explosives (P) 180
PAGE
Reuleaux, L. Construction and Working of Smelting and
Melting Furnaces (P) 614
Reuss, W. The Chemistry of the Preserve Industry 449
Revordin, B., and de la Harpe, C. Preparation of the Dinitro-
phenol C,,H3(OH) (N02)3 1:2:4, and some Properties of
the Diamidophenol 157
Action of Acetic Anhydride on Dimethylaniline 778
Oxidation Compounds of Amidonaphthol Sulphouic Acids. 997
Manufacture of Colouring Matter (P) 902
Reychler, A. Laboratory Investigations on the Chlorine
Industry 34
See de Wilde 907
Reychler, M. A. Preparation of Carvacrol 771
Some Derivatives of Carvacrol 771
Reynolds, F. J., and Brown, J. Building Cements (P) 165
Reynolds, J. Emerson. Presidential Address 571
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting 571, 577
Speeches at Annual Dinner 581, 582, 583
Reynolds, J. H. Discussion on Chairman's Address to Man-
chester Section 878
Rhodes, E. Discussion on Noxious Gases Legislation 311
Ribau, J. Changes in Chalybeate Waters during Storage 768
Colorimetric Determination of Iron by Sulphocyanate,
&c 2e9
Richards, E. H. Apparatus for Determining Liability of Oils
to Spontaneous Combustion 547
Delicate Test for Alum in Potable Water 60
Richards, J. Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 9
Richards, J. W. Manufacture of Galvanised Iron 247
The Specific Heat of Aluminium 4W
Richards, W. See Hughes 465
Richardson. Discussion on the Analysis of Fats in, 115
Richardson, C. G., and others. Treatment of Ores (P) 353
Richardson, F. W. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 419
Discussion on Primitive Methods of Dyeing 992
Richardson, .1. Funnels for Measuring Liquids (P) 596
Richardson, J. C. Application of Depolarisers in Electrolysis
(P) 1015
Richet, C. Influence of Metallic Salts on Lactic Fermentation 770
Richter, V. von. Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds 185
Rickard, W. T. Extraction of Precious Metals from Ores (P) . 533
Rideal, S. Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity Determination 304
Discussion on Indian Gum Samples 406
Discussion on the Acid Action of Drawing Papers 214
Indian Gum Samples of known Origin 403
Ridsdale, C. H., and Jones. A. Lubricants for Heavy Ma-
chinery (P) 445
Ricdel, W. F. Manufacture of an Iodine Derivative of Phena-
cetin ( P) 633
Riegert, F. Rendering Leather Waterproof and more Durable
(P) 624,624
Rigole, 1). Extraction of Gutta-Percha (P) 829
Rischgitz, E. Treatment of Peat ( F) 670
Riss, E. Volatilisation of Alcohol during Fermentation 627
Roberts, F. G. Adair. Discussion on Acetic Acid from Carbo-
hydrates 9D9
See Boake 907
Roberts, I. L. Secondary Batteries (P) 249
Roberts, J. W. and G. Machinery f"r Washing and Treating
Hosiery ( P) 810
Roberts-Austen, W. C. Appliance for Autographically
Recording the Temperature of Furnaces 840
The Melting" Points of the Gold Aluminium Series of
Alloys (illus.) 349
Robertson, A. An Improved Sheep Dip (P) 365
Robertson, A., and Hofmann, J, The Chemical Examination
of Handwriting 847
Robertson, F. M. Process and Apparatus for Evaporating (P) 507
Robertson. G. H. A Study of the Plant.- Lead-Sulphuric Acid-
Lead Peroxide Cell from a Chemical Standpoint,
Part I, Communicated by II. E. Armstrong 695
Secondary Batteries 168
Robertson, J. Apparatusfor Fumigating and Disinfecting (P) 704
Manufacture of Vegrtable Parchment (P) 935
Robinson. A. E. See Parker 755
Robinson, C. N. Machine for making Parchmentised Fibre
(P) 176
Robinson, E. See Parker 755
Robson, J. Modification of Kreusler's Nitric Acid Apparatus
for Extraction of Dissolved Gases in Water (illus.) . ... 504
Preservative Coatings for Iron, &c. (P) 361
Rocca, E. Manufacture of Cellulose (P) 743
Roche, P. A. Manufacture of Beer (P) 1022
Rodger, E. Discussion on Antimony Smelting 19
Discussion on Phosphoric Acid 22S
Discussion on the Production of Cyanides 16
The English Process of Antimony Smelting 16
Means for Heating Metals by Liquid or Gaseous Fuel
(P) 733
Roeser-Muller, L. O., and Deike, B. Manufacture of Plaster
(P) 607
Dee. si, 18920 THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PACE
Roesing. The Basic Bessemer Process applied to the Metal-
lurgy of Lead 527
Rohrmann, L. See Guttmann 349,1005
Rogers, J. H. Manufacture of Tin and Teme Plates (P) 613
Rolland, N., and Francois, H. Apparatus for Manufacture of
Butter (P) 932
Roinburgh, P. van. Action of Nitric Acid on Dhnethylortlio-
anisidine 155
Roramier, A. On Wine Yeast 171
Roos, L., and Thomas, E. Vegetation of the Vine 627
Roscoe, Sir H. E. Lessons in Elementary Chemistry, Inorganic
and Organic 373
Roscoe, Sir H. E., and Schorlemmer. C. A Treatise on
Chemistry. Vol. III. The Chemistry of the Hydro-
carbons and their Derivatives 373
Rose, G. Apparatus for Burning Hydrocarbon and other Oils
(P) : 423
Rosing, B. Purifying and Separating Lead, and Obtaining
Litharge (P) 694
Rossigneux, P. Desulphurising Castings or Alloys of certain
Metals (P) 615
Roth, A. and A. Preparation for Treatment of Wounds, &c.
(P) 934
Rothe, T. W. Separation of Iron from other Elements 940
Rothwell, C. P. Seymour. On thi) Action of Frost upon Cotton 320
Rousseau, C. Plates for Electric Accumulators (P) 617
Rousseau, G. New Crystalline Oxychlorides of Iron 262
Rousseau, G., and Tito, G. Action of Water on Basic Salts of
Copper 238
Rovello Syndicate. Limited, The, and Howell, J. C. Apparatus
for Use in Obtaining Copper (P) 826
Rowan, F. J., and Dawson. B. Apparatus for Oxidising Lead
Sulphide and Zinc to form White Pigments (P) 829
Rowbotham, A. See Hughes 742
Rowland, W. L. Recovering Cyanides from Coal-Gas (P) 510
Rowley, T. See Coulter 53S
Royon, M. Apparatus for Producing Sulphuretted Hydrogen
and other Gases (P) 842
Royle, J. J, See Slater 81S
Rubenkamp, A. Drying Apparatus (P) 994
Riibsam, L. Production of Coloured Malt ( T) 628
Rudd. .1 . Increasing the Illuminating Power of Gas (P) 807
Rudelolf, M. Influence of Heat on the Properties of Iron and
Steel Wire 40
Rudorff, F. Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis 409
Rue, I. K. Manufacture of Improved Enamelled Bricks (P) . 819
Ruhsain, R. Degras 639
Riimpler, A. Apparatus for Production of Invert Sugar and
Dextrose (P) 1019
Ruper, C. G. See Frist 1026
Rupp, G. Application of Aluminium for Vessels containing
Foods . 172
Riippcrt, F. See Presenilis 776
Ruscoe, J. Apparatus for Charging and Drawing Gas Retorts
(P) 597
Rushton. J. See Shaw 230
Russell, J. C. Account of Soap Lake, Washington 951
Ruston, A., and Beadle, E. Fog Signal Detonators 11') 267
Rylands. D. Manufacture of Carbonic Acid Gas (P) 603
Manufacture of Carbonic Acid Gas, and Tubes therefor (P) 6S6
Manufacture of Leclanche Cells (P) 169
Producing Carbonic Acid Gas (P) 1005
Retorts for Production of Glass, &e. (P) 1007
Rylands. D., and Husselbee, A. Lining Metallic Vessels with
Glass (P) 818
Rylands, D., and Morant, R. Couplings for Glass Tubes (P) .. 162
Ryves, E. J. Manufacture of Explosives (P) ISO
s
Sacre, H. ft, and GrimshaW, H. Utilisation of ;l Waste Oxide
of Iron (P) .933
Sadler, J. Artificial Leather (P) IN
Sadlon, S. The R61e of Arsenic in Tanning 171
Saget, M. G. Resistance of Oxycellulose to Coloration by
Tetrazoic Dyes 1003
Saint-Martin, L. de. Estimation of Small Quantities of Carbon
Monoxide 776
Sakurai, J. Determination of Temperature of Steam arising
from Boiling Salt Solutions 551
Note on Observation by Gerlach of Boiling Point of
Solution of Glaubers Salt 551
Salamon, A. Gordou. Discussion on Vinegar Manufacture 490, 491
See Hood 816
See de Mosenthal 773
Salenius, E. G. X. Production of Cheese (P) 933
Salomon, J. Pottery Ware Domestic Heating Stoves ( P) 597
PAGE
Salwey, E. R. Purification of Smoke in Chimneys (P) 260
Salzer, H. Means for Preserving Meat, &c. (P) 769
Sampson, F. J. H. Treatment of Rhea to obtain Fibre (P) . . . . 935
Sandovv, E. Carbonic Acid Baths and Tablets for Use therein
(P) 37
Sanford, P. G. The Analysis of Nitro-Exnlosives S43
Sanger, C. A. Quantitative Determination of Arsenic 370
Saniter, E. H. Purification of Iron (P) 1014
Purification of Iron and Steel from Sulphur 911
Purification of Steel or Iron (P) 1013
Santa, M. de Pietra. Arrangement of the Syphon in the
Manufacture of Artificial Seltzer Water." 257
Santurio.B. M. Filters (P) 894
Sargant, W. T., and Sons. Annual Metal Circular 77
Sargent, J. Furnaces (P) 994
Saunier, N. N. M. See de Mare 58
Savalle, Sons and Co., A. Distilling and Rectifying Apparatus
(P) 257
Sawrey, J., and Collet, H. Apparatus for Separating Liquids
from Solids ( P) 230
Sayer, R. C. Filters (PJ 894
Schack-Sommer, G. Agricultural Fertilisers and Feeding
Stuffs, and Legislation thereon 406
Discussion on Agricultural Fertilisers and Legislation .... 412
Schaeffer, H. N. F. Manufacture and Use of Alizarin Colours
(P) 237
Sohaal, V. Method for Determination of Vapour Densities. . . . 370
Schall, C, and Uhl, J. Reactions of the Addition Product
from Sulphur Dioxide and Sodium Phenylate 900
Scheibler, F. Apparatus for Liquoring Sugar (P) 830
Scheithauer, B. Electric Batteries ( P) 249
Schertel, A. Improvements in the Manufacture of Sulphuric
Acid during 189 1 906
Schestopal, C. See Veilh 150
Seheuer. The Boric Acid and Borax Industry 683
Scheurer, A. Note on a New Chromium Mordant 33
On Weakening of the Tissue in Printing White Discharges
in Vat-Indigo Blue 33
Report on Preventing Formation of Oxycellulose in Print-
ing Discharges ou Indigo Blue 32
The Weakening of the Fibre in Discharge-Indigo Printing 904
Scheurer-Kestner. Action of Carbon on Alkaline Sulphates
and on Sulphurous Acid 748
Action of Carbon on Sodium Sulphate 687
Concentration of Sulphuric Acid 746
Decomposition of Sulphur Dioxide 687
On the Polymers of Ricinoleic Acid 250
Preparing Sulpb.oricin.ate 33
The Calorific Power of Coal 995
Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus. New Researches on
the Heat of Combustion of Coal 339
Schionning, W. Producing Imitai ion of Terra-Cotta (P) 688
Schimke, K. The Formation of Mildew in Woollen Goods 741
SchishkolT, L. X. Use of Hydrofluoric Acid and its Salts in
the Distillation of Alcohol 627
Schlagdeuhauffen. F., and Reeb, E. Active Principle of the
Bor(ighi<E 632
Schlagenhaufer, K., and Blumer, J, Manufacture of Yeast
( P) 699
Schlarb, C.'C. Condensation of Meldola's Blue with Aromatic
and Fatty Amines 25
Schleicher, U See Lembach 452
Schleier, M, Use of Nitroso^-Naphthol in Quantitive
Analysis 713
Schlesinger, O. Depolarising Liquid for Galvanic Batteries
(P) 1015
Schleuning, W. Manufacture of Artificial Stone (P) 819
Schlicht, A. Estimation of Mustard Oil 779
Schloesing, T. Manufacture of Anhydrous Chloride of
Magnesium (P) 686
Manufacture of Chlorine, and apparatus therefor (P) 686
Schlumberger, A. Manufacture of Paper for Cheques, &c. (P) 935
Treatment of Paper for Cheques. &c. (P) 935
Schmidt. On " Phenocoll," an Aiiti-pyretic and Anti-rheumatic 453
Schmidt, A. See Seubert 849
Schmidt, C. See Witt 901
Schmidt, H. Grawitz's Recent Patented Improvements in
Aniline Black 519
Schmied, L. Manufacture of Colour Malt (Pj 833
Schmitz, A. and Toenges, E. Production of Oxy-fatty-.
Glycerin ethers, and t >xv- Sulpho-oxy, Dioxy and Sul-
pho-dioxy-Fatty Acids ( P) 827
Schmoeger, M. On the Estimation of Sugars by Ost's Copper
Solution 273
Schmolz, W. See Liebermann 677
Schnabel, C. Treatment of Argentiferous Zinc-Lead Sulphides 821
Schnabel, E. Reduction in Shade of Dyed Alizarin Colours... 602
The Discharge of Alizarin Dyes 811
Schneider, E. A. The Colloidal Sulphides of Gold 40
Schneider, E. A., and Clarke, F. W. Action of Ammoniiun
Chloride at its Dissociation Temperature on Silicates.. 709
I 2
XVlll
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. SI, 1892.
PAGE
Sclineller, A., and Wisse. IV. J. Formation of Ozone in
Presence of Air (P) 354
Refining or Extraction of Sugar (P) *48
Refining Sugar Juiee or Molasses (P) 830
Schuurch. ('. Oxidation of Aniline Black in Process of
Dyeing (P) 813
Schonau. P. W. Preparation of Fish for Use as Food (P) 7ns
Schorlcmmer, C. See Roscoe 373
Schott. On the Expansion of Glass, and on " Compound "
Glass 817
Schreiber, M., and Oettinger. L. Manufacture of Glass Bricks
(Pi 605
Schreitci. J. AY< Bigot 434
Schubert, A., and Skraup, Z. H. Behaviour of Quinidine and
of Quinine towards Hydriodic Acid 263
Sehucht. Manufacture of Superphosphate 255
Schultze, B. " Safety " Matches 709
Schulze, C, and Tollens, B. Apparatus for Evaporating under
Diminished Pressure (illus.) 940
Non-appearance of Multi-rotation of Carbohydrates in
Ammoniacal Solution 944
The Pentosans of Ligtiified Fibre 631
Schulze, E. Chemical Composition of Vegetable Cell Mem-
branes 49
Sehunek, E. Discussion on Cop-dyeing 988
Schupphaus, R. C. The Alcohols of Fusel Oil 831
Schtitte, W. Atropine and Hyoseyamine 453
The Alkaloids of the Solanacea 263
Schutze, M. Relation bet ween Composition of Compounds and
their Colour 807
Schutzenberger, P. Volatility of Nickel in Prosence of Hydro-
chloric Acid 243
Schwartz, C. See Noelting 25
Schweich, E., and Bucher, E. Production and Utilisation of a
New Colouring Matter I" Prosopine ") ( P) 515
Sehweiz. Determination of Value of Commercial Aluminium. 548
Scollev, G. W. Manufacture ot Paints or Paint Stocks (P) . . . 360
Treating Vegetable Oils (P) 758
Scolley, G. W. Manufacture of Pigments (P) (197
Scott, C. Vaporising Disinfectants (P) 452
Scott, R., and Beard, W. J. Manufacture of Floor-cloth (P) . . 903
Scott, T. Evaporating Pans (P) 816
Scott-Moncrieff, W.D. Treatment of " Sewerage," &c. (P) 705
Scoular, W. Apparatus for Separating Crushed Pyrites and
other Heavy Material containing .Metal (P) 923
Scruby, E. E. Purifying Sewage Effluents and Liquids (]')... i:,l
Sebenius, J. L. Apparatus for Removing Gases and Impurities
from Metal when Casting (P) (illus) 923
Seger. Coloration of Clay by Oxide of Iron 749
Seger, H. Change in Porcelain Paste by Storage 162
Composition of Chinese Red Glazes •_':;!'
Composition of Sub-glaze Colours for Soft Porcelain 23ft
Cuprous Oxide Sub-glaze Colours for Soft Porcelain 2 til
The Composition of Biscuit Porcelain 817
Seidler, P. R. E. See Bead, Holliday and Sons 314
Seidner, S. See Kast 598
Selling, II. Preservative Composition for Building Purposes
(P) 606
Selve, G. Separating Cobalt from Nickel (P) 1013
Solwig, J., and Lange, B. Nitrating Cotton, Cellulose. Straw,
&c. (P) 635
.Semmler, F. W., and Tiemanu, F. Oxygen Compounds fioin
Ethereal Oils 706
Sepulchre, L. Gas Generator for Distillation of Mineral Oils
(P) 510
Seubert, K., and Pollard, W. Fusing Point and Crystalline
Form of Aluminium Chloride .' 34
Seubert, K., and Schmidt, A. The Interaction of Magnesium
and Cldorides ,s49
Severn, T. Kilns for Burning Pottery, &c. (P) 6S8
Sharp, J. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 12. 13
Discussion on Primitive Modes of Dyeing 091
Shaw, S. Discussion on Preparing Samples of Argentiferous
Lead 322
Shaw, T, A., and Rushton, J. Apparatus for Cooling, Heating,
and Drying (P) 230
Shearer, A. Discussion on Electrolytic Chlorine and Soda. . . . 965
Shedlock, J. J., and Denny, T. Extraction of Metals from
Ores (P) 695
Sherwood, W. Composition of Ink for Manifolding ( P) ;U6
Shiels, A. Thermostats (P) 895
Shillito, T. B. An Inexplodable Can for Inflammable Liquids
(P) 895
Sickenberger. The Origin of Petroleum 423
Siefert, W. Determination of Chlorine in Wine 7;s
Siemens and Halske. Ozone Apparatus (P) 535
Siginund, W. Relations between Fat Hydrolysing and
Gllicoside-Resolving Ferments ...... 849
Silbcr, P. See Ciamician 705
PAGE
Silverman, L., and McLaren, \V. Waterproofing Canvas, &c.
(P) 903
Simpson, J. Treatment of Material containing Phosphate of
Lime (P) 238
Simpson, W. S. Apparatus for Casting Metals in Vacuo (P).. 823
Sisley, P. See Vignon 430
Sisson, 'G., mi. On the Aluminoferric Process of Sewage
Treatment 321
Skawinski. See Noelting 25
Skelsey, G. H. Manufacture of Portland Cement (P) 241
Skraup, Z. H. See Schubert 263
Slater, J., and Rovle, J. J. Ornamentation of China, Earthen-
ware, &c.;( P) 818
Slatter, G. W. Discussion on Measures 222
Discussion on Primitive Modes of Dyeing 992
Sleicher, W., and Mosher, G. A. Secondary Batteries (P) BIS
Smetham, A. Discussion on Agricultural Fertilisers and
Legislation 411
Sniidth, V. F. L. Hydraulic Cement for Building Purposes ( 1') 606
Smillie, S. Distilling Apparatus for Sea-Water (P) 896
Smith, A.J. Manufacture of White Lead (P) 1017
Smith, E. F. Electrolysis of Metallic Phosphates in Acid
Solution 61
Translation of Richter's Chemistry of the Carbon Com-
pounds 1*5
Smith, E. F., and McCauley, A. W. Electrolytic Separation of
Mercury from Copper 181
Smith. E. F., and Muhr. F. Electrolytic Separations 00
Smith, E. F., and Wallace, D. L. Some Separations by Elec-
trolysis 696
Smith, F. S. Incandescent Electric Lamps (P) 618
Smith, G.A. Galvanic Battery (P) 248
Smith, G. II. Treatment of Gums, and Preparation of Var-
nishes therefrom (P) 361
Smith, J. Cruiokshank. Discussion on Maize Oil 505
On Maize Oil 504
Smith, J. See Nieolle 517
See Woodcock 754
Smith, J. G. Waterproofing Textile Materials (P) 518
Smith, J. and I. Apparatus for Washing, Mordanting, and
Dyeing Wool (P) (illus.) 742
Smith, L. Means for Storing and Preserving Food (P) 449
Smith, T. M. Manufacture of Fertilisers (P) 699
Smith, Watson. Discussion on Acetic Acid from Carbo-
hydrates 969
Discussion on Artificial Musk 308
Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood 402
Discussion on Indian Gum Samples 406
Discussion on Manufacture of Oxygen Gas 319
Discussion on Oil-Gas from Russian Petroleum 588
Discussion on Sellurmann's Reactions 872
Discussion on Stability of Organic Nitrogen Compounds. .. 120
Note on Composition of Stratum of Peat under London
Clay 591
On Sellurmann's Reactions 869
Speech at Annual Dinner 5S3
Stability of Certain Organic Nitrogen Compounds 119
The Formation of Nitrous Oxide and a New Method of
Preparation 867
See Maclvor 45
Smith, Watson, and Cliorley, J. C. The Soluble and Resinous
Constituents of Coals 591
Smith, Watson, and Elmore, W. Manufacture of Basic
Carbonates of Lead (P) 45
Production "f Nitrous Oxide (P) 633
Production of White Lead (P) 360
Smith, W. See Bamber 1007
Smithells, A. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Discussion on Measures 222
Smithson, S. Dyeing Apparatus (P) 906
Snelling, H. A. Manufacture of Spirits (P) 931
Sobotka, G., and Klienietseliek, A. Producing Clear Wort
(P) 7110
Soc. Anon.des Anciennes Salines Doniaiiiales de l'Est. Bleach-
ing and Purifying Aluminium Sulphate (P) 36
Soc. Anon, des Ardoisieres de Deville and V. V. der Heyden.
Manufacture of Building Materials from Waste Slag
(P) 242
Soc. Anon, des Moteurs Thermique Gardie. Gas-producing
Apparatus for Thermal Motors ( P ) 233
Soc. Anon, des Parfums Natureis de Cannes. Purification of
Fatty Residues or Cakes (P) 758
Purification of Fatty Substances (P) 536
Soc. Anon, du Compresseur Jourdan, La. Apparatus for
Expressing Liquids from Substances (P) 1017
Soc. Anon. " La Levure." Production and Preservation of Pure
Yeast (P) 931
Soc. dile Electriciteits-Maatsohappij, La. Electric accumula-
tors (P) '. 755
Soc. Durand, Huguenin, el Cie. Manufacture of Colouring
Malters(t) 237
Soc. Geneste, Herscher, et Cie. Means for Sterilising Water
(P) 450
Doc. 3i, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Soc. La Ramon. Ungumming and Decorticating Textiles (P) . 743
Solenz, G. Manufacture of Artificial Stone and Marble (P)... 74!)
Soler y Vila. J. See Beuoit 020
Soltsien. Cinnamon Powder 372
C a 372
Detection of Nitric Aral in \ iuegar 372
Detection of Unsaponi liable Fats 372
Mace 372
Solvay and Co. Purification of Gas (P) 671
Sonuenthal, S. Dissociation in Dilute Solutions of Tartrates. . 263
Soustadt. E. Extract of Coffee, Confection of the Same, and
Preserving Liquid Coffee Extracts (P) 258
Making Extract of Tea, Confection of the Same, and Pre-
serving Liquid Tea Extract (P) 258
Obtaining Extract of Malt and Hops and Preparing Con-
fection of Same (P) 51
Souther, C. N. Galvanic Batteries (P) 610
Soxhlet, V. H. Increasing Tinctorial Properties of Dyewodd
Extracts 428
So-called " Decolorised " Tannin Extracts 519
Tannins and Tanning Extracts and their Application 904
The Tannins and Tanning Extracts and their Application
in Dyeing Cotton 744
Use of Mineral Pigment Colours in Cotton Dyeing 520
Spaeknian. ('. On Manufacture of Portland Cement from
Alkali Waste alter Treatment by the Chance Process.. 497
Spehr, P. Ephedrine 544,544
Spencer, W. II. Apparatus for Vaporising Oils and Liquids
(P) 174
Spilker, A. See Kraemer 22
Springer, T. G. Manufacture of Gas (P) 424
Stackler, M. A Soluble Naphthol Antiseptic 772
Stahel, R. See Fischer 49
Stanford, E. C. C. Discussion on "Blown" Oils 507
Discussion on Cellulose 223
Discussion on Composition of Mineral Waters 336
Discussion on Maize Oil 505
Discussion on Phosphoric Acid 228
Discussion on Vulcanisation of Rubber 335
Resolution of Condolence on Death of Professor Dittmar.. 224
Staiek, E. The Glycerin and Artificial Butter Industry under
United States Patents (lllus.) 355
Stauber, 10. Producing Peat Coke Cakes (P) 806
Stead, J. E. * ^arburising Fluid Iron or Steel (P) 694
The Elimination of Sulphur from Iron 911
Stebbins. J. H. An Unusual Form of Spring Water 834
Steinhart, O. J. See Lyte 161
Stcnhouse. T. Discussion on Estimation (if Nitrogen in Coal-
Gas 417
Discussion on Nitrogen in Coal-Gas 497
Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 414
Stettenhcimer, L. See Bamberger 23, 24
Steuart, D. R. The Flash-point and Heat of Burning of
Mineral (bis ". 885
Stevens, C. A. See Fell 46
Stevens. P. It. See Xoad 921
Steward, 11. Soap or Washing Powder (P) 620
Stewart. D. Apparatus for Bleaching or Dyeing Textiles
(P) (illus.) 745
Apparatus for Extracting Juice from Sugar Canes (P)
(illus.) 930
< oneentrating Saccharine Liquids (P) 1018
Stewart, W. See French 612
Stiens, P. Portable Galvanic Battery (P) 927
Stoehr, C. 0-1'y ridine and Piperidine Bases 367
Stolle, E. Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in Sulphates 711
Stone, R. Manufacture of Soap, and Utilisation of Residues
(P) 445
Stones, W., and others. Production of Carbonic Acid Gas (P) 1006
Strap, J. Separation of Copper, Nickel, and Silver from
Mattes or Alloys, and Treatment of the Residues
Resulting (P) 616
Street, E. A. (,., and Desruclles, A. W. Porous Plates for
Electric Batteries (P) 249
Streintz, F. See Neumann 247
Stricgler. Estimation of Invert Sugar by Soldaini's Solution . 1038
Stringfellow, W. R. See Morrell 895
Strombeck. H. von. The Composition of Liquid Ammonia of
Commerce, and Manufacture of Liquid Ammonia of
99'995 per cent 736
Use of Oil in Ammonia-Gas Compressors 733
Strong, K. P., and Gordon, A. Manufacture of Artilieial Fuel
( P) 807
St. Szymanski. See Fried lander 998
Stuart, D. Treatment of Fibrous Plants (P) 903
Stuart, T. W. Discussion on Calcium Chloride in the Weldon
Process 884
Subra, G. E. X. I. E. Machines for Decorticating Textiles (P). 517
Sugden, W. R, Manufacture of Iron, and Fuel or Compound
therefor ( P) 899
PAGE
Sutcliffe, E., and G. E. Dyeing and Treating Cotton and other
Textiles (P) 080
Sutherland, R. M. See Orr 737
Sutton, J. Apparatus for Filtering.Beer (P) 1022
Sutton, J. W. Wet Process for Extraction of Gold or Silver
(P) 924
Sutton, T. A., and W. H. Manufacture of Book-binders' Cloth
( P) 90S
Swinburne, J. The Problems of Commercial Electrolysis S23
Syer, M. Disinfecting Compound (P) 934
Sykes, W. J. Mashing and Fermenting from the Distillers'
Point of View 765
Svnder, H. Error in Determination of Albuminoid Nitrogen
by Kjeldahl's Method 372
Szczeuiowskv. I. von, and Piontkowski, G. von. Continuous
Centrifugal Machine (P) 668
Tafel, J. A Colour Reaction of Acid Anilides 461
Takamine, J. Production of Alcoholic Ferments and Fer-
mented Liquids ( P) 1023
Talbot, B. Treatment of Iron and Basic Slag, and Extraction
of Silicon and Phosphorus (P) 921
Tallerman, D. Preparation of Cattle Foods (P) 700
Tank Storage and Carriage Co., Lim., The. See Dvorkovitz . . . 152
Tate, A. Norman. Discussion on Agricultural Fertilisers and
Legislation 411
Discussion on Aluminium 128
Discussion on Legislation on Noxious Gases 123, 312
Tatbam, 11. Treatment of Sewage and Sewage Deposits (P) . 174
Tauber, F'. Die Sulfosauren der Beidcn Naphthylamine und
der beideu Naphthoic 782
Taufkirch, H. See Knorr 700
Taylor, E. M. See Horton 1017
Taylor, H. Manufacture of Paints and Varnishes (P) 620
Taylor, J. Manufacture of Soap (P) 928
Taylor, W. R. Apparatus for Burning Cement-making
Materials ( P) 749
Manufacture of Cement ( P) 38
Tebughein, A. Dyeing, Mordanting, or Bleaching Textiles
(P) 431
Teggin, J. Wood Trays for Filter Prosses (P) 894
Teinmel, R. Elastic Fabric for Tubing, Belting, &c. (P) 759
Templeman. J. Manufaetm-e of Soaps and Saponaceous Com-
pounds (P) 827
Terp, O. Enamel Paints for Resisting Fire. Damp, &c. (P) ... 829
Manufacture of Artilieial Stone and Hard Compositions (P) 819
Terry, H. L. Critical Notes on Chemical Technology of India-
Rnbber 970
Discussion on Noxious Gases Legislation 311
Discussion on Technology of India-Rubber 974
Tesrhner, E. Device for Boiling Milk ( P) 630
Theisen, E. Condensation and Purification of Steam and
Vapours ( P) 668
Theurer, J. F. Simultaneous Extraction of Hops and Produc-
tion of a Fine Extract (P) 6S8
Thiry, L. Manufacture of Artilieial Chamois Leather (P) .... 698
Thoferhn. Electrolytic Copper Refining Process 925
Thomas. E. See Ross 627
Thomas, T. C. J. Manufacture of Glass (P) 240,605
Tank Furnaces for Manufacture of Glass (P) 1007
Thomas, W. F. Decorative Artificial Stone (P) 90S
Thompson, C. See Wright 245
Thompson, J. K. Fire-Resisting Bricks, &c. ( P) 437
Thompson, R. H. Improved Galvanic Battery (P) 44
Thompson, W. H. Grinding or Crushing Apparatus (P)
(illus.) 20
Thompson, W. P. Discussion on Aluminium 128
Thomson. A. C. Oil [or other Waterproof Sheets for Press
Copies! P) 835
Thomson, Murray. Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity
Determination 304
Thomson, R. T. Discussion on " Blown " Oils 6117
Thomson, R. T., and Ballantyne, H. "Blown" Oils 506
Thomson, W. Appliance for Recording Presence and Density
of Black Smoke in Factory Chimneys 12
Thomson, W. G., and Powell, J. S. Manufacturing Inlaid
Linoleums (P) 431
Thorn, P. R. Apparatus for Straining Paper Pulp ( P) 175
Thorner, W. The Use of the Centrifugal Machine in Analytical
and Microscopical Work (illus.) 62
Thornton, H. B. Disinfectants for Water-closets ( P) 935
Manufacture of Disinfectant Tablets (P) 365
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Deo. 31. 1892.
PAGE
Thorp, W. Discussion on Acetic Acid from Carbohydrates ... 969
Discussion on Destructive Distillation of Wood 874
Discussion on Elect rolytic Chlorine and Soda 96o
Discussion on Schuriiinnii's Reactions 871
Discussion on the Icid Action of Drawing Papers 213
Eulogy on the late Professor A. W. Von Hofmann 486
Speech at Annual Dinner ■>*>
Speech at Annual General Meeting 677
Statement on Opeiiini-- London Section Session 1892-3 867
Thwaite, B. H. Storing Inflammable Spirits or Volatile Hydro-
carbons (Pi 312
Tichhorne. C. R. C. and others. Manufacture of Solid Car-
bonic Acid (P) W'
Tiemann, P. See Semmler 706
Tildcn. YT. A. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 420
Limettin • • -''■*
Note on Spontaneous Conversion of Isoprene into Caout-
chouc 636
Tippetts, F. D. Filter (P) 894
Tiseher, G. See Bachem 935
Tile. G. See Rousseau 238
Toenges, E. See Schmitz 827
Tollens, B. See Lindsey 835
See Schulze 931 . 9 10, 944
Topic;', W. Discussion on Galician Petroleum and Ozokerite. 118
Torkington, A. Manufacture of Metal Fibre (P) C14
Townsend, S. and P. E. Hydrocarbon Oil Burners (P) 597
Traub. Tests of Purity of Chloroform 779
Traub, C. The Testing of Chloroform 712
Trautmann, E. See Noelting 27
Trent, J., and Henderson, G. Extracting and Purifying Wool
Fat (P) 928
Trillat. See Jean 775
Trillat A. Antiseptics, Jr.. derived from Coal-Tar or from
Aromatic Oils 1927
The Antiseptic Properties of Formic Aldehyde 772
Trillat, A., and de Raczkowsld. On Azo-Compounds and
Colouring Matters derived from Chr.vsaniline 737
Some Derivatives of Chrysaniline 997
Trillat, M. Formaldehyde (" Formol ") 1025
Trillieh, H. See Wilhelm 7CS
Trimble, H. Chestnut Wood Tannin 47
The Tannins 275
Trobach and Huppertsburg. Concrete Blocks for Paving and
Building (PI 818
Tiopenas, A., and Wells, A. E. Apparatus for Rapid Determi-
nation of Carbon in Steel (P) 636
Truman, E. B. Solution for Use in Dyeing Silk (P) 680
Tschirch, A. Artificial Coloration of Articles of Food 172
Tudor, H. O. Electrodes for Accumulators (P) 354
Turner, J. A. Water and Grease-proof Packing Material (P) . 1002
Turner, T. See Barrows 636
Turton, J. Extraction of Metals from Ores and Minerals (P) . 614
Typke, P. G. W. Production of Phosphorous Compounds (P) . 369
Tyrer, T. Discussion on Aluminium Alloys -19 1
Discussion on Stability of Organic Nitrogen Compounds . . 12o
Eulogy on the late Prof. A. W. von Hofmann 485, 4S6
Speech at Annual Dinner 583
u
rhl, J. See Schall 900
TJhler, L„ and Cadische, H. Steam Superheating Apparatus
(P) 994
Ulrich, G. Application of Alizarin Lakes for Colouring
Candles 44
Mordanting Wool with Iron 30
Use of Sodium Tungstate as a Fixing Agent for Mordants'. 30
Ul'/.er, F. Determination of Indigotin in Indigo' 63
limbeck, A. Brewing (P) 628
Hrnney, J. C. See Dunstan 360
Underbill, T. J. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
United States Smokeless Powder Co. Explosive Compound
(P) 1032
Universal Carbonating Co., The. Carbonating Beer (P) 932
Unwin, P. I. Recent Developments in Electric Arc Welding . 824
Usher, E. P. Electric Battery Plates (P) 927
Storage Batteries (P) 927
V
Valenta, E. Artificial Asphalt 170
Larch Turpentine , 177
Araret, R. Action of Metals on Salts Dissolved in Organic
Liquids 713,779
Vass, J. SeeHovenden 259
rattier, Cli. South American Metallurgical Industries 783
PAGE
Vaubel, W. The Preservation of Sodium 753
Vaudin , L-. Is Milk Acid or Alkaline ': 1023
The Reaction of M ilk to Phenolphtalein 932
Veith. A. The Rectification of Petroleum Spirit (illus.) 151
Veitli, A., and Schestopal, C. The Origin of Petroleum 150
Yiurengo. E., and Casper, E. Treatment of Rhea and Appa-
ratus therefor (P) 904
Vickers, W. E-, and Everett, G. A. Apparatus for Mixing Gas
or Vapour with Air (PJ '. 424
Vidal, R. Production and Separation of Methylamines, Ethyl-
amines, Phenylamines, and Naphthylamines ( Y) 3t4
Vieille, P. Methods Employed for Testing Explosives 937
Vieuville, A. Micault de la. Preserving Eggs (P) 52
Vignon, L, Rotary Power of Silks of Various Origin 6S0
Specific Rotatory Power of Silks of Different Origin 741
The Melting Points of Mixtures of Hydrocarbons. 235
The Rotatory Power of Silk 427
The Specific Gravity of Silk 600, 10112
The Specific Gravity of Textile Fibres 1003
Visrnon, L„ and Sisley, P. Action of Nitric Acid on Silk 430
Villain, A. Photo dyeing 1031
Villon, A. M. Aluminium Light 545
Vincent. C. Report on Use of Hydrofluoric Acid and Fluorides
in Distilleries as proposed by Effront 626
Vincent, C. W. Mineral Salts for Bathing and Drinking (P) . 1023
Vincent, I'. J. B. Manufacture of Salt in Blocks or Cakes ( P) 23S
Vitali, D. The Detection of Saccharine 272
Vladimiroff, L. Investigation of the Properties of India-
Rubber '. 929
Vogel, •!. H. Manufacture and Properties of " Fig-Wine '. . . . 256
Vogelsang, A. See Bachem 935
Volney, C. W. Decomposition of Sodium Nitrate 1 ly Sulphuric
tcid 347
Vortmann, Von Dr. G. Anlcitung zur Chemischen Analyse
Orgauischer Stoffe 373
Vullier. V. See Iloninan 361
w
Waddell, M., and others. Secondary Batteries (P) 249
Waddington, H. H. Moulds for Vulcanising India-Rubber
Tyres, &c. ( P) mi 7
Wagner, J., and Bredig, G. Apparatus for Developing and
Treating Photographs (PJ 1032
"Wagner, Rudolf von. Manual of Chemical Technology 1S4
Wainwright, J. T. Reducing U nsmelted Ore (P) H>14
Wainwright, R. Apparatus for Rendering Gases, Smoke, &c,
Innocuous (P) 22
Walbaum, H. See Bertram 83S
Walker. A. Manufacturing Yeast (P) 700
See Rawlins 43
Walker, W. Production of Glass-making Material (PJ 2 10
Recovering Carbonic Acid Gas (P) 686
Wallace, D. L. See Smith 606
Walrand. C, and Legenisel, E. Treatment of Steel (P) 822
Walsh, E., jun. Rolling Plate Glass, and Machinery therefor
(P) 6S8
AT alter, H. E. Cleansing Material (P) 028
Walter, K. The Gold-Bearing Veins of Pyrites on Mount
Rosa 821
Walther, O. Cause of Greening, during Milling, of Logwood-
Black on Wool 1002
Ward, D. Making Coloured Stucco, &c. (P) 1012
Ward, E. Marshall. The "Ginger-Beer Plant" and the
Organisms Composing it 255
Ward, G. Discussion on Impurities in Coal-Gas 410
Ward, M. See Erankland 704
Symbiosis and Symbiotic Fermentation 764
Warner, E. T., and Curry, J. F. Making Mortar (P) 607
Warren, H. N. Quick Method for Decomposition and Analysis
of Ferrochrome 460
Warren, P. The Opium Trade in Formosa 646
Warwick, A. W. Extraction and Separation of Antimony (PJ 5S3
Wasowicz, V. See Jannasch 457
Watkinson, W. H. Apparatus for Heating Liquids and
Generating and Utilising Vapour (P) 337
Watson, G. Discussion on Phosphoric Acid 228
Preparation of Pure Phosphoric Acid 224
Watson, J. The Use of Fuller's Spiral Slide Rule (illus.) 324
Variation in Composition of Caustic Soda within the same
Drum (illus. ) 322
Watson, W., and Bcntz, E. Manufacture of Compounds of
Chromium for l)yeing (PJ 430
Watson, W. H. Means for Purification of Water, Refuse-
Liquors, &c. ( P) 364
Watt, A. Production of Copper Tubes by Electrolysis (P) .... 617
AVatts' Dictionary of Chemistry. Re-written by H. Foster-
Morley and M. M. Pattison Muir 552
Dec. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
TAGS
Wdowiszewski, H. The Accurate Determination of Phosphorus
in Steel in Two Hours 815
Webb, F. Extracting Precious Metals from their Ores (P) . . . 922
Webb, G., and Rayner, G. H. Manufacture of Oxygen (P) ... 773
Webb, W. H. Compression Pumps (P) 20
Weber, C. Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 414
Weber, C. O. Discussion on Action of Chlorine on Wool 181
Discussion on Cop-Dyeing 988
On Cop- Dyeing (illus.) 975
Discussion on Cost of Sewage Treatment 9
On Oil and Iron Stains in Cotton Cloth 495
On the Manufacture of Chrome Pigments 357
Weber, H. A. Behaviour of Antiseptics towards Salivary
Digestion 834
On the Occurrence of Tin in Canned Food 363
Weber, O. On Mcthylsaccharine (Toluic Sulphinide) 772
Weber, R. Composition of Glass for'Chemical Apparatus 267
Websky. E. Gypsum Casts (P) 437
Wedding, H. Alloys of Nickel and Iron 526
The Neuhausen Aluminium Factory (illus.) 910
Weidcmann. E. A. Candles for Fumigating and Perfuming
(P) 416
Weiler, E. The Dyeing of Smooth Mohair Fabrics, and
Plushes (illus.) 519
Weingott, J. S. Treating Meerschaum to render it as Porous
in the Manufactured as in the Natural State (P) 525
Wegner. G. Solder for Aluminium and other Metals (P) 613
Wehner, P. A. H. Manufacture of Artificial Wood (P) 908
Weigel, M. Filtering Apparatus (P) (illus.) 993
Wells, A. E. See Tropenas 636
Wells, G.I. J. Apparatus for Extraction of Ammonia (P) .... 747
Wells, J. G. See Morris 764
Welmans, P. Testing Lard for Fatty Oils 548
Welz, F. Rose or Orange-Red Stained Glass (P) 241
Wense, W Estimation of Potassium as Perchlorate 711
Wensky. W. Galvanic Batteries for Producing Constant
Currents (P) 248
Wenzel, von Otto. Adressbuch und Waarenverzeichniss der
Chemischen Industrie des Deutschen Reichs 7S1
Wernaer, C. See George 165
Werner, P. Note on Application of Alizarin Yellows 599
WestS.l. Apparatus for Purifying, 4c, Water (P) 630
West, W. Treating Zinc Ores (P) 351
Westaway, J. See Mahaffy 759
Westcott, W. Wynn. See Martindale 781
Weston.E. Voltaic Cells (P) 445
Weygang, C. Manufacture of Building Beards, Barrels, &c.
from Paper Pulp (P) 771
Weymersch, H. Primary Voltaic Batteries ( P) 755
Whitaker, T. Discussion on Fast and Fugith c Dyes 13
White, J. Apparatus for Straining Paper Pulp (P) 935
White, R. W. Manufacture of White Lead ( P) 620
White, T., and Lee, J. Brewing Apparatus (P) 700
Whitehead, C. Employment of Cadmium in Gold Bullion
Assays 45S
Whiteley, R. Lloyd. Chemical Calculations 275
Discussion on Estimation of Silica in Clay 217
Wiechmann, F. G. A Crystalline Magma of Invert Sugar 362
AViesner, J. Influence of Incandescent Electric Light on Paper
made from Wood Cellulose, and Deterioration through
Exposure 596
Microscopic Examination of Various Forms of Carbon, and
Identity o f Lung-Pigment with Soot 1024
Wigg, W. J. Manufacture of Venetian Red (P) 361
Wilde, P. de, and others. Apparatus for Manufacture of
Chlorine (P) 907
Wilder, C. H. Manufacture of Gas from Oils (P) 424
Wildbagen, H. An American Sulphite Cellulose Paper Mill
(illus.) 174
Wiley, H.W. Pine-Tree Sugar 362
Wiley, H. W., and others. Notes on Analyses of Sugars,
Molasses, &c 761
Wilhelm, E., and others. Manufacturing Malt Coffee (P) .... 768
Wilisch, H. Hardening Articles of Steel or other Metal
(P) 823
Wilkinson, J. B. Discussion on Fast and Fugitive Dyes 13
Wilcox, W. H. Filter for Oils, Lubricants, ic. (P) 169
Willgerodt, C. Meta-dinitrobenzene 777
Williams, F. T., and Howell, J. C. Manufacture of Porous
Plates for Secondary Batteries (P) 247
Williams, G. Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement ( P) 688
Williams, H. Apparatus for Manufacture of Gas (P) - 735
Williams, J. E. Von Schulz and Low's Method of Estimating
Lead in Ores 775
Williams, J. S. Treating Glass Cullet known as "Blacks"
(P) 524
Williams, T. H. Manufacture of Disinfecting Powder (P) 631,631
PAGE
Williams. T. W. Furnaces effecting more perfect Combustion
(P) 895
Williamson, D. Filtering Apparatus (P) 509
Williamson. R. See Longmore 906
Willm, Th. Pentasulphide of Antimony 758
Wills, J. L. Natural Phosphates 698
Willson, T. L. Electric Reduction of Aluminium and other
Metals (P) 354
Wilm, T. Absorption of Hydrogen by Palladium 465
Wilson, — . Discussion on Testing Coal-Gas 414
Wilson, E. S. Refining and Deodorising Refuse Oils and Fats
(P) 757
Wilson, G. M. S. Manufacture of Gas (P) 424
Wilson, H. W. Bleaching Vegetable Textiles (P) 745
Wilson, J. A. Turkey-Red Oil. Part II 495
Wilson, J. W., and Harvey. C. H. G. Obtaining Ferric
Chloride from Waste Liquors (P) 433
Wilson, T. B. Utilisation of Sewage Sludge (P) 769
Wilson, W. C. Colour Testing 537
Wilson, W. H. Manufacture of Illuminating and Heating Gas
(P) 735
Wingham. A. Practical Slide-Rule for Calculation of Furnace
Charges S21
See Ball 751
Winkler, C. On the Durability of Aluminium 244
Reduction of Oxygen Compounds by Magnesium 39
Winter, C. Artificial Fuel (P) 996
Winterstein, E. Vegetable Amyloid 763
Wirt/,, Q. See Evans 212
Wisse.W. J. See Schneller 354,448,830
Witt, O. N. /3-Naphthaquinone Sulphonic Acids 155
Progress in Wool Dyeing 602, 602
Witt, O. N„ and Kaufmann, H. a-Naphthol-a-Sulphonic Acid 155
Witt, O. N., and Schmidt, C. Azonium-Bascs 901
Witteman. J. F. Finishing Beer (P) 932
Witz, A. The Production of the Spheroidal State in Boilers . . 067
Wolff, F. A. Treating Liquid Gelatin or Glue for Production
of Plates or Sheets (P) 624
Wood, J. Machines for Printing Fabrics (P) 905
Wood, J. T. Purifying Sewage or Foul Water (P) 451
Woodcock, J., and others. Preparing Ores, Oxides, and Com-
pounds of Iron for Smelting (P) 754
Woodhouse and Rawson United, Lim. See Masterman 169
Woodman, D. Analyses of Glass Used for Incandescent Elec-
tric Lamps 817
Denitration of Pyroxylin 839
Wolff, C. J. See Lembach 452
Wolffenstein, R. See Nicotine 705
Woscher, A. Indigo and its application in Dyeing and Print-
ing 428
Wright, C, R. Alder. Discussion on Artificial Musk 307
Discussion on Fluid Specific Gravity Determination 304
Discussion on Stability of Organic Nitrogen Compounds .. 120
On Certain Aluminium Alloys 492
On Certain Ternary Alloys. Part VI 693
On Fluid Specific Gravity Determination for Practical
Purposes (illus.) 297
Wright, C. R. Alder, Thompson, C, and Leon, J. T. On
Certain Ternary Alloys 2 15
Wright, H. E. A Handy Book for Brewers 10m
Wright, J. Vertical Stills for Ammoniacal and other Liquors
(P) 894
Wright, J. A. See Mason 436
Wunder, J. Sizing Paper 52
Wuusche, F. Prod ucing Magnesium Flash-Light ( P) 899
Wyatt, F. The Phosphates of America 184
Young, G„ and Crippiu, W. Apparatus for Dyeing and
Bleaching ( P) 742
Young, W. Manufacture of 31 moral Oil and Ammonia (P) . . . 900
Yvon and Berlioz. /J-Naphthol Benzoate, or " Benzonaphthol " 264
z
Zahn, W. Tanning Hides for Making Kid Leather (P) 625
Zalozieeki, R. The Origin of Petroleum 22
Zanner, A. See Brunner 37, sin
Zeissler, H. See Krantz 616,635 635,635
Zeitschel, B. Apparatus for Rapidly Heating Liquids (P) 509
Zellstofi'-Fabrik Waldhof. Treatment of Cellulose for Manu-
facture of Gun-cotton (P) 180
Zillessen, E., sen. Dyeing Silk or Half-Silk Goods (P) 1004
Zune, M. Detection of Rosin Oils in Essence of Turpentine . . 637
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 3:, 1892.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS,
X.B. — In this Index (1*) indicates that the matter referred to is an abstract of a patent ;
referred to is in the Trade Heport.
(T.li.) indicates that the matter
A
PAGE
Absinthe a Yickler ot Tannin, ( Mafat ) 621
Acacia Arabica Gum. (Rideal) 403
A Tielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
( iatechu. (Rideal) 404
Farnesiana. (Rideal) 404
Ferrugina. ( Rideal ) 404
Leucophlosa. (Rideal) 404
Modesta. (Rideal) 404
Accounts for the Year 1801 569
Accumulators. See Batteries.
Acetic Acid, Production of, from the Carbohydrates. (Cross
and Bevan) 966
Acid, Specific Gravity of Solutions of. ( Nickel) 161
Anhydride, Action ot, on Dimethylaniline. (Rcverdin and
de la Harpe) 778
Acetone, Manufacture of Crude. (P) Lowe 907
Acetylene in Flames, the I Irigin of. (Lewes) 340
Acetyl-Indigo White and Acetyl-Indigo. (Licbcrmann and
1 (ickhutt) 426
Acid, a New Unsaturated Fatty. (Arnaud) 619
Marking Glass by. (P) Leader 524
Acidimetrv. Potassium Hydrogen-tartrate as a Starting Point
for. (Borntrager) 776
Acids, Alkalis, and Salts. 34, 161, 237, 346, 432, 521, 603, 681. 716. .814
9116, 1004
Apparatus for Concentrating. (P) Her.'ens 36
Apparatus for Distilling Fatty, il'i Hugues 757
(it Palm Oil, the Solid Patty. (Noedlinger) 445
Production of Oxy-, Sulpbo-oxy-. Dioxy-, and Sulpho-
dioxy-fatty. (P) Schmitz and Tocnges 827
Aconine, Formation and Properties of. (Dunstan and Pass-
more) 366
Aconitine, Conversion "of Aconine into. (Dunstan and Pass-
more) 366
Acbnitum napellus, the Alkaloids of True. (Dunstan and
Umney) 366
Acridine Orange, Application of. (Von Perger) 30
Address, Lists of changes of. 2, 92, 202, 206, :194, 484, 568, 662, 732,
800, 866, 962
The Presidential, 1892. (Emerson Reynolds) 571
To the Iron and Steel Institute, Presidential 689
Adulteration in Agriculture. (T.R.) 1043
Aerated "Waters. See Waters.
Aereators for Treating Liquids. ( P) Andrew 896
Africa, Drugs of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Dyes ofTri ipical. (T.R.) 377
Fibres of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Gold Production in South. (T.R.) 718
oils and Pats of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Perfumes of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Eesins and Gums of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Tie- Cvanide Process in South. (Butters and Clennell) .. 916
Vegetable Products of Tropical. (T.R.) 377
Agremonia a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 621
Agriculture, Adulteiation in. (T.R.) 1043
Composition for Fixing Ammoniaeal Nitrogen Used in.
(Pi Buroni and Marchand PUS
Manufacture of Iron in its Relations to. (Bell) 819
Air and Hydrochloric Acid Gas, Producinga Mixture of. (P)
La Soc. Peehiney et Cie 1006
And Steam. Apparatus for Regulating Admission of, to
Furnaces. IP) Broadbent 896
Apparatus for Carburettiug. (P) Lennard 234
Apparatus for Carburettiug. (P) The Gas Economising
and Improved Lurid Synd. and Love, J 898
Apparatus for Distilling Water in Presence of. (P)
Hunting 509
Apparatus for Effecting Complete Mixture of Gas with.
( P) Vickers and Everett 424
Apparatus for Saturating, with Vapours. (P) Danks 508
Compressors. (Pi Johnson and Hutchinson (illus.) 003
Displacement Pumps for. IP) Ham-eaves and Hudson
(illus.) sol
Estimation of Organic Substances in the. ( Arcbarow. I . . . 464
Method of Producing, in a Luminous State, (P) Duffy... 619
PAGE
Air— cont.
Obtaining Oxygen and Nitrogen from the. (P) Brier 838
-Pumps. Mercurial. (P) Thompson. From Raps 60
Purification of. ( P) Oades 233
Purification of. ( P) Purcell and Pureel 1025
Separating Oxygen from. (P) Parkinson 1031
Supplying Heated, to Furnaces. (P) Hawksley 996
The Impurities of Town. ( Bailey) 769
Utilised Heated, in Drying Apparatus. (P) Leydeeker . . . 509
Airelle-myrtille a Tielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Albizzia Amara. ( Rideal) 404
Albumen, Optical Determination of, in Urine. (F.llinger) .... 184
Researches on Ash-free (Harnack) 453
Alcohol, a Ferment Producing Amyl. from starch. (Perdrix). 609
Condensation Products of Ally I. with Methylated Benzenes.
( Kraemer and Spilker) 22
Diatilling and Rectifying. (P) Perrier s32
Occurrence of Octylic. in Distilled Wool Fat. (Hannau) . 535
Of Antipyrine, An. (Briihl) 632
1'se of Hydrofluoric Acid audits Salts in Distillation of.
(SchishkolT) 627
Volatilisation of, during Fermentation. (Riss) 627
Alcohols, Method of Analysing. (P) de Pass. From Gossart . 712
Of Fusel Oil, The. (Sohupphaus) s;;i
Alcorncque a Tielder of Tannin. iMafat) 621
Aldehyde in " Kau-de-Vie de Piquette." (Muller) 256
Obtaining the Two Isomeric Monomethylethers of Proto-
catechuic. (P) Bertram 58
The Antiseptic Properties of Formic. (Trillat) 772
Aldehydes, Reaction of Sodium Nitroprusside with, (von Bitto) 846
Alder a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Ale. Manufacture of. (P) Just ice. From Billinirs 628
Manufacture of. (Pi Thompson. From Lawton 628,629
Mashing and Brewing. ( P) Barton 833
Alrjurobillu, a Tielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Algeria, The Phosphates of 760
Alizarin and its Analogues, Production of New Derivatives of
(P) Farl>. vorm. Bayer ,v Co 1000
Blue, Production cf Colouring Matters derived from. (P)
Willcox. From The Farb. vorm. Bayer & Co 514
Blue, Production- of Colouring Matfr rs from. (P) Iurray.
From The Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius and Bruning. . 29
Colours, Manufacture of. (Pi Schaeffer 237
Colours, Reduction in Shade of Dyed. (Schnabel) 602
Dyes, The Discharge of. (Schnabel) 811
Lakes. Application of, for Colouring Candles. (Ulrica) ... 44
Preparing Amido-. (Lauth) 236
Yellow, 2 G and R, Note on Application of. (Werner) .... 599
Alizarine, Dyeing Silk by Means of. (P) linray. From the
Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning 515
Alkali Aluminates, Manufacture of. ( P) Fleischer 522
Co.. Lim., Action of the United. (T.R.) 284
In the United States, British. (T.R.) 189
Manufacture of. (P) Haddock and Leith 43S
Manufacture of. (P) Mills 433
Manufacture of, ,\c. (P) Lake. From the Kavser Patent
Co 36
Production of Caustic, and Chlorine. { P) Lyte 686
Production of Caustic. 4e. ( I') Eichstadt 37
Separation of, from the Undecomposed Electrolyte. (P)
Kellner 755
Waste, Manufacture of Portland Cemeut from. (Spack-
nian ) -197
Works Act Amendment Bill. .Meetings to consider the 470
Works Regulation Act, Hill to Amend the. (T.R.) ,;sj
Works, The Chief Inspector's Annual Report on 681
Alkalimetry, Potassium Hydrogen-tartrate as a Starting Point
for. (Borntrager) 77g
Alkaline Cyanides, Production of. (P) de Lambilly 604
Alkalis. (Class VII.) .34,161 237, 346, 432, 521, 603, 681, 746,814, 0ll6,
10114.
Apparatus for Production of, by Electrolysis. (P) Kellner 755
Production of Monocarbonates of the. (P) Gossage 907
Alkaloid from Javanese Coca Leaves, A New. (Giesel) 177
Alkaloids. (Class XX.) 67, 170, 261, 365, 453,544,631, 705,771,835.935,
1026.
Ammonium Sulpho-Selenite a Test for. (daSilva) 182
In Cinchona Bark, Determination of the Total. (Hauben-
Mi<-k) 779
Of Belladonna Extract, (van Itallie) 632
Dec. 31.1892.J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
XX111
PAGE
Alkaloids— con £.
Of Belladonna. The Secondary. (Merck) CS2
Of certain of the Solanacew, The. t Hesse i D36
Of the Areca-Nut. (Jahns) 57
Of the Solanacece. (Schiitte) 263
Of True Aconilwn Napellus, The, (Dunstan and Um-
ney) 866
Sulphonic Acids of some of the Cinchona. (Hesse) 17<>
Allooinnamic Acid, Formation of, from Phenylpropiolie *Acid.
(Liebermann and Schraolz) c;r
Alloy, Coating Articles with a New Metallic. (P) The London
Metallurgical Co., and Cowper-Coles G18
Metallic, for Articles subjected bo great Heat (P) Pinkuey 754
Production of an. (P) Cooke flit.")
Alloys and Compositions for Covering Surfaces. (P) Day 691
Bearing-Metal. (Dudley) 440
Copper. (P) Huntington and Prestige 92*2
Improved Metallic, (P) Alzugaray 615
Improvements in Metallic. ( P) Thompson. From -Miles
and others 822
Manufacture of Ferro-Bronze and other. (P) Bott 693
Manufacturing Nickel, (P) Mond 613
Melting Points of the Gold-Aluminium Series of. I Roberts
Austen) :H9
Miorographio Analysis of. (Guillemia) 77 1
New Metallic. ( Pi Pearson and Pratt 533
Xew Metallic. ( V) Pratt 822
Of Copper, Treating, to Prevent Oxidation and Deoxidation
during Heating and Annealing. (P) Lake. From
Cummins 753
Of Nickel andt'oppi-r. Nickel and Iron, and Nickel, Copper
and Iron. I P) .Martins 822
Of Nickel ami Iron. ( Wedding) 526
On Certain Aluminium. (Alder Wright ) 492
On Certain Ternary. (Alder Wright, Thompson, and
Leon) 245
On Certain Terna ry. Part VI. (Alder Wright) 693
Of Sodium, some Well-defined. (Joannis) 641
I'se of Aluminium. (P) Pickhardt 508
Almaden Quicksilver Mines, The 753
Almond a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Alpha-naphtho-quinone-dichloriniide, Manufacture of Basic
DyestulTs from. (P) Johnson. From the Badische
Anilin und Soda Fabrik 599
Aloes as Yielder., of Tannins. ( Mafat) 621
Alum in Potable "Water, a Delicate Test for. (Richards) 60
Alumina , Manufacture of. Thompson. From Bradburn and
Pennock 37
Manufacture of Sulphate of. (P) Kynaston 161
Purification of Waste Water by 938
Recovery of, in Manufacture of Aluniinates of Soda and
Potash. (Pj Clans 815
Aluminates, Manufacture of Alkali, ( P ) Fleischer 522
Aluminium, Action of Beer on. (Robert) $30
Action of Certain Liquids on. (Lunge) 543
Action of. on Cyanide of Mercury. (Varet) 713
Action of Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid on. (Le Roy) . . 166
Action of Sulphuric and Nitric Acids on. iLeRoy) ;»18
Alloying, with other Metals. (P) Adderbrooke. . , 753
Alloys, on Certain. (Alder Wright I 492
And Alloys thereof, Use of. (P) Pickhardt 508
And Beer 760
And Iron, Determination of, in Presence of Phosphoric
Acid. ( Krug) 036
Chloride, Fusing Point and Crystalline Form of. (Seubert
and Pollard) 34
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in Presence of. (John-
son and Osborne) 777
Determination of Value of Commercial. (Sehweiz) 548
Direct Determination of, in Iron and Steel. (Drown and
McKcunaJ 26S
Durability of. ( Winkler) 244
Electric Reduction of. (P) Willson 354
Electrolytic Production of. < P) Grabau 617
Estimation of, in Ferro-Alnminmra. (Donath) 159
Extraction of Hydrate or Salts of, from Silicates or Clay.
(P) Meyer 7 17
Factory, The Neuhausen. (Wedding) (illus.) 910
Iu Cast Iron, Caloriuietrical Investigations on, (Osmcnd) 242
Light. ( Villon) 545
Manufacture and Industrial Value of. (Dagger) 124
Manufacture and Uses of, from an Engineering Standpoint.
(Hunt) 762
Solder for Joining. ( P) Wegner 013
Specific Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion of. (Pionehon). . 752
Sulphate 52
Sulphate, Bleaching, and Purifying. (P) Imray. From La
Soc. Anon, des Anciennes Salines Domaniales de L'Est 36
The Production cf. (T.R.I 69
The Specific Heat of. (Richards) 140
The Uses and Applications of. (Addenbrooke) 608
United States Production of. (T.R.) 74
Use of, for Vessels containing Foods. ( Rupp) 172
Ahunino-ferric Process of Sewage]Treatment, The. (Sissonjun.) 321
Sewage Process (Grimshaw) 6
Amalgam for Filling Teeth (P) Juterbock 353
Amalgams, Electrolytic Determination of Metals as. (Gibbs). 547
America, Cryolite Production in. (T.R.) c,9
American Institute, &c £55
PAGE
Amt'thylcamphonitroketone. (Cazeneuve) 900
The Tinctorial Properties of. (Cazeneuve) 900
Amido-alizarin. New Method of Preparing. (Lauthl 236
Compounds, Employing Aromatic, in Photography. (P)
Haul! 1032
Compounds. Use of Aromatic, as Developers. (P) Hauff , . 937
Amidol and Metol 634
Amidoinethyiphenylpyrazolone and a Derivative thereof,
Manufacture of. (P) Imray. From The Farb. vorm.
Meister, Lucius, and limning 545
AmidonaphtholsuTpho Acids, Production of. (P) Pitt. From
Cassella and Co 3-15
Manufacture of Colouring Matters from. (P) Pitt. From
' !assella and Co 741
Oxidation Compounds of. (Rcverdin anddela Harpe).,.. 997
Amidophenylinduline. Action of Aniline upon. (Fischer and
Hepp) 157
Decomposition of, with Acids. (Fischer and Hepp) 157
Amines, The Condensation of Meldola's Blue with Aromatic
and Fatty. (Schlarb) 25
Ammonia, Action of, on Solubility of Ammonium Chloride.
(Engel ] 238
And Mineral Oil, Manufacture of. (P) Young 900
And Tar, Manufacture of. (P) Thompson. From Kuntze 511
Apparatus for Extracting, from Gas ( P) Lister 511
Apparatus for Extraction of. (P) Wells 747
Apparatus for Manufacture of Sulphate of. (P) Dempster 238
Apparatus for Manufacture of Sulphate of. ( Pi Marriott . 238
Comparative Prices of Sulphate of. and Nitrate of Soda.
(T.R.) 378
« lomposition of Commercial Liquid, (von Strombeck) 736
Distillation Flask for Estimation of, in Waters. (Coleman) 327
Gas Compressors, Use of Oil in. ( ^ on Strombeck) 733
In Rain water and in the Atmosphere. (Muntz) 551
Iu Water, Estimation of. (Lowe) 133
Manufacture of Nitrate or Chloride of, &c. (P) Brunner
and Zanner 37
Manufacture of Strong Liquid. (Von Strombeck) 236
Manufacture of Sulphate of. ( P) Malster 908
Mineralising Acti iu of Sulphate of. (Klobb) 781
Production of I Ira ting Gas and. (Hennin) 734
Product on of Sulphate of, in the United Kingdom 682
Solution, Presence of Lead in. (Lowe) 133
Statistics Respecting Sulphate of. (T.R.) 08
Tar and Heating Gas, Simultaneous Production of.
(Hennin) *. 233
Ammonia;, On the Testing of Liquor. (Hertkorn) 457
Ammoniacal Liquors, Vertical Stills for. (Pi Wright 894
Ammonium Chloride, Action of Ammonia on Solubility of.
( Engel ) 238
Chloride, Action of, iu Silicates. (Schneider and Clarke) . 709
Salts, Manufacture of. (Muhlhauser) (illus.) H7«
Sulpho-Selenite a Test for Alkaloids, (da Silva) 182
Ammunition, Manufacture of. (P) Abel and Dewar 709
Amylaceous Substances, Converting, into Soluble Products. (P)
Thompson, from Iierge 448
Amyloid, Vegetable. ( Wintcrsteiu) 763
Amyloins, A Contribution to the Study of the. (Morris and
Wells) 764
Anaesthetic, An Improved. (P) Von Mering 708
Analysing Columns. ( P) Berly 803
Analysis of Sim >w. 1 1 'artcr Bell ) 320
Analytical and Scientific Xotes 64,1*4, 274,465,551. 640,713
779. 849, 946, 1039
Apparatus . . 60, 181, 267, 370, 457, 517, 635, 709, 774, 840, 939, 1033
Andira,A Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) 621
Andromeda. A Yielder of Tannin. I M alat) 621
Anilines, A Colour Reaction of Acid. (Tafel) 461
Aniline, Action of, upon Am idophenylindu lines. (Fischer and
Hepp ) 157
Black. (Weber) 987
Black. Effecting the Oxidation of, in the Process of Dyeing.
(P) Schnurch 813
Black, Grawitz', Recent Improvements in. (Schmidt) ... 519
Dyeing and Printing Textile Fibreswitb. (P) Grawitz... 813
Lakes for Manufacture of India-Rubber Cloth. (P)
Frankenburg 829
Lakes, M anufacturc of. ( P) Frankenburg 808
Aniaolines, A Class of New DyestulTs. (Monnet) 677
Manufacture of. (P) Monner 516
Annealing, A Non-oxidising Process of. (Jones) 608
Annidaline. (Trillat) 1028
Annual Dinner, The 581
Meeting, Proceedings of the Eleventh 569
Anogeissus LatifoUa. (Rideal) 404
Anthracene, Manufacture of DyestulTs Derived from. (P)
Willeox. From the Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co 29
Anthracite Black, Application of. (von Perger) 31
Anthrapurpurine, Dyeing Silk by Means of. (P) Imray. From
the Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius, und Bi lining 515
Anthraquinone and Alizarin Blue. Production of Colouring
Matters derived from. (P) Willcox. From the Farb.
vorm. Baver and Co 514
Colouring Matters derived from. (P) Willcox. From the
Pari i. vorm. F, Bayer ami Co 740
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Antbraquinone— cant.
Manufacture of Colouring Matters Derived from. (P)
Willcox. From the Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co 513
Manufacture of Dyes tuffs Derived from. (P) Willcox.
From the Farb.* vorm. F. Bayer and Co 29
Antifebrin. (Trillal) 1029
Antimony and Copper, Simultaneous lElectrolytic Deposition
of. ( Hampe) 695
Arsenic and Tin, the Separation of. (Clark) 461
Influence of, on Ductility, Strength, and Conductivity of
Copper. (Hampe) 1014
Ores, Analysis of. (Carnot ) 636
Ores, New Method for Assay of. (Carnot) 941
Pentasulphide of. ( Willm) 75s
Separation of, from its Ores. (P) Warwick 533
Smelting, The English Process of. (Rodger) 16
Solution of Chloride of, in Saturated Solutions of Sodium
* blonde. I ( :iusse) COO
Statistics Respecting (T.R.) 81
Antipvrin. (Trillat) 1030
A Direct Method of Preparing, t Michael) 838
An Alcohol of. (Bruhl) 632
A Nitro-Derivativeof, (Jandrier.) 706
Relation of 8-methvlamido-crotonanilide to. (Knorr and
Taufkirch) 706
Sulphonic Acids. ( 51 Sllcnhoff) 836
Antiseptic, A Soluble Naphthol. ( Stackler) 772
Properties of Formic Aldehyde. (Trillat) 772
Antiseptics, Apparatus for ITse of Liquid. (P) Herschev 631
Behaviour of, towards Salivary Digestion. Weber) 834
Etc., from Coal Tar or Aromatic Oils. (Trillat) 1027
Soluble Quinoline. (P) Lembach and others 452
Apatite. (Wills) 698
Apatites, Occurrence of Fluorine in. (Carnot) 759
Apparatus (Class I.) 20, 147,230, 337, 421, 507, 595, C67, 733, So*, 894,992
For Heating Liquids and Generating Vapour. (P)
Watkinson 337
Apples, The Lixiviation of, in Cider-making. (Jay) 1019
Appliances for Use with Incandescence Lamps. (P) Heald... 735
Apricot a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Arabinose, Distinction of, from Xylose. (Bertram!) 1035
The Fermentation of. (Frankland and MacGregor) 627
Axbousier a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Arc Light Carbons, Increasing the Life and Efficiency of. (P)
"Garland 43
Areca-nut, The Alkaloids of the. (Jahns) 57
Argentina, Drug Exports from. (T.R.) 467
New Customs Tariff of. (T.R.) 190
Argentine. (Harpf ) 55
Republic, Drug Imports into the. (T. R.) 467
Aristol. (Trillat) 1028
Aristolocbia a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Armoise a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Arnica a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Aromatic Octohydro-a-naphthoquinoline. (Bamberger and
Stettenheimer) 24
Arsenic, Antimony, and Tin, Separation of. (Clark) 461
Influence of, on Ductility, Strength, and Conductivity of
Copper. (Hampe) 1014
Quantitative Determination of. ( Sanger) 370
The Role of, in Tanning. (Sadlon) 171
Artichoke a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 621
Articles of Interest to Technologists. (T.R.) 69, 190, 651, 720, 787, 951
Asaprol. (Bang) 837
Asbestos, Plates of, for Roofing Purposes. ( P) Graf 242
Porcelain. ( Garros) 162
Aseptol. (Trillat) 1028
Ash a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Ashe Country, N.C., The Magnetic Ores,of. (Nitze) 246
Asphalte, Artificial. ( Valenta) 170
Mastic, Means of Securing as a Coating on Building
Materials. ( P) Haarman 819
Assay, On the Preparation of Samples of Rich Argentiferous
Lead for. (Pattinson) 321
Or Chemical Balances. (P) Betting 635
The Cornish. (T.K.) 470
Ton, Use of the. (Lowe) 1SS
Assays, Employment of Cadmium in Gold Bullion, (Whitehead) 45S
Asphaltum, Manufacture of. (P) Dubbs 512
Atmosphere, Ammonia in the. (Muntz) 551
Gravimetric Method for Ascertaining the Composition of.
(I.educ) 270
Atropine and Hyoscyamine. (Schutte) 453
Nitro-. (Einhorn and Fischer) 706
Australia, Natural Coke in 510
Austria-Hungary, Steel-making in, (Brisson) 609
Austria, Mineral and Metallurgical Output of. in 1891. (T.R.) 853
The Paper Industry of Lower 1 75
Aya-pana a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Azine Green, Application of. (von Perger) 30
Azo-Colours and Azo-Dyes. See Colouring Matters.
Azolitmin Paper. (Dietal) 635
Azomum-Bases. (Witt and Schmidt) 901
B
PAGE
Bacillus efhaceticus, Fermentation of Arabinose by. (Frank
land and MacGregor) 627
Bacteria and Fermentation-Yeasts— The " Ginger-Beer " Plant.
( Marshall Ward) 255
Bahamas, Fertilisers in [the. (T.R.) 1042
Baking Powders. Making up cr Packing. (P) Clot worthy.... 259
Baku, The Petroleum Industry at. (T.R.) 1043
Balance, Betting's. (Grosscurth and Luboldt) 215
Balances, Analytical and other Delicate. (P) Bidder 1035
Assay or Chemical. (P) Betting 635
Baltimore Meeting of American Institute of Mining Engineers
233, 246, 255
Bamboo a Yielder of Tannin."* (Mafat 622
Bancoul a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Bank Notes, Paper for. ( P) Schlumberger 935
Barium chloride, Manufacture of. ( P) D'Andria 36
Manufacture of Carbonate of. (P) Brock and Marsh 1005
Manufacture of Peroxide of. (P) Brochocki 707
Preparation of Anhydrous Oxide of. (P) Briu's Oxygen
Co. and Murray 936
Quantitative Separation of, from Calcium. (Browning) .. 777
Barks, Analysis of New Cinchona. ( Howard) 837
Biryta- Water. Explosive Compound formed by Action of, on
Chromic Acid. (Pochard) ISO
Barry Sewage Process. (Grimshaw) 6
Bars and Hoops, Galvanising Iron and Steel. (P) Jones 612
Bases, Action of Alkaline, on Solubility of Salts of the Alkalis
(Engel) 237
Applicable for the Production of Substantive Cotton Dyes.
(T) Abel. From Durand, Hnguenin, & Co 809
Determining Number of NH2 Groups in Certain Organic.
iMcldolaand Hawkins) 640
Production of New, and of Azn-Colouring Matters there-
from. (P) Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller Lim., and. A,
G. Green 513
Production of Alkaline or Earthy Alkaline, by Electro-
Ivsis. (P) Hermite and Duboscq 1015
Schiff 's. ( Miller and Plocbl) 901
Basic Furnace Lining and Basic Material. (P) Alzugaray.... 922
Open Hearth Furnace, the " Ore Process" in the, (Leo) 343
Bath, A Porcelain Water. ( Dittmar) isi
Batteries, Various : —
Accumulators, Electric. (P) Lake. From La. Soc. dito
Electriciteits-Maatscbappij 755
Accumulators, Improvements in Electric. (P) Lauber ... 43
Accumulators, Purification of Sulphuric Acid for. ( Kugel) 826
Accumulating or Storage. (P) Thompson. From Correns 535
Accumulators or Secondary. (P) Hauser 249
Accumulators or Storage. (P) Etiesou 354
Accumulators or Storage. (P) Thompson. From Edgerton 249
Apparatus for Supplying Depolarising Liquids to a Series
of. (P) Jeanty 617
Automatic Regulating Apparatus for. (P) Johnson.
From Gendrou 354
Construction of Secondary. (P) Lee 827
Dry Galvanic. (P) Lesenberg and von dor Poppenburg . . 927
Electric. ( P) Harris and Power 354
Electric. (P) Scheithauer 248
Electric or Galvanic. (P) Lamb 249
Electric Primary. (P) Rawlins and Walker 43
Galvanic. (P) Cohen 755
Galvanic. ( P) Haddan. From Cabanyes 354
Galvanic. ( P) Manns and Smith -j is
Galvanic. ( P) Marcus, Fatz, and Grebner 354
Galvanic. (P) Nunan and Nelson 101.6
Galvanic. (P) Poudroux 246
Galvanic, for Producing Constant Currents. (P) Wensky, 248
Improved Galvanic. (P) Fischer. From Thompson 44
Improvement in Galvanic. (P) Engledue 617
Improvements in Electric. IP) Bull 826
Improvements in Galvanic, (PJ De Meritens .13
Improvements in Galvanic. (PJ Hardingham. From
Hard and Connett 618
Improvements in Galvanic. (P) Souther 616
Improvements in Secondary. (P) Goward 43, 43
Improvements in Secondary. (P) Lake. From Sleicher
and Mosher 618
Improvements in Voltaic. ( P) Jabloclikoff 617
Portable Galvanic. (P) Stiens 927
Primary. ( P) Maquay 248
Primary Voltaic. ( P) Weymersch 755
Secondary. (P) Colgate 927
Secondary. (P) Entzand Phillips 354
Secondary. (P) Kennedy and Diss 920,927
Secondary. (P) Lake. From Roberts 249
Secondary. (P) Main 1016
Secondary. ( Robertson) 168
Secondary. (P) Waddell and others 249
Secondary or Stoi-age. (PJ Weymersch 755
Storage. ( P) Usher 927
Thermo- Electric. ( P) Giraud 617
Dec. 31, 1802,]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
XXV
PAGE
Battery Cells, Plates, Elements, Solutions. &e.:—
Cell or Jur for Galvanic Batteries. (I') Hirsch 1016
Study of the Plante" Lead-Sulpnuric Acid-Lead Per-
oxide. Part 1. (Robertson). Com. by Armstrong . 695
Cells for Electrical or Storage Batteries, (I') Bush and
Doubleday 445
For Electrolysing Chloride Solutions, (P) Johnson.
From Parker and Robinson 765
Manufacture of Leclanchc. ( P ) Rvlands 169
Or Batteries, Electric, <P) Easier and Milbiim 248
Voltaic. (Pj Lake. Prom Clark 250
Voltaic. (P) Lake Prom Weston 145
Depolarising Liquid for Galvanic, (P) Srhlesinger 1015
Elcrtrodes for Electric Accumulators. f P) Thompson.
From Tudor .354
Pi .r Secondary Batteries. (P) Morrison 927
Of Large Dimensions, (.'onstruetion of. (P) Kerckhove 1015
Electrolytes containing Zinc, Purifying. <P) Nahnsen ... 535
Element for Bleotric Pnrposea, New Dry. (P) Birkbeck.
From Henrichsen 248
Elements for Secondary Batteries. (P) The Mining and
Gen. Electric Lamp Co., and Niblett s26
Negative, of Voltaic Batteries. (P) Fitzgerald ... 016,016
Exciting Fluid for Zinc Carbon Galvanic Batteries. (P)
Muthel 618
Fluid for Galvanic Batteries. (P) Entrieduc 248
For Primary Batteries. (P) Leigh. From Gardiner . 240
Insulating Material, Manufacture of Hard. (P) Pape.... 249
Liquid for Galvanic Batteries, Depolarising. (P)
Sehlesinger 1015
Plates for Batteries, and Material therefor. (P) Lake.
From Street and Desruelles 249
For Electric Accumulators. (P) Rousseau 617
For Electric Batteries. (P) Usher 927
Lead, for Secondary Batteries. (P) Davies 2i8
Manufacture of Porous or Spongy, for Secondary
Batteries. (P) Williams and Howell 247
Or Elements for Secondary Batteries. (P) Currie. ... 44
Porous Carbon for Batteries, f P) Hellescn 1016
Treating Spent Fluids of Zinc Carbon Galvanic Batteries.
( P) Muthel 618
Bauhinia a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafal ) 681
Retusa. (Rideal) 404
Va riegata. ( Rideal) 404
Beech a Yielder of Tannin. (Ma fat) 623
Bearberry a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Bearing-Metal Alloys. (Dudley) 440
Beer, Action of. on Aluminuim. (Kobcrt) 830f 830
Ale. Wine, and Cider, Manufacture of. (P) Thompson,-
from Lawtan 628, 629
And Ale. Manufacture of. (P) Justice, From Billings ... 628
And Aluminium 766
And Porter, Manufacture of, (P) Hillyard and Dugdale. . 1022
And wort. ( Amthor) 707
Apparatus for Brewing. (P) White and Lee 70o
Apparatus for Cooling and attemperating. (P) Prior 1023
Apparatus for Filtering. (P) Gehrko 833
Apparatus for Manufacturing. ( P) Denamur 700
Carbonating. (P) The Universal < 'arbonating Co 932
Choline as a Constituent of. (Kjeldahl) 184
Filtering. ( P) Sutton 1022
Finishing. (P) Witteman 932
Impregnating, with Carbonic Acid. (Pj Mills. From The
Universal I arbonnt inu Co 833
Improving the Quality and Colour of. IP) Johnson and
de Cock 700
Iso-maltose in. (Lintner) 171
Manufacture of. (P) Boult. From The Pfa-udler Vacuum
Fermentation Co 629, 629
Manufacture of. (P) Roche 1022
Mashing and Brewing. (P) Barton 833
Presence of Invertase in. (Donath) 543
Process and Apparatus for Brewing. ( P) Quertain and
Becker 449
Spraying Devices for Cooling. (P) Hanford 833
Beers and Malt Extracts. Estimation of Intensity of Colour of.
( Lintner) (illus.) .* 1038
Brewed in Portugal. (Mastbaum and Diekmann) 706
Beeswax, Bibliography of, Arranged Chronologically 750
Bibliography of Waxes used in Adulterating 757
Beet Juice, Detection of Protein Substances in. (Bruck) 830
Sugar Industry of Spain. (T.R.) 647
Sugar in Russia, Production of. (T.R.) ii'j
Beet-root Sugar Industry, Recent Inventions in the. (Von
Lippmann ) 541
J uice, Organic Acids from. (Von Lippmann ) 50
Sugar Products, Production of Raffinose in. (Herzfeld) . . 541
" Behen Rouge" a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Belgium, Coal and Iron Industries of. (T.R.) 69
Plate Glass Manufacture in. (T.R.) 720
Belladonna Extract, Alkaloids of. (Van Itallie) 632
The Secondary Alkaloids of. (Merck) 632
Belting, An Elastic Fabric suitable for. (P) Temmel 759
Dressing fcr. (P) Keuyon 1017
Bennet a Yielder of Tann in. (Mafat) 621
Benzaldehyde, Manufacture of Meta-, Amido-, and Salts thereof.
(P) Imray. From The Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius,
und Bruning 633
PAGE
Benzene. On the Reduction of Benzene-hexacliloride with
Regeneration of. (Meuuier) 599
Benzenes, Condensation Products of Allyl Alcohol with
Methylated. ( Kraemer and Spilker) 22
Benzidine and its Analogues, Colouring Matters derived from.
(P) Willcox. From the Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co. 516
Benzindulines. (Fischer and Hepp) 156
Benzoic Acid. (Trillat) 1029
Acid, Action of, on Turpentine. (Bouchardat and Lafont) 262
Acid, Conversion of Gallic and Tannic Acids into.
(Guignet ) 261
Benzonaphthol. (Yvonand Berlioz) 264
Benzosol. (Trillat) 1029
Benzoylamidophenylacetiu Acid. (Trillat) 1030
Benzolnaphthol. (Trillat) 1029
Benzoyl-pseudo-tropeine. (Hesse) in-27
Benzyl Chloride, Action of, on Meta-xylidine. ( Jablen-Gonnet) 23*1
Bergamot and Lavender, The Oils of. (Bertram and Wal-
baum ) 838
Berlin, Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 280
The Chemical Industry of. (T.R.) 283
Berne, Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 282
Bessemer Process, The Basic, Applied to the Metallurgy of
Lead 527
Betol, naphthol. (Trillat) 1029
Betting's Balance. (Grosseurbh and Luboldt) 215
Beverages Charged with Carbonic Acid, Manufacture of. (P)
K< >nig 51
Bibliography of Bees' Wax, arranged Chronologically 750
Bicarbonates, A Rapid Test for Alkaline. (Patein) 843
United States Production of. (T.R.) 75
Bignonia a Y'ielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Birch a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Biscuits, Manufacture of Malr. (P) Crawford 630
Bismuth, Basic Salicylate of. (Gansse) 262
Production of Basic Gallate of. (P) Imray. From the
Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning*. 369
Solution of Chloride of. (Gansse) 262
Bistort a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Bisulphite Process : Boiler Tests 452
Black, Effecting the Oxidation of Aniline, during Dyeing. (P)
Scnnurch 813
Blacking, Manufacture of. (P) Ragon 620
" Blacks," Method of Treating. (P) Williams 52 1
Blast Furnace Linings. ( P) Johnson. From Gayly 353
Furnace Linings. (P) King. From Gayly 352
Bleaching. (Class VI.).. 30, 158, 237,345, 428,519,600,680,744,811
:<04, 1002
Agents, Electro-Chemical Production of. (P) Kellner .... 755
Apparatus for. ( P) Marx 353
Application of Sodium Peroxide in. (Prud'homme) 1003
Compound. (P) Thompson. From Brittingham 746
Materials, Manufacture of. (P) Rees and Blackham 704
-Powder, Apparatus for Manufacture of. (P) Milnes 907
-Powder, Process and Apparatus for Production of. (P)
(Kellner) 239
Production of Chlorine Compounds for. (P) de Dienheim-
Brochocki 813
Solution or Powder, Apparatus for Preparing, by Electro-
lysis. (P) Lever 219
Block, A Metallic, for Use in Production of Hydrogen. (P)
Hawkins and Fuller 823
Blocks, Preparation of Concrete, for Building Purposes.
(Trobach and Huppertsburg) 818
Utilisation of Slag for Manufacture of. (P) Arnold 819
Blood, Absorption of Carbon Monoxide by. (Grehant) 704
-Forming Substance and Production of Same. (P) Kobcrt !t:J3
Blotting Composition for Liquids. (P) Biirkel and Osterwald. 176
"Blown" Oils. (Thomson and Ballantyne) 506
Blue DyestufFs, Manufacture of. (P) Hewitt. From Cassella
& Co 740
Blue-Green Colouring MaUer from Alizarin-Blue. (P) Imray.
from The Farb. vorm. Meister, Lacius and Bruning.., 29
Blue, Manufacture of. ( P ) Rees and Blackham 704
Moulding Laundry. (P) Knowles 45
Board of Trade Returns 81, 100, 2.86, 382, 473, 555, 651, 722, 789,
855, 951, 1045
Bohemia, Mirror and Plate Glass in. (T.R.) 720
Boiler Tests : Bisulphite Process 452
Boilers, Production of the Spheroidal State in. ( Witz) 667
Boiling Point of a Solution of Glauber's Salt, Note on Observa-
tion by Gerlach of the. (Sakurai) 551
Preventing Tumultuous. (Pieszozek) 181
" Bois de fer " a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
" Bois de natte " a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
" Bois doux " a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) 621
Bois jauune a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 621
Bone Beds. (Wills) 698
Bones, Utilisation of, in Brazil. (T.R.) 714
Book Post Rules, Alterations in. (T.R.) 69
XXVI
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31,1892.
PAGE
Books, New. See Special Index.
Soraginece, Active Principle of the. (SchlagdenbautTen and
Reeb) 632
Borates, the Metallic. (Lc Chatelier) 603
Borax, The History of, in the United States. (T.R.) 787
" Bordeaux Mixture " for Vine and Potato Disease. £ (Perret) . . 364
Boric Acid, Action of, on Germination. (Morel) ~M~
Acid and Borax Industry, The. (Scheuer) 683
Acid. Determination of Small Quantities of. (Parntentier) 182
Acid, Increased Cmisnniption'of. in Prance. (T.R.) 'Jst
Acid in Wines. (Gassend) 7<i7
Borneo, Production of India-Rubber in 758
Boron Sulphate Compounds, Production and Application of
Bauer and Gviket ta (Pi 930
Bottle Shells, Cellulose fur. ( T.R.) 715
Box a Yielder cf Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Bran, Products obtained by the Dry Distillation of, with Lime.
(Laycock and Klingemannj 599
Brandy, Determination of Extractive Matters in 638
Brazil, New Industries in. (T.R.) 714
The Sulphuric Acid Trade in. (T.R.) 7*4
Bread, Manufacture of Malt. (P) Crawford 030
Brewers' Refuse and Grains, Drying and Calcining. P. Bar-
low 932
Brewing, Improvements in. I'P) limbeck 628
"Wines, Spirits, &c 50,171, 255. 363. 41'.'. 543, 626,699,
763, 830, 931, 1010
Briars as Yielders of Tannin. (Mafat) 621
Bricks, Composition for Manufacture of. (P) Ken- 523
Construction of. (P) Borrger 688
Fire-Resisting. (Pi Thdmps n 437
Machines for Making. (P) .(iff cries 606
Manufacture of Enamelled. (P) Leigh. From Rue sin
Manufacture of, from " Purple ore." < P) Bird 694
Manufacturing Glass. (P) Fitz Patrick. From Schreiber
and Oettingnr 605
Refractory, of Magnesia and Chrome Iron Ore. (Leo) .... 106
Brickwork, Treatment of, to prevent Deterioration. (P) Aitkin 606
Brimstone and Pyrites, Comparative Value of, for Manufacture
of Sulphuric Acid'in the "United States. (Keiley) 814
United States Prodetion of. (T. I ' . I 75
Brine, Manufacture of Salt from. ( P) Lambert. From Pick . . 433
Purification of. (P) Collins 004
Briquettes of Purple Ore." (P) Eskuchenand Haarmann G95
British India, I 'induction of Sugar in. (T.R.) 469
Bromine, Detection of, in Presence of Iodine. (Muenair) 777
New Direc Separation of. ( Jannasch and Aschotf ) S45
United States Production of. (T.R.) 74
Bronze. Manufacture of Ingots, Rods, &c. from. I Pj Berg 1013
Paint, Manufacture of. (P) Cutler 829
Bridle's Reaction for Seed Oils. (Hoide) 272, 037
Brussels, Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 289
Buchanania Latifolia. ( Rideal) 404
Budica Bucera, A Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Building Material, Manufacture of a Resistible. 0?) Hart-
raann 520
Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements. . . :w. n;:;. *j u. 435. 524.
606, G88, 749,818, 908, 1007
Stones of Great Britain, The. ( Beare) 1011
Bullion, Parting. (Gutzkow) (illus.) 530
Buranhem, A Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) 621
Burma, Petroleum in Upper. (T.R.) 950
Burners, Hydrocarbon Oil. (Pi Townsend 597
Butter, Apparatus for Manufacture of. (P) Rolland and
Francois 932
Dejection of Foreign Fats in, (P) Johnstone 1039
Determination of Watery Constituents in. (Thorner)
( illus. ) 63
Industry under United States Patents, The Artificial.
(Stavek) (illus,) 355
Legislation on Artificial, in France. (T.R.) 69
Manufacture of. (P) Duncan 834
Note on Optical and Chemical Analysis of. (Jean) 945
Producing Sterilised, i l'i Muller S34
Butylchloral, Condensation of, with Paraldehyde and Ketones.
( Komgs) 640
Butyloluene- and Butylxlene sulphonic Acids, Nitration of.
( Noelting) 707
Bye-laws, Discussion on Manchester Building 215
Cacoic Acid, /3-. (Hesse) 1027
Cadmium, Employment of, in Gold Bullion Assays. (White-
head) . . . ." 458
Caffeine and Coffee Distillates and their Physiological Effects.
(Heerlein) 834
Cages for Oil Presses. (P) Estrayer 446
Of Hydro-Extractors. (P) Collins and Kaye 895
PAGE
Cakes for Cattle Feeding. (P) Bibby 708
Calcium and Strontium, Difference in Solubility of the Chro-
mates of. (Fresenius and Ruppert) 77n
Chloride in the Wcldon I'mcr-ss. Part I'layed by. (Lunge) $82
Interaction of Ferrous Sulphate with Phosphates of.
(Cazencuv.' and Nieolle) 1018
Phosphate. Volumetric Determination of. (Coleman and
Gransrer I 323
Phosphates, Formation and Behaviour of Basic ; and their
Relation to Thomas Slag. ( Foester) 460
Quantitative Separation'of, from Barium. (Browning) ... 777
Tungstate, Discovery of, in Canada. (T.R.) 190
Calico and "Wool Printing, Orange in 158
Machine for Printing. (P) Buckley 160
Printin*. LClass VI.] . . 30, 15s, 237, 3 to, 428, 510, 000, tisu, 74 1,
811,91)4,1002
Calicoes and other Fabrics. Printing. (P) Hulinc (illus.) .... lt!Q
California, Orchilla in Lower. ( T.R) 714
Production of Quicksilver in. ( T.R.) ISO
Camphor, Production of. (P) Horn. From De Mare and
Dambmaun 58
Trade of Formosa. ( T.R.) 645
Trade of Japan, The. (T.R.) 948
Camphosulphophenols, A Nitro-Hetone Derived from. (Cazo-
neuve) 512
Camphrone. (Armstrong and Kipping) 57
Canada, Coffee Adulterants in 651
Discovery of Calcium Tungstate in. (T.R.) 190
Discovery of Platinum in. (T.R.) 460
Mineral Statistics ui for L891 (T.R.) 647
Patents in. (T.R.) 718
Tanneries in. (T.R.) 554
Canaigre a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Candles and Night-Lights. (P) Griffith 1017
Application, of Alizarin-Lakes for Colouring. (Ulrich) ... 44
For Fumigating or Evaporating. (P) Ryder. From
"Wcidemann 446
Improvements Relatingto. (P) Farrow 169
Sulphur. (P) Moras and Bourne 174
Candy, Manufacture of ■ (P) Lake. From Kirchholl 542
Candor Inflammable Liquids; (P) Shillito 895
Canarium Muelleri, the Oleo-Resi" of, with Notes of Manila
Elemi. ( Maiden) 758
Canvas, "Waterproofing. (P.) Silverman and McLaren 903
Caoutchouc, Effect of Substances usually added to. (Hein-
zerling and Pahl) 536
Spontaneous Conversion of Isoprene into. (Tiklen) 536
! Cape Verde, Orchilla in. ( T.R.) 715
1 Capillary Phenomena, On Certain. (Gossart) 274
Carapa a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Carbohydrates in Ammoniaeal Solution, Non-appearance of
Multi-rotation of. (Schulze and Tollensj 941
Production ot Acetic Acid from the. (Cross and Bevau). . 906
Some Colour Reactions of the. i Bert rand) 272
: Carbolic Acid. (Trillat) 1028
Acid, Method of Vaporising. (P) Scott 452
Acid, Synthetical. (Jayne) 264
Acid, The Cholera and. (T. R.) 719
Carbon, Action of, on Alkaline Sulphates in Presence of Silica.
(Scheurer-Kestner) 748
Action of, on Sodium Sulphate in Presence of Silica.
(Scheurer-Kestner) 687
Action of, on Sulphurous Acid. (Scheurer-Kestner) 748
-Black, Apparatus for Manufacturing Lamp-black. (P)
Biuney 171
Deposited from Coal-Gas Flames. Notes on. (Foster) 340
Examination of Various Forms of. Identification of Lung-
Pigment with Soot. (Wiesner) 1024
In Steel, Rapid Determination of. (P) Tropenas and
Wells 636
Manufacture of Porous, for Batteries and Filters. (P)
Hellesen 1016
Monoxide, Absorption of , by Blood. (Grehant) 704
Monoxide, Action of, on Iron. (Guntz) 909
Monoxide, A Sensitive Reagent for. (Habermann) 774
Monoxide, Estimation of Small Quantities of. (de St.
Martin) 770
Monoxide, Physiological Research on. (Grehant) 260
Product from Paper-pulp Residue. (P) Langville 035
Substitutions in Groups Linked to, and to Nitrogen.
( Matismon) !»37
Tetrachloride. ( Eckenroth) s.s7
Tetrachloride as a Solvent. (Eckenroth) 757
The Allotropy of Amorphous. ( Luzi) 770
Carbonates, Manufacture of Alkaliue. (P) Kellner (illus.) ... 523
Of the Alkaline Metals and Muriatic Acid, Manufacture of.
(P) Lake. From The Keyser Patenr Co 30
Of the Alkaliue Metals, Production of. (P) Eichstadt .... 37
Carbonic Acid and Ferric Hydroxide, Behaviour of Tricalcium
Phosphate towards, (v. Geurgievies) 254
Acid Baths and Tablets for Dse therein. (P) Sandow .... 37
Acid Gas and Tubes for Containing Same. (P) Rylands. . 686
Acid Gas, Collection, Purification, and Utilisation of. (P)
Pullman and Elworthy 1022
Acid Gas, Manufacture of. ( P) Rylands 003
Acid Gas, Producing. ( P) Rylands 1005
Acid Gas. Production of. (P) Stones.. Bardsley, and Hayes 1006
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Carbonic — font.
Acid Gas, Recovering. ( P) Walker 6S0
Acid, Impregnating Beer with. (P) Mills. From The
Universal Carbonating Co 838
Acid, Manufacture of Solid. (P) Tichborne, Barley,
Geoirhegan. and Purcell (136
Oxide. Action of, on Iron and Manganese. (Guntz) 690
Oxide. Volatilisai ion of Iron and Nickel by. (Gamier) ... 213
Carbons for Electric Arc Lamps. (P) Wise. From Griidel-
bach 754
Increasing the Life and Efficiency of Arc Light. (P)
Garland 43
Manufacture of Electric Light, at Nuremberg 897
Carbonyls, Metallic. (Mond) (illus.) 750
Carboxyl Group. Influence of the, on Toxic Action of Aromatic
Compounds. (Neucks and Bautmy) S37
Carboxylic Acids, The Hydrazine Derivatives of. (Noelting) . . 343
Carboys. Holder for. (P) Holmgren-Holm (illus.) 804
Carburettors, Improvements in. (P) Meriehenski 235
Carob a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 022
Carolina, The Ground Mica Industry in North. (T.R.) s.'jO
Carotin. (Hesse) 1027
Carvacrol, Preparation of. fReychler) 771
Some Derivatives of. (Revcliler) 771
Cask Plant and Treatment of Casks. (Hartley) 363
Casts, Gypsum. (P) Websky '. 137
Or Mouldings, Compound for Production of. IP) Nor-
wood 523
Catechu a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Cattle Food. Compound Cakes for. (P) Bibby 768
Foods. Preparat ion of. ( P) Tallerman 700
Caucasus, The Petroleum Trade of the. (T.R.) (HI
Cauldrons for Melting Pitch, &c. (P) Healey 446
Caustic Soda. Manufacture of. (P) Ody 604
Ceilings, Distemper for. (P) Morse 526
Cell Membranes, Chemical Composition of Vegetable. (Schnlze) 49
Cells for Batteries. See Batteries.
Increasing Formation of, during Fermentation. (P) Red-
fern. From Hradil 2i7
Celluloid Balls, Manufacture of. (P) Hunaeus 935
Process for Printing on. ( P) do Coetlogon 253
Properties and Manufacture of. (Hogben) 222
Writing Pens made from. (T.R.) 1044
Cellulose and its Forms : Cellulose Gum. (Hoifmeister) 452
And Oxalic Acid. Simultaneous Production of. (P) Lif-
sehutz 176
For Bottle Shells. (T.R. ) 715
Etc.. Nitrating. (P) Selwig and Lange 635
Manufacture of. (P) Boult. From Rocca 743
Manufacture of Nitro-substitution Compounds of. (P)
Maxim 456
Treatment of. for Manufacture of Gun-Cotton. (P) John-
son. From Zellstoff-fabrik Waldhoff 180
Cement, Action of Certain Chlorides on Portland. (Dobrzynski) 525
Com position for Coating Interiors of Ships. (P) Briggs. .. 749
Industry, The Portland. (T.R.) 2S1
Influence of Gypsum in the Manufacture of Portland.
I Erdmenger) 241
Kilns for Burning. (P) Briggs 606
Makers, Annual General Meeting of Association ot German
Portland 524
•Making Materials, Apparatus for Burning. (P) Taylor... 749
Manufacture of . il') Taylor 38
Manufacture of Artificial Roman. (P) Von Forell 39
Manufacture of Fireproof. tPt Kopke 165
Manufacture of Hydraulic. (P) Williams 688
Manufacture of Hydraulic. (PI Smidth 606
Manufacture of Portland. ( P) Lodge 688
Manufacture of Portland. (P) Skelsey 241
Manufacture of Portland, from Alkali Waste. (Spackman) 497
New Regulations for Supply of Portland, in Russia 524
Portland, and Portland Cement Concrete. (Bamber, Carey,
and Smith) i 1007
Preservative, for Building Purposes. ( P) Selling 606
The Manufacture and Properties of Slag. (Redgrave) 163
Cements. (Class IX.) 38, 163, 241, 435, 524, 606, 688, 749, 818, 908, 1007
Hydraulic. (Busch) 164
Improvement in Building. (P) Reynolds and Brown 165
Centaury a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Centrifugal Apparatus for Promoting the Reaction of Bodies
ot Different Densities. (P) Thompson. FroniMarix.. 595
Machine, Continuous. (P) Szczeniowsky and Pioutkowski 608
Machine, Use of the, in Analytical and Microscopical
Work. (Thorner) (illus.) 02
Ceramic Pastes, Baking. (P) Losada 88
Cereals, Apparatus for Drying and Disinfecting. (P) Bor-
garelli 230
Preservation of. (P) Luck and Pott 51
Ceylon as a Source of India-Rubber Supply. (T.R.) 718
Cinchona Bark Exported from 178
Chairman's Address to Liverpool Section. (Brunner) 874
Address to Manchester Section. (Levinstein) S75
Chalk, Apparatus for Burning. (P) Taylor 749
Enriching Phosphated. (P) Delahaye 161
Chalybeate Waters, Changes in, during Storage. (Riban) . 768,708
PAGE
Champagne, Manufacture ot. (P) Konig 51
Changes of Address, Lists of 2, 92, 202, 296, 394. 48 1. 568. 662,
732. 800, 866, 962
Charcoal. Manufacture of, and Treatment of Alcoholic Liquors
therewith. (P) Catalan t 257
Retorts for Making. (P)Armour 806
Cheese. Production of. ( P) Salenius 933
Chemical Changes attending Photographic Operations. (Arm-
strong) 455
Fire Extinguishers. (P) Haslam (illus.) 230
Food, a New. (P) McKay 450
Industry of Berlin, The. (T.R.) -'s:;
Industry of Germany, The. (T.R. ) 646, 717
Manufactures of Russia, The. (T.R.) 1044
Manuring, The Results of 625
Trade of the Tyne with the United States during 1890 and
1891. (T.R.) 919
Chemicals in Japan. ( T.R. ) 714
In Mexico. (T.R.) 714
Chemistry of Foods. (Class XVIII.) 51, 172. 257. 363, 449, 543,
02!'. 701,768, 834,932, 102:1
Of the Cyanide Process, The. (Butters and Clenuell) .... 913
Of Thomas Slag, The. (von Reis) 691
Cheques, Manufacture of Paper for. (P) Menzies and Bevan.. 175
Paper for. (P) Schlumberger 935
Cherry a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) 622
Chestnut a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat I , 022
Wood Tannin. (Trimble) 47
Chili. Nitrate Revenue in. (T.R.) 380
The Nitrate Fields of. ( Aikman) 347
Chimneys, Appliance fur Recording Presence and Density of
Black Smoke in. (Thomson) 12
China and japan. The Metric System in. iT.R.l 188
Imports of Glassware by. (T.R.) 1043
Ornamenting Surfaces of. (P) Slater and Boyle sis
White Wax in. (T.R.) 282
Chinese Red Glazes, Composition of. (Soger) 289
Chinolin Derivative, a New Antipyretic and Antineuralgic.
(P) Bang. From Dahl ' 59
Chloral and Butylchloral, Condensations of, with Paraldehyde
and Ketones. (Konigs) 640
Chlorate, Method of Estimating Manganese. ( Hampe) 457
Chloride, Obtaining Ferric, from Waste Galvanising Liquor.
(P) Wilson and Harvey 433
Solutions, Cells for Electrolysing. (P) Johnson. From
Parker and Robinson 755
Chlorides, Action of Certain, on Portland Cement. (Do-
1 irzynski) 525
Interaction between Metallic Magnesium and. (Seubert
and Schmidt) 849
Overcoming the Fusibility of. I Eteychler) :j-t
Chlorine, Action of, on Wool. (Knechl and Milues) 131
And Alkaline Carbonates, Manufacture of. (P) Kellner
(illus.) 523
And Alkalis. Apparatus for Producing by Electrolysis. (P)
Kellner 755
And Caustic Alkali, Production of. ( P) Lyte 686
And Iodine, Quantitative Separation of. ( Jannasch and
Ascholf I 845
And Soda, On the Electrolytic Production of. (Cross and
Bevan) 963
And Strong HC1, Production of. (P) Lyte and Steinhart 161
Apparatus for Manufacture of. (P) de Wilde, Reychler
and Hurler 907
Bromine and Iodine, New Direct Separation of. (Jannasch
and AschofV) 845
Compounds for Bleaching, Production of. (P) deDienheim-
Brochoeki 813
Detection of, in Presence of Iodine. (Macnair) 777
Determination of, in Wine. (Siefert) 778
Estimation of, in Electrolysed Solutions. (Norton) 548
Gas, Increasing the Bleaching Properties of. (P) Kellner ■''..">(
Industry, Laboratory Investigations on the. (Reychler) . 34
Manufacture 682
Manufacture of. (P) Bell. From Schloesing 686
Manufacture of. ( P) Peehiney et Cie 239
Preparation of. (P) Davis S48,:us
Process, The De Wilde and Reychler. (Revchler) 35
Production of. (P) Kolb 23s
Production of. (P)Lake. From Cutten 747
Production of. (P) Lyte 433
Production of, from Hydrochloric Acid. ( P) Kellner 239
Production of Liquid. (P) Lake. From Cutten 747
Salicylic Acid Derivatives containing. (P) Johnson.
From von Heyden Nachfolger 369
Chloroform. Tests of Purity of 779
The Impurities of. (Ramsay) 772
Pictet. (Helbing and Passmore) 836
Purification of. ( P) Pitt. From Pictet and Co 59
The Testing of. (Traub) 712
Chocolate, Soluble, and Preparation of. (P) Achor 933
Cholera and Carbolic Acid. (T. R.) 719
Cholesterin, Estimation of. (Obermuller) 183
The Analysis of. (Lewkowitsch) 134
Cholesterol. ( Lewkowitsch) 143
Choline as a Constituent of Beer. ( Kjeldahl ) 184
Christiania, Consumption and Production of Gas in. (T.R.).. 282
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec si, 1S92.
PAGE
Chromates of Calcium and Strontium, Difference in Solubility
of the. (Fresenius and Ruppert) "76
Chrome Iron Ore, Analysis of. (Haussermann) 182
Iron Ore, Refractory Bricks of Magnesia and. (Leo) 166
Pigments, On the Manufacture of. (Weber) 357
Yellows. New Method of Examining. (Lacbaud and
Lepierre) 269
Chromic Void, Explosive Compound formed by the Action of
Baiyta- Water on. (Pechard) 180
Sulphate, On the Isomeric States of. ( Recount) 600
Chromium, Allovs of Iron and. Including Report by F. Osmond.
(Hadfieid) 910
And Stanuum Oxides, Compounds of. (Leykauf) 748
Estimating, in Ferro-Chromium and Steel. (Clark) 501
Manufacture of Compounds of. (P) Watson and Bentz... 430
Mordant, Note on a New. (Scbuerer) 33
Pigments, Changes in 345
Chysaniline.On Azo-Oompounds and Colouring Matters derived
from. (Trillat and Rackowski) 737
Some Derivatives of. (Trillat and De Rackowski) 997
Chrysoidine AG. Dyeing Cotton with. (Kertesz) 32
Cider making, the Lixiviation of Apples in. (Jay) 1019
Manufacture of. (P) Thompson. From Lawton 62S, 629
Cineholine and Fluorine. (Hesse) 936
Cinchona. (Holmes) ••••;•• ■ • v • • ■ • ;.v • • • \ *£'
Vlkaloids. Sulphonie Acids of Some of the. (Hesse) 176
And Indigo Cultivation in India. (T.R.) 720
A Source of Tannin. (Mafat I 623
Hark, Determination of the Total Alkaloids in. (Hau-
bensack) 779
Bark Exported from Ceylon to Europe 178
Barks, Analysis of New. (Howard) 837
Java. (T.R.) *69
Cinchonidiue Sulphonie Acid. (Hesse) 176
Cinchonine, Action of Hydriodic Acid on. (Lippmann and
Fleissner) 263
Action of Hydriodic Acid on. (Pum) 263
Cinnamon a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) '.22
Powder. (Soltsien) 372
Cinnamyl-cocaine. ( Hesse.) 1026
Cistus Crilicus a Yielder of Tannin, I Mafal ) 622
Citric Acid, Detection and Estimation of Lead in Commercial.
(Bucket) 848
Citronellone, On. (Kremers) 935
Clarine Sewage Process. (Grimshaw) 7
Clav. Coloration of. by Oxide of Iron. (Seger) 749
'Estimation of Silica in. ( Archbutt) 215
Forming, into Pots or Vessels. (P) Cole and Keston 749
Plating, with Glass. (P) Thompson. From The Clay
Glass Tile Company 81S
Presses for Tiles. &c. (P)Huelser. From Frohlich (illus.) 436
Producing Liquid. (Goetz) 1013
Clays. (Class IX.) . . .38, 163, 241, 435, 524, 606. 6S8, 749, 818, 90S. 1007
Cliveden, Excursion to 584
Closure, Method of. for Regulation of Gaseous Pressures. (P)
Mills and Ellis 695
Cloth, Filter-Press. (P) Lucas vi."" 90s
For Press and Filtering Sheets. (P) Arnntage and Dun-
kerley SOS
Manufacture of Bookbinders'. (P) Sutton 903
Coal and Coal-dust, Gases enclosed in. (Bedson and McCon-
nell) 882
And Iron Industries of Belgium. (T.R.) 69
Anthracite, in West Virginia. IT.R.) 69
-Beds, Geological and Economical Conditions of.the West-
phalian. ( Brookinann) 338
Calorific Power of, and Calculation thereof. (Scbeurer-
Kestner) •. • •. 996
Determining Loss of, in Coal - Washing Operations.
(Barclay) 325
-Dust Explosions in the Zauckerode Colliery. (Georgi) .. 938
Estimation of Sulphur in. (Grittner) 711
Industry of Natal. (T.R.) 69
Researches on the Heat of Combustion of. (Scheurer-
Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus) 339
Tar, Antiseptics from. (Trillat ) 1027
Tar Colours in Paper Dyeing, I Beaumann) 159
Tar Industry during the Year 1891 736
Tar Preparations, Analysis of. (Helbingaud Passinore) .. S4S
The Distillation of. (Mahler) 150
Coal-Gas. See Gas.
Coals On the Calorific Value of. (Deutecoin) S97
The Soluble and Resinous Constituents of. (Smith and
Chorley) 591
Coating Yrticles with a New Metallic Alloy. (P) The London
Metallurgical Company and Cowper-Coles 61S
Printings for Therapeutical Purposes. (P) Lake. From
EIchthyol Gcsellschaft Cordes 179
Sulphuretted Compounds for Production of. (P) Fairfax.
From Crane 446
Cobalt and Nickel, Separating, from Copper Mattes. (P)
Herrenschmidt 694
Process for Separating, from Nickel. (P) Selve 1013
The Manufacture of 167
Cocaine. (Hesse)... 1026
Inlndia. (T.R.) 67
PAGE
Coca Leaves. (Holmes) 454
Leaves. A New Alkaloid from Javanese. (Giesel) 177
Leaves, Indifferent Constituents of. (Hesse) 1027
Leaves, Investigations on. (Hesse) 1026
Cocamine. (Hesse) 1027
Cocoa. (Soltsien) 372.
Coffee Adulterants in Canada 651
And Caffeine Distillates and their Physiological Effects.
(Heerlein) 834
A Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Fruit of the Wax Palm as a Substitute for. (Konig) 172
Making an Extract of, and a Confection therefrom. (P)
Sonstadt 258
Manufacture of Malt. (P) Brougier and Trillion 768
Preserving Liquid Extracts of. ( P) Sonstadt 258
Production of Dry Extract of. (P) Meyer 9S2
Coil for Feeding Syrup or Molasses into Vacuum Pans. (P)
Basanta. . . " 542
Ccke, Apparatus for Manufacture of. (P) Osbourn 899
Apparatus for Quenching. (P) Osbourn 899
Extinguishing and Loading Apparatus. (P) Collin 671
Furnace or Oven. (P) Lares 235
Manufacture of. (P) Elliot and MacGowan.jun 995
Natural, in Australia 510
Ovens. (P) Johnson. From Kennedy 807
Ovens, Cooling. (P) Bell 996
Ovens, Improvements in. (P) Leigh. From Bauer and
Mendheim 7S7
Ovens, Results of Improved. (T.R.) 379
Ovens, The Recovery of By-Products from. (Dreyfus) .... $79
Production of. ( Pj Jones 151
Retorts for Making. (P) Armour 162,806
Retorts for the Manufacture of. (P) Creswick 152
Cold, Apparatus for Producing. (P) Bowley 992
Apparatus for Production of. (P) Hesketh and Marcet (2 1 lis
Colombia, The Mining Industry of. (T.R.) 69
Colorimeter, Gallenkarnp's (illus.) 547
Colour and Composition of Compounds, Relation between.
(Schutze) 807
Derivatives of Triphenylmethane, On the. (Noelting and
Polonowsky) 343
Printing and Apparatus therefor. (P) Davies 1004
Printing, Lithographic Stones for. (P) Krantz and
Zeissler 635
Reaction of Acid Anilines. (Tafel) nil
Reactions of Furfurol, and Modification of Weppen's
Veratrinc Reaction. (Laves) S48
Reactions of the Carbohydrates, Some. (Bertrand) 272
Testing. ( Wilson) 537
Test of Kaolin and Sand. (Nickel) 162
The Origin of. (Armstrong) 512
Colouring Hatters, Various :—
Azo-Colouring Matters, ManufactureofiYellow. (P) Imray.
From The Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius, und Briiniug 515
Colouring Matters, Production of. (P) Brooke, Simp-
son, and Spiller, Limited, and A, G. Green 513
Colouring Matters, Production of. (P) Fichesscr 344
Colouring Matters, Production of. (P) Willcox. From
The Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co 3 15
Colours, Manufacture of. (P) Read, Holliday, and
Sons, Lim. and Brookes 679
Colours, Production of, on Fibre. (P) Farb. vorm. IBayer
and Co 1004
Colours, Production of, on Indigo -Dyed Fabrics.
(P) Imray. From The farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius
und Bruning 160
Compounds and Colouring Matters derived from
Chrysaniline. On. (Trillat and deRaczkowski) 737
Dyes. Manufacture of. (P) Badische Anilin und Soda
Fab 1000
Dyes, Manufacture of. (P) Willcox. From The Farb.
vorm. Bayer and Co 158
Green, Application of. t\"n Perger) 31
Colouring Matter, Manufacture of. il'i Reverdin and de la
Harpe 902
Matters and Dyes. (Class IV,) . . . .23. 153, 235, 341, 425. 51 J, 599,
672, 737. S07. 900,996
Matter or Dye, Extracting and Utilising. (P) Schweich
and Bucher 515
Matter, Production of Blue. (P) Imray. From The Farb.
vorm. Meister, Lucius, und Bruning 514
Matters derived from Anthraquinone. (P) Willcox. From
The Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 740
Matters derived from Anthraquinone, Manufacture of.
(P) Willcox. From The Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co.... 513
Matters derived from Benzidine audits Analogues. (1')
Willcox. From The Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 516
Matters derived from Chrysaniline, On. (Trillat ami
Raczkowski) 737
Matters from Amidonaphtholsulpho Acids. (P) Pitt.
From Cassella and Co 345
Matters from Amidonaphtholsulphonic Acids. (P) Pitt.
From Cassella and Co 741
Matters from a Sulpho-Acid of /3-Naphthol. (P) Read,
Hollidav, and others 344
Matters from Naphthol-glycerines. (P) Von Portheim . . . 236
Matters from Protocatechuic Acid and Phenols. (P) Farb.
vorm. Meister, Lucius, und Bruning 902
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) Dreyfus 29
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
YY1Y
TAGE
Colouring Matters, Various— cont.
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) Imray. From La Soc.
Durand, Huguenin et Cie 237
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) Iuiray. From The Actien
Gesellschaft fur Aniiin Fabrikation 29
Matters, Manufacture, of. (P) Imray. From The Farb.
vorm. Meister, Lucius, and Briining 808
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) Lake. From Kalle and Co. 678
Matters, Manufacture of. (PJ Lake. From Leonbardt
aud Co , 157, 516, 808
Matters, Manufacture of. ( P) Lake. From Oehler 515
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) The Clayton Aniline Co.
and Hall 679
Matters, Manufacture of. (P) Willcox. From The Farb.
vorm. Bayer and Co ; 809
Matters, Manufacture of Basic Naphthalene, aud Sulpho-
Acids thereof. (P) Johnson. From the Badische
Aniiin und Soda Fab 516
Matters, Manufacture of New. (P) Farb. vorm. Bayer
and Co 1001
Matters, Manufacture of New. (" Anisolines "). (P)
Monner 516
Matters, New Material for Production of. (P) Levinstein. 29
Matters of the Triphenylinethane Group, Examination of.
(Noel ting, Polonowsky, and Skawinski) 25
Matters, Production of (P) Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 1000
Matters, Production of Black. (P) Imray. From The
Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning 344
Matters, Production of Blue. (Imray.) From The Farb.
vorm Meister Lucius und Briining 514
Matters, Production of, Derived from Authraauinone and
Alizarin Blue. (P) Willcox. From The Farb. i orm.
Bayer & Co 514
Matters, Production of New. (P) Johnson. From The
Badische Aniiin und Soda Fab 679
Matters, Related to the Rosaniline Series. (P) Johnson.
From the Badische Aniiin und Soda Fab 236
Colours and Absorption Spectra of Thin Metallic Films and of
Incandescent Vapours of the Metals. (Dudley) 924
Application of Certain Rare Metals for Ceramic. (Sprech--
saal) 523
Composition of Sub-Glaze, for Soft Porcelain. (Seger). 239,240
Developed. (Weber) 986
Imports and Exports of, Through German Customs. (T.R.) 648
Manufacture of. (P) Boult. From Bruns 679
Manufacture of Alizarin. ( P) Schaelter 287
Mordant Dyeing (Adjective). (Weber) 983
Pigment. (Weber) 986
Producing, on Glass Surfaces. (P) Duntze 1007
Reduction in Shade of Dyed Alizarin. (Schnabel) 602
Use of Mineral Pigment, in Cotton Dyeing. (Soxhlet) .... 520
Columbia, Mining in British. (T.R.) 720
The Salmon Industry in British. (T.R.) 69
Columns, Analysing. (P) Berly 803
Combustibles, Report on Mahler's Study of the Calorific Power
of. (Carnot and Le Chatelier) 840
Combustion of Natural Gas, the Flameless. (Cabot) 801
Commerce, Proceedings of Manchester Chamber of. (T.R.) . . . 187
Commercial Progress of Russia. (T.R.) 379
Composition, A New Plastic. (P) Menzies 697
Anti-fouling, for Ships' Bottoms. (P) McCowatt 46
For Coating Ships' Plates, Jtc. (P) Jacks 538
For Coating the Interior of Ships. ( P) Briggs 749
For Coating Walls. (PI Norwood 606
For Treating Fibres and for Cleansing Purposes. (P)
Armstrong , 928
Preservative, for Building Purposes. (P) Selling 606
Compositions applicable to Building and Paving Purposes.
(P)Terp 819
For Covering Metal and other Surfaces. (P) Day 694
Compound for Bleaching. (P) Thompson. From Brittingham 746
For Carburising Metals. (P) Brown 616
For Coating Walls and Production of Casts. (P) Norwood 525
For Cleansing Purposes. (P) Jordan 620
For Fire-extinguishing and Fire-proofing. (P) Hunkel . .. 908
For the Destruction of Insects. (P) Decesari 770
Compounds, Detergent. (P) Thompson. From Brittingham . 758
For Insulating, Covering, &c. (P) Banks 927
Influence of the Carboxyl Group on the Toxic Action of
Aromatic Compounds. (Neueks and Bautniy) 837
Making Plastic. (P) Kennedy 1012
Manufacture of Pharmaceutical. (P) Willcox. From The
Farb. vorm. F. Bayer & Co 708
Of Stannic and Chromic Oxides. (Leykauf) 748
Relation between the Composition of, and their Colour.
(Sehutze) 807
Solvent Action of Liquid Organic. (Etard) 713
Compressibility of Saline Solutions. (Gilbaut) 780
Compression Pumps. (P) Webb 20
Compressors. Air. (P) Johnson and Hutchinson (illus.) 993
Use of Oil in Ammonia Gas. (von Strombeck) 733
Concert, Smoking 578
Concrete Blocks and Tiles, Making Coloured. (P) Ward 1012
Blocks, Preparation of. (Trobach and Huppertsburg) ... 818
Portland Cement. (Bamber, Carey, and Smith) 1007
Prevention of Action of Frost on Portland Cement.
(Reinhofer) 165
Condenser for Laboratory Use. (Bvers) 635
PAGE
Confection of Extract of Malt and Hops, Preparing. (P)
Sonstadt 51
Confections, Notes on the Analysis of. (Wiley and others) ... 761
Condensing and Extraction Apparatus. ( Farnsteiner) (illus.) 1034
Apparatus, (P) Reed 803,803
Conocarpus a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Constantinople, Commercial Museum at. (T.R.) 285
Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 281
" Contrayerva " a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Cooling Apparatus. (P) Elsworthy (illus.) 260
Cop-Dyeing, On. (Weber) (illus.) 975
Copal Resins. ( Kresscl) 828
Copenhagen, Production aud Consumption or Gas in. (T.R.) . 282
Copper, Action of Water on Basic Salts of. (Rousseau and
Tite) 238
Alloys. (P) Huntington and Prestige 922
And Antimony, Simultaneous Electrolytic Deposition of.
(Hampe) 695
And its Alloys, Treating, to Prevent Oxidation and De-
oxidatiou during Heating and Annealing. (P) Lake.
From Cummins 753
Apparatus for Use in Obtaining. (P) The Rovello Synd.,
Lim. and Howell 826
Casting and Tempering Pure. (P) Bottoine .' 615
Compounds, Adherence of, to the Leaves of Plants,
(Girard) 770
Electrolytic Determination of. (Drossbach) 845
Electrolytic Separation of, from Mercury. (Smith and
MeCauley ) 131
Extracting, from Ores or Compounds. (P) Nieholls and
others 443
Hydrate, Properties of Ammoniacal. (Prud'homme) ..... 427
Influence of Arsenic, Antimony, and Silicon on Ductility,
Strength and Conductivity of. (Hampe) 1014
Manufacturing Alloys of Nickel and. ( P) Martins . . 822
Mattes and Ores, Treating Plumbiferous. (P) James 353
Mattes, Separating Nickel and Cobalt from. (P) Herren-
schmidt 694
Means for the Electrical Deposition of. (P) Parker ...... 43
Mines of Vermont. (Howe) [ 246
Obtaining, from Ores. ( P) French and Stewart ....'. 612
On a New Hydrate of. (Le Due) 269
OrCopper Ores, Smelting. (P) Bibby ,', 922
Ores aud Mattes, Treating. ( P) Pelatan . . . 754
Photo-Etching on. (P) Krantz and Zeissler 635
Practical Notes on the Electrolytic Refining of. (Badt) .. 926
Precipitation of, by Iron. (Essner) 165
Process, Hoepfner's Electrolytic 444
Production and Export of, in Japan. (T.R.) 720
Refining Process, The Thoferhn Electrolytic ] ] . 925
Separation of, from Mattes or Alloys. (P) Strap. ......... 616
Siemens Electrolytic Process for Extracting, from Ores . . . 534
Statistics of, for 1891 721
Statistics respecting. ( T.R. ) 78
Tempered. ( Kirsch) '..'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 41
The Elecroly tic Refining of 324
Tubes, Production of, by Electrolysis. ( Pj Watt .'.'.'. 617
Coprolites. (Wills) 698
Corn Oil. (T.R.) ... .. 286
Or Maize Kernel, the Proteids of the. (Chittenden and
Osborne) 701
Cornelian Cherry a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Cornish Assay, The. (T.R.) 470
Corydaline. (Dobbie and Lauder) 264, 633
Cotton. (Class V.) 29, 15S, 426, ul7, 600, 080, 741, 810, 902, 1002
Action of Frost upon. ( Roth well) 320
Apparatus for Dyeing and Bleaching. (P) Yonng and
Crippin 742
Application of Tannins and Tanning Extracts in Hyeing.
(Soxhlet) 744, 904
Cleaning, Restoring, and Bleaching Damaged. (P) Hughes
aud Rowbotham 742
Cloth, Oil and Iron Stains in. ( Weber) 495
Dyeing and Treating. (P) Sutcliffe 680
Dyeing, Application of New Insoluble Azo - Colouring
Matters for. (Kertesz) 31
Dyeing, Use of Mineral Pigment Colours in. (Soxhlet)... 520
Nitrating. (P) Selwig and Lange 635
Oil.Testfor. (Holde) 637
-Seed, Nitrogenous Bases Present in the. ( Maxwell) 372
-Seed Oil, Qualitative Reaction of. ( Holde ) 271
-Seed, Removal of Lint from. (Dudley) 619
-Seed Oil, Spanish Customs Regulations affecting Sale' of.
(T.R.) ?. 714
Tannic Acid Absorbed by, under Varying Conditions.
(Kuecht and Kei-shaw) 129
Council, Report of 569
Couplings for Glass, or Glass-lined, Tubes. (P) Rylands and
Morant 162
Cream in Milk, Apparatus for Testing Quantity of. (P)
Newton. From Augustenborg and Hansen 52
Creosote, Percentage of Guaiacol in Wood. (Bongartz) 511
Creosoted Poles, Painting. (PJ Hughes 620
Cresols, Iodine Substitution Products of. (P) Willcox. From
The Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 370
Crops, The Sources of the Nitrogen of Leguminous. (Lawes
and Gilbert) 253
XXX
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[1)M. 31,1892.
PAGE
Crotonanilide, /3-methvlaniklo, and its Relation to Antipyrinc.
(Knorr and Taufkirch) 70G
Crucible Furnaces. (P) Meichsner 610
Crucibles, Composition for Manufacture of. (P) Kerr 528
Manufacture of. (P) Alzugarciy 448
Crusher anil Pulveriser. ( P) Morison 147
Crushing Apparatus, i I') Thompson ulliis.) 20
Cryolite Production in A merica. ( T.R.) 69
Cuba, Perfumery Imports ol. (T.R.) 187
Cuprammoniuui, Properties of. (Prudhomme) 33
Cupreine, Action of Methyl Iodide on. (Hesse) 177
Preparation of Quinine-di-methiodide from. (Grimaux
and Armand ) Ml
Cuprous Chloride, Estimation of Small Quantities of Carbon
Monoxide by Means of. (De Saint Martin) 770
Oxide Sub-Glaze Colours lor Soft Porcelain. (Seger) 210
Customs Decisions, French. (T.R.) 166, 948
Decisions in Russia. (T.R.) 66
Decisions in Sweden. (T.R.) 00
Decisions in the United Stales. (T.R.) 552
Decisions, Swiss. (T.R.) 466
Duties and Regulations, Changes in Italian. (T.R.) 60
Duties on Importation of Bops 051
Regulations 66, 186,276,875, 166,552,641,714,948
Tariff, Alterations in the Swiss 7s?
Tariff, Classification of Articles in Italian. (T.R.) nil, '.us
Tariff, Classification of Articles in Russian. (T.R.) 18i>
Tariff, Now Spanish. (T.R.) 270. 375
Tariff of Argentina. New. (T.R.) 1 '■">
Tariff of Greece, The 787
Taritt of Mexico. New. (T. B ) : 67, 186
Tariff of Porto Rico, New 951
Tariff of Portugal. (T.R.) I'll
Tariff of Switzerland, Classification in. (T.R.) 66
Tariff, The New French. (T.R.) 379
Cyanide Process in South Africa, The. (Butters and Clennell) 916
Process, The Chemistry of the. (Butters and Clennell) .. . 913
Cyanides, Manufacture of. iP) Beilby 717, lout
Manufacture of Alkaline. IP) DeLambilly 604
Notes on the Production of. (Playfair) 14
Production of Alkaline. (Pi Viscount de Lamlrilly 1000
Recovering, from Uoal-Gas. (P) Rowland 510
Cyanogen Compounds, Manufacture of. (!') Hood and Sala-
mon 816
Cypress a Yiolder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
D
Deaths, Lists of 3, 98. 202. 297, 395. 185, 568, 732, 801, 866, 902
Degras, (Ruhsam) 639
Dehydrothiotoluidine, Synthesis of. (Gattenuann and Neu-
berg) 673
Depolarisers, Application of, in Electrolysis. (P) Richardson. 1015
Dermatol. (Trillat) 1029
Desiccating Apparatus. (P) Donard and Boulet 804
Hessicator, Vacuum, with Heating Arrangements. iBriibl)... 60
Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c. (Class III.) .. . 22, 150,
235, 310, 421, 511, 598, 071, 735, 807, 990
Desulphurising (listings or Alloys of Metals. (P) Rossigneux 615
Detergent Compounds. (P) Thompson. From Brittingham . 75S
Detergents, Manufacture of. ( P) Armstrong 536
Detonators, Railway Fog Signal. (Pi Ruston and Beadle 207
Developers for Photographs. (P) Hauff 937
De Wilde and Reychlcr's Chlorine Process, The. (Reychler) . 85
Dextnns, Note on the Fermentabihty of. I Lintner) 705
(In the Formation of. (Petit) 020
The Fermentabihty of. (Medicos and Iinmerliciser) 705
Dextrose and Levulose, Apparent Proportions of, in certain
Wines ( Borntrager) 700
Decomposition of. by the Bacillus Ethaceticus. (Frank-
land ami Lumsden) 449
Formation of, from Starch by Ferments. (Lintner) 1021
Production of. (P) Bumpier 1019
Di-alkyl-nietr.-aiiihlo n-sols. Manufacture of. (P) Lake.
From Leonhardt and ( Y 28
Diamidqgen, Manufacture of. (P) Johnson. From The
Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik 370
Diamidosulphobenzide and some of its Derivatives. (Laulh) . 787
Diaphragms for Electrolytic Decomposing Apparatus. (P)
Breuer 927
Diazoamidobenzoic Acid, Note on. (Noelting) 313
Diazo-Compounds, Rate of Decomposition of. (Hausser and
M idler) 672
Diazo Dyes, Production of New, and of Intermediate Products,
il'l Johnson. From The Badische Anilin und Soda
Fab 514
Digesting Apparatus. ll'lMunns. From Kall'cnberger .. 422,608
Digitalin (Kiliani) 771
Digitalein, Researches on. (Hondas) 454
I'AOE
Dimethylaniline, Action of Acetic Anhydride on. (Reverdin
and de la Harpe) 778
Dimethylortho-anisidine, Action of Nitric Acid on. (van
Roiuburgh) 155
Dimethyl-thymo-hydrocjninone, Preparation of. (Beychler).. 771
Dinitrophenol, Preparation of. (Reverdin and de la Harpe-) .. 157
Dinner, The Annual lit,
Diphenyletho-a - p - hvdronaphthoquinoxaline. (Fischer .ml
Buseh) 24
Discharge of Dyed Indigo-Blue. (Brandt) . . .' 812
Discussion on Fletcher's Paper on Modern Legislation in
Restraint of the Emission of Noxous Gases from
Manufacturing Operations 309
Dioxyuaphthalenosulpho Acids, Manufacture of. (P) Farb.
vorm. Bayer and.Ci 999
Discharge, Production of a, on Dyed Indigo. (Binder) 813
Disinfectant anil Insect Destroyer, Manufacture of. (P)
Lutschaunig 451
An Improved. (P) Sver 931
Manufacture of. (P) Williams 031,631
Tablets, Manufacture of. (P) Thornton 305
Disinfectants. (Class XVIII— C.) 174,260,301,151,031.770
934, 1025
Apparatus for Supplying to Closets, &c. (1') Panario 451
For Water-closets. (P) Thornton 933
Manufacture of New. (P) McMurrav 770
Method of Vaporising. (P) Scott 452
Disinfecting Apparatus. (P) Herschcr 631
Apparatus. (P) Robertson 704
Dissociation in Dilute Solutions of Tartrates. (Sonnenthal) .. 263
Distillation, Apparatus for Fractional. (Ekenberg) (illus.).. 1034
Distilleries, Use of Hydrofluoric Acid and Fluorides in.
( Vincent) 626
Distilling Apparatus. (P) Cotton and Garrett lis
Apparatus. (P) Kirkaldy) (illus.) 595
Apparatus. (P) Lennard 151
Apparatus. (P) Lucl; 148
Apparatus. ( P) Pitt. From Savaile 257
Process and Apparatus for. ( P) At tout 508
Distemper for Walls and Ceilings. (P) Morse 520
Dittiuar, Resolution of Condolence on Death of Prof 221
Divi-divi a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 022
]'<>i -rose a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 022
Dough, Apparatus for Testing and Recording Properties of.
( P) Hogarth \ 029
Drainpipes, Utilisation of Slag for Manufacture of. (I1) Arnold 81!)
Drawback on Perfumery, General Order Concerning flic.
(T.R.) 785
Drawing Paper, The Acid Action of. I Evans and Wirtz) 212
Papers, The Acid Action of. (Beadle) 201
Papers, The Acid Action of. (Cross and Bevan) 213
Papers, The Acid Action of Different. ( Hartley) 201
Dressing for Belting, &c. (P) Kenyon 1017
Drinking Water and Disease. (Mason) 150
Drug and Chemical Imports of Porto Rico. (T.R.) 187
Exports from Argentina. I T.R. I 407
Imports into Mauritius. (T.R.) 468
Imports into the Argentine Republic. (T.R.) 467
Imports into the United States.fT.R.) 381
Trade of Greece, The. (T.R.) 782
Trade of Persia. (T.R.) 646
Trade, The French. (T.R.) 381
Drugs and Chemicals in Japan. (T.R.) 714
Of Tropical Africa. ( T.R. ) 377
Dryers, Preparation of. ( P) Hartley and Blenkinsop 170
Drying Apparatus. (P) Fletcher and Hoyle 894
' Apparatus. (P) Gye 595
Apparatus. (P) Hencke 628
Apparatus. (P) Johnston (illus.) 808
Apparatus. (P) Rubenkamp 991
Apparatus, Utilising Heated Air in. (P)Leydecker 509
Oils, Qualitative Reaction of. (Holde) 272
Oils, Test for. ( Holde) 637
Dumas' Method of Estimating Nitrogen in Organic Bodies.
(O'Sullivati) 327
Duty on Copper Ore in United States, Case affecting. (T.R.) . 948
Dye Liquors, Means for the Purification of. (P) Watson S64
Dyeing and Bleaching Apparatus. (P) Graemiger 813
And Bleaching Apparatus. (P) Young and Crippin 742
Apparatus for Woollen Goods. (P) Lake. From Oehler 745,746
Calico Printing, Paper Staining and Bleaching. 30, 168, 237, 345,
12s. 519, 0110. 080,711, 811, 904, 1002
Hawking Machines for Indigo. (P) Coulter 813
Photo. (Villain) 1031
Primitive Modes of. (Hummel) 991
Various Fabrics, Means and Method of. (P) Foster and
Frost 237
Dyes (Class IV.) 28, 153, 235, 311. 125, 512, 599, 072, 737, S07, 900, 990
' Acid. (Weber) 9-3
Applications of Some New. (von Perger) 30
Basic. (Weber) 985
Discussion on Hummel's Paper on Fast and Fugitive 12
Fast to Milling and Washing. (Kertesz) 744
Deo. SI. 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Dyes— conf.
New Buses Applicable for the Production of Substantive
Cotton. (P) Abel. From Durand. Huguenin, andCo. SOD
01 the Quinoxalme Series III., A New Class of Fluor-
escent, t Kischer and Buseh) 24
Of thi- Rnodamine Series, Production of. (P) Johnson.
From The Badische Anilin and Soda Pabrik 315
the R • ■ ;,;nc Series, Production of New, and Materials
tlu L.n-. iP) Jolinson. Prom the Badische Auilin
und Soda brik 513
Of Tropical Africa. (T.R.) 377
Oxafcine. (Mohlau) 672
Production of Black, Suitable for Wool. (P) Pitt. From
Cassella and Co 5P>
Production of New Diazo, and of Intermediate Products.
(P) Johnson. From The Badische Anilin und Ssda
Pabrik 514
Related to the Rhodamina Series, Production of New.
(P) Jolinson. From The Badische Auilin und Soda
Fab 740
The Discharge of Alizarin. (Schnabel) 811
Vat. (Weber) 987
Dyestuff Derivator of Triphenyhnethane. [Noelting and
Schwai tz] 25
Dyestuffs from a-\Taphthol Sulpho Acids and Dioxy Naphtha-
lene Sulpho Acids. ( PJ Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 99!)
Manufacture of Basic, from Alpha-naphtho-quinone-di-
chlorimide. (P) Johnson. From The Badische Anilin
und Soda Fabrik 599
^Manufacture of Blue. (P) Hewitt. FromCassellaand Co. 749
Manufacture of, Derived from Anthracene and AnMira-
qui none. Willcox. From The Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and
Co. IP) 20
Production of Blue. (P) Pitt. From Cassella and Co 514
Production of Fast Yellow Azo. (P) Bang:. From Dahl .. 510
Production of Improved. (P) Johnson. From The
Badiscche Anilin und Soda Fabrik 23i>
Production of New Basic. (P) Johnson. From The
Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik 514
Production of New Cotton or Substantive. (P) Willcox.
From The Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 809
Dye wood Extracts and their Manufacture. (Mafat) 15:i, oil
Extracts, Increasing Tinctorial Properties of. (Soxhlet) .. 42S
Extracts, Report on Mafat's Memoir on. (Geigy) 154
Dye woods, Preparing, for Use in Dyeing. (P) Espeut Gso
Dynamite, Analysis of Kieselguhr. (Sanford) 843
Conveyii g Plant, New 839
Poisonous Gases from. (Charon) 840
E
Earthenware. (Class VIII.) 38,162,239,434,523,004, 687,748,817,
•jus, urn;
Composition for Manufacture of Articles of. (P) Kerr 523
Kilns for Manufacture of. (P) Query 435
Ornamenting Surfaces of. (P) Slater and Royle sis
Ovens forFiring, (P) Plant 43J
Easton anil Anderson's Engineering Works, Visit to 5S1
" Eau-de-Yie de 1'iquette," An Aldehyde in. (Muller) 25:i
Ebony a Vielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 022
Ecuador, < irchilla in. (T.R.) 715
Egtr, Analysis of Commercial Volk of. (Jean) 941
'■ Eggio," Analysis of. (Boyer) 447
Eggs, Preserving. (P) Mills. From de la Vieuville 52
Egypt, Industrial Prospects of. (T.R.) 720
Election of Officers for 1892-3 577
Electric Are 'Welding. Recent Developments in. (Unwin) 824
Electric Batteries. .S'ee Batteries.
Electrical Industry and the Future Supply of Gntta-Percha.
(T.R.) 830
Electricity. Melting Metals, &c, hy. (Pi Kreinsen 1010
Method of Generating, and Producing Air in a Luminous
State. (P) Duffy 619
Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 42, 168, 247. 353. 444, 534,
616,695,754,828, 921, 1014
Depositing. Improvements in. (P) Gfibbings 353
Electrodes. See Batteries.
Electrolysing and Bleaching. Apparatus for. (P) Marx 353
Electrolysis. Apparatus for Producing Chlorine and Alkalis by.
(P) Kellner 755
Application of Depolarisers in. (P) Richardson 1015
Improvements in. (P) Hoepfner 535
Improvements in. (P) Le Seueur 755
Means for Use in. (P) Marx 353
Of Metallic Phosphates in Acid Solution. (Smith) lit
Of Metallic Sulphocyanides. (Frankel) 61
Cf Saline Solutions for Production of Alkaline Bases and
their Salts. (P) Hermitc and Duboscq 1015
On the Laws of. (Chassy) 75t
Process and Apparatus fo'r Bleaching by. (P) Imrav. From
Montgomery .' , 535
Quantitative Analysis by. (Rudorff) 459
Some Separations by. (Smith and Wallace) 696
The Problems of Commercial. (Swinburne) S23
Electrolytes. See Batteries.
TAGE
Electrolytic Separations. (Smith and Muhr) 60
Sewage System. (Grimshaw) 6
Electro-Metallurgical Operations, Apparatus for Vse in. (P)
Hoepfner 1015
Elements. See Batteries.
Elm a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Emulsions, Apparatus for Extracting Fatty Particles from.
(P) Hellstrom (ilUfc.) 170
Enamel Designs on Iron and Steel Plates. Producing. (P)
Clark 434
Paints, Composition of. (P) Terp 829
Enamelled Articles. The Marbling of. [P) Gniichlel 524
Iron Ware, Production of. ( P) Clans 435
Enamelling Iron Plate. ( P) Clans 435
Engineers, Baltimore Meeting of American Institute of Mining.
233, 246, 255
England, Manufacture of Plate Glass in. (T.R.) 720
Enzyme, A New Glucase. (Geduld) 627
Eosin soluble in Alcohol, The Manufacture of. (Mtthlhanser)
(illus.) 675
The Manufacture of lod-. (Mublhauser) (illus.) 677
Ephedrine. (Spehr) 514, 544
Esparto Liquor, Utilisation of Waste. (P) Higgin 771
Essence of Turpentine, Detection of Rosin Oils in. (Zuue) ... 637
Essences. (Class XX.) 57, 176, 261, 305, 453, 544, 631, 705, 771, 835,
935, 1026
Estimations in Alkaline Solution by Aid of Hydrogen Peroxide.
( Jannasch and Niederhofheim) 270
Ether. (Abraham) 835
Ethereal Oil of Sabadilla Seed. (Opitz) 177
Ethers, The Higher Nitric, of Starch. (Mublhauser) 70S
Production of Oxy-fstty Glycerin. (P) Schmitz and
Toenges 827
Ethylamines, Production of. (P) Vidal 314
Ethyl-a-Naphthylamine. (Bamberger and Goldschmidt) 23
Ethylene. Behaviour of. on Explosion with Less than its own
Volume of Oxygen. ( Lean and Bone) 995
Ethyleosin, The Manufacture of. (Mublhauser) (illus.) 675
Eucalyptus a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
oil. 1 Helbing and Passmore) 837
Oil. (Holmes) 455
Oil. Terpene Hydrate from. (Merck) 632
Products, Manufacture o'r. (P) Dean 179
Eugenol, Manufacture of Iso- and Poly-Iso. (P) Johnson.
From von Heyden Nachfolger 633
Europhen. (Trillat) 1028
Evaporating and Condensing Apparatus. (P) Reed 803
Apparatus. (P) Blair 992
Apparatus. ( L'j Caldwell 1006
Apparatus. (P) Chapman (illus.) 147
Apparatus. (P) Cotton and Garrett 14s
Apparatus. (P) Harvey (illus.) 508
Apparatus. ( P) Hencke 62S
A pparatus. ( P) Laberie 1019
Apparatus. (P) Lake. From Craney lillus.) 609
Apparatus. (P) Mirrlees and Ballinghall 895
Apparatus. (Schulze and Tollens) 940
Apparatus. (P) Stewart 101s
Apparatus. Multiple Effect. (P) Deacon. From Maxwell 830
Process and Apparatus for. (P) Robertson 507
Evaporators. (P) Burnet (illus.) 422
Exalgin. (Trillat) 1029
Examination of Tin-Plated Articles for Preservation of Foods.
(Pinette) -. 51
Excursion to Windsor and Cliveden 5S4
Experiment showing Absorption of Hydrogen by Palladium.
( Wilm) 465
Explosive and Ordnance Material. (Emmcns) 939
Compositions. (P) von Brank 456
Compound. (P) United States Smokeless Powder Co 1032
Compound formed by Action of Baryta-Water on Chromic
Acid. (Pochard) 180
Compounds. ( P) Nobel 1032, 1032, 1032
Compounds. ( P) Rand 939
Shells, Improved Method of Charging. (P) Dodd 546
Explosives, Behaviour of, in Fiery Mines. (Lohmann) 179
High, in Warfare. (Barber) 59
Improvements in. (P) Curtis and Andre 456
Machinery for Manufacture of. (P) Anderson 517
Manufacture of. ( P) Abel and Dewar 71 9
Manufacture of. (P) de Mosenthal and others 773
Manufacture of. (PI Landener 1032
Manufacture of. (Pj Newton. From Nobel 2e7
Manufacture of. (P) Ryves ]?o
Manufacture of High. "(P) Pollard 207
Matches, &c 59, 179,267, 156, 546, 635, 708, 773, S39, 937, 11132
Means for Blasting by. (P) Pfeiffer 939
Methods Employed for Testing. (Vielle) 937
New Manufacture of. (1') Reuland ISO
Production of. (P) Johnson. From the Dynamite Actien- 456
gesellschaft Nobel 4r,o
Report of H.M. Inspectors of, for 1889 546
The Analysis of Nitro-. (Sanford) 843
The Dangers in the Manufacture of. (Guttmann) 203
XXX11
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, use.
PAGE
Exports from United Kingdom to the United States during
L891, (T.R.) M
Extract of Malt and Hops, Obtaining. (P) Sonstadt 51
Extraction and Condensing Apparatus. (Famsteiner) (illus.) I03t
Apparatus. (Holde) (illus.) . 93a
\1 paritus for Determination of Fat in Milk. (Molinan).
(illus.) .j11
Extracts. (Class XX) 57,176,261,365,453,544,631,705, (71,
885. 935, 1086
Decolorising and Clarifying Tannic. (P) Huillard 539
For Use in Manufacture of Yeast and Spirits. (P)
Nycander 1(l-'!
Prom Diplomatic and Consular Reports 1ST. 280, 466, 558, 64*,
714, 7m1. mil
Increasing Tinctorial Properties of Dyewood. (Soxhlet ) . . 488
Manufacture of, from Logwood and other Dye woods. (Pi
E -pent
680
Fabric, An Elastic, for Tubing, Belting, 4c. (Pj Temmel 759
An Improved Compound. (P) Bugg 518
An Improved Fireproof. (P) Allan! 518
Hygienic, il't Nyssen 904
Shower-proof. (P) Briggs 904
Fabric-. Apparatus for Washing and Treating. 1 I'J Roberts.. 810
Bli aching and Treating Textile. (P) Pike 810
Dyeing Tanning,and Mordanting Teazled and Porous. (P)
' Goldschmidt 521
Improvements in Dyeing. (P) Daw.jun 431
Machines for Printing. iPi Wood •••■ S;05
"Means and Method of Dyeing. (P) (Foster and Frost) ... 831
Purifying Woollen. (P I Abel. From Philips and Mathee 518
Fat. Extractim: and Saving Wool. (P) Trent and Henderson. 928
Hydrnlysing and ( ducoside-Resolving Fermeuts, Rela-
tions between. fSigmundl 819
In milk, Apparatus for Determination of. (Molinari) (illus.) 61
Occurrence of Octylic Alcohol in Distilled Wool- (Han-
nan) 535
Pats and Oils, Bleaching and Purifying, ll'i Mills 928
Detection of Foreign, in Butter. (P) Johnstone 1039
Detection of Unsaponifiable. (Soltsiem 378
Hiibl's Iodine Test for. (Fahrion) 183
Oils and Soaps. 44, 169, 250,355,445,535,619,696,756,887,988,
Refining and Deodorising Refuse. (P) Wilson 757
The Analysis of. ( Lewkow-itsch I 134
Fatty Icid, A New Unsaturated. (Arnaud) 619
Acids, Apparatus for Distilling. (P) Ungues 75"
Matter, Manufactureof from Wool-Fat. (Pi (daser. From
Braun and Liebreich 445
Matters from Wool-Washing and other Waters, Removing.
(P) Hughes. From Motte and Co 827
Matters in Mdk Products. Estimation of. (Leze and
Allard I 465
Matters, Preservation of . (P) Falcimagne 630
Particles from Emulsions, Apparatus for Extracting. I .PI
Hellstrom (illus.) 170
Substances, Purification of. (P) Lake. From La Soc.
Anon, des Parfumes Xaturelsde Cannes 53i:
Faucets, Filtering. (PI Lose 596
Feed-Water Heaters. I' Unmet (illus.) 482
Pcrmentation, Fractional. I Morris and Wells) 764
Increasing Formation of Cells during. (P) Redfern-
Hradil 257
Influence of Oxygen and Concentration on. (Brown) 257
Influence of some Metallic Salts on Lactic. (Bichet) 770
Svmbiosisand S3 mbiotic. (Ward) 764
The Chemistry of. I Buchner) 763
Jeasts and Bacteria, The "Ginger-Beer" Plant. (Mar-
shall Ward I 255
Fermenting, The Process of. (Sykes) 765
Ferments, Formation of Dextrose from Starch by. (Lintner) . 1021
Production of Alcoholic, (l't Takaminc 1088
Relations between Pat-Hydrolysing and Glucoside-Resolv-
ing. (Sigmund) 849
Ferns as Yielders of Tannin. (Mafat) 628
Ferric Chloride, Obtaining from Waste Galvanising Liquor.
p Wilson and Harvey 433
Hydroxide, Behaviour of Tricalcium Phosphate towards.
(v. Georgievics) 254
Ferricyanogen, Production of Salts of. (P) Deutsche Gold und
Zilber-Scheide uistalt 1005
Ferro-Aluminium, Estimation of Aluminium in. (Donath) ... 459
-Bronze and other Alloys, Manufacture of. (P) Bott 693
Chrome Quick Method for Decomposition and Analysis of.
i Win ren i 460
.i bromium and Steel, Estimating Chromium in. (Clarki 501
• I iiric and Ferric Oxides, Apparatus for Producing. (Pi
Crossley 614
-Manganesi ' [angai Bastin) 1037
Ferrous Sulphate. Interaction of, with Phosphati - of Calcium.
eneuveand N colic, 1018
Fertiliser and Insecticide. (P) Lake. From The Biolytic
Gypse Co 541
PAGE
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs and the Law for Sale of.
( Schack-Sommer) 406
In the West Indies. (T.R.) 854,1041
Manufactureof. (P) Smith 699
The Adulteration of. (T.R.) 285
Valuation of Mixed, of High Grade 759
Fibre, Bleaching and Treating Peat and other. (P) Cannot... 813
Industries in the Punjauh. (T.R.) 69
Industry of Queensland, The. (T.R.) 190
Manufacture of Metal. (P) Torkington 614
Preparation and Dressing of. (P) Priestley 518
Preventing Weakening of, in Discharge-Indigo Prints.
( Moderns I 600
Production of Azo-Colours on. (P) Farb. vorm. Bayerand
Co 1004
Production of Textile. IP) Hagemann 1026
The Pentosans of Lignified. (Schulze and Tollens) 931
Weakening of the, in Discharge-Indigo Printing.
(Scheurer) 904
Fibres, Apparatus for Breaking or Treating Vegetable. (P)
Allison 904
Apparatus for Cleansing and Lustreing. (P) Fisher
and Murgatroyd 743
Apparatus for Testing Strength of Raw. (P) Appenzeller
and Filleul 680
Apparatus for Washing and Scouring. (P) Smith (illus.). 742
Cleansing and Treating Animal. (P) Ambler 51?
Composition for Treating. (Pi Armstrong 928
Determination of. in a Crude State. (Gabriel) 944
Dveing and Printing Textile, with Aniline, &c. (P)
Grawitz 813
Dyeing, &c, Textile. (P) Hughes. From Tebughein 431
Dyeing Silk and other. (P) Longmore and Williamson. . . 906
From the Leaves of Fir Trees. ( von Hohnel I 426
Machinery for Scutching Flax and other. ( P) Hatschek.. 810
Obtaining, from Fibrous Plants. (P) Stuart 90S
Obtaining, from Textile Vegetable Substances. (P) Barnett 810
Of Tropical Africa. (T.R.) 377
The Specific Gravity of Textile. ( Vignon) 10n2
Treatment of Vegetable. (P) Nicolle and Smith 517
Treatment of Vegetable Textile. (P) Raabe 810
Treatment of, with Liquids and Vapours or Gases. (P)
Gessler 680
Used in Paper-Making, Determination 01. ( Herzberg) .... 638
Ficus Rubiginoaa and F.Macrophylla, The Resins of. (Rcnnie
and Goyder, jun.) 1039
Fig Wine, Manufacture and Properties of. ( Vogel) 256
Filaments. Renewing and Fixing, in Incandescent Lamps.
( P) Mohrle 42
Films, Chemical Means of Enlarging Photographic Gelatine.
(P) Hill 179
Sulphuretted Compounds for Production of. (P) Fairfax.
From Crane 446
Filter for Oil. (P) Masterman and Woodhouse and Rawson,
Lim 169
For Oils and other Fluids. (P) Willcox 169
-PressCloth. (P) Lucas 908
-Presses. Wood Trays for. 1 P 1 Teggin 894
Pump. IP) Xordtmeyer (illus.) 422
Filtering Apparatus. (P) Berk 536
Apparatus. (P) Gehrke 833
Apparatus. (P) Martin 20
Apparatus. 1 Fi Weigel (illus.) 993
Faucets. (P) Lose 596
Material, Production of, from Sewage Sludge. (P) Wilson 769
Filters. (P) Barker. From Good&cre' 421
(P) Henderson 894
(P) Saver 804
(P) Tippetts 894
Efficacy of Sand-, at Zurich 364
Improvements in. (P) Barker. From Goodacre 507
Improvements in. (P) Santurio 804
Rotary. (P) Thompson. From Williamson 509
Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids. Essences and Extracts 57. 176, 261,
365, 453. 5U, 631, 705. 771, 835. 935, 1026
Finings, Machine for Preparation of Brewers'. (P) Brooks... 700
Fir Trees, On Fibres made from the Leaves of. (von Hohnel) 426
Fire-extinguishing and Fireproofing Compound. (P) Hunkel 90S
Extinguishing of. (P) Oadcs 233
-Lighters, Manufacture of. (P) Lutschaunig 451
Fi reproof Fabric. ( P) Allard 518
Material, Manufacture of. (P) Kopke 165
Fire-resisting Bricks and Lining Materials. (P) Thompson... 437
Fireworks. (P) Gillischewsky 939
Fish Oils, Qualitative Reactions of. (Holde) 272
Preparation of, for Use as Food. (P) Sehoiiau 768
Smoking or Curing. (P) Pitfard 1024
Flames. Inert asing the Illuminating Power of. (P) Chandor. 807
Xote on the Carbon Deposited from Coal-Gas. (Foster) .. 340
The Luminosity of Coal-Gas. (Lewes) 231
The Origin of Acetylene in. ( Lewes) 340
Flask for Estimation of Ammonia in Waters. (Coleman) 327
Flash-Light Apparatus. (P) Beste B99
-Light Apparatus, ll'i Wnnsche 899
-Point and Heat of Burning of Mineral Oils. (Steuart)... 885
Flavopurpurine, Dyeing Silk by Means of. (PJ Imray. From
The Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning 515
Doe. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
XXXlll
PAOE
Flax, Machinery for Soutohing. (I'l Hatschek 810
Floor-CIntli, Analysis of Linoleum. (Pinette) 550
Manufacture of. (PI Scott and Beard 90S
Manufacture of Inlaid. (P> Thomson and Powell 431
Florida, The Phosphate Beds of. (Keller) 539
The Phosphate Deposits of. ( Eldridge) •-».",.",
Flour and Dough, Apparatus for Testing and Recording
Properties of. ( P) Hogarth C2il
Converting, into a Soluble Proa:. :t. (P) Thompson. From
Berge I W
Manufacture of Wheaten. Il'i Amos 629
Flours. Analysis of. (Thorner) (illns.) 62
Fluid Specific Gravity Determinations. (Alder Wright) (illns. i i?;i7
Fluids. Holders for Storing, under High Pressure. (P)
Brotherton and Griffith 998
SeenritiK Continuous Time Record of Rale of Distillation
and Direction of Flow of Distilled. (Pi McDaniel.'. . . 931
Fluorescein, The Manufacture of. (Muhlhauscr) (illns.).. 675
Fluorides, Conditions Producing Multiple Effect of. in
Solutionsof Fermentable Matter. (Effront) 931
I'so of, in Distilleries. (Vincent I 626
Fluorine, Occurrence of, in Natural Phosphates. (Carnot) .... 759
On the Estimation of. (Carnot) 71(1
Fluoroline and Cincholine. ( Hesse) 936
Fodder Cakes. (I'l Rehnstrom 933
Fog, Removal or Prevention of. (P) Oiwles 233
Signal Detonators. (P) Ruston and Beadle 267
Food and Drugs Act. The Sale ol. (T.R.) 472
A New Chemical. (PI McKay 450
Means for Storing and Preserving. ( P I Smith 44l»
Preparation of Fish for Use as. (P) Schonau 76s.
Preserving Articles of. (P) Hartmann 1024
Production of, from Indian Corn or Mai/.e. (P) Bates .... 76!»
Products, Gelatinous. (P) Parker 1024
Products of Tropical Africa. (T.R.) 377
Smoking or Curing Articles of. Pi Pillard 1021
The Artificial Coloration of Articles of. (Tschirch) 172
Treating Salt intended for Curing. (P) Collingridge.
From Coinet and Jones 629
Foods, Apparatus For closing Vessels for Preservation of. (P)
li:i 1 1 it:a to' 629
Apparatus for Smoking or Curimr. (PI Robertson........ 7nt
Examination of Tin-plated Articles for Preservation of.
( Pinette) 51
Manufacture of Easily- Digestible. (PI Reithand Dahm. 541
Occurrence of Tin in Canned. (Weber) 363
Preparation of ( 'attic. (P) Tallerman 7(Hi
Preserving. (P) Far!), vorm. Moister, Lucius und Bruning lnjt
The Adulteration of, in various Countries 17-
The Valuation of. (Kinrhl 7(11
Use of Aluminium for Vessels containing. (Rupp) 172
Zinc in Preserved. (Alcn) 363
Formaldehyde (" Formol "). (Trillat) 1025
Formosa, the Camphor Trade of. (T.R.) 645
The Opium Trade of. (T.R.) 646
France, Artificial Butter Legislation in. (T.R.) 61)
Customs Decisions in. (T.R.) tils
Increased Consumption of Boric Acid in. (T.R.) 284
Sm Customs Tariff of. (T.R.) 37!)
Recent Customs Decisions in. (T.R.) 466
Tar i IT on Petroleum in. ( T. II.) 67
The Drugl Trade of. (T.R.) 881
The Working of Salt Marshes in 651
Freezing Apparatus. ( P) Puplett S03
Apparatus. (Pi Bowley 992
Point of Dilute Aqueous Solutions, Determination of.
(Raoult) 780
Freiberg, The New Tanning School in. (T.R.) (149
Frost. Action of, upon Cotton. (Roth well) 320
Prevention of Action of, on Portland Cement Concrete.
(Reinhofer) 165
Resistance of Building Stones to. (Peroche) 749
Fruit Culture, Artificial Manures for. (Brunner) 874
Frin Is. Means for Preserving (P) Elsworthy 259
Fuel.aNcw. (P) Keller MSI
Apparatus for Combustion of. (P) Marshall 733
Artificial. (P) Winter 996
Furnaces for more Perfect Combustion of. (P) William-). 895
Combustion of Carbonaceous. (P) 996
Feeding, to Gas Producers. (P) Hargreaves 995
Gas and Light. (Class II.) 21, 149, 231, 337, 423, 510, 596,
669, 734, 805, 896, 995
Machinery for Manufacture of Peat. (P) Mills. F"rom
Clarke 340
Manufacture and Distribution of Gaseous. (P) 'Jrmiston. 234
Manufacture of Artificial. (Pi Strong and Gordon sn7
Manufacture of Artificial, Utilising Sewage therein. (P)
Jones 597
Means for Heating Metals by Liquid or Gaseous. (P)
Rodger 733
Fuller's Spiral Slide Rule, Use of. for Chemical Calculations.
(Watson) (illns.) 324
Fames.- Method of Condensing Lead and other Metallic. (P)
Elliott 822
Purification of Gaseous. (P) Pureed and Pureel 1025
Funnels for .Measuring Liquids. (P) Richardson 596
Furfural, The Colour Reactions of. (Laves) 843
I
PAGE
Furnace. A Regenerative Gas. (P) Dor 615
Charges, Slide-Rule for Use in Calculation of, (Wingham) 821
For Treat nient of Refractory Ores. (P) Fauvel 613
Furnaces. ( P) Sargent 994
(P) Williams 895
And Ovens. Metallurgical. (P) Bates 615
Apparatus for Regulating Admission of Air ami Steam to.
( P) Broadbent 896
Appliance for Autographieally Recording the Temperature
of. ( Roberts-Austen) 840
Basic Lined. (P) Darby 614
Construction of Smelting and Melting. (P) Reuleaux .... 614
Crucible. (P) Meichsner 616
Construction of Tank, for Manufacture of Glass. (P)
Thomas 1007
Electrical, for Manufacture of Phosphorus, &c. (P)
Parker 827
For Production of G lass, Sec. ( P) Rylands 1007
For Treating Ores. ( P) Parnell 822
Gas. (P) Oakman, jun 1013
Gas Puddling. (P) Oakman, jun 1013
Improved Cupola. (P) Kerr 615
Metallurgical, for Steel making or Cementation Purposes.
(P) Fillassier and Faure 695
Smelting. (P) The Oliver Aluminium Co 923
Supplying Heated Air to. (P) Hawksley 996
Temperatures Developed in Industrial. "(Le Chatelier)... 607
Fusel Oil. The Alcohols of. (Sehiipphaus) 831
Fustic a Yielder of Tannin. (Mal'at) 622
Extracts. ( Mafat) 154
G
Galena and Lead Sulphate, Analysis of. (Benedikt) 1SI
Assay of, in, Iron Crucibles, (Lowe) 138
Determination of Sulphur in. (Jannasch and Aschoff) ... 458
Dry Method of Analysis of. {Jannasch and Bickes) 547
Wet Methods of Analysis of. (Jannasch and Aschoff) 45S
Gallenkump's Colorimeter (illus.) 547
Gallic Acid, Conversion of, into Benzoic Acid. (Gnignet) .... 261
Acid, Transformation of, into Pyrogallol. (Cazeneuve) . . . 1026
Galls as Yielders of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Galvanic Batteries. See Batteries.
Galvanisers' Wastes, Using. (P) Brice 413
Galvanising Liquor, Obtaining Ferric Chloride from Waste.
(P) Wilson and Harvey 433
Gambier, The Technical Analysis of. (Procter) 329
Gas. (Class II.). .21, 149,281, 337,423,510, 596, 669, 734, no:,, 896, 995
And Ammonia, Production of Heating. ( Hennin) 734
Apparatus for Carburetting. (P) Leonard 234
Apparatus for Effecting Complete Mixture of, with Air.
(P) Vickers and Everett 424
Apparatus for Extracting Tar and Ammonia from, (P)
Lister 511
Apparatus for Making. (P) Bourgoin and Decorcc 596
Apparatus lor Manufacturing. (F) Kitson 149
Apparatus fur Production of Fuel. (P) Bailey 899
Apparatus for Use in the Manufacture of, (P) Williams. . 735
Apparatus for Washing and Purifying. (P) Chandler .... 898
Apparatus for Washing or Scrubbing. (P) Chandler 597
Burners. See Burners.
Compressors, Use of Oil in Ammonia, (v on Strombeck) . 733
Estimation of Nitrogen in Coal-. (New) (illus.) 415
Flames, Note on theCarbon Deposited from Coal. (Foster) 340
Flames, The Luminosity of Coal. (Lewes) 231
Generation and Combustion of. (P) Hargreaves 233
Generation of Com bust Mile. ( P) Hargreaves 995
-Generator for Distillation of Mineral Oils. (P) Sepulchre 510
-Generators for Motor Engines. (P) Boult. Frum La Cie.
des Fonderies et Forges de l'Horme and Leucauchez.. 234
Holders for Storage of, under High Pressure. (P) Brother-
ton anil Griffith 993
Ignition Temperature of Electrolytic. (Freyerand Meyer) 780
Increasing the Illuminating Power of. (P) ltudd 807
Lamps, Incandescent Bodies fur. (1') Haitinger... 149
Liquor, Column Stills for Distillation of. (P) Colson 807
Making Heating and Illuminating. (P) Notenian 899
Manufacture and Storage of. (Pj Fourncss 149
Manufacture of. (P) Bidelman 996
Manufacture of. (P) Fairweather. From the Acme
Liquid Fuel Company 235
Manufacture of. (P) Harris 899
Manufacture of. ( P) Springer 424
Manufacture of. (P) Wilson 424
Manufacture of, from Oils. ( P) Lake. I rom Wilder 424
Manufacture of, from Water Vapour, (P) Longsdon... ... 671
Manufacture of Fuel. (P) Boult. From the Chicago Heat
Storage Company : 597
Manufacture of Illuminating. (P) de Laniarre 735
Manufacture of Illuminating. 1 11) Fergusson 670
Manufacture of Lighting and Heating. (P) Dinsmorc. .. . 735
Manufacture of Lighting and Heating. ( P) Wilson 735
Manufacture of Oil-. ( Ball) 896
Manufacturing Illuminating. (P) Munns. From de Beau-
harnais 234
Nitrogen in Coal-. (Davis) 4S6
On the impurities in Coal-. (Fairley) 419
XSX1V
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Gas— emit.
Or Air, Apparatus for Carburetling. (P) The Gas Econo-
mising ami Improved Light Synd. and J. Love 698
Probable Provence of Iron Carbonyl in Illuminating.
(Guntz) 896
-Producers. (Pi Bromilow 806
-Producers. Feeding Puel to. (Pi Hargreaves , 995
-Producing Apparatus for Thermal Motors. (P) Reilfern.
From La Soc. Anon, des Moteurs Thermiques Gardie . 23:5
Production and Consumption of, in the Principal European
(it ies iT.Ii.i aso
Production and Distribution of Fuel-. (Kitson) 423
Production of Oil-, from Russian Petroleum. (Lewes! ... 584
Production of Semi Water-, and Carbon Dioxide Producer-
Gas. ( Xauinann I 609
Purification of. (P) Wise. Prom Solvay and Co 671
Purifying Producer-, from Sulphur Compounds. (P) Claus 234
Pyrogenie Hydrocarbons formed in the Manufacture of
Compressed. ( Brochet I 596
Recovering Cyanides from Coal-. (P) Rowland 510
Retorts. ( P )' Cotton and Crowther 423
Retorts, Apparatus for Charging and Drawing. (P)
Ruseoe 597
Retorts, Apparatus for Charging Inclined. ( 1') Gibbons. . 806
Retorts (or the Manufacture of. i l'l Creswick 152
Simultaneous Production of Ammonia, Tar and Heating.
[Hennin) 233
Sulphocyanoseu in Coal-. ( Esop) 337
Testing the Illuminating Power of Coal-. (Davis) 112
Tiie Flameless Combustion of Coal-, (l'armentier) 0119
The Flameless Combustion of Natural. (Cabot) 801
The Manufacture of Oxygen. (Fanta) (illus.) 312
Gases, Apparatus for Charging Liquids with. (Pi Minto 593
Apparatus for Ejecting from Pipes, Se. (P) Edwards.
From Kohrmann 422
Apparatus for Producing. (P) Boyon 842
Apparatus for Rendering Innocuous, (l'l Wainwright . . . 22
Apparatus for Saturating, with Vapours. (P) Danks 508
Apparatus for Treating. (P) Davy #. 21
Apparatus for Treating Noxious. (PI Makinson 7ot
Apparatus for Treating Textiles with. IP) Stewart (illus.) 745
Discussion on Fletcher's Paper on Modern Legislation in
Restraint of the Emission of Noxious, from Manufac-
turing ' iperations 309
Displacement Pumps for. IP) Hargreaves and Hudson
(illus.) sol
Dissolved in Water, Modification of Kreusler's Apparatus
for Extraction of. (Robson) (illus.) 50t
Enclosed in Coal and Coal-dust. (Bedson and Mc-
Connell) 8.82
From Dynamite, Poisonous. (Charon) 810
Inducing Combustion of, in Furnaces, i Pi Hargreaves... 806
Manufacture of Illuminating and Heating. (P) Dinsmore no
Modern Legislation on Noxious. I Fletcher) 1211
Preventing Escape of Noxious, in Treating Textile Fabrics.
il'i Kern 745
Purification and Separation of Mixed. (P) Longsdon 671
Risks Attending the Use of High Pressure. (Budenberg
iiml Heys) 3f.i
Treatment of Textile Fibres with. (P) Gessler 680
Gaseous Mixture, Slow Combustion of. (Askenasy and Meyer) 1039
Gasvolumeter. (Lunge) (illus.) 1033
Gedda Gums. (O'Sullivan) 48
Geddic Acid. (O'Sullivan) 18
Gelatin and Grease. Extracting, from Hide ami Skin Waste.
(P) Bertram 447
Apparatus for Drying Sheets of. I P) Kranseder and
Lentsch) 1018
Compounds, Analj'sisof. (Sanford) S43
Producing Plates or Sheets of. (P) Thompson. From
Wolff 624
Films, Chemical Means of Enlarging Photographic. I P)
Hill 179
Gellivara, Smelting the Phosphoric Ore of 919
Generators for Production of Hydrogen Gas. (Pi Hawkins
and Fuller 1004
GcntianaT, ma. Substances contained in the Petals of. (Gold-
schmiedt and Jahoda) 366
Geranium Essence, Detection of Turkish, in Rose Oil. (Pana-
job iw i 61
German Chemicals in India. (T.R.) 284
Portland Cement .Makers, Annual General Meeting of
1 524
Wines, Tin. General Character of. (Barth) 763
Germany, Chemical Industry in. (T.R.) 717
Colour Imports and Exports of. (T.R) 648
Exports from Moroccoto. iT.R.) 468
The Chemical Industry of. IT, R.I 616
The Glass Bottle Trade in. (T.R.) is'.'
Tin- .New Patent Law of. (T.R.I 285
The Sugar Industry of. I T.R. I I'm
Wine Adulteration in. (T.R.) 655
Germination, Action of Boric Acid on. I Morel i 707
" Ginger-Beer " Plant, The. (Marshal Ward) 25.5
Glavs. lotion of Carbon in Preparation of. (Scheurer-Kestner) 748
historian Sheet and Mirror. (T.R.) 720
Bohemian Mirror and Plate. (T.R.) 720
-Bottle Trade in Germany, The. (T.R.) 189
Bricks, Manufacture of, (P) Fitzpatrick. From Schreiber
and (hi linger 605
PAGE
Glass— eon?.
Construction of Tank Furnaces for Manufacture of. (P)
Thomas 1007
Cullet, Method of Treating. I P I Williams 624
Cylinders, Pipes, &c, Production of. (P) Thompson.
From Pease 240
Electro-deposition of Metal on. (P) Pettier 1007
Filtering Tubes for Purifying Molten. (P) Epstein 241
Furnaces for Production of. ( P) Rylands 1007
Furnaces, Use of Mineral Oil Residues as F'uel for. (Mal-
yschew ) 510
Kilns for Annealing Plate. (P) Pilkington 606
Lears or Annealing Furnaces for Sheet or Plate. (P)
Bonta 818
Lining Metallic or other Vessels or Tubes with. (P)
Rylands and Husselliee 818
-Making Material, Production of. (Pi Walker 240
Making Rose or Orange Red Stained. (P) Welz 241
Manufacture of. (P) Thomas 240,605
Manufacture of Plate in Belgium. (T.R.) 72o
Manufacture of Plate in England. (T.R.) 720
Manufacture Oxygen in 908
Marking, by 'Acid. (P) Leader 524
Method and Apparatus fur Manufacturing Plate. (P)
Thompson. From Pease 103
Pipes of Large Diameter, Manufacture of. (Appert 1 38
Plates, &c, Method and Apparatus for Making. (P)
Thompson. From Pease 163
Plates, Sheets and Films, Manufactuie of. (P) Thompson.
From Pease 240
Plating Clav with. (P) Thompson. From The Clay Glass
Tile Co 818
Potterv and Earthenware. . . . 38, 239, 434, 523. 604, 6S7, 748, 817,
908, 1007
Producing and Rolling Plate. (P) Walsh, jun 688
Producing Marbled. (P) Grosse 606
Production of Wire-. (T.R. 1 470
Suitable for Chemical Apparatus. (Weber) 267
Surfaces, Behaviour of, towards Water. (Mvlius and
Focrster) 181
Surfaces, Producing Colours on. (PI Duntze 1007
Tanks, Manufacture of. (P) Armstrong 005
The Expansion of. and on " Compound Glass." (Schott ) . 817
L'sed in the Manufacture of Incandescent Electric Lamps,
Analysis of. (Woodman) 817
-Ware, Chinese Imports of. (T.R.) 1043
Glauber's Salt, Note on an Observation by Gerlach of the
Boiling Point of. (Sakurai) 551
Glaze, Dark Brown, for Roofing Tiles. (Cramer) 162
Preparing Gold, for Stoneware. (Heeht) 162
Glazes. Composition of Chinese Red. (Seger) 239
Gluease, a New Enzyme. ( Geduld) 627
Glucose, Note on Wines containing Potato. (Presenilis) 766
Glucoside-Resolving and Fat-Hydrolysing Ferments, Relations
between. iSiginiinil) 849
Glue. (Class XIV.) 16,171,253.447,539,621,697,759,930,1018
. Apparatus for Drying Sheets of. ( F) Krauseder and
Lentsch 1018
Extracting, from Hide and Skin Waste. (P) Bertram 4*7
Manufacture of Animal. (P) Brand 930
Producing Plates or Sheets of. (P) Thompson. From
Wolff 624
Glycerin, Estimation of, in Fermented Beverages. (Proskauer) 1038
Extraction of, from Spent Soap Lye. (l'l Hagemann . . .. 620
And Artificial Butter Industry under American Patents.
(Starek) (illus.) 355
Glycerol, Determination of, in Sweet Wines. (Lecco) 1038
Estimation of. in Wine. (Lecco) 550
Derivatives, Manufacture of Aromatic (P) Majert 369
Gold and Platinum Industry of the Ural 532
And Silver, Quantitative Determination of, by Hydroxyl-
amine Hydrochloride. ( Lainer) 710
-Bearing Veins of Pyrites on Monte Rush. ( Walter) 821
Bullion Assavs, Emplovmeut of Cadmium in. (White-
head) . . .'. 458
Compounds for Photographic Purposes. (Mercier) 634
Extracting Reagents. (P) Pollok 352
Obtaining, from Ores. (Pi French and Stewart 612
On the Colloidal Sulphides of. (Schneider) 40
Or Silver. Extraction of, from Ores. (P) Parkes and
Montgomery 921
Or Silver, Wet Process for Extraction of. (P) Sutton 924
Paint, Manufacture of. ( P) Cutler 829
l'l -s and Apparatus for Extracting. (P) Hannay 248
Production in South Africa. (T.R.) 718
Quantitative Estimation of, by Hydroxylamine Hydro-
chloride. (Lainer) 271
Salts, Dyeing and Printing with. (Odcnheiuier) 600
Separating, from its Ores. (P) Atkins (its
The Condition of, in Pyrites 43s
The World's Production of 526
" Gonakie " a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
" Gonzalo aloes " a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) 622
Grains, Apparatus for Drying Brewers'. (P) Parker 1023
Granite, Manufacturing Artificial. (P) Georgeand Wernaer . 165
Granular EffervesciMc Mixtures, Manufacture of. (P) Ker-
loot 838
Grape Seed Oil and its Technical Application. (Horn) 44
Graphite, Purification of. (P) Luzi 617
Dec. 8i, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Graphites, On. (Luzi) 272
Grawitz' Recent Improvements in Aniline Black. (Schmidt). 519
Greaseproof Packing Material. (P) Turner 1002
Grease, Recovered. (Lewkowitsch) 135
Given1. Deri hie m Imput of Quinine by. (T.R.) 783
In rt ol Chemicals by. (T.R.) 783
Imports of Soap and Perfumery by. (T.R.) 7*3
Mineral Discoveries in. (T.R.) 468
Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 282
The Customs Tariff of 7s7
The Drug Trade of. (T.R ) 7S2
Green, Application of Fast, (von Forcer) .'SO
Grids. See Batteries.
Grinding Apparatus. (P) Thompson (illus.) 20
Ground Mica Industry in North Carolina. (T,R.) 853
Guaiacol. ( Trillat) 1028
Percentage of, in Wood Creosote, &o. (Bongartz) 511
Guanos. ( Wills) '. 698
Guatemala, Trade Requirements in i»5l
Gum. (Class XVI.) 48,363,418,541,626,699, 760,830,930,1018
Acacia in Java. (T.R.) 720
Cellulose. (Hofftneister) 452
Samples of Known Origin, Note on Some Indian. (Rideal) LOS
Tragacanth, Persian Production of. (T.R.) 646
Gums and Resins. Solvent for. (P) Read 1017
Of the Arabian Group, Researches on. Part II. (O'SulUvan) 48 :
Purifying and Preparing. (P) Kern 542 !
Treatment of. (P) Smith 361
Gun-cotton, Analysis of. (San ford) 844
Treatment of Cellulose for Manufacture of. (P) Johnson.
From ZellstofT-Fabrik Waldliof 180
Gunpowder, Machinery for Compressing, into Pellets. (P)
< ! reenwood 546
Manufacture of. (P) Andre and Curtis ]sn
Manufacture of. (P) Johnson. From The Dynamite
Actiengesellschaft Nobel 456
Manufacture of Smokeless. (P) Johnson. From The
Dynamite Actiengesellschaft Nobel 267
Gutta-percha, African. (T.R.) 377
A Substitute for. (P) Jackson 697
Effect of Substances usually added to. (Heinzerling and
Paul ) 536
Electrical [ndustry and the Future Supply of. (T.R.) 850
Extraction of. (P) Ri^ole 829
Gypsum Costs. ( P) Websky 437
Influence of, in the Manufacture of Portland Cement.
(Erdmenger) 241
H
Hand-writing, The Chemical Examination of . (Robertson and
Hof mannl .847
Banks, Machinery ior Dyeing in. (P) Deooek 160
Hazel a fielder of Tannin. ( Marat ) 622
Heat and Moisture, Apparatus for Effecting Interchange of.
(P) Lightfoot. From the Gesellsehaft fur Linde's
Eismachinen 668
Conversion of Sensible, into Chemical Energy. (Neu-
mann) 609
Effect of. on Mercury Compounds. (Janda) 919
Insulating and Waterproof Material. (P) Biernath 908
Of Burning and Flash-Point of Mineral Oils. (Steuart)... 885
Specific, and Latent Heat of Fusion of Aluminium.
( Pionchon) 752
The Effect of, on .Mercury Compounds. (Janda) 751
Heater for Dist illation of Petroleum. ( Fuchs) 511
Hemlock a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 022
Henequen, Exports of, from Mexico. (T.R.) 469
Hide and Skin Waste, Extracting Glue, Gelatin, and Grease
from. (P) Bertram 417
Hides, Bating and Puring, by Means of the Alpha-Sulphonic
Acid of Naphthalene. (Burns and Hull) 48
Improvements in Drying. (P) Pim 539
Improvements in Tanning. (P) Lake. From Durio
Brothers (25
Process for Tanning. IP) Bolt 171
Tanning, for Making Kid-Leather. (P) Zahn 625
Use of Boron Sulphate Compounds for Unhairing. (P)
Bauer and Gyiketta 930
Hoepfner's Electrolytic Copper Process 444
Hofmann, Resolution of Sympathy with the Family of the late
Prof. A. W. von 485
Holder for Jars, Carboys, &c. (P) Holmgren-Holm (illus.) ... 804
Homo-cocamine. (Hesse) 1027
Homoiso-cocamine. (Hesse) 1027
Homopyrocatechin (liomocatechol) and Two of its Nitro-Deri-
vatives. (Coubin) 735
Honey, Notes on the Analysis of. (Wiley and others) 761
The Bibliography of, arranged Chronologically 761
Hop a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Extract, Preparat ion of. ( P) Foelsing 51
PARK
Hops, Customs Duties on Importation of ggi
Extraction of, with Production of Fine Extract. (P)
Thompson. From Theurer r,2S
Means of Collecting when Boiling. (P) Fortescue 51
Of the Year 1891. (Levy i imy
Preservation of . (I'i Adams and Meachatn 628
Treatment and Use of. (Pi The Brewing Improvement
Co * 932
Hornbeam a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Horn. Utilisation ol, in Brazil. (T.R.) 71 1
Hosiery, Apparatus for Washing and Treating, 1 I'i Roberts .. 810
The Dyeing of Black. ( Prey I 31
Houses, Heating and Ventilation of-. (P) Oades 2:13
Hubt's Iodine Test for Fats. ( Fahrion) 183
Hungary, Industry in. (T.R.) 68
" Hunyadi Janos " Mineral Waters, Composition of. (Biggart ) 336
Hydracetin; pyrodin. (Trillat) 1030
Hydrastinine Hydrochloride. (Merck) 515
Hydrazine Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids, Note on the.
( tToelting) 313
Manufacture of. 1 1') Johnson. From The Badische Anilin
und Soda Fabrik 370
Hydriodic Acid, Action of. on Cinchouine. (Lippmann and
Fleissner) 263
Acid, Action of, on Cinchonir.e. (Punn 263
Acid. Behaviour of Quinidine and Quinine towards.
1 Schubert and Skraup) 263
Hydrocarbon Oil Burners. IP) Townsend 5!)7
Oils for Heating Purposes. Ism-. 1 p) Henwood 735
Hydrocarbons, Melting Points of Mixtures of. (Vignon) 235
Method and Apparatus for Distilling Liquid. (P) Dvorko-
vitz and others 152
Method of Storing Highly Volatile. IP) Tlnvaite 512
Pyrogenic, Formed in the Manufacture of Compressed Gas.
( Brochet ) 59;)
Hydrochloric Acid, and Sulphuric Acid. Using Combination of,
for Decomposition of Chlorides, Sulphides. &e. (P)
l'edder sir,
Acid. Compounds of Quinine with. (Hesse) 171;
Acid (.as and Air, Manufacture of a Mixture of. 1 P)
La Soc. Pechiney et Cie 1003
Acid Gas, Manufacture of Chlorine from. (Pi Pechiney
el Cie '. 239
Acid, Production of Hydrogen and Chlorine from. (P)
Kellner * 23:*
Acid, Production of Strong. IP) JLyte and Steinhart 101
Acid, Volatility of Nickel in Presence of. (Sehutzeuborgcr) 213
Hydro-Extractors. (P) Mewburn 931
-Extractors, Cages of. (P) Collins and Kaye B95
Hydrofluoric Acid and its Sails. Use of, in Distillation of
Alcohol. (Schishkoff) 027
Acid, Use of. in Distilleries. (Vincent) 626
Hydrogen, Addition of, to Tricyclic Systems. (Bamberger) ... 23
And Chlorine, Production of, from Hydrochloric Acid (P)
Kellner 239
Apparatus for Producing Sulphuretted, (l'j Royon 842
Behaviour of, towards Lead and other Metals. (Neumann
and Si reintz.) 2 17
Experiment showing Absorption of, by Palladium. 1 Wilm) 405
Generators for Production of. (P) Hawkins and Fuller... loot
Manufacture of Peroxide of. (P) Brochocki 707
Metallic Block for Use in Producing. I P) Hawkins and
Fuller 823
Peroxide, Estimations in Alkaline Solution by Aid of.
( Jannasch and Niederhofheim) 270
Sulphide Group, Quantitative Separation of Metals of the.
(Jannasch and Etz) 710
Hydrometers, Tubes for Storing and Immersing. ( P) Fletcher 633
Hydrosulphides, Metallic. (Linderand Picton) Ofe
Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride, Estimation of Gold and Silver
by. (Lainer) 271
Hydrochloride, Quantitative Determination of Gold and
Silver by. (Lainer) 710
Preparation of Crystallised. (Crismer) 202
Hydroxynaphthoic Acid. 1 Trillat) ]u29
Hyoscyamine and Atropine. (Schutte) 453
Hyphoiie. (Trillat) 1029
Hypnotic, An Improved. (P) von Mering 708
Hypochlorous Acid, Action of, on p-Naphthaquinone. (Bam-
berger and Kitschelt) S97
Acid, Action of. on Tropine. (Einhornand Fischer) 707
Acid, Action of, on Wool. ( Lodge) 001
I
Import Duties, Proposed Remission of Uruguayan, on Agri-
cultural Products. (T.R.) 714
Impurities of Town Air, The. (Bailey) 769
Incandescence, Appliance for Producing Light by. (P)
Heskin (illus.) 21
India, Cinchona and Indigo Cultivation in. (T.R.) 720
O icuiue in. (T.R. ) 07
German Chemicals in. (T.R.) 284
Production of Sugar in British. (T.R.) 169
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Doc. 81, 1892.
India-Ruhber. (Class XIII.)...
PAGE
41. 170, 250, 857, 410. 530, 620, 696,
758, S27, 929, lel7
Cloth, Aniline Lakes lor Manufacture of. (P) Franken-
burg 808, 829
Critical Notes on the Chemical Technology ot. (Terry)... ;>7">
Hot- Water Pipes, Durability of. (Belleroehe) 929
Investigation of the Properties ot. (Vladimiroff) 929
Machines for Spreading on Textile Fabrics. (P) Coulter
an.t Rowley 588
Production of, in Borneo 758
Production of, in Nicaragua 827'
Suppiv, Ceylon as a Source of. iT.R. i 7ls
The" Dry Heat " Vulcanisation of. (Fawsitt) 332
Tyres. Ac. Moulds for Vulcanising. (P) Waddington — 1"I7
Indian Gum Samples of Known Origin. (Rideal) 403
Indicators for Montejus and Similar Apparatus. (P) Paton .. 509
Indigo and its Application in Dveing and Printing. ( Woseherl (2x
-Blue, Discharge of Dyed. ( Brandt ) 812
-Blue. Red and White Discharge Prints on Dyed. ( Brandt i si2
Carmine. Manufacture of, from Phenyl-Glyeocoll. \c. (Pi
Willcox. From The Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co.. 28
Determination of Indigotin in. (Ulzer) 63
Disulphonic Acid, Synthesis of. (Heymann) 25
Dyeing. Hawking Machines for. (P) Coulter 813
Prints, Preventing Weakening of Fibre in Discharge.
(Mullerus) 600
Productionof a Discharge on Dyed. (Binder) 813
Indigotin, Determination of. in Indigo. (Ulzer) 63
Determining Quantity of. in Commercial Indigo. ( Midler i 77s
Indothymol: Preparation of Thymoquinone. (Bayrae) 996
Induline Group III., Studies on the. ( Fischer and Heppe) . . . 156
Industrial Enterprise in Japan. (T.R.) 552
Ink, Composition for Manufacture of. (P) Leech and Hor-
robin 446
for Manifolding. ( P) Sherwi lod 340
Manufacture of Copying. (P) Coen 446
The Scientific Manufacture of. (Inglis Clark) 73S
Inks for Printing, Stamping, &c. (Pi Higgins 362
Improvements in Copying. ( P) Beales 45
The Testing of 273
Inland Revenue, Report of Principal of Laboratory of. (T.R.) 854
Inorganic Chemistry. Qualitative 00, 181,268.709. 774,843
Chennstrv, Ouantitative On. 1x1. 20x, 370. 157. 517. 030. 710,
775. 845. 940, 1035
Inisitol Group. Quiuitol the Simplest Sugar of the. (von
Baeyer) 760
Insect Destroyers, Means of Colouring. (P) Reade 541
Insecticide and Fertiliser. I Pi bake. From The Biolytic
Gypse Co 541
An Improved Fluid. (P) Pumuierer 934
Insects, Compound for the Destruction of. (P) Decesari 770
International Sewage Process. (Grimshaw)
Invertase, Presence of, in Wine and Beer. ( Donath) 543
Invert-Sugar, A Crystalline Magma of. (Wiechmann) 302
Iod-kosin, The Manufacture of. (Miihlhauser) (illus.) 677
Iodine and Chlorine, Quantitative Separation of. (Jannasch
andAschoff) 845
Convention, The. (T.R.) 951
Derivative of Phenacetin. (P) Riedel 033
Extraction of, from Liquids. ( P) Campani 1031
New Direct Separation of. (Jannasch and Aschoff) S45
Substitution Products of Phenols and Cresols. (P) "Will-
cox. From The Farb. vorm . Bayer and ( "o 370
Test for Fats. Hubl's. (Fahrion) 1x3
Iodol. (Trillat) 1030
Iron, Action of Carbon Monoxide upon. (Guntz) 909
Action of Carbonic Oxide on. (Guntz) 690
Action of Metallic, on Solution of Salt s of Iron Sesquioxide.
(Essner) 165
Action of, on Bichloride of Mercury. (Varet) 713
And Aluminium, Determination of, in Presence of Phos-
phoric Acid. (Krusr) 636
Andf Basic Slag, Treatment of. (P) Talbot 921
And Chromium. Allovsof. Including Report by F.Osmond
( Badfield I 910
And Coal Industries of Belgium. (T.R.i 69
And Nickel, Alloys of. (Wedding) 526
And Nickel, Treatment of Solutions containing. (P)
Johnson. From Parker and Robinson 755
And Nickel, Volatilisation of, by carbonic Oxide. (Gar-
nier) -43
And Other Metals. Direct Production of. from Ores.
(Lebiedieff) 21.5
And Steel, Direct Determination of Aluminium in. (Drown
and McKennal 268
And Steel Institute, Presided ial Address to the 689
And Steel, Manufacture of. (P) Hutchinson and Harbord. 012
And Steel. Manufacture of. (P) von Ehrenwerth 612
And Steel Plates, Enamelling. (P) Clark 431
And Steel. Purification of. from Sulphur. (Sander) 911
And Steel, The Passive State of. Part II. (Andrews)
(illus.) 527
And Steel. The Passive State of. Part III. (Andrews)
(illus.) 009
And Steel Wire Influence of Heat on the Properties of.
(Rudeloff) 40
Apparatus for Galvanising. (P) Jones 61*
PAGE
Iron — cont.
Calorimetrical Investigations on Silicon and Aluminium in
Cast. (Osmond) 2-!2
Carbonyl. (Bcrthelot) 909
Carbonyl in Illuminating Gas. Probable Presence of 890
Carburising Fluid, (F) Stead 694
Colorimetric Determination of. (Ribau) 209
Coloration of Clay by Oxide ot. I Seger) 749
< .inversion of Cast into Wrought, and Steel. < Lebiedieff) . 245
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in Presence of . (John-
son and Osborne I 777
Elimination uf Sulphur from. (Ball and Wingham) 751
Elimination of Sulphur from. (Stead) 911
Estimation of Manganese in Spiegel. (Bastin) 1037
Estimation of Slag in Wrought. (Barrows and Turner) .. 636
Estimation of Sma'l Quantities of. (Lowe) 133
Experiments on Mordanting Wool with. (Ulrich) 30
Forming Magnetic 1 Ixide on the Surface of. 1 P) Bertram! 094
Manufactui f. (P) Le Neve- Poster 922
Manufacture of. and Fuel therefor. (P) Sugden 899
Manufacture of Galvanised. (Pi Richards 247
Manufacture of, in its Relations to Agriculture. (Bell) .. 819
Manufacturing Alloys of Nickel and. |P> Martins 822
Manufacturing Salts of Peroxide of. (Pi Paillard 434
New 1 i.\ stalline Oxychlorides of. (Rousseau 1 202
Note on the Density of. I Uopkinson) 693
Oxide, Recovery of. (P) Lunge and Dewar 433
Pipes, Bars, anil Hoops. Galvanising. Pi Jc s 612
Plate, Enamelling. (P) Claus 435
Precipitation of Copper by. (Essner) 165
Preparing Ores, Oxides, and Compounds of, for Smelting.
(P) Woodcock and others 75 1
Preservative Coatings for. (P) Robson 301
Process for Rendering Homogeneous. (P) Fraley 1 095
Purification of. (P) Sauiter 1014
Separation of, from other Elements. 1 Rothe) 940
Stains in Cotton Cloth. (Weber) 495
Statistics Respecting. (T.R.) 79
The Molecular Changes of. (Moreillon) (illus.) 349
Titaniferous, in the Blast Furnace 247
Treating Waste Liquors to obtain Oxide of. (P) Hall 013
Utilisation of a Waste Oxide of, for Sewage Purification.
(P) Sacre and Grimshaw 933
Vessels for Molten Substances. (Foehr) (illas.) 520
Ware, Production of Enamelled. 1P1 Claus 435
Iso- and Poly-Iso-Eugenol, Manufacture of. (P) Johnson.
From von Heyden Nnchfolger 633
Iso-cinchonidine Sulphouic Acid. (Hesse) 176
t'inehonine. (Hesse) 177
Cinchonine Sulphouic Acid. ( Hesse) 176
Cocaine. (Hesse) 1020
Cocamine. ( Hesse) 1027
Conquiniue Sulphonic Acid. (Hesse) 170
Maltose, Preparation of. ( Lintner and Dull) 1021
Maltese, and its Importance in Brewing. (Lintner) 027
Maltose in Beer and Wort. (Lintner) 171
Maltose, Separation of, from the Diastatic Conversion
Products of Starch. (Lintner and Dull) 766
Isoprene, Spontaneous Conversion of, into Caoutchouc
(Tilden) 586
Isoquinine Sulphonic Acid. ( Hesse) 176
Italy British Trade with. (T.R.) 468
Changes in Customs Duties and Regulations of. (T.R.) .. 60
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff. 1T.R.1 641
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff of. (T.K.) 9ix
" Ivette " a Yieldcr of Tannin. ( Mafnt ) 623
Ivory, &c, Process for Printing on. (Pi de Coctlogon 253
.1 amaica, Fertilisers in. I T.R.) 1041
Manufacture of Lime Juice in. (T.R) 7x3
Japan, Drugs and Chemicals in. (T.R.) 714
Industrial Enterprise in. (T.R.) 55i
Production and Export of Copper in. (T.R.) 720
The Camphor Trade of. iT.K.) 948
The Metric System in. (T.R.) 188
Japanese Paper. 1 Lauboeck) 56
Java Crop of Cinchona for 1892. (T.R.) 469
Java, Gum Acacia in. (T.R.) 720
Juloles. (Kaiser and Reissert) 073
Jute as a Substitute for Gun-cotton. 1 Miihlhauser) 937
Fibre, Explosive Nitrates from the. (Cross and Bevan) .. 214
K
Kairm. (Trillat) 1030
Kaolin and Sand, Colour Test of. (Nickel) 102
Ketones, Reaction of Sodium Nitroprussidewilh. (von Bitto) 846
Kid-leather, Tanning II id. s for Making. iPiZahn 625
Kieserite. German Production of. (T.R.) 646
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
XXXVll
PAGE
Kilns for Annealing Plate Glass. (P) Pilkiugton Gnu
For Burning Limestone, Cement, &c. (P) Briggs 806
For Firing Pottery and Earthenware. (P) Plant 431
For Firing Terra-Cotta, Ac, (P) d'Enghein 524
For Glazing and Burning Sanitary Ware. (P) Armstrong 524
For Heating and Burning Pottery. (P) Severn 688
For Manufacture of Pottery. ( P) Query 435
Kino a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Kjcldahl's Method. Krror in Determination of Albuminoid
Nitrogen by. (Synder) 372
Kola Nut, Chemistry of the. (Knehel) 545
Powder, Disacerbation of. (P) Hoffmann 1024
Powder, Production of a Palatable. (P) Haseloff S34
Korea, Manufacture of Paper in. ( T.R.) 715
Kreusler's Nitric Acid Apparatus. Modification of. (Robson)
(illus.) 594
Kuinyss Compounds, Manufacture of. (P) Carnrick 259
Laboratory Notes. (Lowe) 131
lacquers and Paints. (P) Gill 1017
Lactose, Effect of Presence of Lead Acetate on Titration of.
(Borntrager) 778
Lakes, Manufacture of Aniline, for India-Rubber. (P) Frank-
enburg 829
Lamp-Black Carbon-Black, Apparatus for Manufacturing.
(P) Binuey 171
Lamp. Simplified Form of Magnesium. (P) Ellis 807
Spirit Blast- (illus.) 467
Lamps, Analysis of Glass Used in the Manufacture of
Incandescent Electric. (Woodman) 817
Appliances for Use with Incandescence. (P) Heald 735
Carbons for Electric Are. (P) Wise. From Griidelbaeh.. 754
Incandescence Gas. ( P) Clamond 21
Incandescent Electric. (P) Smith 618
Lanolin, Preparation of, from Residue of Wool-Fat. (P) Jaff6
and Darmstaedtor) 928
Larch a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Turpentine. ( Valenta) 177
Lard, Testing, for Fatty Oils. ( Welmans) 548
Laundry Blue, Moulding. (P) Knowles 45
Lavender and Bergamot. The Oils of. (Bertram and Wal-
baum) 838
Oil. (Sender and Tiemann) 706
Leaching Apparatus. (P) Bohm 352
Lead Acetate. Effect of Presence of, on Titration of Lactose.
( Borntrager) 778
Acetate. Precipitation of Ratfinose by Auimoniacal. (Koyd) 77S
And other Metallic Fumes. Method of Condensing. (P)
Elliott 822
And other Metals, Behavior of Hydrogen towards. (Neu-
mann and Streiutz) 247
Detection and Estimation of, in Commercial Tartaric and
Citric Acids. (Bucket) 848
Determination of Sulphur in Minerals containing (Jan-
nasch and Aschoff ) 458
For Storage Battery Cells, Manufacture of. (P) Bush and
Doubleday 445
Found in Preserves. (Reuss) 449
Influence of Acetates of, on the Estimation of Invert Sugar.
( Borntriiger) 778
In Ores, Von Schulz and Low's Method of Estimating.
(Williams) 775
In Tartaric Acid. ( Buchet) 837
In Tartaric Acid. (Guillot) 838
Manufacture of White. (P) Astrop an1 1 Parker 45
Manufacture of White. (P) A. J.Smith 1017
Manufacture of White. (P) Fell. From Stevens 46
Manufacture of White. (P) Honman and Vullier 361
Manufacture of White. (P) James 620
Manufacture of White. (P) Labois 696
Manufacture of White. (P) Noad 538
Manufacture of White. (P) Smith and Elmore 15
Manufacture of White. (Pi White 620
Obtainment of Litharge from. (P) Rosing 694
On the Preparation of Samples of Rich Argentiferous, for
Assay. (Pattinson) 321
Presence of, in Ammonia Solution. (Lowe) 133
Production of Litharge from Metallic. (P) Gutensohn ... 694
Production of White. (P) Maclvor and Smith 45
Production of White. (P) Smith and Elmore 360
Purification of. (P) Rosing 694
Separation of, from the Precious Metals contained in it.
(P) Rosing 694
Silver and Zinc, Separation and Estimation of, in Minerals
Composed of Galena and Blende. (Aubin) 775
Statistics of for 1891 721
Sulphate, Analysis of Galena and. (Benedikt) 181
Sulphide and Zinc. Apparatus for Oxidising, to form White
Pigments. (P) Rowan and Dawson 829
The Basic Bessemer Process Applied to the Metallurgy of. 527
-Zinc Sulphides, Treatment of Argentiferous. (Schnabel). 821
PAGE
Lears or Annealing Furnaces for Sheet or Plate-Glass. (Pi
Bonta . , sis
Leather. (Class XIV.) 411,170.253.117,539,621,697,759,
„ . 930. lllls
Dyeing, Tanning, and Mordanting. (P) Goldschmidt 521
Finishing. (P) Gibney 930
Improved Artificial. (P) Sadler 48
Improvements in Drying. (P) Pirn 539
Improvements in "Waterproofing. (P) Brunner 253
Manufacture of Artificial Chamois. (P) Thiry 698
Manufacture of Substitute for. (P) Boult. From Ebert . 625
Pulp, Mould for. (P) Mahaffy and others 759
Rendering, "Waterproof and Durable. (P) Riegert 121
The Dyeing of 697
Tho Weighting of. ( Kohlmann) 549
Leaves of Plants, Adherence of Copper Compounds to.
(Girard) 770
Lechesne Nickel-Steel Process, The 439
Legislation in Restraint of the Emission of Noxious Gases from
Manufacturing Operations, Discussion on Fletcher's
Paper on 309
On Noxious Gases. ( Fletcher) 120
Letter-press Processes based on Phot< igraphy. (P) Albert .... 634
Levulose and Dextrose, Apparent Proportions of, in certain
Wines. ( Borntrager) 76(5
Light. (Class II.) 21, 149, 231, 337, 423, 510, 59(1, 669, 734,
805, 896, 995
Action of, on Silver Chloride. (Baker) 631
Action of, on Silver Chloride. ( Bechamp) 266
Action of, on Silver Chloride. (Gfuntz) 179
Apparatus for Producing. (P) Hudson 806
Influence of Incandescent Electric, on Paper. (Wiesner) 596
Producing Artificial. (P) Jonson. From Nadar 634
Lights, Magnesium Flash. (P) Haddan. From Engel 267
Magnesium, for Photographic and Signalling Purposes.
(P) Hackh 597
Lignin, Sulphite- Wood Liquor and. (Lindsey and Tollens) ... 835
Lime, Apparatus for Burning. (P) Taylor 749
Juice, Manufacture of, in Jamaica. (T.R.) 783
Obtaining Concentrated Dicalcic Phosphate of. (P)
Simpson 238
Obtaining Precipitated or Enriched Phosphate of. (l'l
Brunner and Zanner 37
Products obtained by the Dry Distillation of Bran with.
(Laycock and Klingemann) 599
Simultaneous Manufacture of Precipitated Phosphate of,
and Neutral Sulphate of Soda. (P) Brunner and
Zanner 816
Treatment of Sewege. (Grimshaw) 5
Limestone, Kilns for Burning. (P) Briggs 606
Ltmettin. (Tilden) 264
Linalool. (Semmler and Tiemann) 706
Acetate. (Semmler and Tiemann) 706
Lindo British Refrigerating Co., Lim., Visit to 579
Linings, Blast-Furnace. (P) Johnson, From Gayly 353
Blast-Furnace. (P) King. From Gayly 352
Linoleum, Analysis of. ( Pinotte) 550
Manufacture of Inlaid. (P) Thomson and Powell 431
Linseed Oil, Adulteration of. s is
Oil, Adulteration of, by Rosin Oil. (Cored) 550
Lint , Removal of, from Cotton-Seed. (Dudley) 619
Liquid, Regulating the Flow of Volatile, in Refrigerators. (P)
Lightfoot 8J6
Liquids, Action of certain, on Aluminium. (Lunge) 543
Aerators for Treating. (P) Andrew 896
And Pulpy Substances, Apparatus for Extracting. (Holde) 939
Apparatus for Charging witch Gases. (Pi Miuto 596
Apparatus for Cleansing and Filtering (P) Birch 364
Apparatus for Concentrating. (P) Deacon. From
Maxwell 830
Apparatus for Cooling. (P) Elsworthy (illus.) 260
Apparatus for Cooling, Heating, and Drying. (P) Shaw
and Rushton 238
Apparatus for Distilling and Rectifying. (P) Pitt. From
Savalle 257
Apparatus for Evaporating, 4c. (P) Mirrleesaud Balling-
hall 895
Apparatus for Expressing, from Substances. (P) La Soc.
Anon, du Compresseur Jourdan 1017
Apparatus for Filtering. (P) Thompson. From Williamson 509
Apparatus for Filtering Alcoholic and Gaseous. (Pj
Gehrke 833
Apparatus for Filtering Polluted. (P) Candy 933
Apparatus for Heating. (P) Watkinson 337
Apparatus for Mixing. (P) Adler 668
Apparatus for Mixing, with Liquids or Solids. (P) John-
son and Hutchinson 596
Apparatus for Purifying. (P) Brownlow 769
Apparatus for Rapidly heating. (P) Zeitschel 509
Apparatus for Regulating the Supply of Volatile. (P)
Lightfoot. From The Gesellschaft fur Limb's
Eismacbinen 668
Apparatus for Separating, from Solids. (P) Sawrey and
Collet 230
Apparatus for Separating Volatile. (P) Pontaillie (illus.) 230
Apparatus for Subjecting, to Centrifugal Action. (P)
Imray. From Bergh 337
XXXV111
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Liquids — cont.
Apparatus for Treating Textiles with. il'l Stewart
(illus.) 745
Clarifying Muddy. (P) Dervaux 451
Composition for Absorbing. ( P) Burke] and Osterwald. . . 170
Device for Containing Volatile or Inllainmable. 1 1' i
Diffetot 806
Distilling and Rectifying. (P) Perrier 832
Evaporating Saccharine, (P) Stewart 101 S
Filling Sterilised, into Vessels, and Closing Same. (P)
Pitzpa trick. From Neuhass and others 239
Filtering Beer and other. (Pi Sutton 1022
Funnels for Measuring. (P) Richardson 596
luexplodable Car. for Inflammable. I P) Shillitc B95
Instruments for Determining Specific Gravities of. (P)
Fletcher 635
Means for the Purification of. (P) Watson 364
Menus of Colouring to Prevent Accidents and Crime, (P)
Reatle . 541
Method of Analysing, (Pi de Pass. From Gossart 712
Method and Apparatus for Drawing off and Transporting
Sterilised. (P) Imray. From Calbera Fitz and Con-
sort en 173
Process and Apparatus for Sterilising. 1 1") Imray. From
Calberla Fitz und Consorten 258
Process for Purifying Impure. (P) Scruby 451
Production of Fermented. ( P) Takamine 1022
Self- Acting Apparatus for Raising. (P) Kestner alius.).. 904
Spraying Devices for Cooling. fP) Hanford RS3
The Flow of, through Tubes. 1 Werczyng) 27 l
Treatment of Contaminated. (PJ Scott- Moncrieff 705
Treatment of Textile Fibres with. (P) Gessler 680
" Liquor Ammonia?," On the Testing of. (Hertkorn) 457
Sulphite- Wood, and Lignin. ( Lindsey and Tollensl BS5
Liquors, Apparatus for Manufacture of" Malt. (Pi .lustier.
From Billings 833
Apparatus for Separating Scum from. (P) Chapman.
(illus.) 895
Mashing und Brewing Fermented. Il'l Barton 833
Treating Waste, from Metallurgical Processes. (P) Hall. 613
Utilisation of Cupreous. (P) Hopfner 351
Utilisation of Waste. (P) Higgin 771
Linseed Oil. Testing of Boiled. (Fahrion) C9S
Lists of Members Elected. . 2, 92, 202, 296, 394, 4£4. 568, 800, 866, 962
Litharge, Obtainraent of. from Lead. (P) Rosing 694
Production of, from Metallic Lead. (P) Gutensohu 691
Lithographic Processes based on Photography. ( P) Albert . . . 631
Stone Deposits in the Oural Mountains. (T.R.t mil
Stones for Colour Printing. (P) Krantz and Zeissler 635
Liverpool Section, Chairman's Address to. (Brunner) 874
Logwood, Valuation of Extracts of. (von Cochenhausen) 32
London Electric Supply Corporation, Visit to 578
Lubricant for Chains and Bearings of Cycles. (P) Lake.
From Ketchum 170
Lubricants lor Heavy Machinery, f P) Ridsdale and Jones .. 415
Manufacture of. (P) Hutchinson 758
Luminosity of Coal-Gss Flames. (Lewes) 231
Lung-Pigment, Identification of, with Soot. ( Wiesner) 1024
Lupanine. (Leibeck) 453
Lye, Extracting Glycerin from Soap Makers' Spent. (P)
Hagemann 620
Lyes, Apparatus for Evaporating Spent Alkaline. (P)
Caldwell 1006
M
Mace. (Soltsien) 372
Machinery. (Class I.) 20, 147, 230, 337, 421, 507, 595, 667,
73:;. 802, s:il, 992
Madder Root a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Magenta, Is it Poisonous ? (Cazeneuve) 900
Magnesia and Chrome Iron Ore, Refractory Bricks of. (Leo). 160
The Weldon Process with, Modified, (Reychler) 31
Magnesium Flash Lights. (P) Haddan. Prom Engel 207
Flash-Light Apparatus. (P) Beste s'.m
Flash-Light, Production of. (P) Wunsehe 899
Interaction between Metallic, and Chlorides. (Seubert and
Schmidt) 849
Lights for Photographic and .Signalling Purposes. (P)
Haekh 597
Manufacturing Anhydrous Chloride of, (P) Bell. From
Schloesing 686
Nitride, i Merz) 274
Reduction of Oxygen Compounds by. (Winkler) 39
Magnetic Ores of Ashe County, N.C. (Nitze) 2 HI
oxide, Forming on the Surface of Iron. (P) Bertrand ilot
Mahler's Study of the Calorific Power of Combustibles, Report
on. (Carnot and Le Chatelier) slo
Mahogany a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) <;21
Maize Kernel, the Proteids of the. (Chittenden and Osborne) 701
Oil. (Smith) 5114
Production of Alimentary Product from. (P) Bates.,... . 769
PAGE
Malt and Hops, Obtaining an Extract of. (P) Sonstadt 51
Apparatus for Making and Drying. (P) Gough 833
Beverages. (P) Adam 1023
Coffee, Manufacture of. 1P1 Brougier and Trillion 70s
Extracts, Estimation of Intensity of Colour of. (Lintner)
( illus.) 1038
Influence of Different Temperatures on the Condition of.
(Prior) 766
Kilning, il'l Leaker 93a
Liquors, Apparatus for Manufacture of. (P) Justice.
From Billings 833
Manufacture of Colour. (P) Thompson. From Schmied. *'>3
Mashing Apparatus, il'i Money 833
Production of Coloured. (P) Hof. From Riibsam 628
Malting, Process and Apparatus for Paeumatic. (P) Leaker.. 1022
Malto-Dextrins. A Contribution to the Study of the, (Morris
and Wells I .' 764
Manchester Building Byelaws, Discussion on 2U»
Chamber of Commerce, Proceedings of. (T.R.) is7
Section, Chairman's Address to. (Levinstein) S75
Manchuria. Mining in. (T.R.) 555
Manganese, Action of Carbonic Oiide on. (Guntz) 680
And Zinc, Separation of. (Jannasch and Niederhofheitn) 270
Borate, its Constitution and Properties. (Han lev and
Ramagc) ' 1017
Dioxide. Regeneration of. (Reychler) 34
Estimation of. by the Chlorate Method. (Hampe) 457
Estimation of, in Spiegel Iron and Ferromanganese.
( Bastin) 1,137
Mango a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Manila Elemi, Notes on. (Maiden) 758
Manitol, Decomposition of. by the Bacillus Ethaceticus.
(Frankland and Lumsdeu) 4411
Manure, Manufacture of Artificial, il'i Knorre 541
Manufacture of. from Towns' Refuse. 1P1 Lamattina 364
Market in 1890, The. (T.R.) ;ss
Preparing Sludge for Use as. Il'i HardwO k and .Wwton. 173
Treating and Drying Artificial. (P) Fletcher and Hoyle. . 894
Manures, ic. (Class XV.) 253. 539, 025, 60S, 759. S30, 1018
Artificial, for Fruit Culture. (Brunner) 874
Valuation of Special 759
Manuring. The Results of Chemical 625
Maple a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Marble, Manufacturing Artificial. IP) George and Wernaer. . 165
Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Solenz 7 pi
Treatment for Cleaning. ( P) Lodge and Jury 740
Marbling Enamelled Articles. (P) Gnuchtel 524
Margarine. Determination of Watery Constituents in.
(Thorner) (illus.) 63
Martinique, Fertilisers in. (T.R.) 1041
Mashing and Fermenting, The Process of. (Sykes) 765
Mashonaland, Nitrate of Potash and Plumbago in. (T.R.) . . . 854
Mastic a Y'ielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Match Industry, Progressof the. ( Jettel) 839
Matches. (Class XXII.) . . 59, 179, 267, 450, 5K5, 035, 708, 773. S39, 937,
1032
Safety. (Schnitzel 709
Materials for Decorative Purposes, Transparent Coloured. ( P)
McLean 521
Mattes containing Copper, Nickel, a^id Silver, Treatment of.
(P) Strap 61fi
Treating certain, to Obtain Nickel and Cobalt. (P)
llerrenschinidt 694
Treating Copper. (P) l'elatan .'. . 754
Treating Plumhiferous Copper. (P) James 353
Mauritius, Drug Imports into. (T.R.) 468
Supply of Soap to. (T.R.) , 468
Maxim-Nordenfeldt ( .un and Ammunition Co., Liui., Visit to . 580
Measures. (Lupton) 217
Meat and Fatty Matters, Preservation of. (P) Falcimagne. . . 680
Means for Preserving. (PI Elsworthy 259
Means for Preserving. (P) Johnson." From Salzer .' 769
Preservation of. (P) Pitt. From Mariosa 768
Preserving. (P) Hartmann 1024
Smoking or Curing. (P) Piffard .....! 1024
Meerschaum, Treating, to Render it Porous and Absorbent in
the Manufactured State. (P) Weingott 525
Meeting, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual 5(?9
Meetings to Consider the Alkali Works Act Amendment Bill. . 470
Meldola's Blue, the Condensation of, with Aromatic and Fatty
Amines. (Schlarb) * 05
Melting Points of Mixtures of Hydrocarbons. (Vignon) 235
Menthylamine, Russian. ( Andres and Andreef ) 705
Members Elected, Lists of J, 92, 2o2, 200, 394, 484, 568, 800,
T.r , ■ ■ « 866, 962
Membranes, < lieuneal Composition of Vegetable Cell.
iSchul/.ej 49
.Menthol. ( Berkenheim) (532
Mercurial Air-pumps. (P) Thompson. From Raps 60
Mercury, Action of Aluminium on Cyanide of. (Varet) 713
Action of Iron on Bichloride of.' (Varet) [ 7]3
Action of Nickel on Bichloride of. (Varet) .'. 713
And Zinc, the Conditions which determine Combination
between the Cyanides of. (Dunstan) S67
Dv. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
XXXIX
PAGE
Mercury — cant.
Compounds, Effect of Heat on. (Janda) 751, mil
Electrolytic Separation of, from Cupper. (Smith and
McCauley) isi
Production of, in Russia. (T.R.) 71 1
The Volumetric Estimation of. (Jones) 37i
Meta-dinitrobenzene, (Willgerodt) 777
-Phenylenediamine Solutions, Preservation of. (Deniges). 84"
Metal, Alloying the Surface of, (P) Martin 921
Alloys. IT) Alzugaray 615
Apparatus for Removing Gases or Impurities from, when
Casting. (P) Sebemus (illus.) 023
Apparatus for Separating Heavy Substances containing.
(PJ Scoular 1123
Articles. Decorating with other Metals. (P) Krantz and
Zcissler 616
-Bearing Bodies, Process for Treating. (P) Loe 351
Electro-deposition of, on Glass. &c. (P) Puttier 1007
Extracting or Recovering, from Ores. (P) Noad, Minns.
ami Stevens , '121
Fibre, Manufacture of. (PI Torkington.. ill
Hardening Articles of. (P) Hardingham. FromWilisch. 823
Manufacture of Sheet. (P) Clans 922
•Salts. Apparatus for Dyeing Textiles by Means or. d'j
Odernheimer .' ie,l
Sargent and Sons' Annual, Circular 77
Metallurgical Industries, South American. (Vattier) 768
Output i,f Austria in 1891. (T.R.) s;,;;
Metallurgy. (Class X.) 89, 165, 212. 349, 137, 526,607.639,750,819,
909, 1013
Metals. Action of. on Salts dissolved in Organic Liquids.
(Varet) 713,779
Action of Salt 011 Solutions of 802
Adding Metallic and Non-Metallic Substances to. (P)
d illey 1013
Alloying Aluminium with other. (P) Adderbrooke 753
Application of Certain Rare, for Ceramic Colours.
(Sprechsaal) 523
As Amalgams, Electrolytic Determination of. (Gibbs) ... 547
Behaviour nf Hydrogen towards. (Strientz) 247
t 'oatmg. (P) Norton 1123
Coating or Cleaning. (Pi Heatl'lield 443
Colours and Absorption Spectra of thin Metallic Films and
of Incandescent Vapours of the. (Dudley) 924
Compound for Carburisiug. (P) Brown 616
I ''-sulphurising Castings or Alloys of. (P) Rossieneux ... 615
Direct Production of. from their Ores. (Lebiedieff) 245
Electric Reduction of. ( P) Willson 354
Electrolytic Extraction of. (P) Hnepfner 535
Extraction and Treatment of. (Lebedeff) 923
Extracting Precious, from Ores or Minerals. (PI Hannay 24S
Extraction of, from < Ires. ( P) Shedlock and Denny 695
Extraction of, from Ores ami Minerals. (P) Turton 1114
Extraction of, from their Ores. ( F) Chenhall 924
Extraction of Precious. (P) Martin and Pethybridge 926
Extraction of Precious, from Ores. ( P ) Rickard 533
Extracting, from Ores or Minerals. ( P) Niewertb 616
In Vacuo, Apparatus for Casting. (P) Simpson 823
Liquid Polish for Cleaning. (P) King 620
Manufacture of Oxides of the Alkaline. (P) Castner 1005
Means for Extracting Precious, from their Ores. (P)
Webb 922
Means for Heating, by Gaseous or Liquid Fuel. (P)
Rodger 733
Means for Separating Alkaline and Earthy, from their
Salts, &e. (P) Atkins and Applegarth 43
Means for Tempering and Hardening, (PJ Durning 1014
Melting, by Electricity. (P) Kreinsen 1016
Of the Hydrogen Sulphide Group, Quantitative Separation
of. (Jannaseh and Etz) 710
Process for Rendering, Homogeneous. (P) Fraley 695
Separating, from their Ores. (P) Atkins 618
Solder for Joining Aluminium with other. (P)Wegner.. G13
The Possibility of Extracting Precious, from Sea-Water.
(Munster) 351
Metallurgical jFuruaccs, Exhibition of Models of. (Campbell
Brown) 312
Meta-xylenesulphonic Acids (II.). (Moody) 2S
Meta-xylidine, Action of Benzyl Chloride on. (Jablen-Gonuet) 230
Meta-xyloquinoline, Studies on Derivatives !of. (Noelting and
Trautmann) 27
Methoxyaiuido-1 :3-Dimethylbenzeue and Derivatives thereof.
(Hodgkinson and Limpach) 999
Methylamido-crotoanilide. j3-, and its Relation to Antipyrine.
(Knorr and Taufkirch) 506
Methylauiines, Ethylamines, Phcnylaniines, and Naphthyl-
amines, Production and Separation of. (P) Vidal 314
Methyldiphenylhydroquinoxaline. (Fischer and Busch) 24
Methylene Green extra. Application of. (von Perger) 31
Methyl Iodide, Action of, on.Cnprcine and on Quinine. (Hesse) 177
Methylsaccharine, On. (Weber) 772
Metol and Amidol 634
Metric System in China and Japan. (T.R.) 188
Mexico, Chemicals in. (T.R.) 714
Discovery of New Deposit of Onyx in. (T.R.) 783
Exports of Henequen from. (T.R.) 469
New Customs Tariff of. (T.R.) 67,186
The Industrial Development of. (T.R.) 467
TAGE
Mica Industry in North Carolina, The Ground. (T.R.) 853
Mioroidine. (Trillat) ]0o,,
Mildew, Formation of, in Woollen Goods. (Schimke) (illus.). 741
Milk, Apparatus I'm- Determination of Fat in. (Molinari)
(illus.) fil
Apparatus for Sterilising. (Pi Redfern. From Neuhass,
Gronwald, and Oehlinann 63o
Apparatus for Testing Quantity of Cream in. | PI Newton.
From Augustenborg ami Hansen 52
Device to be used when Boiling. IP) Fitzpatrick. Prom
Teschner ggo
Is it Acid or Alkaline? (Vaudin) ...". 1023
Manufacture of Artilicial Human. (P) Reith and Dahm . 544
Preserving. (P) Oakhill and Leaker 259
Preventing Samples of, from Curdline. (Pi ilen 259
-Products. Estimation of Fatty Matters in. (Leze and
Allard) 46r,
Reaction of, to Phenolphthalein. (Vaudin) 932
Sterilisers, (P) Cornaz 768
Mills, Grinding and Crushing. (P) Askhani 994
Mimosa a Yiehler of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Mineral and Metallurgical Output of Austria in 1891. (T.R.) . 853
Bearing Substances, Separating Finely Divided. (P) Peek 823
Discoveries in Greece. (T.R.) 468
Oil and Ammonia, Manufacture of . (P) Young 900
Oil Residues, Use of, as Fuel for, Glass Furnaces. (Malv-
schew) 510
Oils, Distillation of. (P) Laiug 341
Oils, Gas Generator for Distillation of. (P) Sepulchre 510
Oils, Qualitative Reactions of. (Holde) 272
Oils, Solidification or. IP) Chenhall 670
Oils. Test for. (Holde) 637
Pigment Colours, Use of, in Cotton Dyeing. (Soxhlet) 620
Production in 1891, European 949
Products of the United States for 1S91. lT.R.1 ...'. 1044
Production of New South Wales. (T.R.) 69
Production of Prussia. (T. R I 471
Production of Queensland. (T.R.) . 69
Statistics of Canada for 1891. (T.R.) 647
Statistics of the United Kingdom for 1891 721
Statistics of the United States. ( l.R.) 69
Waters, Manufacture of Artilicial. (P) Hiibener ..... 258
Minerals in Persia (T.R.) 69
Mode of Formation of Sulphide. (Chuard) ....!.. 274
Mines. Behaviour of Explosives in Fiery. (Lohmann) 179
Of Vermont, The Copper. (Howe) 246
The Almadcn Quicksilver 753
Mining and Metallurgical Industries of Prussia. (T.R.) 190
Development in Peru. (T.R.) 7->o
Engineers, Baltimore Meeting of American Institute of 233,
In British Columbia. (T.R.) " '720
Industry of Colombia. (T.R.) '. '. 69
lu Manchuria. (T.R.) ...... 555
Mirror and Plate Glass Industry of Bohemia 604
Mixtures, Manufacture^ Granular Effervescible. (P) Kerfoot 838
M ohair Fabrics and Plushes, The Dyeing of. (Weiler) (illus.) 519
Moisture and Heat, Apparatus for Effecting Interchange of
(P) Lightfoot. From The Gescllschat't fur limlcs
Eismaschinen ugg
Apparatus for Extracting. (P) Gye ....... 595
Influence of, on Vegetable Sizing of Paper. (Hasselkussj. 452
Molasses, Coil for Feeding, into Vacuum Pans. (P) Basanta . 542
Extracting Sugar from. ( P) Schneller and Wissc 44s
Formation of. (Herzfeld) 512
Notes on the Analysis of. (Wiley and others) .... 761
Refining. ( P) Schneller and Wisse 530
Mono-bromo- and Di-bromoparaoxybenzoic Acid, Production of.
(P) Johnson. From von Heyden, Nachfolger 369
Monocarbonates, Production of, from Bicarbonates of the
Alkalis. (P) Gossage 907
Montejus, Indicators for. (P) Paton 509
Monte Rosa, Gold-Bearing Veins of Pyrites on. (Walter) 821
Mordant, Note on a New Chromium. (Scheurer) 33
Mordants. Use of Sodium Tungstate as a Fixing Agent for
(Ulrich) 30
Morocco, British Trade in. ( T.R. ) 453
Exports to Germany from. (T.R.)... "°" 4f8
Mortar, Burnt Clay. (T.R.) , " 2S2
Improved Manufacture of. (P) Warner and Curry. ..'. .'.'.' 607
Producing Hydrochloric. (P) Bloemenda! 688
Treatment of, to Prevent Deterioration. (P) Aitken .. 6011
Mortars. (Class IX.) ... 3S, 163, 241, 435, 524, 606, 688, 719, 81S, 908,
Hydraulic, from Slag. (5] filler) 435
Mould for Leather, Paper, and other Pulp. (P) Mahaffy and
others * 753
Moulds for Vulcanising India-Rubber Tyres and Rings. (P)
Waddington ioi7
Mountain Ash a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Mucilages. Production of. (P) Higgins 447,447,447
Mulberry a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Mulhouse, Sealed Notes Deposited with Society of, by Noelting 343
Museum at Constantinople, Commercial. (T.R.) 285
xl
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec si,]
PAGE
Musk, Manufacture of Artificial. (Pi Baur 77:s
Studies on Artificial. (Bam) 306
Mustard Oil, Estimation ot. (Sohlioht) 779
Myrabolans a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat i C-23
Myrtle a Yielder of Tannin, i Ma tal I 023
N
Naphthalene. (Trillat) 1028
Eating and I'm nor Hairs by Means of the Alpha-Slllphoiric
Acid of. (Burns and Hull) 4S
Colouring Matters. Manufacture of Basic. (Pi Johnson.
From The Badische Aniliu und Soda Fab 516
Naphthaquinone, Action of Hypochlorous Acid on ft-. (Bam-
berger and Kitschelt) 997
Sulphonic Acids, (3-. (Witt) 155
Naphtha Trade of Russia, The. (T.R.) 7*3
Naphthol, a- and /S-. (Trillat) 1028
a-Sulphonic Aeid, a-. (Witt and Eaufmann) 155
Antiseptic, A Soluble. ( Stackler) 772
Benzoate, /3- ( Yvon and Berlioz) 264
Dyehur Cut (mi with ft-. iKcrlcsz) 31
Sulpho Aeids. Manufacture of a-. Farb. vorm. Bayer
and Co. (1») 999
Use of Nitroso-0-, in Quantitative Analysis. (Schleier) .. 713
Naphthylamine ether, Dyeing Cotton with, i Kertc'-sz) 31
998
3H
30
236
69
as.-,
910
69
The Nitration of. /3-. (Friedlander and St. Szyinanski) ...
Naphthylamines, Production of. (P) Vidal
Naphthyl Blue, Application of. (von Perger)
Naphthyl-glycines,ColouringMatters from. (P) von Porthehn
Natal, Coal Industry of. (T.R,.)
Negrier's Method of Concentrating Sulphuric Acid
Neuhausen Aluminium Factory, The. ( Wedding) (illus. i
New South Wales, Mineral Production of. (T.R.)
Nicaragua, Production of India-Rubber in 827
Nickel, Action of. on Bichloride of Mercury. (Varet) 713
Analysis. (Enimens) 1035
And 'Cobalt, Separating from Copper Mattes. (P) Herreti-
sehmidt G94
And Iron, Alloys of. ( Wedding) 526
And Iron. Volatilisation of. by Carbonic Oxide. (Gamier) 243
And Iron, Treatment of Solutions containing. (P)John-
aon. From Parker and Robinson 755
And other Metals, Manufacturing Alloys of. (P) Martins 822
Canadian 137
Carbonvl. (Herthelot) 909
Carbonyl. On the Oxidation of. (Berthelot) 138, 9 16
Coinage. (T.R.I 647
Manufact uring Alloys of. (P) Mond 613
Note on the Density of. (Hopkinson) 093
Production of, in the United stairs. (T.R.) 73
Progress of the Metallurgy of. ( Levat) 920
Separating Cobalt from. ( P) Solve 1013
Separation of, from Mattes or Alloys. ( P) Strap 016
Steel. Determination of Constants and Coefficient of Elasti-
city of. I Mi -readier) 106
Steel Process, The Lechesne 439
Volatility of, in Presence of Hydrochloric Aeid. (Schiitzen-
berg'er) 243
Nicotine. (Pinner and Wolffenstein) 705
Night-Lights and Candles. (P) Griffith 1017
Nitrate Fields of Chili, The. (Aikman) 347
OfSodaSlali-.tl.-s.lss;, 1892. (T.R.) 051
Revenue in (lull. (T.R.) 380
Nitrating Cotton, &c, Apparatus for. i P) Selwig and Lange.. 035
Nitration of Butvlolucnc- and Butylxylene-sulphonic Acids.
(Noeltingj 7n7
Nitrates. Estimation of Nitrogen in Inorganicand Ethereal.
(Chenell 943
Explosive, from the Jute Fibre. (Cross and Bevan) 214
Nitrazine Yellow, (von Perger) 31
Nitric Acid, Action of, on Aluminium. (Le Roy) 1118
Acid, Action of on Diniethylortho-anisidiuo. (van Rom-
' burgh) -55
Acid, Action ot. on Silk. ( Vignon and Sisley) 430
Acid and Sulphuric Aeid, Action of, on Aluminium. (Le
Roy)
Acid, Apparatus for Condensation of. (P) Edwards.
From Guttmann and Etohrmann
Acid Apparatus, Modification of Kroushr's. (Robson)
(illus.)
Acid, Influence of Nitrogen Tetroxiile on the Specific
Gravity of. (Lunge and Marchlewski)
Acid in Vinegar, Detection of. I s,,lisi,-ni
Acid. Manufacture of. (P) Chatfield
Acid, Preparation of Pure. (PI Guttmann and Kohrinann 100S
Acid! Variations in Specific Gravity of. (Lunge and
Marchlewski) 432
Ethers of Starch. The Higher. (Miihlhauser) 708
Nitro- and Amidomethylphenylpyrazolone, Manufacture of.
and a Derivative of the Latter. (P) Imray. From
The Farb. vorm. Meistcr, Lucius, and limning 545
-Atropine, (Einhorn and Fischer) 706
106
.'1-19
504
775
372
1107
PAGE
Nitro — emit.
Bromfluoreseein, The Manufacture of. (Miihlhauser)
(illus.) 739
Cellulose, Determination of Nitrogen in. (Lunge) (illus.) 778
Compounds, The Constitution of Coloured. (Armstrong) . 512
Derivative of Antipyrine. (Jandrier) 706
Derivatives, Estimation of Nitrogen in. (Chenel) 943
Derivatives of Honiopyrocatechin. (Couhin) 735
Explosives, The Analysis of. (Sanford) 843
Nitrogen, Composition for Fixing Aramoniacal. (P) Buroni
and Marehand 1018
Compounds, Stability of Certain Organic. (Smith) 119
Determination of, in Nitrocellulose. (Lunge) (illus.) 77s
Determining Nitric and Total. (Boyer) 182
Error in Determination of Albuminoid, by Kjeldahl's
Method. (Synilerl 372
Estimation of, in Coal-Gas. (New) (illus.) 415
Estimation of, in Inorganic and Ethereal Nitrates.
(Chenel) 943
InCoal-Gas. (Davis) 400
Obtaining, from the Air. (P) Brier S3S
Of Leguminous Crops, The Sources of. (Lawes and
Gilbert) 253
On Dumas' Method of Estimating. (O'Sullivan) 327
Peroxide and Variations in Specific Gravity of Nitric Acid.
( Lunge and Marchlewski) 432
The Preparation of Pure. (Le Due) 269
Substitutions in Groups Linked to, and to Carbon.
I Matignon) 937
Tetruxide. Influence of. on the Specific Gravity of Nitric
Acid. (Lunge and Marchlewski) 775
Nitroglycerin. Extraction of, from Waste Acid. (P) Lawrence 773
Nitrojute, an Explosive. (Muhlh&user) 546
Nitro-ketone derived from Camphosulphophenols. (Cazeneuve) 512
Nitroso - p - Naphthol, Use of, in Quantitative Analysis.
(Schleier). 713
Nitro-siibstitiitiou Compounds of Cellulose. (P) Maxim 456
Nitrotoluic Acid, Note on, (Noelting) 344
Nitrous Acid. Action of. on Tetrainethyldiamidobenzophenone.
( Herzberg and Polonowskv) 156
Oxide, Formation of. (Smith ) 867
Oxide, Production of. (P) Smith and Elmore 033
Notes. Analytical and Scientific 64, 184, 274, 467, 551. (540, 713.
779, 849, 946, 1030
General Trade 67, 187, 283, 377. 409, 554, 047, 71s, 7*3,
850, 948. 1043
Nova Scotia, The Wealth of. (T.R.) 69
Nuisance from Chemical Works 683
Nuremberg, Manufacture of Electric Light Carbons at 897
Nut, Chemistry of the Kola. (Knebel) 545
o
Oak a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) i!22
Obituary Notices :
Dittmar, William 146
Evans, W. N 992
I l.-isi-li, Charles 146
Hofmann, Prof. A. W 420
Longstaif, George Dixon, M.D 801
Makins, G. H 420
Mumford, T. W. II 145
Redwood, Dr. Theophilus 228
Sihorlemmer, Carl 593
Tate, A. Norman 694
Thompson, C 893
Obstacles to British Foreign Trade 051
Octohydi'o-a-naphthoquinoline " Aromatic. (Bamberger and
Stettenheimer) 24
( idina Wadier. (Rideal) 404
( )il. Adulteration of Linseed 848
Adulteration of Linseed, by Rosin Oil. (Coreil) 550
A New Commercial (Corn Oil). (T.R.) 286
And Iron Stains in Cotton Cloth (Weber) 495
Detection of Turkish Geranium Essence in Rose. (Pana-
iotow) 61
Durability of Modern Pigments in. (Laurie) 251
Estimation of Mustard. (Schlicht) 779
Eucalyptus. (Helbing and Passmore) 837
Eucalyptus. (Holmes) 455
..Field in Sumatra, New. (T.R.) 783
Filter for. (P) Master-man, Woodhouse, and Rawson, Lim. 109
Filtering Apparatus for. (P) Berk 536
-Gas, Manufacture of. (Ball) 896
-Gas, Production of, from Russian Petroleum, (Lewes).. 584
Crane-Seed, and its Technical Application. (Horn) 44
Improvements in Thickening. (P) Hartley and Blenkin-
sop 445
Industry of Russia, The. (T.R.) 1044
Notes on Rosin. (Leeds) 308
Of Lavender. ( Semmler and Tiemann) 706
Of Turpentine. American. (Long) 545
On Maize. (Smith) 504
Presses. Cages for. (P) Estrayer 446
Production in Scotlaud, The Shale. (T.R.; 851
Dec. SI. 1898.]
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xli
TAQE
Oil — cont.
Russian Peppermint, i Andres and Andreef) 7n5
Russian Sunllower. (T.R.) 470
s I. A New. (T.R.) 950
Statistics of Palm. (T.R.) 283
Tanks, Measuring Depth of Water m. (PI Redwood and
Barring?r 599
Testing of Boiled Linseed. I Fahrion i 690
Testing Olive, for Adulterants. (Paparelli) 848
The Analysis of Sperm. ( Lewkowitsch) lot
The Composition of Turkey-Red. (Juillard) 365
The Plow of Mineral, through Tubes, i Mereityng) >»74
The Solid Fatty Acids of Palm. (Nordlinger) 445
Trade of Scotland, The. (T.R.) 784,851,1045
Turkey-Red. ( Wilson) v.<r,
Use of, in Ammonia-G'is Compressors, (ven Strombeck) . 733
Oils. (Class XII.) 44, 169, 250,355,445,535,619, 696
827,928,
And Fats of Tropical Africa. (T.R.)
And Fats, Retining and Deodorising Refuse. (P) Wilson.
And Other Fluids. Filter for. (P) Willeox
Antiseptics from Aromatic. (Trillat)
Apparatus for Burning. (P) Rose
Apparatus for Determining Liability of, !•> Spontaneous
Combustion. (Richards)
Apparatus for simultaneously Burning Light and Heavy
Portions < if Vaporisable. (P) Harvey and others
Apparatus for Vaporising. (P) Spencer
Artificial Mineral Lubricating. (Kr&einerand Spilker)...
Bleaching, Deodorising, and Purifying. (P) Mills
" Blown. (Thompson and Ballantyue)
Changes in Lubricating, oxN^eeping. I Bfolde)
DesuTphuration of. (P) Amend and Macy
Detection of Rosin, in Essence of Turpentine. iZune)
Determination of Purity of Olive. (I.entrfeld and Papa-
relli)
Distillation of Mineral. (P) Laing
Examination of Vegetable Lubricating. (Holde)
Flash-Point and Heat of Burning of Mineral. (Steuart)..
Gas Generator for Distillation of Mineral. (P) Sepulchre.
Of Bergamot and Lavender, The. (Bertram and Wal-
bauni )
Oxygen Compounds from Bthereal. (Semmler and Tie-
mann)
Production of Sulphonio Acids and Sulphones from
Mineral. (P) Clark. From The Gewerksehaff Missel.
Qualitative Reactions of Vegetable Lubricating. (Holde)
Rapidly Determining the Composition of Lubricating,
i Gripper)
Solidification of Mineral. (P) Chenhail
Spanish Customs Regulations Affecting Sale of. (T.R.)...
Testing Lard for Fatty. ( Welmans I
The Solid Products which Result from Oxidation of Drying.
( Livache)
Treating Lubricating, to Render them Fireproof. (P)
Graf
Treating Vegetable. (P) Scollay
Treatment and Manufacture of. (P) Hageman and Palmer
Using Hydrocarbon, for Heating Purposes. (P) Henwood
Viscometer for Testing. (Hurst) (illus.)
Viscosity at Low Temperatures of Black Mineral. (Holde)
Oleine, Extraction of, from Tallow. (P) Benoit and Soler y
Vila
Oleo-Resin of Canarium Mw 7. >■/, Bailey ; together with Notes
on Manila Eh mi. (Maiden)
Olive Oil, Testing for Adulterants. (Paparelli)
Oils, Determination of Purity of. (Lengfeld and Paparelli)
Onager a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat )
Onyx, Discovery of New Deposit of, in Mexico. (T.R.)
Opium Industry of Persia. (T.R.)
Trade of Formosa. (T.R.)
Orange Bark a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat)
In Calico and Wool Printing
Orchilla in Cape Verde. (T.R.)
In Ecuador. (T.R.)
In Lower California, (T.R.)
Ore. Analysis of Chrome Iron. (Haussermann).
"Ore Process." The. in the Basic ( (pen Hearth Furnace. (Leo)
Ore, Reducing Unsmelted and other. (P) Wainwright
Samples, Mixer and Divider for. (Bridgman) (illus.)
Orenbourg, The Industries of. (T.R.)
Ores, Analysis of Antimony. (Carnot )
And Mattes. Treating Copper. (P) Pelatan
Apparatus for Concentrating the Heavier Constituents of.
(P) Ferguson
Apparatus for Leaching. (P) Bohm
Containing Zinc, Treating. (P) Clark. From Costes and
others
Containing Zinc, Treatment of Composite. (P) Hart
Desulphurising Zinc. (P) Hart
Determination of Zinc in
Distillation of Sulphur and other. (P) Labois
Extracting or Recovering Metal from. (P) Noad, Minns,
and Stevens
Extraction of Metals from. (P) Chenhail
Extraction of Metals from, (P) Shedlock and Denny
Extraction of Metals from. (P) Turton
Extraction of Precious Metals from. (P) Riekard
Furnaces for Treating. (P) Parnell
. <-"i<i.
11117
;;r;
7. -.7
1B9
ln-27
423
996
171
22
,,os
506
ill'.'
929
637
HI 3
341
637
SS.-,
510
271
1S2
670
714
548
250
446
758
696
735
41S
S41
620
758
848
943
623
783
646
646
623
158
715
715
714
182
•243
1014
268
190
751
822
3.72
37.2
352
923
846
667
921
924
695
614
533
822
PAGE
Ores— cont.
Leaching, and Apparatus therefor. (P) Johnson and
Hutchinson 922
Minns for Extracting Precious Metals from their. (P)
Webb 922
New Method for Assay of Antimony. (Carnot) 941
Notes on the Assay of Tin. (Renme and Derrick) 662
< ibtaiiung Gold, Silver, and Copper from. (P) French and
Stewart 612
Of Nickel, Copper, and Cobalt, Treatment of I'yritic. (P)
Herrenschmidt *>13
Preparing Iron, for Smelting. 1 1') Woodcock and others . 7S4
Regenerative Gas Furnace for Zinc. (P) Dor 615
Separation of Antimony from its. (P) Warwick 533
Siemens Electrolytic Process for Extracting Copper from.. 534
Smelting Complex Silver. (P) James 922
Smell in-- Copper. (P) Bibby 922
The Reduction of. (P) King. From Blair, jun 614
Treating Certain, to Obtain Nickel and Cobalt. (P)
Herrenschmidt 694
Treating Plumbiferous Copper. (P) James 353
Treating Zinc. ( P) West 351
Treatment of. (P) Clark. From Richardson, First brook,
and D ivis 353
Furnace for Treatment of Refractory. (Pi Fauvel 613
Treatment of Silicated Nickel. (P) Herrenschmidt 613
Treat mentor Sulphur. (P) l.abois 694
Von Sehulz and Low's Method of Estimating Lead in.
(Williams) "73
Orexin. (Trillat) 1030
Organic Acids from Beetroot Juice, (von Lippinann) 50
Chemistry. Qualitative... 61, 182,271, 161,548,637, 712. 777.1035
Chemistry. Quantitative. . 61, 182, 272. 372, 462. 549. 638, 777, S48,
941, 1038
Compounds. Solvent Action of Liquid. (Etard) 713
Substances, Preserving. I Pi Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius
und Britning 1024
Ortho-Hydroxyazo Compounds, Composition of the. (Ganelin
and von Kostanecki) 425
-Oxydiphenyl-carbon-acid, Production of. (P) M'illcox.
From von Heyden Nachfolger 344
Orthostannic Acid, a- ( Neumann I 270
Osier a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Ost's Copper Solution. Estimation of Sugars by. (Schmoeger) . 273
Otto of Roses. Chemical Studv of the German and Turkish.
(Eckart) 26.7
Oven, An Improved Coke. (P) Lares 235
Ovens, Coke. (P) Johnson. From Kennedy S07
For Firing Pottery and Earthenware. ( P) Plant 434
Improvements in Coke. (P) Leigh. From Bauer and
Mendheim 737
Metallurgical. (P) Bates 615
Results of Improved Coke. (T.R.) 379
Oxalic Acid and Cellulose, Simultaneous Production of. (P)
Lifschiitz 17ii
Oxazine Dyes. (Mohlau) 672
Oxide of Iron, Treating Waste Liquors to Obtain. (P) Hall... 613
Oxides, Apparatus for Producing Ferroferric and Ferric. IP)
Crosslev 114
Of Iron, Utilisation of. (P) Hutchinson and Harbord 612
Oxycellulose, Preventing Formation of, in Printing on Indigo
Blue. (Brandt) 33
Preventing Formation of, in Printing on Indigo Blue
(Scheurer) 32
Resistance of, to Coloration by Tetrazoic Dyes. (Saget) .. 1003
Witz's. (Naeutukov) 771
Oxy-fattv Glvcerin Ethers, and Oxy-. Sulpho-Oxy-, Dioxy-, and
Sulpho-dioxy- Fatty Acids. ( P) Schmitz and Toenges 827
Oxygen and Concentration, Influence of, on Fermentation.
I Brown I 257
And Nitrogen from the Air, obtaining. (P) Brier 888
Apparatus for Automatic Production of. (P) Fanta 773
Apparatus for Separating, from Air. (P) Parkinson 633
Compounds irom Ethereal Oils. (Semmler and Tiemann) 706
Compounds, Reduction of, by Magnesium. (Winkler)... 39
Dissolved in Water. Estimation of. (Adams) 271
Gas, TheManufacture of. (Fanta) (illus.) 312
In Glass Manufacture 90S
Manufacture of. (PlLawson 58
Manufacture of (P) Webb and Rayner 773
Preparation of Substances for Separation of, from Air. (P)
Brins Oxygen Co. and Murray 936
Separating, from Air. (P) Parkinson 1031
Ozokerite and Petroleum Industries, The Galician. (Red-
wood) (illus.) 93
Ozone Apparatus. (P) Siemens and Halske 535
Formation of, in Presence of Air or Oxygen. (P) Schneller
and Wisse 354
Ozonising Apparatus. (P) Ehlis 769
P
Paint, Manufacture of Resinous. (P) Thompson, From von
Pereira 1"!
Manufacture or Size. (P) Boult 361
Rust and Acid Proof. (P) Lender 361
xlii
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 189!
PAfiB
Paints and Lacquers. (P) (Jill 1017
And Tarnishes. Manufacture of. (P) Taylor 620
Composition ofEmmel. (P) T>rp 829
Dryers for Mixing witrt. (P) Hartley and Blenkinsop. .. . 170
For Ships' Bottoms &c. (P) Bigland 288
Manufacture of. (P) "Martin 829
Manufactureof Gold, Silver, and Bronze. (P) Cutler 829
in Paint Stocks, Manufacture of. (P) Scollay 300
Pigments, Varnishes, It- sins, India-rubber, &c. 41, 170. 250, 357.
146, 586 620,1 96,758, B27, 929, 1017
Palm. Fruit of the Wax. as a Coffee Substitute. (Konig) 17*
(HI Statistics of. (T.K.) 283
Oil, The Solid Fatty Acids of. (Nordlinger) 445
Palladium, Experiment Showing Absorption of Hydrogen by.
( Wilin ) 465
Pans, Evaporating, for Manufacturing Salt. (P) Scott M0
For Boiling or Heating Sugar. I PI Morton 10'S
Paper, Apparatus for (ilazintr. (P) Bachem, Vogelsang, and
Tischer 935
Apparatus for Measuring Tensibility and Breaking Strain
of. (P) Leunig 1SS.175
Azolitmin. ( Dietal ' 631
Deterioration of. tl ri.in.-h Exposure. (Wiesuer) 596
Determination of Mechanical Wood Pulp in. (Baudisch) 464
Determination of Mechanical Wood Pulp in. I Godeffroy ) tot
Dyeing, Application of Coal-Tar Clours in. (Beaumann) 159
Estimating Resin-Size Contained in. (Herzherg) 6 8
For Cheques. I P Memoes and Bevan 175
For Cheques. Manufacture of. (P) Schlumberger 935
French Straw- 56
Industry of Lower Austria 175
Influence of Incandescent Electric Light on. I Wiesner). . 596
Influenceof Moisture on Vegetabl Sizingof. (Hasselkuss) 152
Japanese. ( Lauboeck ) 56
Korean, i T.K. i 715
-Makire and River Pollution. (T.R ) 380
-Making, Determination of Fibres Used in. (Herzberg) .. 638
-Makinsr. Residue of Potato-Starch Works as a Material in.
(Herzberg) 934
Manufacture of Parchment. (P) Robinson 170
Mill, Description of an American Sulphite Cellulose.
(Wildhagen) (Ulns.) 174
Mills in Japan. (T.R) 552
Pasteboard, 4c 52,174. 261, 45-?. 771 835,934, 1026
Pulp and Textile Fibre, Production of. (P) Hagemann . . 1026
Pulp.ApparatusfurStrainini-'. 1' I n.i.-.ni. FromThorn 175
Pulp, Apparatus for Straining. (P) White "
Pulp, Manufactureof. (P) Keveridge 170
Pulp. Manufacture of. I PI Rf dmayne 170
Pulp. "Manufacture of Hollow Articles from. ( P) Weygang 771
Pulp. Mould for. I P i Mahaffy and others 759
Pulp. Process and Apparatus lor Bleaching. (P) Kellner
(illus.) 431
Pulp Residue, Carbon Product from. (Pi LangriUe 035
Safety. (Herzliers) 934
Staining. (Class VI.) ... SO, 158,237,345, (28,519,600,680,744,
811, 904, KiO-2
Testing, for "Wood-Fibre, (von HOhnel) 1st
The Acid Action of Drawing. (Evans and "Wirtz) 21-2
The Sizing of. (Wunder) 52
Papers, the Acid Action of. (Cross and Bevan) 213
The Acid Action of Different Drawing. ( Hartley) 201
The Acid Action of Drawing, i Beadle) 261
Papyrus 55
Paraffin. Means for Refining. (P) Baxter (iilus.) 455
The Formation of S..lid. (East and Si idner) 598
"Wax. Treating and Purifying. (P) Henderson 699
Paraguay acacia a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 0-22
Tea or Mate a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Paranthracene. (Elbs) 310
Parchment. Manufacture of Vei, table. (P) Robertson 935
Paper, Manufacture of. (P) Robinson 170
Palis, Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 280
Particles, Separating Powdered or Finely Divided. (P) Peck. 823
Pasteboard. (Class XIX. 52. 174. 201. 432. 771, 835,934,1026
Patent Law, The New German. (T.R) 285
Lists 83, 192 2^7. :;st. t75. 557.05::, 721. 791, 856, 053. 1047
Patents in Canada. (T.R.) 718
Peat Coke Cakes. Production of. I P) Slauber 806
I re, Bleaching and Treating. (P) Cannot 813
Fuel. Machinery for Manufacture of. (P) Mills. From
Clarke 340
Treatment and Desiccation of. (P) Thompson. From
Gerard 423
Treatment of. I P) Rischgitz 07"
Underlying London Clay, Composition of a Stratum of.
(Smith and Travel's! 5:>1
Pens made of Celluloid. (T.R.) 10 4-1
Pental, an Anesthetic. (Hollander) 4"3
Pentosai - I ied Fibre, The. (Schnlze and Tollens) 931
Peppermint Oil. Russian. (Andresand Andrcef) 705
Peptone. Preparing and Applying Extracts of. (P) Hatschek
and others 25S
Perfumery Drawback, Genera] Order Concerning. (T.R i 7S5
Imports of, by Greece, IT.R.) 7s:i
Imports of, by Cuba. (T.R) 187
Manufacture of. (P) t fresebrough 1031
i If Tropica) Africa. (T.R) 377
PICE
Permanganate, Estimation of Iron by Standard. (Lowe) 133
i Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Persia, Br tish Tim le in. (T.I .) 64';
Minerals in. I T.R. i 69
The Drug Tradi of. T.R i 6H!
Tiir Opium Industry of. (T.R.) 646
Persulphuric Acid and its Salts. * Berthelot) 940
Peru. Mining Development in. (T.R.) 720
" Pet it _-r:i in oil." (Semmler and Tienanu) 70 >
Petroleum and Asphalt at Palena. . < Ichsenius I 150
And Ozokerite Industries. The Galician. (Redwood) lillus.) 93
Industry at Baku. The. (T.R.) 1013
Industry in Russia. (T.R.) 852
In Upper Burma. (T.R.) 950
' in the Formation of. I Engler) 935
Preliminary Heaterfor Distillation of. (Fuchs) 511
Production in the United States, 1891. (T.R) 2S5
Production of Oil-Gas from Russian. 1 1. ewes) ?St
Regulati is for Carrying, Through Suez Canal. (T.R.)... 190
Spirit, The Rectification of. (Veith) (illus.) 151
Sulphur C impounds in. i '\ast and Lagai) 598
Tariff on, in France. (T.R.) 07
The Flow of, through Tubes. I Merczyng) 27 1
The Origin of. (Sickenberger) 421
TheOrigin of. (Veith and Schestop.il) 159
The Origin of. (Zalozieeki 1 22
Trade of the Caucasus. (T.R.) oil
Treatment of. IP) Cooper 599
Treatment of Heavy Oils of. (Pi Lai .ois 004
Pharmaceutical Compounds, Manufacture of. (P) Willcox.
I im the Faro, vorm F. Bayer and ( i 70s
Conference at Halle, Report on the 372
Pheuac tin. (Trillat) 1029
Iodine Derivative of. (P) Riedel 633
Phenocoll. :. 1 Antipyretic and Anti-rheumatic. (Schmidt)... 453
Hydrochloras. (Trillat) 1029
Phenol, Alkalimetric Estimation of. (Bader) 273
Determination of. (Carre) 273
Phenolpthaleiin, Reaction of Milk to. (Vaudin) 932
Phenols. Colouring Matters from Protocatechuic Acid an 1.
Favb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Briining (P) 902
Iodine Substitution Products of, (Pi Willcox. From the
Farb. vorm. Bayer and Co 370
Phenylamines, Production of. (P) Vidal 341
Phenylcnediamine, Dyeing Cotton with. Certesz) 31
Solutions. Preservation of m-. 1 1 leniges 1 sis
Phenyl-glycocoll, Manufacture of Indigo-carmine from.
(P) Willcox. From the Farb. vorm. F. Bayer and Co.. 28
Phenylpropiolic Acid, Formation of AUocinnamio Acid from.
(Liebermauu and Schmolz) 677
Phosphate Beds of Florida. Tin?. (Keller) 539
Behaviour of Tricalcium, towards Carbonic Acid and
Ferric Hydroxide, (v. Georgievics) 254
Deposits of Florida. 1 Eldridge) 255
Manufacture of Superphosphate from Ferruginous.
' Jaehne) 698
Solubility of Tri- and Bicalcium, in Solutions of Phosphoric
Acid. (Cause) 760
Phosphates. Electrolysis of Metallic, in Acid Solution.
Smith) 6t
Enriching Calcareous. (P) Delahaye 161
Enriching Calcareous. (P) Lake. From Briart and
Jacquemin 816
Manufacture of Superphosphate from Ferruginous.
(Schucht) 255
Natural. (Wills) 00s
Nodular. Concretionary and Arenaceous. (Wills) r.:>s
Occurrence of Fluorine in Natural. (Carnot) 659
Occurrence of Fluorine in Sedimentary. (Carnot) 7>:"
Of Algeria and Tunis. The 760
Solubility of Tricalcium and Bicalcium, in Solutions of
Phosphoric Acid. 1 Gausse) 685
Statistics of, for 1891. (T.R.) 183
Phosphoric Acid, Determination of, in Presence of Iron and
Aluminium. (Johnson and Osbcrne) 7" 7
Acid, Determination of, in Wine. 1 Moreenstern and
Pnvlinofl) 777
Acid, Preparation of Pure. (Watson) 221
Acid, The Phosphorus-Nitric Acid Method of Manufacture
of. (Watson) 224
Ore of Gellivara. Smelting the 919
Phosphorites. Occurrence of Fluorine in. (Carnot) 759
Phosphorus, Analysis of Slag from the Manufacture of.
1 irley 1 711
And Silicon, Extra tins.-. (P) Talbot 921
Compounds, Manufactureof. 1P1 Typke 369
Electrical Furnaces for Manufacture of. IP) Barker B27
In steel, Accurate Determination of in Two Hours.
Wdowiszewski) S45
The Production of. (T.R.) 285
Photo-Chemical Notes. (Askenasy and Meyer) 1039
Dyeing. (Villain) .' ' 111:11
-Etching on Zinc and Copper. (P) Krantz and Zeissler .. 035
Photographic Dry Plates. Apparatus for Developing, &c.
without Dark Room. ( P) Xievsky 1032
Operations, The Chemical Changes attending. (Arm-
strong) 455
Printing Processes. (P) Nicol 456
Deo. 31, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xliii
PAGE
Photographic — cont.
Prints and Negatives, Apparatus for Washing. (P) Hoi-
croft 936
Processes and Materials. . . . 179, 266, 155. 5 B, (31. 839, 9S6, 1081
Photographs, Apparatus for Developing. &c. (PI Wasnor and
Bredig.' 1032
Apparatus fur Reproducing. (P) Krantz and Zeissler 6SB
Developers for. (Pi Hauff' 937
Developing Traj for. il'i Desboutin 937
Drawings from 179
Manufacture of Colours specially Applicable for Colouring.
(P) Boult. From Brum 079
Producing Coloured. (P) Mathieu 63*
Producing Coloured. (P) McDonough 935
Substances of the Aromatic Series Capable of Developing.
( Lumiere) S39
Photography, Artificial Light for. (P) Johnson. Fr
Xadar fi3t
Employing Aromatic Amido Compounds as Developing
Means in. (P) Hauff lf>32
Gold Compounds for Use in. (Mercier) 6:U
In Colours. (Labatot) 266
Letter-press and Lithographic Processes Based on. (P)
Albert 63 1
Magnesium Lights for. (P) Hackh 597
Picene, On. (Lespican) 235
Pickle. Treating Waste, from Galvanising Works (i^2
Pictet. Chloroform. (Hellring and Passmore) 830
Pictures on Textile Fabrics, Colouring. (P) Ophoven 743
Pigment Colours. ( Weber) 980
Pigments. (ClassXIII.) ... 44,170,260,357,446,536,620,696,758.
827, 929, 1017
And Vehicles of the Old Masters. (Laurie) 170
Apparatus for Oxidising Lead Sulphide and Zinc to form
White. (P I Rowan and Dawson Sift
Chances in Chromium 345
Durability of Modern, in Oil. I Laurie) 251
Having a Lead Basis. (P) Burghardt 361
Manufacture of. (Pi Martin 829
Manufacture of. (P) Seolley 697
Mineral. I Weber) 986
On the Manufacture of Chrome. (Weber) 357
Pine A Source of Tannin. (Mafat ) 023
Pine. tree Sugar. (Wiley) 362
Piperazine or Spermine, Manufacture of. (P) Majert 773
Piperidine and j3-Pyridine Bases. (Stoehr) 3;;7
Pipes, Durability of India-rubber Hot Water. (Belloroche) . . 9'2ft
Galvanising iron and Steel. (P) Jones 612
Manufacture of Glass, of Large Diameter. (Appert) 35
Pipette, Method for Calibrating a Delivering. (Clowes) 327
Pita-Flax or Sisal-Hemp 902
Pitch, Cauldrons for Melting. (P) Healey 446
Lake of Trinidad, The. (T.R.) 283
Stability of Nitrogen Compounds Occurring in Tar-.
(Smith) 119
Plant, Apparatus and Machinery (Class I.) 20. 147. 230, 387,421, 507,
595,667, 733, 802,894,992
Plantain A Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat ) G23
Plante Lead-Sulphuric Acid-Lead Peroxide Cell. Study of the.
Parti. (Robertson.) Com. by Armstrong Gt'5
Plants Capable of Yielding Tanning Materials. (Mafat) 021
Plaster Casts, Method of Hardening, (Pennstedt ! 38
Manufacture of. (P) Thompson. From Roes 'r-MUller and
Deike 607
Treatment of, to Prevent Deterioration. (Pi Aitken 600
Plastic Material, Machines for Spreading on Textile Fabrics.
(P) Coulter and Rowley 538
Plate Glass Industry of Prague 604
Plates for Batteries. See Batteries.
Manufacture of Tin and Terne. (P) Rogers 013
Of Asbestos, &c., for Rooting Purposes. (P) Graf 212
Platinum, Canadian. (T.R.) 469
1 ndustry of the Ural 532
Preparation and Estimation of Pure. (.Mvlms and
Foerster ) 690
Production of, in Russia 752
Stills. Concentrating Sulphuric Acid in field-Lined.
( Lunge) 522
The Price of. (T.R.) 382
Plumbago in Mashonaland. (T.R.) 854
Plushes, The Dyeingof. (Wreiler) (illus.) 519
Poisons, Means of Colouring to Prevent Accidents and Crime.
(P) Reade 511
Poles, Painting Creosoted. (P) Hughes 620
Polish, Liquid, for Cleaning Metals. (P) King 620
Polishing Composition. (P) Hickox 170
Polymers of Rieinoleic Acid. ( Scheurer-Kestner) 250
Polyrieinie Acid, Properties of the. (Juillard) 356
Polyricinosulphuric Acids, Properties of the. (Juillard) 350
Pomegranate a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) C22
Porcelain, Composition of Sub-Glaze Colours for Soft.
(Seger) 239, 240
Kilns for Manufacture of. (P) Query 435
Paste, Change in, by Storage. (Seger) 102
PAGE
Porcelain— cunt.
Preparing "Slip" for Manufacture of. (P) Edwards.
From Goctz 38
The Composition of Biscuit. (Seger) 817
Water-Bath. (Dittmar) 181
Porcelaine d'amiante. (Garros) 102
Porosity of Building Stones, and their Resistance to Frost.
(Peroche) 749
Porter, Manufacture of. (P) Hillyard and Dugdale 1022
Portland Cement, Action of Certain Chlorides on. (Dobrzynski) 525
Cement Industry, The. ( T.R, ) 2s t
Cement Makers, Annual General Meeting of Association of
German 524
Porto Rico, Drug and Chemical Imports of. (T.R.) 187
New Customs Tariff of 951
Portugal, Beers Brewed iii. (Mastbaum and Diekniann) 760
Customs Tariff or. (T.R.) 041
Post Office Alterations. (T.R.) 69
Potash, American. (T.R.) 720
And Soda, Obtaining Chromates and Bichromates of. (P)
Goodhall. From Peacock and Gait 686
Manufacture of Aluminate, Sulphate, and Carbonate of.
(P) Claus 815
Manufacture of Caustic. (P) Martin 816
Nitrate of, and Plumbago in Mashonaland. (T.R.) 854
Note on the Estimation of. (Jean and Trillat) 775
Salts, German Production of. (T.R.) 640
Potassium, Bromide of. (Helbing and Passmore) 705
Carbonate, Manufacture of. (P) Dupre 604
Estimation of. as Perchlorate. I Wense) 711
Ferro- and Ferrieyanide, Volumetric Estimation by Means
of. (Luekow) . 457
Hydrogen Tartrate as a Starting Point for Aeidimetry and
Alkalimetry. (Borntrager) 776
Permanganate, Estimation of Organic Substances in the
Air by. ( Archarow) 464
Solid Compounds of Bisulphate of, with Sulphur Trioxide
and Water. ( P) Brindley 1004
Potato Disease. " Bordeaux Mixture " a Remedy for. (Perret) 364
Glucose, Note on Wines Containing. (Presenilis) 766
Pottery. (Class VIII.) 38. 102, 239, 434. 523, 604, 087, 748, 817, 908, 1007
A Substitute for. (P) Meran 1007
Baking Ceramic Pastes and. (P) Losada 38
Forming Undercut Projections in. (P) Doulton and
Leech 38
Kilns for Heating and Burning. (P) Severn 688
Kilns for Manufacture of. (P) Query 435
Ovens for Firing. (P) Plant 434
Ware Domestic Stoves, Manufacture of. (P) Salomon.... 597
Powder, Manufacture of. (P) Armstrong 636
Manufacture of Disinfecting. (P) Williams 631,631
Powders, Making up or Packing Baking. (P) Clotwortby .... 259
Prague. The Minor and Plate Glass Industry of 604
Preservative Coatings for Iron, &c. (P) Robson 361
Preserve Industry, on the Chemistry of the. (Reuss) 449
Preserves, Lead found in. (Reuss) 449
Presidential Address, 1892. (Emerson Reynolds) 571
Pressure. Simple Apparatus for Evaporating under Diminished.
(Sehulze and Tollens) (illus.) 940
Pressures. Method of Closure for Regulation of Gaseous. (P)
Mills and Ellis 595
Printing Machines for Textiles. (P) Knowles 6S0
Prints, Producing Coloured. (P) AH-ert 634
Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting 569
Producer-Gas. See Gas.
Producer, The Use of the 805
Products ol Distillation. Apparatus for Obtaining. (P) Pontallie
(illus.) 230
Proteids of the Corn or Maize Kernel. (Chittenden and
Osborne) 701
Protein Substances, Detection of, in Beet Juice. (Brack) 830
Protocatechuio Acid and Phenols. Colouring Matters from.
(P) Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruniug 902
Aldehyde, Obtaining the Two Isomeric Monornethylethers
of". (P) Bertram 58
Prussia, Mineral Production of. (T.R.) 471
Mining and Metallurgical Industries of. (T.R.) 190
Pseudopelletierine. (Ciamician and Silber) 705
Pseudo-Solution and Solution. (Picton and Linder) 64
Pulp-Catchers or Savers. ( P) Fiillner 1026
Pulp. Manufacture of Holloiv Articles from Paper. (P)
Weygang 771
Pulveriser. (P) Morison 147
Pum 1 1, Improved Filter- (P) Nordtmeyer (illus.) 422
Pumps, Compression. (P) "Webb 20
Displacement, for Air or Gases. (P) Hargreaves and
Hudson (illus.) 804
Mercurial Air- (P) Thompson. From Raps 60
Punjaub, Fibre Industries 111 the. (T.R.) 69
" Purple Ore," Burning Pressed Blocks of. (P) Eskuchen and
B aarmann 695
Formation of, into Bricks or Blocks. (P) Bird 6ft4
xliv
THE JOUBXAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31 1892.
PAGE
Pyrazole Derivatives, Synthesis of Oxygenated. (Lederer) ... 368
Pyrazolone, Manufacture of Nitro-and Araido methylphenyl,
and a Derivative thereof. (P) Imray. From the
Farb. vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning 545
Pyridine. (Trillat) 1030
Ami Piperidiue Bases, g-. (Stoehr) 367
Bases, Action of, on certain Sulphites. (Deniges) 772
Pyrites, and Brimstone, Comparative Value of, for Manu-
facture of Sulphuric Acid in the United States.
(Kelleyi 814
Apparatus for Separating Crushed. (P) Scoular 923
Gold-Bearing Veins of, on Monte Rosa, (Walter) 821
The Condition of Gold in 438
United States Production of. (T.R.) 75
Pyrosallol. I Trillat I 1028
Transformation of Gallic Acid into: and Melting Point of.
eneuve) 1026
Use of Derivatives of , as Developers. (P) Hauff 937
Pyrolignites, Purification of. (P) Pickles — 737
Pyronine, Application of. (vonPerger) 30
Pyroxylin, Denitration of. (Woodman) 839
Pyroxylins, Manufacture of. (P) Chardonnet 939
Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis. (Rudorffi 459
Quebracho a Yielder of Tannin. I Mafat i 623
Queen-land. Mineral Production of. (T.R.) 69
Sugar-Growing in. ( T.R. I 720
The Fibre Industry of. (T.R) 190
Quicksilver, Holders for Storage of. (P) Brotherton and
Griffith 993
In Russia. tT.R.I 647
Mines of Russia, The. (T.R.) 69
Mines. The Almaden 753
Mining in Russia. (T.R.I 69
Production of, in California. (T.R.) 189
Production of Russia. (T.R) 7.83
statistics Respecting. (T.R.) si,
Transvaal. (T.R.) 71s
Quillaia Bark a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat ! 623
Qumidine, Behaviour of, towards Hydriodie Acid. (Schubert
and Skraup) 263
Quinine, Action of Methyl Iodide on. (Hesse) 177
And Java Cinchona. (T.R. i 469
Behaviour of, towards Hydriodie Acid. (Schubert and
Skraup) i 263
Compounds of, with Hvdrochloric Acid. (Hesse) 176
Decline in I mport of. by Greece. (T.R.) 783
-di-Methiodide. Preparation of, from Cupreine. (Grimaux
and Armand) 631
Homologues of. (Grimaux and Arnaud I 631
Production of Sulphate of. (Jungfleisch) 377
Sulphoiiic Acid. ( Hesse) 176
Quinitol. the Simplest Sugar of the Inositol Group.
Baeyer I 760
Quinoline. (Trillat) 1030
Antiseptics, Soluble. (P) Lembach and others 452
R
Raffinose. Influence of. on Form of Sugar Crystals. (Herzfeld) 511
inversion and Estimation of. ( Kaydl) 463
Precipitation of, by Ammoniacal Lead Acetate (Koyd) 778
Production of, in Beetroot Sugar Products. (Herzfeld) ... 541
The Melassigenic Effect of. (Herzfeld) 542
Ramie and Textile Plants, Decorticating. (P) Subra 517
Fibre. Chemical Treatment of. (P) Blaye 903
Machine for Decorticating. (Pi Faure 518
Rape Oil, Qualitative Reaction of. (Holde) 271
Oil. Tests for l Holde I 637
Reactions of tin' Addition Product from Sulphur Dioxide and
Sodium Phenylate. (Schall and Uhl) .' 900
Reagents, Improved Gold Extracting. ( T) Pollok 352
Reception and Smoking Concert 578
Rectifying Apparatus. (P) Pitt. From Savalle 257
Red and White Discharge Prints on Dyed Indigo-Blue.
( Brandt ) 812
Rhatany a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 623
Reduction in Shade of Dyed Alizarin Colours. (Schnabel) ... 602
Red-Violet Colouring Matter from Alizarin-Blue. (P) Imray.
From The Far)), vorm. Meister, Lucius und Bruning., 29
Refractory Materials, Manufacture if. (P U ugaray 443
Refrigerating and freezing Apparatus. (P) Puplett 803
Apparatus. (Pi Alsopand Blackall 895
Refuse, Drying and Calcining Brewers'. ( P) Barlow 932
Process and Apparatus for Treating. (P) Cunliffe and
Barlow 450
See nlso Residues.
PAGB
Report of Council 569
Of H.M. Inspector of Explosives for ISso 546
Of Principal of Laboratory of Inland Revenue. (T.R.) . . . 854
On Alkali Works, The Chief Inspector's Twenty-eighth
Annual 681
On Mafat's Memoir on Dyewood Extracts. (Geigy) 154
To the Water Research Committee of the Royal Societv.
(Frankiand and Ward 1 '. ; . 704
Reports. Extracts from Consular and Diplomatic . 187. 280, 466,552,
'ill. 714,782,1011
Residue of Potato Starch Works as a Material in Paper-
Making. (Herzherg) 934
Uti isation of, from Soap Manufacture. (P) Stone 445
Residues Containing Zinc, Treating, (P) Clark. Prom Costes
and others 352
From Fatty Substances, Purification of the. (P) La Soc.
Anon, des Parfums Naturels de Cannes 75S
TJseof Mineral Oil, as Fuel for Gas Furnaces. (Malyschew) 510
Utilisation of. (P) Higgin 771
Resin. Production of a Solution of Mvrrhie. (P) Thompson.
From Fli'igge 370
Resins. (Class XIII.) ... 44,170,250,357,446,536,620,696,758,827,
929, 1017
And Gums of Tropical Africa. (T.R.) 377
And Gums. Solvent for. (P) Read 1017
Copal. (Kressel) s2s
Excrescent. (Bamberger) 365
Of Firus Rubiffinosa and /". fnacrophylla, The. (Rennie
and Goyder, jun.) 1039
Resistible Material for Building Purposes, il'i Hartiuann .. . R26
Resorcin. (Trillat) 1028
Resorcinol, Dyeing Cotton with. (Kertesz) 31
Retorts, Apparatus for Charging Inclined Gas. (P) Gibbons. 806
Composition for Manufacture of. (P) Kerr 523
For Carbonising Vegetable Substances. (P) Bowers 152
For Distilling shale. See. (P) Orr and MacKav 900
For Distilling Shale. &C. ( Pi Orr and Sutherland 737
For Making Coke or Charcoal. I P I Armour 152
For the Manufacture of Coke and Gas. (Pi Creswick .... 152
Method of Setting and Heating. (P) Boult. FromKloune
and Bredel 597
Or Ovens, Improvements in. ( P ) Armour 806
Revenue and Expenditure for the Year lS'.n 670
Report of Principal of Laboratory of Inland. (T.R.) 854
Rhea, Obtaining Fibre from. (P) Sampson 935
Treatment of. (I') V'iarengo 904
Rhodamine Series, Manufacture of Dyes of the. (P) Johnson.
From The Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik 345
Series. Production of New Dyes Related to the. (P)
Johnson. From The Badische Anilin und Soda Fab... 740
Rhubarb a Source of Tannin, i Mafat) 623
Ricinoleic Acid, On the Polymers of. (Scheurcr-Kestner).... 250
Risks Attending the Use of High-Pressure Gases. ( Budenlierg
and Heys i 319
River Polut ion and Paper-Making. (T.R.) E80
Pollution in Spain. (T.R.i 69
Rollers for Printing Fabrics and Wall Papers. ( P) La Soc.
Evesque et Cie 1004
Rome, Production and Consumption of Gas in, (T.R.) 281
Ropes, Wood Fibre. (P) Manvitz 810
Rosaniline Series, New Dyes of the. and Materials therefor.
(P) Johnson. From The Badische Anilin und Soda
Fabrik 515
Rose Oil. Detection of Turkish Geranium Essence in. (Pana-
jotow) 61
Roses, Chemical Study of the German and Turkish Otto of.
Eckart) ' 265
Rosinduline 2 B, Application of. (von Perger) 30
Rosin Oil, Qualitative Reaction of. (Holde) 272
Oil, Notes on. (Leeds) 308
(Mi, Adulteration of Linseed Oil by. (Cored) 550
Oil, Test for. (Holde) 637
Oils, Detection of, in Essence of Turpentine. (Zune) 637
-S;/, Contained in Paper. Estimating. (Herzberg) 638
Rubbadine, Formation of. (Schall and Uhl) 900
Kul ii ier, Afr ican. ( T.R.) 377
Goods. Manufacture of Coloured. I' Dreyfus 446
Russia. Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff. (T.R.) ... 186
Commercial Progress of. (T.R.) 379
Customs Decisions in. (T.R.) 66
New Regulation for Supply of Portland Cement in. (T.R.) 524
Production of Beet Sugar in. (T.R) 69
Production of Mercuiy in. (T.R.) 714
Production uf Platinum in 752
Production of Sunflower Oil in. (T.R.) 470
Quicksilver in. (T.R.) 647
Quicksilver Mining in. (T.R.) 69
The Chemical Manufactures of. (T.R.) 1044
The Industries of. (T.R.) (illus.) 650
The Naphtha Trade of. (T.R.) 783
The Oil Industry of. (T.R.) 1044
The Petroleum Industry in. (T.R.) 852
The Quicksilver Mines of. (T.R.) 69
i i Quicksilver Production of. (T.R.) 783
The Salt Industry of 787
The Soda Industry of. (T.R.) 649
Deo. 31, ism.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xlv
s
PAGE
Sabadilla Seed, Ethereal Oil of. (Opitz) 177
Seed, Fatty Matter and Ethereal Oil «>f. (Opitz) 177
Saccharin. ( Trillat) 1080
Saccharine, Production of Pure. { P) Fahlberg 1031
Solutions, Treatment of. (P) Mewhurn. From The
Maschinenfabrik Grevenbroich 626
The Detection of. ( Vitali) 272
Sacks or Bags, Fabrics for. (P) Hollick lo.s
Safrol 455
Sale of Food and Drugs Act, The. (T.R.) 172
Salicylic Acid. (Trillat) 1029
Acid, Artificial 155
Acid Derivatives containing Chlorine and Sulphur. (P)
Johnson. From von Heyden Naehfolger 309
Salmon Industry of British Columbia. (T.R.) 09
Salol. (Trillat) 1029
Salols, Production of. (P) Kolbe 58
Salophen. (Trillat) 1030
Salt. Action of, on Solutions of Metals 802
Decomposed in the Leblanc and Ammonia Soda Processes . 681
Evaporating Pans for Manufacture of. (PJ Scott 816
Industry, The Russian 7*7
Manufacture of. (P) Bott 1005
Manufacture of. ( P) Thompson. From Lawton and Dodge 708
Manufacture of Bay. ( P) Mar Nab 907
Manufacture of. from Brine. (P) Lambert. From Pick .. 433
Manufacture of, in Blocks, i P) Vincent 238
Marshes in France, The Working of r..~d
Treatment of, for Curing Food. (P) Collingridge. From
Comet and Jones 629
Salts. (Class VII.) 34, 161, 237, 346, 432, 521, 603, 681, 746, 814.
:nn;, hum
Determination of Electrolytic Dissociation of. (Noyes) ... 247
Dissolved in Organic Liquids, Action of Metals on. ( Varet) 713,
779
Existence of Acid and Basic, in verv Dilute Solutions.
( Berthelot ) 465
Influence of some Metallic, on Lactic Fermentation.
(Riehet ■) 770
Means for Separating the Alkaline and Earthy from their.
(P) Atkins and Applegarth 43
Of Copper, Action of Water on Basic. (Rousseau and
Tit" ) 238
Of Gold. Dyeing and Printing with. (Odenheimer) 600
Of the Alkalis, Action of Alkaline Bases on Solubility of.
I Engel ) 237
Prsparat.cn of Mineral, for Bathing or Drinking. (P)
Vincent 1023
The Production of Stassfurt. (T.R.) 472
Sampling Machine. (Bridgman) (illus.) 268
Sand-Filters, Efficacy of, at Zurich 364
Sanitary Chemistry. (Class XVIII.)... 52,173,260,364,450,630,704,
76!'. 834,933, 1024
Ware, Kilns for Burning ard Glazing. (P) Armstrong. . . . 524
S irgent and Sons' Annual Metal Circular 77
Schiff's Bases, (von Miller and Plbchl) 901
Schurmann's Reactions. (Smith) SG9
Seilla maritima a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Scotland. The Oil Trade of. (T.R.) 784, 851, 1045
The Shale Oil Production in. (T.R) S51
Scrap, Utilisation of Tin-Plate. (P) Harbord and Hutchinson,
jun, 614, 753
Sealing Wax, Analysis of. (Mangold) 464
Seed, A New Oil. (T.R.) 950
Oils. BruhVs Reaction for. ( Holde) 272
Seltzer Water. Manufacture of Artificial, (de Pietra Santa) .. 257
Separators for Granular Substances. (P) Pape and Hcuneberg 149
Service Tree a Yielder of Tannin. (Mafat) 622
Sesame Oil. Qualitative Reaction of. (Holde) 272
Oil, Test for. (Holde) 637
Sewage and Sewage Deposits. Treatment of. (P) Tatham .... 174
Apparatus for Cleansing and Filtering. (P) Birch 864
Apparatus fur Treating, (P) Munns. From Black 630
Disinfecting and Deodorising. (P) McDougaland Mcldrum 150
Effluents, Process lor Purifying. (P) Scruby 451
Material for Treatment of. (P) Candy 70<)
Means for the Purification of. (P) Watson 364
Method and Apparatus for Disposal of. (P) Nona's 451
Method and Apparatus for Purifying. (P) Wood 451
Precipitating Snlid Matter in. (P) Hardwick and Newton 173
Precipitat ion. Method of. ( P) Purvis 934
Process for Treating. (P) Hope 934
Sludge. (Grnnshaw) 7
Sludge, Treatment of. (P) Adeney 630
Sludge, Utilisation of. ( P) Wilson 769
Tanks, Drawing olT Cdquid from. (P) Bird 630
The Oxidation and Purification of. (P) Candy 769
The Purification of, by Precipitation. (Barrow) 4
Treatment of. (P) Hossack and Bull 630
Treatment, The Aluiniuoferric Process of. (Sisson, jun.) . 321
PAGE
Sewage— r<-af.
Treatment, the Cost of. (Giimshaw) 5
Utilisation of a Waste Oxide of Iron for Purification of.
(P) Saere and Grimshaw 933
Utilisation of, in the Manufacture of Artificial Fuel. (P)
Jones 597
Sewerage, Treatment of. (P) Scott- Moncrieff 705
Shale Oil Production in Scotland. (T.R.) 851
Retorts for Distilling. (P) Ovr and MacKay 900
Retorts for Distilling. (P) Orr and Sutherland 737
Sheep Dip, An Improved. (P) Robertson 365
Dips, Means of Colouring. (P) Reade 541
Sheets, Waterproof, for taking Press Copies of Documents,
(P) Thomson 835
Shell Beds. (Wills) \ 698
Shells, Improved Method of Charging Explosive. (P) Dodd. . . 546
Sherry Trade, The Spanish 651
Ships, Composition for Coating the. Interiors of. (P) Briggs .. 749
Shoddy, Apparatus for Carbonising. (P) Hof 743
Sicily, Sulphur Mining in. (T.R.) 283
The Sulphur Industry of. (T.R.) 466, 717
Siemens Electrolytic Process for Extraction of Copper from
Ores. 534
Signals, Magnesium Lights for. (P) Hackh 597
Silica, in Clay. Estimation of. (Archbutt) 215
Silicates, Action of Ammonium Chloride on. (Schneider and
Clarge) 709
Siliconand Phosphorus, Extracting. (P) Talbot 921
In Cast Iron, Calorhuotrical I uvestigations on. (Osmond) . 242
Influence of , on Ductility, Strength, and Conductivity of
Copper. (Hampc) 1014
Silk. (Class V.) 29, 158, 126,517,600,680, 741,810,902,1002
Action of Nitric Acid on. (Vignon and Sisley) 430
And Mixed Threads, Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Lehner 680
Apparatus for Dyeing. (P) Truman 680
Apparatus for Dyeing and Bleaching. (P) Young and
Crippin 742
Dyeing. (P) Lomrmore and Williamson 906
Dyeing Solid Black by Means of Alizarine, Flavopurpurine,
Anthrapurpurine, and Mixtures thereof. (P) Irnra.y.
From the Fail), vorm. Meister, Lucius und Briining... 515
From Wood Pulp. (T.R.) 720
Manufacture of Yarns "from Waste. (P) Beyer 15$
Or Half-Silk Goods, Dyeing. (P) Zillessen.'sen 1004
Preparation and Dressing of. (P) Priestley 518
The Rotatory Power of. ( Vignon) 427
The Specific Gravity of. (Vignon) 600, 1002
Silks of Different Origins, Specific Rotatory Power of. (Vignon)
(illus.) 741
Of Various Origin. Rotatory Power of. (Vignon) 680
Silver and Gold, Quantitative Determination of, by Hydroxyl-
amine Hydrochloride. (Lainer) 710
Chloride, Action of Light on. ( Baker) 634
Chloride, Action of Light on. ( Bechamp) 266
Chloride, Action of Light on. (Guntz) 179
Obtaining, from Ores. (P) French and Stewart 612
Quantitative Estimation of, by Hydroxylamine Hydro-
ohloride, (Lainer) 271
Lead and Zinc, Separation and Estimation of, in Minerals
Composed of Galena and Blende. (Aubin) 775
Ores, Smelting Complex. (P) James 922
Or Gold, Extraction of, from Ores. (P) Parker aud Monfc-
gomerie 921
Or Gold. Wet Process for Extraction of. (P) Sutton 924
Paint, Manufacture of. (P) Cutler 829
Separating, from its Ores. ( P) Atkins 618
Separation of, from Mattes or Allovs. (P) Strap 616
Stat istics Respecting Bar. (T.R.) 81
Simarouba amara a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Siphon, A New. (Konther) (illus.) 181
sisal Grass <>f Yucatan. (T.R.) 469
-Hemp or Pita-Flax 902
Size. (Class XIV.) 46, 171. 253, 4t7, 539, 621, 6i>7, 759, 930, 1018
Improvements in. (P) Shepherd. From Krizek and Esche" 253
Paint, Manufacture <>r. (P) Boult 361
Sizes, Production of. (P) Higgins 447, 447,417
Sizing Paper. (Wunder) 52
Skein-dyeing, Apparatus for. (P) Lyon and Lorimer (illus.).. 746
Skins. Improvements in Tanning. (P) Lake. From Durio
Brothers 625
Process for Tanning. ( P) Bolt 171
Rendering, Waterproof and Durable. (P) Riegert 624
The Weighting of. (Eitner) 253
Slabs, Utilisation of Slag for Manufacture of. (P) Arnold 819
Slag, Analysis of, from Manufacture of Phosphorus. (Chorley) 711
Cement, The Manufacture and Properties of. (Redgrave) 163
Components, Calculation of. (Murray) 270
Estimation of, in Wrought Iron. (Barrows and Turner).. 636
Hydraulic Mortars from. (Midler) 435
Relationship of Basic Calcium Phosphates to Thomas.
(Foester) 460
Treatment of Iron and Basic. {Pi Talbot 921
Utilisation of Blast Furnace. (P) Hutchinson and Har-
1 ion 1 612
Utilisation of, for Manufacture of Blocks, Slabs, Pipes, &c.
(P) Arnold 819
xlvi
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
PAGE
Slate Debris, Manufacture of Building Materials from. (P)
Li S «-. Anon, des Ardoisieres de Deville and V. V. der
Heyden 242
Slide-Rule, for Use in Calculation of Furnace Charges.
( Wingham) 821
Use of Fuller's Spira'i, for Chemical Calculations. (Watson)
(illus.) 324
Slip, Improvements in Preparing. (P) Edwards. From Goetz 3s
Sludge, Preparing, for Vse as Manure. (P) Hardwick and
Newt on 173
Treatment of Sewage. 1 1' i Adeney 630
Smoke, Apparatus for P.. indexing Innocuous. (P) Wainwright 22
Apparatus for Treating. (P) Davy 21
Appliance for Recording Presence and Density of. (Thomson) 12
Means for Consuming. (P) Hoyle and Haslam 234
Method and Apparatus for Washing and Purifying. (P)
Hartridge 80S
Purification of. in Chimneys. (Pj Salwey 260
Purifying. (P) Fink 807
Removal or Prevention of. (P) < hides 233
Snow. Analysis of. (Carter Bell) 320
.Melting of. (P) Oades 233
Soap and Toilet Preparations, Manufacture of. { 1'! Alexander
and others 827
Fluid. (P) Haigh 92s
Import of, by Greece. (T.B.) 783
Improved Cleansing. (P) Walter 928
Lake. Washington. (T.R.) 951
Manufacture of. (P) Cathrein 757
Manufacture of. I P i Digby 928
Manufacture of. (P) Stone 445
.Manufacture of. (P) Taylor 92S
.Manufacture of an Improved. (P) Dodd 75S
Manufacture of Soap in Brazil. (T.R.) 714
Manufacture of Superfatted. (Pj Field 446
Manufacture of Washing. (P) Hlawaty and Kanitz 827
Or Soap-Powder, Dry. (Pi Horton and Taylor 11117
Or Washing Powder. (P) Steward 62U
Residue. Utilisation of. ( P) Stone 415
Supply of. to Mauritius. 1 I'.R.) 468
Soaps. (Class XII.) 41, 169, 2.jn, 355, 415, 533, 619, (196, 736, 827,
92 s, 1917
And Saponaceous Compounds. Manufacture of. (P) Tem-
pleman 827
Soda, Action of Carbon in Preparation of Silicate of. I Seheurer-
Kestner) 7 Is
And Chlorine, Production of. (P) Lake. From Cutten... 747
And Potash. Manufacture of Caustic. (P) Martin 816
Apparatus for Manufacture of Carbonates of. (P) Rowitt 23S
Comparative Prices of Nitrate of, and Sulphate of Ammonia.
(T.R. I 878
Industry of Russia. The. (T.R.) 649
Manufacture of Alumiirites. Sulphate and Carbonate of.
(P) Claus 815
Manufacture of Caustic. (Pi Ody 6tif
Nitrate of. Statistics, 1885—92. (T.R.) 651
Obtaining Chromate and Bichromate of. (P) Goodhall.
From Peacock and Ga t 686
On the Electrolytic Production of. (Cross and lit van .... 963
Preparation of Pure Phosphoric Acid from Phosphate of.
1 Watson) 224
Recovery of Carbonate of. (P) Lunge and Dewar 483
Simultaneous Manufacture of Neutral Sulphate of. and
Precipitated Phosphate of Lime. (P) Brunner and
Zanner 816
Treatment of Hard Water Containing. (Langer) 5*3
Variation in the Composition of Caustic, within the same
Drum. (Watson) 322
Waste, Treatment of. (P) Ellershauscn 433
Sodium and Iron, Recovery of Various Bodies from. (P)
Lunge and Dewar 433
Borates. Manufacture of. 1P1 Burnt and Schreiter 434
Carbonate and Bicarbonate, Solubility of, iu Sodium
Chloride S .lut ions. I Reich) 346
Chloride. Solution of Antimony Chloride in Saturated
Solutions of. (Causse) 600
New Solid Compounds of Bisulphate of, with Sulphur
Trioxido and Water. (P) Brindley 1004
Nitrate, Decomposition of, by Sulphuric Acid. (Volney) . 347
Nitroprusside, React of, with Aldehydes and Ketones.
(von Bitto) 846
Peroxideof. (Prud'homme) S14
Peroxide of. and its Application in Bleaching,
(Prud'homme: 1003
Some W ell-Defined llloysof. (Joannis) 641
Sulphate, Action of Carbon on, (Soheurer-Kestner) 187
The Preservation of. ( Vaubel) 7;.:i
Tungstate, Use of. as a Fixing Agent fur Mordants. ! l"l-
rich) 30
Solanacea, The Alkaloids of Certain of the. (Hesse) 936
The Alkaloids 1 if t he. (Schutte) 263
Soldaini's Solution, Estimation of Invert Sugar by, (Striegler) 1113s
Solder for Joininn Aluminium with Aluminium and other
Metals. (P) Wegner 613
Solid Matters, Apparatus I'm' Desi cation of. (P) Donard and
Boulet 804
Solids. A j. pa rat us for Mixing Liquids and. (P) Johnson and
Hutchinson 696
Apparatus for Separating Liquids from. (P) Sawrey and
Collet 230
PAGE
Solubility Experiments. Determination of Electrolytic Disso-
ciation of Salts by. (Noyes) 247
Of Tri- and Bicalcium Phosphate in Solutions of Phosphoric
Acid. (Causse) 760
Solution and Pseudo-Solution. (Picton and Linder) 64
A New Instance of Abnormal. (Pannentier) 7so
Solutions, Apparatus for Evaporating Saccharine. (P)
Label ie 1019
Containing Nickel and Iron. Treatment of. (P) Johnson.
From Parker and Robinson 755
Crystallisation of Saccharine and other. (P) Mewburn.
From The Maschinen-Fabrik Grevenbroich 543
Crystallising Saline and other. (P) Morrell and String-
fellow 895
Determination of Freezing Point of Dilute Aqueous.
(Raoult) 7SU
Electrolysis of Saline. (P) Hermite and Duboscq 1015
Electrolytic. See Batteries.
Existence of Acid and Basic Salts in Very Dilute. (Ber-
thelot) 465
Of Metals, Action of Salt on su2
Preservation of m-Phenvlencdiauiine. ( Deniges) s is
The Compressibility of Saline. (Gilbaut) 780
Treatment of Saccharine. (P) Mewburn. From Maschinen-
Fabrik Grevenbroich 626
Solvent, Carbon Tetrachloride as a. (Eckenroth) 757
For Gums and Resins. ( P) Read 1017
Soot, Identification of Lung-Pigment with. ( Wit sner) 1024
Sophorine. (Plugga) 453
Sorbitol-,. (Fischer and Staliell 49
South American Metallurgical Industries. (Vattier) 783
Sozoiodnl. (Trillat) 1028
Spain, Customs Regulations Affecting Sale of Oils in. (T.R.) . . 714
New Customs Tariff of. (T.R.) 276,375
River Pollution in. (T.R.) H9
The Beet-Sugar Industry of. (T.R.) 647
Specific Gravity Apparatus. (Fulton) (illus.) 305
Gravity Determinations, On Fluid. (Alder Wright)
(illus.) 297
Gravity Instruments. (P) Fletcher 635
Gravity of Nitric Acid, Influence of Nitrogen Tetroxide on.
( Lunge and Marchlewski ) 775
Gravity of Silk, The. (Vignon) 600,1002
Gravity of Textile Fibres, The. (Vignon) 111112
Gravity of Textiles, (de Cbardonnet) 640
Gravity of Viscid Substances Determining. (Brithl) 60
Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion of Aluminium. (Pionehou) 752
Spectra, Absorption, of Thin Metallic Films and of Incan-
descent Vapours of the Metals. (Dudley) 924
Spelter, Statistics Respecting. (T.R.) 80
Sperm Oi I, The Analysis of. ( Lewkowitsch) 134
Spermine. Manufacture of. (P) Majert 773
Spheroidal State in Boilers, Production of the. ( Witz) 667
State, On the. (Gossart) 274
Spir&a a 1 ielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Spirit Blast-Lamp, (illus.) 457
Production of, by Ozonised Air or Oxygen. (P) Nycander
and Francke 1022
Spirits. (Class XVII.) . . 50,171,255,363,419, 543,626,699,763,830,
931, 1U19
Extracts for Use in Manufacture of. (Pi Nvcander 1023
Manufacture of. (P) Snelling 931
Method of Storing Inflammable. (Pi Thwatte 512
Slannuni and chromium, Compounds of the Oxides of.
(Leykanf) 743
Star-Anise a Tielder of Tannin. I Mafat) 621
Starch. (ClassXVI.) .. is. 362, 448, 541. 626, 699, 760, 830,930, 1018
A Ferment Producing Amyl Alcohol from. (Perdrix) — 699
Converting, into a Soluble Product. (P) Thompson.
From Berge 448
Formation of Dextrose from, by Ferments. (Lintner) 1021
Separation of Iso-Iualtose from the Diastatic Conversion
Products of. (Lintner and Diihl) 71'.''.
The Higher Nitric Ethers of. (Mulilhauser) 708
Starches. Analysis of. (Thorner) (illus.) 62
St. Christopher, Fertilisers in. (T.R.) 1043
Stassfurt, A Rival to. (T.R.) 71S
Production of Salts at. (T.R.) 7is
Salts, The Production of. (T.R.) 472
Statement of Revenue and Expenditure for the Year 1S91 570
Steam, Apparatus for Drying or Superheating. (1*) Mudd.... 337
Condensation and Purification of. (P) Theisen 66S
Determination of Temperature of, Arising from Boiling
Salt Solutions. (Sakurail 551
Superheating Apparatus. (PI Uhler and Cadischc 994
Stearine, Extraction of, from Tallow. (P) Benoit and Soler y
Vila 620
Steel, Accurate Determination of Phosphorus in, in Two Hours.
( Wdi iwiszewski) 845
And Iron, The Passive State of. Part II. (Andrews)
(illus.) 527
Carbm lsing Fluid. ( P) Stead 694
Conversion of Cast Iron into, (lebiedieff) 245
Determination of Constants and Coefficient of Elasticity of
Nickel. (Mercadier) 166
Dec si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xlvii
r/r.K
Steel— cant.
Direct Determination of Aluminium in. (Drown and
McKenna) 268
Estimating Chromium in. (Clark) 601
Hardening Articles of . (P) Hardinghaiu. From Wilisch. 823
-Making in Austria-Hungary. (Brisson) 609
Manufacture of. (P) Darby 42
Manufacture of. (1') Hutchinson and Harbord 612
Mauiifactuivof. (P)von Ehrenwerth 612
Manufacture of Cast. (P) Filassicr and Fame 695
Manufacture or Puriflcntion of. (P) Darby 42
Pipes, Bars and Hoops, Galvanising. (Pi Jones 612
Process for Rendering. Homogeneous. (P) Fraley 695
Purilicatiou of. ( P) Saniter 1013
Purification of, from Sulphur. (Saniter) till
Rapid Determination of Carbon in. (P) Tropenas atid
W.lls 636
The Passive State of. Part III. (Andrews) (illus.) i;o:»
Treatment of. (P) Walrand and Lerenisel 822
Win1, Influence of Heat on the Properties of. ( Rudeloff). 40
Sterilising Apparatus. (P) Colin 2.17
Apparatus. (P) Imray. From Calberla, Fitz, und Con-
sort, -n 258
Apparatus. (P) Redfern. From Neuhass, Gronwald, and
Oehlmann 630
Apparatus. (P) West 630
Still Columns. (1') Hirzal 60S
Stills, Construction of Vertical. (P) Wright 891
For Distillation of Gas Liquor, &c. (P) Colson 807
Stone, An Artificial. (P) Harries 749
And Marble, Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Solenz 749
And Marble, Treatment for Cleaning. (P) Lodge and
Jury 749
Artificial. (P) Horn. From Mason and others 436
Composition, Artificial. (P) Keseling and Fuchs 908
Decorative Artificial. (P) Thomas 908
Deposits in the Oural Mountains, Lithographic. (T.R.) .. 1044
Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Imray. From Schleuning 819
Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Tcrp 819
Treatment of, to Prevent Deterioration. (P) Aitken 606
Stones, Artificial. (P) Holliday 526
Manufacturing Artificial, with Glass Surfaces. (P) Hreuer. 241
Of Great Britain, The Building. (Beare) 1011
Porosity of Building, and their Resistance to Frost.
(Peroche) 749
Preparation of Lithographic. (P) Krantz and Zeissler.... 0)5
Stoneware, Preparing Slip for Manufacture of. (P) Edwards.
From Goetz 38
Preparation of Gold Glaze for. ( Heeht) 162
Stoves, Manufacture of Pottery Ware Domestic. ( P) Salomon 597
Storage Batteries. See Batteries.
St. Petersburg, Production and Consumption of Gas in. (T.R.) 280
St. Thomas, Fertilisers in. (T.R.) 1042
Strawberry a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 622
Straw Boiling , 452
Straw-Paper, French 56
Strontium and Barium, Manufacture of Carbonates of. (P)
Brock and Marsh 1005
And Calcium, Difference in Solubility of Chroiuates of.
( Fresenius and Ruppert ) 776
Chloride. Manufacture of. (P) D'Andria 36
Stucco, Making Coloured. (P) Ward 1012
Studies on Artificial Musk. (Baur) 306
■Substances of the Aromatic Series Capable of Developirg the
Latent Photographic Image. (Lumiore) 839
Substitutions in Groups Linked to Carbon and to Nitrogen.
Application to Explosives. (Matignon) 937
Sugar, A Crystalline Magma of Invert. (Wiechmann) 362
A pparatus for Liquoring. ( P) Scheiblcr 830
Apparatus for Separating Impurities from. (P) Drum-
mond 931
Cane, A New Variety of. (T.R.) 950
Canes, Apparatus for Extracting Juice from. (P) Stewart
(illus.) 930
Concreting. (P) Morrell and Stringfellow 895
Crystals, Influence of Ralfiiiose on Form of. (Herzfeld) . . 541
Determination of Small Amounts of. (Midler and Ohlmer) 778
Estimation of Invert, by Soldani's Solution. (Striegler) . 1038
Extracting, from Raw Solution, Juice, or Molasses. (P)
Schneller and Wisse 4 is
-Growing in Queensland. (T.R.) 720
Industry of Germany, The. (T.R.) 190
Industry of Spain, The Beet-. (T.R.) 647
Industry, Recent Inventions in the Beetroot, (von Lipp-
mann) 541
Influence of Acetates of Lead on Estimation of Invert.
( Borntrager) 778
Juice, Apparatus for Concentrating. (P) Deacon. From
Maxwell 830
Juice or Molasses. Refining. (P) Schneller anil Wisse.... 830
Manufacture of. ( P ) Brokhoff 626
Manufacture of. (P) Harvey 699
Manufacture of Crystallised. (P.I Drost 699
Manufacture of Cube-, Loaf-, and Similar. (P) Thompson.
From Hirsch 418
Molasses, Confections, and Honey, Notes on the Analyses
of. (Wiley and others) 761
PAGE
Sturm — cont.
< her- Production of. (T.R.) 716
Pans for Boiling or Heating. (P) Morton mis
Pine-Tree. (Wiley) 3112
Production of Beet, in Russia. (T.R.) Bu
Production of. in British India. (T.R.) 469
Production of Invert, and Dextrose. (P) Rumpler ! liii'.i
Proposed Alteration in Calculating the Rendement of Raw.
( Herzfeld) 542
Refining. (P) Langen 44s. 1019
Solubility of, in Water. ( Herzfeld ) 542
Specific Rotatory and Cupric Reducing Power of Invert.
(O'Sullivan) '. 372
Starch, Gum, le 48, 362. 448, 641 . 626, 699, 760, 830, 930, IMS
The Best Means of Valuing Raw. ( Herzfeld) 541
Treating, Purifying, and Consolidating Raw. (P)
Lafontaine 1019
Sugars, Estimation of, by Ost's Copper solution, (Schmoeger) 273
Estimation of the Inorganic Constituents of Raw. ( Alberti
and Henipel ) 273
The Colouring of. ( Wiley and others) 761
Sulphaminol. (Trillat) 1030
Sulphate of Ammonia. See Ammonia.
Sulphates, Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in. (Stolle) 711
Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in. (von Asboth) 711
Sulphide Solutions, Physical Constitution of Some. (Picton). 64
Sulphides of Gold, On the Colloidal. (Schneider) 40
Quantitative Analysis of. ( Jannasch and Wasowicz) 457
Treatment of Argentiferous Zinc-Lead. (Schnabel) 821
Sulphite Cellulose Paper Mill, An American. ( Wildbagen)'
(illus.) ni.
Sulphite-Wood Liquor and Lignin. ( Lindsey and Tollens) ... 835
Sulphites, Action of Pyridine Bases 011 certain. 1 Denises).. . 772
Manufacture of Icid. (P) Boake and Roberts 907
Sulpho-Acid of a-Naphthol and Colouring .Matters therefrom.
(P) Read, Holliday, and others 341
Acids of Basic Naphthalene. ( P) Johnson. From Tin'
Badische Anihn and Soda Fabrik 516
Acids and Colouring Matters, Production of. (P) Favb.
vorm . Bayer and Co moo
Acids, Production of New, and Colouring Matters there-
from, (P) Johnson. From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik 679
Sulphocyanides, Electrolysis of Metallic. (Frankel) 61
In Coal-Gas. (Esop) 337
Sulphonic Acids, Antipyrine. (Mollenholf) 83,1
Acids of Some of the Cinchona Alkaloids. ( Hesse) 17«
Sulphur, Action of Sulphurous Acid on Flowers of. (Colefax) 30
Candles. ( P) Morss and Bourne 174
Compounds in Pott-oleum. (Kastand Lagai) 598
Compounds, Purifying Gas from. ( P) Clans 234
Determination of, in Galena, &c. (Jannasch anil Aschoff) 45R
Dioxide and Sodium Phenylate, Reactions of the Addition
Productof. (Schall anil Chi) 9no
Dioxide, Decomposition of, at High Temperatures by
Carbon. (Scbeurer-Kcstuer) '., i;s7
Elimination of, from Iron. (Hall and Wingham) 751
Elimination of, from Iron. (Stead) .' 711
Estimation of, in Coal. (Grittner) 711
Industry, the Sicilian. (T.R.) 466,717
Mining in Sicily. (T.R.) 283
Ores, Treatment of. (P) Labois 694
Purification of Iron and Steel from. (Saniter) 911
Recovery of, from Double Sulphide of Sodium and Iron.
( P) Lunge and Dewar 433
Refining and Distillation of. (P) Labois 687
Salicylic Acid Derivatives containing. (P) Johnson. From
von Heyden Nachfolger :;i;ii
Treatment of Crude. (P) Labois 694
Trioxide. Water, and Bisulphates of Sodium or Potassium,
New Solid Compounds of. (P) Brindley 1004
United States Production of. (T.R.) '. 75
Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid, Using Combination of,
for Decomposition of Chlorides, Sulphides, &c. (P)
Pedder 815
Acid and Nitric Acid, Action of, on Aluminium. (Le Rov) 106.918
Acid and Zinc, Treating Waste Liquors to Obtain." (P)
Hall 613
Acid, Apparatus for Concentration of. (P) Kessler. (illus.) 434
Acid, Apparatus tor Supplying to Carbonic Acid Generators
(P) Cox 162
Acid, Commercial Valuation of. (Morrison) 989
Acid, Comparative Value of Brimstone and Pyrites for
Manufacture of, in the United States. (Kelley) 814
Acid, Concentrating in Gold-lined Platinum Stills.
( Lunge) 522
Acid, Concentration of. (Scheurer-Kestner) 746
Acid, Decomposition of Sodium Nitrate by. (Volney) .... 347
Acid, Estimation of. in Sulphates. (Stolle) .* 711
Acid, Estimation of. in Sulphates. (Von Asboth) 711
Acid. Improvements in the Manufacture of during 1891.
( Schertel ) 906
Acid Manufacture in lS'.'l. (Hasenclever) :,21
Acid, Negrier's Method of Concentrating1 685
Acid, On the Volumetric Estimation of. (Farnsteiner) ... .MS
Acid. Purification of, for Accumulators. ( Kugel) 8''6
Acid Trade in Brazil, The. (T.R.) 784
Sulphuretted Hydrogen. See Hydrogen,
L
xlviii THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Bee.si.i892
PAGE
Sulphurous Acid, Action of Carbon on. (Scheurcr-Kestner) .. 748
Acid, Action of, on Flowers of Sulphur. (Colefax) •■■-•■■ ,-"'
Acid and Zinc, Treating Waste Liquors to obtain. (F)l Han bt.i
Or Sulphuric Arid and Oxide of Iron, Treating Waste
Liquors to obtain, (P) Hall Bls
Sulphonfs and Sulphonic Acids, Production of. (P) Clark.
Prom the Gewerkschaft Messel
Sulphonic lcids.New Product byTreating Gelatinous Matters
\\ ith. i P) Clark. From The Gewerkschaft Mussel . . . 22
Snlphoricinate, Special Process for Preparing. (Scheurer-
IV'-slUCI'l 33
Sumac a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
i tontribut n in to our knowledge of. (Eitner) >y
Extruci . ( Mafat 1 1M
Sumatra, New Oil-Field in. (T.R I 7s:!
Sunflower Oil, Russian. I T.R.) l"°
Superphosphate, Manufacture of iSchucht) ,'•••," S
Manufacture of, from Ferruginous Phosphate. (Jaenpe) . bus
Superphosphates, Manufacture of. IP) Lake. From Briart
and Jacquemin ^J"
Valuation of '''*
Sweden, Customs Decisions in. (T.R.) t;6
Switzerland, Alterations in the Customs TariH of 787
Classification in Customs Tarifl of. 1T.K.1 6°
i: ■■■••■ill Customs Decisions in. (T.R.) "'6
Syrup, Coil for Feeding, into Vacuum Pans. (P) Basauta 312
Tablets for Use in Carbonic Acid Baths. (P) Sandow 37
Tallow, Apparatus for Smelting. (P) Pfutzner ■ 620
Extracting Stearine and Oleine from. (P) Benoit and
Soler y Vila eil>
Tank Waste. if Alkali Works, Method of Treating 682
Tanks, Manufacture of Glass. ( l'l Armstrong i;"5
Tanneries in < lanada . (T.R.) s6*
Tannic leid absorbed by Cotton under Varying Conditions.
( Knecht and Kershaw I 12"
Aeid. Conversion of, into Benzoic Aeid. (Guignet) 261
Extracts, Decolorising and Clarifying. (P) Huillard 53!>
Tannin, Chestnut Wood. (Trimble) 47
Detection of Protein Substances in Beet Juice by Means
of. (Bruck) MO
Extracts. Clarifying and Bleaching, il'i Foesling 237
Extracts, So-called "Decolorised." (Soxhlet) 519
Preservinga Solution of. (P)Crowther 624
Tanning Industry in the United States 651
Leather,;* Hue, and Size.. . 16, 170, 263, 447, 539,021, 697. 759, 930,
Liquors and Extracts. Manufacture of. I Jean I lillus.) ... 4li
Liquors, Clarifying and Bleaching, (l'l Foesling 237
Liquors, Decolorising and Clarifying. IP) Huillard 539
Mat. rials. Index of Plants Capable of Yielding. (Mafat). . 621
Process and \ minis fur. i I'i llaechl and I Ibozmski.. . 1018
School in Freiberg, The New. (T.R.) 649
The- Role of Arsenic in. (Satllon) 1/1
Tannins and Tanning Extracts, and their Application in Dyeing
Cotton. (Soxhlet) 744, 90 1
Tar, Ammonia and Heating Gas, Simultaneous Production of.
I Hennin ) , -™
And Ammonia, Manufacture of. (P) Thompson. From
Kuillze 5,1
Apparatus for Distilling. (Pi Lennard 151
Appaiatus for Exti'acting, from Gas. (l'l Lister 511
Pitch Si al ii lit v "f OrL-anie Xil ncni Cum pounds Occurring
in. (Smith) n9
Products. (Class 111.) 22,150,236,340, lit, 511 . 598, 67 1 .
735, 807, 990
The Chemistry of "Brown-Coal." (Heisl.ri '".71
Tariff Changes and Customs Regulations . 66, 186, 276, 375. 466, 532,
641, 714. I't8
On Petroleum in France. (T.Ii.l 67
Tartaric Acid, Detection and Estimation of Lead in Com-
mercial. (Bucket) 84S
Acid. Effect of, on Brewery Yeast. I Hansen) 2.jt>
Acid, Lead in. (Bucket) S37
Acid. Lead in. (Guillot) s38
Acid, New Synthesis of. (Genvressc) ''31
Acid, Synthesising. (T.R.) 284
Tart rates, Dissociation in Dilute Solutions of. (Sonnenthal) . . 263
I. :i. Making an Extract of, and a Confection therefrom. (P)
Sonstadt -r,s
Preserving Liquid Extract of. (P) Sonstadt 268
Production of Dry Extract of. (P) Meyer 932
Technologists, Articles oi Interest to. (T.R.) 69, 190,651,720,787,951
Teeth, Amalgam for Filling. (P) Jfiterbock 353
Temperature of Electrolytic Gas, Ignition. (Freyer and
Meyer) ~*u
Of Furnaces, Appliance fur Autographicalty Rccordmgthe.
K.li i ts-Austen ) '■'■*"
Of Steam, Determination of. (Sakurai) 561
Temperatures Developed in Industrial Furnaces. il.iChalc-
lier) 607
Oh the Measurement ol High. (Becquerel) ?09
The optical Keasuremem of High. (Le Chatelier) . . . 774,774
i-ai.i:
T, rminalia Tom ntosa. (Rideal) **
Tei pene. Dextro-Rotatory, from the Leaves of the Siberian
Cedar. (Hawitsky) 36=
Hydrate from Eucalyptus oil. (Merck) • 632
Terpcnes and their Derivatives, (llruhli 63s, 705
Of the Oil from the. Resin of the Pine. (KunlolT) SbH
Terra-Cotta. Kilns for Firing. (Pi d'Enghein 524
Producing Imitation. (I'I Schienning 688
Wine Manufacture of. (P) Edwards 43o
Test for Alkaline Biearbunates, a Rapid. (Patein) 813
Teti-aliromotluoresccin. Manufacture of. ( Mulilhauserl (illus.) 673
Tetrahydro-a-naphthoquinoline. (Bamberger and Stetten-
heimer) 23
Tetramethyldiamidobenzophenone, Action of Nitrous Acid on.
(Herzberg and Polonowsky) 156
Tetramethyldiamidodiphenylmethoxytoluquinylmethane 25
Tetramethyltriamidodiphenylroi ithoxytolyln n iliane 25
Textile Articles with Fringed Edges. Manufacture of. (Pi
Bancroft 518
Fabrics, Machines for Spreading India-rubber, 4c. on.
(P) Coulter and Rowley •>38
Materials, Waterproofing. (P) Smith o}8
Plants, Decorticating. (Pi Subra ••• 617
Vegetable Substances, Treating, to obtain Fibres. (P)
Baruett M"
Textiles, Apparatus for Bleaching and Treating. (Pi Pike... 810
Apparatus for Dyeing, by Means of Metal Salts. (1 )
Odernheimer ',•;•",".■ I'll
Apparatus for Dicing or Bleaching, (l'l Bertrand-Lcplat. lbl
Apparatus for Dyeing, or Treating with Liquids or Gases.
(I'I Stewart' (illus.) 745
Bleaching Vegetable. Il'llmray. From Wilson 746
Colouring Pictures on. (P) Ophoven • • 741
Cotton. Wool, Silk, &e. (Class V.) 29, 158,^426, 517, 600. i.Mj.
Extracting Deleterious Matters from. (P) Hanson sin
Gilding and Silvering. (Odernheimer) 905
Preventing Escape of Noxious Gases m Treating. (P)
i^(.... 745
Printing Machines' for. (l'l Knowles 680
The Specific Gravity of. I de Chardunnet l 640
Treating and Dyeing. ( P) Sutcliffe 680
Treatment of Paper and Linen. (P) Annison 904
Ungumming and Decorticating. (PI Clark. From La
Soc. La'Ramen '*>
Thallin. (Trillat) m<>
Thermometer, Universal. (P) Hartl 99a
Thermometers. (P) Dawson im
Thermostats. (P) Shiels s95
Tin. ■carmine R. Application of. (vun Pergcr) 30
Thoferbn Electrolytic Copper Refining Process, The »25
Thomas-Slag, The Chemistry of. (von Reis) 691
Threads, Manufacture of Artificial Silk and Mixed. (P)
Leaner ■
Thymol. (Trillat) «»j
Thymoquinone, Preparation of. (Bayrac) 996
Preparation of. ( Reychler) 771
Tiles Clav Presses for. (P) Huelser. From Frohlieh (illus.). 436
Dark'lirowii Glazefor Roofing. (Cramer) 1>'-
Maebines for Making. (P) Jefl'eries '
Tin and Terne Plates, Manufacture of. ( Pi Rogers- • ■ • • • ■ • • • • fil3
And Ternc Plates. Manufacture of, in the United stales.
I 'j. j» | 7s7
Arsenic and Antimony, The Separation of. (Clark) •••••• )''•'
Extraction of, from Slag or Refuse. (P) Mason V-, 61 1
Minesinthe United States. (T.R.) 71.9
( lecurrence of, in Canned Poods. (Weber) • ••••.•••• 63
Ores, Notes on the Assay of. (Re nnie and Derrick 662
-Plate Scrap, Utilisation of. (P) Harliordand Hutchinson,
11111 ,...,,........•■••••■•••••••■■*••••"* ' ''''*
Reduction of"" Black," by Potassium Cyanide. Note on the.
(Rennie anil Derrick) 66--
Statistics of, for 1801 Wl
Statistics Respecting. (T.R.) ;'
The World's Store of. (Claypole) 438
Tissue, Weakening of the, in Printing White Discharges on
Indigo Blue. (Scheurer) '
Titauiferous Iron in the Blast Furnace - l7
Toilet Preparations, Manufacture of. (P) Alexander and
others -'
Toluquinolines, Studies on Derivatives of the. (Noelting and
Trautmann) '-'
Toluiiline Blue, Application of. (von Perger) 31
Toluylene Blue. Application of. (von Perger) 80
Tolvlglycucine, p-. ( Bisclioff and Hausdorfer) si)
Tool for Cutting Glass Tubes. (P) Chesterton (illus.) 133
Xoothworl a Yielilci -of Tannin. (Mafat) '.22
Toi'inentilla a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Town Air, The Impurities of. (Bailey) 769
Trade. Obstacles to British Foreign "••••„■ • • '« '.; ,V: , IS,1
Kepori 66, 186,276,375,466,652,641,714,782,850,948,1041
Transparent Coloured Materials for Decorative Purposes. (P)
McLean sil
Deo. 81, 1893.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTET.
xlix
PAGE
Transvaal Quicksilver. (T.R.) 718
Tniy, Developing. IT) Desboutin 987
Trays for Filter-Presses. (P) Teggin 891
Trianglo, Improved Form of Pipeclay. (Coleman) (illus.) 3S6
Trioaloium Phosphate, tlchaviour of. towards Carbonic Acid
and Ferric Hydroxide, (v. Georgievics) 254
Trinidad, Fertilisers in. (T.R.) 1012
Th.- Pitch Lakes of. I T.R.) 2s3
Triphciiylmcl banc C"li»iriiur Matters, (l'l I'ilt. From Caasella
&Co 28
Dyestufl Derivatives of. (Noelting and Sohwartz) 25
On the Colour-Derivatives of. (Noelting and Polonowsky) 313
Tri nitrotoluene. Preparation of a-. ( Haussermann) 235
Tropin, $• and Some i^-Tropeina. ( Liebermann and Limpaob. 706
Tropine. Action of Hypoeblorous Acid on. (Einhorn and
Fischer) '. 707
Manufacture of. (P) Meister, Lucius, und Britning 83S
Tubes, Couplings for Class or Glass-lined, (P) Rylands and
Morant 162
For Containing Carbonic Aoid Gas. (1') Rylands 68<i
Fur l'urif.viiiK Molten I ilass. ll') Epstein ill
For Storing and Immersing Hydrometers. (P) Fletcher. 635
Lining, with Glass. (P) Rylands and Husselbee 81S
Manufacture of Parchmentised Fibre. (P) Frist and
Ruper 1026
Production of Copper, by Electrolysis. (P) Watt 617
Tool for Cutting (llass. (P) Chesterton ( illus.) 163
Tubing, Elastic Fabric suitable for. (P) Temmel 759
Tungsten, The Supply of. (T.R.) 382
Tunis. The Phosphates of 760
Turkey-Bed Dyeing. ( Baldensperger) 237
Oil. (Wilson) 495
Oil, The Composition of. (Jmllard) 355
Turpentine, Action of Benzoic Acid on. (Bouchardat and
Lafont) 262
Adulteration of. ( Long) 519
American Oil of. (Long) 515
A New Product Resembling Spirits of . (P) Drake 45
Detection of Rosin Oils in Essence of. (/.une) 637
Larch. (Valenta) 177
Tvne Chemical Trade with United States during 1890 and ls:n
(T.R.) 949
u
Union Oil and Oil-Cake Mills, Lim., Visit to 579
United States, British Alkali in. (T.R.) 189
Case affecting Duty on Copper Ore in. (T.R.) 948
Chemical Trade with the Tvne during 1890 and 1891.
( T.R.) 949
Customs Decisions in the. (T.R.) 552
Drufl Imports into the. (T.R.) 381
Exports from the United Kingdom to the, during 1X91
(T.R. ) 949
Manufacture of Tin and Tern*' Plates in the 787
Mineral Products of, for 1891 1044
Mineral Statist ics. (T.R.) 69
Petroleum Production in the, during 1891. (T.R.) 285
Tanning Industry in the 651
The History of Borax in the. (T.R.) 787
Tin .Mines in the. (T.R.) 719
Ural, The Gold and Platinum Industry of; the 532
Uranium Solution, Determining Calcium Phosphate l>y.
(Coleman and Granger) 328
Urine, Optical Determination of Albumen in. (Ellinger) , 184
I ruguay, Foreign Competition with British Trade with. . . 951
Proposed Remission of Import Duties on Agricultural
products. (T.R.) 714
Vacuo, Apparatus for Casting Metals in. (P) Simpson 828
Vacuum Desiccator with Heating Arrangements. (Bruhl) ... 60
Va Ionia a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Vanillin, Colorimetric. Determination of. (Moerk) 637
Manufacture of. (P) LaSoc.de Lai re eft Cie 1031
Vanilluyl Carbonic Acid and Vanilline, Manufacture of. (P)
La Soc. de Laire et Cie 1031
Vapour Densities, Exact Determination of. (Sehall) 370
Vapours, Apparatus for Ejecting from Pipes, &c. (P) Edwards.
From Kohrmann 422
Apparatus for Treating Foul. (P) Makinson 704
Appliances for Saturating Air and Gases with. (Danks).. 508
Condensation and Purification of. (P) Theisen 668
Varnish, Manufacture of. (P) Hagenian and Palmer 696
Varnishes. (Class XIII.) 44, 170, 260, 357, 446, £#0, 620, 696,
758,827,929, 1017
( M uller) 250
Manufacture of, (P) Taylor 620
Preparation of, from Gums. (Pj Smith 361
page
\ egeiahle Cell Mt'iulinmes, < 'hemical ( lomposition of. (Schulsse) IS
Fibres, Treatment of. (P) Nicolle and Smil h 517
I 'roducta 1 >t" Tropical Africa. 1 T. R.) 377
Textile Materials, Bleaching. (P) Imray. Prom Wilson . 745
Venetian-Red, Manufacture of. (P) Wigg 361
Veratrme Reaction, Modification ofWeppen-s.- (Laves) 84S
Vermont, The Copper Mines of. I How.-) 216
\ essels, Apparatus for Closing. (P) Bathgate 629
For Molten Substances, IrOn, 1 Foefhr) (illus.) 526
Lining, with Glass. (P) Rylnndsaml Husselbee 818
Vinasse, Technical Analysis of Calcined, from Meet roof Molasses.
(Alberciand Hempel) 462
Technical Analysis of Calcined, from Beetroot Molasses.
( Heyer) 462
Vinegar, Detection of Nitric Acid in. (Soltsien) 372
Manufacture. ( Nettleton ) is;
Manufacture of. (P) Kuehenmeister 907
Vine Mildew,!' Bordeaux Mixture," A Remedy for. (Perrct) . 364
\ egetation of the. (Roos and Thomas) 627
Virginia, Anthracite Coal in West. (T.R.) 69
Viscid Substances, Determining Specific Gravity of. (Bruhl) . 60
Viscometer for Testing oils. (Hurst) (illus.) 418
Viscosity at Low Temperatures of Black Mineral Oils. (Holde) 941
Visits to Works 57s, 579, 580, 5M
Voltaic Batteries. See Batteries.
Von Sehulz and Low's Method of Estimating Lead in Ores.
( Williams) 775
Vote of Thanks to President. (Evans) 577
Vulcaniser, An Improved. (Fawsitt) 332
w
Wall Papers, Determination of Arsenic in. (Sanger) 370
Producing Flat Reliefs for. (P) Klinka 935
Walls, Compound for Coating. (P) Norwood 525, 606
Distemper for. ( P) Morse 526
Walnul V Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 623
Warfare, High Explosives in. (Barber) 59
Warps, Machine for Dyeing One or More. (P) Brook 1004
Washing Powder. (P) Steward 620
Washings, Treating Wool. (P) Griffin 743
Washington Soap Lake. (T.R.) 951
Wash-Waters, Treating Fatty or Greasy Matters from, il'i
Kimminsand Craig 169
Wasie Liquors from Metallurgical Processes, Treating. (P)
Hall 613
Wastes. See also Residues.
Using Galvanisers*. (P) Bricc 413
Water- Action of, on Basic Salts ol Copper. (Rousseau and
Titc) 238
A Delicate Test for Alum in Potable. ( Richards) 60
Ammonia in Rain-, and in the Atmosphere. (Muntz) 551
An Unusual Form of Spring. (Stebbins) 834
Apparatus for Distilling. <P) Cotton and Garrett 148
Apparatus for Distilling. (Pi Kiikuldy (illus. > 595
Apparatus for Distilling, in Presence of Air. (Pi Hunting 509
Apparatus for Distilling Sea. iP) Smil lie 896
Apparatus for Filtration and Aeration of. ( PI Ray 173
Apparatus for Producing Pure Distilled. (P) Cotton and
Garrett 1 fx
Apparatus for Purifying. (P) Brownlow 769
Apparatus for Purifying. (P) Devonshire 451
Apparatus for Purifying. (P) Nunn 450
Apparatus lor Purifying. ( P) Thompson. From Pennell. 668
Apparatus for Sterilising, Purifying, and Filtering, (P)
West 63n
-Bath, A Porcelain. (Dittmar) 181
Behaviour of Glass Surfaces towards. (Mylius and
Foerster) 181
Distillation Flask for Obtaining free from Organic Matter.
(Coleman) 327
Drinking, and Disease. (Mason) 450
Estimation of Ammonia in. (Lowe) 133
Estimation of Oxygen Dissolved in. (Adams) 271
-Gas, Purification of, from Sulphur Compounds. (P)
Clans 234
In Oil Tanks. Method and Apparatus for Measuring Depth
of. (p) Lied wood and Barringer 509
-Lily a Yielder of Tannin. ( Mafat) 623
Manufacture of Artificial Seltzer. ( De 1'ietra Satita) 257
Means for Delivering Polluted, over Filler-Bed. (P)
Garrett 364
Means for Sterilising. (P) Johnson. From La Soc.
Geneste, Herscher, and Co 450
Means for the Purification of. (P) Watson 364
Purification of Waste 933
Purifying. ( P) Collins 770
Purifying Effluent. (P) Hardwiek and Newton 173
Research Committee of the Royal Society, First Report to
the. ( Frankland and Ward) 704
Softening Brewincr. (Lunger) 543
So|nhilit\ of Sugar in. (Herzfeld) 542
The Possibility of Extracting Precious Metals from Sea.
(Minister) 351
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si. is*
PASS
\\ ater—tont.
The Plow of, through Tubes. (Mercssyng) 214
Treating Chemically Softened. (P) Arehbutt and Deeley. 421
itment of Hard, Containing; Soda. (linger) ". . 543
Treatment of, to Prepare it for Use in Boilers. (P) Deelej
:i ml Archbutt .'. 50.5
Waterproof and Grease-proof Packing Material, il'i Turner. 1002
Parries Vulcanisation of 517
Material, (P) Biemath 90S
Waterproofing Composition. (Pi Leech and Horrobin 446
Textile Materials. Il'i Smith 518
Waters, A New Colour Standard for Natural. (HazenJ 1037
Apparatus for Filtering Polluted. (P) Tandy 933
Changes in Chalybeate, during Simo.-!-. iRibani 7iS, 7tfS
Composition of " Hmrradi Janos " Mineral. (Bigirarti ... S-'JtJ
Distillation Flask for Estimation of Ammonia in. (Cole-
man) 327
Manufacture of Artificial Mineral. (P) Bubener 258
Manufacture of Carbonated. (P) Orr and others 259
Method and Apparatus for Purifying Foul. (P) Wood ... t.".l
Method and Material f..r Treatment of Impure. (P)
Candy Ttl'i
(In some Mineral Ferruginous. 1 Le < lhatelier) 1026
Removing Fatty Matters from Wool-Washing and other.
(P) Hughes. From Mot te and Co 827
Way. Analysis of Sealing. (Mangold) lit
Separation of Wool- from Wool-Fat. and Preparation of
Lanolin. (P) Jam- and Darmslaedter 028
Treating and Purifying, (Pi Henderson m<
While, in China. I T.R. i 282
Waxes Used in A dulterating Beeswax, Bibliography of 757
Meed Destroyers, Means of Colouring. (P) Eeade 541
W\ i >i ma ii uia maerostachia a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 624
Welding. Recent Developments m Electric Are. (Vnwinl ... 524
Weldon I'll cess. The Part Played by Calcium Chloride in the.
(Lunge) S82
Process with Magnesia Modified, The. (Reychleri 34
Weppen's Veratrine Reaction,' Modification of. (Laves) s(s
West Indies, Fertilisers in the. iT.R.i 854
Westphalia, The Coal Beds of. (Brookmann I 338
White Lead. Manufacture of. (P) Astrcp and Parker) 45
Manufacture of. i P) Fell. From Stevens 16
Mami'artuiv oi. tP) Honman and Vulher 361
Manufacture of. (P) James 620
Manufacture of. (P| Labois 696
Manufacture of. (P) Xoad 538
Hanufactureof. (P) A. J. Smith 1017
.Manufacture of. il'i Smith and Elmore 15
Manufacture of. < P) White 620
Production of. iP) Mac Ivor ami Smith (5
Product on of. (P) Smith and Elinor, 360
Willow a Source of Tannin. (Mafat) 024
Windsor and Cliveden, Excursion to 584
Wine Adulteration in Germany, i T.R.I 555
And Beer, Presence of Invertase in. (Donathj 543
Determination of Chlorine in. (Siefen) 77s
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in. ( Morgenstern and
Pavlinoft) '77
Etc., Treatment of. by Charcoal. I l'i Calmant 257
Estimation of Glycerol in. (Lcceo) 550
Manufacture and Properties of Fig-. (Vbgel) 256
Manufacture of. (P) Thompson. Frt.m Lawton 628, i;^.i
Manufacture of Unferuicnted. (P) Henderson :,i3
Ui port on the Heplastering of. (Berthelot, Gauticr, and
I tuclaux] 5 13
Yeast. I Koliimicri 171
Wines. (Class XVII.) 50, 171,255, 3G3, 449, 543, 626, 699, 763,
830.931.1019
A Contribution to the Study of Deplastered. (Quantin).. 764
Aipar-ut Proportion between Dextrose and I.cvulose in
Dark Brown Malaga and other similar Prepared
Borntragcr) 766
Boric Acid in. (Gassend) 767
Containing Potato Glucose, i Presenilis) 766
Determination of Glycerol in Sweet. (Lecco) 1038
The General Character of German. (Barth) 763
Wire Glass, Production of. (T.R.) 470
Influence of Heat on tin- Properties of Iron and Steel.
I Rudeloff) 40
Manufacture of. (f) Clans 928
Witz's ' Ixycellulose. i Xaeutnkovi 771
Wood, A Substitute for. (PI Kerr 521
< sote, Percentage of Guaiacol in. (Bongartz) 511
-Fibre Rones. (Pi Marwitz 810
-Fibre. Testing Paper for. (Hohnell 184
Manufacture of Artificial. (P) Wehner 908
(in the Destructive Distillation of. iChorlev and Ramsay)
(illns.) ' 396, 872
Puln in Paper, Determination of Mechanical. (Baudischi 464
-Pulp in Paper, Determination of Mechanical. (Godeffrov) 464
-Pulp, Silk from. (T.R.) ".. 720
Retorts for the Carbonisation of. (Pi Bowers 152
Wool, (Class V.i 20, 158. 42i'.. 517. 600, 680, 741, slu, :m2, 1002
Action of Chlorine on. (Knecht and Milnes) 131
Action of Hypochlorous Acid on. (Lodge) 601
Apparatus for Dyeing and Bleaching. (P) Young and
ppin 742
tage
Wool— tout.
Apparatus for Treating Samples of Crude. P) Fl-aysse 518
Apparatus for Washing and Scouring. IP) Smith (illus.). 7(2
Cause of Greening, durins Millinir, of Logwood Black on.
(Walther).... ^ hki2
Cleansing and Treating, il'i Ambler 51S
Dyeing, Progress in. (Chem. Zeit.) 6ir2
Dyeing, Progress in. (Wittl 602 602
Experiments on Mordanting, with Iron. (Ulrich) 30
Extracting Deleterious Matters from. (P) Hanson 810
Wool-Fat, Occurrence of Octylic Alcohol in Distilled.
(Hannau) 535
Manufacture of Fatty Matter from. (P) Glaser. From
Eraun and Liebreich 445
Extracting and Saving. (P) Trent and Henderson 928
The Analysis of. I Lew kowitsch) 134
.Separation of Wool-Wax from, and Preparation of
Lanolin. ( P) Jaffe and Darmstaedter 928
Wool Fibres, Oxidation of 42s
Machinery for Washing and Scouring. (P) Petrie and
Field™ (illus.) 90S
Machines for Scouring. Il'i MeXaught 158
i if Different Growths, Note on Scouring, i A rnaudon) .... 29
Treatment of Unprepared, in Wool- Printing 428
-Washing, Treating Patty Matters from. (P) Kimmins
and Craig 169
-Washing Waters, Removing Fatly Matters from. (P)
Hughes. From Motte and Ci S27
-Washings, Treating, i P) Griffin 743
Woollen Fabrics. Purifying. (P) Abel. From Philips and
Hathee 518
Goods, Dyeing and Printing. (Pi Lake. From tie hlerr 745, 746
Goods, The Formation of Mildew in. iSehhnkel (illus.).. 711
Tissues, The Printing and Steaming of. (( lesterr i 601
Wort and Beer. ( Amtlior) 767
Appliance for Distributing and Aerating. (P) Leaker 51
Influence of Different Temperatures on the Composition
of. (Prior) 766
Iso-Maltose in. (Lintner) 171
Means and Apparatus lor Treating. (P) Jolliffe 257
Method and Apparatus for Straining. (P) Croxford 833
Producing Clear. iPi Kliemetschek and Sobotka 700
Wounds, Preparation for Cure of. (P) Roth 934
Xvlose, Identification of, and Distinction from Arahinose.
( Bertrand) 1035
Xylenes, Method for Separating the. (Crafts) SHI
Y
Yarn, Apparatus for Dyeing. Bleaching, &,c. (P) Graemiger .. 813
Machinery for Treating Hanks of. (P) Marehant 7A5
Tarns, Apparatus for Cleaning and Lustreing. I P) Fisher and
Murgatroyd 743, 905
Apparatus for Gassing Silk and other. (P) Ideson 903
Manufacturing, from \V:isttj Silk. (P) Beyer 158
Means for Hyeing. (P) Smitbson 006
Treatment of Fibres for Manufacture of. (P) Raabe 8lo
Yeast and Spirit, Production of, by Ozonised Air or Oxygen.
(Pi Xycander and Franeke 1022
Effect of Tartaric Acid on Brewery, i Hansen ) L»."iti
Extracts tor Use ir. Manufacture of. (P) Nycandt-r Hi:' 3
Manufacture of. I Pi Schlaxenhauler and Blumer i;*i9
Manufacture. of. ( Pi M'alker 7<hi
On Wine. (Rommier) 171
Production and Preservation of Pure. (Pj LaSoe. Anon.
"La Levure" 031
The Hydrolytic Functions of. Part II. (O'SuIIivan) 1021
Studies on. * ( Effront ) 50
The Hydrolytic Functions of. Part I. (O'Sullivan) G28
Yeasts and Bacteria: The "Ginger-Beer" Plant. (Marshall
"Ward) 2.i5
Yolk of Egg, Analysis of Commercial. (Jean) 941
i'ucatan.The Sisal Grass of. (T.R.) 469
Zanckerode Colliery. Coal-Dust Explosions at the. (Georgi). . 938
Zinc and Manganese, Separation of. (Jannasch and Xieder-
hofheim ) 270
And Mercury, The Conditions which Determine Combina-
tion between the i yanides of. (Dunstan) 3t.7
Dec sr, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
PAGE
Zim — cont.
Electro-metal lurgic Production of (P) Nahnsen 535,535
Gravimetric Estimation ol". :is Sulphide. (Lowe) 131
In ores, Determination oi £46
In Preserved Foods. (Afen) 3C3
Lead and Silver, Separation and Estimation of, in Minerals
Composed of Galena and Blende. (Aubin) 77".
-Lead Sulnhidi s, Treatment of Argentiferous. (Schnabel) 821
Ores, Desulphurising. (P) Hart 923
< Ires, Process for Treating:. (P) West ;i">l
Ores, Regenerative Gas Furnace for. (Pi Dor 015
Zinc — cont.
Photo-Etching oil. ( \') Krantz and Zei
Producing Metallic. (P) Choate
Production ol Metallic. (Schnabel) ...
Production of Oxide of. (Schnabel) ...
Statistics Respecting. (T.K.)
Treating Composite < (res Containing.
Treal ing * h'esand Residues Containing
Costes and "i hers
Treating Waste Liquors to obtain. ( P
... <;i!i
. . . 821
. .. 821
8fl
(P) Hart ...
. . . 363
. (P)Clark.
l'i
. . . S52
) Hall
... 613
INDKX O F N E W BOOK S.
r LG i:
Adressbuch und Waarenverzeichniss der Chemischen Industrie
des Deutschen Ren lis. Wenzel 781
America, The Phosphates of. F. Wyatt. Second Edition 184
Ammoniak-Vabrikation, Taschenbuch fur. G. Lunge 946
Analyse der Fetteund Wachsarten. Dr. R. Benedikt 65
Analysis, Commercial * Organic A II. Allen. Vol. I II.. Part II.
Second Edition 047
Manual of Qualitative Elow-Pipe. P. M. Endlich low
Analytischen Chemie, Znrzea Lehrbuchder. von Miller and
von Kiliari 65
Anilinschwarz. E. Nbelting and A. Lehnc 276
Anleitung aur Cheiuischen Analyse Organischer Stoffe. Dr. G.
Vortmann 373
Auorganische Chemie, Zeitschrift fur. G. Krilss 374
Brewers, A Handy Book for. H. E. Wright 1040
Brewing, Text-Book on the Science of, E. R. Moritz and G. H.
Morris no
Blow-Pipe Analysis, Manual of Qualitative. P. M. Endlich . . . 1040
Carbon Compounds, Chemistry of the. V. von Richter.
Tianslated by Edgar F. Smith 185
Cheinienl Calculations, with Notes, Problems ami Answers,
R. Lloyd Whiteley 275
Lectuv Experiments. Non-Metallic Elements. (G. S.
Newth ) 1640
Chemisch Tecnnisches Repertorium, 1896. Dr. EmilJacobsen 65
374,466,641
Chemistry, A Treatise on. Roscoe and Schorlemmer Vol. III.,
Part VI 373
Lessons in Elementary. Sir Henry E. Roscoe 373
< H Paints and Painting, The. A. II. Church. Second
Edit ion 185
Of the Carbon Compounds or Organic Chemistry. V. von
Richter. Translated by Edgar V. Smith 185
of the Organic Dyestuffs. Nietzki, Collin and Richard-
son 1040
Coal-Tar Colours. A Dictionary of the. G. II. Hurst 374
Colours, A Dictionary of the Coal-Tar. G. II Hurst 374
Practical Manual on Printers'. G. H. Hurst 1041
Commercial < >rganio Analysis. Second Edition. Vul. III., Part
II. (A. H. Allen) ytf
Destructive Distillation, A Manualette on. E. J. Mills ion
Dictionary of Chemistry, Watts*, Revised and Re-Written by
If. Foster Morley and M. M. Pattison Muir. Vol. III. 552
Of the Coal-Tar Colours. G. II. Hurst 374
Distillation, A Manualette on Destructive. (E.J.Mills) 1641
Dyestuffs, Chemistry of the Organic. Nietzki, Collin, and
Ricliardson 1040
Explosives and Ordnance Material. S. H. Emmens 05
And Their Power. Berthclot. Translated by 0. N. Hake
and W. Macnab 947
Farmvard Manure, Its Nature, Composition and Treatment.
C. M. Aikman 466,1040
Fette und Wachsarten, Analyse der. R. Benedikt 65
Fuels, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous. Their Analysis and Valua-
tion. H. J. Phillips 466
Gas Works, Their Construction and Arrangement, and the
Manufacture and Distribution of Coal-Gas. Originally
written by S. Hughes. Re-written by W. Richards.
Eighth Edition, Enlarged and Revised 465
PAGE
Gold. The Jeweller's Assistant in the Arl of Working in.
G. E. < lee 1039
Handworterbuch der Pharmacie. von A. Brestowski 275, 374, 641
;82
Handy Book for Brewers, A. II. E. Wright 1040
Heat and Light, Lessons in. Jones 782
Hydrocarbons and their Derivatives, The Chemistry ol the.
R iscoe and Schorlcuuner 373
Jahrbuch der Cheinie. R. Meyer 948
Technisch-Chemisches. von K. Biedennann 185
Jahresbericht ueb^-r die Leistuugen der Chemischen Tech-
nologic. F. Fischer 047
Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in Gold, The.
G. E. Gee 1039
Kurzes Lehrbuch der Analytischen Chemie. von Miller and
von Kiliaui 1-5
Lessons in Elementary Chemistry. Sir Henry E. Roscoe 373
In Heat and Light. J ones 782
Manual of Chemical Technology. R. von Wagner. Translated
by W. Crookes 184
Of Qualitative Blow-Pipe Analysis and Determinative
Mineralogy. F. M. Endlich 1040
Manure, Farmyard ; its Nature, Composition, and Treatment.
CM. Aikman 1040
Materia Medica, Modern. Helbiug 7*2
Mineralogy, Manual of Determinative. F. M. Endlich 1040
Systematic, T. Sterry Hun! 185
Oils, A Practical Manual on Printers', G. H. Hurst 10 H
Ordnance Material, Explosives and. S, II. Emmens 05
Paints and Painting, The Chemistry of. A. H. Church.
Second Edition 185
Pharmacie, Handwoi terbuch der. von A. Brestowski 275, 374,
641, 782
Pharmacopeia, The Extra. Marti ndale and Westcott 7S1
Phosphates of America, The. F. Wyatt. Sacond Edition 184
Pottasche-Fabrikation, Taschenbuch fiir. G. Lunge 946
Printers' Colours, Oils and Varnishes. A Practical Manual on.
G. H. Hurst 1041
Reactionen. Von F. A. Pliickiger 275
Silk Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing. G. H. Hurst 374
Soda- Fain ikatiou, Taschenbuch fur. G. Lunge 946
Sulfosanren der Beiden Naphthylamine und der ucidon
Naphthoic, Die. Timber 782
Tannins, The. Vol. I. H. Trimble 275
Taschenbuch fur Soda-, Pottasche-, und Ammoniak-Fabrika-
tion. G. Lunge 946
Technisch-Chemisches Jahrbuch, Von R. Biedermann 185
Technology, Manual of Chemical. R. von Wagner. Translated
by W. Crookes 1 84
Text- Book on the Science of Brewing. E. It. Moritz and G. H.
Morris 66
Varnishes, a Practical Manual on Printers'. G. II. Hurst 1041
Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry. Revised and lie-Written by
H. Foster Morley and M. M. Pattison Muir. Vol. III. 552
Zeitschrift fur Auorganische Chemie. G. Krilss 374
F.vi:r. ami Spottimyoode,
East Harding Street, Londoc, E.C.
fan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LIST OF COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.
President.
Prof.' J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., F.R.S., 70-, Morehamptoii
Road, Dublin.
Vice-Presidents.
Sir Lowthiao Bel], Bart., F.U.S., Rounton Grange, North-
allerton.
Win. Crowder, 271, Evering Road, Upper Clapton, E.
James Duncan, 'J, Mincing Lane, London, E.C.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S., Nash Mills, Herael Hempstead,
Herts.
David Howard, Rectory Manor, Walthanistow, Essex.
S. II. Johnson, Warren Hill House, LoughtOU, Essex.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., 20, Avenue Koad, Regent's Park,
N.W.
Dr. Hugo Muller, F.R.S., 13, Park Square East, Regent's
Park, N.W.
B. E. K. Np.wlands, 27, Mincing Lane, Loudon, E.C.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P., 33, Devonshire Place, London, W.
A. Norman Tate, Hackins Hey, Liverpool.
Sir John Turuey, Springfield, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
Ordinal-;/ Members of Council.
A. II. Allen, Sydenham Cottage, Park Lane, Sheffield.
Arthur Boake, Southwood Lawn, Highgate, N.
Jno. Calderwood, Gowanlea, Spencer Park, Wandsworth,
8.W.
Clias. Dreyfus, Clayton, Manchester.
H. Grimshaw, Thornton View, Clayton, Manchester.
Prof. li. Meldola, F.R.S., C, Brunswick Square, London,
W.C.
E. K. Muspratt, Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
T. L. Patterson, Messrs. J. Walker & Co., Greenock, N,B.
ISoverton lledwood, 4, Bishopsgate Street Within, London,
E.C.
Jno. Spiller, 2, St. Mary's Road, Canonlmry, N.
T. W. Stuart, 15, Windsor Terrace, Newcustle-oii Tyne.
Wm. Thorp, B.Sc, 24, Crouch Hall Road, Crouch End, N.
Kx-officio Members of Council.
Thos. Tyrer, Stirling Chemical Works, Stratford, E.
John Heron, St. John's Villas, Worple Boad, Wimbledon,
II. Brunner, Holly Mount, lluyton, Liverpool.
Dr. Cbas. A. Kohn, University College, Liverpool.
Ivan Levinstein, 21, Minshull Street, Manchester.
J. Carter Bell, Bank House, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
John Pattinson, 75, The Side, Newcastle-on Tyne.
Dr. J. T. Dunn, The School, Gateshead- on-Tyne.
E. C. C. Stanford, Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
Dr. G. G. Henderson, Chemical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.
L. Archbutt, 11, Charnwood Street, Derby.
R. Lloyd Whiteley, University College, Nottingham.
Sir James Kitson, Bart., Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
H. R. Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Honorary Treasurer.
E. Rider Cook, East London Soap Works, Bow, E.
Honorary Funn/ii Secretary.
Dr. F. Hurler, Holly Lodge, Cressington Park, Liverpool.
General Secretary.
Cbas. G. Cresswell, Palace Chambers, Westminster, S.W.
Editor.
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. so, 1892
LIST OF ME M BERS.
330QQQQQ&
Abbott, John, Braeniar House, Lancaster Gate, Hyde Park,
W.
Vhcl, Sir F. A., 10, « ladogiin Place, London, 5v\ .
Abraham, A. C Stanley Rock, St. George's Mount, New
Brighton (Journals) ; and 87, Bold Stcect, Liverpool.
Acland, Sir lb VV., Bart., Radcliffe Library, Oxford.
Adam, A. Learmouth, Kestatrig, Newton Street, Greenock,
N.B.
A. lam, .1. B.j 171!, Leith Walk, Edinburgh.
Adams, M. A., Ashford Road, Maidstone, Kent.
Adams, J. W.. 74, Oxford Street, Regent Road, Salford,
Manchester.
Adcock, S. 1!., Minas tie l!io Tinto, Provincia dc Huelva,
Spain.
Addie, J., Langloan Ironworks, Coatbridge, N.B.
Adkins II., Lev Hill, Northfield, near Birmingham.
Adriance, John S., 2, West 36th Street, New York City,
U.S.A.
Affleck Dr. J., Mill House, Woolton, near Liverpool.
Aikraan, Charles M., 183, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Vitken Dr. A. P., 57, Great King Street, Edmburgh.
Aitken! .1. B., Gerard's Fold Chemical Works, Widnes.
Akitt, Thomas, 3, Victoria Road, Lenzie, N.B.
Albright, G. S., The Elms, Park Road, Edgbaston.
Mbright W. A., Mariemont, Birmingham.
Alcock, Jno. W., Central Brewery, Mott Street, Birinmg-
Aldrick, Edwin John, 26, Alpha Road, West Ferry Road,
Millwall, E.
Alexander, J. Dalziel, Dechmont, Cambuslang, near
Glasgow.
Uuxauder, W. T., 20, Booth Street, Moselej Street, Man-
chester j and Crumnock Lank, Victoria Crescent,
Eccles.
\llan F. H.Tielke, Portobello House, \\ akefield.
Allan,' Jno., 3, Ludgate Circus Buildings, London, E.C.
Alldred, C. IL, 6, Ueavitree Road, Plumstead Common,
Vllen A. 11., Sydenham Cottage, Park Lane, Sheffield.
Mien' Edw W., 1> iver Mills, Glossop, Derbyshire.
Allen! G. J., Ivy House, Bolton Road, Pendleton, Man-
chester.
Allen .1 L64, Upper North Street, Poplar, London, h.
Mien' R. L., Roseleigh, Heaton Chapel, near Stork,, ml.
Allen Walter S., 13, Beacon St., Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Allen! Win., Evenley Hall, Brackley, North Hants.
Allen, Wm. N., 2, Chesnul Street. Philadelphia, Pa., 1 S.A.
Allhu'scn, A., Gateshead-on-Tync.
Vllihnn, .'i. H.,Mewburu, I.itherland Park, near Liverpool.
Alliott, J. B. Messrs. Manlove, Alliott, and Co. Ld., Notting-
ham.
\lpiar, Agop, Smyrna, Asia Minor.
Alsberg, M. (Sondheim, Alsberg, & Co.), P.O. Box 2437,
New York, U.S.A.
Andcrsi n, Eugene K. J., Gasworks, Maryhill, byulasgow.
Anderson, Geo. IJ., Victoria Square, Felling-on-ryue.
Anderson, John, c/o The Alkaline Reduction Syndicate,
l,,l , Hebburn-on-Tyne.
Vnderson, J. M. T., Explosives Co. Ld.. Stowmarket,
Suffolk.
Ande.so,,, Kohl. T. R., 618, Gallowgatc Street, Glasgow.
Anderson, Win. Francis, 1 1, Montague Road, Dalston, N.E.
Anderton, G. IL, Howendyke, Howden, i'orks.
Andrews, C. W, Mass. Inst, of Technology, Boston, Mans.,
U.S.A.
Angell, J., 6, Beaconsfield, Derby Road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
Angus, James, Thorncliffe Collieries, Chapeltown. Sheffield.
Annandale, J. II. , Polton, Midlothian, N.B.
Annison, R. H., 16, Water Lane, Tower Street, London,
E.C.
Ansdell, G., J"), Courtfield Road, South Kensington, S.W.
Ansdell, T. C, Kearsley Cottage, Farnworth, Bolton.
Archbold, Dr. George, U.S. Navy Yard; and (Journals)
1224, II. Street, S.W., Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Archbutt, L., 11, Charnwood Street, Derby.
Arding, Francis, 5, Jeffreys Square, St. Mary Axe, London,
E.C.
Armstrong, lit. Hon. Lord, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Arrol, Jas., jun., .loan Branco, Marahu, Bahia, Brazil ; and
(subs.) 8, I'ir Park Terrace, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
Aron, S.B. Asher, 44, .Maryland Road, Maida Vale, W.
Ashplant, Win. Gilbert, Palmer House, Torrington, North
Devon.
Ashton-Bost, W.D., Cart vale Chemical Works, Paisley, N.B.
Ashwell, IL, Langlej Dale, Grove Avenue, Southcy Street,
Nottingham.
Ashwell, J. II., Woodthorpe Grange, Sherw 1, Notting-
ham.
Ashwell, Jno. R., Ill, Waterloo Crescent, Nottingham.
Ashworth L., Sunny Lea, St. Anne's-on-Sea, Lancashire.
Atcherley, Dr. R. J.
Atkins, C. E., Fast Ham House, East Ham, Essex.
Atkinson, A. .1., 4 1, Loudoun Square, Cardiff.
Atkins, ui, K. \\ '., 44, Loudoun Square, Cardiff.
Attfiehl, Dr. J., Ashlands, Watford, Hertfordshire.
Auer. II. , Applcton Lodge, near Widnes.
Aucrbach, Dr. C. G., 25, Friesenheimer Strasse, Ludwig
shalen u, Rhein, ( iermauy.
Austen, Prof. Peter T., 569, Vernon Avenue, Long Island
City, N.Y., U.S.A.
Aykrovd, II. E., Ashwell, Toller Lane, Bradford, Yorks.
B
Babiugton, Percival, Astyra Mining Co., Dardanelles via
( lonstantinoplf.
Baehe, Arthur E., 81, Elswick Load. Lewi-hum, S.E.
Bachmann, Dr. trvin A., Georgia Chemical Works. Augusta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
Bailee, Edwin M., Millbsuk Cottage, Uphall, N.B.
Bailey, Dr. G. II., Owens College Manchester.
Bailee, Richard D., City Brewery, Gloucester.
Bailey, Thos., 25, High Street, Hull.
Bailey, Dr. T. L., University College. Brownlow Strpet,
Liverpool.
Bailey, W. IL, Albion Works, Salford, Manchester.
Bailey, Walter 1'., 8, South Park, Ilford, Essex.
Baiubridge, Herbert A., 8, George Street, Manchester
Square, London, W.
Baird. IL Harper, 14. Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London,
E.< -
Baird, Win., Donald's Chlorine Works, Kilwinning, N.B.
Jan. ao, 1SP2.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHE1MICAL INDUSTRY.
Bairstow, John, 32, Sealand Road, Chester.
Baker, Harry, Vicarage Road, Langley Green, near Bir
mingham.
Baker, Theodore, Oakland, Bergeu Co., N J., U.S.A.
Bald, J. II.. Braddock, Fa., U.S.A.
Ball, Arthur, c/o Burroughs, Wellcome & Co., Snow Hill
Buildings, London, E.G.
Ball, Jno. B., l. Gresham Buildings, Basicghall Street,
London, E.C.
Ball, Jos. P., 4533, Frankford Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.,
r.s.A.
Ballard, E. (!., Newton Lane, Hoole, Chester.
Ballantyne, II.. 260, Renfrew Street, Glasgow.
Ballinger, Jno., Free Library, Cardiff.
Baly, E. C. C, Bank of England, London, E.C.
Bomber, II. K , 9, Victoria Street, London, S.W.
Banister, II. ('., G. 11, Exchange Buildings, Liverpool.
Hanks. Arthur J., (Journal) Honddu Villa, Freehold Street,
Fail-field, Liverpool; ami 5, Ham Terrace, West Ham
Lane, London, E.
Banks, Jno. IL, c/o Kickctts and Banks, 104, John Street,
New York, I'.S.A.
Banner, Samuel, 4, Ivanhoe Boad, Liverpool.
Bannister, R., The Laboratory, Somerset I louse, London, W.O.
Bannister, W., Victoria Lodge, Cork, Ireland.
Barbour, T. F., The Technical School, Coatbridge, N.B.
Barclay, II. , Rose Hill, Harrington, Cumberland.
Barclay, Thos., 17. Bull Street, Birmingham.
Bardsley, Robt., c/o Jewsbury and Brown, 44, Downing
Street, Manchester.
Barnes, Edw. A., c o The National Explosives Co., Lim.,
Hayle, Cornwall.
Barnes, II. J., Phoenix Chemical Works, Hackney Wick, E.
Barnes, J., Marl Terrace, Acerington, Lancashire.
Barnes, Jonathan, Buckton Vale, near StaTybridge.
Barnes, R. L., Phoenix Chemical Works, Hackney Wick, E.
Barr, J., Dinting Vale. Glossop.
Barraclough, Win. Herbert, Pembroke House, Atherton
Road, Forest Gate, E.
Barratt, Alex., Bronheulog, Glanydon, Mostyn, N. Wales.
Barret, E. L., 192, Belsize Road, Hampstead, N.W.
Barrett, Arthur A., Lion Still Chemical Co., Oldham Place,
Liverpool.
Barrie, D. McLaurin, Pollok Patents Gold Extracting Co.,
Ld., Johannesburg, S.A.R.
Harrow, Jos., Oldham Road, Fails worth, Manchester.
Bartlett, Frank L., Canon City, Colorado, U.S.A.
Ilassctt, IL, 26, Belitha Villas:, Barnsbury, N.
Batchelor, Telford C, 8, Baron's Court Road, West Ken-
sington, W.
Late, William, c/o National Explosives Co., Ld., Hayle,
( 'ornwall.
Bateson, Percy, Emsworth, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Hatty. I!. L!., Lincoln Villa, Erdington, near Birmingham.
Bavay, Aug de, Victoria Brewery, Melbourne, Australia.
Baxter, Henry, The Tower, Rainhill, Lancashire.
Baxter, W. IL, The Lawn, Brixton Hill, London, S.W.
Bayley, Thos., 3, Herbert Avenue, Merrion, co. Dublin.
Baynes, .I.,jun., Royal Chambers, Scale Lane, Hull.
Beach, E. J., 1183, Locust Street, Dubuque, Iowa, U.S.A.
Beadle, Clayton, 4, New Court, Lincoln's Inn, W.C. : and
Beadonwell, Belvedere, Kent (Journals).
Bealey, Adam C, c o R. Bealey & Co., Radcliffe, Lancashire.
Beanes, E., Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Kent.
Beardmore, Wm., Parkhead Forge, Glasgow.
Heaven, E. S., 5, Borehain Terrace, Warminster, Wilts.
Heck, IL, 22, Bush Lane, K.C.
Beckett, G. H., c/o W. Maenab, 14, Great Smith Street,
Westminster, S.W.
Beckett, J. II. , Corbar Hill House, Buxton.
Becuel, Lezin A., McCall Post Office, Parish of Ascension,
Louisiana, U.S.A.
Bedford, Chas. S., Broomleigh, Chapel Lane, Headingley,
Leeds.
Bedford, J., Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.
Bedford, .las. E., Messrs. Wood and Bedford, Kirkstall
Road, Leeds.
Bedson, l'rof. P. P., Durham College of Science, Newcastle-
on-'l'yne.
Beilby, (i., St. Kitts, Slateford, N.B.
Bell, C. Lowthiau, Linthorpc, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
Bell, G., 59, Samlown Lane, Wavertree Road, Liverpool.
Bell. 11. S., 2. Si. Anne's Park Villas, Wandsworth, S.W .
Bell. Sir Lowthiau, Bart., Rouuton Grange, Northallerton.
Bell, Jno., IKS, Southwark Street, Loudon, S.E. ; Journals
to Lockner Holt, Chilwortb, Surrey.
Bell, J. Carter, Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Bell, J. Ferguson, Stafford.
Bell, J. Ralston, 27, Lansdowne Crescent, Glasgow.
Bell, ()., 13, Northumberland Terrace, Tynemouth.
Bell, T. Hugh. Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
Bendix, D., The British Alizarin Co., Limited, Silvertown,
Victoria Docks, London, E. ; Journals to 216a, Bom-
ford Road, E.
Benger, F. B., The Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Benjamin, Dr. M., 15, West 121st Street, New York, U.S.A.
Bennett, Thos., Birch Vale, near Stockport.
Bennie, J. W., Minas de Rio Tinto, Huelva, Spain.
Bentley, J. W., Stakchill Works, Castleton, Manchester.
Bcntz, Ernest, 147, Bishop St., Alexandra Park, Manchester.
Benyou, Jos. A., c/o Andrew Allan, Iononteh, Montreal,
Canada.
Beringer, C, 9, West End, Redruth, Cornwall.
Beringer, J. J., Treon Road, Camborne, Cornwall.
Bernard, .las., jun., Tinoca Ld., Casal das Bollas, Olivaes
Lisbon.
Bernays, J., 96, Newgate Street, London, E.C.
Berry.E.E., Much Iladham, Herts.
Berry, G. F., Atlas Chemical Works, West Ferry Road,
Millwall, E.
Best, Dr. T. T, c/o Messis. Gamble & Son, St. Helens,
Lancashire.
Bevan, E. J., 4, New Court, Lincoln's Inn, Loudon, W.C.
Bevan, I., Llanclly Chemical Works, Llanclly, S. Wales.
Bevan, J. Williams, Chemical Works, Temple Street. Dublin.
Bevan, S. Howel, Curing Road, Llanclly, South Wales.
Beveridge, J., Northrleet Paper Mills, Kent; Journals to
4, Kent Road, Gravesend.
Bewick, T. Burrell, Suffolk House, Lawrence Pouutney Hill,
London, E.C.
Bibby, E. V., Garston Copper Works, Garston, near Liverpool.
Bickordike, W. E., Clayton Grange, Wilpshirc, near Black-
burn.
Bickett, J. IL, Medical College, London Hospital, E.
Biggart, J. Wm., 29, Cathcart Street, Greenock, N.B.
Biggart, Wm. L„ Woodbine, Bridge of Weir, N.B.
Biggs, B., 3, Lawrence Pouutney Hill, London, E.C.
llilui. G. V., Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co., Phila-
delphia, U.S.A.
Billing, H. S., Messrs. Burnard & Alger, Ld., Plymouth
Chemical Works, Plymouth.
Bindschedler, R., Societe pour l'lndustrie Chimique, Basle,
Switzerland.
Binney, II. A., Ravenhead, St. Helens.
Bird, Henry, South Down House, South Down, Plymouth.
Bird, R., Ellerslie. Eoatb, Cardiff.
Birley, E. K., Messrs. Chas. Macintosh & Co., Cambridge
Street, Manchester.
Birch, R. W. Peregrine, 5, Queen Anne's Gate, West
minster, S.W.
Birch, Wm., Milton Street Ironworks, Lower Broughton,
Manchester.
Bischof, Gustav, 4, Hart St., Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
Bishop, A. Conway, Three Mills Lane, Bromley-by-Bow,
London, E.
Bishop, Fred, c/o Linlithgow Oil Co., Ld., Linlithgow, N.B.
Bishop, G. A., Royal Bank House, Coatbridge, N.B.
Black, .las. Watson, 11, Kirkdale, Sydenham, S.E.
Black, Wm., Stanrigg, Airdrie, N.B.
Black, Wm., 12, Romulus Terrace, Gateshead.
Blackwell, G. G., 26-27, Irwell Chambers West, Fazakerley
Street, Liverpool.
Blades, CM., Bay Villa, Chester Road, Northwich, Cheshire.
Blagden, W. G., 1, Fenchurch Avenue, London, E.C.
Blair, John, 18, Old Mill Road, New Heiidon, Sunderland.
Blake, C. A., 47, Piccadilly, London, W.
Blake, .las., Thames Sugar Refinery, Silvertown, London, E.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMTCAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30. ISM.
Blukcy, A. .)., Dudbridge Mills, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
Blass, Edw., Essen (Ruhr), Germany.
Blenkinsop, W., Garden Wharf, Battersea, Loudon, S.W.
Bles, A. J. S., 32, Chorlton Street, Manchester.
Bloede, Victor (!., Patuxent and Dillon Streets, Baltimore,
Md., U.S.A.
Bloomer, Fred J., 7, Boundaries Road, Balbam, S.W.
Bloomfield, 1!., Thurma Factory, via Darbhunga, Tirhoot,
India.
Blount, Bertram, Chemical Laboratory, Broadway, West-
minster, S.W.
Bloxam, Arthur G., 10, Bolingbroke Road, West Kensington,
W.
Bloxam, Win. Popplewell, Royal Naval College, Greenwich,
S.E.
Rlumann, Moritz, 43, London Wall, London, E.C.
Blundstone, E. R„ Cornwall Lodge, St. James' Road, New
Hampton, Middlesex.
Biythe, II. F., Holland Bank Chemical Works, Church, near
Accrington.
Blyton, J., 12, Cromford Court. Market Street, .Man-
chester.
Boa, Peter, 119, George Street, Edinburgh.
Boake, A., Southwood Lawn, Highgate, N.
Boake, Edmund J., Southwood Lawn, llighgate, X.
Board, J. T., Distillery. Cheese Lane, Bristol.
Bolas, Thos., 8, Grove Terrace, Chiswick, W.
Bond, Louis W., Box 500, Seattle, Wash., U.S.A.
Bonn, J. Edwin, High Street, Brading, Isle of Wight.
Bookman, S.. Mittelstrasse, '-'4, I., Berlin, Prussia
Boor, Leonard G., 1 and 2, Artillery Lane, London, E.C.
Booth, Geo., Irk Vale Dyeworks, Middleton, near Man-
chester.
Boothby, ('has.. 14, Palmer Street, Westminster, S.W.
Borland, John, Etruria, Kilmarnock, N.B.
Borland, W. D., Beacou Lodge, Green Street Green, near
Dartford, Kent.
Bothamlcy, C. II. , Fernleigh, Haines Hill, Taunton,
Somerset.
Pott, Dr. Wm., Singapore, S.S.
Bott, Jos. Elton, Brinnington Hall, Stockport.
Bottingcr, 11. T., Elhcrfeld, Germany.
Bottle, Alex., 4, Godwyne Road, Dover.
Boulton, II. E., G4, Cannon Street, London, E.C.
Boulton, James, Cray ford Mills, Stratford, E.
Boulton, S. B., 64, Cannon Street, London, E.C.
Boulton, T. S., 15, Richmond Villas, Seven Sister-
Road. N.
Boureart, Dr. Robert, La Boissiere, Geneva, Switzerland.
Iioutmy, II., Sain Fons, RhSne, France.
Bow, R. II., 7, South Gray Street, Edinburgh.
Howeii, S. 1!., Brickfield Chemical Works, Llanelly, South
Wales.
Bower, Frank, 37, Lansdowne Road, Clapham Road,
S.W.
Bower, II., (tray's Ferry Road, and Twenty-ninth Street,
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Bowing, Jno., The Cottage, West Tilbury, Essex.
Bowler, G. S., Crystal Palace District Gas Co., Limited,
Lower Sydenham, S.E.
Bowley, Jos." John, Wellington Works, Battersea Bridge,
London, S.W.
Bowman, F. H., West Mount, Halifax.
Bowman, P.. Elabouga, Government of Viatka, Russia
Bowrey, J. J., Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies.
Boyd, Pythagoras, 50, Marshall Street, North Adams, Mass.,
r.s'.A.
Bovd, 11. Nelson, 23, Queen Amn's Gate, S.W.
Boyd, Saml. F., is*. Leeson Park. Dublin.
Boyd, W., Tliarsis Works, East Moors, Cardiff.
Boyd, W., Thornton, R.S.O., Fifeshire, N.B.
Bracewell, Wm., Brinseall, near Chorley.
Bradburn,J. A., Solvay Process Co., Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A.
Bradbury, A., Queen Buildings, 11, Dale Street, Liver-
pool.
Bradley, Edw. F., The Star Brush Co., Ld., Eden Grove,
Holloway, N.
Braithwaite, Isaac, Kendal. Westmoreland.
Bramham, W., ll">- Bow Road, London, E.
Bramley, Wm.. 18, Clarence Street, Middlesbro'-ou-Toes.
liramwell, Major E.,-Kthcrsall, Iluytou, near Liverpool.
BramweH, Sir F., Bart., 5, Great George Street, Westminster
Loudon, S.W.
BramweH, t;. 11., Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
BramweH, Samuel, 18, St. Ann's Street, Manchester.
Branson, F. W., 24, Mount Preston, Leeds.
I hasher. F. W., 8, Wyatt Road, Forest Gate, E.
Brayne, Francis W., Bow Pottery, Three Mills Lane,
Bromley-by-llow, E.
Breekon, J. R., 41, Fawcett Street, Sunderland.
Breen, George, Irvine Chemical Co., Limited, 2(J4, Vincent
Street, Glasgow.
Bremtt, Wm., Glasshoughton, Castleford, Yorks.
Breidahl, Harold T. W., Federal Distillery, Port Melbourne,
Victoria.
Brcnemann, Dr. A. A., 07, Water Street, New York,
U.S.A.
Brennan, E. J., Box 174, Johannesburg, South African
Republic.
Bressey, Edw., 209, Romford Road, Stratford, E.
Brewis, Edw. T.,c o Boileau and Boyd, I '.ride Street, Dublin.
Pliant, L., 24, Ilolborn Viaduct, London, E.C.
Brierley, J. T., 249, Bolton Road, Chorley, Lancashire.
Briggs, T. Lvnton, 357, Madison Street, Brooklyn, New
York, U.S.A.
Briggs, W., 4, Erskine Terrace, Dundee.
P.rindley, (i. F., c/o The Aluminium Co., Lim., ( Hdbury,
Birmingham.
Bristow, G. W., Worcester House, 35, Easteheap, London,
E.C.
Broad, .las., ('if'.. High Street, Lewes, Sussex.
Broadbeut, H., c/o Goodall, Backhouse, & Co., Sovereign
Street, Leeds.
Brock, Arthur, Messrs. C. T. Brock & Co., South Norwood,
S.E.
Brock, J., Wellfichl. Farnworth, Widnes.
Brooke, Edwd., Oakley House, Edgerton, Huddersfield.
Brookes, E. A., 22, Claremont Grove, Harlow Moor Road,
Didsbury, near Manchester,
Broom, Wm., Mount Albion, North Queensland.
Brotherton, E. A., Fern Cliffe, llklcv, Yorkshire.
Brown, Prof. A. Crum, 8, Belgravc Crescent, Edinburgh.
Brown, A. Selwyn, 43; Portsdown Road, Maida Vale, W.
Brown, C. J., 12, Victoria Buildings, St. .Mary's Gate,
Manchester.
Brown, Caesar R., Anglo-Continental Guano Works,
Victoria Docks. E
Brown. D., 93, Abbey Hill, Edinburgh.
Brown, 1)., Donaghmore, Tyrone, Ireland.
Brown, Edw., Russian Steam Oil Mills, 22, Kourlandskj
Street, St. Petersburg.
Brown, F .W., 17, Waltciton Road, St. Peter's Park, Lon-
don, W.
Brown, II., Cannon Brewery, Watford, Herts.
Brown, Horace T., 47, High Street, Hurton-on-Treiit.
Brown, Dr. J. Campbell, 27, Abercrombie Square, Liverpool.
Brown, J. Henry, Minas de San Doiningos, Mertola,
Portugal.
Brown, J. T., 28, Anhalt Road, Battersea, S.W.
Brown, Oliphant A., Lennoxmill, Lennoxtown, N.B.
Brown, Robt., Beech Mount, Wilmington Hill, Northwich.
Brown, R. J., Technical School, Stockport.
Brown, T., The Chemical Works, King's Lynn.
Brown, Walter, c'o Jas. II. Dennis and Co., Widnes.
Brown, W. A., Overton Paper Mills, Greenock, N.B.
Browning, W., Broad Oak, Accrington.
Bruce, Edw. M., 2811, Cottage Grove Avenue, Chicago, 111.,
U.S.A.
Bruce, Jas.. Cluan House, Mouutpottiugcr, Belfast, Ireland.
Hrunner, II., Holly Mount, Tarboek Road, Iluytou, near
Liverpool.
Brunner, J. F. L., The Hollies, Hartford, Cheshire.
Brunner, J. T., M.P.. Druid's ( n>ss, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Brunner, J. P., 28, Exchange Street East, Liverpool.
Brunner, Dr. P., 29, Fenney Street. Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Bryce, A. S., Glenpark Oil Works, East Nelson Street,
Glasgow.
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Bryce, John Annan, Messrs. Wallace Bros., s, Anstin
Friars, London, E.C.
Bryce-Smith, N. .)., Oakfield, Barrow, Whalley, near Black-
burn.
Buch, Carl Von, 1, St. James' Street, London, S.W.
Buchanan, Jas.,jun., Caledonia Foundry, Brasenose Pond,
Liverpool.
Buchanan, Joshua, Poste Restante, Taltal, Chili.
Buckley, Edwin, Heaver Park. Didsbury, Manchester.
Budden, 10. 1!., 11, Fnrnival Street. Holborn, E.I .
Bullock, J. L., 3, Hanover Street, Hanover Square, London,
\V.
Bumhy, II., West Cumberland Works, Workington.
Bunker, H. E., 24, Great Cheethom Street West, Lower
Broughton, Manchester.
llurclekin, G., jun., Sutton Lodge Chemical Co., St. Helens.
Burger, Dr. J., I, Birch Avenue, Talbot Road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
Burgess, Geo., Marsh Alkali Works, Whims.
Burgess, Win, T., I, Ringley Cottages, Reigate, Surrey.
Burghardt, Dr. C. A., 35, Fountain Street, Manchester ; and
Owens College, Manchester.
Bumard, R., Plymouth Chemical Works, Plymouth.
Burnett, B. E., 118, Huddleston Road, Tufnell Park, Lon-
don. N.
Burnet, Henry K., North Biook Vitriol Works, Bradford,
Yorks.
Burn-Murdoch, J. V., c/o Capt. P. R. Burn-Murdoch, ILL.,
Pembroke Dock, South Wales.
Burrell, B. A., 5, Mount Pleasant, Leeds.
Burrows, Edw., Belle Vite Road, Low Fell, Gateshead-on
Tyne.
Burton, F., 2, Green Street, Bethnal Green, E.
Burton, Win., 18, Victoria Street, Basford, Stoke-on-Trent.
Bury, J. 11.. Church < 'hemical Works, near Accrington.
Busii, R. A., 20, Artillery Lane, London, E.C.
Bush, Baron W. de, 20, Artillery Lane, London, E.C,
Butler, Paul, Lowell, Mass., U.S.A.
Butler, Samuel, Compton, Wolverhampton.
Butler, W. W., Flmdon, Selly Park, near Birmingham.
Butt, E. N., 25, Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
Butterfield, J. C, 13, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
liutterfield, W. J. A., 10, Tressillian Crescent. St. John's.
S.E.
Button, II., Faraday Chemical Works, Rainham, Essex.
Byard, A. G., e/oBurt, Boulton, and Hey wood, Apartado8,
Bilbao, Spain.
Bythway, M., -13, Lloyd Street, Albert Street, Manchester.
Cabot, (iodfrey L., 82, Water Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Cadett, Jas., Ashtead, Surrey.
Caines, ('lias. M., 7, Rochester Terrace, Camden Road,
London, N.W.
Caines, G. S. A., 7, Rochester Terrace, Camden Road,
London, N.W.
Caldecott, Wm. A., Eureka City, Barberton, S.A.R.
I'alderwood, J., Gowanlea, Spencer Park, Wandsworth,
S.W. ; and Price's Patent Candle Co., Battersea.
Caldwell, Alfred S., Greenfield Lodge, Lasswade, Mid-
lothian, N.B.
Caldwell, Wm., Murray Street, Paisley, N.B.
I laley, A. J., Chapel Field, Norwich.
Calkin, Wm. S., Johnsonburg, Quay P.O., Pa., U.S.A.
Callander, W. S., Phoenix Alkali Works, Widnes.
Oallard, S., Pontamnian Chemical Works, Ammanfefrd,
Carmarthen.
Cameron, Jas., c/o Nobel's Explosives Co., Ld., Polmont
Station, N.B.
Cameron, Peter, Bath Bridge Colour Works, Bristol.
Cameron, R., Wellpark House, Bathgate, N.B.
Cammack, J., 8, Salisbury Street, St. Helens.
Campbell, Andrew, c/o Burmah Oil Co., Ld., Rangoon.
Burniah.
Campbell, Archibald, Thornton. R.S.O., Fife, N.B.
Campbell, Colin M., c/o .las. Laing & Co., 70, Wellington
Street, Glasgow.
Campbell, John, 118, Warren Street, New York City, U.S.A.
Campbell, Jno. D-, Crosby House, Thurlow Park Road,
West Dulwich, S.E.
Candlish, J. J., Bottle Works, Seaham Harbour, co.
Durham.
Candy, F. l'ullen, 5G, Nightingale Lane, Balham, S.W.
Cannon, M., Beaufoy's Chemical Works, Lavender Hill,
London, S.W.
Canziaui, Enrico, 84, Lombard Street, London, E.C.
Carden, Albert J., Lea Valley Distillery, Warton Road,
Stratford, E.
Carey, E., Browside, Gateacre, near Liverpool.
( 'argey, W. G., Forest Hall, near Newcastle-on-Tync
Carlile, T., 23, West Nile Steet, Glasgow.
Carmody, Prof. Patrick, Government Laboratory, Port of
Spain, Trinidad.
Caro, Dr. II., Mannheim, Germany.
Carpenter, II. S.r Beckington House, Weighton Road,
Anerley, S.E.
Carpenter, R. F., Bent Terrace, Prestwich, near Manchester.
Carran, T. W., 12, Rawlins Street, Liverpool.
Carruthers, J. G., Burnbrae House, Milngavie, N.B.
Carter, W.C., 23, Eblana Street, The Plains, Belfast, Ireland.
Carteigbe, M., 180, New Bond Street, London, W.
Carulla, F. J. R., 84, Argyll Terrace, Derby.
Carulla, F. M., Apartado 689, Buenos Ayres, Argentina.
Cassal, C. E., Hrenne House, Wandsworth Common, S.W.
Castner, Hamilton Y., c/o The Aluminium Co., Ld., Old
bury, Birmingham.
Cawley, G., 358, Strand, London, W.C.
Cawley, J., 278, Passaic Street, Newark, N.J., U.S.A.
Chadwick, L. N... Ivy Lawn, Ponders End, Middlesex.
Chaduick, Walter M., 24, West 3rd Street, Bayonne, N.J.,
U.S.A.
Chaloner, G., 30, Weston Park, Crouch End, N.
Chamberlain, J., Brunswick Gasworks, near Melbourne,
Victoria.
Chance, A. M., Lawnside, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Chance, J. F., 51, Prince's Gate, London, S.W.
Chandler, Dr. C. F., School of Mines, Columbia College,
New York.
Chancy, Barry, Mysore Gold Mining Co., Ld., Kolar Road,
Mysore, India.
Chaplin, J. C, 10, Earl's Court Square, South Kensington,
S.W.
Chapman, Alf. C, 23, Euston Buildings, Gower Street
Station, London, N.W.
Chapman, S., 84, Eccleston Square, London, S.W. ; and
36, Mark Lane, E.C.
Chase, R. L-, North Adams, Mass., U.S.A.
Chattaway, Wm., c/o A H. Allen, 101, Leadenhall Street
E.C.
Cheyne, A. M., c/o Messrs Burgoyne, 18, Coleman Street,
London, E.C.
Chorley, Jno. C, Lodge Lane, Bewsey, Warrington.
Christie, J., Messrs. John Orr-Ewing & Co., Alexandria
Works, Dumbartonshire.
Christopher, G., 5, Shoe Lane, E.C. (for Journals) ; and
G, Barrow Road, Streathani Common, S.W.
Christy, Thos., Malvern House, Sydenham, S.E. ; ami
25, Lime Street, London, E.C.
Chrystal, W. J., Shawfield Works, Rutherglen, near
Glasgow.
Church, Prof. A. H., Shelsley, Kew, Surrey.
Church, Elihu D., jun., 124, Milton Street, Brooklyn X V
U.S.A.
Clanahan, II. C, 88, King Street, Manchester.
Clapp, Ralph 1!., c/o Standard Ammonia Co., Ld., Iceland
Wharf, Old Ford, E.
( llapperton, J., jun., 25, Queen Square, Regent Park.Glasgow.
Clark, E. B., c/o Clark aud Struthers, 17, Royal Exchange
Square, Glasgow.
Clark, Franklin S., 527, Madeira Avenue, New York City,
U*S.A. ; and (Journals) Southern Chemical Works
Wilmington, N.C., U.S.A.
Clark, Dr. J., 138, Bath Street, Glasgow.
Clark, John, 80, Great Brook Street, Birmingham.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 80, 189B.
Clark, R. Ingham, 2, Park Prospect, Qiu'en Ainu's Gale,
Westminster, S.W.
Clarke, C. Goddard, Ingleside, Kim Grove, Pcekham, S.E.
Claudet, A. C, >'>, Coleman Street, London, K.C.; and
(Journals to) 9, Daleham Gardens, Hampstead, N.W.
Claudet, F. G., 6, Coleman Street, E.C. ; and (Journals)
:i, Manor Eise Terrace, Dulwieh, S.E.
Claus. C, e ii Francis Arding, 5, Jeffrey Square; London,
E.C.
f'laiw, Carl F.. jun., Ferryside, Carmarthenshire.
Claus, Win. II., 24, Egerton Komi. Fallowfield, Manchester.
Claypole, Dr. E. VV., Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio, U.S.A.
Clayton, E. G., Chemical Laboratory, I •"> X 41, Holborn
Viaduct, London, E.C.
Clayton. .1. W., Bentfield, Alma Road, Aighurth, Liverpool.
( lements, Harry C, Boughton House, Upper Parkfields,
Putney, S.W. ; and (Journals) 22, Treherne Road,
Brixton, SAW
Cleminshaw, E., Alkali Works, Oldbury, near Birmingham,
demons, G. II., Cudbear Street, Hunslet Road, Leeds.
Clerk, Dugald, Driffold Villa, Sutton Coldficld, near Bir-
mingham.
Cliff. D. Y., 14. Royal Exchange, Leeds.
Cliff, J.. Nisbot Hall, Fulneck, Leeds.
Cliff, Stephen, Wortley, near Leeds.
Clift, .1.. Tar Works, Knottingley, Yorks.
Clifton, C. D., Royal Oak Brewery, Stockport.
Cloud, T. ('., Wallaroo Smelting Works, Wallaroo, South
Australia.
Clowes, Dr. K., University College, Nottingham.
( Howes, G. A., Needham Market, Suffolk.
Clutton, J. II., Goring Villas, Burry Port, R.S.O., Car-
marthenshire.
Coats, Jno. T.. 91, Broughton Street, Edinburgh.
( oeln ane. < lias., ( liven Royde, Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
Cockburn, J., 4 .",, Camden Squai'e, London, N.W.
Cockrell, E. Gordon, 17, Grosvenor Chambers, Manchester.
Coffey, .Hm-is 11.. Hatherley Distillery, Pretoria, S.A.R.
Coghill, 1'. de G., Borax Works, Old Swan, Liverpool.
Cogswell, W. I!., Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.
Cohen, Dr. J.. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Colby, Albert L., 131, South CeDter Street, Bethlehem, Pa.,
LISA.
Colby, W. II., Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.
( loldridge, Ward, Emmanuel < lollege, < lambridge.
Coleman, .las. B., University College, Nottingham.
Colin, Theodore F., P.O. Box 393, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.
Collcns, E., Vinegar Work-., Stourport, Worcestershire.
Collett, J. M., 7, Brunswick Square, Gloucester.
Collins, II. S., co General Apothecaries Co., 49, Berners
Street, W.
Collins, J. II., 13—14, Basinghall Street. E.C.
Collins, S. Hoare, 13, Kyverdale Rd., Stoke Newington, N.
Collins, W. Hepworth, 14 & 15, Bradford Buildings,
Mawdsley Street, Bolton-le-Moors.
Collinson, I.. Hearn, Hearn Street. Curtain Road. London,
E.C.
Collyns, C. S. A., 56, Elm Row, Leith Walk, Edinburgh.
Colman, Dr. Harold G., 259, Monument Road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Colquhoun, D., Maulesbank, Carnoustie, N.B.
Colsnn, A., Gas Office, Millstone Lane, Leicester.
Cohvell, Walter E., Iceland Wharf, old Ford, E.
Comer, II.. P.O. Box 31, Jersey City, N.Y., U.S.A.
Conuor.C. < '.. Notting Hill House. Belfast, Ireland.
Conrad, E. G, Fabriek de Maasraond, Raamsdonk, Holland.
Oonradson, Pontus H., Great Northern Railroad, St. Paul,
Mi. in., C.S.A.
Conroy, .las. '1'., The Hollies, Montpellier Crescent, New
Brighton, Cheshire.
Constable,' W. 11., Hale Bank, Widnes, Lancashire.
C le. J. Charles, 19, Freeland Road, Ealing, W.
Cook. E. Rider, East London Soap Works, Bow, London, E.
Cook, II. J., East London Soap Works, Bow, London, E.
C.,ok, Jas. Williams. 30, Buri Street, St. Mary Axe, E.C.
Cook, Jno. J., Atlas Foundry, St. Helens, Lancashire.
Cook. Robt., Atlas Chemical Works, Widnes.
Cooke, Arthur W., c/o Messrs. Brotherton ec Co., Calder
Yale Wakefield
Cookscy, Dr. Thos., 2 I . RrownswoodPark, London, V
Cookson, N. T., Newcastle-on-Tyuc.
Cooinbur, Thos., 9, Osborne Road, Clifton, Bristol.
Cooper, A., North-Eastern Steel Co., Middlesbrough-on-
Tees ; and (Journals) Erdeiy, Middlesbrough.
Cooper, Astlev, Oatlands Chemical Works, Mean wood
Road, Leeds.
Cooper, II. P., 64, Foxham Road, Upper Hollowav, N.
Cooper, Harry J., Drinagh, Wexford, Ireland.
Cooper, Walter J., e/o South Wales Cement Co., Penarth,
Cardiff.
Corbett, Jno., M.P., Stoke Works, near Bromsgrove, Wor-
cestershire.
Corbouhl, Wm. II., Ediacara Consols Silver Mine, Beltana,
South Australia.
Corcoran, Bryan, 31, Mark Lane, London, E.C.
Colder, Walter S.. 22, Alhion Road, North Shields.
Cordner-James, .1. II., id, Mansion House Chambers,
London, E.( '.
Cornett, Jas. P., Ford Paper Works, Hylton, near Sunder-
land.
Cornish, Vaughan, George Hotel, Winchester.
Corrie, David, e/o Nobel's Explosives Co., Ld., Polmont
Station. N.B.
Coste, F. II. Perry, 7. Fowkes Buildings, Great Tower
Street, London, E.C.
( lottam, J. C, 39, Lombard Street, London, V.C.
Cotterill, Thos., The Poplars, West Bromwieh.
Cotton, W. V., Hollywood Roebuck, Co. Dublin.
Couche, Chas. W.. 132, Duke Street, Liverpool.
Couper, W. (!., 1, Fenehureh Avenue, London, E.( '.
Cowan, A. B., Tudhoe Ironworks, Spennymoor, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
Cowell, Peter, Free Public Library, Liverpool.
Cownley, A. J., 13, Fenehureh Avenue, London, E.C.
Cowper-Coles, Sherard Oshoru, The London Metallurgical
I n., Ld., 8t>, Tiirnmill Street, E.C.
Cox, Walter .1., Rock House, liasford, Nottingham.
Coxe, Eckley B., Drifton, Luzerne Co., Pa., U.S.A..
Crabb, W., Border Counties Chemical and Manure Works,
Silloth, Cumberland,
Craig, G., Lugar Iron Works, Cumnock, N.B.
Craig, Jno., Clippens Villa, by Johnstone, N.B.
Crake, Win., Dresden Terrace, Bawtry Road, Attorcliffe,
Sheffield.
Craven, Chas. E., Hawthorne Cottage, White Cole Hill,
Braniley, near Leeds.
Craven, Jno., jun., Smedley Lodge, Chccthani, Manchester.
Craw, John, 15, Cadogan Street, Glasgow.
Crawford, D., Langdale's Manure Works, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
Crawford, D., Ferryfield Printworks, Alexandria, N.I!.
Crawley, Arthur H., e o Elmore's Patent Copper Depositing
Co., Ld., Pontefract Road, Hunslet, Leeds.
Crawshnw, K., l'.">, Tollington Park, London, N.
Cresswell, C. G., Ermyngarth, Ashtead, Surrey ; ami
9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
Cresswell, C. N., 1, Hare Court, Temple, E.C.
Crichton, Donald G. (Journals). Centra] Broken Hill Silver
Mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales; (subs.) Logan
Bank, Cupar Fife, N.B.
Griper, Wm. R., Cossipore Chemical Works, Cossipore,
Calcutta, India.
Gritchley, C. A., Victoria Works. St. Helens, Lancashire.
Crompton, Percy R., Dearden's House, Bury, Lancashire.
Cronquist, A. Werner, Royal Wharf, Skeppsholnicn,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Crookes, W., 7, Kensington Park Gardens, Notting Hill,
London, W.
Crosfield, A. L., Hi, Bidstou Road, Birkenhead.
Croshaw, Jno. F., 11, Hose street, Fountain Road, Hull.
Cross, C. F., 4, New Court, Lincoln's Inn, London,
W.C.
Crossley, L„ 28, Parkfield Road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Crossley, 1!., l'.eutcliffe House, Accrington.
('row. Dr. J. K., Hillingdon Varnish Works, West Drayt
Middlesex,
(rowiler. Sand.. Hillside, Auckland Road. Upper Norwood,
S.E.
Jan. so. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Crowder, \V., 271, Evering Road, Upper Clapton, London,
X.
Crowther, Horace W., Messrs. Chance Brothers, Alkali
Works, Oldbury, near Birmingham.
Crowther, \V. M., Field House, Gomersal, near Leeds.
Crum, A., Thornliebauk, Glasgow.
Crumbie, W D., I'.s. Go\t. Laboratory, 402, Washington
Street, New York.
Coming, James, jun.. Chemical Works, Yarraville, Mel-
bourne, Australia.
CunlihY, B. T., The Parsonage, Handforth, near Manchester.
Cunlitlc, .los., Rookc Wood, Chorley, Lancashire.
Cunningham, A. Auchie, Chemical Laboratory, 14, Chronicle
Buildings, Sau Francisco, Cat., U.S.A.
Cunningham, II. 1'.. The Alkaline Reduction Syndicate,
1,'L, I lebbum-on-Tyne.
Curphey, W. S., 2. Princes Square, Strathbungo, Glasgow.
i'utiv. W. A.. Giltbrook Chemical Works, Awsworth,
Nolls.
Cuthbert, II. M., 27a, Ashley Place, London, S.W.
Cuthbertson, sir J. N., 29, Bath Street, Glasgow.
Ctuhbertson, William, Caroline Park, Edinburgh.
Dacie, .T. C, Soap Works, Putney, London, S.W.
Dagger, J. II. J., Cowles Syndicate Co., Milton, Stoke-
on-Trent.
Dale, Jas., 182, Lordship Road, Stoke Newington, N.
Dale, R. S.. 1, Chester Terrace, Chester Road, Manchester.
Daniell, Louis C. (Journals), Standard Brewery, Elizabeth
Street, Sydney. New South Wales; and (subs.) c/o
W. T. Allen & Co., 132, Queen Victoria Street,
London, B.C.
Darby, J. H., Pen-y-Garth, near Wrexham.
Darling, W. II., 126, Oxford Street, Manchester,
Davenport, Dr. B. P., 161, Tremont Street, Boston, Mass.,
G.S.A.
Davidson, J. E., 10, Hawthorne Terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Davidson, R., c/o Fiji Sugar Co., Tamanoa, Navua River,
Fiji.
Davidson, Richard, 15, Lilybank Road, Dundee.
Davidson, R. II., c o .Messrs. Golding, Davis, & Co.,
Marsh Alkali Works, Widnes.
Davies, A. E.. 6. Rumford Place, Liverpool.
Davies, G. W., B, Spring Hill, Stockport.
Davies, Meurig L„ 77, Evcrton Terrace, Everton, Liver-
pool.
Davies, R. II., Apothecaries' Hall, London, E.G.
Davie-, W . E., Beaumaris, R.S.O., North Wales.
Davis, A. R., Dunowen, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Davis, (has., lo, Oakfield Cottage-, Oakfield Road, East
Ham, E.
Davis, (I.E., Kersal House, Higher llroughton, Manchester-
Davis, ][. W., The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C.
Davis, Dr. J.F., 554, Quin<\ Street, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A.
Davis, P. II., 106, Salcott Road, Olnphani, S.W.
Davis, R. II., 166, Upper Parliament Street. Liverpool.
Davis, T. S., 199, South Lambeth Road, London, S.E.
Davison, Anthony, '.I, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
Dawson, 15., York House, Malvern Link, Worcestershire.
Dawson, C. A.. Holly Rank, Frodsham, Cheshire.
Dawsou, Jno., Kirkheaton Coal-Tar Colour Works, Hud-
dersfield.
Dawson, Thos., Stonecroft House, Milnsbridge, near Hud-
dersfield.
Dawson, W. Haywood, British Alizarin Co., Limited,
Silvertown, Victoria Dock, E.
Deacon, H. W., Appleton House, Widnes.
Deakin, E., Belmont Bleach and Dveuorks, near Bolton.
Deakin, II., Ryeerolt Dveworks, Belmont, near Bolton.
Deans, J. A., Oxalic Acid Manufactory, Morrislon,
Swansea.
Dearden, Thos., 12, Heywood Street, Bury, Lancashire.
Heering, W. II., Chemical Department, Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich, S.E.; ami (Journals) 13, Ilervey Street,
Kidbrook Park Road, Blackheath, S.E.
Denipsey,Geo. C, 165, Market Street, Lowell, Mass., U.S.A.
Demuth, Dr. L., YVharfdale, Church Road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Deui.-on, Joseph R., 1, Park View Terrace, Manningham,
Bradford.
Dent, W. Y., Belle Vue House, Wood Street, Woolwich,
S.E.
Do Veiling, F. W., Upper Board School, Heckmondwikc,
Vorks.
Devey, A. C.,c/o La Societe Hermite,4, Rue Drouot, Paris.
Dewar, Prof. J., Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, W.
(for Journals) ; and 1, ScrOope Terrace, Cambridge.
Dewey, Fred. P., 621, E. Street Northwest, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.
De Wihle, Prof. P., 339, Avenue Louise, Brussels, Belgium.
Dey, Preo Lall, 4,Beadon Street, Calcutta.
Dibdin, W. J., London County Council, 40, Craven Street,
London, S.W. ; and (Journals) Mayfield, Grange
Road, Sutton, Surrey.
Dick, A., 110, Cannon Street, Loudon, E.C.
Dickinson, A J., Neptune Tar and Chemical Works,
Deptford, London, S.E.
Dickson, Jno., 16, Dale Street, S.S., Glasgow.
Dittmar, Prof. W., Anderson's College, Glasgow.
Divers, Dr. E., Hongo, Tokyo, Japan.
Dixon, Prof. Harold B., Owens College, Manchester.
Dixon, Jos., Spring Grove, near Sheffield.
Dixon, M. T, P.O. Box 419, Johannesburg, Transvaal.
Dixon, Win., 102, Spring Street, Bury, Lancashire.
Dixon, William, 3, Belle Vue Park, Sunderland.
Dixon, W. Hepworth, Fairfield Works, Bow, E.
Dobb, Thos., Audrev Cottage, Union Road, Sharrow,
Sheffield.
Dobbie, Dr. J. ,L, University College of North Wales,
Bangor.
Dobbin, Dr. L., Chemical Laboratory, University, Edin-
burgh.
Dodd, A. J., River View, Belvedere, Kent.
l)odd, W. R., Dunsmure Road, Stamford Hill, W.
.Doherty, Daniel, Inland Revenue, Hailsham, Sussex.
Doidge, H., 6, Beech Avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham
Domeier, A., 13, St. Marv-at-Hill, London, E.C.
Donald, George, Arnold Printworks, North Adams, Mass ,
U.S.A.
Donald, Jas., 5, Queeu's Terrace, Glasgow.
Donald, Samuel, Corporation Gasworks, Dundee.
Donald, W., 29, Eglintoh Street, Saltcoats, N.B.
Donald, W. J. A., Castle Park, Irvine, N.B.
Doolittle, Orrin S., Philadelphia and Reading Railroad,
Cor. 7th and Franklin Streets, Reading, Pa., U.S.A.
Doran, Robt. E., 1, Goldsmith Terrace. Bray, < !o. Wicklow.
Dore, Jas., Copper Works, High Street. Bromley-by-
Bow, E.
Dott, D. B., c/o Duncan, Flockhardt, & Co., 104, South
Canongate, Edinburgh.
Dotigall, A., Gasworks, Sculcoates, Hull.
Dougall, Archibald, Gasworks, Kidderminster.
Douglas, William, Diamond Plantation, Demerara.
Doulton, Sir Henry, Lambeth Pottery, London, S.E.
Dowland, W. II., 54, Glengall Road, London, S.E.
Dowling, Edmund, S3, Cable Street, London, E.
Down. F. J., 28, Victoria Road, Old Charlton, S.E.
Down, T., Willington-upon-Tyne.
Dowson, J. EmerBOU, 3, Great Queen Street, Westminster,
S.W.
Drake, Chas. A., Three Mills Distillery, Bromley-hy-Bow,
Dreaper, W. P., Silk Crape Works, Ponders End, N.
Drew. D., Lower House Printworks, near Burnley.
Dreyfus, Dr. C, Clayton Aniline Co., Limited, Clayton,
Manchester.
Driffield, V. C, Appleton, Widnes.
Drown, Thos. M., Mass. Inst, of Technology, Boston, Mass ,
U.S.A.
Drummond, Hon. G. A., Montreal, Canada.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO, 1892
Duckworth, C. W., Garner's Buildings, North Road,
I llaj ion, Manchester.
Duckworth, William, 93, Corporation Street, Manchester.
Dud>v, Dr. Chas. 1'... 1219, 12th Averiae, Altoona, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Dudley, Prof. W. L., Vanderbilt University, Nashville,
Tenn.. U.S.A.
Duffield, Dr. Sainl. P., 2, Market Building, Detroit, Mich.,
U.S.A.
Duggan, T. 1!.. Sunnylunk, Vanbrugh Hill, Blackheath, S.E.
Dukes, T. William, c/o Dukes Bros., Caledon and Primrose
Streets, Cape Town, South Africa.
Duncan, And., Dawsholm Gasworks, Maryhill, Glasgow.
Duncan, Arthur W., 69, Market Street, Manchester.
Duncan, .).. 9, Mincing Lane. London, E.< '.
Dunlop, Eolit.. Stanrigg Mil Works, Airdrie, N.B,
Dunn, J., 53, Browc Street, Manchester.
Dunn, John, Morgan Academy, Dundee.
Dunn, Dr. J. 'J'., The School, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Dunn, P., 53, Brown Street, Manchester.
Dunn, S.,
Dunn, Win. Walton, County Buildings, Old Elvet, Durham.
Duustau, Prof. W. K., 17, Bloomsbury Square, London,
w.c.
Dunwoody, R. G., 369, Calhoun Street, Atlanta, Georgia,
U.S.A.
Dupee, H. D., Walpole, Mass., U.S. \.
Dupre, Dr. A., Westminster Hospital Medical School, Caxton
Street, London, S.W.
Durham, H., Citv of London School, Thames Embankment,
E.C.
DuttsoD, W. II., 88, Wickham Road, Broekley, S.E.
Dvorkovitcli, Paul, Fernwood, North Hill, Highgate, N.
Dyer, B., 17, Great Town' Street, London, E.C.
Dyson, C. E., Flint, North Wales.
Dyson, Dr. G-, Temple House. Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Dyson, H., Pooley Hall Colliery, Polesworth, near Tam-
worth.
Eager, Wiii., Fennoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.
Eat mi -haw, Edwin, 72, Mark Lane, London, E.C.
Earp, W. R., Halton Road. Runcorn, Cheshire.
Eastiek, C. E., Myrtle Bank, Leyton, E.
Eastick, .1. J., e/o The Australasia Sugar Refining Co., Ld.,
Melbourne, Victoria (Journals); and co .1. Council
& Co.. Dunster House, Miming Lane, E.C. (sub-
scription).
Eastlake, A. W„ 17, Temperley Road. Balham, S.W.
Eastlake, T. L., 23, Great George Street, Westminster,
S.W.
Eastwick, Jos. H., Mellon Street, above Margaretta. Fast
Liberty, Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A.
Eastwood, Chas., Linacre Gas Works. ] loot le, near Liverpool.
Eastwood, Edward, Tunnel Soap Works, Wapping, E.
Edge, Anthony, Readville, Mass., U.S.A.
Edgell, G. E., 8, Catherine Terrace, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Edmands, H. R., 24. St. Ann's Road, Wandsworth, S.W.
Fdwards, Thos., The Brewery House, Rhymney, Mnn.
Edwards, Walter N., 4, Heme Hill Road, Loughborough
Junction, S.F..
Ekman, C. 1).. Santa Maria, Sena San Bruno. Calabria. Italy.
Elborne, W., 2, Richmond Villas, Station Road, Cambridge.
Elborough, T., 59, Mark Lane. London, E.C.
Ellershausen, Francis, Hebburn-on-Tyne.
Elliott, A. II.. College of Pharmacy, 209— 213, East 23rd
Street, New York, U.S.A.
Ellis, Al,x . Skelton, R.S.O., forks.
Ellis, C. .1.. Cassel Gold Extracting ( !o., 18, West Scotland
Street, Kiuning Park, Glasgow.
Ellis, G. E. K.. Nelson, Lake Kootanie, British Columbia.
EUis, H., 1 12, Regent Street, Leicester.
Ellis, Prof. W. Hodgson, School of Practical Science,
Toronto, Canada.
Ellison, Henry, Flat) Lane. Cleckhtaton, Yorks.
Elmore, A. S., Spring drove, Low Road, Huuslet, Leeds.
Elwen, Geo., 47, Faulkner Street, Manchester.
Elworthy, H. S., Punjab Sujar Works Co., Seejanpur, via
Pathankot, Punjab, India.
Emmens, S. H., Youngwood, Westmoreland Co., Pa., U.S.A.
Endemann, Dr. II., 2o — 27, William Street, New Y'ork City.
U.S.A.
England, R. J., c/o Farmer and Co., Dunster House, Mark
Lane, Loudon, E.C.
Erinen, F., juu., Nassau Mills, Patrieroft. Manchester.
Ernst, Adolf, Oberlangenbielau, Schlesien, Germany.
Erskine, Jas. K., 6, Laseott's Road, Wood Green, N. ; and
Box 220, Pretoria, South Africa (for Journals).
Esehelhnau, Dr. George, c/o 1'. Eschellmann, 0 .7, No. S,
Mannheim, Germany.
Esilman, A., 25, Roe Lane, Southport, Lancashire.
Estcourt, C, 20, Albert Square, Manchester.
Evans, Enoch, 181, Herbert Road, Small Heath, Birming-
ham.
Evans, Dr. John, Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
Evans, Dr. P. Norman, 28, Great (Jrmoud Street, London,
W.C.
Evans, R. E., Brewery Club House, Guild Street, Stratford-
on-Avon.
Evans, W. N., GG, Stackpole Road, Bristol.
Everett, EL H., c/o The Borneo Co.. Ld., 28, Fencbureh
Street, London, E.G., and Journals to Sarawak.
Borneo.
Everitt, F. Douglas, Finstall House, Bromsgrove.
Evershed, F., Atlas Works, Hackney Wick, London, E.
Evershed, Henry G.. Soap Works, Station Street, Brighton.
Evershed, Wallis, c/o Whitwell & Co., LI, Kendal,
Westmorclaud.
F.wing, Sir Arch. Orr, Bart., M.P., Lennoxbank, Jameston,
Dumbartonshire.
Fahlberg, Dr. C, Saccharin fabrik, Salbke-Weslerhiisen
a Elbe, Germany.
Fairley, T., 1G. East Parade, Leeds.
Fairlie, II. ('.. 2, University Gardens, Glasgow.
Fallowfield, T., Clayton-le-Moors, near Accrington.
Farrant, N., c o J. Nicholson and Sons, Chemical Works,
Hunslet, Leeds.
Farries, T., 16, Coleman Street, London, E.C.
Farrington, T., 4, Waterloo Place, Cork, Ireland.
Fasnacht, A. E., Sandy Lane Chemical Works, Clayton,
.Manchester.
Faulkner, F., The Laboratory, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Fav.eett, Jas. H., c/o Hank of Australasia, 4, Threadneedle
Street, E.C.
Fawsitt, C. A., Atlas Chemical Works, East Nelson Street,
I rlasgow.
Fearfield, Jno. P., Stapleford, Notts.
F'elton, Thos., 364, Romford Road, Forest Gate, E.
Fenwick, Jas., Thai-sis Mines, Iluelva, Spain.
Feodossieff, Captain G., 11, Great Masterskaia, St. Peters-
burg.
Ferguson, Prof. J., The University, Glasgow.
F'ergusson, H., Prince Regent's Wharf, Victoria Docks, E.
Ferric, And., Crown Chemical Works, Harpurhey, Man-
chester.
Field, C. H., The Nottingham Brewery, Nottingham.
Field, E. W., The Brewery, Nottingham.
Field, S. E., Stone Trough Brewery, Halifax.
Field, S. S.. 1, Bell Rock Villas, Mycenas Road, Westcomhc
Park, S.E.
Field, Walter D., Wyoming, N.J., U.S.A.
Field, Wm. Eddington, Illawarra Road, Hawthorne, near
Melbourne, Victoria.
Fielding, A., George Street. Salford, Manchester.
Fielding, Patrick J., 8, St. Joseph's Place, Cork.
Filcock, P., Cumberland House, Cumberland Street,
Macclesfield.
Findlay, T. J., c/o Messrs. Chapman and Messel, Silver
town, London, E.
Jan.83. 18921 THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Fisher, W. W„ 5, St. Margaret's Road, Oxford.
Fitzbrown, G., Ditton Copper Works, Widne«.
Fleck, Hermann, 108, Rittenhouse Street, Germantown.
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Fleming, Arnold, Britannia lottery, 13G, Girlie Street,
Glasgow.
Fleming, K. G., 5, Cheapside, Tudhoe Grange, Spenny-
moor, co. Durham.
Fletcher, A. L\. Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks.
Fletcher, F. W , Beauchamp Lodge, Enfield.
Fletcher, G., 3, East Ascent, St. Leonards-on-Sea.
Fletcher. R..,Taques, 7, Karl Street, Finshury, B.C.
Fletcher, R. Steele, c/o Fletcher Bros., & ( lo., Grimsby.
Fletcher, T., Grappenhall House, Grappenhall, near
Warrington.
Flower, Major Lamorock (Lee Conservancy Board), 12,
Finshury Circus, E.C.
Foden, Alfred, 52, Everton Valley, Everton, Liverpool.
Fogg, .las., Waterloo Estate, Carapichaima, Trinidad, West
Indies.
Follows, F. W., Gorton, Manchester.
Foord, Geo., Royal Mint, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Forbes, J., Chemical Works, Old Ford, London, E.
Ford, Alex. E., 4, Orme Square, Hyde Park, W.
Ford, Jno. S., Abbey Brewery, FMinburgh.
Formov, J. Arthur, 12, Railway Approach, London Bridge,
S.E.
Forrester, Albert, c/o Morrison and Son, Ranipet, Arcot,
Madras, India.
Forrester, A. M., Port Dundas Chemical Works, 20, Canal
Rank, Glasgow.
Forrester, J., 87, Cannon Street, Loudon, E.C.
Forster, Ralph < '., co Messrs. Bossier, Waechter, Si Co.,
18 and 19, Fenchureh Street, E.C.
Fort, Jas., 1G, Adelphi Bank Chambers, South John Street,
Liverpool.
Forth, Henry, 17, Herbert Road, Sherwood Rise, Notting-
ham.
Foster, F., Niagara Works, Eagle Wharf Road, London, N.
F'oster, H. Le Neve, c/o Bolckow, Vaughan, and Co., South
Bank, Middlesbrough.
Foster. Jas., Lily Bank, St. Andrew's Drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.
Foster, R. Le Neve, The Firs, North Road, Droylsden,
Manchester.
Foster, W., Middlesex Hospital, London, W.C.
Foster, Win.. Ksholt House, Chapeltown, Leeds.
Foulieron, Ernest, 73. Boulevard de Strasbourg, Paris.
Foulis, Win., 2, Montgomerie Quadrant, Kelvinside, Glas-
gow.
Fowler, Gilbert J., Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Fox, J. Wesley, 115, Lower Thames Street, London, E.C.
Fox, T., jtui., Court, Wellington, Somerset.
France, (I. I'.. Friar's Goose, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
France, Joseph, 4.'!, Church Street, Rotherhara, Yorks.
France, 11. C. I)., 8, Vicarage Road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
Francis, E., Rock Villas, P.irkside, Nottingham.
Francis, E. G., 1, Halstead Villas, Fulham Road, Hammer-
smith, W.
Francis, G. I!., 38, Southward Street, London. S.E.
Francis, Wm., jun., 7, Shaftesbury Square, Belfast.
Francis, W. H., 38, Southwark Street, London, S.K.
Frankel, L. K., 1315, Marshall Street, Philadelphia, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Frankenburg, Isidor, Greengatc Rubber Works, Salford,
Manchester.
Franklaud, Dr. E., The Yews, Rcigate, Surrey.
F'rankland, II., Streonsbalh House, The Crescent, Liuthorpe,
Middlesbro'.
Franklaud, Dr. P. F.. University College, Dundee.
F'raser, Leslie McG., 98, Commercial Road Fast. London, E.
Fraser, W. J., 98, Commercial Road East, London, 15.
Free, R., The Elms, Mistley, Essex.
Freear, H. M* Hedgefield, Harpenden, Herts.
Freeman, A., 80, Dentons Green Lane, St. Helens.
Freestone, J. W., 5, Kerfield Terrace, New Ferry, Cheshire.
Frew, Win., 2, King James' Place, Perth, N.B., and
(Journals), Theresienstrasse, 2/1, Munchen, Bavaria.
Fries, Dr. Harold II., 92, Reade Street, New York, U.S.A.
Friese-Greene, W. E , 92, Piccadilly, London, W.
Friswell, E. J., 115, Darenth Road, Stamford Hill, London,
N.
Froehling, Dr. 11., lo, North 14th Street, Richmond, Vir-
giira, LF.S.
Frost, Dr. Howard V., Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn,
NT., U.S.A.
Frost, Joe, Mold Green, Huddersfield.
Frost, Robt., St. James' Chambers, Duke Street, London,
S.W.
Frasher, Thos., White Abbey Dyeworks, near Bradford,
Yorks.
Fryer, Dr. A. G, Cornwallis Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
Fuerst, Jos. F., 17, Philpot Line. London, E.C.
Fukahori, Yoshiki, G, Sanjikkeubori, Sanehome, Tokyo,
Japan.
Fullarton, R., 30, Donegal Place, Belfast, Ireland.
Fuller, W. M., Ely House, Wolverhampton.
Fulton, H. B., 33, St. Dunstan's Road, West Kensington,
S.W.
Fyfe, Jno., 7, West George Street, Glasgow.
G
Gabbett, E. R., Prince Regent's Wharf, Victoria Docks,
London, E.
Gadsden, Capt.H. A.
Gair, Wm. (Journals), c/o W. ('. Tripler, Coquimbo, Chili ;
(subs.) 20, Cardigan Terrace, Ileaton, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
Gajjar, Professor T. K, Temple of Art, Baroda, India.
Galbraith, Wm., Higbfield Road, Chesterfield.
Gallsworthy, Frank, Grosvenor Road, Headingley, Leeds.
Gall, Henry, L'Usine de Produits Chimiques de Villeis par
Hermes, Oise, France,
Gait, Hugh Allen, ICalion Chemical Co., 31st and Grays
Ferry Road, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Gamble, Col. D., Windlehurst, Si. Helens.
Gamble, D., jun., Millbrook, Eccleston, Prescot, Lanca-
shire.
Gamble, J. C, Hardshaw Brook Chemical Works, St. Helens.
Gamble, Jas. N., Messrs. Procter and Gamble, Cincinnati,
Ohio, U.S.A.
Gamble, W., Haresfinch, St. Helens.
Gans, Adolf, Farbenfabrik von L. Cassella & Co., Frankfort
o/Main. Germany.
Garcon. Prof. Jules, 13, Boulevard d; Latnur Maubourg,
Paris.
Gardner, Walter M., Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Garibaldi, Joachim A., 21. Church Place, Gibraltar.
Garrett, F. C, 2, Westoe Terrace, South Shields.
Garrick, Dr. A. R., Huyton, near Liverpool.
Garton, R. (Hill. Garton oc Co.), Southampton Wharf,
Battersea. S.W.
Gascovne, Dr. W. J., 36, South Holliday Street, Baltimore,
aid., U.S.A.
Gaskell, II., jun., Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, near Liverpool.
Gaskell, Holbrook, Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
Gaskell,.!., 1, Woodlands Road, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Gatheral, G., Heathfield, Hehburn-on-Tyne.
Gaussen, W. F. A., 53, Eaton Square, London, S.W.
Gee, W. W. Haldane, Owens College, Manchester.
Geisler, Dr. Jos. F.. New York Mercantile Exchange
Building. G, Harrison Street, New York, U.S.A.
Gent, Wm. Thos., Misterton, Gainsborough.
Gerland, Dr. B. W., 4, Denmark Place, Acerington.
Gerrard, A. W., 1, Cantlowes Road, Camden Square, N.W.
Gibb, Thos., 14, Forest Drive, Leytonstone, Essex.
Gibbins, H. B.. Holly Lawn, Beec'hen Cliff, Bath.
Gibbs. D. Cecil, Hanover Court, Milton Street, London,
E.C.
Gibbs, W. P., North British Chemical Co., Clydebank, near
Glasgow.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. so, 1S92.
( ribson, Dr. J., 15, Dick Place, Edinburgh.
Gibson, J. M., c/o Buckley Brick and Tile Co., Buckley,
via Chester.
Gilbanl, Francis, The Laboratory, 17, Great Tower Street,
E.C.
Gilbert, Dr. .1. EL, Harpenden, near Si. Albans.
Gilchrist, P. C, Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, West-
minster, London, S.W.; Journals to Frognal Hank,
Finehley New Road, Hampstead, X.W.
Gilchrist, Peter S.. 306, Water Street, Baltimore, Md ,
U.S.A.
Giles, W., Clons Keagh Works, Warton Road, Stratford,
London, E. j and Journals to 9, Belmont Villas,
Leyton, E.
Gill, Dr. Aug. H., Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Gillman, Gustave, Ferro-carril dc Murcia .-i Granada, Lorca,
Prov. de Murcia, Spain.
Gilmour, Geo., 12, Melville Terrace, Edinburgh.
Gimingham, Edw. A., Stamford House, Northumberland
Park, Tottenham, X.
Girdwood, Dr. Gilbert P., 54, Beaver Hall Terrace, Mon-
treal, Canada.
Gladstone, Dr. J. H., 17 Pembridge Square, London, W.
Glaeser, F. A., Carpenter's Road, Stratford, E.
Glaser, Chas., P.O. Box 437. Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
Glatz, Jos., Riverside Chemical Works. 485 — 493, Kent
Avenue, Brooklyn, X.Y., U.S.A.
Glen, John, jun., Glengowan Printworks, Airdrie, N.B.
Glendinning, II., Mount House, The Hill, Sandbach,
Cheshire.
Glendinning, N., Merton Bank, St. Helens.
Glendinning, Tom .V., The Brewery, Leeds.
Gloag, Robt. P., Grove Hill, Middlesbrough.
Glover, G. T., The Phospho Guano Co., Limited, Sea-
combe, Cheshire.
Glover, John, 20, Holly Avenue, Newcastle on-Tyne.
Glover, T., Messrs. Mort, Liddell St Co., Widues.
Glover, W., Rio Tinto Mines, Huelva, Spain.
Goldschmidt, Dr. S. A., 43 — 51, Sedgwick Street, Brooklyn,
N.Y., U.S.A.
Goodall. Geo., IS;', Mansfield Road, Nottingham.
(i lull, Reginald, Linden House, Highgate Road, X.W.
Goodall, Thos., Hendon Grange, Sunderland.
Goodwin, C. C, Throstle Nest, Old Trafford, Manchester.
Goppelsroeder, Dr. P., 14, Brubaehstrasse, Mulhausen,
Elsass, Germany.
Gordon, J. ( !., The Mannesmann Tube Co., Ld., 1 10, Cannon
Street, London, E.C.
Gore, Dr. G., 67, Broad Street, Birmingham.
Gorvin, Jno. C, English Crown Spelter Works. Port Pen-
nant. Swansea.
Gossagc, P. II.. Widnes.
Goulding, Wm. Joshua, 25, Eden Quay, Dublin.
Gow, It. J., Ditton Iron Works, Widnes.
Gowland, W., 19, Beaumont Crescent, West Kensington,
s.W.
Goyder, G. A., Ootalinka, Hawker's Road, Medindie, near
Adelaide, South Australia.
Grablicld, Dr. .1. P., 1015, Indiana Avenue, Chicago, 111.,
U.S.A.
Gracey, R., Faircombo, The Barnfield, Exeter.
Graesser, K., Cefn, near Ruabon, North Wales ; and Argoed
Hall, Llangollen, North Wales.
Graham, Dr. C, 23, Euston Buildings, Gower Street Station,
I, on. 1. m, .X.W.
Graham, C. C, e/o Blundell, Spence & Co., Beverley Road,
Hull.
Graham, J, A., Tin- Limes, Dunmow, Essex.
Grandage, II., Calder Dye Works, Brighou6e, near Leeds.
Grant, Arthur L., 20, Bay Street, Toronto, Canada.
( rray, II. \\ atson, 14, Ajgyle I load, ( tarston, near Liverpool.
Gray, Jno., Clippens < >il Works, by Johnstone, N.B.
Gray, W., Oil Refinery, Hull.
Gray, Win. Jan., Drewton Manor, South Cave, R.S.O.
Greaves, LA. II., The < )ld Rectory, t Irappenhall, Cheshire.
Green, Alfred H., Oaklands, Lowton St. Mary's, Lancashire.
Green, A. G., Atlas Works, Hackney Wick, London, E. ;
and (Journals) 54. Thistlewaite Rd.,' Lower Clapton, P..
Green, German, Bergholt House, Park Road, Jarrow-on-
Tync.
Green, EL, Hajle Mill. Maidstone.
Green, John, Iron, Tinplate, and Chemical Works, Aber-
carne, Mon.
Green, Jno. Edw., 52, Claypath, Durham.
Green, L., Lower Tovil, Maidstone.
Green, R.. Soho Mill, Wooburn, near Beaconsfield.
Green, Samuel, 28 and 2'.i. St. Switliiu's Lane, London, E.C.
Green; Upheld, Liehenheiin, Clarendon Road, Watford.
Herts.
Greenaway, A. J.. Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.
Greenbalgh, J. Herbert, Shepherd's, Tottington Mill, near
Bury.
Greenhough, D. W.. 5. Rood Lane, London, E.C.
Greenway, T. J.. >sth Avenue, East Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia.
Greenwood, II., Holland Bank House. Church, near Ac
crington.
Gregor, Jno. Bernal, c o John Lysaght, LI., Bristol Spelter
Works, Bristol.
Gregory, Wm., Dover Place, Ashford, Kent.
Gregory, Wm. J., 1, St. John's Terrace, Weymouth, Dorset.
Grevel, Hermann, 33, King Street, Covent Garden, London,
w.c.
Greville, H. L., Diersheim, Chnrchfields, Woodford, Essex.
Griffin, John K.. -2-2, Garrick Street, Covent Garden, W.C.
Griffin, Martin L., Mechanicv illc, Saratoga Co., N.Y., U.S.A.
Griffith, D. Agnew, 2, Commercial Court, 17, Water Street,
Liverpool.
Griffith, li. W. S., Eyeworth Lodge, Lyndhurst, Haute,
Grime, J., Rosebank Cottage, Busby, near Glasgow.
Grimshav, 11., Thornton View. Clayton, Manchester.
Grimwood, R., 41, Lady Margaret Load. London, N.W.
Grindley, J., Upper North Street, Poplar, Loudon, K.
Gripper, Harold, Stores Department, M. S. and L. Railway ,
Gorton, Manchester.
Grossmann, Dr. J., Hendham Vale Chemical Works, Man-
■ Lester.
Grotb, Lorenz A., 3. Tokenhouse Buildings, E.C.
Groves, C. E., 352, Kennington Road, London, S.E.
Gunn, W. L., Broad Plain Soap Works, Bristol.
Guyatt, T., Ceara Gas Co., Limited, 9, Queen Street Place,
Cannon Street London, E.C.
H
Habirshaw, W. M., 159, Front Street, Xcw York City,
U.S.A.
Hacking, W. II., The Grange, Claytou-le-Moors, near Ac
crington.
lladdow, A., 1, Easter Road, Edinburgh.
Hadfield, it. A., Newhall Load, Attercliffe, Sheffield.
Hadkinson, F., Pamphila Oil and Soap Works, Mitylenc.
Mediterranean.
Hadkinson, It., Smyrna, Asia Minor.
Ilaga. Tamemasa, Chemical Department, Science College,
Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.
Haig, Robert, Mechanical Retorts Co., Limited, Murray
Street, Paisley, X.!!.
Haig-Brown, li., jun., 21, Ladyborn Road, Paliowfield,
Manchester.
Haigh, Ben. l'1. (Cavendish Load. Leeds,
llailes, A. J. de, B2, Manor Road, Stoke Newington, N.
Haines, Reuben, 201, South 5th Street, Philadelphia, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Hake, C. N., c/o Minister of Mines, Melbourne, Victoria.
Hale, Edw. 1'., c/o Wakefield & Co., Gatebeck, Kendal.
Hall. Allan T., Inglebauk, Xewland, Hull.
Hall, Archibald D., 31, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.
Hall, Edgar, (Journals) Albert Street, Brisbane, Queens-
land ; anu (subs.) e ,i Geo. Bishop, 113, *l\nvis Street,
Woolwich, S.E.
Hall, Emlen T., 1623, Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Fa.,
U.S.A.
Hall. (L, 7. Ogle Terrace, South Shields.
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Hall, .1. Albert, 10S, Lloyd Street, Greenheys, Manchester.
Hall, R. E., Box 12, Johannesburg, South African Republic.
Hall, S„ East London Soap Works, Bow, London, E.
Haller, Geo., 86, Leadenhall Street, London, B.C.
Hamilton, David, 224, Ingram Street, Glasgow.
Hamilton, David R., 19, Graham Street, Bridgeton, Glas-
gow.
Hamilton, Jas. ('., Trinity Lodge, Edinburgh.
Hamilton, Oswald, University College, Gower Street, Lon-
don, w.c
Hamilton, Robert, e/o Furnace Gases Co., Ld., Shotts,
N.B.
Hainlen, G. J., c/o Nobel's Explosives Co., Ld.. Ardeer,
Stevenston, Ayrshire.
Hanimersloy, Win., Tar Works. Beckton, E.
Hammersley, W. A. L., Bridge House, Leek. Staffordshire.
llaiumill, M. J., 125, Cooper Street, St. Helens.
Hammond, .1., Gas Works, Eastbourne, Sussex.
Hand, T. W., Public Library, Oldham.
Handy, das. ( )., '.i.-,, Fifth Avenue, Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A.
Hanks, Abbot A.. 1124, Greenwich Street, San Francisco,
Cal., IT.S.
Hanrez, Prosper, ran, Chausaee de Charleroi, Brussels.
Hanson, A. M., Abbey Printworks, Whalley, Biackburn.
Hanson, John, Highfield Villa. Belle Vue, Wakefield.
Hanson, Win. 1!., Kimberley Brewery, near Nottingham.
llardie, William, The Gas Offices, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Ilanlman, .losiah, Milton Chemical Works, Stoke-on-Trent.
Hardman, .las., Whitwood Chemical Works, Normanton.
Hargreaves, .1.. Widnes.
Hargreaves, Mark, 108, Fylde Road, Preston.
Darkness, W., The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
w.c.
Harland, R. 1L, Plough Court, 37, Lombard Street, Londou,
E.< '.
Ilarley, Boston, Laboratory, Catron Works, Falkirk. N.I*.
Harmon, L. [•;., Clover Mills, Lockport, Illinois, U.S.A.
Harned, Frank P., 1332, Washington Avenue, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A.
Harper, Prof. 1) N., St. Anthony Park, Minn., U.S.A.
Harrington, W. P., Ardsullagh, Old Blac.krock Road,
Cork.
Harris, Booth, jun., Clovelly House, Norwich Road, Forest
Gate, E.
Harris, I)., Caroline Park, Edinburgh.
Harris, Sydney J., School of Science, Rossington Street,
Leeds.
Harris. T.. The Union Acid Co., Runcorn.
Harrison, A., Thames Sugar Refinery, Silvertowu, Loudon.
Harrison, ( '., 67, Surrey Street, Sheffield.
Harris ].. M.. c <> Hay-Gordon & Co.,Widnes; Journals
i<> in, Elizabeth Terrace, Appleton, Widnes.
Harrison, Dr. Franklin T., London, Ontario, Canada.
Harrison, G. ])., Nctham Chemical Works, Bristol.
Harrison, G. 11., Hagley, near Stourbridge.
Harrison, G. King, Hagley, near Stourbridge.
Harrison, J., 2, Temple Place, Ballintemple, link.
Harrison, Jno., 35th and Gray's Ferry Road, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A.
Hart, Bertram II., The Elms, Old Charlton, S.F..
Hart, E., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., U.S.A.
Hart, II. W., Turkey Lane, Queen's Park, Manchester.
Hart, P., c/o Tennants & Co., 49, Faulkner Street, Man-
chester.
Hartford, .las., 3, Cedar Street, New York, U.S.A.
Hartley, Arthur, Cannon Brewery, Brighton.
Hartley, Edw., 02, Wail Street, New York City, U.S.A.
Hartley, Joseph, Dalton Chemical Works, Brook Street,
West Gorton, Manchester.
Hartley, R. Kent. Springwood House, Chadderton, near
Oldham.
Hartley, Prof. W. N., Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Hartog, Philip J., Owens College, Manchester.
Harvey, Ernest W.,Hilsrig, Alderbrook Road, Balham, S.W .
Harvey, H. C, Raglan House, Brooklands, near Man-
chester.
Harvey, Sidney, South-Eastern Laboratory, Canterbury.
Harvey, T. IL, Cattedown, Plymouth.
llasenclever, R., Chemische Fahrik-Rhenania, Aachen,
Prussia.
Haslam, Dr. Arthur R., 64, Carysfort Avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.
Hastings, Hugh, Lavender Villa. Birmingham Road, Kid-
derminster.
Hatfield, Jno., Windsor Road, Newton Heath, Lancashire.
Hathaway, Nath.. New Bedford, M..ss., I'.S.A.
Ilatsckek, M., 3, Bedford Place, London, W.C.
Hatton, Wm. P., c/o W. R. llattou & Sons, Wormwood
Scrubs, W.
Uauff, Julius, Feuerbach, Stuttgart, Germany.
Haussknecht, Dr. Willy. The Carbonic Acid Gas Co., Ld.,
Lea Bridge Road. Clapton, E.
Hawkins. II., Eyeworth Lodge, Lyndhurst, Hants.
Hawliczek, Josef, 99, diet Road.'Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Hay, Alex., Heath Villa, Shaftesbury Avenue, Bristol.
Hayes, Jno., 109, Upper Stanhope Street, Liverpool.
Hazelhurst, C. W., Halton Grange, Runcorn.
Head, John, It), Queen Anne's Gate, Westminster, S.W.
Heap, Chas., Caldershaw, near Rochdale.
Heap, L-, Stacksteads, near Manchester.
Heape, Chas., 19, George Street, Manchester.
Heath, G. L., Calumet and Heel a Smelting Co., S. Lake
Linden, Mich., I '.S.A.
Heath. II. < '., Mvton Grange, near Warwick.
I baton, Prof. ( '.' \V., 44, Woodstock Road, Bedford Park,
W.
Heaton, John, 744, Rochdale Road, Manchester.
Hecht, Jos., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Heckmann, C, 9, Gorlitzerufer, Berlin. S.O., Germany.
Hedley, Armorer. May field, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
lledley. John, jun., II, Crooked Lane, Cannon Street,
London, E.< !.
Ileerlein, Robert, Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co.,
Natrona, Pa., U.S.A.'
Ilehner, O., 11, Billiter Square, London, E.C.
Hellier, E. A., 1 11, Westhournc Avenue, Hull.
Hellon, Dr. R., 47, New Lowther Street, Whitehaven.
Helm.H. J., 13, St. George's Vdlas, Perry Hill, Catford,
S.E.
Hemingway, H., 60, Mark Lane, London, E.C.
ITempleman, F. S., Wennington House, Wennington, Rom-
ford, Essex.
Henderson, G. G., Chemical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.
Henderson, W.F., Mooriiold, Claremont Gardens, Neweastle-
on-Tyne.
Hcniiin, Alphon-e, Springfield, 111., U.S.A.
Henshaw, Jno., Brook Street Soap Works, Manchester.
Hepburn, G. Grant, (hemic Schule, Miilbausen, Elsass
Germany.
Ilerf, O., Ilerf & French;. Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.,
U.S.A.
Herman, W. D., St. Ann's, St. Helens.
Heron, ,(., SI. John's Villas, Worple Road, Wimbledon.
Heron, Jno., Chemical Works, Wicklow, Ireland.
Herriot, Wm. Scott, De Willem, Deincrara.
Herrmann, R. W. (Herrmann, Keller & Co.), 102, Feu-
church Street, London, E.C.
Ifersam, Ernest A., Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston,
Mass., U.S.A.
Ilerschel, Prof. A. S., Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.
lleslop, Jos., llo, Rye Hill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Hess, Dr. Adolph, Oil Works, Leeds.
Hetheringtou, Dr. Albert E., 65, Sandown Lane, Wavertree,
Liverpool.
Hewitt, Dr. D. B., Oakleigh, Northwieb, Cheshire.
Hewlett, John C, 40— 42, Charlotte Street, Great Eastern
Street, London, E.C.
Heyeock, C. T.. King's College, Cambridge.
Ileyden, Dr. F. von, Chemische Fabrik, Radebeul, bei
Dresden, Germany.
Heys, W. E., 70, Market Street. Manchester.
I leys, Z. J., Stonehonse, Barrhead, N.B.
Ileys, Z. G., Springhill Villa, Barrhead, near Glasgow.
lleywood, G., Beech Tree Rank, Prustwich, near Man-
chester.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO, 1S92.
Heywood, J. G., 127, Sutherland Avenue, Maida Vale,
London, W.
Heywood, J. II.. 23, Holland Street, Rochdale.
Heywood, .1. S.. :. Caledonian Road, King's Cross, London,
" N.
Hibbert, W., 14, Goldhurst Terrace, South Hampstead,
N.W.
Higgin, W. 11., Hall Chemical Works, Little Lever, near
Bolton.
Higgins, C. L., c/o .7. Muspratt & Co., Widnes ; and 29,
Falkner Square, Liverpool.
Hill, .1. JC. Eullarton » iottage, Irvine, N.B.
Hill, Sydney, 1 1, Salisbury Street, The Park. Hull.
Hills-. C. 11.. Anglesea Copper Works, Low Walker,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Hills, H., Chemical Works, Dcptford, London, S.E.
Hills. \l. H., Tower Varnish Works, Long Acre, Nechells,
Birmingham.
Hills, W.. 225, I (xford Street, London, W.
Hills, W. A., Great Barr, near Birmingham.
Hindle, J. H., 8, Oobham Street, Accringtou.
Hinds, James, 127, Gosford Street. Coventry.
Hinman, Bertrand ('.. c/o Ironclad Manufacturing Co.,
929, flushing Avenue, Brooklyn, E.D., U.S.A.
Hinshelwood, Thos., Glasgow < >i) and Paint AVorks, Glen-
park Street, ( rlasgow.
Hirsch, Dr. Robt., 17, Zetland Street, Huddersfield.
Hodges, Harry 11 . c o Union Pacific Railroad Co., ( Mnaha,
Neb., U.S.A.
Hodges, .1. F., Tudor Park. Holywood, Co. Down, Ireland.
Hudgkin. J.. 12, Dynevor Koad, Richmond, Surrej ; Journals
to c/o Messrs. Hopkin & Williams, 16, Cross Street,
Hatton ( larden, E.C.
Hodgkinson, J. 11., Messrs. E. Potter & Co., Dinting Vale,
Glossop.
Hodgkinson, Dr. W. R., s. Park Villas, Blackheath,
S.K. (Journals); and Royal .Military Academy, Wool-
wich, S.E.
Hodgson, C, High House, Eppleby, Darlington.
Hodgson, Win.. Whcelgate, Malton, Vorks.
Hodgson, Win., S, Victoria Buildings, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester,
llofniann. Dr. A. W. (Journals), 10, Doratheen Strasse,
Berlin, Germany; and (subs.) c/o C. Hofmann, 20,
( Ixford Mansions, W.
Hogben, W.. 15, Pilrig Street, Edinburgh.
Hogg, Quintiu, 23, Rood Lane, London, E.C.
Hoog, T. W . c/o John Spencer & Sons, Newborn Steel-
works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Holden, G. H., Langley Place, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Holdich, A. H., 4, Rowbottom Square, Wigan.
Holgate, S. V., 29, Long Row, Nottingham.
Holgate, '!'. E., 146, Blackburn Road, Harwell, Lancashire.
Holgate, T., 12, Hyde Park Road. Halifax.
Holland, Jos., Brewery House, West Gorton, Manchester.
Holland, Philip, 27, Albert Load. Southport.
Holliday, Jas. R., 4, Bennett's Hill, Birmingham.
Holliday, II. i Lead, Holliday & Sous), Iluddersfield.
Holliday, T., Southgate House, Pontefraci, Yorkshire.
Holloman, Fred K., Sugar Refinery, Rawcliffe Bridge,
Selby, Yorks.
Hollow.. \. G. T.. 57 and 58, Chancery Lane, W.C.
Holloway. Win.. Newlands, Middlesbro'.
Holmes. Kli wood. Wellburn, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Holmes, F. G., Prince Regent's Wharf, Silver Town, E.
Holm..-, G. 11., 9, Regent Street, New Basford, Nottingham.
Holmes,.!., 96, Holland Load, Brixton, London, S.W.
Holt, G, Croinpton, Albion Work-, Congleton, Cheshire.
Holt, .!. W., North Road, Clayton, near Manchester.
Hood, It. W.. 46, Sandwell Road, West Brcinwieh.
Hooker, Benj., Pear Tree Court, Farringdon Road. London,
E.C.
Hooper, E. G., The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C.
Hooper, Ernest P.. c o Messrs. Burt, Boulton, & Haywood,
Chemical Works. Silvertown, E.
Hooper, Henry A., Gateshead Fell Rectory, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.
Hooton, Edm:, Fairfield, Hamilton Drive, Nottinghami
Hope, .las.. The Nickel Co., Kirkintilloch, N.B.
Hopkin. W. K., 14, Mowbray Road, Brondesbury, N.W.
Hopkins, T. J., Cradle Bridge Works, Trowbridge, Wilts.
Hopkinson, John, Marion Street, Lister Hills, Bradford,
Yorks.
Hon, Etsuojo, Chemical Laboratory, Science College,
Imperial University. Tokio, Japan.
Horn, Wm., Roxburgh Street Refinery, Greenock, N.B.
Horn, W. Freeman, Wandle Colour Works, South Street,
Wandsworth, S.W.
Horrocks, S.. 41, Parkrield Load, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Horton, William, 38, Belvidere Load, Prince's Park, Liver-
pool.
Hoskins, A. Percy, 125, Gloucester Road, Regent's Park,
N.W.
Hough, Oliver, 325, South IGth Street, Philadelphia, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Houston, Robt. S.. Hope Villa, Bellahouston, Glasgow.
Hovendeii. Fred., Glenlea, Thurlow Park Road, West
Dulwieh, S.E.
Howard, A. G., Holmbury, Woodford, Essex.
Howard. I)., Rectory Manor, Walthamstow, Essex.
Howard, D. L., City Mills. Stratford, London, E.
Howard, W. Crewdson, Messrs. Howard & Sons, Stratford,
London. E.
Howard, W. D., City Mills, Stratford, London. E.
Howarth, R. II., Ferguslie Thread Works. Paisley, N.B.
Howarth, R. S., Chemical Works, Miles Platting, Man-
chester.
Howorth, Franklin W., Lyme Grove, Church Road, Urnis-
tou, near Manchester.
Hughes, J., 79, Mark Lane, London, E.C.
Hughes, T., Public Analyst's Laboratory, West Wharf,
Cardiff.
Huline, J., Mount House, Hollingworth, near Manchester.
Hummel, Prof. J. J., 152, Woodsley Road Leeds.
Humphries, Jacob, c/o Humphries & Co., Adolphus Street,
Bradford, Yorks.
Humphrvs, N. II., Gasworks, Salisbury, Wilts.
Hunt, Alt'. K ,95-97, Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.
Hunt, Bertram, 5, Queen's Crescent, ( rlasgow.
Huut, C, Gasworks, Windsor Street, Birmingham.
Hunt, E , Wood Green, Wednesbury, Staffordshire.
Hunt, F. J., Bow Bridge Soap Works, Stratford, E.
Hunt, J. S., Appleton, Widnes.
Hunt, Richard, 7, Marine Crescent, Waterloo, near Liver-
pool.
Huut, W., Wood Green, Wednesbury, Staffordshire.
Hunter, John, Minto House Medical School, Edinburgh.
Hunter, T. G., 540, Drexel Building, 54th Street, Philadel-
phia. Pa., U.S.A.
HnutiiiQton, Prof. A. K., King's College, Strand, London,
W.C.
Hunton, Henry, Greystoue, Carlton, Ferryhill, co. Durham.
Hunzinger, Alfred, c/o E. Potter & Co., Diuting Vale,
Glossop, Derbyshire.
Hurst, G. H., 22, Blaekfriars Street, Salford, Manchester.
Hurter, Dr. F., Widnes; and (Journals) Holly Lodge,
Cressington Park, Liverpool.
Iluskisson. P. L., 77, Swinton Street, Loudon, W.C.
Uiison, C. W., 5, York Buildings, Dale Street, Liverpool.
Hutchinson, A. II., 14, College Avenue, Lower Clapton
Road, E.
Hutchinson, C. C, Engineering Works, Carpenter's Road,
Stratford, E.
Hutchinson, Chas. H., Albert Works, Church Street,
Barnslev, Yorkshire.
Hutchinson, T. J., Aden House, Manchester Road, Bury.
Huxley. J. 11.. 15, Kenwood Park Road, Sharrow, Sheffield.
Hyde, C. F., 71, Higher Aidwick, Manchester.
I
lnirav, Harold, The Grange, Underbill, New Barnet.
Ingham, J. W., 1, Buxton Terrace, Chichester Road,
Leytonstone, I
Jan.so.i89S.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Ingle, Harry, Pool, near Leeds ; and (Journals) Jagerstrasse
7 IV. MUnchen, Bavaria.
Ingle, Herbert, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Inglis, R. A., Arden, Bothwell, N.B.
Innes, Murray, Box 129, Alameda, Cal., U.S.A.
Iriye, Koremasa, China and Japan Trading Co., 4, East
India. Avium1, London, EC.
Irvine, R., Koyston, Granton, Edinburgh.
Irving, Jos., Minas de Aznalcollar, Provincia de Sevilla,
Spain (Journals) ; (subs.) c/o Seville Sulphur and
Copper Co., 30, George Square, Glasgow.
Irving, J. M., 17a, Dickinson Street, Cooper Street, Man-
chester.
Irwin, \V., The Grange, Polygon Road, Higher Crumpsall.
Isaac, T. W. Plaver, Fresblord Manor, Freshford, near
Bath .
[sherwood, Oswald, 36, Walkdeu Road, near Bolton-le-
Moors.
Isler, Otto, 23, Cooper Street, Manchester.
Ivey, W. E., School of Agriculture, Lincoln, Canterbury,
New Zealand,
Jackman, K. J., 154. Upton Lane, Forest Gate, E.
Jackson, A. G., G.F.O., Brisbane, Queensland.
Jackson, Edgar, 106, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.( '.
Jackson, Edward, Ashleigh, Beaufort Road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Jackson, F., Spring Bank, Crumpsall Lane, Manchester.
Jackson, Frederick, 10, Half Moon Street, Manchester.
Jackson, G. B., Norbri<,r<rs, Lytham, Lancashire.
Jackson, John, 98, Robbie's Loan, Glasgow.
Jackson, R. V., 7, Thornville Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Jackson, liobt., is, Harrington Street, Dublin.
Jackson, Sam]., N<-ther Thong, Huddersficld.
Jackson, T., Clayton, near Manchester.
Jackson, Walter, 24, Sydenham Avenue, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.
Jackson, W. P., Saxilby, near Lincoln.
Jago, Wm., Science Schools, Brighton; Journals to 32,
Clarendon Villas, Brighton.
James, Alf., Cassel Gold Extracting Co., 13, West Scotland
Street, Kinning Park, Glasgow.
.Tames. Christopher, Swansea.
James, E. T., British Alizarin Co., Ld., Silvertown, Vic-
toria Docks, E.
James, J. Hernaman, Welwyn Lodge, Swansea.
James. Dr. J. Wm., Aylmer House, Weston-super-Mare ;
and (Journals) 29, Redcliff Street. Bristol.
Jantzen, Paul, 132, Fencburch Street, London, E.C.
Japp, Dr. F. E., The University, Aberdeen.
Jarmain, George, '.», York Place, Huddersficld.
Juimain, Geo. S., Croft House, Marsh, Huddersficld.
Jarmay, G , Wilmington Park, Northwleh.
Jarves, Deming, Michigan Carbon Works, Detroit, Mich.,
U.S.A.
Jayne, Dr. H. W., Cheiu. Lab., Bermuda Street, Erankford,
Philadelphia, U.S.A.
Jekyll, J., Ciistle Moat House, Lincoln.
Jenner, E., Florence Villa, Murchisou Road, Leyton, Essex.
Jenkins, Thos., Laboratorio, Minas de Rio Tinto, Spain.
Johnson, A. E., 10, Victoria Street, Wolverhampton; and
1, Eagle Villas, Penn Fields, Wolverhampton (for
Journals).
Johnson, Edmund E., Warren Hill House, Loughlon, Essex
Johnson, Frank, Tharsis Mines, Huelva, Spain.
Johnson, Jno., Franklin Square and Cherry Street, New
York. U.S.A.
Johnson, J. E., 40, Idmiston Road, Stratford, London, E.
Johnson, J. Grove, 23, Cross Street, Finsbury, Loudon,
E.C.
Johnson, J. II., 47, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, YV.C
Johnson, Kobt. vV., Messrs. Johnson & Johnson, New
Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A.
Johnson, S. H., Warren Hill House, Loughton, Essex.
Union Stock Yards,
,N..L, U.S.A.
Salon, Bouehes
di,
Johnson, T. A., Winnington Park, Northwieb, Cheshire.
Johnston, Thos., Nobel's Explosives Co., Ld., 149, West
George Street, Glasgow.
Johnston, Wm. A., The S.S. White Dental Manufacturing
Co., Princess Lav. New Y'ork, U.S.A.
Johnston, Wm. G.. Chemical Works, Coatbridge Street,
Port Dundas, Glasgow.
Johnston, W. G . e o A. Burns Glen, S, Great Winchester
Street, London, E.( '.
Johnstone, .las., Shawfield Works, Rutberglen, Glasgow.
Johnstone, L., 6, Mayfield Terrace, Edinburgh.
Johnstone, Dr. W., City Centra] Laboratory, 13, Fish Street
Hill, Loud E.C.
Jones, A. Frederick, c/o Walters Bros , pisagua, Chili.
Jones, Prof. 1). E., County Council Offices, Stafford.
Jones, E. W. T., 10, Victoria Street, Wolverhampton.
Jones, F., Chemical laboratory, Grammar School, Man-
chester.
Jones, H. Chapman, Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, Loudon, S.W.
Jones, John Arthur, Gi.ion, Spain.
Jones, T. Tolley, 186, I lollins Street, Melbourne, Victoria.
Jones, Wm.. 61, Chadwick Road, Peckham, S.E.
Jones, W. Norris, Runcorn Soap and Alkali Co., Weston,
near Runcorn,
Joslin, Omar, c o Messrs. Swift & Co.,
Chicago, 111., C S.A.
.Toilet, Cavalier II., Kosello. Union Cj.
Journand, Louis, chez M. J. A. Deiss,
Rhone, France.
Jowett, W., Lower Hall, Mellor. near Stockport.
Joy, Douglas G., c/o Win. Joy & Sons, Hull.
Joynson, F., Doncaster Road, Barnsley, Yorks.
J ulien. Alfred, Campagne des Lions, Chemin de Morgion.
Mazargues, Marseilles, France.
Justice, P. M., 14, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane
London, W.C
K
Kalle, Dr. Win., Biebrich-am-Rhcin, Germany.
Kater, R. McCulloch, Nobel's Explosives Co., Stevenston,
Ayrshire, N.B.
Kathreiner, Franz, Worms a/Rhein, Germany.
Kaufmann, Dr. Herbert M., 1325, Franklin Street, Phila-
delphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Kawakita, Michitada, Imperial College of Engineering,
Tokyo, Japan.
Kay, II. A., 71, Maida Vale, London, N.W.
Kay, Percy, Lilymount, Heaton Read, Manuingham,
Bradford, Yorks.
Kay, W. E., Gowanhank, Busby, near Glasgow.
Kearns. H. W.. Baxcnden. near Accrington.
Keen, Austin, Technical School, Huddersficld.
Reiser, E. II.. Bryn Mawr College. Bryn Mawr, Pa.. US \.
Kcllner, Dr. Wm., 13, Clarendon Villas, Old Charlton, S.E.
Kemp, I). S., 52, Coverdale Load. Shepherd's Bush, W.
Kemp, W. J., Fern Cottage, East Croydon.
Keirpson, John I«\. Dye Bridge Chemical Works, near
Alfreton, Derbyshire.
Kennedy, William. 28, Royal Exchange Square, Glasgow.
Kenrick, Prof. Edgar B., St. John's College, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada.
Kent, Wm. J., P.O. Box 1812, Johannesburg, South African
Republic.
Kenvou, Thos., The Shrubbery, Hilton Park, Prestwich,
near Manchester.
Ker, Alan I)., Millburn Chemical Works, Garngad Hill,
Glasgow.
Kerr. Saml. T., c'o Alex. Kerr Bros. & Co., Philadelohia,
Pa.. U.S.A.
Kerry, W. H, Laboratory, 14, Castle Street, Liverpool.
Kershaw, J., Grease, Varnish, and Cement Works, Ilollin-
wood, near Oldham.
Kershaw, J. B. ('., University Hall, Gordon Square,
W.C.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. so, 1892
Keys, Jno. G., 9, High Street, West Bromwich.
Keys, W. II.. Hall End Chemical Works, West Bromwich.
Kilpatrick, W. S., 4, Annfield Place, Glasgow.
Kinch, E., Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
King, A. J., Ingersley Vale Bleachworks, Bollington,
Macclesfield.
King, ( I. M., 21 , Godliman Street, London, E.( !.
King, < !. M., Campsie Alum Works. Leunoxtown, X.li.
King, sir James, Bart., 12, Claremont Terrace, Glasgow.
King, Jas. 1'... The Know Mill Printing Co., Ld., Entwistle,
near Bolton.
King, J. Falconer, Russell Place, Edinburgh, N.B.
Kin;:. J. T., Clayton Square, Liverpool.
King, Roht., 115, Wellington Street, Glasgow.
King, Walter, 23, St. John's Road, Southend-on-Sea.
Kingdon, J. C., 1, Mycenae Road, Westcombe Park', S.E.
Kingsford.T. 1'., Oswego, New York, U.S.A.
Kingzett, C. T., Trcvena, Anihurst Park, London, N.
Kinnicutt, Prof. L. P., Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Worcester, Mass., U.S.A.
Kip]), F. W., 1, New London Street, London, E.C.
Kipping, Dr. E. Stanley, Central Institution, Exhibition
Road, London, S.W. j and (Journals) 7, Milborne
Grove, South Kensington, S.W.
Kirkham, Thos., 22, Leinster Gardens, Runcorn, Cheshire.
Kirkman, 11., Landore Alkali Works, Swansea.
Kirkpatrick, A. J., 179, West George Street, Glasgow.
Kitaraura, Y. (Journals), c o R. Fujihanaya, Yokoyamacho
Sanchome, '1 ikyo, Japan.
Kitchen, Theo. (Journals), 28, Flinders Lane North, Mel-
bourne, Australia; and (subs.) Messrs. j. Connell &
Co.. Dunster House, E.C.
Kitson, sir James, Hart., Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
Kitto, I!., 2C. Lancaster Road, Finsbury Park, London. X.
Kleemann, Dr. S., 3. Westmoreland Terrace, Botanic Road.
Liverpool.
KHpstein, A., 52, Cedar Street, New York, U.S.A. (P.O.
Box 2833).
Knaggs, Alfred B., Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Knight, A. II.. 34, Beutley load. Prince's Park, Liverpool
Knight, Henry, 33, Faradaj Street. Breck Road, Liverpool.
Knight, J. B., Silvertown Soapworks, Silvertown, London. E.
Knight, J. J., G, Elizabeth Terrace, Appleton, Widnes.
Knights, .1. West, County Laboratory, 1, Sidney Street,
Cambridge.
Knipler, P.. o/o R. Harper and Co., 352, Flinders Lane,
Melbourne, Victoria.
Knoertzer, Henri, " I.e Nickel," 13, Rue Lafayette, Paris.
Knowles, Joshua, Stormer Hill, Tottington, near Bury.
Knox.E. W., Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Sydney, N.S.W. ;
and co F. l'arbury & Co., 7, East India Avenue,
Leadenliall Street, London, E.C.
Koecblin, Horace, Loerrach, Baden, Germany.
Kolin, Dr. Chas. A., University College, Brownlow Street,
Liverpool.
Kolb, .1., Soe. Anon, des Mamtf.de Produits Chimiques,
Lille, France.
Koningh, L. tie, 325, Kenningtnn Road, S.E.
Kortright, F. L.. 1609, West i lenesee Street, Syracuse, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
Kraftmeier, E., .'..">, Charing ( 'ross, London, S.W
Krause, Dr. G., " t Ihemiker-Zeitung," < lothcn, Germany.
Krause, O. II., Box .".7 7. Jersey City, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Krcesel, Edw., 41, Park Avenue, Wood Green, N.
Krolni, E. W. T., 13. Relsize Square, South Hampstead,
N W.
Kulil. W. II.. 73, Jagerstrasse, Berlin, Germany.
Kunheim, Dr. Hugo, 32, Doratheenstrasse, Berlin.
Kupt'erberg, Dr. II., 303, Collyhnrst Road, Manchester.
Kynaston, .1. W., Kensington, Liverpool.
Lacey, I'. C, 126a, Bermondsej Street. London, S.E.
Lacey, P. S., Gas Light and Coke Company, Lupus Street.
Pimlico, S.W.
I. igerwall, Dr. [var, Ku.lli i-ratten. Stockholm, Sweden.
Laidler, C. P., 26, Noble Terrace, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Laidler, T. S., Newcastle < 'hemieal Works, Gateshead.
Laing, Jno., 30, Grange Road, Edinburgh.
Lake, D. E., 36, .Mark Base, London, E.C.
Lake, G., jun.. 6, Turn Lee Road, Glossop, Derbyshire.
Lamond, II. I!., Levenshulme Printworks, Manchester.
Lampray, R. IT.. 24, Burghlev Road, Highgate Road,
London, N.W.
Lander, Albert II., 164, Edmund Street, Birmingham.
Lang, .las. (1.. a, Yiewrield Terrace, Hillbead. Glasgow.
Langbeek, 11. W., The Park, Loughton, Essex.
Langdon, M. J., Sunbury, Victoria Park, Mauehester.
Lange, Dr. .Martin, Amersfoort, Holland.
Langenbeck, Karl, c o The A. E. Tiling Co., Zanesville,
ohio, r.s.A.
Larios, P., c/o Messrs. R. Marsden & Co., 47, Spring Gar-
dens, Mauehester.
Larkin, T., St. Bede Chemical Work-. South Shield-..
Lamed, J. X., Young Men's Library, Buffalo, N.Y., US. A.
Lascelles, Jno. II., 2 — 3, Cree Church Lane, Leadenliall
Street, London, E.C.
Laseelles-Seott, W., Chemical and Physical Laboratories,
Forest (late. Essex.
Latham, Baldwin, 7, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street,
London, S.W.
Latham, J. J., 157, Albeit Road, Appleton, Widnes.
Laurie, A. P., King's College, Cambridge.
Law, A. E.. Donald's Chlorine Co., Ld., Kilwinning, N.B.
Lawrance, II. A., 28, Grosvenor Road, Gunnersbury.
Lawrence, Jas., Repauuo Chemical Co., Paulsboro', N.J.,
U.S.A.
Laws, J. 1'., 32, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C.
Lawson, Arthur J., Marsh Soapworks, Bristol.
Lawson, Dr. Thos. A., 15, Alexandra Road, London, N.W.
Lay cock, Dr. Win. F., Guneotton Works, Stow market,
Suffolk.
Lazarus, M. J. .See Langdon, M. J.
Leaeh, Walter, 27, St. Andrew s Place, Bradford, Yorks.
Leathart, J., Lead Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Leather. Dr. J. W., The Harris Institute, Preston.
Lee, C. Tennant,35, Hartford Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Lee, .1. E., Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Lee, S. Wright, 6-10, Whitechapel, Liverpool.
Lee, Theophilus H., Edgecumbe Villa, Clevedou, Somerst.
Leech, F. S.. 32, Pleiu Street. Cape Town, S. Africa.
Leeds, Dr. Albert R.. Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, N.J., U.S.A.
Leeds, F. II., 29, Bouverie Road. Stoke Newington, N.
Leemiug, T. H., Bttrneston House, Barking Road, Plaistow,
London, E.
Lees, Asa, 76, Duncombe Road, Upper Holloway, N.
Lees, S., jun., Park Bridge, Ashton- under Lyne.
Leese, Joseph, Ettrick Bank, Birkdale, Southport.
Leete, Jos., 19 — 25, Bermondsey Street, S.E.
Leffmann, Dr. H., 715, Walnut Street (Third floor front)
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Leigh, Cecil, Adderley Park Rolling Mills, Birmingham.
Lennard, 1'.. 165, Fenehureh Street, London, E.C.
Lennox, Robt. N., Royal Institution, Albemarle Street,
London. W.
Lenox, Lionel R., Chemical Laboratory, U.S. Navy Yard,
Washington. D.C., U.S.A.
Leonard, Win. . I., Hope Chemical Works, Hackney Wick,
E.
Leon, J. T., 38, Portland Place. London, W.
Lequin, E., 9, Rue Ste. Cecile, Paris.
Lever, Jas. D., Port Sunlight, near Birkenhead.
Lever, Win. 11.. Thornton House. Thornton Ilaugh,
t Iheshire.
Leverkus, Otto. 1 and 3. Leamington Place, Princess Street,
Mauehester.
Levinstein, Ivan. 21, Minshull Street, Manchester.
Lewes, Prof. Vivian 11., Royal Naval College. Greenwich,
S.E.
Lewinton, B., 14, Cleveland Street, Fitzroy Square, Lon-
don. S.W.
Lewis, A. E., 94, Tritonvillc Road, Sandy mount, Dublin.
Lewis, G. T., 4th and Walnut Streets, Philadelphia, Pa,,
U.S.A.
Jan. 80.1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Lewis, .1. II., Oakleigh, Stanwell Road, Penarth, Cardiff.
I.ewkowitsch, Dr. Julius. Whitehall Soapworks, Leeds.
Lichtenstein, Theodore, Chemical Works, Silvertownj Lon-
don, E.
Liddle, W. T., Carr Bank, Walmersley, Bury.
Liebraann, Dr. A., 10, Marsden Street, Manchester.
Liepmann, Dr. H.
Lightfoot, T. E., Ss, Ardeu Terrace, Accrington,
Lilly, Oliver M., The Crnft, Spondon, Derby.
Limpacb, Di. L., 20, St. Mary's Road, Orumpsall, Man.
Chester,
Lindemann, G., St. Pauli, Langereihe 48, II., rechts,
Hamburg.
Lindlcy, Hubert E.. 13, St. Bartholomew Road, Camden
Road, London, N.
Lindley, L., Sherwood Street, Nottingham.
Lineff, A. L., West Metropolitan Tram Depot, High Road,
Chiswick, W.
Ling, Arthur R . Brooklands, Thames Ditton, Surrey.
I.islimaii, W. W. L., 36, Washington Street, Girlington,
Bradford, Yorks.
Lister, Simeon, 70, High Street, Great Horton, Bradford,
Yorks.
Little, Win. G., Blendon Grove, Rexley, Kent.
Littlejohn, .1.. c o Africau Banking Corporation, Johannes-
burg, S.A.R.
Liversedge, A. J., c/o Mirrlees, Watson, and Yaryan Co.,
Ld., 45, Scotland Street, Glasgow.
Liversidge, Prof. A., The University. Sydney, New South
Wales; and c/o Trubner & Co., 57, Ludgate Dill,
London (for Journals).
Livesey, Frank, South Metropolitan Gas Co., 709a, Old
Kent Road, London, S. F.
Livingston, W. J., London County Council, Spring Gardens,
London, S.W.
Lloyd, Fred. J., Agricultural Laboratory, 4, Lombard Court,
London, E.C.
Lodge, A. S., Newchurch, near Manchester.
Lodae, Edw., 27, Cowclitfe Hill, Hiiddersfield.
Ldeffler, Geo. f )., 153, Pearl Street, Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A.
Loewenthal, Ilr. R., 239, Moss Lane Fast, Manchester.
Lomas, 'I'., Cleveland, Minehead, Taunton, II. SO.
Lombard, Emile, 32, Rue Grignan, Marseilles, France.
Longsbaw, Jas., Willow Bank, Longsight, near Manchester.
Lord, F. J., 150, Yorkshire Street, Rochdale.
Lorenz, H., 7 and 8, Idol Lane, London, E.C.
l.orimcr, J., Britannia Row, Islington, N.
Lorrain, J. G., Norfolk House, Norfolk Street, Strand,
London, W.C.
Losanitscb, Prof. S. M., Belgrade, Servia.
Lott, F. E., The Laboratory, Bridge Chambers, Burton-on-
Trent.
Louis, 1). A., 77, Shirland Gardens, London, W.
Love, Dr. F. G., School of Mines, Columbia College, 50th
Street, New York, U.S.A.
Luvett. W. Jesse, 75, Clarendon Road, Crumpsall,
Manchester.
Lovibond, J. W., 26, St. Ann's Street, Salisbury.
Lovibond, T. W., Tyne Brewery, Ncwcastle-on-Tyne.
Lovibond, V. L., The Hermitage, North End, Fulham
S.W.
Low. WiLon H., co N. K. Fairbank & Co;, 18th and
Blackwell Streets, Chicago, 111., U.S.A.
Lowe, C. W.. Sumniertield House, Reddish, near Stockport.
Lowe, Horace A., Halliwell Works, near Bblton-le-Moors.
Lowe, W. 1'"., Cambrian View, Chester.
Lovvman, Dr. Oscar, 185, Jefferson Avenue, Detroit, Mich.
U.S.A.
Lowson, J. G. F., Beltonford Paper Mill, Dunbar, N.B.
Lucas, R. J., Mainzerstrasse 8, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Luck, A., Powder Mills, Dartford, Kent.
Luck, F.. 08, Sumner Street. Southwark, S.E.
Luck. H. ('., 68, Sumner Street, Southwark. S.E.
Ludlow, Lionel, c 0 < 'ape ( 'opper Mining Co., ( r'okiep, Port
Xolloth, South Africa.
Lund, Jas., c/o Cochrane Chemical Co.. Potter Street, East
Cambridge; Mass., U.S.A.
Lundberg, Alt'., Stroms liruk, Hudiksvall, Sweden.
Lundhohn, Carl O., Ardeer Factory, Stevenston, Ayrshire.
Lunge, Dr. G., Englisches Viertcl, Hottingen, Zurich,
Switzerland.
Lunn, C, Slantgate, Kirkburton, near Huddersfield.
I, upton, Sydney, drove Cottage, Koundhay, Leeds.
Luthv, Edmund O., c/o Mellwood Distillery Co., Louisville,
ky.. U.S.A.
Liithv, Otto, c/o American Alumina Co., Barbcrton, Ohio,
U.S.A.
Lye, W. T.. The Firs, Luton, Beds.
Lylc, James, Plaistow Wharf, North Woolwich Road,
London, E.
Lylc, Jno., 21, Mincing Lane, London, E.C.
Lyon, -I. G, The Aire Tar Works, Knottingley, Yorks.
Lytc, F. Maxwell, 60, Finborough Road, Redcliffe Square,
London, S.W.
Lytic, A. M., North of Ireland Chemical Co., Belfast.
M
Mabery, Prof. Chas, F.. Case School of Applied Science,
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Macadam, C. T., 116, Fenchurch Street, Loudon, E.C.
Macadam, Herbert F., The Lake, Snaresbrook, Essex.
Macadam, Dr. Stevenson. Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh.
Macadam, Prof. W. Ivison, Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh.
McAlister. R., Lawes' Chemical Manure Co., Limited,
Barking Creek, Essex.
Macallan, J., 2, Marino Terrace, Malahide Road, Clontarf
Dublin.
McAllum, C. D., 7, Dean Street, Newcastle -on -Tyne.
Macalpine, G. W., Parkside, Accrington.
McArthur, Jno., 3, Nicosia Road, Wandsworth Common
S.W.
McArthur, J. B., Price's Patent Candle Co., Limited, Broiu-
borough Pool, near Birkenhead.
Macarthur, J. G., 98, Bobbie's Loan, Glasgow.
McArthur, J. S., Caasel Gold Extracting Co., Limited,
13, West Scotland Street, Kinning Park, Glasgow.
McBeath, J. W.. 38, Exeter Street, West Hartlepool, Durham.
McCallum, J. M., South Park, Paisley, N.B.
McCalmau, D., Waterside, Irvine, N.B.
McCowan, W., The Brewery, Heading, Berks.
McCubbin, Wm. A., Mill Bank, West Derby, Liverpool.
McCulloch, J., Oakleigh, Rose Street, Garnet Hill, Glasgow.
McCulloch, Norman, 7, Melrose Street, Glasgow.
McDaniel, J. J., Bandon, Ireland.
Maedonald, A., 16, Cochrane Street, Glasgow.
Macdonald, J. W., c/o Messrs. H. Tate & Sous, Love Lane,
Liverpool.
McDonald, Percv G, Stanley Villa, Stanmire, New South
Wales.
McDonald, 'P.M., Walilabo Estate, St. Vincent, West Indies.
MeDougall, Arthur, Fallowfield House, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
MeDougall, J. T., Duuolly, Morden Road, Blackheath, S.F.
MacEwan, Peter, 4. Gresley Road, Hornsey Lane, N.
(Journals) ; and 42, Cannon Street, F.( I.
McFwen, Atholl F., 43, Gilmore Road, Lewisham, S.F;.
MeEwen, Jas., Ruthven House, Bonden Lane, Marple,
( Iheshire.
Macf arlane, J. A. (Journals), Santa Rosalia, Baja California.
Mexico (via New York, Nogales and Guaymas) ; and
(subs.) 3, Carlyle Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Macfarlanc, R. F., Rio Tiuto Co., Ld., Cwm Avon, Port
Talbot.
Macfarlanc, Thos., Inland Revenue Dept., Ottawa, Canada.
McFarlane, Walter, Crosslee House, Thornliebank, near
Glasgow.
McFarlane. W. W.. 613, East 14th Street, Chester, Pa
U.S.A.
McGeorge, A. J. (subs.), 78, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool;
and (Journals) 69, West 88th Street, New York City,
U.S.A.
McGlashan, John, Woodneuk, Gartcosh, near Glasgow.
McGowan, John, Ash House, Talke, near Stoke-upon-
Trent.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 3n, 1892.
McGill, Dr. J. T.; Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.,
I S.A.
Macludoe, G. D., Hall's House, North Woolwich Road,
Victoria Docks, E.
Macintosh, C. J.. J4, Leadenhall Street. London, E.C.
Madvor.Ralph W. E., 85, Gracechurch Street, London, E.C.
MacKean, Wu, Incandescent Gas Light Co., Ld., 14,
Palmer Street, Westminster. S.W.
McKechnie, D., Eccleston Grange, Prescot, Lancashire.
McEechnie, 1) M., The Hollies, Eccleston Park, Prescot,
Lancashire.
McKellar, W. G., Eglinton Chemical Works, Irvine, N.B.
McKenny, C, Railway Cottage, Dublin Road, Drogheda,
Ireland.
Mackenzie, Dr. G. S.. Sydney Smelting Works, Pyrmont,
Sydney. X.S.W.
Mackenzie, .ras., -.'4, Shuttle Street, Glasgow.
Mackenzie, Jas. Scott, 132, Tritonville Road, Sandymount,
Dublin.
Mackenzie, T. E., 10 Willowbank Crescent, Glasgow.
Mackenzie, Dr. W. Cossar, Durham College of Science,
Newvastlc-on-Tyne.
Mackey, J. A.. 1 and 2, Bouverie Street. London, E.C.
Mackey, W. Mel).. Victoria Chambers. Leeds.
McKillop, Juo., Puloh Brani Smelting Works, Singapore.
McKinlay, R. W., Ameliaville, Aytoun Road, Pollokshields,
N.B.
Maekinnon, A. K , 108, Oxford Gardens, London, W.
Maclagan, R.C., ."), L'oates Crescent, Edinburgh.
MacLean, Alex. S., c o Alex. Scott & Sons, Berry Yards,
Greenock, N.B.
McLellan, Duncan. Anuock Bank, Helensburgh, X.B.
McLelian. J. Y., Cullochfaulds Chemical Works, Craig
Street, Glasgow.
McLeod, II., Cooper's Hill. Staines.
McMillan, T. O., 28, Maxwell Road. Pollokshields, Glasgow.
McMillan, W. G.. Chemical Department, Shell Factory,
Cossipore, Calcutta, India.
McMurtrie, .1. M., 9'J, Portugal Street, Glasgow.
Macnah, C, Lillyhurn, Milton of Campsie, X.B.
Macnab, W.,jun.. 14, Great Smith Street, Westminster, S.W.
Macnair, D. S . People's Palace Technical Schools. Mile
End, E.
McNeight, W. J., Eartwell, Palmerston Park, Dublin.
Maconochie, J. R.. Saracen's Head Buildings, Snow Hill, E.C.
Macreath, ]).. Kwalla Lumpor, Selangor, Straits Settle-
ments.
McRoberts, G., Todhill, Newton-Mearns, Renfrewshire, X.I!.
MacSwiney, Eugene, 13, North Main Street. Cork. Ireland.
Mactear, J., 2, Victoria Mansions, Westminster, S.W.
Mahon, R. W., 1221, East Preston Street. Baltimore, Md„
us. a.
Maiden, J. H., Technological Museum. Sydney, New South
Wales; Journals to e o Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill,
London, E.C.
Major, .1. C. The Bhylls, Compton, Wolverhampton.
Major, L., Seulcoates, Hull.
Makin, .lames, Wallhead Mills. Rochdale.
Makins, G. II., DanesGeld, Cpper Latimore Road, St.
Albans.
Malcolm, S., Jarrow Chemical Works, South Shields.
Malcolmson, A. S . 172, Pearl Street, New York, U.S.A.
Mallalieu, Thos. C, Albert Villas, Levenshulme, Man-
chester.
Mallinckrodt, Edw., Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, St.
Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
Mander. S. T\, 17, Gracechurch Street, London, E.C; and
(Journals) Varnish Works, Wolverhampton.
Manhes, 1'.. ::. line Sala, Lyons, France.
Mann. John C, 19, New City Road, Plaistow, E.
Manning, 1-'. A., IS, Billiter Street. London. E.C.
Manuitigton, 11. T.. Pentre, near Flint, North Wales.
Margctson, J. Chas., Avonside, Melksham, Wilts.
Margetts, W. G., Wouldham, Rochester, Rent.
Market, Dr. K., Lodge Lane, Warrington.
Marknan, A. D., 71. Queen Street, Hull.
Marks, E. G., c/o W. S. Brown .V Co., Bank Street and
North River, New York, U.S.A.
Marley. J. E., IIcbburii-on-Tyne.
Marriott, Wm., 88, Halifax Old Road. Huddersfield.
Marsh, W., Union Alkali Co., Soho Works, Manchester.
Marsh, J. T., British Alkali Works, Widnes.
Marsh, T. S., Xetham Chemical Co., Bristol.
Marsh, Walter, 8;',. York Terrace, Xortham, Southampton.
Marshall, Dr. Hugh, Chemistry Department, The University,
Edinburgh.
Marshall, John, Messrs. Marshall, Son, & Co., Cudbear
Street. Hunslet, Leeds.
Marshall, Dr. T. R., University College. Cardiff.
Marshall, Wm., 34, Chatham Street, Edgeley, Stockport.
Marshall, Wm. (Journals), c o D. G. Rose, Samarang, Java ;
and (subs.i c/o 1). 1!. (alder Marshall, 49, Queen
Street, Edinburgh.
Martin, ('has. D., 106, Addison Road, Heaton, Newcastlc-
on-Tvnc.
Martin, II., Poole, near Wellington. Somerset.
Martin, X. II.. 29, Mosley Street, Newoastle-on-Tyne.
Martin, W. II., 183b, Kius's Road, Chelsea, London,
S.W.
Martiueaii. Sydney, South Road, Clapham Park, S.W.
Martino, F. W., 4, Taptonville, Broomhill, Sheffield.
Martins, Dr. C. A., 28, Vosse Strasse, Berlin, Germany.
Martyn, S. E., Trevemper Bridge, Xew Quay, Cornwall.
Martyn, W.. e 0 Messrs. Tennant, Hebburn-on-Tyne.
Mason, J.. Eynsham Hall, Witney, Oxon ; and 1, Chester
field Gardens, Mayfair, W.
Mason. J. Francis, Eynsham Hall, Witney, Oxon.
Mason, W. B., 117, Derby Street, Bolton-le-Moors.
Mason, A. II.. 4G, Jewin Street. London, E.C.
Masson. G. H., Government Laboratory, Port of Spain,
Trinidad.
Masson, Prof. D. Orme, University of Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia.
Master, Ardesheer B.. 679, Tardeo, Bombay, India.
Mather, J., Blavdon Chemical Works, Blaydou-on-Tyne.
Matheson, W. J., 178, Front Street, Xew York, U.S.A.
Matos, Louis J., 3943, Fairmount Avenue, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A.
Matthews. C. G., Laboratory, Bridge Chambers, Burton-on-
Trent.
Matthews, Prof. W. E., School of Mines. Stawell, Victoria.
Mawdsley, 1'. A.. 8, Eaton Road, Chester.
Mawdsley, W. 1L, s, Eaton Road, Chester.
Maxwell, Thos., 49, Harvie Street, Bridgeton, Glasgow
(Journals) ; and Mossknowe, Braeside Avenue, Ruther-
glen.
May. J., Hyde House, Old Battersea, S.W.
Mayenfcld, Dr. E. von Salis. See under " Salis."
Mayer, Nelson B., I'hland Strasse 14, Tubingen, Germany.
Mayhew, E. W. A.. High Street, Freemantlc, Western
Australia.
Mead, Frank, Sutton Gasworks. Surrey.
Meggitt. 11. A.. Chemical Works, Mansfield, X'otts.
Meikle, Jno., 4. Woodlands Road, Glasgow.
Meldola, Prof. R„ 6. Brunswick Square, London, W.C.
Meldrum, Jas. Jones. Atlantic Works, City Road, Man-
chester.
Mellen, Edwin 1)., c/o Curtis, Davis, ,N Co., 184, Broadway.
Camhridgeport, Mass., U.S.A.
Melliss, J. (':., 232, Gresham House, Old Broad Street,
London. E.C.
Mellon, W. W., Howdendyke, Howdcn, Yorks.
Mellor, S.. Magnesium Metal Co., Patricroft, Manchester.
Melville, 1)., P.O. Box No. 1, Woodmere, Wayne Co., Mich.,
I'. S.A.
Mendeleeff, Prof. D. Cadel Line 9, Vassilieff Island,
St. Petersburg.
Menzies, R. C, Inveresk Mills, Musselburgh. X.B.
Mercer, J. B., 322, Lower Broughton Road, Manchester,
Mercer, F. M.. 89, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.
Mercer, Thos., The Brewery, Edenfield, near Bury, Lanca-
shire.
Merck, E., Darmstadt, Germany.
Merrell, Geo., Lock Box 786, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
Merrick, Geo. E., Merrick Thread Co., Hplvoke, Mass.,
U.S.A.
Merry, Jas. S., 1, Somerset Place, Swansea.
Messel, Dr, R., Silvertown, Loudon, E.
Jan. 30, 1882.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Metcalf, .J no., Moorfield, Altham, near Accrington.
MetcaIf,Wm., Aspin House, * Iswaldtwistle, near Accrington.
Mewburn, .1. ('.. 55 and 56 Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
Meyer, Max E., 8, Duchess Street, Portland Place, W.
Mcynier, J. A.. 19, Hue Baudin, Paris.
Middleton, .1., 179, West George Street, Glasgow.
Milestone, \\ . C, Garrett Lane, Wandsworth, S.W.
Miller, Dr. A. K.. Ardwick Brewery, Manchester.
Miller, A. Russell, The Cairns. Cainbuslang, near Glasgow.
Miller, E. V., c/o New Zealand Sugar Co., Auckland, New
Zealand.
Miller, Geo., c/o Widnes Alkali Co., Ld., Widnes.
Miller, Dr. II. von, Chemische Fabrik, Hruschau, Austria.
Miller, Jno., Messrs. las. Black & Co., 23, Exchange Square,
Glasgow,
Miller, J. Hopkins, 23, McAslin Street, Glasgow.
Miller, Jno. Poynter, Sandilands Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
Miller, Dr. N. H. J., Harpenden, near St. Albans.
Miller, Robt., c/o J. Carlile Miller, 9, Acoinb Street,
Greenheys, Manchester.
Miller, T. Paterson, The Cairns, Cainbuslang, near Glasgow.
Miller. W. M-, Pin. Uitvlugt, Demerara, West Indies.
Mills, Prof. E. .1., 60, John Street, Glasgow.
Milne, ( ,. A., YVelham Villa, Norton, Malton, Yorks.
Milne, Dr. .1. M., Hoy. Infirm. Medical School, 86, Castle
Street, Glasgow.
Milner, E., Hartford Manor, Northwich.
Milnes, Edmund, Seedfield, Bury, Lancashire.
Miniati, T,, Kenwood, Broom Lane, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Mitchell, .1. W., Wood Leigh, Clough Fold, near Man-
chester.
Mining, E. K., 423, Superior Street, Chicago, 111., IT.S.
Moffatt-Johnston, J., The Birches, Midcalder, N.B.
Mohr, Dr. B., 69a. Parliament Hill, Hampstead, N.W.
Molesworth, F. II., Eton Street, Malvern, Adelaide, South
Australia.
Molineux, John, C.B., Sclsley House, Albert Road, Battersea,
S.W.
Molineux, Roland, c/o C. T. Rayuolds &. Co., 106, Fulton
Street, New York, U.S A.
Mond, Alf. M., 20, Avenue Road, Regent's Park, N.W.
Mond, L., 20. Avenue Road, Regent's Park, London, N.W. ;
and 61, Via Sistina, Rome.
M 1, Robt. L., 20, A\enue Road, Regent's Park, N.W.
Moodie.W. E., Croftingea Works, Alexandria, N.B.
Mook, Chas., Douglashall, Westeregeln, Magdeburg, Ger-
many.
Moonev. M., Chemical Works, 74, Rogerson's Quay,
Dublin.
Moore, B. T., Longwood, Bexlev, Kent.
Moore, Chas. C, 125, Chester Road, Hartford, Cheshire.
Moore, Dr. G. E„ 221, Pearl Street, New York, U.S.A.
Moore, R. T., 156, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Moore, Thos., " Le Nickel," Ourone, Thio, New Caledonia.
Moore, Wm. F., Lonsdale, Temple Road, Upper Rathmines,
Dublin.
Moorhouse, J. B., Cecil Mount, Hortou Park, Bradford.
Mordle, F. Dare, Fishpond Drive, The Park, Nottingham.
Morgan, Arthur F., Lindtim House, Scunthorpe, via
Doncaster.
Morgan, J no. .las. .Milton Lodge, Brecon Road, Abergavenny.
Morgan, Dr. Wm., Public Analyst's Laboratory, Nelson
Terrace, Swansea.
Morgans, Thos., The Guildhall, Bristol.
Mori'tz, Dr. E. R., 72, Chancery Lane, London. W.C.
Morley, Dr. II. Forster, 29, Kylemore Road, \\ est Hamp-
stead, N.W.
Morriee, Jas. A., 1, Athole Gardens Place, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.
Morris, Dr. G. Harris, Avondale, Alexandra Road, Iiurton-
on-Trent.
Morris, Herbert E., Fernlea, Priory Road, Sale, Cheshire.
Morris, Herbert N., Littoudale, Maniey Road, Manchester.
Morris, .1. H., 63 and 65, Bk.ndeH Street, Liverpool.
Morris, R., Doncaster.
Morrison, Geo. R., Richmond House, Plaistow, Essex.
Morrison, J., St. Peter's Chemical Works, Newcastle-on»
Tyne.
Morson.T., 121, Southampton Row, Russell Square, London,
Morson, T. P., S3, Southampton Row, Russell Square,
London, W.C.
Morton. Jas., Dalquhurn Works, Renton, N.I!.
Mosenthal, Chas. de, 3 bis, Rue Labruyere, Paris.
Mosenthal, Henry de, 220, Winchester House, Old Broad
Street, London, E.C.
Moss, J., Clovellv, Xorhurv, S.W. ; and Wilson Street,
New Cross Road, Loudon, S.E.
Moul, Frank, Aldersgate Chemical Works, Soutball.
Moult, J., 3, Gladstone Terrace, Gatcshead-on-Tyne.
Moulton, G. L, Soko Mills, Macclesfield.
Muir, J. P., 233, Camden Road, Loudon, N.W.
Muir, Jas. Stanley, Chemical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow; (Journals) to 27, Huntley Gardens, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.
Mfiller, Geo., c/o Curry Hotel, Ironwood, Mich., U.S.A.
Miiller, Dr. H., 13, Park Square F^ast, Regent's Park,
Loudon, N.W.
Mnmford, A., 9, Westwell Street, Plymouth, Devon.
Munro, Dr J. M. II.. Churchfields, Salisbury.
Monroe, Chas. E., Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode Island,
U.S.A.
Muras, T. H., H.M. Patent Office, Southampton Buildings,
London, W.C.
Murdoch, H. R. M., 4, Nobel's Villas, Stevenston, Ayrshire.
Muspratt, E. K., Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
Muspratt, S. K., 24, Grove Park, Liverpool.
Muter, Dr. J., Winchester House, Kennington Road,
London, S.E.
Myall, A. A., 21, Cockspur Street, London, S.W.
Myers, Wm. S., 7, Museum Mansion, Great Russell Street,
Loudon, W.C.
N
Naef, Dr. P., 4. Dyer Terrace. Winnington, Northwich.
Nahnsen, Dr. R., 95, Alice, Altona, near Hamburg.
Nakamura, Teikichi, c/o Y. Fukuzawa, Mita-Nichome,
Tokyo, Japan.
Napier, .1,1, St. Matthew's Place, Norwich Roan, Ipswich.
Napier, Jas., 15, Princes Square, Strathbungo, Glasgow.
Nason, Prof. H. B., Troy, New York, U.S.A.
Naylor, W. A. H , 38, Southwark Street, Loudon, S.E.
Neil, Jas. M. (Journals), c/o Seiior M. A. Herrera, Pavta,
Peru; and (subs.) e/o C'ollyer, Thirkell, & Bell, 141,
Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Neil, W., 126, Turner's Road, Burdett Road, London,
E.
Neill, Geo. D., 26, Forsyth Street, Greenock, N.B.
Neilson, James, 107, High John Street, Glasgow.
Neilson, Thos., Distington Hematite Iron Co., Ld., near
Whitehaven, Cumberland.
Neilson, Win., 7, Trinity Terrace, Hermit Road, Canning
Town. E.
Ness, T., Black Banks Chemical Works, Darlington.
Newall, F. S., Washington, co. Durham.
Newbury, Prof. Spencer B., Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
Newlands, B. E. R., 27, Mincing Lane, London, E.C.
Newlands, W. P. R., Rosa, N.W.P., India.
Newman, G. J., jun., Laurel Bank, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
Newsholme, G. T. W., 74, Market Place, Sheffield.
Newton, A. II., Belsize Court, Hampstead, N.W.
Newton, A. II., jun., 4, Croftdown Road, Ilighgate Road,
N.W.
Newton, Harry, 1, Glegg Street, Macclesfield.
Newton, II. C, 5, Massing ton Road, Hampstead, N.W.
Newton, Jno., Park Green, Macclesfield.
Newton, Jno., Manor Works, Rotherhithe New Road,
London, S.E.
Nichols, Chas. P., 70, Kilbv Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Nichols, J. A., Hurstfield, New Mills, near Stockport.
Nichols, W. H., 45—47, Cellar Street, New York, U.S.A.
Nicholson, J. C, Chemical Works. Hunslet, Leeds.
XV111
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
Nickolls, John ]>., The Laboratory, Grange, Guernsey.
Nicol, W. W. J., Mason College, Birmingham.
Nieman, II. S., P.O. Box 35, Albany, N.Y., U.S.A.
Nimmo, J., Penshurst, Stanger Road, South Norwood,
S.E.
Nishigawa, J'.. Go Bancho, 14. Kojinmchi, Tokyo, Japan.
Nolting, I)r. E., Ecole de Chimie, Mulhouse, Alsace, Ger-
many.
Norman, F. J., Lyndhurst, Higher Runcorn, Cheshire.
North, E. Gordon N., Bella Vista 14, Minas de Rio Tinto,
lluelva, Spain.
Northing, J., 'Jfi, TritonvilJe Road, Sandymoant, Dublin.
Norton, Prof. Lewis M., Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston. U.S.A.
Norton, Dr. S. A., 363, East Town Street, Columbus, Ohio,
U.S.A.
Norton, Dr. T. II., University of Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
O'Bcirne, W. G., 40, Gardner Street. Partick, Glasgow.
Oddie, Jas., School ofMines, Ballaarat, Australia (Journals');
and (Subscription) Mercantile Bank, 39, Lombard
Street. E.G.
Oddy, Robert W., 60, Waterhouse, Toad Lane, Rochdale.
Odling, Dr. W., 15, Norhaiu Gardens, Oxford ; and 38, Lad-
broke Grove Road, North Kensington, W.
< lehler, K., Offeubach-am-Main, Germany.
Ogata, Saburo, c/o T. Hirano, 11, Ginzi Shichome, Tokyo,
Japan.
Ogden, J. M., 49, West Sininiside, Sunderland.
On-ston, G. H., Junior Athenseum Club, Piccadilly, London ,
W.
Okubo, C, Bunsekika, Noshomusho, Tokyo, Japan.
Oldroyd, G. II., Messrs. M. Oldroyd and Sons, Limited,
Sprinkwell Mills, Dewsbury.
t iliver, F., 70, Winchester Street, South Shield;.
Oliver, Wm, Letts, 1110, 12th Street, Oakland, C'al., U.S.A.
Ollerensbaw, S., Sutton Alkali Works St. Helens.
O'Neill, C, 1 1, Carter Street. Greenh. vs. Mauchester.
O'Neill, E. II., Johnson's Saccharum Co., Limited, Strat-
ford, Loudon, E.
Orchard, John, 100, High Street. Kensington, W.
Orme, J., Co, Barbican, London, E.< 1.
Orndorff, Dr. Win. R., Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
Orr, A. (subs.), 19, Albion Crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow :
and (^Journals) c/o Mrs. Scott, Wallalong, Ilinton,
New South Wales.
Orr, J. B., Blantyre Lodge, Westcombe Park, London
S.E.
Orr, Robert, 79, West Nile Street, Glasgow; and Falkirk,
N 11.
Orsman, W. J., Roburite Explosives Co., Outburst, near
W'igatl.
Osborne, Jas., c/o Rio Tinto Co., Ld., 30, St. Swithin's
Lane, E.( .
Osgood, E. R., Cossipore Sugar Factory. Calcutta, India,
i Istersetzer, J., Balcarras House, Serpentine Avenue, Balls-
bridge, Dublin.
• Ostlere, Edward, Messrs. Barry, Ostlere, & Co., Kirkcaldy,
N.B.
O'Shea, L. T., Firth College, Sheffield.
o'Sullivan, ('., 140. High Street, Burton-on- Trent.
O'Sullivan, .1.. 71. Spring Terrace, Burton-on-Trent.
k, Baron Gustavus de, 23, Ryder Street, St.
.lames'. London. S.W.
Owen, Thos , Westbury-on-Trynn, Bristol.
i tweus, ( aradoe, S3, Great Clowes Street, Lower Broughton,
Manchester.
Oxland, Chas., Greystoke, Palace Park Load. Sydenham,
S.E.
Oxland, Robert, 32, Portland Square, Plymouth.
Packard, E., Jan., Braniford, near Ipswich.
Paddon, A. M., c/o The Gas Light and Coke Co., Beektou,
E.
Page, F. J. M., !I8, Alderney Street. London, S.W.
Pages, Albert, 34, Boulevard Henri IV., Paris.
Paine, S.. 7. Exchange Street, Manchester.
Palmer, J. Chalkley, Box 19, Chester, Pa., U.S.A.
Palmer, Thos., 217, Temple Chambers, Temple Avenue,
London, E.C.
Palmer. Thos. C, 98, Commercial Road East, London. E.
Panario, Thos. ('., 18. Octavia Street, Battersea, S.W.
Panton, J. A., Cecil Lodge, Abbots Langley, Herts.
Park, J., c/o Stevenson, Carlile & Co., Milburn Chemical
Works, Garngad Hill, Glasgow.
Parker, Chas. E . Vine House, Penketh, Warrington.
Parker, Edw., Laburnum House, Rushford Park, Lcvens-
hulme, Manchester.
Parker, Thos., Newbridge, Wolverhampton.
Parkinson, J. Howarth, Stretford. Manchester.
Parkinson. Dr. P., Vewbanow House, Grange-over-Sands,
Lancashire.
Pascoe, Edward, Vitriol Works, Ballybough Bridge, Dublin.
Pass, A. C, The Holmes, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
Paterson, Alex., King William's Town, Cape Colony,
South Africa.
Paterson, Jas. II. R . 10, Millet-field Place, Edinburgh.
Paterson, John, Belle' Isle Place, Workington, Cumberland.
Paton. J. M. C, Messrs. Manlove, Alliott, Fryer & Co.,
Nottingham.
Paton, W. Grant, Greenbank Alkali Co., Limited, St. Helens,
Lancashire.
Pattberg, J. C. H., Valleyfield, Helensburgh, near Glasgow.
Patterson, G., c o The Manbre Saccharine Co., Ld., Ham
mersmith, W.
Patterson, T. L., Messrs. J. Walker & Co., sugar refiner;,
Greenock, N.B.
Pattinson, H. L., jun., 7, Windsor Crescent, Ncweastle-ou-
Tyne
Pattinson, J., 75, The Side, Xewcastle-on-Tyne.
Pattison, J., 83, North Oswald Street, Glasgow, N.B.
Pattisim, Percy J., II, Park Road, West Ham, E.
Paul, Fred. W., Ilallsiile Steelworks, Newton 1>\ Glasgow.
Paul, Jas. H., 123, Palace Road, Tulse Hill, S.W.
Pauli, Dr.. Hot-list, Germany.
Payne. J. I?., 1 .">. Mosley Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Peace, Frank K.. Mouton Grange, Eccles, Manchester.
Peacock. Sand., Kalion Chemical Co., Philadelphia, Pa.,
I S.A.
Peak, C. P., Bridgewater Chemical Works, Wigan.
Pcarce, W., Bow Common, London, E.; and Brent House,
Brentwood, Essex (for Journals).
Pears, Andrew, Lanadron Soapworks, Isleworth, Middlesex.
Pechiney, A. It., Salindres (Gard), France.
Pedler, A., Presidency College, Calcutta, India.
Pedler, J. R., Woodbjnk. Lordship Lane, Dulwich, S.E.
Pemberton, Henry, jun., 1047, Locust Street, Philadelphia,
Pa., I S.
Peniston, Alex. II., .'54. Disraeli Rnad, Upton, Es-ex.
Pcun, A. E., I, Ross Villas, Bassingham Road, Earlsfield,
S.W.
Peunoek, J. D., c/o Solvay Process Co., Syracuse, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
Pentecost, S. .!., Nottingham Road, New Basford, Notting-
ham.
Pentennann. II. T., 51. Clifton Crescent, Peckham, S.E,
1'erkin, Dr. W. 11.. The Chestnuts, Sudbury, Harrow.
Perkin, Dr. W. H., jun., lleriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
Perkin, A. G.. •"'•"., Victoria Crescent, Eceles, Manchester.
Perry. D.. Forth ami Clyde Chemical Works. Kirkintilloch,
N.B.
Pettigrew, J.. 18, St. Helen's Place, Bishopsgate Street,
London, E.C.
Pettigrew, Robt., 21, Titchbornc Street, Edgware Road, W.
Petty, A., Silvertown, London, E. j and (Journals) 33,
( lapton Common, P.
Jan. SO, 189S ]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY or CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
IV) ton, E. P., Chemical Works, Lister Street, Birmingham.
Philip, Arnold, 43, Onslow Road, Richmond, Surrey.
Phillips. A. G., IS, Fopstone Road, South Kensington,
S.W.
Phillips, George Briuton, 622, Race Street, Philadelphia,
Pa., I .S.A
Phillips, II., 183, Moss Lane East, Manchester.
Phipps, Thus.. 169, Bridge Street, Northampton.
Phipson, Dr. T. L., Laboratory, S, Hotham Villas, Putney,
London. S.YV.
Picard, Win., Stafford Villa, Norfolk Park, Sheffield.
Pick, Dr. S., Direction der Soda Fabrik, Szczakowa, Galizien,
Austria.
Pickles, II., Prnssiate Works, Droylsden, Manchester.
Pielsticker, Carl M., 43, Connaught Road, Harlesden,
N.W.
Pigot, Prof. Thos. !•'., Royal Coll. of Science, Stephen's
Green, Dublin.
Pilkington, (i„ Laboratory, 28, Pall Mall, Manchester.
Pinkerton, D. J., Broouiieknowe, Largs, Ayrshire.
Pinkney, Robert. IS, Bread Street Hill, London, E.C.
Pipe, .las., Messrs. Wm. Henderson & Co., Irvine, N.B.
Pitblado, L. (Journals), Mont Albion, via Herberton, Queens-
land! and (subs.) G9, Xewhouse, Stirling, N.B.
Pitt, T., 12, Coleman Street, London, E.C.
Pittuck, F. W\, 25, Can- Street, Hebburn-on-Tyne.
Platts, Jno. C, 2.5, Harcottrt Road, Crookesmoor, Sheffield.
Playfair, David J., 12, Woodside Terrace, Glasgow.
Pocklington, Hv.,41, Virginia Road, Leeds.
Pollock, A., Dilliehip Turkey-red Dyeworks, Bonhill, Dum-
bartonshire.
Pomeroy, Dr. Chas. T., 26C, Halsey Street, Newark, N.J.,
U.S.A.
Pond, J. A., 99, Queen Street, Auckland, New Zealand.
Poole, Thos., 25, Water Street, Liverpool.
Pooley, T. A., 121, The Grove, Denmark Hill, S.E.
Pope, S., Camden Works, Runcorn.
Porter, Herbert, Pleasley Meadows, near Mansfield, Notts.
Lost, Major .las. G, 123, Victoria Street, London, S.W.
Pott, W. Hamilton, G8, Sumner Street, Southwark Bridge
Load, London, S.K.
Loiter, ( 'has. E., Love Lane Sugar Refinery, Liverpool.
Potter, Chas. J., Heatou Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Potter, E. P., Hollinhurst, Bolton-le-Moors.
Potts, Joseph T., Price's Patent Candle Co., Bromboro'
Pool, near Birkenhead.
Powell, Alfred E., 478, Stockport Road, Longsight, Man-
chester.
Powell, L. S., 5, Notting Hill Square, Campden Hill, Lon-
don, W.
Pratt, J. W., Belize, British Honduras, via New Orleans.
Pratt, Walter E., Chemical Laboratory, Midland Railway
Co., Derby.
Prentice, Manning, Stowmarket, Suffolk.
Prescott, Dr. Albert B., Ann Arbor, Mich., U.S.A.
Preston, All., 131, Vicarage View, Bury, Lancashire.
Preston, 11., Hill End, llolconibe, near Manchester.
Price, A. F., 524, Sacramento S'rect, San Francisco, Cal.,
U.S.A.
Price, T. S[>iers, 1G, Mark Lane. London, E.C.
Price, W. E., Gasworks, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.
Pringle, W.. Laboratory, Bangalore, Southern India.
Prinz, Dr. Otto, Markt Redwitz, Bavaria.
Pritehard, W. S., Parnworth, Widnes.
Probert, Thos., Higher Grade School, Cardiff.
Procter, H. R., Yorkshire Coll., Leeds; and (Journals) 4,
Montpellier Terrace, Hyde Park. Leeds.
Procter, J. W., Skeldergate Bridge, York.
Proctor, Miss Anne J., Free Library, Widnes.
Proctor, B. S., 11, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tync.
Proctor, C, Government Laboratory, Somerset House, Lon-
don, W.C.
Proctor, W. W., 33, The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Pullar, IL, Pullar's Dyeworks, Perth, N.B.
Pullar, R, D., Pullar's Dyeworks, Perth, N.B.
Pullman, Arthur, S'.alheim, Godalming, Surrey.
Pullinan, E. E., Westbrook Mills, Godalming, Surrey.
Q
Quaas, Gustav, Turn Lee Mills, Glossop, Derbyshire.
Quibell, Oliver, Magnus Lodge, Newark-on-Trent.
Quincke, Dr. F., Cheuiische Fabrik Lhenania, Stolbergh bei
Aachen, Germany.
Quinu, J. Cardwell, The Nook, Gateacre, Liverpool.
Raabe, F., Ilallich llohe. Itummelshurg, Berlin.
Rademacher, II. A., 597, Broadway, Lawrence, U.S.A.
Rae, (}., Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Co., Widnes.
Ramsay, Dr. W., University College, Gower Street, London,
W.C; Journals to 12, Arundel Gardens, W.
Ramsay, W., Chemical Laboratory, University College of
Wales, Aberyatwith.
Ramsden, Edw., Holly Bank, Great Horton, Bradford, Yorks.
Ramsden, J., Lion Brewery, Bel vide re Road, Lambeth,
London, S.E.
Raweliffe, II , Gillibrand Hall, Chorley, Lancashire.
Rawson, C, The Bradford Technical College ; and
(Journals) 2, Melbourne Place, Bradford.
Rawson, Jr. S. G., Westbourne, Westbourne Grove, West
Kirby, Cheshire.
Ray, Wm., School of Science, Kidderminster.
Raymond, C. W., 24, Lawrence Road, Addiugton Road,
Bow, Loudon, E.
Kayncr, J. A. E., Grove House, Wavenree, Liverpool.
Reade, Thos., Oakleigh, Comptou, near Wolverhampton.
Readman, Dr. J. B., Chemical Laboratory, 4, Lindsay Place,
George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh.
Reay, T. Burdou, 85, Herringtou Street, Sunderland.
Reddrop, J., Laboratory, L. & N. W. Railway, Crewe.
Redferu, G. F., 4, South Street. Finsbury, London, E.C.
Redgate, J. G., Traffic Street, Nottingham,
liedinayne, R. Norman, 26, Grey Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Redwood, B., 4, Bishopsgate Street Within, London, E.C.
Redwood, I. J., 141, Kent Street, Brooklyu, N.Y., U.S.A.
Redwood, Robt., 4, Bishopsgate .-treet Within, London, E.C.
Redwood, Dr. T., Boverton, near Cowbndge, Glamorgan-
shire.
Redwood, T. Home, 2, F'isher Street, Red Liou Square,
W.C.
Ree, Dr. A., G, Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Manchester.
Reed, Albert E., Devonshire House, I'elham Road, Graves-
end, Kent.
Reeks, T. IL, 20, IViham Road, West Kensington, W.
Rcibstein. Dr. Tuisko, 232, Rue de la Poste, Brussels,
Belgium.
Reid, W. F., Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
Reid, W. G., 3, Findhorn Place, Edinburgh ; and Soap
Works, Beaeonsfield Diamond F'ields, South Africa
(Journals).
Remfry, H. II. , 5, Fancy Lane, Calcutta, India.
Renaut, F. W., 19, Great George Street, Westminster, S.W. ;
and Journals to 29, Craster Road, Elm Park, Brixton,
S.W.
Rennie, Dr. E. H., University of Adelaide, South Australia.
Rennoldson, W. L., St. Bede Chemical Works, Eant
Jarrow.
Reoch, R., River Point, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
Reynolds, Henry C, Thornel iff, Lansdown Road, Cheltenham.
Reynolds, Dr. J. Emerson, Trinity College, Dublin.
Reynolds, 1!., 13, Briggate, Leeds.
Rhodes, E., c/o Thos. Viekers & Sons, Widnes.
Rice, Dr. Chas., Bellevue Hospital, New Y'ork, U.S.A.
Richards, E., 113, East 30th Street, New York, U.S.A.
Richards, W. A., Sandbach, Cheshire.
Richardson, Clifford, Office of District Commissioners,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Richardson, C. T., 27, Jewin Crescent, Cripplegate, E.C.
Richardson, David B., 2, Chinch Place, Greenock, N.B.
Richardson, J. G. F., Elmfield, Stoneygate, Leicester.
Richardson, J. H., Goole Alum Works, Goole.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. r Jam so, 1892.
Richardson, K. W., 2, Fareliffe Place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Richardson, S. M . 415, Main Street, Buuhill, N.B.
Richardson, Walter \V.. 1. Montpellier Terrace, Cliff Road,
Leeds.
Richmond, H. D., Khedivial Laboratory, Cairo, Egypt.
Richmond, W. II., Liver Alkali Co., Limited, Ditton Road,
Widnes.
Riddell, Robert. 36. New Walk, Leicester.
Rideal, Dr. Samuel, Chemical Laboratory, St. George's
Hospital, London, W.
Ridsdalc, C. H., Hutton Grange, Guisboro'. Yorks.
Rigby, John S., 35, Bagot Street, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Riley, E., 2. City Road, Finsbury Square, London, E.C.
Riley, Jas., 150, Hope Street, Glasgow.
Riley, J. E., Arden Hall, near Accrington.
Riley, J., Hapton Chemical Works, Accrington.
Riley, Jno., Thornliebank, near Glasgow.
Riley, James, Laboratory, Brinscall Works, near Chorley,
Lancashire.
Riley, W. G., Hapton Chemical Works, near Accrington.
Rintoul, Wm., 48. Carnarvon Street, Glasgow.
Ripley, II., Bowling Dycworks, Bradford, Y'orkshire.
Ritchie, Robt., Shawfieid "Works, Rntherglen, near Glasgow.
Ritson, T. N., c'o Jersey Gas Light Co.. Bath Street. Jersey.
Rix, W. P., Doulton & Co., Lambetn Art Pottery, London,
S.E.
Robbilis, Herbert, Chemical Works, Gibraltar Walk.
Bethnnl Green Road, E.
Robbins, J., 147, Oxford Street, London, W.
Roberts, C. E., 48, Vicar Lane, Bradford. Yorks.
Roberts, Frank A., Messrs. Roberts, Dale & Co., War-
rington.
Roberts, F. G. Adair, Lion House, Ainburst Park, Stamford
Hi'.!. N.
Roberts, J. H. M., The Firs. Burton-on-Trent.
Roberts, R. Wightwick, 22, Calle Arturo Prat, Valparaiso,
Chili.
Robertson, Alex. A., Pentland Oil Works, by Loanhead.N.B.
Robertson, Geo. H., 30, Hemstall Road, West Hampstead,
N.W.
Robertson, Robt., Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham
Abbey, E.
Robertson* R. A.. 8, Park Street East, Glasgow. .
Robinson, Cbas. E., Richmond Lodge, Torquay.
Robinson, G. ('.. Royal Institution, Hull ; and Laboratory,
Bond Street, Hull (for Journals).
Robinson, II. II.. Imperial College, Hankow. China.
Robinson, Jos., Karnworth, "Widnes.
Robinson, Jno., 5, Elizabeth Terrace, Ditton, Widnes.
Robinson, Thomas, 401, West Street, Glasgow.
Rodger, Edw., 1, Clairmont Gardens, Glasgow, W.
Rogers, Harry, •">. Stoke Newington Common, London, X.
Rogers, Cipt. Jno. Martin, Mount Hawke, Scorrier,
Cornwall.
Rogerson, W. J., 38, Southwark Street, London, S.E.
Rollin, J. C, St. Bede Chemical Co., Limited, Ncwcastle-on-
Tyne.
Roques, Adolphe, 36, Rue Sainte Croix de la Bretonnerie,
Paris.
Roseoe, Sir Henry, M.P., 10, Bramham Gardens, South
Kensington, S.W.
Roscow, Jas., Birch Vale Printworks. Derbyshire.
Rosell, Claude A. ()., U.S. Patent Office, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.
Rosicki, Dr. F., 5, Qua! Claude Bernard, Lyons, France.
Ross. Alex. .1. J.. Tayavalla, Falkirk, X.B."
Ross, J. (L, 30, Brownlow Street, Liverpool.
Ross, Wm.. 66, North Wall. Dublin
Rothband.W.S., 61, Elizabeth Street, Cheetham, Manchester.
Rothwell, C. E. Seymour, c/o Edm. Potter & Co., Dinting
Vale, near Glossop.
Rottenburg, Paul, c/o Messrs. Lcisler, Bock & Co., 130,
Hope Street, Glasgow, N.B.
Rowell, W. A., 21, Victoria Square, Ncwcastle-on-Tyne.
Rowland, W. L., 4800, Chester Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.,
U.S.A.
Rowutree, B. Seehohin, The Cocoa Works, York.
Roxburgh, J. W., Lcvcnbaiik Works, Jamestown, Dumbar-
tonshire, N.B.
Royle, T., Daltou House, Upton Lane, Forest Gate, E.
Boyse, S. W., St. Andrew's Chambers, Albert Square, Man-
chester.
Royston, Ernest R., 15, Water Street, Liverpool.
Ruffle, Jno., 21, Gnoll Park Koad, Neath, Glamorganshire.
Rumble, C, Belmont Works, Battersea, London, S.W.
Ruscoc, Jno., Albion Works, Henry Street, Hyde, near
Manchester.
Russell, D., Silverburn, Leven, Fife, XII.
Russell, Jno.. Anchor Brewery, Britten Street, Chi Isea,
London, S.W.
Russell, Dr. W. J., St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
E.C.
Butter, Chas. II., The Gas Co., Hove, Sussex.
Ryder, Arthur G., First Lock. Grand Canal, Dublin.
Ryder, C. E., c/o Messrs. Elkington, Newhall Street, Bir-
mingham.
Ryland, Howard P., The Cedar-, Gravelly Hill, Birmingham.
Saeh, Robt., c/o SeMor J. M. Restrepo, Honda, Rep. of
Columbia, South America.
Sacre, Howard ("'., Breeze House, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Sadler, A. E., Sand Hall, Ulverston, Lancashire.
Sadler, S. A., Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
Sadtler, Dr. S. P., 14:,, N'orth 10th Street, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A.
Saint, W. Johnston, 11, Queen's Road, Aberdeen; and
(Journals) Spital Strasse 1,11., Erlaugen, Bavaria.
Saito, Kenji, Xishiku Yedobori Shimo, Dori Sanchiome,
Osaka, Japan.
Salanion, A. G., 1. Fenchurch Avenue, London, E.C.
Salamon, Jno., The Willows, Wennington, near Romford,
Essex.
Salis-Mavenfeld, Dr. E. von., c'o Hohenhausen & Co., Ld.,
Blackley, near Manchester.
Samuel, W. Cobden, 337, Norwood Road, West Norwood,
S.E.
Samuelson, Sir Bernard, Bart., M.P., 56, Prince's Gate,
London, S.W.
Sanderson, T. C., (subs.) LIT, Brooke Road. Clapton, E. ;
and (Journals) Carrilos, Santa Fe Count v, New Mexico,
U.S.A.
Sandon, R., 21, Archibald Road, Tufnell Park, N.
Sanford, 1'. Gerald, Blandford Lodge, Stivatbam, S.W.
Sauitcr, E. II., c/o The Wifran Coal and Iron Co., Wigan.
Sankey, Cha-. 1L. Ilillsboro' Lodge, Dulwich Grove, Xorth
Dulwich, S.E.
Savage, W. W., 109, St. James's Street, Brighton.
Savary, W. J. H., 39, Lombard Street, E.C.
Sayers, Jos. J., Nobel's Explosives Co., Ardeer, Stevenston,
Ayrshire.
Sehad, Julius, 15, Cooper Street, Manchester.
Sehappi, Dr. II.. Mitlodi, Canton Glarns. Switzerland.
Schellhaas, H., 38, Navigation Koad. Xorthwich.
Sehcurcr-Kestner, Dr. A., S, Rue Pierre-Charron, Paris,
France.
Scbishkoff, Sergius A., Elabouga, Govt, of Viatka. Russia.
Schlesinger, II. A., Glenhurst, Coventry Road, Ilford, Essex.
Schlichter, Dr. 11., 2."), Alma Square, London, N.W.
Scbloesser, R., 14, Charlotte Street, Manchester.
Schofield, C. J., Clayton, Manchester.
Schofield, E., Scout Bottom, Newchurch, near Manchester.
Scholefield, H. E., 52, Edge Lane, Liverpool.
Schorlemmer, Dr. C, The Owens College, Manchester.
Schott, A., 26, Princess Street, Manchester.
Schroeter, Hermann M., 235, Marshfield Avenue, Chicago,
III., E.S.A.
Scbulzc, Dr. Karl E., Cheniisebe Fabrik Lindenhof, Waldhof
bei Mannheim, Germany.
Schunck, Dr. E., Kersal, near Manchester.
Schweich, Emil, Winnington Park, Northwich, Cheshire.
Seorgie, Prof. J., Poona Villa, King's Gate, Aberdeen.
Scott, Andrew, 2, Teviot Terrace, lielvinside, Glasgow.
.:,,, in.iv,,. THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Scott, Chas. K., Caixa 32, Pernambuco, Brazil.
Scott. Ernest G., Woodcliffe, Burgess Hill, Hampstead,
N.W.
Scott, F., Rhodes Works, Middleton, near Manchester.
Scott, F. Walter, 44, Christian Street, London, E.
Scott, G. H., Balgay, Fairfield, near .Manchester.
Scott, Win., Yew Arbour, Hoddesdou, Herts.
Scott, W. T..
Scovell, M. A., Lexington, Kentucky, U S.A.
Scruttou, Willis, Lake Valley, New Mexico, U.S.A.
Scudder, F., "3, Leathwaite Road, Clapham Common, S.W.
Searl, Albeit, Phoenix Mills, Dartford, Kent.
Segner, 1'.. 26, Princess Street, Manchester.
Selby, Wm., 1 13, Willoughby Street, Lenton, Nottingham.
Sellon, J. S„ 78, Hatton Garden, London, E.G.
Sells, E. Perronet, jun.. Broad Street, Ratcliff, E.
Semet, Louis, 217, Chaussee de Vleurgat, Brussels.
Scuier, Dr. A., Thornfield, Harold Road, Upper Norwood,
S.E.
Serre, C. A., Mitre Chemical Works, Cordova Road, Bow, E.
Sevin, C., c/o Dollman & Pritcnard, 3, Laurence Pountnev
Hill. E.C.
Sewell, Parker, 11, Alice Street, South Shields.
Sexton, Prof. A. Humboldt, 38, Bath Street, Glasgow.
Seymour, .1. Jf. W., Northcroft Farm, Inkpen, near Hun-
gerford, Berks.
Seymour-Jones, A., Cambrian Leather Works, Wrexham.
Shadwell, .1. E. L., Meadowbank, Melksham, Wilts.
Shand, Francis J., Aldersjde, Bridge of Weir, N.B.
Shanks, Arch., Bridgend Mills, Dairy, Ayrshire, N.B
Shapleigh, W., Welsbaeh Incandescent Gas Light Co.,
Gloucester City, N.J., U.S.A.
Sharp, Henry, Loseley Hurst, Bournemouth.
Sharp, James, The Towers, Low Moor, near Bradford,
Yorks.
Sliarpe, Granville 11., 11 & 12, Great Tower Street, London,
EC.
Sharpies, Stephen P., 13, Broad Street, Boston, Mass.,
U.S.A.
Sharpley, II., Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
Shaw, D., Clayton, near Manchester.
Shaw, F. W., Heapcy Bleachworks, near Chorley, Lancashire.
Shaw, Geo., 40, Temple Street, Birmingham.
Shaw, Herbert 1)., Bond Street, Dewsbury, Y'orks.
Shaw, Jno., Earlston, Uddingston, N.B.
Shaw, R., West Bank Chemical Works, Widnes.
Shaw, Saville, Durham College- of Science, Xeweastle-on-
Tyne.
Shaw, Walter, Sherdlev Glass Works, St. Helens.
Shearer, A.. 8, Hanrfrith Road, Stratford, K.
Shenstone, W. A., Clifton College, Bristol.
Shepard, Dr. Chas. U., GS, Meeting Street, Charleston, S.C.,
U.S.A.
Shepherd, Jos., 71, Albion Street, Leeds.
Sheppee, Lt.-Col. F. F., Birtley House, Chester-le Street,
Co. Durham.
Sherlock, T., New Market Place, St. Helens.
Shidzuki, Iwaichiro, Engineering College, Imperial
University, Tokyo, Japan.
Shield, H., c/o Messrs. Fawcctt, Preston, & Co., Ld., 17,
York Street, Liverpool.
Shimidzu, Tetsukichi, c/o T. Hirano, 11, Ginza Shichome,
Tokyo, Japan.
Shimose, Masaehika, Heiki-Seizo-Sho, Akabane, Tokyo,
Japan.
Shipstone, Jas., jun., Woodthorpe Lodge, Sherwood,
Nottingham.
Shutt, Frank T., Central Experimental Fain, Ottawa,
Canada.
Shuttlewood. W. B., 8, Fenchurch Buildings, London, E.C.
Sieber, C. H., Whitworth, near Rochdale.
Siebold, L., 18, Exchange Street, Manchester.
Sill, T. T., c/o United Alkali Co., Ld., Weston Works, near
Runcorn.
Sillar, W. Cameron, The Native Guano Co., Limited,
29, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars, E.C.
Simon. H., 20, Mount Street, Manchester.
Simonds, Dr. Francis St., 147, East 34th Street, New York,
U.S.A.
Simpson. Chas. II., Mom- Top House, Ackworth, Pontef'ract.
Simpson, James, 8a, Runiford Place, Liverpool.
Simpson, II., Grecian Terrace, Harrington, Cumberland,
Simpson, W. S., 95, Darenth Road, Stamford Hill, N.
Sims, T. IL, Mas field Printworks, Manchester.
Sims, Thos. P., 32, Windsor Terrace, Uplands, Swansea.
Sindall, R. W.. 40, Station Street, Sittingbourne, Kent.
Singer, Ignatius, 13, Holker Street, Keighlev, Yorks.
Sisson, (i., jun., e/o Peter Spence & Sons, Alum Works,
Manchester.
Skaife, Wilfred T., 630, Sherbrooke Street, Montreal,
Canada.
Skilton, C. P. E., c/o Messrs. Ind, Coope, & Co., Burton-
ou-Trent.
Skurray, Thos., United Breweries, Abingdon, Berks.
Slade, H. E., Stieatham Common. London, S.W.
Slater, H. II ., Thornton Villas, Grays, Essex.
Skitter, Geo. W., Saltaire Works, Shipley, Yorkshire.
Smail, J. I., c/o Antony Gibbs & Sous, 15, Bisbopsgate
Street Within, London, EC.
Smaill, Wm., jun., c/o Londonderry Iron Co., Londonderry,
Nova Scotia.
Small, Evan VV., c/o Monmouthshire County Council, New-
port, Mon.
Smetham, A., 18, Brunswick Street, Liverpool.
Smiles, Jas., 19, Queen Street, Edinburgh.
Smith, Alfred, Excelsior Chemical Works, Clayton, Man-
chester.
Smith, Anthonv, Hughenden, Castle Avenue, Clontarf,
Dublin.
Smith, A. J., 84, Page Hall Road, Fir Vale, Sheffield.
Smith, Prof. Edgar F., University of Pennsylvania, Phila-
delphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Smith, Edgar F.. 35, Ampthill Square, Hampstead Road,
London, N.W.
Smith, Francis P., cor. 21st Street and Avenue C, New
Y'ork, U.S.A.
Smith, Fred., Box 1812, Johannesburg, S.A.R.
Smith, G., l'ohnont Station, Scotlaud.
Smith, Geo., 14, The Pass, Ramsay Street, Rochdale.
Smith, Geo. F., Cromwell Lodge, Putney Hill, S.W.
Smith, Harry, 33, Withington Road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
Smith, Harry E„ 133, 2Gth Street, Milwaukee, Win., U.S.A.
Smith, Henry, 11, Malvern Road, Dalston, Loudon, E.
Smith, II. R., 1, Aubert Park, Highbury, Loudon, N.
Smith, II. Wood, 51, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester.
Smith, Irwin, J., 103, Tremont Street, Fairmount, Cincinnati,
Ohio, U.S.A.
Smith, Jno., Sutton Copper Works, St. Helens.
Smith, J., Ash Grove House, Radcliffc, Manchester.
Smith, Dr. J. IL, Wollishofen, Zurich, Switzerland.
Smith, ,1. Johnstone, Castle Brewery, Newark-on-Trcnt,
Smith, Jas. C-, 104, Salisbury Road, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Smith, J. Tertius, Pattiswick Hall, Braintree, Essex; and
(Journals) c/o Jeyes' Sanitary Compound Co., Ld.,
Phiistow, Esse t.
Smith, J. W., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
Mass., U.S.A.
Smith, J. Wm., Solvay Process Co., Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A.
Smith, K. Greig, Springwells, New Street, Musselburgh, N.B.
Smith, 1!. W., The Grange. Kirkburton, near Huddersfield.
Smith. R. Watscn, Young's Oil Co., Ld., Chemical Works,
Bathgate, N.B.
Smith, S., 35, Ampthill Square, Hampstead Road, London,
N.W.
Smith, Thos., Heriot Hill House, Edinburgh.
Smith. Watson, University College, London, W.C. ; and 34,
L'pper Park Road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.
Smith, Wilfred, 182, West Street, Glasgow.
Smith, W., 10, Corn Street, Bristol.
Smithells, Prof. A., Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Smithers, F. O., Dashwood House, 9, New Broad Street,
London, E.C.
Smithson, J., Park Printworks, Halifax.
Snape, Dr. H. Lloyd, University College, Aberystwith.
Snelling, E., 5, Spital Square, Bishopsgate Street, London,
E.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
Soaraes, J. K., Thames Soap and Candle Works, Greenwich,
S E.
Solvay, Alfred, 25, Rue de Prince Albert, Brussels.
Solvay, Ernest, 43, Rue des Champs Eljsees, Brussels.
Sommer, Adolf, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
Sou r. Dr. (i. Schack, 323, Vauxhall Road, Liverpool.
Soward, A. W., 144, Friern Road, East Dulwich, S.E.
Sowerby, Thos. H., Sherwell, Dartmouth Place, Blackheath,
si;.
Sowerby, W. M., e/o United Alkali Co., Ld., Runcorn
Works, Chesnire.
Spackman, Chas., c/o John Ellis & Sons, Barrow-on-Soar,
Loughborough.
Speakman, Jas., Cree Hill Post Office, Calgary. Alberta,
Canada.
Speakman, J. J., Stanley Villas, Greenway Road, Runcorn.
Spence, D., Alum Works, Manchester,
Spence, F., Alum Works, Manchester.
Spence, .1. W., 58, Dobbie's Loan, Glasgow.
Spencer, Jno., Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
Spencer, .1. W., Newburn, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Spiegel, Dr. Adolf, Messel, bei Darmstadt, Germany.
Spies, Adolph, 102, Fenchurch Street, London, E.C.
Spies, Hermann, 102, Fenchurch Street, London, E.C.
Spiller, A., The Buckeye Electric Co., 1925, Broadway,
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Spill, i. J., 2, St. Mary's Road, Canouhury, London, N.
Spoor, John L., Stone Court Cement Works, Greenhithe,
Kent.
Sprengel, Dr. H., Saville Club, 107, Piccadilly, London, W.
Squire, E. L., Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
Squire, Percy, 1 1, Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, Loudon,
' E.C.
Squire, P. «'., 413, Oxford Street, London, W.
.Squire, Dr. W. S., Clarendon House, St. John's Wood Park,
N.W.
Stacev, IL G., 300, High Holborn, London, W.C.
Stahl, Dr. K. F„ 57th Street and A. V. R. R., Pittsburgh,
Pa., U.S.A.
Stanford, E. C. C, Gienwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
Stanger, W. Harry, Broadway Testing Works, Westminster
S.W.
Staniland, Alfred E., 7, Nicholas Lane, Loudon, E.C.
Stanley, C. L., Oakwood Hall, Rotherham, Yorks.
Stauning, John, Broadfield, Leyland, near Preston.
Stantial, Frank G., c/o Cochrane Chemical Co., Everett,
Mass., U.S.A.
Staples, II. .1.. Spend Derby.
Staples, Sir Nath. A., Bart., Lissan, Cookstown, Ireland.
Stark. J. i\, Price's Patent Candle Co.. Ld., Bromborough
Pool, near Birkenhead.
Starkey, R. W., Penmaen, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.
Starling, J. IL, 3, Victoria Road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Stead, .1. E., 5, Zetland Road, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
Stead, W. IL. 23, Boundary Street, Liverpool : and
(Journals) Orchard Place, Blaekwall, E.
Stearns, End. K., Detroit, Mich., U.S.A.
Stebbins, J. II.. 1 14, Pearl Street, New York, U.S.A.
Steedinan, R. II. , Sprengfield House, Dalmuir, N.B.
Steel. R. Elliott, Hawthorn House, Baildon, near Shipley,
Yorks.
Steel, Thos., Yanaville Sugar Refinery, Melbourne, Victoria,
Steele, Dr. M.. Newton Hall, Frodsham, Cheshire.
Steinhart, Dr. Oscar J., e/o May and Baker, Ld., Garden
Wharf, Battersea, S.W.
Stcnhouse, 'I'., I, Milton Street, Rochdale.
Stephens, II. Chas., M.P.. Avenue House, Finehley, N.
Stephenson, Claud, 25, Cecil Street, Greenheys, Manchester.
Stern, Arthur I... c/o Messrs. Pass & Co., Barton-on-Trent.
Stcuart, 1). V., Albert Chemical Works, Clayton,' near Man-
chester.
Steuart, D. R., Broxburn, mar Edinburgh, N.B.
Stevens, Win.. The Native Guano Co., Ld., 29, New Bridge
Street. Blackfriars, E.C.
Stevens, W. .1., 2-1. New Walls Road, Totterdown, Bristol.
Stevenson, Jas., 23, West Nile Street, Glasgow j and The
Broiufields, Largs, N.B.
Steven'-.,,,, .1. 0., M.P., 33, Devonshire Place, W.
Stevenson, J. Sbannan. 33, Devonshire Place, W.
Stevenson, Dr. T., Guy's Hospital, London, S.E.
Stevenson, W., Standard Works, 95a, Southwark Street,
London, S.E.
Stewart. Chas. Win. A., 54, Belsize Road, Loudon, N.W.
Stewart, Jeffrey, 15, Claremont Road, Forest Gate, Essex.
Stewart, Robt., c/o Boake, Roberts, and Co., Wartou Road,
Stratford. 10.
Stewart, S., Highland Scot Canning Co., Ld., Berazategui,
Buenos Ayres, South America.
Stiker, F. P., 453. Fourteenth Street, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.A.
Stilhnan. Dr. T. I!., Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hobokcn, N.J., I'.S.A.
Stillwell, C. M., Box 1261. New York. U.S.A.
Stirk, Jos., 120, Station Street, Burton-on-Trent.
Stockdale, Win., Irwell Printworks, Stacksteads, near Man-
chester.
Stocks, II. I!., 25, Ferndale Road, Sniithdown Road, Liver-
pool.
Stoddart, F. Wallis, Western Counties Laboratory, Bristol.
Stoddart, .1. E., Howden, Midcalder, N.B.
Stoer, J., 6, Hanover Quay, Dublin.
Stoker, G. N., Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C.
Stone, E. D., 19, Lever Street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
Stone, E. B., Eardley Villa, Picardy Hill, Belvedere, Kent.
Stone, Thos. W., Chemical Works, St. George, Bristol.
Stopes, H, Kefiwyn, Ciutra Park, Upper Norwood, S.E.
Storer, Dr. John, 163, Clarence Street. Sydney, New South
Wales.
Storey, I. II. , Haverbreaks, Lancaster.
Storrar, J. M., 70, Wellington Street, Glasgow.
Stowe, W. T., Laboratory, Somerset House, Strand, W.C.
S'.rangmau, J. Pirn, Junior Travellers Club, 8, St. James'
Square, London, S.W.
Strawson, G. F., Newbury, Berks.
Strong, Colin R., IS, Exchange Street, Manchester.
Strvpe, W. G., 115, Grafton Street, Dublin.
Stuart, C. E., 29, Mosley Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Stuart, Jas., Prince's Avenue, Hull, and 22, High Street,
Hull.
Stuart, T. W., 15, Windsor Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Studtr, Dr. A., 10, Marsden Street, Manchester.
Studev, Simon J., 17, Lovely Lane, Warriugto-j.
Suilliot, II. , 21, Rue Ste Croix de la Bretonnerie, Paris.
Sulmaii, H. L., c/o Hopkin and Williams, Waterside,
Wandsworth, S.W.
Sumner, Harold, Butt Hill, Prestwich, Manchester; and
(Journals) Johannesgasse 10, Miilhausen, Elsass.
Sutherland, D. A., 2, Victoria Mansions, Westminster,
S.W.
Sutherland, Jas., Ballyclare, co. Antrim, Ireland.
Sutherland, Jas. A., 88, Gloucester Street, Glasgow.
Sutherland, Jno., Elsternwick, near Melbourne, Victoria.
Sutherland, R. M., Lime Wharf Chemical Works. Falkirk,
N.B.
Sutton, Chas. W., Free Reference Library, King Street,
Manchester.
Sutton, F., London Street, Norwich.
Sutton, F. Napier, 6, Grosvenor Gardens, Willesden Green.
N.W.
Swan, J. Cameron, 4, Nicholas Buildings, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
Swan. J. W., Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.
Swinburne, Geo., c/o J. Coates & Co., Planet Chambers,
8, Collins Street Fast, Melbourne, Australia: (subs.)
Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney Hill, E.C.
Swinburne, O. W., Harrogate, Claiborne Co., Teiin., I'.S.A.
Swinscoe, John A., c/o The Irish National Condensed Milk
Co.. Ld.. ( 'lonniel, Ireland.
Sykes, Dr. I!. Clifford, Brook House, Cleckheaton, York-
shire.
Sykes, E., 28, Church Street, Bradshaw, near Bolton.
Sykes, James, 7ii, Lockwood Road, Huddersfield.
Svme. W. I!., e/o Young's Paraffin Oil Co., Addiewell,
West ('abler, N.B.
ran io, lsi'.i THIO JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
xxiii
Takamatsu, T., Tokyo University, Japan.
Takamine, J., Fertilizer Works, Fukagawa, Tokyo, Japan.
Takayama, Jintaro, Geological Survoj Office, Department
of Agriculture, Tokio, Japan.
Taskcr, G., 2, Marchmont Terrace, Langside, Glasgow.
Tate, A. Norman, Hacking Hoy, Liverpool,
Tate, E., 1, Collingham Gardens, South Kensington, S.W.
Tate, F. II., 9, Hackins Hey, Liverpool.
Tate, H., jun., Allerton lieeches, Allerton, near Liverpool.
Tatlock, J., 10, Renfrew Street, Glasgow.
Tatloek, R. R., 156, Bath Street, Glasgow.
Tatters, J. G., The Manse, Runcorn, Cheshire.
Taubman, R., 33, Southampton Row, London, W.C.
Taylor, Andrew, 11, Lutton Place, Edinburgh.
Taylor, C, Friars Field Villas, Uttoxcter New Road, Derby.
Taylor, G. Crosland, Ravensear, Helsby, near Warrington.
Taylor. H. E., 68, Ashburnham Grove,' Greenwich, S.E.
Taylor, Jas., Osgathorpe Crescent, Sheffield.
Taylor, Jas. Davis, 9, Mincing Lane, London, E.C.
Taylor^ Jim., 15, Lucius Street, Torquay, Devon.
Taylor, J. Scott, c/o Winsor and Newton, Limited, 38, Rath-
hone 1'lace, London, W.
Taylor, Leo, Beechfield, Copcland Road, Walthamstow,
Essex.
Tavlor, Malcolm, c'o Quirk, Barton, and Burns, Lead
" Works, St. Helens.
Taylor, Richard H., 2 Ross Walk, Leicester.
Taylor, R. L., 37, Mayfield Road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.
Taylor, W. Ambrose, Royal Geological Society of Cornwall,
Penzance.
Taylor, W. J., 55, Forsyth Street, Greenock, N.B.
Tcanby, G. W. A., 22, Grosvenor Place, Blackman Lane,
Leeds.
Teed, Dr. F. L.. 15, Victoria Street, Westminster, London,
S.W.
Tennant, Sir Chas., Bart., 35, Grosvenor Square, S.W. ;
and Glen, Peebleshire, N.B. (Journals to St. Rollox,
Glasgow.)
Tennant, Jas., Dartmouth Lodge, Saltwell, Gateshead- on-
Tyne.
Terry, Albert, Verulam, Mount Albert Road, Balwyn, near
Melbourne, Victoria.
Terry, Hubert L., 14, Herbert Street, Moss Side, Manchester.
Tervet, R., 54, Pepshurst Road, South Hackney, E.
Thew, Walter H., 47, Castle Street, Liverpoo..
Thomas, C, Pitch and Pay, Stoke I'.ishop, near Bristol.
Thomas, J., Brook House, Wooburn, near Beaconstield.
Thomas, J. W., Drumpellier, Brunswick Road, Gloucester
Thomas, R. Schofield, The Brewery, Kidderminster.
Thomas, S. M., 143, Cannon Street, London, E.C.
Thomas, Philip A., Cornwall Buildings, 35, Queen Victoria
Street, London, E.C.
Thomas, S. Percy, c/o Boake, Roberts & Co., Stratford. E.
Thompson, Chas., 15, Patshull Road, Kentish Town, X.W
Thompson, Prof. Claude M., University College, Cardiff.
Thompson, W., jun., Sankey Hill, Earlstown, Lancashire.
Thompson, W. G., Tonge Springs Works, Middleton, near
Manchester.
Thompson, W. P., Patent Office, 6, Lord Street, Liverpool.
Thomson, Dr. Andrew, 1U, Pitcullen Terrace, Perth.
Thomson, A. W. Ferguson, 14, Hills Place, Oxford Circus,
London, W.
Thomson, G. Carruthers, 23, Kersland Terrace, Hillhcad,
( ilasgow.
Thomson, Jas. M., Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.
Thomson, John, 70a, Grosvenor Street, London, W.
Thomson, Prof. J. M., 53, Prince's Square, Bayswater, W.
Thomson, J. S., Uphall Oil Works, Uphall Station, KB.
Thomson, Dr. Murray, 44, Victoria Road, Gipsy Hill, S.E.
Thomson, R.. 413, Oxford Street, London, W. '
Thomson, Robt. T., 156, Bath Street, Glasgow.
Thomson, W., Royal Institution, Manchester.
Thomson, Win. Garth, 41, Mitchell Street, Glasgow.
Thomson, Win. Thus., Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.
Thome, Dr. L. T., 8, Dyuevor Road, Richmond-on Thames.
Thomeycroft, Wallace, 6, Dixon Street, Glasgow.
Thornton, Christopher, Allen's Printworks, Providence
I.'. I., U.S.A.
Thornton, David H., 21, White's Terrace, Manningham,
Bradford.
Thornton, H, Great Garlands, Stanford-le-IIope, Essex.
Thorp, W., 24, Crouch Hall Road, Crouch End, N.
Thorpe, Dr. T. E., Royal College of Science, South Ken-
sington, S.W.
Tiehborne, Dr. Chas. R. ('., 15, North Great Georo-e Street
Dublin. P
Tidy, Dr. C. Meymott, 3, Mandeville Place, Manchester
Square, London, W.
Tilden, Dr. W. A., Mason College, Birmingham.
Timmins, A., Argyll Lodge, Higher Runcorn.
Timmis, T. Sutton, Widnes.
Tobey, C. M., Collingwood, Ontario, Canada.
Todd. A. M., Nottawa, St. Joseph Co., Mich., U.S.A.
Tomlinson, G. G., Valparaiso, Chili; Journals to c/o
W. B. Kay, 16, Halton Road, Runcorn.
Tompkins, H. K.. 11, Promenade, Bromley, Kent.
Toms, F. Woodland, States Analyst's Office, St. Heliers,
Jersey.
Tonks, E., Packwood, Knowle, near Birmingham.
Tothill, M. A. L., c/o Castle Chemical Co., Cape Town,
S. Africa.
Tothill, W. W., Messrs. Rcckitt & Son, Limited, Hull.
Towers, J. W., Grosvenor Buildings, Victoria Road, Widnes .
Townsend, Jos., 19, Crawford Street, Port Dundas, Glasgow.
Trechmann, A. O., Norton Lodge, Stockton-on-Tees.
Treehmann, C. O., 10, Cliff Terrace, Hartlepool.
Trench, G., Standard House, Faversham, Kent; and the
Cotton Powder Co., Limited, Faversham,
Trewby, Herbert, Langford Lodge, New Park Road, Clap-
ham Park, S.W.
Tribe, P. C. M., Oswego, New York, U.S.A.
Trimble, Prof. H., 632, Marshall Street, Philadelphia
U.S.A. '
Trimnell, C. H., Elmhurst, Maiden, Surrey.
Trobridge, A., c/o Oldbury Alkali Co., Ld., Oldbury.
Birmingham.
Trubshawe, Wolstan, 6, St. Beuct Place, London, E.C.
Truby, Charles, 20, High Street, Manchester.
Tsukiyama, S., Printing Department, Ministry of Finance,
Tokyo, Japan.
Tucker, Greenleaf R., City Hospital, Boston, Mass
U.S.A.
Tuer, Arthur H., Thornhill, near Wigan.
Tulloch, John, 18, Suffolk Street, Jarrow-on-Tyne.
Tiirgensen, Dr. R., Offenbach a/Main, Germany.
Turnbull, G. W., 10, Northgate, Darlington.
Turnbull, Wm, 14, Wilberforce Terrace, Gateshcad-on-
Tyne.
Turnbull, W. S., Place of Bonhili, Renton, Dumbarton-
shire.
Turner, F. T., 17, Copcland Street, Stoke-on-Trent.
Turner, II. 15. H., 6, Lyons Range, Calcutta, India.
Turner, P. R., Tar Works, Rothwell Haigh, near Leeds,
Turner, Thos., Mason College, Birmingham.
Turner, W. Spencer, 225, Oxford Street, Manchester.
Turney, Sir J., Springfield, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
Turri, G. G., Sun Buildings, Queen Street, Melbourne,
Victoria.
Tweedie, G. R, 54, Hawley Square, Margate, Kent.
Tweedy, Jas., 77, Western Road, Jarrow-on-Tyne.
'Twitchell, E., 559, West 7th Street, Cincinnati,'* Ihio, I r.S.A.
Twynam, T., 7, Marlborough Crescent, Bedford Park
Chiswick, W.
Typke, P. G. W., Ravenhutst, Norbiton Park, New Maiden ,
Surrey.
Tyrer, T., Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey Lane, Stratford,
hi,
Tyzaek, Stuart, Beckford Lodge, Williamson'Road, Sheffield
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO. 1893.
U
Uu)iu'\, C-i 50, Southward Street, Loudon, S.E.
Underhill, Thos. J., II. M. Victualling Yard, Deptford, S.E.
Und< r« I, G.R., Bos (CO, Peahody, Mass., U.S.A.
Upward, W.. Albert Knar]. Widnes.
Usmar, J. B., 34, Palmerston Buildings, London, E.C
Valentine, Geo., St. James' Gate Brewery, Dublin.
Vandenhergh, Dr. Frank P., 32-33. Lewis Block, Buffalo,
N.Y..US.A.
Vandenhergh, Dr. Horace C. University of the Citj of
New York, 410, Easl 26th Street, New York. U.S.A.
Van ili-r Want, G„ c/b G. C. Van der Want pz„ Gouda,
Holland.
Van Gundy, Chas. P., Eliza Furnaces, Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A.
Vargas-Vergara, J. M., Apartado No. 237, Bogota, Republic
of Colombia, S. America.
Varv, G M. P., 1319, O'Farrell Street, San Francisco,
Cal., U.S.A.
Vasey, T. E., 6, South Parade, Leeds; Journals to P.O.
Box 1777. Montreal, Canada.
Vanghan, J. I., 329,Norwood Road, Tulse Hill, S.E.
Vautin, Claude T. J., 42. ( >ld Broad Street, London, E.C.
Veitch-Wilson, J., 3 Westover Road, Wandsworth Common,
S.W.
Venables, T., 3, Gardner Street, Glasgow.
Verel, W. A., 130, West George Street, Glasgow.
Viekers, W., Rose Hill, Smedley Lane, Manchester.
Vieth, Dr. P., 31, St. Petersburg Place, Bayswater, Lon-
ilon, W.
Ybeleker, E. W., 22. Tudor Street, London, E.C.
V'oelcker, Dr. J. A., 20, Upper Phillimore Gardens,
Kensington, W.
Vorster, Fritz, 71, Bayenstrasse, C81n a Klein, Germany.
Voss, Hermann, Holstein House, Penge Road, Heck en )m in.
Kent.
Vredenburgh, .las. B., Jersey City, N.J., U.S.A.
Vnlte, Hermann T., School of Mines, Columbia I ollege, New
Vnlk, U.S.A.
w
Wache, Alf. 27, Rue Morel. Douai, Franco.
Wachtel, Gregory, Elabouga, Government of Viatka,
Russia.
Wade, .las. I.., 30, West Kensington Gardens, London, W.
Wadman, Walter E., Ill, West 2nd Street, Bergen Point,
Bayonne City, N.J., U.S.A.
Wainwiight, Dr. J. H., 22, West 4Gth Street, New York,
U.S.A.
Wake, C. N., Newton Upper Falls, Mass., U.S.A.
Wakayama, Y . Yayegakieho Nedzu, Tokyo, Japan.
Walker, A., Messrs. Alex. Walker and Co., Alkali Works,
Irvine, N.B.
Walker, Archibald, 8, Crown Terrace, Glasgow.
Walker, ]•'.. Robinson, 18, St. ADn's Street, Manchester.
Walker, Jno. C, 1&6, West Regent Street, Glasgow.
Walker, S. R., 19, Wolsey Street. Radcliffe, Manchester.
Walker, T., Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.
Walker, Ralph W. M., lt»7. St. George's Road, Warwick
Square, S.W.
Wallace, John Stewart, 11, Queen Victoria Street, London,
E.C,
Wallace, Robert, 1, Coates Place, Edinburgh.
Waller, Dr. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, 50th
Street, 4th Avenue, New York, U.S.A.
Walsh, F. T., Hamilton Printworks, Lowell, Mass., U.S.A.
Walsh, P. II., 13, Penny Street, Blackburn, Lancashire ; and
(Journals) 85, Joj Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Waltham, T., Brewery, Stockwell, London. S.W.
Walton, Cornelius, 12, Craven Street, Charing Cross, W.C.
Walton, Thos , 4, Portugal Street. Lincoln's Inn. W.< I.
Wansbrough, E. G. L., .'!68. King Street West, Hammer-
smith, W.
Warburton, Thos., 2, Pershouse Terrace, Darley Street.
Ardwick, Manchester.
Wai.l. Alf. I!.. 88, Oakley Street. Chelsea, S.W.
Ward, G., Messrs. Hirst, Brooke and Hirst, Leeds.
Ward, Geo., c/o T. Howard Lloyd & Co., 86, High Street.
Leicester.
Ward, Geo. J.. The Yews, I lee-ton, Nottingham.
Ward, Howard Chas., Yeatton, Hordle, Lymington, Hants.
Ward, Thos., Brookfleld House, Northwicb.
Wardale, J. D., Redheugh Engine Works, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.
Warden. Dr. C. J. H., Medical College, Calcutta, India.
Warden, Jno. B.,c 0 11. Kitto, 30—31, St. Swithin's Lane.
E.< !.
Warington, Roht., Harpenden, Herts.
Warne, Thos., 6, Wakefield Road, Thwaitegate, Leeds.
Warner. H. G., c/o Croft, Wells, and Co., l.CliveRow,
Calcutta, India.
Warren, Fiske, 220, Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Warren, Jno. Mavis, 137, High Holborn, Londou, W.C.
Warren, T. T. P. Bruce, Tarn worth Villa, Earlham Grove,
Forest Gate, Essex.
Waterfall, W. 15., c/o Avon Manure Co., Bristol; and
(Journals) Thirlmere, Clavering Road, Redland, Bristol.
Waterhouse, Colonel .las., 14, Wood Street, Calcutta, India
Waterhouse, Robt., Villa Bejach, Jena (in Thnringen),
( lermany.
Wates, Edw. A.. Lingsngur, Deccan. India.
Watney, Thos. S., 71, Albion Street, Leeds.
Watson, ('has.. Walsden Chemical Works, near Todmorden.
Watson, D., 244, Great Clowes Street, Manchester.
Watson, Eric E., Schulstrasse 288, Clausthal a/Harz,
Germany.
Watson, (i., jun.. 16, East Nelson Street, Whitevale,
Glasgow.
Watson, Geo. P., Elm Lodge, Halliwell Lane, Cheetbam
Hill. Manchester.
Watson, Harry F., Erie. Pa., U.S.A.
Watson, Jno C, c/o Daniel Lee & Co., Castloion.
Manchester.
Watson. Jno., Cement Works, Gateshead-on-Tvne.
Watson, Jno., Laboratory, Newcastle Chemical Co., Gales-
head -on-Tyne.
Watson, Jno., 8, Newman Street, Victoria Docks, E.
Wat>on, W. II., Laboratory, The Folds, Boltou.
Watt. A., 81), Harrington Road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Watt-, A. J.. 130, Caisa, Pernambuco, Brazil.
Watts, (has. W., Corporation Gasworks, Belfa-t.
Watts, Sydney E., Tyne Brewery, Newcastle-on- 1'yne.
Webb, Saml. G., c o United Alkali Co., Ld., Pilkington
Works, Widnes.
Webb, Win. Hubert. Randalstown. co. Antrim, Ireland.
Webber, Geo. W., Oswald Hill, Broomhill Drive, Partick,
Glasgow.
Weber, Carl Otto, 1, Rectory Road, Crumpsall, Manchester.
Webster, C. S. Stanford, Malvern House, Redland, Bristol.
Webster, Win., jun., The Grove, Belmont Hill, Lee, S.E.
Weed, Hy. T., 82, Robinson Street, Allegheny, Penn.. U.S. A .
Weightman, John F., c o Powers & Weightmau, Philadel-
phia, Pa., U.S.A.
Weir, Surgeon-Major P. A., Residency, Nepal, via Bombay,
India.
Weldon, Ernest,
Wells. G. I. J., Kinderton Lodge, Middlewich, Cheshire.
Wells, Jas. Gray, 26a, St. Paul's Street West, llurton-on-
Trent.
Welsh, Jas., Kinder Printworks, Hayfield, near Stockport.
Wells, John, 33, Northampton Square, Clerkenwell, E.C.
Welsh, Thos. L., 3, Prince's Gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow
Welsh, W., Holt Town, Manchester.
Werner, Emil A., 5, Church Avenue, Rathmines, Dublin.
Wessel, Carl. Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany.
Westmoreland, J. W., 25, Park Square, Leeds.
Weston, Win., II. M. Dockyard. Portsmouth.
Jan. 30, 189S.J
TITR JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Wetter, Jasper, 433, Strand, London, W.C.
Wetzel, II. A., Box 170, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
Whalley, L. J. lie, 26, Park Place, Greenwich, S.E.
Wheeler, Win. E., Cumberland House, Meyneli Road, South
Hackney, N.E.
Wlielan. Edwin J.. Star Chemical Works, Wandsworth
Bridge Road, Fulham, S,W.
W'lu'well. Wm., Irweil House, Dinners Lane, Radcliffe, near
Manchester,
Wliiffen, T., Lombard Road, Battersea, London, S.W.
Whitfen, T., jun., Lombard Road, Battersea, London, S.W.
WhihVn, W. G., Lombard Road, Battersea, London, S.W.
Wliitaker, II. L., Condong Sugar Mill, Tweed River, New
South Wales.
Wliitaker, Thorp, Messrs. E. Ripley & Sons, Bradford, Yorks.
White, A., Ilorton Field, West Drayton, Middlesex,
White, A. D., Avenue House, West Drayton, Middlesex.
White, Henry, S. Brown Street, Masboro', Rotherhain.
White, Jos. W., Halebank, near Widnes.
White, J. Campbell, 7, West George Street, Glasgow.
White, P. T., Castle Street, Saffron Hill, London, E.C.
White, W. II., Killingworth House, Killingworth, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
Whitehouse, Enoch, 513, Coventry Road, Smallheath, Bir-
mingham.
Whitelaw, T. N., 87, Sydney Street, Glasgow.
Whiteley, Geo., Victoria Lead Works, Burdett Road, Lime-
house, E.
Whiteley, R. Lloyd, University College, Nottingham ;
Journals to 13, Bowers Avenue, Woodbormigh Road,
Nottingham.
Whittaker, C. J., Globe Chemical Works, Church, near
Accrington.
Whittaker, Thos., 22, Delaunays Road, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
Whowell, F., Carr Bank, Tottington, Bury, Lancashire.
Wickens, B. Foster, |83, Queen Street, Cheapside, London,
E.C.
Wigg, G. L., Runcorn.
Wiggin, W. W., Wiggiu Street, Birmingham Heath, Bir-
mingham.
Wightman, C, 1, Fenchurch Avenue, London, E.C.
Wild, Eugene,
Wilde, T., l'enclawdd, near Swansea.
Wilding, .las., jun., 266, Burdett Road, E.
Wiley, M. W., Billsdale House, York Road, West Hartle-
pool.
Wilkie, T. M., Nobel Co.'s Works, Stevenston, Ayrshire
N.B.
Wilkin, Walter H., Appold Street, Finsbury, E.C.
Wilkinson, J. B., Tong Street, Dudley Hill, Bradford,
forks.
Will, W. Watson, The Laurels, Galveston Road, Putney, S.W.
\\ illiams, D., eo United Alkali Co., Ld., Gerard's Bridge
Works, St. Helens.
Williams, Edward, Folly Farm, Warrington.
Williams, Geo. G., 624, South 24th Street, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A.
Williams, Henry J., c/o Davenport and Williams, 101,
Tremont Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Williams, Percy B., F'elbrigg, The Bauk, Highgate, N.
Williams, Prof! W. Carleton, Firth College, and 33, Broms-
grove Road, Sheffield.
Williams, Rowland, 28, Pall Mall, Manchester.
Williams, Rupert G., Albion Mills, Heywood, near Man-
chester.
Williams, Seward W., 487, Central Avenue, East Orange
Mass., U.S.A.
Williams, T., a, Queen Insurance Buildings, 10, Dale
Street, Liverpool.
Williams, T. Howell, 10, Aseham Street, Kentish Town,
N.W.
Williams, W. Collingwood, 44, Mulgrave Street, Liverpool.
Williams, W. J., 1412, Van Buren Street, Wilmington,
Del., U.S.A.
Williamson, Robt, Cleveland Chemical Works, Middles-
brough.
Wills, G. S. V., Southwood, Croham Road, South Croydon.
Wills. .1. Lainson, 206, Albert Street, Ottawa. Canada.
Wilson, A., The Firs, Norton, near Stourbridge.
Wilson, Alex. P., 56, Bridge Street, Birkenhead.
Wilson, Alt'., c/o Messrs. J. and E. Sturge, 18, Wheeley's
Lane, Birmingham.
Wilson, Anthony W., 20, Westcott Street, Hull.
Wilson, Cecil H., 656, Grimesthorpe Road, Sheffield.
Wilson, C. .1., 19, Little Queen Street, Wesminster, S.W.
Wilson, David, jun., Carbeth, Killearn, by Glasgow.
Wilson, FYauk, The Brewery, Castle Street, Long Acre,
London, W.C.
Wilson, Gordon, jun., Crestone, Saguache Co., Colorado,
U.S.A.
Wilson, G. E., The Chemical Works, Oldbury, near Bir-
mingham.
\\ ilson, Jno. A., South 20th and Mary Streets, Pittsburgh,
Pa., U.S.A.
Wilson, Jno. Ed., Wyddrington, Edghaston, Birmingham.
Wilson, Jno., 28, Crosby Road, Romford Road, Stratford, E.
Wilson, Jos. A., Crossfields, Tottington, near Bury, Lanca-
shire.
Wilson, J. II., 6, Fenchurch Buildings, E.C.
Wilson, J. Millar, Ridley Park, Delaware Co., Pa., U.S.A.
Wilson, R. H.. Eggleseliffe, Yarm-on-Tees.
Wilson, Wesley Win., James' Gaie Brewery, Dublin.
Wilson, Dr. w! II., 15, Pcrham Road, West Kensington, W.
Wilson, Wm. Robt., 110, Long Acre, London, W.C.
Wilson, W. W., Chirnside Villa, Droylsden, Manchester.
Wilson, Wm., Journals to Delhi, India; Subscription c/o
Chirk, Wilson, & Co., 155, Fenchurch Street, I'M'.
Wilton, Geo., Tar Works, Beckton.E.
Wilton, Jno., Clydesdale, Norwich Road, Forest Gate,
Essex.
Wilton, Thos., Winsor House, Beckton, E.
Windus, W., 15, Vyvyan Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
Wingham, A., 3, Villa Road, Brixton, S.W.
Winser, P. J., Wyck House, Bebington, Cheshire.
Winsloe, H., Messrs. Teunant & Co., 49, Faulkner Street,
Manchester.
Winstone, A. B., 7,'Gray's Iun Square, London, W.C.
Winstone, E. H., 2, Victoria Mansions, Victoria Street,
London, S.W.
Wire, A. P., 1, Seaton Villas, Birkbeck Road, Leytonstone,
E.
Wisbart, Jno., 39, St. Vincent Place, Glasgow.
Witt, Dr. Otto N. E., Lindenallee 33, Westend, bei Berlin.
Wolfenden, S., Wellington Terrace, Cowley Hill, St. Helens.
Wollheim, Hugo, 21, Ridgway Plae.e, Wimbledon. Surrey.
Womersley, P. B., Lynmead, Wanstead, Essex.
Wonfor, Wm. Jos., Lake View, Bessbrook, Co. Armagh.
Wood, Eber.ezer, Stephenson Street, Canning Town, K.
Wood, E. T., Brinseall, Chorley, Lancashire.
Wood, Jas., Stockwith-on-Trent, Gainsborough.
Wood, Joseph, Brinseall, near Chorley, Lancashire
Wood, J. Turney, Hound Road, West Bridgeford, Notting-
ham.
Wood. Milton R., Wyandotte, Mich., U.S.A.
Wood, Robt. B., Dalquhurn Works, Rcnton, N.B.
Wood, Wm., ! 28, Chaussee de Turnhout, Antwerp, Belgium.
Wood, W. C, Rosshead, Alexandria, Dumbartonshire.
Woodcock, R. ('., American and Continental Sanitas Co.,
636-642, West 55th Street, New York, U.S.A.
Woodham, Kingston G., 45, Parsonage Road, Withington,
Manchester.
Woodhead, Jas., Ashfield Terrace, Slaithwaite, near Hud-
dersfield.
Woodland, J., 173, Marylebone Road, London, N.W.
Woodman, Durand, 80. Beaver Strict and 127, Pearl
Street, New York, U.S.A.
Woodward, W. C, Biddulph Valley Coal and Iron Works,
Stoke-on-Trent.
Woolcombe, Dr. R. L., 14, Waterloo Road, Dublin.
Woolf, Mortimer, 16, Greville Place, London, N.W.
Woolley, G. S., 69, Market Street, Manchester.
Woolworth, J. G., 246, Fountain Street, Providence, R.I.,
U.S.A.
Worms, Emil, Elabouga, Govt, of Viatka, Russia.
Worrall, II., Crimsworth, Whalley Range, Manchester.
Worsley, P. J., Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
Wr'ay, 0. J. P., Fernleigh, Old Dover Road, Blackheath.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Jan. 30, 1892.
Wright, Alf., The Medical Hall, Yeovil.
Wright, Dr. C. R. Alder, St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington,
London, W.
Wright, Jos., 19, Arboretum Street, Nottingham.
Wright, L. T.. 11G9, Calle Alsina (Casilla 765), Buenos
Ayres.
Wiilffing, Dr. Charles, Abbey Mills Chemical Works,
Stratford, E.
Wuth, Dr. A., 37, Kapeller Strasse, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Wyatt, Dr. Francis, 12, Park Place, New York, U S.A.
VVykes, L., Minas de Rio Tinto, Huelva, Spain.
Wyld, J., Frizinghall Chemical Works, near Bradford,
Yorks.
Wylde, J. R., Fazakerley House, Prescot, Lancashire.
Wyndham, Dr. Stanley, c/o Mrs. Jamieson, 1, Marloes Road,
Kensington, W.
Wynne, Wm. P., 7, Tyneside Terrace, Parson's Green,
Fulham, S,W.
Y
Yates, F., f.4, Park Street, Soutlrwark, London, S.E.
Yates, H Noble, c/o Cowles Eieclric Smelting ami Alumi-
nium Co., Lockport, NY., U.S.A.
Yates, R., 64, Park Street, Soutlrwark, London, S.E.
Yglesias, M., 2, Tokenhouse Buildings, London, E.C.
Yosbida, Hikorokuro, Imperial University, Hongo, Tokyo,
Japan.
Yoshimura, K., Awomoriken Chu-gakko, Japan.
Young, A. C, 64, Tyrwhitt Road, St. John's, S.E.
Young, Brougham, Home Lyn, Woodberry Down, London,
N.
Young, Dr. Geo., Firth College, Sheffield.
Young, Jno., 2, Montague Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Young, Jno., Gasworks, Etruria, near Stoke-on Trent.
Young. J. R., 17, North Bridge, Edinburgh, N.B.
Young, Dr. Sydney, 13, Aberdeen Terrace, White Ladies
Road. Bristol.
Young, T, Graham, WestBeld, West Calder, N.B.
Young, W. C, 22, Windsor Road, Forest Gd:e. HI.
Young, Wm., Priorsford, Peebles, N.B.
Yule, Wm., Holiius Paper Works, Darwen, Lan> aslnre.
Zimmermann, A., 6/7, Cross Lane, St. Mary-at-IIill
London, E.C.
Zinkeisen, Dr. W.. 508, New City Road, Ulasgow.
Printed and Published by Hyre and Spottibwoope, East Hardinp Street, London, E.C, for the Society of Chemical Industl
THE JOURNAL
OB THE
Society of Comical ^noustty
A MONTHLY RECOED
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 1.— Vol. XI.]
JANUARY 30, 1892.
rxon
21
L s;
Non-Members 30/-jicr annum; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Mem here only) 2, 0.
Ctye £>orietp of Chemical Jnijustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 18S1— 1882.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S 1S82— 1883.
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1883—1881.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S 1881-1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1886.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 1888—1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 1889—1890.
E. Rider Ccok 1890-lSiil.
COUNCIL FOR TEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc , F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S. Ludwig Mond. F.R S.
Win. Crowdcr. Dr. Hugo Midler, F.R.S.
James Duncan. B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S. J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
David Howard. A. Norman Tate.
S. H. Johnscn. Sir John Turney.
Ordinary Members of Council:
A.H.Allen. E. K. Muspratt.
Arthur Boake. T.L.Patterson.
Jmo. Calderwood. Boverton Redwood.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus. Jno. Spiller.
H. Grimshaw. T. W. Stuart.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. William Thorp. B.Sr.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E. Rider Cook, East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr. F. Hurter.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
Chas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C,
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors:
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X. J. Walter Leather
H.Auer Til.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
G.H.Beckett.. V., VI., VII.
D. Bendii m.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Beruays,M.I.C.E. I.
E. J. Bevan V., XIX.
Ph.D :]xv-
F.H.Leeds III.. XXI.
A. Liebmann, Ph.D. [ IVJ^ '-
Bertram Blount . (yii^ '\i\i
Arthur G. Bloiam XIV., XV.
C. H. Bothamley XXI.
E. G. Clayton... { ' xvn}1"
V. Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII.
C.F.Cross... V., XII., XIX.
Oswald Hamilton ... I.
P. J . Uartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, 1 II. and I
D.Sc S Gen.Chem.
Chas. A. Kohn, ") r, „,
Ph D . . ] "en- Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIIL.XXIII.
T. A. Lawsou, Ph.D. . IV.
A. R.Lin? IV., XVI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E.Markel.Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. Ill, IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
J.M.H.Munro.D.Sc. XV.
H.S.Pattinson.Ph.D. VII.. X.
Van^r:} "I. xvn.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists
H. Schlichter, Ph.D.. v., XV
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
X. W. Tchaykovsky. B.A. Gen
Chem. (Russian Lit.'
Bertram Thomas .... XI.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H.Veley, M.A. Gen.Chem.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at How
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should he
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. i-.:m '
Notice i- hereby given, forthe information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contraetedfor by Messrs. Eybe and Spottisw k,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
The Secretary is instructed to negotiate for the purchase
of copies of the Society's Journal for January and May
lss::, January, February, and April 1886, and February
1889. Members possessing odd copies of these numbers are
particularly requested to communicate at once, stating price
required, with Mr. Cresswell. The stock of all other numbers
is at present sufficient for the Council's requirements.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 22nd JANUARY 1892.
Bookman, S., Mittelstrasse 21. I, Berlin, chemical student.
Breidahl, Harold T. W., federal Distillery, Port Mel-
bourne, Victoria, manager.
Buckley, Edwin, Beaver Park, Didsbury, Manchester,
chemical student.
Butterficld, W. .1. A.. 10, Tressillian Crescent, St. John's,
S.I'., analytical chemist.
Crawley, Arthur II., c/o Elmore's Patent Copper De-
positing Co., Lim., Pontefract Road, Hunslet, Leeds,
analytical chemist.
Davies, W. E., Beaumaris, R.S.O., North Wales, quarry
and lime works manager.
Dobb, Thos., Audrey Cottage, Union Road, Sharrow,
Sheffield, pharmaceutical chemist.
Fleming, Arnold, Britannia Pottery, 13G, Glebe Street,
Glasgow, potter.
Gilbard, Francis, The Laboratory, 17, Great Tower Street,
K.I '., analytical chemist.
Elaigh, Ben, 21, Cavendish Road, Leeds, dyer and dye-
wood extract maker.
Hill, Sydney, 11, Salisbury Street, The Pari;, Hull,
analyst.
Ilinshelwood, Thus., Glasgow Oil and Paint Works,
Glenpark Street, Glasgow, oil refiner.
Kaufmann, Dr. Herbert M., 1S2.J, Franklin Street,
Philadelphia, Pa., I'.S.A.
Kinnieutt. Prof. Leonard P.. Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, Worcester, Mass., U.S.A., professor of che-
mistry.
Pettigrew, Robt., 21, Titchbome Street, Edgwarc Road,
W., electro-chemist.
Potts, Jos. T., Price's Works, Bromhoro' pool, near Bir-
kenhead, chemist.
Robertson, G. 11., 30, Hemstall Road, West Hampsl ad,
N.W., electro -chemist.
Shanks, Archibald, Bridgend Mills, Dairy, Ayrshire, N.B.,
chemist.
Sykes, Jas., 7G, Lockwood Road, Huddersficld, analytical
chemist.
Warden, Jno. B., c/o 11. Ivitto, 30- -31, St. Swithin's Lane,
]•'..( '., analytical chemist.
Watson, Geo. P., Elm Lodge, Halliwell Lane. Chectham
Hill, Manchester, printworks chemist.
Weed, Henry T., 82, Robinson Street, Allegheny, Pa.,
1 S.A., teacher of analytical chemistry .
Adriancc, Jno. S., l/o Huntingdon ; 2, West 36th Street,
New York City, I .S.A.
',' i r, ]•'. Baden, 1 o Mauchcstei : Th i Grange, K nuts-
ford, Cheshire.
Bird, II., lo Devonport ; South Down House, South
I low ii, Plymouth.
Brasher, F. W., l/o 1 : S, Wyatt Road, Forest Gate, F.
Brunner, -I. V. L., 1 o Winnington ( >ld Hall ; The Hollies,
Hartford, Cheshire.
Budden, E. I!., l/o Hampstead ; 11, Furnival stint,
Holborn, E.G.
Burn-Murdoch, .1. V., lo Gravesendj c/o Capt. I'. II.
Burn-Murdoch, Pembroke Dock, South Wales.
Collins, H. S., l/'o Finsbury ; en General Apothecaries
Co., 49, Berners Street, W.
Cooper, II. P., In i: c,l, Foxham Road, Upper
Hollowav, X.
Davis, A. l; , lo Hcaton Nbrris; Dunowen, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
Dvorkovitz, P., l/o Finsbury Park; Fernwood, North
Hill, Highgate, N.
Eastwick, .1. II., lo Norristown ; Mellon Street, above
Margaretta, East Liberty, Pittsburgh, Pa., IS. A.
Emmeus, S. II., 1 o New Stanton : Youngwood, West-
moreland i lo., Pa., U.S.A.
Ford, J. S., l/o Abbotsford Park; Abbey Brewery,
Edinburgh.
Goldschmidt, Dr. S. A., 1 o .lav Street : 4:! — Til, Sedgwick
Street, Brooklyn, N.Y., l.s.A.
Gregory, W. J., l/o St. Thomas Street; 1, St. John's
Terrace, Weymouth.
Hall, J. A., l/o 128; 108, Lloyd Street, Greeuheys,
Manchester.
Herman, D., l/o West Park; St. Ann's, St. Helens.
Heslop, dos.l o Jarrow; 110, live Hill, N'oastlc-on-Tyne,
Horrocks, S., lo Prince's Park; 11, Parlcfield Load,
Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Humphries, J., l/o Edward Street; eo Humphries aid
Co., Adolphus Street, Bradford, Yoiks.
Ingle, Harry, Journals to ,1 . 7, [V., Munehen,
Bavaria.
Johnston, W. (,.. lo Hoboken; e/o A. Burns Glen, 8,
Great Winchester Street. E.C.
Kershaw, J. B. C., l/o Streathara Hill; University Hall,
Gordon Square, W.( I.
Kunhcim, Dr. 11., 1 o Lindenstrasse ; 32, Dorathoeustrasse,
Berlin.
Lagcrwall, Dr. Ivar, l/o St. Petersburg; RodhusriUten,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Leete,Jos.,l o Tooley Street ; 19—25, Bi n Isey St.,S.E
Lindemann, G., l/o Altona; Langercihc 18, II., rechts,
St. Panli, Hamburg.
Ling, A. Ii.,1 o Wandsworth ; Brooklands, Thames Dillon,
Surrey.
Liversedge, A. J., l/o London; c/o Mirrlces, Watson,
and Yaryan Co., Ld., 45, Scotland Street, Glasgow.
Lodge, Edw., l/o 35 ; 27, Cowcliffe Hill, HuddersEeld.
Limn, C, I o Fenay Bridge; Slantgate, Kirkburton, near
Hnddersfield.
Luthy, nun, |,, Philadelphia; c/o American Alumina
Co., Barberton, < Ihio, L.s.A.
Manhes, P., I/o Rue du Plat; 3, Rue Sala, Lyon.Franec.
McDougall, A., l/o Greenheys; Fallowfield House,
Fallow liehl, Manchester.
Meyer, Max E., I O Sutton : 8, Duchess Strict, Portland
Place, W.
Miller, Dr. \ K., l/o Hammersmith ; irdwicl; Brewerv,
Manchester,
Jan. so, 1398.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Nichols, \V. II., l/o 41 i i5—41 Cedar Street, New York
City, U.S. A.
Petty, A., 1 i) Stamford Hill ; 33, ( 'lapton < 'ommon, K.
Pilkingtou, (;.. Journals to Laboratory, 28, Pall Mall,
Manchester.
Quincke, Dr. F., l/o London; Chemise he Fabrik Rhenania,
Stolbcrgh bei Aachen, Germany.
Ramsay, Win , 1 o Liverpool ; Chemical Laboratory,
University College of Wales, Aberystwith.
Reid; W. G., l/o Kimbcrley ; Soap Works, Beaeonsfield
Diamond Fields, South Africa.
Richards, Edgar, 1 o Washington : 113, East 30th Strei i.
New York, U.S.A
Richardson, C. T., 1/6 Newcastle; 27, Jcwin Crescent,
( Iripplegate, E ( '.
Sankey, ( '. 11.; all communications to Hillsboro' Lodge,
Duhvieh Grove, North Dulwich, S.E.
Schellhaas, II., l/o 5i ; 38, Navigation Road, Northwiuh.
Scott, Ernest <;.. lo Bebington ; WoodclifEo, Burgess
Hill, Hampstead, N.wl
Scrutton, W. J., l/o Nevada ; Lake Valley, New Mexico,
U.S.A.
Semet, L, l/o Rue du Prince Albert; 217, Chaussee de
Vleurgat, Brussels.
Smith, A. J., 1 o Catherine Street : 84, Page Hall Road,
Fir Vale, Sheffield.
Smith, R. Watson, l/o Uphall; Young's Oil Co., Lim.,
Chemical Works. Bathgate, X.B.
Solvay, A., lo Boitsfort; 2*), Rue do Prince Albert,
Brussels.
Solvay, E., 1 o Rue du Prince Albeit ; 43, Rue des Champs
Elysoes, Brussels.
Stevenson, J. C, M.P., l/o South Shields ; .'53, Devonshire
Place, W.
Stevenson, J. S., l/o South Shields; 33, Devonshire
Place, W.
Taylor, Jno., l/o Belgrave Pharmacy ; IS, Lucius Street,
Torquay.
Thomson, Dr. And., I/o 7 ; 10, Piteullen Terrace, Perth.
Tomlinson, G. G., 1 o Widnes ; c/o W. li. Kay, 1 6, Halton
Road, Runcorn.
Tompkins, II. IC, l/o Pimlico; 11, Promenade, Bromley,
Kent.
Trimnell, C. II., I/o New Maiden ; Elmhurst, Maiden,
Surrey.
Voclcker, E. W.. l/o Salisbury Square ; 22, Tudor St., E.C.
Walker, Alex., l/o Irvine Chemical Co. ; Alex. Walker
& Co., Alkali Works, Irvine, N.B.
Waterbouse, 1,'obt., l/o Sheffield; Villa Bejnch, Jena (in
Thuringen), Germany.
Wilding, .las., jun., I/o Lancashire ; 2G(i, Burdclt Road, E.
Young, Jno., l/o Bellhaven Terrace ; 2, Montague Terrace,
Kelvinside, Glasgow.
£onoon Action.
Chemical Society's Rooms, BunLixr.ToN House.
C. F. Cross.
J. Dewar.
A. G. Green.
S. Hall.
C. W. Heaton
J. Heron.
D. Howard.
Chairman : T. Tyrer.
I 0/tairman: W. Crowder.
Committee:
W. Kellner.
B. Redwood.
W. S. Squire.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
Win. Thorp.
T. E. Thorpe.
Ron. Loral Secretary : John Heron,
St. John's Villas, AVorple Road, Wimble Ion,
SESSION 1S91-92.
18D2 :—
Fell. 1st :—
Messrs. J. A. Wankl.vn and W. Johnstone. " The Acids of the
Fatty Series and certain of their Derivatives."
Mr. Watson Smith. "The Stability of certain Organic
Nitrogen Compounds occurring in I :oal-Tar Pitch."
Ekbatum.
In the December number of this Journal, 1891, page 983,
col. 1, line 30, the formula; in brackets ought to read as
follows : —
a a (
on
(III
instead of
O (
Nil
on
and
(III \
on J
EXCHANGE LIST.
Fischer, Dr. F., l/o Hanover; 26,Wilhelm Weber Strassc,
Gottingen, Germany.
Ikatfts.
Ileisch, Chas., 79, .Mark Lane, E.C.
I'eikin, T. 1)., Greenford Green, Harrow.
Powell, W. A., Maison Marie Louise, Ilj-ercs (Var),
France.
Towns, Win., Invell Lane, Runcorn.
iHanrftfsftrr £>rrtton.
J. Align!!.
G. H. Bailey.
R. F. Carpenter.
G. E. Davis.
II. Grimshaw.
liarold B. Dixon.
Chairman: Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman : Edw. Schunck.
Committee :
J. Grossmami,
P. Hart.
A. Liebmcnn.
SirH. E.Itosco?, M.P.
C. Trnby.
1). Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Brougliton, Manchester.,
Notices of Paper-; and Communications for the Meetings to be
scut to the Local Secretary.
e 2
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. LJan.so,iB9
Meeting held Friday, December Ith, 1891.
I\ IN LEVINSTEIN IX THIS CHAIR.
THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE l'.V
PRECIPITATION.
BY J. BARROW.
The origin of this paper is from some experimental work
which I was requested to undertake, as to the action on
sewage of a new precipitant, technically known as " Clarine."
The material is in the form of a 'solution which consists
mainly of a very hasic perchloride of iron, absolutely free
from "ferrous salts. That is to say, it is a ferric chloride,
supersaturated with ferric hydrate.
1 have not made a sufficiently minute chemical examina-
tion of the iron compound contained to he able to state
whether it is an oxyehloride or not, but such is probably the
case.
I have mad.1 a large number of experiments, both
quantitative and qualitative, on many samples of sewage and
works effluents of various descriptions, including amoug
others the sewages of Salford, Pendleton, Moston, Newton
Heath, Failsworth, Gorton, Clayton, and Accringcon,
effluents from bleach works, paper works, dye works, sizing
and finishing works, pail washings from the Manchester
Corporation Cleansing Department, and also the water from
the Manchester ship Canal Docks.
I may make thr following observations on the action of
Clarine : —
1. As a general rule what I should call the worst sewages
are the most easily purified, that is to say, those sewages
containing the most faecal or similar putrescible matter.
2. It is most essential to observe the exact condition of the
sewage as to neutrality, alkalinity, or acidity before adding
the precipitant. Most descriptions of sewage and effluent
waters are best precipitated in a neutral solution, many are
efficiently acted on in alkaline, whilst in a certain number
the precipitate does not easily subside unless the sewage or
effluent is acid.
:!. It is almost essential to add exactly the right quantity
of " Clarine," any deviation from this usually interfering with
the clarification and subsidence of the precipitated matters.
The quantity 1 found suitable to most sewages is about
15 grains per gallon, that is to say about one ton to the
million gallons. This quantity I found to work admirably
with Salford sewage.
4. The "Clarine" has a remarkably quick action,
rendering the albuminous matters in solution insoluble, and
the fioeculent precipitate thus formed, as a rule subsides
with great rapidity. This ina\ be owing to the excess of
iron it contains.
1 will now proceed to a consideration of the numerical
data bearing on the subject of the paper.
For the purposes of comparing the action of 'Clarine"
with that of other precipitant* and pioccsscs, I have been
able to obtain figures ready to hand which are the work of
Mi. Carlcr Hell, Dr. Burgbardt, Dr. Angus Smith,
Dr. Wallace, and others in relation to the "International,"
"Electrical," and "lime" processes. These are the only
processes which can be said to be in the field for the
purification of sewage.
The major part of my attention has been devoted to Ihe
analysis of effluents produced by the action of "Clarine"
under varying conditions.
I will first quote, however, one special scries of experiments
which I made with four different methods of precipitation,
viz., " lime," " ferrous sulphate," " alumino-ferric cake and
lime." and " clarine."
These experiments were performed on Salford sewage
with chemically equivalent quantities of ferrous sulphate
and sulphate of alumina and 15 grains per gallon of lime.
These experiments illustrate the chemical action of the
processes above enumerated, as the precipitation portion of
the " International " and " Electrical " systems is the
addition of soluble ferrous compounds to the sewage in
what I venture to say an unnecessary expensive form.
The figures which I have chosen as the best indication of
the amount of noxious polluting material in sewage is the
amount of albuminoid ammonia. The reasons for this we
can discuss if time permits. I merely remark here, that
the adoption of this figure is as fair to one process as
another.
To summarise my results, the average amount of albumi-
noid ammonia contained in the raw sewage was 0'12 parts
per 100,000, which, after treatment, was reduced as
follows : —
Parts per 100,000,
Ferrous sulphate 0 045
Alumino-ferric cake and lime 0"03
Lime O-O-t
"Clarine" O'OS
Tin' above figures give the following average percentages
of purification —
Per Cut.
Ferrous sulphate 6>
Alumino-ferric oake and limo 75
Lime 73
" Clarine" s:s
as indicated by the loss in albuminoid ammonia. The per-
centage of purification by the lime is considerably higher
than is often the case, being generally about 40 per cent.
This appears certainly in favour of the last-named
process. The sewage at the time was apparently in a very
dilute condition, owing, no doubt, to the heavy rain we
were having, but I am of opinion that with more concen-
trated sewage " Clarine " would remove proportionally larger
amounts of noxious matter, I am proceeding with further
work, which will decide this.
The following are a few results obtained from sewages
of various descriptions before and after treatment with
I ."> grains per gallon of clarine : —
Free Ammonia.
Albuminoid
Ammonia.
Percentage
of Albuminoid
Annie nia ro.i oved.
Sewage | Salford, 1Mb November .
Effluent Salford. after (realm. nt .
Sewage Salford, lsl October
Effluent Salford, after treatment.
Sewage ' Salford, 5th October
Salford, after treatment
Mop Canal, 171I1 November
Ship * lanal, after treatment
Heaton Mersey, December 1830 .
Hcatnn Mersey, after treatment .
Sewage Moston Brook, 3rd December ...
Effluent Moston Brook, after tn atment..
I
I " nl
Water
Effluent
Effluent
If w
0' 16
05
II- t
(To
0-6
0-1
O'l
4-5
2-0(1
Tails per 100,000.
0'ie
0-025
0-50
0*05
iron
li'i'.'
111 p.",
ii-iiii.-,
0-8
in.-,
0-2
O'OS
Per Cent.
si
90
EG
90
Jan. SO, ISS2.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
The samples taken from Heaton Mersey were taken
before and after treatment on the large scale.
The following table contains a number of determina-
tions of albuminoid ammonia contained in the effluents
from the different processes under consideration.
Albuminoid Ammonia in Sewage Effluents of
Various Descriptions in Parts per luo.ooo.
Authority.
" Inter-
national."
Dr. Burghiu-dt...
0-8
0-15
0-5
0'7
il't
O'Ol
Mr. Carter Hell.
Mi. Carter Bell ..
Dr. Aliens Smith.
after irrigation.
Hi-. Wallace
0'3 0-07
ii-ll 0M1
0'2 O'OO
0T7 0'12
0-15 011
0'10 0-12
0-03 0111"
0 • 1 1 1 ; irl.j
0-111 (i-'Jl
iril Ois
Linn'
Process.
0-27
0-305
0-GI>
(C21
U-l-0-21
0'33
Authority.
Electrical.
3Ir. Carter Bell.. 0"
„ .. If
• • if
„ .. 0'
.. ii
xhardt.
iril
0-17
ii-l
0-12
0"25
P"!7
0-27
11-20 0-31
iri (I- 1
»-.-; If 1
0-15 11-17
Aluiuino-
ferric.
II 3 0-3
... "10 If32
„ ... 11-311 0-3
... 0-4
Clarin<\
J. Barrow 0'025| 0'02
„ iro.j 0-02
O'li'i "■(':;
0-15
l
Dr. Burgliardt..
=i»JS3*iJ»s«=
THE COST OK SOME OF THE PROCESSES
OF SEWAGE TREATMENT.
BY HARRY GK1MSIIAW, I'.C.S.
The consideration of cost in relation to sewage matters is,
as we tdl know, not only important but absolutely vittd.
In the case of any process otherwise fairly effective we
must ascertain what the expense of working it will be, for, of
course, the process may be put out of court simply on
account of the prohibitive cost of working it. All studies
therefore of the chemical bearings of the different methods
of dealing with sewage must of necessity iuii concurrently
with the study of the cost of those processes. Now, as
many of you know, the different materials which have been
used for the so-called purification of sewage are in number
legion. 1 will just run through a few of them for the
amount of cbemicul interest an enumeration of the names
may contain. Lime has been used, chloride of lime, gas-tar,
chloride of magnesia, sulphate of alumina, otherwise called
alumino ferric, phosphates of lime and other phosphates,
sulphate of iron, and black-ash waste. Then we have the
"A, B, C " process with its alum, blood, and clay j but to
the " A, 11, G " they did at one time add magnesia, man
ganate of soda and potash, charcoal (animal and vegetable),
magnesiau limestone, carbon waste (from prussiate works),
and coal-dust.
Coming down to recent times, there is herring brine, an
extraordinary compound to my mind, and pet-chloride of
iron. Most of these substances tire what, I venture to say,
most chemists would call absurdities with regard to their
purifying action on sewage. I would only remark in rela-
tion to them that probably those of them I have named
which are added in a liquid form are rather better than
those which are added in a solid form, because they do not
gratuitously add weight to the sludge which is subsequently
precipitated. Very luckily for me, and for you also, in
considering the question this evening, the possible processes
for sewage purification appear to me to be few, and I think
Barrow in the previous paper enumerated almost all of them.
These processes are principally, 1 might say, precipita-
tion processes, or they are processes of precipitation
followed by subsequent filtration. I have thought it well
this evening to leave the treatment of sewage by irrigation
out of consideration for the moment, because it would have
caused my address to assume an undue length had I done
otherwise ; and another reason is that we find as a rule that
processes of irrigation are not by any means suited to towns
in crowded manufacturing districts, and certainly not for
the district of which Manchester may be said to be the
centre. Of course that is iu consequence of the very large
area of land which is apparently required for the effectual
treatment of sewage by irrigation. Iu England, as far as 1
can judge from the data furnished by experiments tried in
various parts of the country, about 200 acres of land are
required for a million gallons of sewage per day, if you arc
to be safe under all contingencies. It is true that in France
they appear to be able to do with less land. From Paris
it is reported that they have fairly successfully treated one
million gallons of sewage per day on 90 acres of land. It
may be that the climate of France is more suitable for
irrigation systems than that of England, which, as we all
know, is very continuously wet. For nearly half of the
year, in consequence of the incessant rainfall, we have our
land in a water-clogged condition, independent of any
sewage effluent we may pour upon it. Another reason why
I have not gone into the cost of irrigation is that the sewage
iu manufacturing towns is not at all adapted for farm irri-
gation. I fancy a good deal of it is much better adapted
to kill grass and various kinds of vegetation than to nourish
it. Vet another reason is that it is difficult to get reliable
data of the cost of irrigation. Premising the incidental
matters I have thus indicated, the real purpose of my paper-
is to present in a condensed and simplified form a com-
parison of the cost of some of the chemical processes which
have been tried or are likely to be adopted on a large scale
for the purifying of sewage. The processes between which
the comparison of cost are made iu my paper are mainly,
as 1 said before, those which formed the subject of the
paper of Mr. Barrow ; but they will also, of course, contain
references to what I might call other than chemical pro-
cessus. The data on which the present study of the
question of cost is based, in so far as I could possibly base
it, on the results of actual working or of trials on a very
large scale, and I will proceed to an examination of the cost
of about six processes, which, so far as I can judge, are
the only ones that appear likely to come iuto actual
practice on a large scale. The six processes 1 refer to are the
lime treatment, the ahimino-ferrie process, the Barry Com-
pany's process, the electrolytic process, the international
process, and the Clariue process, which hist is the newest of
the series and will shortly, 1 am informed, be put into
operation on the whole of the Salford sewage. Iu the"nrst
place, I will call your attention to figures in connexion
with — ■
Tin; Lime Treatment,
At this stage I think I ought to acknowledge my very
great indebtedness to the report of the Salford Sewage
Committee, which I think I am not far wrong in saying
forms by far the largest and !nost significant attempt extant
in this country to obtain a definite conclusion in regard to
those different processes of sewage treatment, and < >f course
iu this case the figures are based on actual working of the
process or on very large experiments which have been
carried on at Salford. I need scarcely say that I have
THE JOUHNAL OE THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, LSS2.
• arcs wherever possible by comparison with
data from other districts. I take now the annual cost of
tliu lime treatment as at Salford. The actual amount of
sewage which I believe lias been treated at Salford regularly
is something like 8,000,000 gallons per day, and I have been
able to obtain the figures for the treatment of that amount
rage, so that the figures I give you first relate to the
treatment of 8,000,000 gallons per day. 1 have summarised
the figures, so that I shall not detain you by unnecessary
wandering in a maze of detail. The cost of the actual lime
treatment, including the cost of the lime and the labour of
putting it in, is 54/. 10s. per week, which is equivalent to
2,S54/. per annum. The pumping of the sewage costs about
36/. per week, which is over 1,S00/. per annum. The
manipulation of the sludge costs about 29/. per week, which
is a little over 1,500/. per annum. Taken together, the sums
I have mentioned give a total of 6,248/. per annum. Well,
in order to make that figure complete — of course I hope
that my way of getting at the figures will be criticised as
freely as possible — in order to make that estimate complete,
I have added to that what appears to me to be the expense
of the sinking fund in connexion with the sewage accounts,
and that I have taken the liberty of culling from a letter of
Mr. Councillor Corbett, in the " Manchester Guardian,"
where he states that amount to be 3,626/. The total,
therefore, of these items for the lime treatment of 8,000,000
gallons is 9,847/.: you may say within a shade of 10,000/.
Now on my own account I have added to that the cost, as
ascertained from the Salford figures, of filtering the effluent,
which would be 1,0202. So that if you filtered the lime-
treated sewage you would have a cost of 10,894/. In
following these comparisons out I have calculated the fore-
going figures, and the figures for the other processes, on
10,000,000 gallons per da}-, and increasing the cost at
Salford to 10,000,000 gallons per clay, I get for the lime
treatment at the above rate — materials and labour and
incidental cost of operations — 3,567/., and for filtration
through sand filters, six acres and works thereto, taken on
the authority of the Salford engineer, 25,500/, at 5 per cent.
per annum, 1,275/., or a total of 4,S42/. In order to make
sure that I was not deceiving myself, and to make sure that
the Salford figures were not deceiving me iu any way, I have
looked up the report of the Bradford sewage works, where
they also use the lime process, and I have obtained very
exhaustive figures indeed from this report. 1 have obtained
separately the cost of management, labour, rates, lime, coal,
coke breeze and coke, oil, grease, and tallow, gas water,
cotton waste, repairs to boilers and machinery, repairs to
tools and implements, blacksmith and ironmonger, charge
for railway siding, and miscellaneous expenses (See
Table Xo. 2.) This appears to me to be a very exhaustive
summary, and the figures given for the quantity which is
purified at Bradford agree very fairly well with the Salford
figures, that is, of course, without taking into consideration
any question of sinking fund, because that is a matter of
local arrangement, and would vary very much. Allowing
for the fact that the lime i- a little cheaper at Bradford, the
figures given in the Bradford report agree well with those in
the Salford report.
The cost of the lime and the cost of putting it in, ami
the cost of the filter at Salford come to 4,84'.'/. for
10,000,000 gallons, and this agrees well with the figures
for the Bradford lime process in 1 S7S, viz., 4.670/. We
next have the cost of manipulating the sludge — 1 have
a table with regard to this which 1 will quote later on
—at Salford from 10,000,000 gallons and taking their
own 8,000,000 gallons as the basis of the calculation of
the cost of manipulating the sludge it is 1,902/. Now in
order that I may convey the figures to you more precisely,
and in order that you may be able to follow me iu these
comparisons, I have calculated the cost per annum down
into cost per million gallons per annum for precipitation,
for filtration and manipulation of sludge, and then I have
calculated the actual cost for one million gallons only. The
cost per million gallons per annum for precipitation in
Salford is 217/., the cost of filtration 2702., and the cost of
manipulating the sludge 190/., making a total of 1,77/. per
million gallons per annum. That gives us an actual cost
per million gallons of 37s. 1</. Now then we will take the
so-called —
An mi.vo-fkiuuc Process.
It is really the sulphate of alumina process, because the
only thing which can dignify it as "ferric" at all is the
presence in it of a trace of sulphate of iron. It is really
sulphate of alumina. Here again 1 am basing my figures
on actual experiments carried on at Salford. I find that
alumino-ferric eake, 4,500 tons at 21., costs 9,000/. Then
you add to that 1,600 tons of lime at 10s. a ton, 800/.
Labour is put down at 1,700/., depreciation and repairs l.'n/.,
and sand filters, six acres and works — the same ground as
before— 25,500/. at 5 per cent., 1,275/. ; total 12, '.125/. That
gives us a cost permillion gallons per annum for precipitation
1,022/., filtration 270/. as before, manipulation of sludge
almost the same as for the lime process, 201'/. instead of
190/. If we refine this down to the cost per million
gallons we get a cost of 81s. 9c7. if the sewage is filtered. If
it is not filtered, and they do not at Salford, the cost becomes
07s. per million gallons. Then I come to the so-called- -
Barrv PrOi i S8
though it is really rather a work of supererogation to
discuss this process, because according to a repent I saw in
the newspapers the company was liquidated a week ago.
Nevertheless, I will make the comparison. The Barry
Company as it appears to me, has made a very bad attempt
at establishing what in my opinion might have been a fairly
good process. The figures are these : — Ferric liquor,
7,150 tons at 1/. 15s., 12,510/.: spent lime, which I under-
stand is spent lime from the gas works or similar material
(whether they sometimes use the waste from the alkali
works I do not know), of that there is 7,700 tons at 3s. per
ton, 1,185/. Labour I have taken from the Salford figures
the same as before, 1,700/.; depreciation and repairs 150/.,
the same as before ; and|sand filters the same as before, also
1,275/. Then there is a figure added here for royalty and
in cessary building 50,0002. at 5 per cent., 25,000/., making
the total cost for this process 19,3202. Without running
through the other figures the above amount for 10,000,000
gallons per annum brings this rather inferior process up to
a charge of 116s. 10rf. per million gallons. The next
system that I have the figures for is —
The Electrolytic System.
And here again we have very good figures supplied from
the Salford experiments. The figures are these : —
Iron electrodes, 5,400 tons, renewed every five years,
4,500/. ; labour, 1,800/. — this, you will notice, is 100/. more
than the other, and I should think it is somewhat under-
stated even then. For depreciation and repairs we must
add considerably more for this process as the machinery
necessary to produce the chemical effect desired in working
the process is very costly, making a sum of 1,250/. ; coal
for working engines, 1,900/.; sand-filters as before, 1.275/.
Without paying any royalty (what the royalty is I do not
know, or whether there is any royalty) the total cost per
annum for dealing with 10,000,000 gallons of sewage is
11.725/. The cost per million gallons per annum for
precipitation is 902/. ; for filtration, 27o/. ; and for manipu-
lation of sludge, which, of course, varies according to the
quantity of sludge the process produces, 115/. Total, 1,2S7/.
This works out to a cost per million gallons of 70s. 6d.
The next process I come to is —
The International Process,
In this case we have to begin with seven grains per
gallon of ferrozone, which amounts to 1,630 tons at 50s.,
4,075/. : labour the same as in the electrolytic process,
1,8002. '1'lie filters are different, they are the so-called
polaritc filters, six acres, and other works, which are put
down to cost 52,0002, at 5 per cent., 2,600/., which makes
a total for the three items of 8,625/. In all the other
processes the amount of precipitant which is added I have
calculated into chemical equivalents, that is to say, I find,
for instance, that in the " (.Marine " process, to which 1 shall
allude later, the amount of iron used, 15 grains per gallon
of sewage, is chemically almost equivalent to the amount of
i .is.'i THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
alumina in the alum cake used in the alumino-ferric process,
ami, curiously enough, so is the iron which is dissolved in
the " electroh tic " process. They are in that respect on all
fours — they all add chemicals equal to this 15 grains
solution of iron per million gallons. Of the ferrozone
seven grains is used per gallon. If you added 11 grains to
make it L 8, that would make the actual amounts of iron
equivalent in all eases. Von would have to add one and a
half times uioie of this ferrozone to produce the same result,
so that you sec il is an absolutely vital question how much
of this precipitant you are going to use, because if you use
seven grains youget a cost of 8,6252., hut if you add an
amount equivalent to what is used in the other processes
you get an additional 6,403/., or a total of 15,0282. There-
fore with regard to this process I have taken out the cost
p< r million gallons as before, and I arrive at the figure of
i is. 1'/., but if I add a larger quantity of ferrozone the cost
would be 90s. per million gallons. This includes the cost of
the filter. If you added that amount of ferrozone there would
be rather more sludge. 1 am quite sure that if you use
only seven grains you will get a very imperfect precipitation,
and \ou aie relying almost entirely on your filter for tile
purification of your sewage. The last of (lie figures 1 have
taken out relate to —
The "Clarine" Process.
I it course the figures I shall give here are, i believe,
quite reliable. They have been arrived at after the same
fashion as the others, and the price 1 have taken is the price
per ton at which 1 am informed the makers are prepared to
supply the iron solution. Of this so-called Clarine 15
grains are used per gallon of sewage, or one ton per million
gallons, which gives 3,G50 tous at 30s., 5,475/. The labour
I have taken at 200Z. per annum less than the aluminc-
ferric and the lime, because this substance is a liquid and
simply requires running into the sewage. It does not
require any mechanical mixing. Depreciation and repairs
1 have set down at 150Z-, as before. The cost of filters is
the same, 1,275/. To this I have added 3G5 tons of lime at
lo.i., because in some of my experiments I found I had
to add lime for neutralising. Therefore I have added IS:;/.
I'or lime. Dividing the total out in the same way, without
going into details, the cost per million gallons by this
process, if filtered by the same filters as before, is 54s. 2d ,
but if filtration is not employed, which I am informed is
not considered in most cases to be necessary, the cost will
be 40.s. There is a certain area of sand filters, such as arc
commonly used by sewage engineers.
A summary of the method by which these figures arc
arrived tit will be found in the tables appended : —
i;..i ry Company (no filtration) Hi:
International with the equivalent
amount of ferozonc (filtration) 90
Alumino-ferric (filtration) si
Alumino-ferric (no filtration) 75
Electric (filtration) 7u
International (filtration) 54
Clarine (filtration )
Clarine (no filtration) 1"
Lime ( nitration)
All except the first and last processes propose to filter.
The only figures I shall trouble you with now are some
relating to the cost of disposing of the. sludge, which is a very
important matter, as we all know. Taking again the figures
given by Mr. Newton in the Salford report we have these
data. Raw or crude sewage contains matter in suspension
amounting to probably 25 grains per gallon, which in
10,000,000 gallons per day equals : — in dry state, 16 tons ;
in pressed cake, 32 tons; as wet sludge, 160 tous. The
following is an estimate of the weights per annum which is,
I think- fairly accurate, that is on 10,000,000 per day of
Salford sewage. I will only cite the dry weights (the
others are given in the table appended): Raw sewage
gives 5, Slu tons; the International process," 7,500 tons;
the Electric, 6,900 tons; the Harry Company's process,
12,000 tons; the Alumino-ferric process, 12,000 tons; the
lime treatment, 11,420 tons; and the Clarine, 6,754 tens.
These are my own figures from the data given in the Salford
report, and 1 have arrived at them after taking the amount
of sludge from the raw sewage and adding the amount of
let tie hydrate, alumina, or lime salts formed by the quantity
of precipitant added. In the ease of lime I have assumed
that it would mostly be converted into carbonate of lime.
Some of it may be converted into sulphate, which of course
would increase the weight, but a little of it would dis-
solve. So that if I take the lime as entirely converted into
carbonate I think I get a fair estimate of the quantities
of sludge from the lime process. The cost of manipulating
the sludge is for treating it as is done at Salford, namely,
running it on to draining beds and afterwards removing it,
simply allowing it to accumulate. If it were collected and
pressed the cost would be very considerably more, pro-
bably double, and this would naturally tell in favour of
(hose processes which produce the least sludge.
Sludge Produced by Various Processes.
Pressed
Cake.
Wcl
Sludge,
Tdiis. Tons. Tons.
Rawscwage i.stll 11,080 5S,M>0
International 7,500 16,000 75,000
Electrical 0,900 13,800 09,01.0
BarryOo 12,000 'Jl.inu 120,000
Alumiuo-ferric 12,000 24.000 120,0,0
Lime 11,420 22.S40 114,200
Clarine 0,731 18,508 t7-".t"
1 am sorry to have had to give so many figures, hut my
apology is the very obvious one that you cannot possibly
treat questions of cost without so doing.
Table 1.
Annual Cost vi Salpobjdi (Report, January 1891),
and utiiei; At riiiiiti i . i.-.
Lime Tki. vtmk.m (aboi i 8,000,000 Gallons).
£ .1. d.
Lime treatment 31 ID 0 per week
l'mnping s&wnge 3t; 0 0 „
Manipulation of sludge . . 2'.' o u ,,
Sinking fund (Councillor Curbed, Xov. 21st,
1S91— letter to *' Manchester Guardian " . . . .
t .'. d.
2j854 0 0
1,872 0 0
1,522 0 0
0,248 0 0
3,026 0 0
9.S74 0 0
Filters for 8,000,000 gallons of effluent 1,020 0 "
Lime Treatment foe 10,000,000 Gallons per Dat.
£ s. d.
Lime treatment at above rale (material and
labour V) 3,507 0 0
Sand filters, six acres and works— 25,500?. at
5 per cent 1,275 0 0
4,812 II (I
The .ibive cost agrees well with the figures £ s. d.
fcr the Bradford lime process in ls;s (.,.r
note*), viz 4,(170 0 0
* Cost of lime treatment at Bradford, Yorkshire, calculated on
10,000.000 gallons, in the year ls7s :
C s. d.
Lime, 1\ tons per day (2,740 tons at 10s.) 1,370 0 o
Salaries and wages *?,1!'S (I 0
Repairs 203 0 u
Miscellaneous expenses '<w u o
4,070 II 0
THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan.so.issa.
manipulation of sludge produced from £ s. d.
10,000,000 gallons, equal to 11,430 tons, dry,
see Table 9, sludge from various processes — 1.902 0 0
Cos! per million gallons per annum for
precipitation 21* u u
i osl per million gallons per annum for
filtration -<° ° °
Cost per million irallons per annum for
manipulation of sludge
190 n ii
G77 0 0
Cost per million gallons 37s. Id.
In Table II. will lie found a full statement of the
expenses at Bradford in the year 1883 on 8,450,000 gallons
of sewage, which, on allowing for slightly less cost of
materials, also agrees fairly well with the Salford estimate
(1891 Report), the comparison being perhaps a little in
favour of Bradford.
Table II.
Annul Cost of Working the Lime Process at
Bradford in the Year 1883.
C s. d.
Management 3"8 l7 °
Labour 1,454 18 10
Rates 37 -' "-
Lime »93 "0
Coal '«' I
( Ii ike-breeze and coke 56 16 9
Oil, grease, and tallow 50 s "
Gas :» 5 '
Water 60" °
Cotton waste e 12 10
Repairs to boilers and machinery 09 12 10
Repairs to tools and implements 48 19 2
Blacksmith and ironmonger '-5 0 6
Charge for railway siding 11 5 7
Miscellaneous 31 19 1
8,302 2 4
II the daily How be taken at 8,450,000 gallons, the cost of
treatment would be 2s. 2d. per 100,000 gallons.
The eost of the principal materials used are as follows : —
Lime Uio'portou
e-brceze ° u
Cod u 1 "
The reduced eost of working in comparison to that of
Leeds is due to the fact that the sewage flows to the works
by gravitation, whereas at Leeds pumping machinery is
required. Coal and lime are also cheaper than at Leeds.
The materials are conveyed to the works by the railway,
with which they are in communication by means of a siding.
Some of the above advantages are also in favour of
Bradford as compared with Salford.
Table III.
Annual Cost at Salford (Newton's Report, &i ).
\iimino-1-- errii Pro< ess (10,000,000 Galls, per Day).
6 s. d.
Alumino-ferrie cake (4,500 tons at 21) 9,000 0 0
Lime (1,000 tons at 10s.) 800 o 0
Labour '■7'.10 " "
Depreciation and repairs
Sand filter.", six acres and works (2o,OOoZ. at
5 per cent.)
Manipulation of sludge
1,4925 0 0
Table IV.
Anni ll Com at Salford (Newton's Report, &c).
Barry Company's Process (10,000,000 Gall-, per Day)
£ s. d.
Ferric liquor (7,150 tons at 11. 15s.) 12,510 0 0
Spent lime (7,700 tons at 3s.) 1.185 0 0
Labour L700 0 0
Depreciation anil repairs 150 0 0
Sana lilters. six acres and works (23,000*. at
Spercont.) 1.275 0 0
Royalty and necessary buildings (50,( I. at
5percent.) 2,500 0 0
Manipulation of sludge 2,000 0 0
1,275 0 o
■join 0 ll
Total
£
d.
1,1122 0 II
i ., I per million gallons per annum for pre-
cipitation
i osl per million gallons per annum for nitra-
tion -•" " °
Cost per million gallons per annum for mani-
pulation of sludge 200 0 0
Cost per million gallons 81s. 07.
ii 1 1 til i > i . I TV
Total . .
21,320 0 0
Cost per million gallons per annum for pic-
eip'tatiou.
£ s. d.
1,002 0 0
Cost per iniUion'gallons per annum for filtra-
tion 2W ° 0
Cost per million gallons per annum for mani-
pulation of sludge 200 (I 0
2,132 0 0
i lost per million gallons, 110s. 10/.
Table V.
Annual Cost \t Salford (Newton's Report, &c.).
Electrolytic Process (10,000,000 Galls, per Day).
£ s. d.
Iron electrodes, 5,400 tons, renewed every five
years.. 4,500 0 (I
Labour'.'.'.'. 1.800 0 0
Depreciation and repairs 1.250 0 o
Coal for working engines 1,900 0 0
Steam engines, di names and works (20,0003 at
5 per cent,) WW 0 o
Sand filters, six acres and works (25,500?. at
5percent.) '.275 0 0
Manipulation of sludge hi 50 0 0
Total u.r royally) 12,875 0 0
£ s. d.
Cost per million ga'lons per annum for pre-
cipitation 0112 II ll
Cost per million nations per annum for filtra-
tion 270 u 0
Cost per million gallons per annum for mani-
pulation of sludge H5 " I)
1,287 o o
Cost per million gallons, 70s. Gd.
Table VI.
Annual Cost \t Salford (Newton's Report, &c).
International Process (10,000,000 Galls, per Day).
£ s. d.
Ferrozone, seven grains per gallou (1,030 tons
:«l SOS.) W>?5 " 0
Labour WOO 0 0
Polarite filters, siv acres d other works
(52, 1. at 5 per cent.) 2,600 0 0
Manipulation of sludge 1,250 » II
H.723 II 0
•Addllgrains ferrozone per gallon to make
18 grains per gallon 6,408 0 0
16,128 0 0
Jan.au.isoi] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
£ a. d.
Cust per million gallons per annum fin- pre-
eipitatiou 1112 n ii
insi por million gallons per annum for filtra-
tion WO ii u
Cosl per million gallons per annum fur mani-
pulation of sludge 125 ii 'I
887 ii n
Cost of additional ferrozonc cm o u
,. manipulation of
sludge therefrom, 1,500 tons 25 0 0
1.C52 i» ii
Cost por million gallons, 54s. Id.
,. „ with added ferrozone, 80s.
Table VII.
Annual Cost in Working "Clarine" Process
(10,000,000 Gallons pes Day).
C s. il.
Clarine. 15 grains per gallon of sewage, or one
ton per million gallons (3,650 tons at 80s.) .. o, t-7 5 u u
Labour iless on account of precipitant being
aliquid) 1,50 1
Depreciation and repairs 150 o u
Sand filters, six acres and works [25,500f. at
5 percent,; 1,275 0 t)
8,390 0 0
Lime (possibly required fur neutralising), 303
tons at 10s ls:S 0 0
Manipulation of sludge 1,120 0 0
9,693 0 ii
JE s. d.
Cost per million gallons per annum for pre-
cipitation CU7 ii n
Cost per million gallons pcrannum for Ultra
Hon 27
Cost per million gallons per annum for mani-
pulation of sludge ft'-' 'i n
089 0 U
Cost per million gallons, 54s. 2d.
„ „ unaltered, iOs.
Discussion.
.Mr. James Richards gave the results of some experi-
ments lie had recently made. lie stated that he bad
experimented with the salts of many metallic oxides,
including ferrous and ferric oxides, and lie had obtained
about 80 per cent, of purification from albuminoid ammonia
in all eases where the sulphates were used. The bi-
chloride of mercury removed a large quantity of free
ammonia as well.
Dr. Caul Otto Webek said that as to the '• Interna-
tional" process lie could not quite agree with Mr. Grim-
shaw's calculation of cost. He gave it at 90s. as compared
with 54s. for the Clarine, assuming the same quantity to
be used for each, but the International process employed
the polarite filter, which to a certain extent assisted the
action of the precipitant. A groat deal of the albuminoid
matter was actually removed, not by the precipitant in
the International process, but by the polarite filter. He
could not in any way bear out the remarks of Mr. Richards
with regard to ferrous and ferric salts respectively, as he
found that ferric salts were in every respect superior. This
was shown in Mr. Richards' own admission that the oxygen
absorbed was greater in the effluents from the treatment by
ferrous stilts. Other metallic oxides besides oxide of
mercury absorbed free ammonia. This was notably the
ease with ferric hydrate.
Councillor Corbett (Salford) : I will only give you
a few facts in relation to Salford such as I think may be
of use. Mr. Grimshaw has quoted figures to show that the
cost of the lime process is 37s. per million gallons, hut that
is burdening the process with filtration. Taking the lime
process as carried on now at the Salford sewage works, and
allowing for the night and day treatment, the cost, as near
as I can make out, is 25s. per million gallons. Last summer
we had been carrying on the lime process in a rough and
ready way, not trying to perfect the apparatus until we
decided on our future course. In very hot weather our
pumping engine broke down and at this time our other
engine was being altered. The works were stopped, and
we left the sewage in the tanks, on the top of the mud,
which had not been cleared out for a number of weeks,
and, according to all precedent, the mixture should have
fermented, and given off offensive gases. But it did
nothing of the kind. It lay for weeks in our tanks and we
have the clearest evidence that at no time was there any
perceptible nuisance. Samples of the effluent sent to several
chemists without telling them what it was, showed on analysis
that the effluent was an excellent one. That being so, what
is a committee to do ? Again, in the last few months we
wire working with the lime process. We got a request from
the Ship Canal Company to cease operations for a time.
We did so, and again under the same circumstances, except
that it was a cold instead of a hot summer. Again there
was no nuisance. The effluent, though at first it was alkaline,
very soon became neutral so far as our rough tests would
tell. Possibly the manufactures that are being carried on in
Salford may be discharging iron, or some other chemical that
is required to complete the lime process. Well, if the
manufactures of the borough are providing for us what is
sufficient to purify our sewage we shall he well content. I
take a special interest in what Mr. Grimshaw has said
because I first proposed these experiments. Large experi-
ments are now again being tried. We are going to try
oxidising the lime effluent, but, beyond that, it has occurred
to us that the sulphurous compounds, the chemicals in
smoke, are possibly the very things wanted to neutralise
the lime effluent, and we are going to try the comparative
effects of aerating the effluent with the smoke of our boiler
chimneys, and aerating with pure air.
The Chairman: If lime alone will purify the sewage, I
do not see what need there is for further experiments,
because, according to Mr. Corhett's statement, the lime
process costs only 2.3s., and the " Clarine " process cannot
beat that figure.
Mr. Arthur Bowes, A.M.I.C.E. : It appears to me that
the comparison of various systems cannot lie made in such
an off-hand fashion as Mr. Grimshaw has attempted. Of
course, he explains that he has had to make various
hypotheses. He has put on costs for manipulation of
sludge and other matters, but it must be remembered that
there are various points which have never yet been ascer-
tained. For instance', who can tell you what the " Electrical "
system has cost ? The amount of coal used for the boilers to
drive the dynamos has never yet been measured or weighed.
The electricity has been measured, as it was at Salford, and
their engineers would tell 3011, I have no doubt, that you
can convert electricity into its horse-power equivalent by
some calculation, and that you cau get so many horse-power
for so much coal. So yen do with a certain efficiency of
boiler, but then what kind of boilers have we ? The only
actual way of arriving at the actual cost is to weigh the
coal in. That is a considerable item to be considered in
arriving at correct figures on this question. I weighed
every iron plate in the first experiment myself. We got at
the amount of iron to a few grains, but the coal was not
arrived at. 1 give that just as a sample of the points
which have not been accurately determined, and not in
disparagement of the " Electrical " system. Then there are
much bigger assumptions Mr. Grimshaw had to make to
bring the different processes to the same basis. By one
method he makes out that the International system costs
54s. per gallon, but lie says that, if you put the same
amount of iron in as is used in other systems it will cost 90s.
per gallon. But why should you put more iron in if it already
gives a better effluent than most of the other systems on the
hoard. That brings us to the vital question, have the
systems been compared for efficiency ''. If the figures of
Mr. Grirnshaw are to be regarded as reliable, there ought to
be the same purity of effluent from each. The Barry
Company is put at the top as costing 116s. per gallon, but
1"
T1IE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
i.i gel efficiency you might have to spend i gallon.
As a matter of fact I do not think that with that process
you could get efficiency :it any price. So far as possible,
the conditions ought to be the same throughout, as to
manipulation of sludge, filters, and other matters. Filtration
was used iii providing effluents from the International proci ss,
for instance, and also from the Electrical < Jompany's process
— that is to say, the results that wire described in the
Salford report wire obtained, in some '-uses, after filtration.
.Mr. Harrow gave us the figures, ami he also said that the
effluents from this "Clarine" process had been filtered, hut
were tillered through filter-paper. It is hardly fair to
compare filtration through filter-paper with filtration through
sand or polarite. I would like to know whether the Clarine
system has been patented, and whether there is anything to
previ iit a corporation or local hoard from using it. Is there
any royalty to pay ?
Mr. Barrow, in reply, said the result of his experiments
conflicted with the opinion of Mr. Richards and
with that of Dr. Weber. The purification effected by tie
particular iron salt which was the main subject of his
paper, had been invariably greater than the 80 per cent.
obtained by Mr. Richards. It seemed to him altogether
wrong to add a reducing agent like a ferrous salt to •
when oxidation was the object aimed at.
Mr. Grimshaw, in his reply, said he wished to say just
one word with regard to the polarite filters and the ferro-
zone. He would like to be as fair as he could to all the
processes, and he would say that if they used the smallest
quantity of the precipitate they must use a very efficient
filter, which they must rely on to do the work, because
seven grains of ferrozone would not do much to clarify the
sewage. He would say that the "International" working
with an equivalent quantity of precipitant to the other
processes, and using an ordinary sand-filter instead of the
polarite, would probably give as good results as with the
present way of working. There was no doubt the " Inter-
national" filter was a good one, and there was no doubt
that so far as results went their precipitant was a had
one. Mr. Corbett should not lay too much stress on an
isolated lime effluent. Untreated sewage, if allowed to
stand some months, would purify itself very considerably,
hut of course in practice this could never he the case. In
most cases lime alone did not give an effluent tit to be
run away without filtering. In relation to the interesting
remarks by Mr. Arthur Bowes, none of the figures were
assumptions of his (Mr. Grimshaw's) own, hut were in
most cases estimates formed by the engineer on whom
the Salford Corporation relied in their sewage repent, and
really those items of cost which were at all open to he
called [assumptions (i.e., estimates), were common to the
whole 'of the systems of sewage treatment alluded in.
With regard to efficiency, lie said it appeared that the
systems which cost the '.east gave the best result, with
tiie exception of the lime process, which, whilst it was
cheapest, gave about the worst result as to quantity of
sludge and quality of effluent. Of the processes he had
dealt with, he put the "Clarine" first for efficiency, the
"International" second and the " Electrolytic " third.
The remaining processes might he grouped together.
The discussion was then adjourned.
Adjouesed DlS< USSIOW.
The Chairman reminded the meeting that the treatment
of sewage had formed the subject of several papers which
had hiin brought before the Section during the past twelve-
months, and, with the exception of the lime process, iron
was used in some form in all the systems referred I
in the electrical process, and the question was : — What salts
of iron would he l In best, and at the same time the most
economical ?
Dr. l)i;i 'vi a - thought that in any process for the puri-
fication of sewage the two main points to be considered
were: first, the cost, and secondly, efficiency. According
to Mr. Grimshaw's figures Barrow's process was more costly
than the lime process. He would have been glad if
Mr. Grimshaw had been prepared to show how much free
ammonia was left in the sewage after the lime treatment,
and how much permanganate it would take to oxidise it.
This would have shown thi i of the Clarine process
as compared with the lime proi
Mr. (.. Dvv;s said that when a regular and
continuous supply of a proto-sait of iron could lu-
mixed with the sewage of any town without detection,
that should he a fair test of the value of such a process,
yet he had had samples of sewage from a certain
town when- large quantities had been added without the
knowledge of the authorities, and still the effluent had mil
been satisfactory. With regard to the cost of the lime
process, Mr. Grimshaw in his summary gave ll tons to
every million gallons of sewage per day. He had pointed
out over and over again that this was less than one-half
of the quantity necessary to destroy the albuminous matters
in the sewage of any town, and was often merely sufficient
to form carbonate of lime, hut in exceeding the ] .', tons
great care was necessary to prevent the effluent becoming
ffensive. He had found pcr-salts ol iron more
e than proto-salts. He thought the crux i f the
whole question was the disposal of the sludge, and he should
like to know what Mr. Barrow intended to do with it in
his particular case.
Dr. Gerlakd said that some 40 or 50 years ago a per
salt of iron was used to purify the London sewage, lint
discontinued on account of a black deposit in the River
Thames. He did not think, however, that any settling
hacks or filtration were employed.
Mr. M< (i '1.1.01 : Under heading No. 5 (International)
Mr. Grimshaw gave ferrozone IS grains p,.r gallon, whereas
he knew of places where only 9 grains were used, and this
considerably reduced the cost.
Mr. Barrotv, in reply, said that he had made some
comparative tests, and in each case he had obtained better
results. The per-centage of purification by the "Clarine"
process was 7:> as against :\'> by the lime process. He
might aho remark that the effluent from the lime process
was also capable of being further purified to a very
considerable extent by treatment' with "Clarine." It
miu'ht interest some of those present to know that the
albuminoid ammonia in the water of the ship canal dock
wis reduced some 90 per cent, by the iron process.
Mr. GRIMSHAW, in reply, said : I am pleased to find that
the opinions expressed by the gentlemen who have spoken
this evening are so nearly in accord with results arrived at
in the two papers under discussion that I need saj very
little in reply to the speakers, and I therefore direct n pst
of my attention to the criticism of the papers at the
meeting when they were read. My object in my paper
was to institute as close a comparison of modern results
as to cost of sewage treatment by different processes as
possible, tt has been my impression for some time that a
simple addition of a " cheap" per salt of iron together in
some cases with a little lime was bound to be the precipita-
tion process of the future. There is so little complication
possible about such a process that the figures of cost are
easily obtainable, with very little loophole for inaccuracy.
With regard to the lime process the same may ha said ;i-
also to the alum process, so far as estimates of cost are
concerned. The three above-named processes, together
with the international and possibly the electrical, appear to
he the only possible processes at present before the public,
or known in the chemical world. There are no figures which
I am aware of published by the proprietors of the Electrical
or Intel national processes, and therefore I considered it
the most advisable thing to take the figures given h\ tin'
engineer who reported on the exhaustive and considerable
trials of these two processes by the Salford Corporation.
The report of this corporation is. I maintain, a very valuable
contribution to our exact knowledge of the effectiveness and
cost of sewage processes. As neither the International nor
the Electrical Company demur to the Salford figures as in
any way over-estimates of cost, I take those figures as fair
to those processes. I'm my own part I am of opinion that
tin \ He more than fair, and that the cost to Salford of
Juu.80,1692.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
11
either of those processes is likely to be more than the
amounts arrived at in their report. I contend, therefore, that
m\ conclusion thai treatment with a cheap per-sall of ir I
the right ihcmical composition is the least costly and very
probably 1 1 t * ■ most efficient, certainly as efficient as any
known method oi purifying sewage, is strengthened by any
allowance we nun' make for what I may call the possible
error of experiment in tun method of comparison. Simple
treatment with lime is, of course, less costly initially than
by any metallic salt which is known, and even when tin:
extra cost of manipulating the great quantity of sludge
produced by lime is taken into account the same may
perhaps hold good. But I hope I am not to be asked to
slay the slain and vanquish the defeated by proving the
u'tcr inadequacy of lime alone to produce day by day a
satisfactory effluent. Advocates of the simple lime process
must produce some good modern authority for its retention
before calling upon its opponents to disprove its supposed
efficiency. Chemists to-day do not grant that it has any.
In older to lie just I would remark here that the " Davis "
lime process would appear chemically to be a distinct
advance on the ordinary crude lime treatment, but unfor-
tunately it does rot seem possible, on account of the very
complex mechanics of the process, to give any fair approxi-
mation of tin' cost, and no trials of it have been made.
With regard to Salford as a typical case 1 am prepared to
show experimentally, on the large or small scale, that it is
on some days perfectly impossible to precipitate the sewage
with lime, whilst with a per-salt of iron and a little lime
you get a clear effluent in a very short time. Occasionally
in the Salford sewage you have so large a trace of iron
compounds that the lime gives a very fair effluent (in
appearance). With lime alone, therefore, you can do
nothing satisfactory. With a basic ferric chloride you can
do almost everything possible in sewage precipitation, and
with such an iron salt and a little lime in special cases you
can do all that is possible in the present state of our
knowledge. Sulphate of alumina is a good clarifier of
many kinds of sewage, hut it requires a large quantity of
lime for a proper decomposition, and small quantities of it
do not appear to act so efficiently as small quantities of per-
salts of iron. The reason of this may perhaps be found in
its want of catalytic power, so to speak, in regard to acting
as a carrier of oxj-gen to the oxidisable organic matters of
sewage. It would not he contended by an}- chemist that
this property of transferring oxygen, so marked in the ferric
hydrate, is possessed at all by alumina hydrate. On the
contrary, we all know that it is the intense tenacity with
which the element aluminum retains its oxygen which
hinders the economical production of the metal, alumina
only parting with its oxygen under the intense action of the
electric arc, or of metals like sodium. The great affinity of
iron for sulphur is absent also in alumina compounds, there
being no sulphide of aluminium, whereas the immediate
combination of oxide of iron with sulphur compounds with
subsequent rapid oxidation to sulphates is well known to
the chemist. The only other processes which it appears
possible to consider alongside that of a simple addition of
a per-salt of iron, as in the so-called " Clarine " process, are
the International and Electrical processes before alluded to.
These processes are what may be called " indirect " iron
processes. The last named is practically a method of
treating the sewage with ferrous chloride. My own sug-
gestion of what takes place chemically is represented by
the following equations : —
Fe + 2 Xat 1 = FeClj + 2 XallO + U, (given off)
l'cCK + 2 NaHO= FeO + 2 NaCT + H„0
or to show the final result —
Fe + HaO = FeO + H2
or
Fe + 2 11.0 = Fe(HO)2 + H2
Ferrous hydrate being precipitated and hydrogen gas given
off, the action being one of reduction, not oxidation.
It is claimed in this process as an advantage that the
ferrous hydrate is in the nascent state, but so are all such
compounds when precipitated in situ whether precipitated
chemically or electrically, so that the same advantage is
common to all the processes under consideration. The
precipitation part of the International process is in effect
the addition of a very crude ferrous sulphate with some
sulphate of alumina to the sewage. The so-called "ferro/.onc "
is a very crude material produced by treating a low class
mixed iron ore with vitriol. The very large amount ol
foreign matter in the insoluble state may, like excess ol
lime, as-ist the subsidence a little, hut is certainly matter
in the wrong place in the sewage sludge. This brings us
to the point of the question of efficiency as between per
salts and proto-salts of iron, and in regard to this point I will
only say that, with the exception of Mr. Richards, all the
speakers appear to agree with me that for many reasons the
per-salts arc to he preferred.
The great objections to the proto-salts of course arc their
reducing action on the sewage and the muddy or milky
effluent they tend to produce. 1 look on the presence of
excess of ferric hydrate in the perchloride of iron as
beneficial from its tendency to lay hold of the sulphur
compounds, anil as a neutralising body to traces of per-acid.
It also probably gives density to the precipitate. Of the
processes treated of, the "Electrical" and the "Clarine"
processes appear to give the least amounts of sludge, but
the question of sludge and its disposal is worthy of a special
paper. Having said so much in general reply to the whole
discussion I will briefly notice a few of the questions asked
this evening. Dr. Dreyfus asked for information as to
comparison of cost and efficiency of the processes. I think
the two papers show clearly that the ferric process is
certainly as effective, to say the least, and is apparently
less costly than any process except the lime treatmeut.
With regard to the oxygen absorbed, for ni}- own part I
certainly place more value on the albuminoid ammonia test
as an indication of the impurity of sewage, and in fact
consider the amount of oxygen absorbed in many cases
misleading. Sewage and potable waters are not on all fours
in this relation, objections in the former case not applying in
the latter. Mr. Davis agrees that the proto-salts of iron
are not nearly so well adapted for the precipitation of
sewage as the per-salts, and I am certainly inclined to agree
with Mr. Davis that such a quantity as 7. V tons of lime to
a million gallons is altogether inadequate for the proper
purification of ordinary sewage, and that 10 to 20 tons is
more like the right quantity. Of course the difficulty is
that if sufficient lime is added for proper precipitation a
most objectionably alkaline effluent results, the effect of
which state of things has been that the lime treatment as
generally carried out is only an apology for a process, or
an attempt to satisfy the authorities. It is quite clear that
in the old experiments iu London with iron-salts, alluded
to by Dr. Gerland, the sewage and precipitant were run
away together without any attempt at previous subsidence.
It did not appear to be realised at that time that the black
sediment was caused by the beneficial combination of the
iron with sulphur compounds in the sewage. Mr. MeCullum's
inquiry with respect to the quantity of "ferro/.one" in the
table is explained iu the table itself. The just amount is
that of a chemical equivalent of " ferrozone " calculated on
its analysis to make it equal, chemically, to the weight of
precipitant per 10 million gallons iu the other systems.
The cost according to the smaller amount of ferrozone
said to be necessary is also given. The ' International
system has a very poor precipitant, but apparently a good
filter. Whether a filter as good or better could not be
made at a less cost is open to a good deal of discussion,
and what is the actual cost of the polarite filter would
first require to be accurately ascertained. Iu conclusion I
hope that my reply will have cleared up any points in the
paper which were in an}- way obscure.
ia
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 18! 2.
ON AN AUTOMATIC APPLIANCE FOB RECORD-
ING THE PRESENCE AND DENSITY OK BLACK
SMOKE IN FACTOR! CHIMNEYS.
r.Y WILLIAM THOMSON.
Soke years ago it suggested itself to me that if some simple
I could lie devised of actually recording the density
of smoke passing up the chimney, and the length of time
during which that smoke was passing, by an automatic
apparatus, it would give some tangible means of aiding in
the prevention of black smoke from factory chimney s. It
is evident that if such a record could be obtained the
diagram of the smoke produced during the working day
might be pasted on to a board and compared with the
results of other days, when the question of carelessness in
tiring would be detiuitely shown. This would thus form a
check upon the firemen in working the furnaces, and the
best record might be taken as a standard of what is possible
in each furnace or series of furnaces. With a view of
making this possible I have made a number of experiments
in different directions, and at last succeeded in getting what
I thought would be an accurate record of the density of
the smoke, together with a record of the lengths of time
during which it was passing, by exposing in the chimney
strips of ordinary writing paper exposed in front of a -lit
against which the flue gases impinged. On placing a piece
of paper into a smoky chimney and withdrawing it after a
few seconds I obtained a dark mark on the paper, which
approximately corresponded with the amount of smoke
passing up ; but on fixing this in an apparatus provided
with a slit behind which the paper was drawn I found that
a mark was given to begin with, but little or no mark
produced afterwards when the paper became very hot. It
was evident therefore that the high temperature prevented
the deposit of the soot on the paper.
By taking two strips of paper, heating the one over a
Bunscn burner and leaving the other cold, and passing
both through a smoky flame, I observed that the cold paper
became more deeply marked with black deposit than the
strip which had been previously heated. In obtaining
these diagrams, therefore, it would be necessary to have
arrangements for keeping the paper comparatively cold.
The apparatus which I have devised is by no means
perfect, but I submit it to the Society as it is, with the
hope that others who have more time and opportunity of
working these things may take up and continue this investi-
gation, with a view of arriving at a comparatively perfect
appliance by which to get a record of the time during which
smoke is passing up the chimney, and of the density of
such smoke. The appliance which I have devised consists
of two brass tubes about j ft. long, the one 1 !, in. and the
in. internal diameter, placed the one within the
Other, leaving an annular space of about a quarter of an
inch between them. A cut is made lengthwise through both
tubes to a distance of about 3 in. from the end, the circles
of both tubes being thus bisected, at the end of which
another cut is made at right angles to the first one. A
semi-circular plate is then soldered, so as to join both tubes
at the end of the 3-in. cut, and another semi-circular plate is
Used in the opposite direction at the bottom, the two spares
left between the two tubes and the two semi-circular pieces
having flat plates soldered so as to join the two longitudinal
tubes and to make them watertight. A plate of metal is
arranged to slide on to the cut portion of the two tubes in
which a slit is made at right angles to the length, and a strip
of paper is held against tlii- slit by a roller ar.d spring, the
end of the strip of paper being connected with a chain
which is pulled up at a regular velocity by means of clock-
work. The apparatus which 1 have devised pulls about 1 in,
of paper past the slit during each hour.
To work the apparatus the paper i- adjusted, and a pencil
mark drawn along the slit from the outside, so as tn mark
the positioti of the papei at the beginning of the experiment.
The apparatus is provided with a narrow piece of copper
tube which passes down the annular space to the bottom,
and another small piece of wider tube is fixed into the
outer tube about 6 in. from the top. Cold water is delivered
at the bottom of the apparatus by the narrow copper tube,
the hot water produced by the hot flue gases being allowed
to flow away by the small tube inserted in the top of the
outside tube of the appliance. By allowing a constant flow
of water through the apparatus it is kept comparatively cool.
The clockwork is set going as soon as the end of the tube is
inserted into the flue, preferably by a hole through the top
of the flue, and the apparatus allowed to work during the
time it is desired for obtaining the diagram.
A number of diagrams obtained by the apparatus were
exhibited.
])oiU6l)UT tectum.
CJutirman: sir James Kilson, Bart.
Vict Chairman •' Dr. II. P. Iiowaian.
Committee :
\. M.Allen.
W. lirellilt.
F. tail-ley.
4. Hess.
R.Holliday.
J. J. Hummel.
J. Lcwkcwitsch.
U. Hanson
Jas. Sharp.
A. Smitliells.
Geo. Ward.
Thorp Whifakcr.
Hon. Local Secretary and Treat
II. II. Proctor, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Notici ioI Papersand Communications should he addressed lo
the Hon. Local Secret
SESSION 1801—92.
March 7tb.— Mr. Sidney Lupton. "Criticisms onJ Suggestions
towards the Improvement uf British Measuri s."'
Meeting held Monday, December 7th, 18'Jl.
MB. JAMES SHARP IX THE CHAIR.
FAST AXD FUGITIVE DYES.
e.Y PROP. J. J. HUMMEL.
(This Journal, 1891, 832.)
Discussion.
The Chairman said that it was must important that the
colours imparted to textile, and especially to woollen fabrics,
should be fairly fast, but there was still a large demand for
what were called " steamed colours," which were well known
to be loose, although the difference in cost was very trifling,
not amounting to more than Is. or 2s. per piece. In 1858
he was present at the reading of Dr. Perkins' paper in which
the discovery of the aniline colours was announced, and soon
obtained samples and dyed goods with them. These colours
were branded as fugitive, but the value produced at the
present time was not less than 7,000,000/., and taking the
cost of applying them at thrice, and the value of the fabrics
at 10 times this amount, they had, for this "vagabond"
trade, a commercial turnover of nearly a hundred millions
sterling, a business which was not to be despised. Some of
tin natural dyes weir not less fugitive, and if a colour were
discovered which took the eye of the public the inventor
was -me of his reward, whether the colour was permanent
or not. It should be remembered that a large proportion of
the loose work which had been referred to was exported to
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
13
the East, where little expense in tailoring was incurred, and
the goods were only worn fur a short period ami east aside.
He was of opinion that without new processes of manu-
facture, and probably new materials also, it was utterly
impossible to make these colours fast enough to resist
either exposure or chemical reagents. The lighter bodies as
a rule produced the most fugitive colours, and their life was
less in proportion to the number of sulphonic groups intro
duced. Many points were involved in the question of
exposure. The condition of the dyes and mordants em-
ployed had considerable influence, and the results would
vary materially with the weather and the seasons. He
could uot understand the deep brown shade taken by the
pattern of picric acid yellow, and thought some other than
the ordinary atmospheric conditions must have been present,
since in the course of his large experience as a manufacturer
he had never seen such a reaction. He was also surprised
that Professor Hummel should class Prussian blue as a fast
and Nicholson's blue as a fugitive colour. These dyes were
both colourless in the bath, and developed by acids, and in
his experience neither would stand the action of alkalis,
Mr. Luftoh hoped that in a later paper Professor
Hummel would deal with the important question of resist-
ance to scouring, as well as to exposure to light and air.
Professor Smithells thought that the chemical reactions
involved in the fading of the various dyes were of the
greatest importance, although scarcely anything was known
about the subject, and he hoped that, notwithstanding its
extreme difficulty, Professor llummel would take it up in
the near future, and in due course communicate the results
to the Society. With regard to the supposed action of
ozone and hydrogen peroxide, receut researches had shown
that their presence in the atmosphere was very doubtful,
and that the reactions which had been attributed to them
were in reality due to nitrous acid.
Mr. Thorp Whitakkr, secretary of the Society of Dyers
and Colourists, inquired whether the quantity of mordant
employed with those colours which required mordanting
was the same in all cases, or varied with each colour. He
was surprised at the marked fading of gallocyanin, which
wes generally regarded as a fairly permanent colour. There
was no doubt that in many cases the coal-tar colours were
faster than the vegetable ones they had replaced.
Mr. Underbill inquired whether barwood should be
used in conjunction with indigo. He said that vat-dyed
indigo shed very much on the body and underclothing, and
inquired whether there was any means of fixing it more
securely on the fabric.
Mr, Sydney Litton inquired whether the copper mordant
of which Professor Hummel had spoken was a solution of
cuprous or cupric oxide in ammonia, or whether both oxides
were present, and what proportion of copper was fixed on
the fibre.
Dr. Lewkowitsch would have been glad if Professor
Hummel had said more about the influence of the chemical
constitution of a colouring matter on its permanency.
Mr. Wilkinson was surprised that Professor Hummel
should have classed catechu as a colour which did not
require a mordant, since copper, or some other oxidising
agent was always used with it, and though very fugitive
without such treatment, he considered that, with it, it was
was one of the fastest of colours, and compared very
favourably with indigo. He mentioned that Prussian blue,
though generally a fast colour, was fugitive in limestoue
districts.
Dr. Cohen was not aware that aniline black was applied
to silk and wool, and inquired in what way it was dyed on
these fibres.
The Chairman said that although it could be fixed on
wools, it was not very satisfactory, but that it was largely
used on silk. The process was regarded as a trade
secret.
Professor IIimmki. in reply said, that in his opinion both
fast and fugitive colours had their legitimate uses, lie did
not quite concur with the Chairman's view that sulphonation
necessarily diminished the fastness of colours to light, but
that this was rather influenced by the general constitution of
the colour, and the position of the sulphonic group. Com-
paring the fastness of the acid azo-reds with those fixed
direct on the fibre, in which in general no sulphonation had
takeu place, it would be noted that this point had little
influence on their permanency. His experiments must at
present be regarded as merely preliminary, and designed to
test the permanency of the colours actually in use in a
practical way, and he hoped later to be able to answer many
of the further points which had been raised. He intended
to examine the chemical effects produced on some pure
colouring matters when exposed to light in india, but he
feared that this would by no means give a complete answer
to Professor Smithell's questio,n since in many cases the
fibre had an important influence on the permancy of dyes,
as in the instance of tartrazine, which was fast on wool but
fugitive on silk.
In reply to Mr. Whitaker's question as to the amount of
the various mordants employed, Professor Hummel said
that they were varied in accordance with the results of a
long series of experiments made in the Yorkshire College to
determine the most advantageous quantity in each case.
Though gallocyanin was undoubtedly a useful colouring
matter, it was not to be compared in permanency with
members of the true alizarin group, and it was to be regretted
that it was frequently sold under the misleading name of
" Alizarine purple." In reply to Mr. I'uderhill's question as
to the propriety of using barwood as a preliminary to
vat-indigo, although there was no doubt that in itself it was
a fugitive colour, it appeared to enable the indigo to
penetrate the fibre better, and to render it less liable to rub
off. As the dyers said, " the indigo follows the wood." In
addition it counteracted the greenish tinge of the indigo, and
produced a richer and more " bloomy " colour. The effect
seemed to be largely due to the mere boiling of the wool,
which softened the hard and horny keratin, and enabled the
indigo to penetrate more freely, if the purplish shade were
really necessary, it might be obtained more rationally by the
use of faster colours, such as alizarin. Objection might be
taken to the use of bichrome mordants, with Alizarine red,
but other chromium and and aluminium mordants might be
substituted. Alizarine red was already being used for the
purpose with beneficial results, and if the fastest possible
colour were required, it was difficult to suggest any other
means. Alizarine blue was at least as fast as vat-indigo
but the Government had discovered that when it was
employed the wool fibre was considerably weakened, owiun-
presumably to the oxidising action of the bichromate, which
certainly had a tendering effect if carelessly used. In
one case, however, which had come under his knowledge it
was discovered that the rotting action which had been
attributed to bichromate used in conjunction with Alizarine
blue, was due to quite another cause. His colleague
Mr. Liechti, was at preseut engaged on minute investigation
of the action of chromium mordants on the wool fibre and
hoped before long to bring the results before the Society.
In reply to Mr. Sydney Luptou's question as to the exact
character of the ammoniacal copper solution employed by
Schemer in his experiments, Professor Hummel said that it
consisted of cupric hydrate dissolved in ammonia, and
would therefore have some solvent action on the cellulose
of the fabric, and possibly coated the colours with a
parchment like protection.
Referring to Dr. Lewkowitsch's inquiry as to the relation
of molecular constitution to fastness, he stated that his
investigations were not as yet sufficiently advanced to allow
of generalisation, but that in the case of the eosius, the
introduction of an ethyl or methyl group into a particular
part of the molecule increased its fastness to light.
With regard to Mr. Wilkinson's remarks as to catechu.
Professor Hummel regarded the action of the bichromate
as mainly oxidising rather than mordanting, although some
chromium- oxide was undoubtedly fixed on the fibre alonn-
with the brown japonic acid. He had himself been rather
surprised at the want of fastness of the sample, and thought
H
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL, INDUSTRY. I
il'lc ili.it tliis was duo to tin- fact that no copper
sulphate, but only potassium bichromate bad been used in
irticular experiment. Heagrccd withMr. Wilkinsou's
remarks with regard to Prussian blue.
He confirmed the Chairman's reply to Dr. Cohen with
regard to aniline black, and said that though it was not
generally known, it was perfectly true that aniline black
could be fixed on wool, while it was already large!}
to silk. Although he could not enter into the details of
the process, he might say that the principle cons ■
the use of somewhat unstable metallic chlorates, which
exerted the requisite oxidising power under the influence
of steam heat.
Referring generally to the subject of fugitive dyes, he
hoped on a future occasion to he able to give more definite
and detailed replies to some of the questions than he had
Me to do that evening.
(SlnscjoU) anto £>rottisi) jtatfom
Cliairman : K. C. C. Stanford.
'! : A. Crum Urown.
J. Christie.
W. J. A. Donald.
D. B. Dott.
C.J. Ellis.
C.A. Fawsilt.
Win. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
11. A. Ins-lis.
Committee:
U. Irvine.
J. Falconer Kinj
G. McRoberts.
T. P. Miller.
J. Pattison.
.1. B. Headman.
lith.
It. R. Tatlock.
Ilan. Treasurer: W. J. Chrystal.
Ron. Local Secretary :
Dr. G. G. Henderson, Chemical Laboratory, University o[ Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to t r
i Secretary,
SESSP 'X I89l-9i
: Glasgow):—
Prof.W. Dittmar. "The Availability of Mcbillii
Cheinicn 'iperaiiuus in the Laboratory."
Mi-. G. Watson, jun. "The Preparation of Pure Phospl
\ 1 1 from Phosphate of Soda."
Mr. W. 1. A. Donald. (in Bauxite."
1
Mr.C. A. Fawsitt, ' Hie'Dry Heat ' Vulcanisation of Rubber,
fithSp R ' proved Vulcanisor."
Meeting held in the Societies' Rooms, 207, Bath Si
Glasgow, on Tuesday, ."•/// January i
Hit. C. V. 1.UVS1TX IN" TIIK Til ill'.
NOTES n\ THE PRODUCTION OF CYANIDES.
BY n. a. r-TAVTAin.
In 1S7S Messrs. Tehorniae and Gunzburg took out a
patent for a process for making ferrocyanides from salpho-
cyanides. This consisted in heating to redness a mixture
of six equivalents of sulphocyanide of potassium, five of
lime, five of carbon, and one of iron. The iron used was
in i spongy form, obtained by reducing the iron of pyrites
to a metallic state by a reducing atmosphere in a specially
constructed furnace. As the result of the reaction, they
claim that the sulphur of the sulphoeyunide combines with
the calcium and iron leaving the potassium all as cyanide,
which is converted into ferroeyanide on lixiviating. With-
out bcil of this patcut, I tried a similar experiment.
modelling it on the react black-ask furnace, but
obtained only a very small yii II of prussiatc. At lust the
product would only be e, which would require
purifying and a subsequent furnacing operation before
cyanide could be arrived at, so I did not follow up this
•ueut.
In studying the decomposition of sulphocyanides one
experiment consisted in heating a mixture of the snlpho-
cyanides of -ilium and potassium in an atmosphere of
hydrogen. The sulphocyanides were placed in a glass
combustion tube, and heated to redness, while a constant
stream of dry hydrogen gas was passed through the tube.
! outlet from the tube sulphuretted hydrogen began
to be evolved as -non as the heat attained to redness, and
continued coming off freely for more than half an hour,
although the amount of sulphocyanides experimented upon
did not exceed a very few grammes. The experiment was
interrupted and the contents of the tube examined.
About 80 per cent, of the sulphocyanides was found to he
decomposed, resulting in the formation Of sulphide and
cyanide of potassium and sodium. Sulphide and cyanide
were found to he present in nearly equal quantitii -. oi
about 20 per cent. Ii than would lie required for
the i qui ' m —
4 KCyS + 6 H = K«S + 2 KCy + :i IhS + 2 ( + 2 X
Apparently not more than half the sulphocyanide can he
expected to be obtained as cyanide by this method, and it
is in a very impure state, being mixed with a large quantity
of sulphide, the separation of which would he troublesome
and costly.
The above experiment was varied by using an atmosphere
of hydrocarbons instead of hydrogen. Vapour of naphtha
was employed, and as before, when the heat was raised
.sulphuretted hydrogen was frceli evolved. At the end of
the experiment the contents of the tube were examined,
hut no cyanide was found. The decomposed sulphocyanides
were converted into sulphides, with traces of formates.
Sulphoevanide of sodium heated along with charcoal in a
crucible at a bright redness was found to yield a small
quantity, not much more than a trace of cyanine and a large
quantity of sulphide.
More satisfactory results were obtained when a metal was
employed to deprive the sulphocyanide of its sulphur. The
only two metals, which I hive found suitable, are lead and
zinc.
Without detailing the preliminary experiments in crucibles,
with charges varying in size from a Few grammes up to
8 or 10 lb., and in which the metals were used in a granu-
lated state, sometimes so fine as to be able to pass through
a fine sieve, it will be sufficient to describe the method now
employed, which is as follows: —
An oblong vessel with rounded bottom, in fact the shape
of an inverted muffle, made of plumbago, with a well-fitting
lid is used. The muffle is placed in a sort of cradle, which
is attached to a rope passed over a pulley fixed to abeam
above a -mall furnace. In the top of the furnace is a hole
just large enough to admit the muffle. The muffle is
lowered down into the furnace, and rests on bet-rers so
that its bottom and sides are exposed to the heat, hut its
tip is an inch or two above the top of the furnace. The
say zinc, is first put into the muffle, along with a
-light sprinkling of charcoal to maintain a reducing
atmosphere, and the cover is put on till the zinc is melted.
As soon as the zinc is melted an equivalent quantity : f
sulphocyanide of soda is added. The sulphocyanide is
put in either cold in a dry state, or from an adjoining pot,
in which it i- maintained in a state ol fusion.
As the heating proceeds, the sulphoevanide becomes
very fluid lying above the melted zinc. The charge is w, II
agitated to stir up the zine into the sulphocyanide. As
soon as the required temperature is reached, the charge
suddenly becomes very thick', and begins to glow, especially
in the track of the stirrer.
Wlau this occurs, it is the sign that the reaction is com-
plete. 'I be -Oii i- put on the muffle and the whole is
hoi-ted out of the furnace and allowed to cool. A good
deal of heat seems to he evolved in the reaction, because
if there he an excess of zine.it i- given off in vapour and
.i u isra.i
TnE JOURNAL OP TIIE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
15
bursts into llamu at the edge of the cover :i few minutes
after the inutile is removed from the furnace. It' the
sulphocyanide It in excess, no zinc (lame appears.
VVlieu coul the charge comes awayfrom tin.- muffle easily,
and there is no appearance of the material of the muffle
having been acted upon. The fused mass should lie of a
uniform p»arl-grey colour throughout, in which case it will
yield a. solution five from soluble sulphides. If the charge
over fired, part of it will have a dull brown or even a
reddish appearance. Such will yield a solution containing
sulphides of the alkali. When using the muffle above
bed, the charge is so much under control, ami the
reaction can be so closely watched, that generally no
alkaline sulphide or only a trace of il is found in the ehsrge.
In the earlier experiments in large crucibles this was a
difficulty that presented itself, as the portion of the charge
next the bottom frequently sot over-fired, producing iml-
phidc of soda, sometimes to the extent of 15 parts per 100
of cyanide, 'fin reaction that goes on in the muffle is
expressed thus ; —
NaCyS r Zn = NaCy + ZnS.
The loss in weight of the whole charge in the furnacing
operation is about 5 per cent., half of which is accounted
for bv the moisture in the sulphocyanide used. Some
evanatc and a trace of carbonate arc formed in the process.
When a slight excess of zinc is used, no sulphocyanide
remains tindecomposcd, but there is a slight loss of zinc
as vapour, and some double cyanide of zinc and sodium is
formed, in a badly burned charge to the extent of 15 parts
of cyanide of zinc per 100 of cyanide of sodium. I sing.
however, a slight excess of sulphocyanide instead, the
amount of cyanide of zinc formed is reduced to about two
or three parts per 100 of cyanide of sodium. The finished
product in that ease contains a little tmdecomposed sulpho-
cyanide hi t the loss of zinc is avoided, and the result is a
better article.
The lixiviation of the fused mass, which is the next
operation, presents no difficulty. It is lixiviated in the
ordinary way in a set of vats, like black-ash vats, except
that in this case the lixiviation is intermittent, as the
solution does not filter downwards through the insoluble
matter. The crude cyanide is stirred up at each lixiviation,
and, on the insoluble matter settling, the clear solution is
decanted or pumped from one vat to the next one. In this
way a solution from the strong vat is obtained of about
35 Tw., containing 2-1 grms. of cyanide of sodium
per Ion ec, while the last washing of the weak vat is 0°
Tw., and contains under • 1 per cent. XaCy.
This last weak liquor is quite clear, but, on attempting to
wash out the last traces of cyanide of sodium from the
sulphide of zinc, one gets a milky solution that docs not
settle char, till it is mixed with a stronger solution of
cyanide of sodium. It is quite possible to have a 30 per
cent, solution from the strong vat, but this does not settle
so well as one of 2! or 2."> per cent.
If the liquor contain any cyanide of sodium, it is agitated
with cyanide of lead, which is easily formed by precipitating
a portion of the solution with chloride of lead, settling and
decanting oil the solution of chloride of sodium.
The insoluble matter, consisting of sulphide of zinc,
amounts to about 05 per cent, of the fused mass.
An analysis of the solution ready for evaporating is as
follows ; —
Expressed in grammes p ir 100 cc.
Cyanide ot scdium 22 "<>
Cyanauo of sodium 3*cG
Double cyanide el' zinc and sodium 1*35
Carbonate of sodn 0'71
Sulplio ■yauidi' ni' sodium 1"8
The strong solution of cyanide of sodium is now put into
a vacuum pan, and evaporated to the consistency of a thick
paste, which solidities on cooling.
The finished cyanide contains about 2G per cent, of
water, and about 35 per cent, of cyanide of sodium, not
including that existing as double cyanide.
This contains the same amount of available cyanogen, or
hydrocyanic acid, as a cyanide of potassium of 73 per cent.
ISy subsequent healing the whole of the water can be driven
oil' without much loss of cyanide.
An analysis of the product of the vacuum pan is as
follows : —
Cyanide of sodium 54*7
Cynnate of soda, including Formate 9*45
Double cyanide of zinc and sodium 3"t>
Sulphocyanide ol sodium 4'3
Carbonate of soda 1"03
Water 2i'0
lOO'O
In the above described process the yield of available
cyanide averages about Toper cent, of the possible yield
according to theory. In the evaporation in vacuo, the loss
of cyanide, due to the decomposition of its solution when
heated, is from 2 to 4 per cent, of the cyanide present, pro-
vided that the vacuum be good, say, equal to 26 in. of
mercury, and provided also that the strength of the solution
be about 33 Tw. If the solution be half that strength to
start with, or the vacuum poor, the loss is more than
doubled.
Instead of zinc as above described, lead may be used to
decompose the sulphocyanide. It has the disadvantage,
that, owing to its high equivalent, more than 3 lb. of lead are
necessary to do the work of 1 lb. of zinc, also that in the
fusion it does not stir up into the sulphocyanide so easily
as zinc. On the other hand, it has the advantage, that it
docs not form a double salt with the alkaline cyanide, even
although cyanide of lead is soluble to some extent in
cyanide of sodium.
Whichever metal is used, the resulting sulphide may be
treated by ordinary processes to reduce it to the metallic
state again, or, in the case of zinc, zinc salts may be made
direct from the sulphide.
( )ther metals were tried in place of lead and zinc, but not
with satisfactory results.
Tin, for instance, reduced the sulphocyanide to cyanide,
hut the sulphide of tin, which was formed, dissolved to a
large extent in the alkaline cyanide.
Copper is also unsuitable, as the product is a cupro-
cyanide.
Other sulphocyanidcs, such as the sulphoeyanides of
potassium and barium, behave like sulphocyanide of sodium,
and give similar yields, about 70 per cent. Sulphocyanide
of sodium has the advantage of being cheaper than the
others, and, on account of the low combining weight of
sodium, gives a cyanide of a higher strength.
The sulphoeyanides may be manufactured directly, or
may be obtained as by-products in gas-making. Dr. Lunge
states the amount of sulphocyanide of ammonia in English
gas-liquors at about 25 lb. per 100 gallons.
In no gas-liquor, of wdiich I have been able to get samples,
has the quantity reached anything like that figure. In
Scotch gas-liquor, after it has been treated for the extraction
of ammonia, I have found only about 1 lb. of sulpho-
cyanide of lime per 100 gallons. The refuse lime from gas
purifiers contains sulphocyanidcs in larger proportion, but
even this gas-lime from Scotch gasworks I find to contain
under 20 lb. of sulphocyanide of lime per ton. In gas-lime
there is a large amount of hyposulphite of lime, which
would require to be entirely removed from the sulpho-
cyanide, as the presence of oxygen compounds is prejudicial
to the formation of cyanides from sulphoeyanides. The
small quantities in gas residues above mentioned are not
worth the cost of recovering, so it is preferable to make the
sulphoeyanides by direct processes.
Discussion.
The Chairman considered the paper was one of much
interest and importance, as the cheapening of cyanides
would have a beneficial effect on several industries, notably
the extraction of gold by cyanides; and seeing the sulpho-
cyanide, from which the cyanide was prepared, would lie an
outlet for bisulphide of carbon, it would come as a boon to
manufacturers of this article, as in seme districts the con-
sumption had been gradually decreasing, owing to the
16
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan so 1392.
india-rubber manufacturers having stopped using it in the
manufacture of waterproof cloth. He agreed with the
author as to the extraction of sulphocyanides from gas
residues entailing considerable expense, as the amount of
material which would have to be dealt with would be very
large for a small return of sulphocyanide, and the finished
article would not be easily purified ; whereas in the ease of
bisulphide of carbon a pure sulphocyanide could be pre-
pared with comparatively little trouble. As regards the
fixation of nitrogen by alkalised carbon, although a large
amount of monej ami trouble had been expended in testing
it at different times, its success had never been accomplished,
and lie thought the chief reasons were : First, the high
temperature required: 2nd, the serious wear and tear of
the apparatus ; 3rd, the large percentage of eyanate
produced, which could not lie reduced economically to
cyanide. Some trials he had made a few years ago
produced very little cyanide, and that at a prohibitive cost.
lie was somewhat surprised to hear that the cyanide
survived the fusion in contact with melted zinc so well,
but no doubt it was conducted out of contact with the
atmosphere. The fusion of the sulphocyanide of potassium
with metallic iron seemed to be the weak point in the
process which was patented by Gelis, which he had tested
and found to work smoothly until this point was reached,
when he only obtained 25 per cent, of the theoretical yield
of cyanide. In the evaporation of cyanide solutions at
ordinary pressures it was well known that a serious loss
occurred, and it was a new idea to him to use a vacunm
pan, but it commended itself as a good way out of the
difficulty. Instead of converting sulphocyanides into
cyanides by fusion, it seemed to him far more rational to
try and get an economical method whereby it could be done
in solution. It was well known that in acid solutions
sulphocyanides could be converted into cyanides by using
permanganate of potash, and he had tried peroxide of
hydrogen which acted equally well, but the cost was
prohibitive in both cases, and the fact of it taking place in
an acid solution was inconvenient, as the hydrocyanic acid
would require to be condensed, besides the unpleasantness
of working an apparatus containing such a poisonous gas.
He had tried one or two experiments in an alkaline solution,
but they gave practically a negative result as far as cyanide
was concerned, the nitrogen coming off principally as
ammonia. Xo doubt cheaper oxidising agents, such as
manganate of soda and manganese dioxide in acid solutions
would give cood result-, and there would be produced
sulphate of manganese which i- a saleable by-product, but
the condensation of the HCN would have to be faced.
He further said that the item of cost was the most
important factor in Mr. Playfair's process, and he would
ask him if lie had formed any idea as to the cost at which
he could produce cyanide compared with the method now
in use.
In concluding the Chairman congratulated Mr. Playfair
at having grappled with a difficult subject, and hoped be
might be rewarded by the complete success of his process.
Dr. .1. B. Rkadman desired to know if Mr. Playfair had
made any attempts at carrying out Bunsen and Playfair's
results by trying to manufacture cyanide in the blast
furnace. In these experiments it appeared that the potash
was derived from the coal, while it was not certain whether
the nitrogen was derived from the air or from the fuel.
Thev were all familiar wit); Mond's work on the preparation
of barium cyanide, but why should not potassium cyanide
be manufactured in the blast furnace under suitable con-
ditions? There appeared to him great hope of success
in that direction.
Mr. I'.. Rodger said that the question he had intended to
ask bad been anticipated by Mr. Headman. He believed
that certain experiments carried on recently in the Durham
district in the manufacture of cyanide in the blast furnace
pointed to hopeful result-, lie would suggest the use of a
water-jacketed furnace for such work, as in this way the
siliceous lining, which would of course be attacked by the
alkaline mixture necessary for the production of cyanide,
could he dispensed with and the furnace could he usi
ally.
Mr. W. Foulis thought that the recovery of sulpho-
cyanides from tlie waste lime of gas-purifiers could not be
carried on profitably. He had found that the cyanides
produced in the manufacture of coal-gas wire decomposed
when the gas was passed through the lime purifiers and
appeared as ammonia. He had recently instituted a number
of experiments, and had been successful in removing the
cyanides from the coal-gas before it reached the purifiers.
The cyanide was obtained in considerable quantity, and his
results had been so encouraging that further experiments
were being prosecuted. He had no doubt that a large
quantity of cyanide would before long be obtained from
coal as a by-product in the manufacture of coal-gas.
Mr. Playfair, in reply, said that he had not tried to
repeat or follow up Bunsen and Playfair's experiments in
the way of manufacturing cyanide in the blast furnace,
because he considered that later experiments on the fixation
of nitrogen at high temperatures by the action of alkalised
carbon — none of which had been conspicuously successful —
were, generally speaking, founded on Bunsen and Playfair's
results. Besides this, the experimental use of a blast furnace
for the manufacture of cyanides would have involved him
in much expense. The quantity of sulphocyanide in all the
lime residues from gasworks which he had examined was
so low as not to make them worth working. He presumed
that Mr. Foulis recovered hi- cyanides as sulphocyanides,
or in some other form, which would require further treat-
ment. He could not give any exact figures as to the cost
of his process, but estimated it to be at least 25 — 30 per
cent, less than the oost of the other processes in use at
present.
THE ENGLISH PROCESS OF ANTIMONY
SMELTING.
UY EDWARD RODGEr:.
The smelting of antimony is one of those processes about
which little trustworthy information is to be obtained from
those text-books which profess to afford instruction upon
metallurgical operations. 1 do not know what the case
may be with regard to the generality of metallurgical
[lie lesses, hut 1 can say that, so far as those with which I
am practically acquainted are concerned, the text-hooks
almost always may be taken as teaching anything rather
than the processes by which metals really are obtained from
their ores.
There are some honourable exceptions, of course, but the
vast proportion of so-called metallurgical works simply
copy the errors and repeat the obsolete processes which
previous authors have committed to writing; as a rule
there is far too little original inquiry, and too much
convenient faith amongst compilers of these works.
I need not here point out the errors which are committed
in almost every work regarding the process of antimony
smelting. I may only say that during a not iuconsiderable
study of the published processes, I have never seen a com-
plete account of the real method, and therefore I hope that
the few notes which 1 have the honour to bring before you
to-night will not be without interest aud value.
I presume that it is needless for me to give any account
of the ores of antimony, nor of its history. These things
are so well known that any reference to them would be
superfluous. Suffice it to say that the one which I have
seen smelted is a sulphide mixed with quartz, the" stibuite"
of the mineralogists, and which contains about 52 per cent,
of metallic antimony.
The ores for -melting by the English process must be free
from lead and arsenic, neither of which metals can he
eliminated, and an ore of such a poor quality as that which
I have mentioned is costly and unsatisfactory to deal with.
The ore arrives in this country generally in smallish
pieces, rather larger than ordinary road metal, and is packed
in bags holding various weights ; about a hundredweight
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
17
may be taken us a rough average. The ore is ground
under edge runners, and passed through a coarse screen,
the largest pieces which are allowed to pass being about
the size of hazel nuts, while the great bulk of the ore
consists, of course, of smaller particles, varying from the
size of peas to fine dust.
Alter grinding, a sample is prepared which is analysed
or assayed in order to ascertain how much iron is required
for proper reduction.
The procss of smelting consists in reducing the sulphide
of antimony by means of metallic iron, the fusion taking
place in crucibles which arc heated in a very long reverbera-
tor}" furnace.
In dealing with the process, we may first of all consider
the furnace and the crucible, then passing on to the details
of the actual operation of smelting.
The furnace is a curious structure, and differs from any
other species with which I am acquainted. It consists of a
bed 54 feet long, including the fire-places, and 7 feet 4 inches
broad (inside size), covered by a low arch which springs
almost from the surface of the ground, the bed itself being
sunk below the level of the ground. This long gallery is
heated by means of a fire-place at each end, the two fires
drawing into a common flue in the middle of the furnace.
The flue is arranged below the bed of the furnace, and the
I re in the bed, this arrangement being to prevent the
lieat being drawn to one side, as would be liable to happen
were the flue to start directly from the side of the furnace.
The sides of the furnace and the top of the arch are covered
with 1-inch east-iron plates, while a 2-inch square malleable
iron bar runs on each side the whole length of the furnace
under the upright binders, which arc, of course, tied over
the top of the arch by tie-rods.
The floor of the furnace-room along the whole length of
each side of the furnace is covered with cast-iron plates,
canning out about 3 feet from the walls of the furnace, the
remainder of the floor of the furnace-room being paved with
granite " setts."
it will be seen from this description that the furnace is
very little above the ground level. It is, in fact, sunk into
the ground, so that it is quite easy to step on to its iron-
covered roof. The fire-places being below the ground
level, suitable fire-pits are, of course, required.
The crucibles are lowered into their places from above
through holes in the arch, with corresponding apertures in
the iron binding plates, the workmen standing on the
roof of the furnace while handling the crucibles. Indeed,
practically all the work is done by ihe furnacemen while in
this position. The holes referred to are circular, 14 inches
in diameter, and are 42 in number, 21 on a side, in such a
furnace as is here described. In addition to the " pot-
holes," there are two hides in the furnace roof at each end
of the bed, which are 4 inches in diameter, anil are used
for cleaning away clinker, &c. from the ends of the bed.
The •' pot-holes " are each provided with a circular fire-clay
cover clamped round with an iron ring, which serves to
protect the covers, and also to bind them when they split,
as they generally do.
The crucibles stand 20 inches high and 1 1 inches outside
across the mouth. They ate constructed of a mixture of
good fire-clay and plumbago. The clay may be either
■Stourbridge or Hexham, the former for choice ; and the
plumbago, whatever its source, must be free from iron, &c.
Below are analyses of the tyvo classes of clay referred to : —
Water (HaO)
Silica (SiOj)
Alumina (Al/>()
Protoxide of iron (FeO)
Lime (Ca(»)
Magnesia (MgO)
Potash (KaO)
Soda (Na=OJ
Titanic acid (TiOa) ....
si 'bridge.
Hexham.
7 -III)
l-\v
69-00
59-05
22-00
25-61
1-50
2-20
()• in
o-ss
0-51
n-75
o-«
1-97
0-18
0-2S
1-53
101-12
99-71
The crucibles weigh 12 lb. dry, and consist, as nearly as
need be, of — dry clay, 35f lb., and plumbago, fi] lb. The
amount of clay and plumbago made up at one time is 5 cwt.
of clay and 3 qr. 11 lb. plumbago. This mixture is
ground under edge runners in a damp state, and then
thoroughly incorporated by treading with the bare feet in
the usual manner of preparing clay for crucible-making,
this part of the process calling for no remark. The
crucibles are made in the usual way by hand, and are con-
sidered to cost, using the above proportions, about 2s. 6d.
each, or thereabouts. They are dried and stoved in the
ordinary way, steam pipes being used for the first drying,
while the waste heat from the antimony furnace is employed
for the final drying. After thorough drying they are
carefully heated to redness, in suitable kilns, hefore being
placed in the furnace. These kilns are simply upright
chambers, provided with a high door in front, and com-
municating with a chimney at the top. Below is a fire-
place, over which is built a low arch whose top is levelled
by means of fire-clay covers, and is pierced with a numbnr
of pigeon-holes, so as to provide for the passage of the
flame from the fire-place below into the upper chamber.
The crucibles are placed upon the floor, leaving the holes
clear. When the chamber is full the door is closed and
luted ; a gentle fire is made, which is cautiously augmented
until the crucibles are at a cherry-red heat, at which tem-
perature they are kept until required, when they are
withdrawn as needed.
I have said that the furnace contains 42 holes in two
rows, 21 holesiin each row. The pair of crucibles nearest the
fire-places at each end of the furnace is kept for '• starring "
or refining the crude metal, while the remaining holes are
divided as is found suitable for the first and second meltings
of the crude metal. The charge for each crucible consists
of 42 lb. of ground ore, 10 lb. of wrought-iron scrap, 4 lb.
of common salt, and 1 lb. of skimmings from the next
operation or else the same weight of impure slag from a
previous melting. Of course these weights vary with
every ore, but the above will be true for an ore of 52 per
cent.
The iron scrap used must be wrought not east iron ;
tinned scrap is preferred, the small trace of tin being
generally believed, I know not with what truth, to whiten
the resulting antimony. Part of the tinned scrap is beaten
up into a round ball, large enough to fit the top of the
crucible loosely. Such a ball weighs about 13 lb., and one
is used for each charge, the remaining iron required being
added in the form of turnings or borings, and is mixed
through the ore, along with the salt, in the weighing scoop.
The mixture of ore, salt, and iron is dropped into the
crucible through an iron funnel, the lump of beaten scrap
being thrown in last of all, so as to form a kind of hd ; the
furnace hole is then closed with its cover for about half an
hour, when the crucible is again examined. In the mean-
time a fresh charge is weighed out ready for the crucible the
moment it is empty. As the charge melts the ball of iron
on the top falls down and is gradually absorbed, the iron
reducing the antimony to the metallic state, it being itself
converted into sulphide. The salt assists the separation of
the slag, and tends to promote the fusion of the siliceous
matters of the ore.
The workman from time to time examines the crucible
with a view to ascertain whether fusion is takiug place
properly, and presses doyvn the ball of scrap on the top
with a bar of iron. The length of time required for fusion
and decomposition varies with the position occupied by the
crucible, those far from the fire requiring longer time than
those close to it, but as a rule about four meltings are got
from each crucible per 12 hours, so that allowing for
charging, and occasional changing of crucibles, &c, a
little less than three hours may be taken as an average, but
it must be borne in mind, that the richer the ore, the
shorter time is required to melt it. Opposite to each
crucible, except those used for the final refining, is placed
a conical cast-iron mould, which stands close by the furnace
side, it is large enough to hold the contents of the crucible,
and is furnished with a cast-iron lid. The fusion being
complete, the crucible is withdrawn, balanced on the edge
18
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[J an. 30,1392.
of the furnace ivall, and the contents poured into the mould,
which is at once coveted with it- lid ; the crucible is
examined, si raped out if need be, replaced, and at once
recharged with tin- mixture.
The mould i- pierced at the bottom with a circular hole
about three-quarters of an inch or less in diameter; the
metal does not escape through this, as the first portion
which reaches the mould chills and prevents the escape of
the remainder ; the object of this hole being to enable the
fused mass, when cool, to be knocked out by means of a
hammer and a punch. When the mass is removed from
the mould the reduced antimony which collects at the bottom
is knocked away from the slag, which slag, if the fusion is
carefully condncted, should be quite clean enough to be
thrown away. The metal obtained by this process is
known as " -ingles," and below is an analysis of a sample of
such metal: —
Antimony 91"<S3
Iron 7'_:;
Sulphur 0'82
Insoluble matter
99-68
It is seen by the analysis that the "singles" contain a
large quantity of iron, this arises from the necessity of
using an excess of iron in order to reduce the whole of the
antimony in the ore, and the next operation consists in
removing this large excess of iron, and thereby practically
purifying the metal. This is accomplished by melting the
■' -inch's " with a small quantity of pure sulphide of
antimony, the liquated sulphide being used for this
purpose. 1 have here a. sample of liquated sulphide
such as is used in this process, and also in the preparation
of the "antimony flux," to ■winch I shall refer later.
The charge for the second fusion consists of S4 lb. of
singles broken small (about the size of road metal) and I
7-8 lb. of liquated sulphide of antimony, with 1 lb. of salt
added as a flux. Sometimes kedp salt is used in place of
ordinary salt in this fusion, and is found to be very suitable.
The reaction in this fusion is similar to that in the last
operation, the excess of iron in the metal reducing the
pure sulphide of antimony to the metallic state, being itself
converted into sulphide of iron. The fusion i> narrowlj
watched, and great care taken that the metal and the
sulphide of antimony shall mix thoroughly, but much
stirring with iron tools should he avoided at this stage as
the object is to remove iron so far as possible. When
stirring is required it is done as quickly as possible in
order to expose the iron stirrer as little as maybe to the
action of the sulphide of antimony. When the fusion is
complete, the fused mass is carefully skimmed by means of
a cast-iron ladle placed on a long shaft, this skimming being
carried out as completely as may be in order that the
metal should he as clean as possible before pouring. When
the skimming is over the metal is at once poured into
moulds identical with those used in the previous operation.
The resulting metal from this melting is known as " star
bowls." and each fusion yields a lump of about 80 lbs.
The skimmings go, as 1 indicated before, to the first
operation.
I have here samples of this second metal, which yielded
on analysis: —
Anti lj' 99" 53
lion 0-18
Sulphur (Til!
99*87
As you will see, the surface of the crystals of this metal
are covered with tiny bright specks. These specks are a
certain sign of the presence of sulphur in the metal, and
this appearance is known as " flouring," metal showing these
specks being said to be " floured." As in the first melting
it is necessary to add an excess of iron in order to remove
all the antimony, so in this case it is necessary to add an
excess of sulphide of antimony in order to remove all the
iron, and hence the presence of sulphur in the antimony
obtained. In order to remove this sulphur, and finally to
purify the metal, another melting is required, and the
custom of the trade being that antimony shall be sold in
Ha1 ingots, each "starred" or crystallised on the upper
surface, if is necessary to take precautions so as to obtain
this " star" or crystallised appearance, by means of which
the buyer judges of the purity of the metal. These two
results are achieved by melting the metal along with a
peculiar flux known as " antimony flux,*' and this antimony
flux is a body not easily prepared, and one which is often
difficult to obtain at first, but having obtained it, it is easily
kept in order.
The process of making this flux is a rule-of-thumb one,
and is carried out something in this way: — Three parts of
ordinary American potash are melted in a crucible, and
two parts of ground liquated sulphide of antimony are
mixed in. When the mixture is complete and the fusion
quiet the mass is poured out and tried on a small scale in
order to see whether it yields a good "star" or not; if it
doc- so the ingot of metal obtained is broken, and the metal
examined in order to judge whether or not it is free from
sulphur. Should this prove the case the flux is considered
satisfactory, and may be put in use, but otherwise the flux
is remelted and more of one ingredient or the other is
added as experience dictates, the forming of a good flux
being a matter of some difficulty, and one in which
experience is the only guide.
The process of refining and starring the star-bowls is as
follows : — The lumps of metal when cold are removed from
the mould and carried from the furnace house to an
adjoining room, where they are thoroughly cleaued from
the adhering skin of slag by chipping with sharp hammers,
this part of the work being sometimes done by women,
who become very expert in rapidly and completely
removing every trace of slag. Unless this cleaning process
is carefully carried out it is hopeless to attempt to obtain
a good star on the finished metal, the presence of the
adhering slag completely ruining the appearance of the
ingots, rendering them dull and lustreless and quite unlike
what they should be. The ehippings are of course collected
and returned to the second melting. The star-bowls
having been cleaned they are broken small a- in the case
of the singles, and a charge weighed out for refining. The
charge used is ¥4 lb. of star-bowls, and a sufficiency of the
antimony flux. Enough flux is added to surround the
ingots completely, and for this less or more is needed
according to the shape and thickness of the ingots, for
ingots of the ordinary shape about S lb. are required.
The melting takes place in the crucibles next the fire-places,
that is to say, in those which are hotti st and in which the
fusion will be most rapid.
The charge of metal is thrown into the crucible and
narrowly watched, and whenever it begins to melt, the flux
is added. As soon as the fusion appears to be complete
the fnrnaceman stirs the mixture once round only with an
iron rod, and the charge is at once poured out. The ingot
moulds are placed side by side, having between them a
wedge-shaped frame of cast iron, called a "saddle." the
edge of which points upwards, and upon which the charge
is poured, when the stream divides, one half finding it-
way into each mould. These moulds are left to cool quite
undisturbed, and as they cool the flux which covers the
surface cracks, and wdien quite cold can be easily knocked
off. The flux is used over and over again, a piece of
carbonate of potash being thrown in each fusion when old
flux is used. In this way it will be seen that the flux
keeps on increasing as a little potash is added and a littie
sulphur and antimony are picked up at each fusion. The
ingots must be completely surrounded by flux, then' must
be a thiii layer of it between the mould anil the metal,
and also the whole surface of the ingot must be covered
to the depth of perhaps a quarter of an inch. Under the
circumstances the metal should always give a good star
and preserve a good colour.
The traces of flux which adhere are removed by washing
in warm water with the assistance of a little sharp -and.
water by itself being insufficient to remove the Mux, which
is practically insoluble in water.
Jan. SO, 1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
19
The personnel of such a furnace as I have described
consists of aboul 36 men and three women, thi^ total being
made up as follows : —
2 Firemen, one each fire, il&y and night 1
8 Furnaoeinen, I on each side, day and night .. ii;
2 Mon, cleaning mota], day and night 1
2 Men, breaking metal, day and night -1.
1 Man, weighing charges, day and night 2
SO
On day-shift only—
:: Men, labouring, grinding ore. Jtc ,T
1 Sin i tin repairing tools, &c 1
Packiugand washing,3 women, and 1
l Engine and boilerman i
86
Of course this does not include the making of
crucibles, Sc., bat generally speaking one crucible-maker
and one labourer can make enough crucibles, working
during the day only, to keep the furnace going. The coals
used, including those used for firing the kilns, amount to
about 22 tons i" i week, or a little more than one ton and a
half each shitt.
Aboul II crucibles are used per ton of refined metal
produced, but this might by reduced by careful working,
and the yield of finished metal from such a furnace as J
have described working a 52 per cent, ore is about 1-1 \ tons.
or a little more, perhaps 14 tons 12 cwt. per week.
A great deal of volatilisation takes place from the melted
metal in the pots, and the fume thus produced is condensed
in the flues of the furnace, which are built for that purpose
in a winding manner, passing backwards and forwards under
the floor of the crucible drying stoves, so as to dry the pots
at the same time as condensing the fume. The total
amount of fume varies very much; the richer the ore the
less fume there is in proportion to the antimony produced,
although the absolute amount of fume is greater than when
a poorer oie is worked. I suppose, taking one case with
another, that 1 am not far from the truth when I say that
about 10 per cent, of the total antimony contained iu the
ore is volatilised, and of this the greater part is condensed
in properly constructed flues, but, of course, some part is
inevitably lost. The fume is a whitish body, heavy, and
rather crystalline, not very unlike white arsenic in appear-
ance, but of a greyer colour, and, as j'ou will readily
believe, generally more or less blackened with soot. It
contains about 70 per cent, of metallic antimony, one
sample, of which I have an analysis, taken from about
7 tons of fume, gave 72 -GO per cent, metallic antimony.
The smelting of this fume is conducted as follows : — A test
experiment is made in order to ascertain the amount of
carbon in the form of coke or anthracite necessary to reduce
all the antimony present in the fume. This having been
found, the fume is mixed by grinding under edge-runners
with the proper quantity of carbonaceous matter, and of the
mixture so produced a few pounds weight is added to each
charge of ore and iron when melting for singles. This
process of smelting fume is no favourite with the workmen,
as the gases given off in the process are apt to cause the
mixture in the pots to overflow, and the "boiling ore," as
they term the mixture of fume and coke, is therefore looked
upon by them with great disfavour; but bc-yend the
mechanical difficulties, there is no trouble whatever in
smelting the fume. The flues require cleaning out at
intervals, sometimes once every two or three months, some-
times less frequently, according to circumstances.
The ingots, which are known in the trade as '-French
metal," after being wrapped in straw, are packed in kegs
holding about (i ewt. nett, and which are about the size of
ordinary butter firkins.
The value of any sample of antimony is judged, not by
analysis, but by its appearance, and a good sample of metal
should exhibit the following characteristics : — The star
should be bold and defined, standing well up on the metal,
the edges of the ridges sharp and straight ; the metal
itself should be lustrous and white, not dull and leaden-
looking. Lastly, on breaking the ingot, the crystals should
be large, and the surfaces of them free from specks, which
are a sign of sulphur in the metal, a most undesirable
impurity ; and on this last point, perhaps more than on anv
other, depends the value placed on the sample under
consideration.
I regret that 1 cannot offer any idea of the costs of
working, as, unfortunately, I have lost or mislaid the notes
hearing on that part of the process. I have thought it best,
therefore, to confine myself solely to a description of the
process as it is carried out in practice, leaving out of sight.
the commercial considerations altogether. 1 must not
forget to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. Roadman, who
placed his notes and analyses at ray disposal, in order to fill
up some blanks in my own memoranda.
Disci sm.ix.
The Cii.UitMAX said that the thanks of the Section were
due to Mr. Kodger for his instructive and practical paper,
and all the more so as he had come forward with it on very
short notice to supply the place of another which had been
postponed. He quite agreed with .Mr. Rodger that the
information which could be got from ordinary text-books
oi- this subject was of little practical value, as he had lately
to look up this subject, and could not get the desired infor-
mation. _ He would like to ask if any special quality were
required or if any great difficulty was experienced in
grinding metallic antimony, as he had occasionally to use it
and found it difficult to obtain and the price very high. He
would also like to know what the average life of a crucible
was, and if the process he had described was worked in
Scotland.
Dr. J. B. Readxak could say from experience that
.Mr. Kodger had given a very accurate description of the
smelting of antimony. The process was, he thought, defec-
tive fo far as the use of crucibles were concerned. These
should be dispensed with, for the use of crucibles for smelt-
ing was a very costly method, each crucible costing 2s. 6d.,
and all of them filling only a small proportion of'the heated
area of the furnace. Why should not a reverberatory furnace
or some other form of furnace be employed, and the enor-
mous expense of crucibles te got rid of? Some time ago a
method had been proposed for smelting antimony in a
water-jacketed blast furnace, but he did not know if it had
been successful. He thought a blast furnace of that des-
cription might be adapted to serve the purpose. On the
whole he thought there was great room for improvement in
the process ofrefiniug antimony.
Mr. Rodger, in reply to Mr. Fawsitt, said that any
antimony could be ground in au iron mortar, but it was
very difficult, almost impossible, to get it chemically pure.
However, a good sample of antimony as it left the smelter's
hands was a very pure commercial product. The cost of
the crucibles was immense. In the work with which he
had been connected they calculated that eleven crucibles
were used for every ton of refined metal produced. The
average life of a crucible depended on what it was used for.
Crucibles used for " starring " were very short lived, and
could not be employed more than three or four times, being
rapidly destroyed by the flux, while crucibles for "singles "
would stand for a long time and could be used twenty times
or more. A blast furnace, he believed, had been used for
smelting antimony-, but the furnace was worked very low,
with poor ores, the object being to produce as much
'• fume " as possible, this fume being condensed and after-
wards reduced with carbon. He had, however, no practical
experience of this. He agreed with Dr. Readiuan that a
vast amount of heat and space was lost by the use of
crucibles for smelting. A reverberatory furnace had been
tried but did not seem to work. Antimony was not now-
smelted in Scotland, the work with which he had formerly
been connected having been stopped for want of ore.
Newcastle was at present the seat of the industry.
C 2
20
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO, 1898.
Journal ana patent* gt'trraturr*
Class. Tape.
I. — General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 90
II.— Fuel, Gas, and Light 21
III. — Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &e '2-2
IV.— Colouring Hatters and Dyes 23
V.— Textiles: Cotton, Wool, Silk, Ac 2ii
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 3ft
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 3t
V I II.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 33
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements. . 38
X.— Metallurgy 39
X I. —Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 42
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap manufacture 44
XIII.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber. &c U
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 16
XV.— Manures, Ac —
X V I. — Sugar, Starch, Gum, Ac 4S
XV 11. —Brewing, Wines, Spirits, Ac 50
XVIIL— Chemistry of Poods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 51
X I X.— Paper, Pasteboard, &c 5-2
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids. Essences, and Extracts 57
XXI.— Photographic Materials and Processes —
XX 1 1.— Explosives, Matches, Ac 50
XXI II.— Analytical Chemistry 60
I.-GENEEAL PLANT, APPAKATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
Manufacture of Glass Pipes of Large Diameter.
L. Appert. Hull. Soc. d'Encouragenient l'iiidustric
Nationale, 1891,6, 114—121.
See under VIII., page 38.
casing is placed horizontally and the discs fitted to a vertical
spindle. The accompany iug drawing shows one of the
PATENTS.
Improvements in Machinery and Apparatus for Grind-
ing or Crushing Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal
Substances. \V. II. Thompson, London. Eng. Pat,
19,061, November 24, 1890. lid.
Tni» invention relates to improvements in the class of
grinding mill in which a hall is held between two discs sur-
rounded by a cylindrical casing, so that rotary motion applied
to the discs causes the hall to travel along the inner circum-
ference of the casing, thereby exerting a reducing and
grinding action upon any materials enclosed therein. The
principal point of novelty claimed consists in securing the
two discs each to an independent shaft placed axially in line
with the other, each shaft being capable of separate
adjustment laterally as well as axially, and of being driven
at independent speeds. In another arrangement the two
discs are secured to the same shaft, and fitted with springs
for self-adjustment. ( )r a rotary casing may be employed,
the discs being held stationary and in elastic contact with
the ball, an arrangement specially applicable when the
• Any of these specifications may be obtained by post, by
remitting the cost price, plus postage, to Mr. II. Reader Lack,
Comptroller of the Patent Office, Southampton Buildings, Chancery
Lane, London, W.C. The amount of postage may be calculated as
follows: —
If the price does not eicccd 8it id.
Above 8<l., and not exceeding 15. 6d Id.
„ U.ed., „ „ 2s. id lid.
„ 2s. id., „ „ 3s. 4rf 2d.
Grinding Apparatus.
latter arrangements, suitable for wet grinding, with the
driving pulley placed underneath.
There are seven claims and four sheets of drawings.
— B.
Improvements in Filtering Machinery. E. Martin, Watford.
Eng. Pat. 19,600, December 2, 1890. Gd.
The apparatus consists of a horizontal cylinder, with per-
forated circumference, carried on hollow trunnions, which is
immersed nearly to its full depth in a cistern filled with
the liquid to be filtered. The trunnions pass through the
sides of the cistern by means of stuffing-boxes, and over the
whole circumference of the cylinder, except for the small
portion projecting above the liquid, is laid an endless
filtering cloth, which runs thence over secondary small
cylinders or rollers and passes through another cistern, in
which are provided means for cleaning off any deposit that
may have collected. The liquid passes through the cloth
surrounding the cylinder, leaving its impurities on the outer
surface of the cloth, whilst the clean liquid is withdrawn
through the trunnions. On motion being imparted to the
cylinder and the filtering cloth, the deposit is removed as the
latter passes through the second cistern.
Claim is made for the whole arrangement. — B.
Improved HTc/hod of and Apparatus for Treating Smoke
and Gases from Furnaces and other Fires. A. tS. Davy,
Sheffield. Eng. Pat. 179, January 5, 1891. 8d.
See under II., next page.
Improvements in or < 'onnected with Compression Pumps
for Gaseous or Vaporous Fluids. W, H. Webb, Bootle.
Eng. Pat. 1540, January 28, 1891. 3d.
The patentee makes the suction or lift-valve of a pump
removable by securing its seat in a round plug, which can
be inserted through a suitable opening in the pump casing.
Four claims and two illustrations. — B.
Jan. SO, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
21
Improvements in Apparatus for Concentrating Acids.
\V. C. Hencns, Hanau, Germany. Eug. Pat. 2499,
February 11, 1891, 4rf.
See under VII., page 36-
Itnprorcmcnts in or relating to Means or Apparatus for
Treating Gases, Smoke, and Products of Combustion so
as to rentier them Innocuous. 11. Wainwright, Leeds.
Eng. Pat. 10,-127, June 19, 1891. Sd.
See under II., page 22.
II.-FUEL, GAS. AND LIGHT.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Appliances for Producing Light by
Incandescence. T. Heskin, Preston. Eng. Pat. 16,821,
October 22, 1890. 8d.
These improvements relate to the production of light by
heating magnesia or other refractory earthy substances to
incandescence by means of Bunsen or other gas burners,
ami to the automatic supply and renewal of such sub-
stances. Hitherto mantles or hoods, which, owing to their
fragile natures, are liable to be fractured and broken, have
been used. Further, the light-giving properties of such are
found to deteriorate, necessitating frequent renewal.
The principal feature of this invention is the preparation
of a mixture of a salt of a refractory earth with glycerin,
" which, when suitably applied to the flame of the burner,
evolves a continuous supply of the refractory earth."
The burner used is preferably one giving a low, short,
but hot flame, about half an inch in height.
Fig. 1.
«£
^NW^^
Fig. 1 shows one way of applying the mixture. T is a
metallic or earthenware vessel, 4 in. high by 2 in. in
diameter, extending to 6 in. or other suitable size, at the
base for attachment to a Bunsen burner. The base B is
fixed about j of an inch above the central air-way of the
burner, and is about | an inch less in diameter than that of
the flame, to allow a clear annular space for the air to ascend.
h h h is a circle of small tubes of thin platinum, nickel, or
silver, fixed at right angles to the base, each \ in. long and
4 in. in bore, about -/^th of an inch apart, and which almost
touch the flame of the burner at a point ^th of an inch
below its extreme height. T is filled with the pasty
mixture, which eventually appears as a bead at each end of
tubes h h h. When the burner is lighted, the mixture
decomposes, the bead swelling out and immersing itself in
the body of the flame — a residue of refractory earth being
left generally in the form of a small cone. If the ends of
the tubes actually touch the flame, the oxide is left in a
light porous condition, not so well adapted for illuminating
purposes as the denser form.
The reservoir T may be placed above or below the
Bunsen and wires of platinum nickel or silver may be drawn
through the pasty mixture and brought in contact with the
flame. Fig. 2 shows suitable shapes of wire, which in ease
of («) is jnnd of an inch thick and T'sth in the other two
CO, (c). When heated, decomposition occurs, and tufts
of oxide are left adhering. When the burner is not in use,
Fig. 2.
a. b o
Attachment fou Incandescent Gas Lamps.
the mixture in the tube being deliquescent, absorbs moisture,
from the air and forms another bead, which in turn evolves
a further supply of oxide when decomposed. The chloride
or other suitable salt of magnesium, lanthanum, zirconium,
yttrium or thorium may be used. — D. A. S.
Improvements in Incandescence Gas Lamps and Apparatus
in Connection therewith. C. Clamond, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. GO, January 1, 1891. Hd.
Acccikding to these improvements the gas first passes
through a regulator, consisting essentially of a disc with
small holes the area of which can be regulated by means of
tapering pins ; it is claimed that in this way the quantity of
gas can be varied without altering the speed of the gaseous
current through the holes, and hence without altering the
mixture of gas and air. After passing through the regulator
disc, air mixes with the gas, being drawn in through lateral
perforations in the conducting tube, and the mixture is heated
on its way to the burner, which consists of a metal chamber
having at its underside a group of small tubes extending
downwards. The air and gas are here intimately mixed, and
on issuing from the lower ends of the tubes meet a further
supply of highly-heated air, sufficient to ensure perfect com-
bustion. The flame so produced plays downwards through
an inverted magnesia hood, which it raises to incandescence,
the products of combustion then passing upwards to the
regenerator for heating the preliminary mixture of air and gas
and secondary air supply. By these means, it is claimed,
there can be no clogging of orifices by particles of soot or
carbon. For powerful lamps of this class the burner as
described above is somewhat modified in order to ensure an
even distribution of air and gas supply to the tubes, while in
order to avoid the inconvenient radiation of heat from tho
glass globe, the latter is cooled by being surrounded by a
second glass globe, an air space being left between the two,
through which the air supply passes on its way to tho
regenerator and thus undergoes a preliminary heating.
For details of the regenerator aud mode of fixing these
lamps, the specification and drawings must be consulted.
— O. H.
Improved Method of and Apparatus for Treating Smoke
aud Gases from Furnaces and other Fires. A. S. Davy,
Sheffield. Eng. Pat. 179, January 5, 1891. tjd.
Ix this method the smoke and gases are caused to pass
through a fan, blower, or exhauster, in the interior of which
they are brought into contact with water in the form of
spray, the solid matter beiug precipitated and subsequently
carried off. The water is led in to the vane spindle and
projected by centrifugal force through holes therein. The
spindle is hollow or tubular, and partially divided longitu-
dinally by ribs. There may also be holes through the boss,
or through the arms of the vanes, or the water may be
supplied through the casing to the interior of the fan or
exhauster, and so dashed into spray by the revolving vanes.
— D. A. S.
__•
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 3(1 ISDi
Improvements in or relating to Means or Apparatus for
Treating Gases, Smoke, anil Products of Combustion so
as tn render them Innocuous. 1!. Wainwright, Leeds.
Eng. Pat. 10,427, June 19, 1891. 8d.
In this invention it is proposed to render gases and smoke
*' innocuous " by drawing them from the chimney or flue
through a cooling pipe or tube into a purifier in the form
of a tank partially filled with water, and thence into the
atmosphere. The chimney being closed with a damper, the
products of combustion arc withdrawn by means of an
exhauster, cooled by being passed through a tube surrounded
with water, and discharged beneath the surface of water in a
closed tank. They are thus efficiently washed without the
use of any mechanical agitator. From the purifier the gases
are allowed to escape into the atmosphere direct, or are
returned to the chimney above the damper.or to the furnaces
again. A drawing is attached to the specification showing the
application of this system to a Cornish boiler. — U. A. S.
Ill -DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAE
PRODUCTS, Etc.
The Origin of Petroleum. R. Zaloziecki. Chem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1203—1200.
The author disputes the validity of the hypothesis of
Ochsenius concerning the origin of petroleum, the chief
features of which are the assumption that the formation of
petroleum has been brought about by the action upon the
fatty matter of decomposing animal remains of certain salts,
notably alkaline bromide- and aluminium chloride, and
the contention that this view is borne out by the composition
of the saline constituents of the natural waters commonly
found associated with petroleum. The chief grounds for
his rejection of this theory are that petroleum and the said
saline deposits belong to different geological epoch-, and
that little or no nitrogen in any form is found in the waters
accompanying deposits of mineral oil. Moreover, cases are
known in which the water accompanying petroleum is free
from saline constituents, and further, the syntheses of
hydrocarbons of the aromatic series effected by the aid of
small quantities of alkaline bromides and iodides and
aluminium chloride, take place under conditions widely
differing from those that would occur in the production of
petroleum in contact with an aqueous solution of these
bodies. In consequence of these considerations he adheres
to his belief that the fuuetion of the saline constituents of
waters accompanying petroleum has been rather to restrain
the putrefactive changes of the original animal matter, than
to cause a specific alteration of its fatty constituents into
hydrocarbons of such series as are generally found in crude
petroleum. — li. I!.
Artificial Mineral Lubricating Oils — the Condensation
Products of Allyl Alcohol with Methylated Benzenes.
G. Kraemei and A. Spilker. Ber. 189l", 24, 2785—2793
and 3164.
Is their investigations on the condensation of cinnamene
(styrol) with methylbenzene derivatives (Ber. 1890, 23,
3269 — 3283; this journal, 1891, 3S and 39) the authors
briefly referred to the formation of viscous cinnamene
compounds possessing the properties of mineral oil. In
continuation of these researches they have attempted to
ascertain in what relation these compounds stand to mineral
oils. Owing to the fact that the viscosity of mineral oils
increases as the quantity of solid paraffin diminish.-, it is
feasible to attribute the- formation of viscous compounds to
certain changes which paraffin has undergone after the
formation of petroleum. The conversion of solid paraffin
I products lias been investigated by a number of
authors, and although it is unnecessary for the purpose of
the present paper to gain further insight into the nature
of this dissociation, the authors contend it to be highly
probable that the liquid hydrocarbons thus formed while
acting mutually on one another may in course of time be
resolved into viscous compounds resembling the products
which are obtained by the condensation of cinnamene with
methylbenzene derivatives.
The new compounds described by the authors were
prepared by mixing 100 cc. of anhydrous allyl alcohol with
1,000 ec.of pseudocumene and treating the mixture gradually
whilst cold with 100 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid
and 50 cc. of fuming sulphuric acid. Two la3'ers of liquid
were formed, the heavier of which contained sulphonic acids.
The lighter portions were separated, washed witli water and
soda, and distilled in a current of steam. At 200° — 220° a
colourless viscid liquid came over, the residue forming a
yellowish-brown resinous compound. The oil after fraction-
ation boiled above 300' almost without decomposition. It
hail a viscosity of 77 J at 15 (water being 1) compared with
the figure 40 which was obtained in the sameapparatu- witli
a sample of best Kussian lubricating oil. It had the com-
position C^Hoj. The resinous compound was found to be
a polymeride of the original substance. The liquid obtained
from xylene and allyl alcohol had the formula C,,IH_,4, and
showed the lower viscosity number of 8' 1. It will be seeu
that oxygen was not present in these compounds, and from
this fact it was supposed that they had not been produced
under the same conditions as the cinuamene derivatives,
but that the condensation must have been accompanied by
the elimination of water. The formation is illustrated by
the authors in the following manner : —
Hi. Oil
(CH3)3Cf,H3<-C H ' .rH.
II -> CH3
CH3
(CH3)3C6H2 — C — Cstt.(< M ,
I-
II M
The product obtained from pseudocumene and allyl alcohol
is therefore diinethyldicuniylmethane. The authors regard
these compounds as the " viscosity carriers " of mineral
oils ; moreover they consider they have proved that the lubri-
cating property depends on the number of methyl groups
present in the compound, and that all high boiling fractions of
petroleum are free from oxygen whilst the highly viscous
oils contain less hydrogen than the oils of lower viscosity.
The authors explain on page 31G4 of the Berichte that
they omitted to refer to the researches of Baeyer (Ber. 6,
224 ), who obtained a viscous compound of high boiling point
by the condensation of allyl alcohol and mesitylene with
concentrated sulphuric acid, although no mention was made
by him of the constitution or composition of the product.
— B. B.
PATENTS.
I Veui Product possessing the Same, or nearly the Same
Properties as Spirits of Turpentine. T. Drake,
Huddersiielil. Eng. Pat. 16,916, October 23, lS'JO. id.
See under X11I., page 45.
Production from Mineral Oils of Sulphonic Acids ami
Sulphones, and the Manufacture of a New Product by
treating Gelatinous Matters with Sulphonic Acid.
A.M.Clark, London. From the " Gewerkschaft Messel,"
Grube Messel, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,502. November
29, 1S90. 6d.
Tin: unsaturated hydrocarbons present in petroleum,
mineral wax, or rosin oil are converted into a mixture of
sulphonic acids and sulphoues when treated with fuming
Jan. so, 18920 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTEY.
23
sulphuric acid ;it the ordinary temperature, or with acid
containing 10 percent, of the anhydride at 80 < '. Petroleum
..!' sp. gr. 0"860 — 0-890, when tints treated, yields a syrupy
lii|uiil containing those sulphonic acids. When this liquid is
run into water the acids are partially precipitated, their com-
plete precipitation being effected by the addition of common
salt. The precipitate is redissolved in water, and reprecipi-
tated by the addition of brine, this operation being repeated
until all the sulphuric acid is removed. The sulphones can
be separated from the sulphonic acids by converting the
latter into their sodium salts and then extracting the former
by means of ether or of naphtha. The sodium salts, when
dissolved in water and decomposed with hydrochloric acid,
yield the free sulphonic acids, to which the name of
" Tumenol-sulphonic acids" is given. These bodies when
moist form a syrupy paste having a spicy taste, and drying
at U0° C. to a pulverisable residue. They dissolve readily
in water, but are precipitated from solution by common salt,
hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. The alkaline stills are
soluble in water, while those of the alkaline earths and of the
heavy metals (except antimony and mercury) arc insoluble.
The free acids are readily oxidised, and are specially
characterised by their property of precipitating glue and
gelatin from slightly acid solutions with the formation of
an elastic caoutchouc-like precipitate which may be drawn
into threads, — C. A. K.
IV-COLOURIM MATTERS AND DYES.
Addition of Hydrogen to Tricyclic Systems. E. Bamberger.
Ber. 1891, 24, 2463—2469.
Tiih: tricyclic compounds, anthracene and phenanthrene,
take up 2 and -1 atoms of hydrogen respectively, but siuce
there is no clue to the position of the addetl hydrogen
atoms, the author has investigated the products of the
reduction of the naphthaquinolines (compare following
abstracts). The reduction is perfectly comparable with that
of bicyclic acid compounds ; it takes place in two stages,
in each of which 4 atoms of hydrogen become added. The
first group of 4 hydrogen atoms is taken up by the pyridine
nucleus, and this reduction to tetrahydridc is effected by
means of tin and hydrochloric acid. In the second stage of
reduction, which yields an octohydride, 4 hydrogen atoms
are taken up by one or other of the two rings of the
naphthalene nucleus ; this is effected by means of sodium
and amy] alcohol. The tetrahydronaphthaquinolines behave
like bicyclic compounds, and, in fact, resemble alkylated
naphthylamines in their properties. Similarly, the octo-
hvdrides behave as monocyclic or benzene derivatives.
The second stage of the reduction may take place in either
of the two rings which constitute the naphthalene nucleus,
and the classes of octohydrides obtained, are distinguished
as aromatic and alici/clic hydrides. — A. K. M.
Ethyl-a-Naphthi/lamine. K. Bamberger and C. Goldschmidt.
Ber. 1891, 24, 2409— 2472.
Ivnivi.-a-NAi'iiTiivi. \mine readily reacts with diazo-com-
poiinds, a ielding azo-dyes, which on reduction yield
ethyl-1 :4-naphthylenediamine.
Phenylaxo-ethyl-a-naphthylamine has been previously
described by Eicker, whose results the authors confirm.
Sulphophenyl-azo-ethyl-a-naphthylamine forms a dark
earmoisine red crystalline powder of green metallic lustre ;
it dissolves in hot alcohol with a bluish, deep red colour,
in concentrated sulphuric acid with a violet colour, and in
alkalis with an orange-red colour. Its sodium salt,
C,8HlcN'3.S03"Na, separates as a deep red precipitate on the
addition of salt to its aqueous solution.
Ethyl-1 : i-naphthylenediamine hydrochloride —
C13H14N2.2HC1
obtained by the reduction of the above dye with a solution
of stannous chloride in hydrochloric acid, forms fiat siivery
needles which become greenish on exposure to the air, and
which do not melt at 300°. It dissolves very readily in
water, and sparingly in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
The free base forms a colourless oil having an odour
resembling that of crude a-naphthylamine. It is sparingly
soluble in cold water, much more soluble in hot water,
readily in the ordinary organic solvents, and when exposed
to air and light it rapidly becomes dark in colour.
When it is treated with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen
sulphide, and ferric chloride it gives a slight brown coloura-
tion and turbidity •, with aniline, potassium dichromate, and
glacial acetic acid it gives a brownish-red colour, which
becomes deep Bordeaux red on boiling ; and with potassium
dichromate and meta-tolylenediamine a bluish-green colour
which changes to red on boiling.
The ehlorimide obtained by the action of bleaching
powder on an acid solution of ethyluaphthylenediartrine,
gives a deep red colouration with an alcoholic solutiou of
iiuiline and hydrochloric acid. — A. K. M.
Tetrahydro-a-naphthoquinotine. E. Bamberger and L.
Stettenhciuier. Ber. 1891, 24, 2472—2480. (Sec also
this Journal, 1891, 999—1000.)
The authors prepared o-naphthoquiuoline by Skraup's
method, which, however, they have modified in some
respects. The product melts at 52° and boils at 223°,
under a pressure of 47 mm., and at 338° under a pressure
of 719 mm., and not at 251°, under 747 mm. pressure, as
stated by Skraup. It crystallises from light petroleum in
clear colourless thick monoclinic tables, and when quite
pure has a very faint odour, unlike that of quinoline.
When ferric chloride is added to its solution in fuming
hydrochloric acid, a compound of naphthoquinone hydro-
chloride with ferric chloride separates, which is very readily
soluble in water, and which crystallises from alcohol in
golden yellow silky needles.
Tetrahydro-a-naphthoquinoline —
t',,,11
/
(1) NII.CH,.
IV I
\(2)CHj.CH2
is prepared by gradually adding a solution of a-naphtha-
quiuoline (20 grs.) in hydrochloric acid to a boiling mixture
of tin (80 grs.) and 38 per cent, hydrochloric acid (500 grs.)
and heating until the metal is dissolved. The purified base
crystallises in snow-white, lustrous scales, melting at 46' 5°;
it dissolves readily in the ordinary solvents, and its solutions
exhibit an intense blue fluorescence, which is destroyed by
the addition of a trace of an alkali or mineral acid.
Oxidising agents produce an intense carmoisin colour
when added to its acid solution, and when potassium
dichromate has been employed and the solution allowed to
stand a few minutes, the chromate of a new base separates,
and when crystallised from boiling water, is obtained in the
form of lustrous dark green needles resembling quinhydrone.
Tetrahydronaphthoquinoline hydrochloride, C1;1H13N, HC1,
crystallises in thick vitreous prisms, melts at 260" — 261",
dissolves sparingly in hydrochloric acid and not very readily
in water. The nitroso-derivative, Cl:lH12N.NO, crystallises
from light petroleum in flat, broad, lemon-yellow prisms,
melting at 59 -5J.
Phenylazotetrahydro-a-naphthoquinoline —
(■*) /(2)CHn.CH.,
C6H,.N3.CIOH / |
M1)NH.CH,
crystallises from dilute alcohol in groups of cherry-red
needles, exhibiting a bronze lustre; it dissolves in concen-
trated sulphuric acid with a cornflower-blue colour, and in
organic solvents with a deep orange-red colour. Its
24
THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTEY. [Jan. so, iwi.
sulphalt M ;.II; XII X I II i H.-o,, crystallises in flat
olive-green prisms, and gives violet-red solutions.
Sulphophenylazotetrahydro-a-naphthoquinoline —
(/uH,,XII.X,.C,1H).SOJII
forms a dark violet-red crystalline powder, exhibiting a
bronze lustre, ami yielding red solutions: its sodium salt
forms an orange-red crystalline precipitate.
Paramidotetrahydro-a^naphthoquinoline, CuX._.H]4. ob-
tained by the action of stannous chloride and hydrochloric
acid on the sulphophenylazo derivative, is unstable, dissolves
readily in alcohol and in ether, and the solution exhibits a
green tluorescence. Its hydrochloride, Ci3H14X.:, 2 HO,
crystallises in white needles, which do not melt at 300 , and
which dissolve readily in water, sparingly in absolute
alcohol, and very sparingly in strong hj'drochloric acid.
Its slightly acid solution gives with bleaching powder a
yellowish white chlorimide, readily soluble in alcohol and
ether. With hydrogen sulphide, hydrochloric acid, and
ferric chloride it gives a brownish-red colour ; with alkaline
a-naphthol and exposure of the product to the air, it gives
a greenish-blue precipitate ; with aniline, acetic acid, and
potassium dichromate, a brownish-red colouration, which
becomes deep bordeaux on boiling ; with meta-tolylene-
diamine, acetic acid, sodium acetate, and ferric chloride, a
deep reddish-brown colouration.
When the hydrochloride is fused with aniline hydro-
chloride and some free auiline and amidoazobenzene, a deep
violet-red melt is obtained, which dissolves in alcohol with a
very intense reddish-violet tluorescence and a violet colour.
The formation of such fluorescent dyes distinguishes the
paradiamines of naphthalene from those of the benzene
series. — A. K. M.
'Aromatic" Octohydro-a-naphthoquinoline. K. Bamber-
ger and 1.. Stettenheimer. Ber. 1891, 24, 2481-2495.
i See preceding abstract.)
Ar.-octohydro-a-naphthaquinoline —
H.;
II,
H3
1 1
H
IIX
u
II,
II
is obtained by the reduction of a-naphthaquinoline by
means of sodium and amy] alcohol. It crystallises in thick
plates, melts at 47 — 48'. boils at 21(' under 37- 5 mm. pres-
sure, is somewhat volatile in steam, and has a characteristic
sweet odour. Like the "aromatic "hydronaphthylamines.it
reduces alcoholic silver nitrate solution ; with ferric chloride
in an acid solution it gives a carmoisin colouration on
warming, which disappears on cooling; with potassium
dichromate a] similar reaction, but the colour soon appears
also in the cold ; with chromic acid it gives a deep violet-
red colouration, which rapidly disappears. The hydro-
chloride, C13H17N, IK 1 crystallises in monoclinic plates;
the hydrogen sulphate, C13H,7X, HsS04, in wavellite-like
aggregations, is very readily soluble in water, softens at 183°,
and melts at 187^; the picrate, C1:iH,-X, C'„If.( >( X< >,),„
melts at 15") — 156°; the platinochloride (< '[ 11,-N )_,,
Ill'tCl,, appears to exist in three different forms, which
differ in colour and in the amount of water of crystallisation
which they contain. The nitroso-derivative, (.' II,, X .X"( >,
melts at 77*5 : the acetyl-derivative, C13H16N . C2H30,
forms colourless vitreous prisms, melting at G8 — 09 . the
metkyl-derivative, C]3H1EN . CH3, crystallises in large thin
nacreous plates, melting at 37c — 38 , and its hydriodide in
long, silky needles, melting at 202°.
Ar. - octohydro-a-naphthoquinolirie-azobenzene sulpkonic
arid. ( ', ,X1I,( ,. X„.(', II ,.Si ill, forms slender violet-brown
needles sparingly soluble in water and alcohol and soluble
in concentrated sulphuric acid to a deep violet solution. In
an acid bath it dyes wool and silk a bright red.
When diazobenzene chloride reacts with octohydro-a-
naphthoquinoline in the presence of an excess of sodium
acetate, a reddish-yellow product separates, and when this
is warmed with dilute sulphuric acid, phenylazo-octohydro
naphthoquinoline sulphate is obtained. It crystallises in
magnificent cherry-red prisms with a bronze lustre, melt* at
190 5°, and dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with
an olive-green colour. The dye-base forms lustrous orange-
red prisms, melting at 118*5
Ar.-octohydroparamido-a-naphthoquinoline—
XII.. < ,:iII„. Nil
obtained by the reduction of the above octohydro-a-
naphthoquinoline-azobeuzene sulphonic acid by stannous
chloride and hydrochloric acid, crystallises in groups of
radiating flat white prisms, melting at 97 , and is not
affected by light and air. Its hydrochloride crystallises in
lustrous white needles readily soluble in water, and its
solution gives the following reactions —With hydrochloric
acid, hydrogen sulphide, and ferric chloride an intense
and beautiful crimson (Thionine) ; with meta-tolylene-
diamine hydrochloride, sodium acetate and ferric chloride, it
gives the Tolylene-blue and Tolylene-red reactions ; with a
solution of a-naphthol in dilute potash, it shows the indo-
phenol reaction with production of a beautiful greenish -
blue dye ; with aniline hydrochloride and potassium
dichromate, it gives a dark-brown colouration which soon
becomes reddish to greenish-brown ; it does not give the
iudamine ami saffranine reaction, and in this behaves like a
poly-substituted paradiamine ; when the base is heated
with amidoazobenzene, aniline hydrochloride and some free
aniline, a reddish-violet melt is obtained, the alcoholic
solution of which does not exhibit fluorescence, but appears
violet by reflected light, and red by transmitted light.
A characteristic property of octohydro-a-naphthoquinoline
is the readiness with which it parts with the added hydrogen
atoms of the pyridine nucleus. This takes place when a
solution of the base in dilute sulphuric acid is oxidised by
means of potassium dichromate ; the product Is ditetra-
hydro-a-naphthoquinoline, C36H=r,No. It crystallises in
white lustrous needles, melting at 282 ', and from it.s reactions
appears to be a tertiary base ; it does not react with diazo-
salts to form dyes. — A. K. M.
A New ( 'lass of Fluorescent Dyes of the Quinoxalini
Series III. O. Fischer and M. Busch. Ber. 1891, 24,
2679— 2G83.
The authors have recently shown that the quinoxalines
obtained from ketonic alcohols and mono-substituted
o-diamines are converted by oxidising agents such as ferric
chloride into Witt's pheuazonium bases (this Journal, 1891,
998). Thus the tripheuyletho-a-/8-naphthazonium hydroxide,
previously described, has also been obtained by Witt's
method from henzil and phenvl-orthonaphthylencdianiine.
DiphenylethO'CL-fl-hydronaphthoguinoxaline —
X.C.I I,
V'H,
=C.O„H5
is obtained by the action of benzoyl carbiuol on phcn\ lortho-
naphthylenediamine at 150" — 160' in a closed tube. It is
readily soluble in benzene, less so in ether and in glacial
acetic acid, very sparingly in alcohol, and is almost insoluble
in light petroleum. Its solutions exhibit an intense yellowish-
green fluorescence. It crystallises in lustrous orange
coloured needles, melting at 1C43 — 1(35 . Its solution in
concentrated sulphuric acid yields a precipitate of the base
when water is added.
In the preparation of the above, a secondary product is
also obtained and melts at 194J — 196°. Itforms magnificent
dark red plates which are yellow in reflected light, and its
solutions exhibit a purple-red fluorescence.
When the above quiuoxaliue is oxidised by means of
ferric chloride, an azonium compound is produced which is
Jon, 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
identical with diphciiylcthoiiaphthazoiiium hydroxide pre-
viously prepared from bromacetophenone and 0-phenyl-
ortbonaphthylenediamine (/or. citJ).
Methyldiphenylhydroquinoxaline —
,N(CH3).CHC6II,
«'..",
N.
= C.C0H,
ig obtained when benzoin is heated with monomethylortho-
phenylenediamine for 5 — G hours at 1GO — 170°, and
crystallises in bright yellow needles melting at 133°. It is
readily soluble in benzene and in ether, less so in alcohol
:iml very sparingly in light petroleum ; its solutions exhibit
a greenish-yellow fluorescence. Its salts are partially
decomposed by water. When the aleoholic solution of the
base is heated with ferric chloride and hydrochloric aeid. it
\ields an ammonium base, the ferric chloride double salt of
which forms long bright yellow prisms. — A. K. M.
Synthesis of Indigo-disulphonic Acid (Indigo-Carmine").
li. Heymann. Her. 1891, 24, 3066—3071.
\ urn to Knietseh, who lias offered a different explana-
tion (this .Journal, 1891, 91G) of the reaction occurring in
the synthetic formation of indigo-disulphonic aeid from that
given by the author (this Journal, 1891, 827), who dis-
red the method of synthesis.
According to Knietseh, the synthesis of indigo-disulphonic
acid from phenylglycine takes place in two stages, leuco-
indigotin-disulphouic acid being produced in the first stage,
and being oxidised (on diluting the acid solution) by
atmospheric oxygen in the second. That atmospheric
oxygen takes no part in the reaction, however, the author
has now clearly proved, since he finds that, in an atmosphere
of carbon dioxide, indigo-disulphonic acid is instantly pro-
duced on diluting with concentrated sulphuric acid, the
yellow-coloured solution obtained by the action on phenyl-
glycine of fuming sulphuric aeid containing 80 per cent, of
anhydride. The yellow solution contains the suiphonic acid
of indoxyl sulphuric ester, which, as the author has already
indicated (loc. cit.), is a sulphuric ester of a leuco-indigo
compound. This compound, on diluting its solution, is
oxidised by the sulphuric anhydride. Several instances of
oxidation effected by sulphuric anhydride arc cited in
support of this view. — E. 15.
Examination of the Colouring Matters of the Triphenyl-
methane Group. E. Noelting, M. Polonowsky, and
Skawinski. Her. 1891, 24, 3126—3139.
Alice U'Y abstracted from Hull. Soc. Iud. Mulhouse, 1890.
98—100 (this Journal, 1891, 456 — 457). See also following
abstract.
Vyestuff Derivatives of Triphenylmethane. E. Noelting
and ('. Schwartz. Ber. 1891, 24, 3139—3143.
\ SREEN dye is formed on oxidation of the quinoline
derivative of tetramethyltriamidotriphenylmethane'( prepared
from tetramethyldiamidobeuzhydrol and aniline) (this
Journal, 1890, 53). It was assumed that, in the latter
compound the amido-groups all occupied the para position
relatively to the methane-carbon atom, but this has been
questioned by Nathansohn and Miiller (this Journal, 1889,
978). The compound in question, has, however, been pre-
pared by the present authors from tctrainethyldiamido-
diphenylmethane (4 parts) by heating with glycerin (3-8),
sulphuric acid (6), and nitrobenzene (0'9), 10 — 12 hours at
140° — 150", as well as by quinylation of the tetramethyltri-
amidotriphenylmethane obtained by condensation of di-
methylaniline and p-nitrobenzaldehyde and subsequent
reduction. Its constitution must therefore be —
j [C6H4N(CH3).,].:
CH
N
as previously stated (loc. cit.)
Tetramethyltriamidodiphenylmethoxytolylmethane —
«[C,H4N(CH,),]S
(II
\
( ',1II.;(CH;,)(OCII3)NH., (=2:5:4)
was prepared by heating for four hours on the water bath a
mixture of tetrainethyldiamidobenzhydrol (10 parts), aniido-
eresol methyl ether (5 3), and concentrated hydrochloric acid
(10'3), pouring the product into water, precipitating with
ammonia, and crystallising from alcohol, colourless needles
melting at 158° — 159° being so obtained. On oxidation of
this leueo-base a blue dye is produced ; by heating it with
acetic anhydride, previously to oxidising, a green dye is
formed.
Tetramethyldiamidodiphenylmethoxytoluquinylmethane —
■ [C6H4N(CH3)2]2
'\ CH,
cm'
ciiji
N
was prepared from the last-described compound by Skraup's
reaction, picric acid being, however, used instead of nitro-
benzene as giving a greater yield. The product was obtained
from benzene-petroleum in colourless needles melting at
1S3J, which on oxidation with ehlorauil or lead dioxide
yield a pure-green dye.
It thus appears that quinylation of a para-amido group in
triamidotriphenylmethaue destroys its influence on the colour
of the dyestuff obtainable from the same. (See also this
Journal, 1891, 827.)— E. 15.
The Condensation of Meldola's Blue with Aromatic and
Fatty Amines. C. C. Schlarb. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15,
1281—1283, and 1317—1318.
The dyes known as New-blue K, New-blue 15, New-blue 2 15,
New-blue G15, and New-blue G, representing the products of
the interaction of nitrosodimethylanilinc hydrochloride, and
/3-naphthol are not homogeneous compounds, but appear to
consist of mixtures in varying proportions of dimethyl-
phenylammouium - /3 - naphthoxazine chloride (Meldola's
blue), the primary product of the reaction, and a dye having
a more greenish shade (" cyanamine") which is produced
by the condensation of the oxazine chloride with p-amido-
dimethylanilinc, a compound simultaneously formed in the
reaction (compare Witt, this Journal, 1890, 933). The
oxazine chloride reacts with equal molecules of primary and
secondary amines of the aromatic and fatty series yielding
greenish-blue dyes for which the author adopts Witt's name
" cyanamines" (loc. cit,). They are only sparingly soluble
in hot and cold water, an addition of mineral acid increasing
their solubility in hot water, but are readily soluble in
alcohol and organic solvents ; they dissolve in mineral acids
with a brown colour, are reprecipitated unaltered on diluting
with water, and are scarcely attacked by hot concentrated
sulphuric acid. On oxidation with potassium bichromate
the colour is at first changed to violet, and finally com-
pletely destroyed ; whilst on reduction leuco-corupounds,
unstable on exposure to the air, are produced. When the
" cyanamines " are precipitated from their solutions by zinc
chloride and common salt, they are obtained as tarry masses
which dry to hard friable cakes, and on pulverising the
latter a brownish-red powder of a feeble coppery lustre is
formed ; whilst they separate from alcohol in the form of small
green needles with a considerable coppery lustre. Cotton
mordanted with tannin or tartar emetic decolorises their
solutions and assumes greenish-blue shades, which are fast
towards light, but in some cases unstable in the presence of
alkaline liquids. When the oxazine chloride (Meldola's
blue) (5 grms.) is dissolved in 95 per cent, alcohol (250 cc.)
in a narrow-necked flask, aniline (1*5 grms.) added, and
the flask filled with alcohol and a cork inserted to exclude
the air, after remaining for three days the colour is almost
pure green, and on removing the cork and passing a current
26
THE JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jail. 80, 1S92.
oE :iir through the liquid, it gradually changes its colour to
gn i aish-hlue. It appears therefore that the " ej anamine,"
which is already formed undergoes an alteration with the
oxygen of the air; two atoms of hydrogen an- doubtless
thus eliminated as water, and its constitution might
accordingly lie expressed by the formula —
W
(■„ii.l.Mi-c1„n5/ ^C6H3 = N(< ii, .).<■.
It is difficult, however, to account for the following farts la-
this formula according to which the formation of the
"cyanamine" is independent of the group - Xi( II i2Cl,
contained in the oxazine chloride : — The oxazine chloride is
very stable, being only slowly converted into the base by
cold aqueous alkalis, whereas the salts of the cyanamine are
dissociated even on dilution with water. This remarkable
alteration ill basicity appears therefore to indicate that in the
cyanamine reaction the amido-compound combines with the
group = N(CH3)2C1 of the oxazine chloride : it would also
seem that when air is passed through the product (see above)
an atom of oxygen also enters into combination and i~ then
subsequently eliminated together with two atoms of hydrogen
as water thus : —
C,„H / >C6H, = }.-(Cir1,..\\oIh<lH :,).< „I1, =
(2')°(6)
(^X"' :; X.iIK h.( JI,
( ,0H6< >CCH./ | + HsO
(>,0{e) (>(CH3)3
The cyanamines prepared from m- and p-phenylenedia-
mine, m-toluylenediamine, and p-amido-dimethylaniline
resemble closely the last described compound, but are more
readily soluble in hot water, and the shades produced on
cotton fibres mordanted with tannin are more stable towards
alkaline liquids. To prepare them, New-blue R and the
hydrochloride of the diamine (equal mols.) are dissolved in
hot water and soda, slowly added to the solution at a tem-
perature of CO C. until no further precipitation occurs;
the precipitate is well washed with acidified water, suspended
in dilute hydrochloric acid, and brought into solution by
leading a current of steam through, whence the " cyana-
mine " is reprecipitated from the filtrate by adding zinc
chloride and common salt.
Ammonia, dimethylamine and diethylamine are almost
without action on New-blue K in aqueous solution, and only
indifferent results are obtained when alcohol is used as
solvent ; the following method yields, however, satisfactory
results : — New-blue K is triturated with a solution of copper
sulphate (1 part of the salt to 20 parts of the dye), mixed
with five times its weight of fine sand, and introduced into
a flask of such a capacity that it is three-quarters full ; the
flask is closed with a trebly bored cork and inverted ; two
tubes, one of which admits air. and the other ammonia or
ilie vaponr of the amine which is evolved from another
flask containing concentrated solutions of ammonia or the
diamine, pass almost to the bottom : whilst a third tube
connected with an aspirator reaches only a little beyond the
cork, and is loosely packed witli glass-wool. A drying
apparatus is placed between the two flasks. The flask
containing the base is heated in such a manner that only a
gentle stream of the gaseous compound is cvolvi d, whilst a
brisk current of air is aspirated through the liquid; the
reaction is usually complete in 3 — 4 hours. The product is
exposed to the air in a thin layer for 2 — :i hours, extracted
with boiling water, the solution filtered and the dye salted out :
the yield of" cyanamine " is (10 — '.mi per cent, of the New-blue
I! employed. The Ammonia cyanamine may also be pre-
pared by mixing New-blue E (81' S grms.) to a paste with
an equal weight of water at 80 ( '. until about half the latter
has evaporated, and then with 15 cc. of a solution of cupric
ammonium sulphate, introducing the mixture into a vessel
surrounded with a freezing mixture, and slowly running in
(at - 1U C.) 10 cc. of a solution of dimethylamine (4-5
grms.). After about two hours the reaction is complete,
and the dye is isolated as in the preceding method. The
'■ ammonia cyanamine " is a somewhat strong base, the
salts of which are stable in dilute solutions ; the shades
obtained with it are between blue and greenish-blue.
" Dimethylamine cyanamine " is also obtained in accord-
ance with the equation —
C,„Ha < >C6H3:N(CH3)2C1 + 2 N(CH3),H3< „ H .< *_ I
!\,
X~-X-'
/
N(CH3)2C1
-X((T1:1>..
Pb(C„H3Oj)a + NH(CH3)2 + 2 H20
When New-blue 1! (31 grms.) is mixed into a paste with an
equal weight of water at so ( ., and then triturated with
dimethylammonium acetate (21 grms.) and lead peroxide
I 25 ".i gnus.) :it a temperature of 15° — 40° for 2 — 4 hours,
the yield is at most 80 per cent, of the New-blue K em-
ployed. This dye is the most valuable and beautiful of all
the cyanamines; in the pure state it forms bright green
needles, and is readily soluble in cold water ; alkalis only
slowly convert it into the free basis ; it dyes cotton mor-
danted with tannin or tatar-emetie very beautiful fast
greenish-blue shades ; "diethyl cyanamine" closely resembles
the dimethyl-derivative.
It is probable that in the formation of all the "cyana-
mines" a similar intermediate hydroxy-derivative to that
given under '■ aniline cyanamine " (see above) is produced.
"Ammonia cyanamine" is the simplest representative of
this series of dyes, the others being substitution derivatives
of it ; its constitution, according to the author, is —
C'lKfii ; Mm
Ci.iH,
/"\
Cr,H:
/
(2>0^ ' "u^'H,):
The value of the cyanamines as dyes will be seen by tin1
following table, which shows their behaviour when boiled
with soap and 10 per cent, soda solution respectively : —
Cyanamine oE
Soap Solution. Soda Solution.
Brownisli-ied
Grcv.
„
w-Phenylcnediamtne —
Una [Feet d
Greenish-grey.
»
M
>.
p-Araidodimethylaniline .
„
..
»
..
»
.,
-
Greenish-gn v.
somewhat green and
the colour fainter.
A. B. 1,.
Ap])li& ■ i> ' owe A i i' Dyes. II. von Perger. Mittheil.
Tech. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891, 202—253.
See under VI., page 30.
Jm.so.1HWO THE JOU11NAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTliY.
'27
Studies on Derivatives of the Toluquinnlines and aj
Metaxyloquinoline. E. Xoelting and E. Trautmann.
Bull. Sue. liul. Mulhouse, 1891, 285—324.
The two methylquinolines (CH, = 1 and 3) arc prepared
from "- and p- toluidine by Skraup's method, the yield
being equal to that of the toluidine employed; whilst
diinethylquinoline (CH3 : CH3= 1 : 3) is prepared from
acetyl-m-xylidine (CH3: CH3 : NH3 = 1 :3 :4) by the same
method; the reaction proceeds much less violently than
when the free xylidine is employed. When quinoline is
dissolved in sulphuric acid (10 parts) and to the cool
solution nitric acid (1 mol.) mixed with sulphuric acid is
added, afterwards sufficient of 20 — 25 per cent, fuming
sulphuric acid to remove the water present, kept for some
days in the cold, and finally heated on the water-bath,
4-nitroquinolinc is formed (compare Koenigs, Ber. 12, 143;
Claus and Kramer, Her. 18, 1243).
l-Xitro-3-methi/lquinoline is obtained by treating
3-methylquinoline dissolved in sulphuric acid (5 parts) with
the calculated quantity of nitric acid of sp. gr. I '.39, mixed
with three times its weight of sulphuric acid at 100°; the
quantity of sulphuric acid used and the temperature at
which the reaction takes place appear, however, to have no
influence on the nature of the product. It crystallises
from alcohol in small bright yellow needles and melts at
1H, —117 ; the methiodide melts at 189°— 190° ; the
corresponding amido'derivative melts at 145°, and gives
an acetyl-compound melting at 160°; the hydroxy-
derivative —
(3) (4)
C0NH5.(CH3).(OH),
obtained from the amido-compound by the diazo-reaction
sublimes in colourless needles and melts at 230°, is insoluble
in cold water and not volatile with steam. On treating
3-incthvlquinoliue with 25 per cent, fuming sulphuric acid
at 90° a sulphonic acid is produced which yields the last-
mentioned hydroxy-derivative on fusion with potash.
Methylquinolinequinone oxime —
fS) (4) (1)
C,jNH4.(CH3).U.(NOH)
prepared by dissolving 4-hydroxy-3-methylquinoline in
concentrated hydrochloric acid (2-5 — 3'5 mols.), cooling
to 0 , adding sodium nitrate (1 niol.) and precipitating with
sodium acetate, separates from alcohol in yellowish luminal
decomposing without melting above 200°; it dyes cotton
mordanted with iron a beautiful bright fast green. The
hitter property appears to be in opposition to Kostanecki's
observation (this Journal, 1889, 698), namely, that only
o-quinone-oxiines colour mordanted fibres. Attention is
drawn to the fact, however, that quinoline is a weak
ehromogen, and it has already been mentioned (this Journal,
1891, 356) that l-hydroxyquinoline colours mordanted
fibres; this may also be said of the higher homologues of
the latter ( see below), whilst it is not the case with those
hydroxyquinolines, containing the hydrox3'l- group in any
other position, even carbostyril belonging to the latter class.
The quinone-oxime-derivatives of quinoline colour mor-
danted fibres when they are derivatives of an o-quinone, but
not when they are derivatives of a p-quinone, unless a
chromophoric group occupies simultaneously the position 1
(peri-position) ; thus of the two compounds —
NOH NOH
and
CH3
NOH N
the second only possesses tinctorial properties.
X.-Nitro-Z-Tnethyl-l-hydroxyquinotine, obtained by oxi-
dising the corresponding quinone oxime with potassium
ferricyanide, forms salts with acids and bases, but is not a
dye.
\-Hydroxy-2-methylquinoline, prepared from amidocresol
(NH., :OH:CH3 = l :2:3), crystallises from dilute alcohol
in long colourless needles, melts at 72° — 74°, is volatile with
steam, and gives a green colour with ferric chloride ; it dyes
mordanted cotton, and when heated with copper oxide in
the Bunseu name imparts a colour to the latter resembling
that produced by the halogens, a property which 1 -hydroxy -
quinoline and its other methyl-derivatives also possess.
The quinone -oxime —
('21 (1) (3)
C„XIi|(CH;)).0.(NOH)
formed by treating the last described hydroxy-derivative
dissolved in acetic acid with sodium nitrite (1 mol.), is not
a dye, but \-hydroxy-2-methyl-i-nitroquinoline obtained by
oxidising it with potassium ferricyanide colours cotton
mordanted with alumina, yellow, or with iron, brown.
l-Hydroxy-4-methylquinoline, obtained from amido-crcsol
(NHo ; OH : CHb = l :2 : 5) crystallises from dilute alcohol
in colourless needles, melts at 122° — 124°, and dyes yellow
with alumina mordants ; the quinone-oxime —
(4) (1) (2)
C9Nl!j(L'II., ).<).( NOH)
dyes green with iron mordant, and yields a nitro-compound — ■
(4) (1) {■!)
C„XH4(CH,)(OH)(N02)
melting at 205° — 206°, which dyes yellow with alumina and
brown with iron mordants.
4-Xitro-3-metlrylquinoline, melting at 116° — 117° (see
above) represents the chief portion of the product from
nitrotoluidine (CH3 ; NH. : NO„ = 1:4:6.)
l-Nitro-'S-methylquinoline, prepared from nitro toluidine
(CH3 : 5H3 : NO., = 1:4:5.) yields on reduction with
sulphuretted hydrogen in ammouiacal alcoholic solution, the
corresponding amido-derivafive, which melts at 02° — 64°,
yields an acetyl-derivative meltiug at 91° — 92°, and the
corresponding hydroxy-derivative by the dia/.o-reaetion.
The quinone-oxime —
(3) (l) (I)
c0nh4(CH3).o.(NOH)
which colours mordanted fibres is obtained from the last-
mentioned amido-derivative. i-Amido-4-ohloro-3-methyl-
quinoline is formed, together with the non-chlorinated base
(see above), when the nitro-metbylquinoline is reduced with
tin and hydrochloric acid ; it crystallises from alcohol in
pale yellow needles, melts at 129° — 130°, and yields an
aeeti 1-derivative meltiug at 136° — 137 .
4-Xitro-l-methylquinoline, obtained by nitrating 1-methyl-
quinolinc with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid, or from
nitro toluidine (CH3 :NH2:N03=1 : 3 : 5) by Skraup's
method, forms transparent yellow needles, melts at 93 , and
gives a purple liquid rapidly becoming red on beating with
alcoholic potash ; the amido-derivative crystallising from
dilute alcohol in long yellowish needles, and meltiug at 143°,
is furnished on reduction with iron and acetic acid ; the
latter gives Skraup aud Fischer's methylphenanthroliue
melting at 95° — 96J when treated by Skraup's method; it
also yields an acetyl derivative melting at 187°, and the
corresponding hydroxymethylquinoliue meltiug at 262° —
263° by the diazo reaction. The quinone-oxime —
(II (4) (3)
CjNIi.dH^.O^NOH)
produced by treating the hydroxy-derivative dissolved in
glacial acetic acid with sodium nitrite (1 mol.) decomposes
above 200" without melting, gives insoluble lakes witii the
heavy metals, and colours fibres, mordanted with iron, green ;
the nitro-derivative —
0) (4) (3)
C0NH4(CH3)(OH)(NO2)
formed by oxidising the quinone-oxime with potassium
ferricyanide melts at 181° — 182°, and does not colour
mordanted fibres.
\Vhen-4-nitro-l-methylquinolinc (12 gnus.) is dissolved
in a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (40 cc.) and
water (100 cc.) iron filings (10 grms.) being then added in
small portions at a time, a red substance separates, which is
28
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30. IE 92
purified by repeated rccrystallisation from hydrochloric acid,
and is finally treated with ammonia and crystallised from
glacial acetic acid, from which it separates in orange needles
melting at 260 : this is found to be the azomethylquinoline —
(1) (4) (1)
CNHd ll,).X:N.(CH:1)H\'(\
tlie corresponding azoxy-derivative is obtained on adding
ammonia to the united hydrochloric acid mother-liquors
from the azo-compound, and extracting the precipitated
compound with boiling alcohol, but it is best obtained by
dissolving the nitromethylquinoline in a mixture of water
(400 cc.) and concentrated hydrochloric acid (40 ec.) and
slowly adding iron filings (G firms.) with agitation ; the
pure substance melts at 201°, and gives the bydroxy-azo-
derivative on heating at 110— 115° with concentrated
sulphuric acid (10 parts).
l-Nitro-\ : 3-dimethylquinoline is obtained by dissolving
1 : 3-dimethylquinoline in concentrated sulphuric acid (200
urins.), adding a mixture of nitric acid of sp.gr. 1*39
(23 cc.) and concentrated sulphuric acid (50 ee.) and
finally heating on the water-bath, or by treating nitro-
xylidine [(< .'II , l9 : XII., : NO, = 1 : 3 : 4 : 6] according to
Skraup's method ; it crystallises from alcohol in long
yellowish needles and melts at 107° — 108°. The amido-
derivative produced on reducing the preceding either with
iron and acetic acid or with tin and hydrochloric acid, melts
at 91°, and gives an acetyl-compound melting at 201°.
J-Hydroxy-^ : 3-dimethylquinoline is obtained from the
amido-derivative by the diazo-reaction ; it crystallises from
chloroform in white tablets, sublimes in small needles without
decomposition, and melts at 197 — 198". — A. R. L.
Metaxylenesulphonic Acids (//.). 0. T. Moody. Proc.
Chem. Soc. 1891—1892, 189—190.
In a previous communication (Proc. 1888, 77), the author
has described the preparation of 1:2: 3-metaxylene-
sulphonic acid, and has called attention to the fact that only
the 1:3: 4-acid is formed on direct sulphouation of the
pure hydrocarbon. Attempts to prepare the symmetrical
1:3: 5-sulphonic aeid have not yet met with success, the
sulphouation of 1 : :i : 4-acetmetaxylid failing to give the
required substitution.
Acetmetaxylid (1:3:4) is] readily sulphonated when
heated for some time at 140° with 1A times its weight of
20 per cent, anhydrosulphuric acid, and on boiling the
solution after the addition of water, metaxylidine sulphonic
acid [CH:1 : CH3 : NIL : SO;iII = 1 : 3 : 4 : C] is obtained.
It crystallises from water, in which it is only very sparingly
soluble, in well-formed, slender needles, insoluble in
alcohol and other common solvents ; it does not change at
2:111 , and when heated to a higher temperature decomposes
without having previously melted. The sodium salt,
C6H3Me3NH2S03Na.H20, is exceedingly soluble in water
and crystallises in flat plates.
When the diazo-product is boiled with bromhydric acid,
the corresponding bromoxyleue sulphonic"acid [GH3:CH3:
Br : SO;tH = 1 : 3 : 4 : (i] is formed. It crystallises in
long, slender needles, and does not melt at 270, but at
a considerably higher temperature melts with decomposi-
tion. The sodium salt agrees with the description given by
Weinberg (Ber. 11, 1062), who obtained it on bromination
of a dilute aqueous solution of barium 1 : :! : 4-metaxylene-
sulphonate; but the sulphochloride obtained by the author,
which crystallises in splendid, oblique prisms, melts at 2°
higher (G2° — 63°), whilst the sulphonamide melts at 5°
lower (189 ) than found by Weinberg. The melting point
of the sulphonamide agrees with that given by Sartig
(Anualen, 230, 33.5), who prepared it by sulphonating
metaxylidine, and subsequently replacing amidogen by
bromine. It thus appears that both xylidine and acetxylid
give the same acid on sulphonation, and that the
displacement of hydrogen in the amido-group by acetyl
does Dot lead to any change in the position taken up by
the sulphonic group.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Di-alhyl-meta-amido-
cresols. 11 II. Lake, London. From " A. Lconhardt
and Co.," Muhlheim, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,252,
December 11, 1890. 6d.
Dimethyl- and di- ethyl-meta-amidocresols can be produced
by diazotising the corresponding meta-amido-dialkyl-ortho-
tolnidines and then decomposing the diazo-eompounds with
water, or by sulphonating the dialkyl-orthotoluidines and
fusing the resulting sulphonic acids with alkalis at a high
temperature. The meta-amido-dialkyl-orthotoluidincs can
be obtained by nitrating the dialkyl-orthotoluidines in
sulphuric acid solution and then reducing the mono-mtro-
conipouud thus formed. Details for the preparation of
dimethyl-meta-amidocresol from meta-amido-dimethyl-
orthotoluidine and of the di-ethyl compound from di-ethyl-
orthotoluidine are given in the specification. The former
distils without decomposition and cau be crystallised from
a mixture of benzene and petroleum spirit ; it melts at 76 ',
and dissolves readily both in caustic alkalis and in mineral
acids. The latter is a thick oil boiling at 264° — 267 C.
Both products are of value in the colour industry in cases
where the di-alkyl-meta-amidopheuols are of less or no
value, as, for instance, in the production of the blue basic
dyestuffs obtained with the nitroso-derivatives of the
aromatic amines (Eng. Pat. 13,565 of 1890 ; this Journal,
1890, 760).
The formula of the dimethyl compouud is probably —
CH, (1)
CJI, ( N(t'H:l):0J)
\(JH (4)
— C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Indigj-carmine from
Phenyl-glycocoll and its Salts or Ethers. B. Willcox,
London. From the " Farhciifabriken vormals F.Bayer
& Co.," Flberfeld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,563, Decem-
ber 17, 1890. Grf.
By treating phenyl-glycocoll, its salts or ethers with fuming
sulphuric acid at a low temperature, pouring into concen-
trated sulphuric acid, and subsequently diluting the solution
with concentrated sulphuric acid, the phenyl-glycocoll is
easily converted into indigo-carmine. The process is in
fact an application of that described in Eng. Pat. 12,715 of
18:»0 (this Journal, 1891, 759). One kilo, of phenyl-
glycocoll is mixed with 2(1 kilos, of dry pure sand and
added to 20 kilos, of sulphuric acid containing 80 per cent,
of anhydride, the temperature not being allowed to rise
above 30° C. The yellow liquid thus obtained is mixed
with sufficient sulphuric acid of 60° B. to convert all the
sulphuric anhydride in excess into sulphuric aeid. This
produces a liquid of an intense blue colour, which is poured
on to ice and the indigo-carmine formed salted out. The
excess of anhydride cau also be removed by passing moist
air through the melt, but the conversion is slower than by
the method above described. — T. A. L.
Improvements in Triphenylmethane Colouring Matters.
S. Pitt, Sutton. From L. Cassella and Co., Frankfort-ou-
tbe-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 857, January 16,
1891. 6d.
Violet and blue colouring matters which are sulphonated
derivatives of secondary and tertiary rosanilines are obtained
by oxidising certain derivatives of diamidodipbenybnethane
in presence of an aromatic amine, such as dimethylaniline
or diphcnvlamine, in an aqueous or alcoholic solution. The
following example illustrates the formation of a violet
dyestuff : — Di-ethyldibenzyl-diamido-diphenylmethane di-
sulphonic acid is prepared by heating 58 kilos, of ethyl
benzyl aniline sulphonic acid with a concentrated aqueous
solution of 3 kilos, of formic aldehyde on the water-bath
for 12 — 24 hours. The solution is made alkaline with
caustic soda and the sodium salt of the acid precipitated
by salt. 60 kilos, of this acid are then dissolved in 1,000
Jan. 30,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
29
litros of water and heated for 25 hours to 30 — 10 C. with
12 kilos, of dimethylaniline and '20 kilos, of potassium
bichromate. After nitration, the disulphonate of the
diethyl-dimethyl-dibenzyl-triamidotriphenylcarbinolis salted
out from the violet solution. The formation of this body
may also be performed in one operation by mixing the
solutions of ethyl-benzylaniline sulphonic acid (3 mols.),
formic aldehyde (1 mol.), with the oxidising agent and
heat in'' for some time.— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Production of a Blue-Green and a
Bed-Violet Colouring Matter from Alizarin Bine.
O. Imray, London. From the "Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius uud Briining," H5chst-on-the-Maine,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 1354, January 24, 1891. Gd.
By acting with nitrosulphuric acid (containing sulphuric
anhydride) on Alizarin blue a Nitro-alizarin blue can be
obtained which on reduction yields an Amido-alizarin blue,
both of which substances are very strong colouring
matters. One kilo, of finely-powdered Alizarin blue is
added, at 0' C., to lo kilos, of nitric acid of 47 B. and
4-5 kilos, of sulphuric acid containing 20 per cent, of
sulphuric anhydride, and the whole slowly heated to 20 C.
When a sample, precipitated by water, washed and redis-
iolved in sulphuric acid, does not show the characteristic
spectrum of Alizarin blue, the melt is poured into a dilute
soda solution, cooled with ice, and the sodium salt which
separates is decomposed with an acid. The Nitro-alizarin
blue forms a greenish-blue powder which crystallises from
naphtha in fine scales. It may be used for dyeing and
printing by itself or together with bisulphite. The conver-
sion into the amido compound is performed as follows : —
One kilo, of Nitro-alizarin blue is suspended in 50 litres of
water containing 2' 5 kilos, of a 35 per cent, caustic soda
solution and 8 kilos, of glucose, and the whole heated to
70° — 80° C. until a sample, decomposed by an acid, filtered
and washed, dissolves in ammonia with a pure blue colour.
The whole solution is then acidulated, and the amido com-
pound formed filtered off and washed. In place of the glucose
other alkaline reducing agents may be employed. The
\mido-alizarin blue is a reddish-violet colouring matter
twice as strong as Alizarin blue. It can be used for dyeing
and printing similarly to the nitro compound. — T. A. L.
Improvements in [the Manufacture of Colouring Matters.
< >. Imray, London. From the " Actien Gesellschaft fiit
Anilin Fabrikation," Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 1737,
January 30, 1891. 6d.
A red colouring matter which dyes wool and cotton is
obtained by reacting with the intermediate product, formed
by combining one molecule of diazotised benzidine with one
molecule of /3-naphthoI disulphonic acid G (Eng. Pat. 2213
of 1886; this Journal, 1891, 133), on the methyl, ethyl,
anil phenyl ethers of salicylic acid, or on o- and 7«-cresol
carboxylic acid. These colouring matters may afterwards
be converted into their methyl or ethyl derivatives, giving
somewhat similar shades. The alkylated dyestuffs, how-
ever, resist the action of alkalis, and may thus be dyed
from an alkaline or soap bath. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture of New Dyestuffs derived from Anthra-
cene and Anthraquinone. B. Willcox, London. From
the " Farbenf abriken vormals Fr. Bayer & Co.," Elber-
feld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 1883, February 2, 1891. 6d.
The first part of this |patent is an extension of Eng. Pat.
18,729 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 917), and describes the
application of the process to dichloro- or dibromo-anthracene
in place of the anthraquinone there employed. The speci-
fication then describes the sulphouation of " Alizarin-
cyanineG " obtained according to Eng. Pat. 17,712 of 1890
(this Journal, 1891, 917). Another claim refers to the
sulphouation of colouring matters obtained according to
Eng. Pat. 12,715 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 759).
~T. A. L.
A New or Improved Material for Use in the Production
of Colouring Matters. I. Levinstein, Manchester. Eng.
Pat. 2682, February 14, 1891. 6rf.
According to this invention a new naphthylamine disul-
phonic acid is obtained in the following manner: — 100 1b.
of sodium a-naphthalene sulphonate are quickly stirred into
300 lb. of concentrated sulphuric acid previously heated to
150° C, and the mixture is kept at this temperature for
2 — 4 hours, forming a naphthalene disulphonic acid. After
cooling to 10° — 15° C, 45 lb. of nitric acid of 40' B. are run
in, the temperature being kept below 40° C. The whole is
then poured into 700 lb. of brine, when the new nitro-
naphthalene disulphonic acid separates out. After washing
with brine and pressing, the acid is dissolved in 400 lb. of
water and reduced by boiling with 50 lb. of iron borings.
When the reduction is complete, the mixture is made
alkaline with soda, filtered, concentrated, and allowed to
crystallise. The sodium salt of the new naphthylamine
disulphonic acid thus obtained is filtered off, pressed, and
dried. The same naphthalene disulphonic acid as above
described is said to be obtained by stirring CO lb. of naphtha-
lene into 240 lb. of cold concentrated sulphuric acid and
agitating the mixture until a sample dissolves in cold water.
The whole is then heated with the addition of anhydrous
sodium sulphate to 150° — 160° C. for 2 — 4 hours, or as long
as may be necessary. The subsequent treatment is the same
as above. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Colouring Matters. C. Dreyfus, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
17,635, October 15, 1891. id.
A process for preparing lakes from basic coal-tar dyes by
precipitating the latter in presence of a neutral resin soap
by means of a soluble metallic salt or of a salt of an
alkaline earth. The lakes are soluble in benzene, " solvent
naphtha," alcohol, ether, carbon bisulphide, chloroform, oleic
and stearic acids, linseed oil, turpentine, &c, but are
insoluble in petroleum and glycerol. They can be used for
printing inks, paints, and also as paper-staining colours.
(See also Eng. Pat. 2878 of 1886 ; this Journal, 1887, 138.)
— T. A. L.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc
Papyrus. Papier Zeitung, 1891, 16, 2528.
See under XIX., page 55.
Note on the Scouring of Wool of different Growths.
J. J. Arnaudou. Monit. Scicnt. 1891, 1256—1263.
This paper contains a long list showing the percentages
of suint, water, and scoured wool (dried at 100°) in 40
kinds of wool. All these wools are now on exhibition
at the " Musee Mereiologique " at Turin. The method
of analysis employed is as follows : — 500 grms. of
wool are taken and treated with water rendered slightly
alkaline. To 10 litres of water 200 to 250 grms. of soda
crystals are added, and for each 100 grms. of wool 2 litres
of water, containing about 50 grms. of soda crystals, are
used. The wool is allowed to soak for three hours, agitating
from time to time, at a temperature of from 60° — 70°. It
is then taken out and washed with water until the wash-
water is clear. The wool is then pressed and dried upon a
stretched linen cloth exposed to a current of air. After
20 days' exposure to the air and sun it is weighed and the
drying is then continued until the weight remains constant.
The loss of weight gives the suint plus the water lost by
drying in air. A small portion of the wool is then dried at
ion , and the loss of weight noted.— II. S. P.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1S92.
1' \ I'KXT.
Production from Mineral Oils of Sulphonic Acids and
Sulpkones. and the Manufacture «/' a New Product /»/
Treating Gelatinous Matterwith Sulphonic Arid. A. M.
Clark, London. From the" Gewerkschaft Messel," Grube
Messel, Germany. Kng. Pat. 19.502, November 29,
1890. 6</.
See under III., page 22.
VI -DYEING, CALICO PKINTING, PAPEE
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
The Determination if Indigotin in Indigo. ]•'. Ulzer.
Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891, i"8— 184.
See under Will., page 63.
Grape-Seed Oil and its Technical Application. F. M.Horn.
Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891,185—187.
See under XII., page 4-1.
Use of Sodium Tungstate as a Fi.ring Agent fn- Mordants.
G. Ulrich. .Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891,
187—195.
The employment of a 15 per cent, solution of sodium
tungstate is recommended for fixing chromium, aluminium,
tin, iron, nickel, cobalt, and similar mordants on yarns or
fabrics composed of cotton, wool, or silk, or of mixtures
of two different fibres. The material to be mordanted is
impregnated with a solution of chromium acetate, basic
aluminium sulphate, &e., and passed (in the case of cotton
fabrics, preferably after drying) through the sodium
tungstate bath, "which is heated to 30D— 40°. The
mordants, which are fixed in the form of tungstates,
give on dyeing shades which in point of brilliancy and
fastness compare well with those obtained on the free
metallic oxides. The cotton in a mixed fabric should be
prepared with oleine before weaving, to ensure a regular
deposition of the mordant on the fabric. This application
of sodium tungstate lias been patented in Germany (Ger.
I'at. ;,8,171 of 1890).— E. H.
Experiments in Mordanting Wool with Iron. G. Ulrich.
Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891, 195- 196.
Wool mordanted with cream of tartar ( 1 mol. per mol. of
KeSO,.T 11,1 1) and ferrous sulphate dyes a dull grey-black
with logwood. An addition of copper sulphate to the
mordanting bath effects a marked improvement in the
shade of black produced. The best results are obtained
with 10 per cent, (of the weight of the wool) of ferrous
sulphate, 8-15 of cream of tartar, and 3- 6 of copper
sulphate.
Also with the ferric mordant copper sulphate is found
to be a useful addition. A rich black is obtained on
dyeing with logwood wool which has been mordanted with
iron alum (12 per .nit.), cream of tartar (6 niols. per mol.
of iron alum), and copper sulphate (4 niols.).
The logwood blacks dyed on the mixed copper-iron
mordant are faster to light than those obtained on the iron
mordant alone. — E. B.
Application <>J Alizarin Lakes for Colouring Candles, Sec.
(J. I'lrieli. Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891,
198—202.
See under XII., page 14.
Applications of same New Dyes. II. von Pergcr. Mittheil.
Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 1891, 202—253.
Fast Green, blue shade (alkaline salt of sulpbonated
benzyltri- or benzyltetra-alkylated pararosaniline), is sold
both as powder and paste, the latter a 10 per cent, solution
in acetic acid. It dyes wool and silk a dark blue-green
from an acid bath, the shades being fuller and faster than
those yielded by Acid green. Concentrated sulphuric acid
dissolves the dye with a golden-brown colour.
Acridine Orange (Eng. Pat. 8243 of 1890; this Journal,
1891, 537), is dyed or printed on cotton with tannic acid
as mordant.
Pyronine (Kng. Pat. 13,217 of 1889; this Journal, 1890,
934) dyes silk, wool, or tannin-mordanted cotton a pink
resembling lihodamine.
Toluylene Blue, (Eng. Pat. 2499 of 1890; this Journal,
1891, i32) a basic induline-dye prepared by the action
of p-phenylenediamine on the induline - base of the
formula C^Ho-X^, gives on cotton mordanted with tannic
acid dark shades of blue resembling indigo; alum and
chromium acetate are added to the dye-bath, and the dyed
cotton is passed through a boiling solution of potassium
bichromate to darken the shade. The blue may also be
dyed ou unmordanted cotton from a bath containing acetic
acid and sodium acetate. It is also suitable for wool and
silk. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a blue
colour; alkalis precipitate the colour base; potassium
bichromate gives a blue-black precipitate.
Rasinduline 2 B is the sodium salt of a rosindulone
sulphonic acid (this Journal, 1890, 601) ; it dyes wool
bluish-red from an acid bath : in applying it copper
dye-vessels must be avoided. The dye is tolerably fast
to light, but not so to soap. ( >f similar composition to
this dye is Sosinduline 2 G, which is applied in a similar
way, yielding scarlet shades. This dye exhibits on sill; an
orange-red fluorescence. Its fastness to light is inferior to
that of the 2 B quality.
1 ■.tVapAMy/lJ/Ke.anilido-isonaphthylrosinduline, i„ obtained,
together with pbcnylrosinduliiie by the action of phenylazo-
a-naphthylamine on aniline. Silk which has been dyed
with it shows a red fluorescence. It is faster to light than
the indulincs in ordinary use. Its blue-green solution in
concentrated sulphuric acid turns successively blue and
blue-purple on dilution with water.
Aziue Green (Eng. Pat. 3098 of 1890; this Journal,
1891, 132) is dyed on cotton by means of tannic acid, and
is very fast towards dilute solutions of alkalis, acids, and
bleaching powder.
Thiocarmine R is produced by the oxidation of a mixture
of ethylsulphobenzyl-p-pheiiylenediatiiiiietliiosulphonic and
ethylbcn/.ylanilinesulphonic acids, and has the formula—
,e„H, — n
l/
C,H,
\<
H'H,.f,Il,S(l,
N(
\ / /CA
\C0H:l X<
\ciI..<JI,S()A'a
It is sold in the form of paste, which is employed for dyeing
wool with the addition to the dye-bath of sodium sulphate
and sulphuric acid. The blue shades produced tire not fast
to light. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves the dye
with' a green colour; acidulated stannous chloride de-
colourises it.
Jan. so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
3]
Toluidine /Hue is the sulphate o£ tritnetbylthiomue —
.CH3<CH3
N„.
/
CaH3- N(CII;>.
It is applied in the same way as Methylene blue, which it
resembles.
Methylene Green extra, the mononitro derivative of
Methylene blue, is prepared from the latter substance by
dissolving it in concentrated sulphuric acid, cooling to 0°,
and adding the calculated quantity of sodium nitrite. It is
Easter to bleaching powder solution than Methylene blue,
and also even faster to light than that dye. It colours
concentrated sulphuric acid blue-green ; alkalis yield a
purple precipitate; acidulated stannous chloride de-
colourises it, the colour being restored by hydrogen
dioxide.
Methylene Grey is a mixture of several dyes.
Nitrazine Yellow is manufactured by heating nitro-
xy lylliydrazinesulphonic acid with dihydroxytartaric acid.
It dyes silk and wool a more greenish shade of yellow than
Turtrazin S, and on wool is faster to milling than the latter.
Ii may be distinguished from the latter dye by the greater
solubility of its barium compound, Nitrazine yellow not
being precipitated by the addition of barium chloride to its
hot aqueous solution.
Azo-green, prepared by diazotising m-amidotetramethyl-
diamidotriphenylcarbinol and combining the resultant
compound with salicylic acid (Eng. Pat. 3398 of 1890 ; this
Journal, 1891, 249), comes into commerce in the form of a
paste, which dissolves in water with a green colour and in
concentrated sulphuric acid with a brown, ltmaybe fixed on
cotton by means of tannic acid, and on wool on the chrome
mordant. It is also recommended for calico-printing in
conjunction with chromium acetate as a mordanting salt.
Its fastness to light anil soaping or milling is, however,
scarcely satisfactory.
Anthracite Black — ■
/N:N.CltlII;,:(S03Na>
\N:N.C6H3:fNH.CH2.C6H5)2 [1:3]
is obtained from a naphthylaminedisulphonic acid by
diazotisation and combination with naphthylamine and
combination of the diazo derivative of the resultant
compound with diblazyl-m-phenylenediamine (Kng. Pat.
4825 of 1889; this Journal, 1890, 172V It dyes wool
directly with 4 per cent, of dyestuff a blue-black, which
IS fast to licjit but only moderately so to milling.
( 'hromotropes of the shade-marks 2 II, 2 11, 6 I!, 8 11, ami
lull, an' azo-dyes, which have the property, when dyed in
the customary manner on wool (yielding shades ranging
from scarlet to violet-red) of being transformed by the
action of a boiling solution of potassium bichromate into
blue-black, Mack, or green-black colours, whose fastness to
light and milling is very considerable. — E. 11.
The Dyeing aj Black Hosiery. E. Frey. Earber-Zeitung,
1891,53—54.
Cotton stockings and knitted goods are now generally
dyed black with aniline, and the author describes the process
as applied to stockings. The goods are first boiled for one
hour with from 3 to 5 per cent, of their weight of soda in
water, and then rinsed and soaked for half an hour in water
at 40 C. containing from 5 to 10 per cent, of their weight
of acetic acid. The goods are taken out of this bath, drained,
and dried in a room maintained at 40° to 50° R. (50° — GO' C),
when they are ready for dyeing. Two solutions are used
for the dyeing process. The first is made by mixing
15 kilos, each of aniline salt, aniline oil of 4°, and hydro-
chloric acid of is H- When cold, this mixture is added
to 50 litres of water containing 15 kilos, of sodium chlorate.
The second solution is made by dissolving 5 kilos, of copper
sulphate, 100 grins, of sodium bichromate, and 500 grins, of
concentrated sulphuric acid in sufficient water to bring the
density to 4° B. A wooden trough is filled with the first
solution diluted with water to a density of 8 11., and one
litre of the second or copper solution is added and well
mixed. The dry stockings are then immersed and well
stirred about in the hath for half an hour, when they are
taken out and drained, first on a rack and finally in a
centrifugal machine. Each stocking is then drawn over a
leg-shaped board, on which it is carefully smoothed out,
and is placed in the oxidation chamber, where it is exposed
to moist air at 45° K. (56° C.) for two hours. The stockings,
now of a dark green colour, are taken off the boards and
worked for a quarter of an hour at 30° B. (37° C.) in a
solution of 3 per cent, of potassium bichromate, which
fully develops the black colour. The goods are then rinsed
and well washed in a washing-machine charged with 10 per
cent, of oleine soap, 2 per cent, of soda, and 2 per cent, of
ammonia, and after 40 minutes' treatment at 40° B. (50" C.)
they ate rinsed in water and dried. — li. H. II.
Aluminium Sulphate. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16, 232G —
2328.
Sec under XIX., pages 52 — 55.
Applications of New Insoluble Azo Colouring Matters for
Cotton Dyeing, A. Kertesz. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15
701—702.
Before the discovery of primuline the results obtained
were more or less unsatisfactory, as no method of this kind
existed for rendering dyes on cotton fast. Primuline
contains a free amido-group which, if diazotised on the
fibres, produces perfectly insoluble and fast dyes. L. Cassella
and Co. are known to have prepared certain colouring
matters, by treating benzidine and its analogous compounds
with 7-amidonaphtholsulphonic acid, and it is interesting to
note that the azo-derivatives of this acid contain a free
amido-group ; it may, therefore, be expected that these
will show the same property as primuline. This is actually
the case, as Baeyer has proved, and the following colouring
matters can be diazotised on the fibres : Diamine black BO,
Diamine black BO, Diamine blue-black E, which, if developed
with different substances, give indigo blue, dark blue, or
blackish shades respectively, and Diamine brown V.
To these must be added Cotton-brown A and Cotton-
brown N, which were known for some time previously.
The process of diazotising is an expeditious one, e.g.,
cotton treated with Diamine black and passed through the
acid nitrite bath, at once changed to a light blue. In
many instances it is advisable to wash the material after
the diazotising process. Then follows the development
by means of amido- or oxy-compounds. Experiments show
that the best developers are 0-naphthol for dark blue
shades ; naphthylamine ether for indigo blue ; phenylene-
diamine or resorcinol for black ; and Chrysoidine AG for
brown. The developing baths are prepared in the following
way : —
(1.) P-naphthol. — 1,450 grms. of ,8-naphthol and 1,200
grms. of caustic soda (40°) are dissolved in hot water and
diluted to 20 litres. One-tenth litre of this solution is
required for every kilo, of cotton, and at the beginning
2 litres have to be added for every 100 litres of water.
(2.) Naphthylamine ether. — The paste has to be dissolved
in boiling water. Fifty grms. of paste are required for
every kilo, of cotton, and at the beginning 1 kilo, of paste
must be added for every 100 litres of water.
3. Phenylenediamine. — 1,080 grins, of phenylenediamine
are dissolved in 20 litres of hot water, the same quantities
being used as of the /3-naphthol solution.
(4.) Besorcinol. — 1,100 grms. of resorcinol and 2,400
grms. of caustic soda (40°) must be dissolved and diluted
to 20 litres, the same proportions being employed as for the
/3-naphthol solution.
32
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
(5.) Chrysoidine AG. — Four grins, of Chrysoidine AG
(dissolved in hot water) are required for every kilo, of
cotton; and at the beginning 10 grms. for every 100 litres
of water. To keep the bath neutral, chalk is added at the
rate of 5 grms. for every kilo, of cotton.
The diazotised materials are passed through the cold
developing liquids for about 10 or 15 minutes, and then
washed with water, or with water and soap. (Compare
this Journal, 1891, 762 — 7C3.)— H. S.
Method fur the Valuation of Extracts of Logwood.
v. Cochenhausen. Monit. Seient. 1891, 5, 943—948.
Up to the present, according to the author, there has existed
no analytical method for the determination of colouring
matters in extracts. If the oxidation of hematoxylin does
not stop at hematein there is no reason why [extract of
logwood should not contain all the possible oxidation
products. Very little is known as to the functions of
hematoxylin, luematein, and their further oxidation products
in dyeing, and it is with the object of elucidating these
points that the author has made the following experiments.
(Compare this Journal, 1889, 012—618.)
Pure hematoxylin and hematein were employed in
solutions of 05 per cent., except when otherwise stated.
The percentages of dye and mordant refer to pounds of
tihre dyed. The wool employed was mordanted (1) with
4 per cent, of commercial chromium fluoride and 4 per cent,
of tartar; (2) with 1 per cent, of potassium diehromate and
0-33 per cent, of sulphuric acid; (3) with 1 per cent, of
potassium diehromate and 2 per cent, of tartar; (1) with
6 per cent, of alum and 4 per cent, of tartar. The cotton
was mordanted as usual with iron, strong and weak, with
alumina, strong and weak, and with a mixture of iron and
alumina. Some of the pieces were mordanted with 3 per
cent, of tannin and a solution of aluminium acetate at
5° B. The dyeing operation lasted for one hour.
The results of dying wool and cotton mordanted as above
in hematoxylin solution were the same ; in both eases the
samples mordanted with chromates were immediately dyed
blue, while those mordanted with chromium oxide and
alumina were not dyed at all during the first 20 minutes,
and at the end of the hour only a much feebler shade than
that obtained with the chromic acid mordants. When these
experiments are conducted in vessels which yield alkali to
boiliu" water, or with water which contains chalk or
dissolved air, the shades obtained are totally different.
With ha-matein all samples, whether mordanted with
chromium oxide or chromic acid, give the same colours.
The dyeing by hematoxylin of chromic acid mordanted
fabrics is, then, due to the oxidation of the hematoxylin to
li.umatein by the chromic acid. The iron mordanted cotton
dyed the same in both baths, apparently because of the
oxidising action of ferric oxide on hematoxylin.
Inasmuch as heuiatein is capable of further oxidation to
substances which have little tinctorial value, it might be
expected that the more chromic acid is put into a fabric the
Ic-s dyed it will be by hematein. Experiments showed that
this is actually the ease ; when 6 per cent, of potassium
diehromate and 2 per cent, of sulphuric acid were used,
hematoxylin (5 per cent, solution) produced no colour in
the fabric. Further experiments snowed that this oxidation
rapidly deteriorates an alkaline bath of hematoxylin, the
hemateiu at first formed soon becoming further oxidised.
Dyers prefer decoctions to extracts of logwood ; this is
probably because the former, especially when made from
fermented wood, contain more hemateiu and less foreign
substances : for when wool is mordanted with potassium
diehromate and acid, even if tartar lie not present — and
owing to its high price it is frequently omitted — some of the
chromic acid gets reduced either by organic matter in the
water or by the wool itself. When ha-matein is present it
immediately forms a lake with the chromium oxide, while
the remaining chromic acid is oxidising hematoxylin.
When, however, only hematoxylin is present it has to be
oxidised by the chromic acid, the chromium oxide meantime
dulling the shade by combining with the foreign matters.
The author dismisses the methods of Houzeau (I)ingl.
Polyt. J. 190, 242) and Schreiuer (this Journal, 1890, 976)
tor the valuation of logwood extract as being inexact, and
adopts a comparative method in which a series of samples,
mordanted according to a fixed prescription, are dyed with
the extract to be valued and compared with the same series
dyed with standard solutions of hematoxylin and luematein,
arranged in diminishing arithmetical progression, viz.: — ■
0-5 per cent., 0-45 per cent. ,0-4 per cent., 0-35 percent.,
0-3 per cent., 2 '25 per cent, (sic), 02 per cent., 0-15 per
cent., 0-1 per cent., 0-05 per cent.
The series of shades are obtained with the following
wools: — (1), mordanted with 4 per cent, of chromium
fluoride and 1 per cent, of tartar, and dyed in hemateiu ;
(2), mordanted with 1 per cent, potassium diehromate and
2 percent, of tartar, and dyed with hematoxylin; (3), mor-
danted with 6 per cent, alum and 4 per cent, tartar, and
dyed with hematein.
As hematoxylin gives a feeble tint to chromium oxide
mordanted wool, 0'05 per cent, of hematein is allowed for
this shade on such wool, while 0-025 per cent, is allowed for
alum-mordanted wool.
The following table gives some of the author's results ;
the numbers in brackets indicate the hematein which would
have been present in the original extract if that fixed by the
wool be supposed to have been so present : —
s"ur"'- per 100 Kilos.
Hematein. j Hematoxylin.
Price
per ion K iins- "i
Colouring Mattel
America
America
France
France
Germany
German;
Germany
Sell.
9fi
r
105
'■'7
150
G3
(Is
PerCent.
- (2-5)
Trace (.V75)
Trace (,T7.'l
Trace (:s'7.">J
7-5(10)
Trace (jr.)
Trace (2'6)
Per Cent.
Hi
35-6
35-0
•10 '5
10-8
8-8
240
o
300
299
31G
117
773
Similarity of procedure is of course necessary for obtaining
good results.
In the manufacture of logwood extracts no attempt
should be made to convert hematoxylin into hematein by
■ sddising agents, such as chlorine; this should be left to
tin- dver who can easily bring it about by addition of
mini.. iiia and exposure to air. The addition of calcium
/relate i~ in be recommended. — A. (i B.
Report on a Prize Competition for a Practical Method <;/'
Preventing the Formation of Oxycellulose in Printing
Discharges on Indigo Blue hy Means of Chromic Arid.
A. Schemer. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1891, 484—
486.
The method proposed was to soak the fabric, dyed with
indigo, in a solution of sodium silicate of 2" to I 1!. before
printing on the discharge. The author tested the method
by making comparative trials, and the prepared samples
Jnn. 8», isuj.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
33
were priuted with the ordinary discharge of alkaline
ohromate thickened with starch or gum. They were then
placed for one minute at 50° C. in a bath composed of
160 grms. of sulphuric acid, 50 grms. of oxalic acid, and
7U0 grms. of water. After rinsing the samples were then
boiled for 30 minutes with 10 grms. of sodium carbonate
dissolved in a litre of water. The samples were then tested
for strength in a " dynamometer," when it was found that
the samples submitted to the sodium silicate treatment were
not sensibly stronger than the others. By using a stronger
solution of sodium silicate a somewhat more favourable
result was obtained, but the discharge was then imperfect,
and in fact the alkaline substance seemed to act no better
than a thickener of the same viscosity in preventing the
tendering action of the acid bath. — G. H. B.
On the Weakening of the Tissue in the Printing of White
Discharges on Vat Indigo Blue. A. Scheitrer. Ball.
So.'. In.l". Mulhouse, 1891, 487—495.
The tirst part of this research aims at tixing the limits of
tin- variations to be introduced in the experiments on the
various substances which are described in the second part.
The method pursued is to print a discharge in a narrow
stripe across a strip of cotton sheet 4 cm. broad and dyed
with vat indigo blue. The strip is then placed in an acid
bath to effect the discharge and washed ; it is finally steeped
in an alkaline bath to bring out the maximum weakening
or tendering, which is measured by the breaking strain
exerted in a " dynamometer." Briefly expressed, the author
finds that an alkaline bath containing 10 grms. of sodium
carbonate in a litre of water has no sensible effect on the
tissue during SO minutes at a boiling temperature, and that
variations due to imperfections inherent in the tissue range
up to 10 per cent., which is therefore taken as the unavoid-
able error of experiment. The full period of 30 minutes
boiling in the alkaline bath was found to be required to
develop the maximum weakening due to the action of the
acid bath. It was immaterial to the result whether the strip
was tested in the " dynamometer " in a wet or dry condition.
Even considerable alteration of the strength of the acid bath
did not affect the results beyond 10 per cent., but the effect
was sensibly increased when the temperature of the bath
exceeded 60° C. The substances whose powers of hinder-
ing the weakening of the tissue were to be tested, were
added in epiantities of 200 grms. each to 1 litre of the acid
bath composed of 160 parts of sulphuric acid, 50 of oxalic
acid, and 590 parts of water, and the operation of souring
ami washing cf the printed strips were now conducted
under the conditions determined by the preliminary experi-
ments. Water, sugar, glucose, formic acid, tartaric acid,
acetone, alcohol, and glycerin were experimented with, but
tile results obtained with the two last only were of interest.
Alcohol had been for some years used in this way by Brandt,
whilst glycerin was employed by H. Koechlin. The author
finds that the protective action of glycerin is proportional
to the quantity employed. Of the inorganic substances
tried, sodium bisulphite, tin-salt, and arsenious acid
stopped the development of the discharge, the sulphates of
copper and cobalt increased the weakening effect, and the
only favourable results were obtained with manganese
chloride and tartar emetic. — G. H. B.
Means of Preventing the Formation of O.rgcellulose in the
Printing of Discharges on Indigo Blue. Brandt. Bull.
Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1891, 496—497.
In order to print a white discharge on cotton tissues dyed
with Indigo blue, the design is printed with an alkaline
chromate solution thickened with gum, and the action of
the oxidising substance is developed by a passage through
an acid bath containing sulphuric and oxalic acids. But
this acid bath is very detrimental to the cotton tissue, as the
chromic acid set free gives rise to the formation of oxy-
cellulose, the weakness or tenderness of which is still further
increased by the subsequent washing in alkaline or soap
solutions. The presence of oxycellulose may be shown by
the method proposed by Witz, which consists in dyeing the
tissue with Methylene blue, which does not affect the
unaltered cellulose, but dyes those portions converted into
oxycellulose to a depth proportional to the degree of con-
version. In order to impede the formation of oxycellulose
in this kind of printing the author has for four years added
10 per cent, of alcohol to the acid bath with fairly satisfactory
results. The weakening was very sensibly decreased, whilst
a full discharge was obtained, and the Methylene blue test
showed that the conversion of the fibre into oxycellulose
was very small. Any kind of denaturised alcohol may be
used, as the impurities do not interfere with the results.
The author has used glycerin in a similar way with
favourable results, but not so good as with alcohol. — G. H. B.
On a Special Process for Preparing " Sulphoricinate."
A. Scheurer-Kestner. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1891,
499—502.
This communication begins with the publication of a paper
sealed and deposited on 31st July 1889 and opened on
29th April 1891, which states that De Milly was the first
who succeeded in effecting saponification industrially by
steam, and the author has extended this method to the
preparation of Turkey-red oil.
In an additional note the author now gives the results of
his examination of the oil, and he finds that the fatty acid
obtained in this way is not the normal ricinoleic acid, but an
acid of a lower saturation equivalent and giving a more
violet shade of red in the alizarin dyeing process. This
acid gives a milky solution with ammonia, whilst normal
ricinoleic acid gives a clear solution when neutralised with
ammonia. Its molecular weight is 480, that of the normal
acid being 298. In preparing Turkey-red oil by means of
sulphuric acid, there results a mixture of sulphonated and
non-sulphonated acids of normal constitution as well as
polymerised, the effect of sulphonation tending to produce
yellow shades, whilst the polymerisation is favourable to
blue shades of alizarin. When a polymerised acid is
saponified with soda below 80° C. it remains unaltered and
the original acid is reproduced on acidification, but if the
saponification be accompanied by prolonged boiling or
conducted under pressure at a temperature above 100° C.
the normal acid is formed. — G. H. B.
Properties of Cuprammonium. Prudhomme. Bull. Soc.
Ind. Mulhouse, 1891, 510—512.
The author traces an analogy between the action on cellulose
of cuprammonium and hydrogen peroxide. In both cases
oxycellulose is formed. Cuprammonium appears to have a
stronger oxidising power than hydrogen peroxide on indigo
blue, which it decolourises quickly. Mercerised cotton is also
strongly attacked hy it. The blue solution formed by
dissolving copper in ammonia in presence of air becomes
decolourised when left in contact with excess of copper in a
bottle which is quite filled and stoppered, and the copper
salt is reduced to the cuprous state. Ammonium nitrite
treated with copper in the cold evolves nitric oxide according
to the equation —
2 (NO,.NH4) + Cu = N202 + CuH20; + 2 NH3
but in presence of ammonia, nitrogen is given off —
2 (N02.NH4) + 3 Cu = 2 N + 3 CuO + 2 NH3 + OH2
— G. H. B.
Note on a New Chromium Mordant. A. Scheurer. Bull.
Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1891, 522—524.
This mordant is obtained by reducing potassium bichromate
with sulphurous acid, and differs from potassium chrome
alum by containing less potassium sulphate, and by haviug
a green instead of a violet colour. It is prepared by adding
57 gams, of sulphurous acid to 88 grms. bichromate dissolved
in 855 grms. of water. After printing the mordant may be
fixed by exposure to ammonia gas. The substance
remaining on the fibre is not chromic oxide but a basic
34
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L Jun. 30, 1892.
sulphate, which gives a different shade on dyeing. This
mordant gives with nitroalizarin a yellowish-rose of gieat
Freshness. The same dye gives with a pure chromic oxide
mordant a more violet and less brilliant shade. — G. H. I!.
PATENT.
Improvements in or relating to Laundry Blue. J. Knowles,
liolton. Eng. Pat. 13,429, August 8, 1891. 6d.
See under XIII., page 45.
VII. -ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Aluminium Sulphate. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16,
2326—2328.
See under XIX., pages 52 — 55.
Reduction of Oxygen Compounds by Magnesium. C.
Winkler. Ber. 1891, 24, 1966—1984.
See under X., pages 39 — 40.
The Fusing Point and Crystalline Form of Aluminium
Chloride. K. Seubert and W. Pollard. Ber. 1891, 24,
2575—2577.
Aluminum chloride was prepared by heating the approxi-
mately pure metal in a stream of dry hydrochloric acid gas
and its melting point taken by heating it in a capillary tube
in a paraffin bath. The substance boiled up and sublimed
at 175°— 179° C. and the sublimate fused at 194° C. It
crystallised in hexagonal tables about 1 cm. in diameter and
1 mm. thick.— B. B.
The Chlorine Industry. Laboratory Investigations.
A. Keychler. Monit. Scient. 1891, 1249—1256.
/. Regeneration of Manganese Dioxide. — In the Dunlop
process for recovering manganese dioxide as carried out at
the works of Messrs. Tennant at Glasgow, the operation of
calcining the manganese carbonate is effected by circulating
the material in small waggons through a special furnace,
where it is gradually raised from a low temperature to a
higher one (300° — 400° C.), the operation lasting about
36 hours. The author finds that this time may be con-
siderably shortened by simply heating the carbonate briskly
upon an iron plate, taking care not to let the temperature
rise to that of incipient redness. In this way he obtains in
less than one hour a black pulverulent product containing
60 to 75 per cent, of available peroxide of manganese,
which would be very suitable for industrial use if it did not
also still contain too much carbonic acid. This product
can be made richer in peroxide by moistening it with water
to which nitric acid has been added equal to one-third or
one-fourth of the remaining manganous oxide. The sub-
stance is then dried, and afterwards calcined for a couple
of hours at 125° — 260° C, when nitrous vapours equivalent
to 9 — 10 per cent, of the nitric acid added are given off, and
a product free from carbonic acid (but retaining some-
times a trace of nitric acid) is recovered, which contains
from 91 • 5 to 93' 5 per cent, of manganese dioxide.
This treatment resembles the Kuhlmaun process, but
differs from it in only converting into nitrate the manganous
oxide left after the first calcination, instead of converting
the whole of the manganese into nitrate. If this modifica-
tion of the Kuhlmaun process had originally been worked
conjointly with the Dunlop process, it is probable enough
that it might have become an industrial process. The
development of the chlorine industry, however, is now
following auother course.
//. The Weldon Process with Magnesia (modified). —
This process may be considered in two phases: — 1st. The
manganite of magnesia (JInMgO,) is agitated with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid, giving a solution of manganous
chloride and magnesium chloride, and liberating chlorine
equal to about one-fourth of the chlorine in the acid used.
2nd. The solution of the chlorides is evaporated and the
residue calcined in a reverberator)- furnace with two com-
partments, similar to a salt-cake furnace. In the " pan "
the material continues to lose water, but yields also hydro-
chloric acid and chlorine, and in the " furnace " it yields
chiefly chlorine and becomes oxidised by the air, re-forming
the manganite. The calcination must be conducted with
the greatest care, on account of the easy fusibility of the
mixed chlorides. The chlorine obtained is very much
diluted and difficult to use.
(a.) The Fusibility of the Chlorides may be overcome by
I adding to them a certain amount of magnesium sulphate.
If equivalent quantities of magnesium chloride, man-
ganous chloride, and magnesium sulphate, are melted
together in their water of crystallisation and the mixture
heated in a sand-bath, a solid residue, apparently dry, but
still retaining, however, a certain quantity of water, is
obtained. This residue may be calcined quickly at a red heat
without fusing, and leaves a black mass which is tolerably
consistent, very porous, and only retains a trace of chlorine.
The sulphate of magnesium can be extracted from this
mass by washing with water, and a black manganite
remains which is easily attacked by acids and which
contains about 47 per cent, of manganese dioxide. The
formula Mu3Mg3Os corresponds to 47 '67 per cent, of
dioxide. This compound may be looked upon as a mixture
of two oxides of the magnetic type in which magnesia
replaces a part of the manganese MnMg204 + Mn2MgO,,.
The product of the calcination has the formula —
3MgS04-i-Mn3Mg3Os
Such a mixture ought, in fact, to disengage chlorine from
hydrochloric acid equal to one-fourth the chlorine contained
in the acid used. The quantity of magnesium sulphate may
be increased or diminished without affecting the composi-
tion of the manganite to any great extent. Other mixtures
have been tried but none was so satisfactory as the Weldon
mud mixed with magnesium sulphate.
(6.) The Hydrochloric Acid and Chlorine liberated on
Calcination. — The author heated the dried residue of
manganese and magnesium chlorides mixed with magnesium
sulphate in a porcelain tube at a dull red heat and in a
current of air. The temperature and the humidity of the
air have an influence upon the nature of the gases evolved.
The evolved gases were analysed by absorbing them in an
alkaline arsenious acid solution of knowu strength ; in one
portion of the solution the unoxidised arsenious acid was
determined and in another portion the amount of hydro-
chloric acid produced was estimated. The following are
some of the results obtained : 1. Equivalent quantities of the
three substances were used. The total weight of the dried
residue was 13 grms. The air passed through the tube
during calcination was saturated with moisture. 25*75 per
cent, of the chlorine was liberated. 2. Twice the above
amount of magnesium sulphate was used. The humidity of
the air used was that of the atmosphere at the time of the
experiment. 10-15 per cent, of the chlorine was evolved
as HO during the desiccation of the material, 67 • 65 per
cent, as HC1 during the calcination, and 22*2 per cent, as
free chlorine. 3. The air before coming in contact with
the substance was passed through a drying apparatus and
then over a layer of fragments of sandstone heated to
redness. Under these conditions 50 per cent, of the
chlorine was evolved in the free state. According to
Lunge, Weldon obtained a similar result.
The utilisation of this diluted chlorine is a difficult
problem to solve. Weldon could scarcely make any use of
it except for making chlorates or a solution of chloride of
lime.
(c.) Action of Hydrochloric Acid upon the Product of
Calcination. — When the residue, Mn3Mg3Os + MgSO.,, is
treated with water or with hydrochloric acid, it becomes
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTEY.
35
heated and forms nodules of which the interior parts are
withdrawn from the action of the acid. In practice, it
would therefore be necessary to hegin by grinding the
calcined residue with a moderate amount of water, to let it
settle, and then use the mud for making chlorine. In his
laboratory experiments the author extracted the magnesium
sulphate with water and used the insoluble residue for
generating chlorine. It yielded chlorine equal to the
theoretical amount, according to the equation —
Mn3MgsOa + 16 HC1 = 3 MnCl» + 3 MgCL + 8 H.O + 2 Cl2
A quarter of the chlorine of the acid is evolved as free
chlorine. Weldon's maDganite, to which he gave the
formula, MnMgO;i, also yields one-fourth of the chlorine in
the livilroehloric acid used to dissolve it, a fact, however,
which is not in accordance with that formula.
One of the difficulties, therefore, of the Weldon magnesia
process, the fusibility of the mixed chlorides, has been
overcome. The other drawbacks of the process, cost of
evaporation and difficulty of utilising the dilute chlorine,
still exist.
III. De Wilde and Reychlek's Process.
(a.) With Sulphate and Chloride of Magnesium.— When
a current of hydrochloric acid gas is passed over a calcined
mixture of the sulphate and oxide of magnesium contained
in a porcelain tube heated to a temperature rather lower
than that of incipient redness, the greater part of the acid
is absorbed and a certain amount of water is formed. If
the product thus obtained be now heated to dull redness in
a current of air, it evolves chlorine mixed with a certain
amount of aqueous vapour and hydrochloric acid, and the
original substance is regenerated ready to be again acted on
with hydrochloric acid gas. The discovery of this fact is
due to Prof. De Wilde. The author has investigated the
reactions quantitatively in his laboratory. He finds that
after the mixture of sulphate and oxide has ceased to absorb
hydrochloric acid gas, it contains CI— 18' 18 percent.,
S04— J 1 *9U per cent., Mg— 23 "72 percent., from which the
following composition may be deduced : —
Per Cent.
MrCIj 24-83
MgSO, 64-94.
Ug(OH)a 10-02
MrO 0-71
or — ■
Per Cent.
MgCl (OH ) 26-43
U •- 1 >riL. 2-40
MgCla 6-23
MgSO, 64-94
The chloriuation is therefore incomplete and is accom-
panied by an hydratine. The latter fact was also been noted
by Mond and Ksehellmann.
The reoxidation of the product requires an incipient red
heat, or even a dull red heat. The air was dried before
passing it over the substance, and was also heated to the
temperature of the experiment by passing it first over a
layer of heated fragments of sandstone. Allowing 1 litre
of air to pass in 15 minutes, the gases evolved contained —
At the end of 20 minutes, 14'5 vols, per cent, of CI and 3S'5 vols.
per cent, of HC*.
\l the end of 56 minutes, 16"8 vols, percent, of CI and 10'41vols.
per cent, of HC..
At the end of 92 minutes, 12*1 vols, per cent, of CI and 0 vols, per
cent, of HC2.
On continuing the experiment, 8, G'5, 10-5, 10, and 9 vols,
of chlorine per cent, were evolved according to the degree
of heat employed. Even at a bright red heat the chlorine
evolved only amounted to 12 to 13 vols, per cent. The
drawbacks to the process are that the chlorine evolved is
not concentrated, and that at the beginning of oxidation it
is mixed with a large quantity of hydrochloric acid.
(6.) With Magnesium Chloride, Manganous Chloride,
and Magnesium Sulphate. — Recognising the advantages of
de Wilde's method, the author conceived the idea of applying
the principle to other active substances, especially to the
manganite of magnesium, and in this way as it were
elaborating a dry Weldon process. The calcined mass
employed was that having as already shown the com-
position 3 MgSO., + Mn3Mg308. This substance was treated
in a porcelain tube with gaseous hydrochloric acid made
from ammonium chloride and sulphuric acid, and raised
to the temperature of the experiment by passing over heated
fragments of sandstone. The reaction goes on best at a
temperature below incipient redness, about 400° — 450°. At
300° very little chlorine is evolved, whilst at dull redness
a considerable quantity of oxygen is evolved. In an
experiment lasting five hours, during which the chlorine and
hydrochloric acid which had been evolved during each hour
were estimated at the end of each hour, the following results
were obtained : — ■
Vols, per cent, of chlorine.
■16-0
51*8
48-4
46-2
24-4
Mean
4S-4
33-3
35-2
51-6
5f4
75-6
49-4
In the tests made at the end of the first hour air was still
present, whilst at the end of the second hour the gases
evolved contained oxygen. Another experiment, lasting
six hours, gave a mean result of 50-2 vols, per cent, of
chlorine and 47-7 vols, per cent, of hydrochloric acid.
The chlorinated material obtained is still somewhat
dark coloured, but shows numerous white particles. When
powdered it has a light grey colour. It was found to
contain from 31 to 36-5 per cent, of chlorine. It is
probable that the manganese is converted into manganous
chloride, and the magnesium chiefly into oxycliloride
slightly hydrated. The hydrochloric acid utilised may be
calculated from the formula —
3 MgS04 + Mn3Mg308 + 16 HCI =
3 MgS04 + 3 MnCL + 3 MgCL + 8 H.20 + 2 CI,
One volume of chlorine evolved corresponds to 8 vols, of
HCI used. In the first experiment, therefore, the volume
of acid utilised was 43-4 x 8 = 347-2. The total volume
employed was 347-2 + 49-4 = 396-6, which shows a
utilisation of 87 to 88 per cent, of the acid employed. The
percentage of acid utilised in the second experiment was
89 to 90 per cent. Making allowance for the fact that the
magnesia is only about one-half chlorinated and forms
oxyehloride instead of chloride, one volume of chlorine
evolved is equivalent to 6-5 volumes of acid, which gives
therefore a utilisation of the hydrochloric for these two
experiments, equal to 85 per cent, and 87 per cent,
respectively.
Action of Air upon the Chlorinated Mixture. — On passing
a current of dry air at constant speed over the chlorinated
mixture heated to incipient redness (525°) the evolved
gases contain from 1 6 to 20 volumes per cent, of chlorine.
At a dull red heat or at a bright red, the percentage of
chlorine may even rise to 25 per cent. Using 85 grms. of
the substance, and a current of air passing at the rate of
1 litre in 8 to 10 minutes, from 5 to 6 hours suffice to expel
about two-thirds of the chlorine present. Towards the
end the evolved gases become weaker and contain from
12 to 14 vols, per cent, of chlorine.
Treatment by a Mixture of Air andGaseous Hydrochloric
Acid. — The author has made numerous experiments to
investigate this modification. As a general result, he finds
that the concentration of the chlorine evolved is not much
less than that obtained by the treatment of the chlorinated
substance with air alone. But, on the other hand, there is
not so great an economy of the hydrochloric acid by the
mixed treatment, as it is far from reaching the utilisation of
from 80 to 90 per cent, found by the alternating treatment
(in an example cited the utilisation of the hydrochloric acid
by the mixed air and acid treatment amounted to 50 per
cent.).
36
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, ISM.
The reactions that take place in the mixed air and acid
process may be expressed by the two following equations : —
I.
G MnCL + 3 Mg.XlCl., + 6 MgSO< + 013 =
2 Mn3Mg3Oa x (i MgS04 + 9 Cl2
II.
2 MnjMgjOa + 6MgS04 + 26 HC1 =
6 MnCL + 3 MgjOCL, + 6MgSCL + 13 H,0 + 4 CL
For descriptions of De Wilde and Keyehter's process see
also this Journal, 1890, 510 and 1128— H. S. P.
The Action of Sulphurous Acid on Flou'ers of Sulphur.
A. Colefax. 1'roc. Chem. Soc. 1891—1892, 180.
Debus's statement that sulphurous acid has practically no
action on sulphur is not confirmed. Sulphurous acid acts
on flowers of sulphur at the ordinary temperature of the air,
and produces thiosulphuric acid and a polythionic acid,
probably trithionic acid. No pentathionic acid was found.
According to Fliickiger (Jahresbericht, 1863, 149), sul-
phurous acid gave, by its action on flowers of sulphur,
thiosulphuric acid. The presence of a polythionic acid is
proved by a comparison of the iodine titrations and the
acidity titrations before and after the addition of iodine
requisite for the iodine titration. It is thus shown that there
is present a considerable quantity of an acid having no
iodine titration, and which is not merely oxidised sulphurous
acid. Qualitative tests point to the presence of thiosulphuric
acid, or trithionic acid, or a mixture of the two. Not even
in the dark is sulphurous acid without action on sulphur.
A higher temperature (say 80°— 90° C.) favours the action
of sulphurous acid on sulphur ; water has no action on
flowers of sulphur, either at ordinary temperatures or at
this higher temperature.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Barium Chloride and
Strontium Chloride. M. N. D'Andria, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 1168, January 22, 1891. 4</.
Tin: sulphides of barium or strontium, obtained by the
reduction of the corresponding sulphates, are treated with
a neutral solution of iron protochloride (a hy-product from
galvanising) ; the solution of alkaline earthy chlorides is
liltered "from the remaining sulphide of iron formed"
and is evaporated to crystallisation. In an alternate way of
working the iron protochloride is furnaced along with the
sulphate and coal, and the chlorides dissolved out at once
Irom the reduced mass. — H. A.
Process for Bleaching and Purifying Aluminium Sulphate.
O. Imray, London. From "La Soeiete Anonyme des
Anciennes Salines Domaniales de L'Est," Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 1261, January 23, 1891. id.
A product free from iron can be obtained by the addition
of a sulphite, bisulphite, or hyposulphite (preferably of
soda), or barium dioxide and dilute acid, or oxygenated
water, to a slightly acid and nearly boiling solution of
aluminium sulphate. — II. A.
Improvements in Apparatus fur Concentrating Acids. \Y.
('. Hersens, Hanau, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2499, February
11, 1891. 4,/.
'line platinum apparatus hitherto in use for concentrating
sulphuric acid labours under the disadvantage of being
attacked by concentrated acids. A coating of gold renders
the vessel more durable, but up to the present no really
satisfactory coating has been applied, and it has also been
found impractical to repair such coated apparatus. The
invention consists in the production of such coating by
heating the sheet platinum to a temperature higher than
the melting point of gold, and then pouring the molten gold
over it, in any convenient form of mould ; the double sheet
is then rolled out to any desired thickness. Vessels made
from these double-sheets also serve as substitutes for gold
pans. — H. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Caustic Alkali,
( 'arbonates of the Alkaline Metals and Muriatic Acid,
and of Bricks, Cakes, or Blocks for use therein, and
Apparatus therefor. II. H. Lake, London. From The
Kayser Patent Company, Jersey, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
10,202, June 16, 1891. Is. lrf.
The improvements refer to the decomposition of a mixture
of clay and salt, for the production of the above enumerated
substances. .A tough mixture of clay (containing a pro-
portion of \\ lb. of silica to 1 lb. of alumina, to render the
mass as refractory as possible) and of dense salt is moulded
into cakes of cylindrical shape, provided with a central
channel. The cakes are dried and hardened by gradual
heating to 220° — 250° F. in a special furnace, through
which a current of hot air in passed. A contrivance is
described for charging the furnaces, and keeping the cakes
from breaking or pulverising, so as to maintain free access
of the gases to all parts of the charge. There are four
furnaces or converters, cylindrical on top and sufficiently
conical on the bottom to allow the whole finished charge to
roll out. Cooled generator- gas, or water-gas, or natural
gas is forced in the top part of any of the converters, the
inlet being above the charge and in tangential direction to
the periphery of the converter, whereby a thorough and
uniform heating of the charge is said to take place.
The ;;ases sink down and can be led by means of a vertical
shaft from the bottom of a converter to the gas inlet of the
next converter, or, by means of a downward extension of
the shaft, to an underground passage, to be further treated
for the recovery of hydrochloric acid. All connexions are
provided with dampers. Air, steam, and gas are introduced
together into any of the converters. A ring made of fire-
bricks and provided with radial openings separates the gas
passage on the bottom and its outlet from the interior of
the converter. Below this ring is the discharge opening
which is closed by means of a plate provided with tapholes
and with a central opening.
In working the process the supply of gas, air, and steam,
are so regulated as to obtain an oxidising flame. The
charge is finished in about four days, and the operation is
so conducted that the united gas mixture raises first the
contents of a particular converter to white heat, the
products of combustion, containing hydrochloric acid, being
drawn off through the underground passage ; with an
increase of temperature some of the salt fuses and has to
In- drawn off through the tapholes oil the bottom. Mean-
while the next converter has been heated independently,
and when sufficiently hot to prevent the choking up of the
passages with sublimed salt, the combustion gases from the
first converter are admitted along with generator gas, and
the escaping hydrochloric acid is again conducted into the
underground passage. While this is proceeded with, the
third and fourth converters are also heated independently,
the former having been recently charged and the latter
just finishing off.
The drawn charge consists of an acid, " sodium-silico-
aluminate," which may be converted into the soluble basic
salt by fusing with alkali (soda-ash) ; if the product so
obtained contain only 40 — 42 per cent, soda, the action on
the lining of the furnace will not be so destructive. The
basic salt is next broken up and " leached systematically
until the lye shows about one degree B. " (1"5° Tw.).
" The insoluble remainder is hydrous sodium-silieo-
aluininate with from 17 — 20 per cent, of sodium oxide."
This is ground up, suspended in water, and boiled with
milk of lime. The clear alkaline solution of 4° — 5° B.
(G°— 7'5° Tw.) is utilised for leaching a fresh quantity of
the basic salt. The residue of " Ivydrous calcium silico-
aluminate" is washed in a filter-press, and produces on
exposure to the air calcium carbonate, silica, and alumina,
Jan. so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
37
a mixture which is " an entirely new article and capable of
many practical applications" and " is furthermore distin-
guished by containing a very large quantity of chemically
bound water when air dried (say 30 per cent.)."
An alternate way of working consists in omitting the
leaching operation, and treating the basic salt direct with
milk of lime or carbonic acid, for the production of caustic
soda or sodium carbonate.
In a third alternate method the acid salt need not be
converted into basic salt, hut its mixture with calcium
oxide or calcium carbonate is heated to a high temperature
whereby sodium aluminate and insoluble " ealeium-silico-
aluminate" are obtained. The solution of the former may
be decomposed with carbonic acid for the production of
sodium carbonate, or treated with milk of lime for the
preparation of caustic alkali, the secondary reaction being
the precipitation of pure alumina (as much as 16 — 18 per
cent.) in the first place, and of insoluble calcium aluminate
in the second instance. The residual calcium-silico-
aluminate may be calcined and utilised as a hydraulic lime.
The combustion gases passing from the converters to
tlu- underground Hues contain hydrochloric acid and some
volatilised salt. The gases are exhausted by meaas of a
fan, and passed through a tower filled with coke for
separating the salt, and from thence into condensers for the
recovery of hydrochloric acid.
Fifteen claims are made and three sheets of drawings
accompany the specification. — H. A.
A Process for the Production of Caustic Alkali, Carbonate
of Alkaline Metals, and Useful Bye-Products. E.
Eichstiidt, Gbteborg, Sweden. Eng. Pat. 15,136, Sep-
tember 7, 1891. 6.
"The invention for the production of caustic alkali depends
upon the interchange effected between sulphates of the
alkalis and hydrates of the alkaline earths, barium and
strontium, to form hydrates of the alkalis, and sulphates of
the alkaline earths." Strontium hydrate is preferably
employed for this purpose. "The strontium hydrate is
preferably produced by the novel reaction produced by
the sulphides of strontium and sodium in solution in water."
(Compare C. F. Claus, Eng. Pat. 1096 of 1883 ; this Journal,
lss:t, 176), for which purpose the inventor proposes to roast
equivalent quantities of strontium sulphate and sodium
sulphate with a quarter of the weight of the mixture of coal
and dissolving the melted mass in boiling water. The
react ions can be expressed by the equations —
SrSU4 + Na.-S04 + 8 C = SrS + Na.,S + 8 CO
SrS + Na.,S + 2 ThO = Sr(OH)L, + 2 NaSH
The strontium hydrate crystallises out on cooling, and
may be purified by recrystallising ; the mother-liquor from
the ,'trontium hydrate crystals, consisting chiefly of sodium
sulphydrate, maybe utilised in various ways. Thus addition
of sulphuric acid produces sodium sulphate, with evolution
of sulphuretted hydrogen, which may be treated for the
production of free sulphur or sulphuric acid. Or treatment
with an insufficient quantity of sulphurous acid produces
a certain amount of hyposulphite in the solution and a
subsequent addition of sulphuric acid causes formation of
sodium sulphate and of precipitated sulphur, but no evolution
of sulphuretted hydrogen. ( Ir the hydrosulphide of sodium
may be oxidised atmospheric air, to produce hyposulphite,
which is then treated with sulphuric acid.
The caustic soda solution, resulting from the treatment of
the redissolved strontium hydrate with sodium sulphate,
may be carbonated for the production of alkaline carbonate.
— H. A.
moved about in the bath. The gas may thus be generated
mar any part of the body. A "steel bath" may bo
produced by dissolving a melted mixture of sodium
bisulphate and ferrous sulphate. — H. A.
Improvements relating to Carbonic Acid Baths and
Tablets for use therein. E. Sandow. Hamburg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 16,422, September 28, 1891. id.
The bath consists of a solution of sodium bicarbonate,
from which it is proposed to liberate carbonic acid, not
with hydrochloric acid as heretofore, but with sodium
bisulphate, cast in tablets of suitable shape, which can be
Improvements in the Manufacture of Alumina. W. P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From J. A. Bradburn and J. D.
l'ennock, Syracuse, I'.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,933, October
20, 1891. id.
The object of this invention is the manufacture of alumina
from bauxite, preferably from that variety of the mineral
which contains the iron in the ferric state anil is con-
taminated with but little or no organic matter. The
difficulties connected with " the art of obtaining alumina
from ferrous bauxite " are overcome by mixing the ground
mineral with a solution of bleaching powder and passing
carbonic acid through the mass ; the chlorine thus liberated
oxidises the iron and organic matter. The bauxite is then
digested with a caustic soda solution containing, say, 150
grms. of Na20 per litre, which extracts the bulk of the
alumina. The solution is filtered off. Should the residue
contain a paying quantity of alumina, it is heated with 1|-
to \\ parts of sodium carbonate, and the resulting mass
lixiviated with the sodium aluminate solution previously
obtained. The resulting tank-liquor has a turbid appear-
ance, which is due to iron in suspension ; it may be clarified
by the addition of milk of lime, the gelatinous precipitate of
hydrated alumina thus produced carrying down the iron
with it.
The filtered and heated liquor is now precipitated with
sodium bicarbonate, and after washing the alumina " with a
reasonable amount of water," it is heated with a solution of
ammonium chloride, which converts the soda into common
salt. This is easily washed out, and the pure alumina is
then filtered, dried, and calcined. — H. A.
An Improved Process for Manufacturing Nitrate of
Ammonia or Chloride of Ammonia, simultaneously
obtaining either Precipitated Phosphate of Lime or an
Enriched Phosphate of Lime. L. Brunner, Wetzlar,
Germany, and A. Zanner, Laeken, Belgium. Eng. Pat.
18,324, October 24, 1891. 4(Z.
The poorer varieties of phosphates may be enriched by
treating the phosphatic rock with a sufficient quantity of
nitric acid to dissolve the impurities alone, which consist
chiefly of calcium carbonate. A bi-ealcium phosphate is
obtained by increasing the quantity of nitric acid used, in
order to dissolve the phosphate as well, and precipitating it
with ammonia, gas-liquor, or milk of lime. The resulting
solution contains in either case calcium nitrate, and in the
latter case ammonium nitrate as well. Three alternate
methods are given for converting this calcium nitrate into
ammonium nitrate, viz. : — (1) Treatment with ammonium
carbonate, or carbonic acid in a solution of ammonia, the
by-product being calcium carbonate. (2) Treatment with
ammonium sulphate, with simultaneous formation of
calcium sulphate. (3) Small quantities of calcium nitrate
may be precipitated with phosphoric acid, in presence of
ammonia.
Instead of the nitric acid, hydrochloric acid may be
employed for the production of ammonium chloride ; or a
mixture of uitrie acid and sulphuric acid may be used with
advantage. — H. A.
-38
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EAETHENWARE.
Manufacture of Glass Pipes of Large Diameter. L.
Appert. Bull. Soe. d'Encouragement 1' Industrie Rationale,
1891, 6, 114—121.
Glass tubes of large size are costly when produced by the
ordinary method of blowing, owing to the fact that none
but the very best workmen can produce them. The ordi-
nary method of coating only admits of the production of
short tubes of considerable thickness. In this memoir
improved machinery for casting or moulding such tubes is
figured and described. The molten glass in the required
state of fluidity is run into a strong iron mould, which is
then closed, and the workman regulates the rapidity of
passage of the spindle or core according to the dimensions
of the tube. The mould is then opened and the tube taken
out for annealing. With tubes of 100 mm. diameter, 15
can be made in an hour. Two metres is a usual length,
which would give 30 metres an hour, but that 20 per cent,
must be deducted for failures, giving an effective output of
24 metres an hour, or about 500 metres per diem.
Four men and a boy are employed in the work. The
power (steam or compressed air) required for driving the
cone or spindle is very slight. The facility of working is
greater with the larger size of tubes.
The method of connecting the tubes depends on the use
to which they are put, metallic joints being used for tubes
designed for the passage of water at high pressure. — V. C.
A Method of Hardening Plaster Casts. M. Dennstedt,
Ber. 1891, 24, 2557—2558.
See under IX., next column.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Forming Under-cut Projections and
Recesses in Tiles and other Articles of Pottery, and in
Apparatus therefor. H. L. Doulton and S. H. Leech,
Lambeth. Eng. Pat. 943, January 19, 1891. 8d.
Is this process under-cut projections or recesses are formed
by pressing against the clay pieces or perforated sheets of
india-rubber or other elastic material, one face of which is
held, whilst the face next the clay spreads out laterally by
the pressure. On one or more of the faces of the mould
are fixed projections of india-rubber, furnished with projec-
tions if it is desired to make under-cut holes, or with holes
if it is desired to make under-cut projections. When
pressure is applied, the india-rubber spreads laterally on its
face next the clay, whilst the surface in contact with the
mould remains fixed. When the pressure is relieved the
india-rubber resumes its former shape, which facilitates
delivery. — V. C.
Improvements in Bahing Ceramic Pastes and Pottery.
C. G. Losada, Seville, Spain. Eng. Pat. 14,381, August
25,1891. llrf.
The invention consists in an improved continuous oven for
baking ware, and in special interior fittings for the same.
The advantages are as follows : The goods are only
introduced into the oven when the latter is in proper
condition for melting the glaze. Economy of fuel is said
to be effected. Saggers and stilts are not required owing
to the arrangement of trays of refractory material moveable
on rollers. The process is capable of being regulated
accurately, as the chambers are open at the ends and the
progress of the operations can be watched. — V. C.
Improvements in the Liquid Material or " Slip " used in
the Manufacture of Porcelain, Stoneware, and the like.
E. Edwards, London. From K. Goetz, Karlsbad, Ger-
many. Eng. Pat. 18,189, October 22, 1891. id.
The process consists in preparing the liquid or " slip " by
mixing the material used with an aqueous solution of
carbonate of soda, bicarbonate of soda, calcined soda or soda
ash, instead of mixing the material with water. One of
concentrated solution to 1,500 of the material is sufficient.
The following advantages are claimed over " slip " made by
the ordinary process, viz., that the fluid pours better, articles
being made in one mould which formerly required two or
three. Articles can be made in moulds which ordinarily
have to be turned or shaped separately. Increased rapidity
of production. The articles are of more uniform quality
and stronger. The mould can be used more frequently
without drying. |The shrinkage is considerably reduced,
the temperature required is lower, and the grinding opera-
tions take less time. A further point connected with the
same invention is the mixing of a small quantity of cinnabar
with the materials of the " slip " to prevent the swellings
and the grey colour sometimes produced upon porcelain,
especially at the edges, during burning. — V. C.
IX.-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS.
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
A Method of Hardening Plaster Casts. M. Pennstedt.
Ber. 1891, 24, 2557—2558.
The method consists in immersing the plaster cast to be
hardened in a solution of silicic acid so that it becomes
saturated, and afterwards permitting it to dry so that the
silica passes into the insoluble state and remains diffused
throughout the mass. The article under treatment is then
transferred to a saturated solution of barium hydrate kept
at a temperature of 60" — 70° C. for a short time, then
removed and dried in a moderately warm place. Casts
may also be hardened by the admixture with the plaster
before casting of metallic hydrates {e.g. those of aluminium
and zinc) and subsequent treatment with silicic acid, with
which they uuite to form silicates.
Coloured casts may be produced by treating the articles
to be coloured with a weak solution of some suitable
sulphate, such as sulphate of copper, before immersion in
the hot solution of barium hydrate.— B. B.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and Apparatus for the Manufacture of
Cement. W. R. Taylor, Rochester. Eng. Pat. 1115,
January 21, 1891. Sd.
The first improvement claimed by the patentee consists in
mixing the raw materials (e.g. clay and chalk) for making
cement by blowing them together, either powdered or
suspended in water or some liquid hydrocarbon by means
of a jet of air, steam, or other fluid. The materials thus
prepared may be moulded into perforated bricks and burnt
in a revolving kiln such as is described in Eng. Pat. 5719
of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 466). The flue of the kiln
is water-jacketed, the water thus heated being used for
mixing with the raw materials or for boiler purposes.
Another improvement consists in exposing the raw material
in the form of bricks to the flue gases by means of a
travelling band or other form of conveyor. A claim is
made for drawing off carbon dioxide from the kiln flue and
utilising it in the ordinary way. The waste heat of the
kilns may also be utilised by introducing water pipes or
coils at the top of the kiln or the flue in such a manner as
not to impair the draught, the water being used in the same
way as that circulating through the annular space between
the flue proper and its outer covering. — B. B.
Jan. SO, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
S9
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Roman
Cement. C. von Forell, Brunswick, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 1750, January 30, 1891. id.
Thk patentee states that seeing that nearly all Roman
cements contain more or less uncombined lime owing to
the comparatively low temperature at which they are burnt,
such cements may be mixed with raw materials rich in
alumina, such as silicate of alumina, in such proportion
that the ratio of the lime to the hydraulic factors is
about 1-7 : 1. The aluminous material must be finely
powdered. It is said that a material is thus obtained of
much higher quality than ordinary Roman cement. — 15. li.
X.-METALLURGY.
Reduction of Oxygen Compounds bi/ Magnesium. C
Winkler.' ' Ber. 1891, 24, 1966—1984.
The results of Brauner's recent determinations and the
author's present results have led to the relinquishment by
the author of the view entertained by him as to the rele-
gation of lanthanum to the 4th periodic group. His
experiments on the behaviour of oxygen compounds when
mixed with magnesium and heated in an atmosphere of
hydrogen, have now been extended to the metals of the 1st,
2nd, and 3rd periodic groups.
The members of the 1st group do not yield hydrides
under the conditions of the author's experiments, because
the heat developed is sufficient to decompose any such
compounds ; the hydrides NaJJ;., K4H,, for example,
decompose at a moderately high temperature. However,
under experiment, lithium and sodium hydroxides or car-
bonates underwent reduction with dangerous violence, and
potassium and rubidium compounds developed great heat
whilst with ca?sium hydroxide the action was so violent
that ignition of the hydrogen ensued, and a sintered mass
of cerium and magnesium oxides was obtained.
In Group II. the oxides of zinc, cadmium, and mercury,
on account of the violence of their reduction, were not
further considered, but the alkaline earthy oxides proved of
great interest ; as a rule, when the mixture of any of these
oxides with the proper proportion of magnesium was
heated in a current of hydrogen, at first an expansion took
place, but as the heat was continued and increased,
absorption of the gas ensued at a rate varying with the
oxide under investigation. In some cases the continuance
of high temperatures for some hours necessitated the em-
ployment of iron tubes for the experiments in this group.
The products were always allowed to cool in an atmosphere
of hydrogen, and were analysed as soon as possible after
preparation.
Beryllium. — When a mixture of 25 parts by weight
(1 mol.) of beryllium oxide and 24 parts by weight
(1 atom) of magnesium powder was treated in the manner
described, at a red heat, hydrogen absorption commenced
but slowly, and progressed tardily but continuously, reaching
a maximum in half an hour, then falling slowly from 10
to 4 bubbles a minute, at which it remained at the termi-
nation of the experiment at the end of four hours. The
light brownish-grey product had not sintered. In contact
with the air it emitted an unpleasant odour, and evolved
hydrogen very sparingly with cold water, more decidedly
with boiling water, but violently with dilute hydrochloric
acid, in which case a considerable quantity of unattached
beryllium oxide remained undissolved. The product could
be heated in a porcelain crucible to incipient redness
without alteration, but at higher temperatures it glowed and
emitted a hydrogen flame ; this flame, as well as the forma-
tion of water, were especially pronounced when the heating
took place in a current of oxygen. The following was the
composition of this product : —
BeH
BeO
MgO
Mr
Total.
3-33
4.) -40
15*03
6-24
lOO'llO
showing that 14-96 of the beryllium employed had under-
gone conversion into hydride.
Magnesium. — ■ A mixture of magnesium oxide and
magnesium powder in similar proportions and under similar
treatment behaved very much in the same way as the
beryllium mixture. The product was almost white, had
not sintered, and had the composition —
UgH
3IgO
Ms;
Total.
8-54
82 -on
14- W
100-00
showing that only 6-42 per cent, of the original magnesium
oxide had been reduced. It had an unpleasant odour, and
even with cold water evolved hydrogen slowly with
effervescence. Heated in the air, it first emitted a
hydrogen flame, then glowed with dazzling brightness, and
finally exhibited the luminous flame of burning magnesium.
In oxygen, the hydrogen flame and the formation of water
were better seen.
Calcium. — -The behaviour of the mixture of calcium oxide
and magnesium under the conditions of these experiments
was not so sluggish as in the preceding cases ; the absorption
commenced tardily, but reached the rate of 120 bubbles a
minute in half an hour, and was practically complete at the
end of four hours. The slightly sintered, light grey
product had the composition —
CaH
CaO
MgO
Mg
Total.
33-14
28-31
37-66
0-S9 100-00
Hence 61-52 per cent, of the original calcium oxide had
become converted into hydride. On exposure to the air it
swelled up and fell to powder, and hydrogen was evolved
from it most vigorously, either by the action of water or
dilute hydrochloric acid. Heated in air it burnt faintly, and
became surrounded with slightly luminous flame, whilst in
oxygen it inflamed with slight explosion and burnt with
great brilliancy, the hydrogen flame beiug distinct, and the
formation of water abundant.
Strontium. — Strontium oxide was prepared from the pure
carbonate, mixed with the suitable proportion of magnesium
powder, and heated in hydrogen, when, after the preliminary
expansion, absorption set in rapidly at an incipient red heat,
but soon commenced to fall off, and terminated altogether
within two hours. The slightly sintered, greyish-brown
product was composed of —
SrH
SrO
MgO Mg
Total.
66-23
4-17
2S-S3 0-77
!
100-00
indicating a conversion of 94-91 per cent, of the original
strontium employed into hydride. It was very readily
oxidised; in the air it at once turned grey, became hot,
swelled up, and, with the evolution of hydrogen, formed
strontium hydroxide. With water, it gave off hydrogen
with effervescence. Heated in air or oxygen, it inflamed in
the latter case with a slight report, showing an hydrogen
flame at first, and then burning quietly itself. Impure
strontium oxide, containing carbonate, was not only more
troublesome to deal with, but also gave a less satisfactory
result,
40
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO. 1892.
Barium. — With this metal also, some difficulty was
experienced in getting a pure oxide and ultimately baryta
of the following composition : —
BaO , Ba(HO)2 BaC03
A!aO.
SiOj
Total.
71-26
IS- 13
7-31
1-87
1-10
100-00
was employed, and in the experiments the precaution of
heating up in a moderately rapid current of hydrogen, had
to be taken to obviate disaster from the realisation, of the
reaction Ba(HO)o + Mg = BaO + MgO + H2. This danger
over, the end of the tube was closed, and at a red heat
absorption set in with vigour and was complete in two hours.
The product had the following composition : —
BuH
BaO , MgO
A1203
Si02
O (excess)
Total.
70-33
4-27 20-09
1-66
0-97
1-73
99-95
(100 in the
paper.)
and resembled the strontium compound in character and
reactions, the latter being somewhat more energetic in
this case.
The author alludes to the probable existence of these
particular hydrides in the glowing atmospheres of the sun
and certain fixed stars.
Group III. — In this group neither boric anhydride nor
alumina were reduced by this method of treatment. With
vttrium oxide, however, absorption was moderate but dis-
tinct ; it soon diminished, and stopped in an hour. The
light brownish-grey product evolved hydrogen very slightly
with boiling water, not at all with cold water, violently with
hydrochloric acid, and when heated in air or oxygen burnt,
giving a small flame feebly luminous in the latter case. It
had the composition : —
T2H3
T.O,
JIgO
Mg
Total.
12-88
72 -M
lnn-iiu
Pointing to the conversion of 18 44 per cent, of the
yttrium employed into hydride, this conversion is not as
complete as in the case of lanthanum, but nevertheless
shows that the latter is not the only member of periodic
Group III. capable, when in the nascent state, of combination
with hydrogen. — I). A. L.
On the Colloidal Sulphides of Gold. E.A.Schneider. Ber.
1891, 24, '-'-4 1—2247.
Tins is a paper on the preparation and properties of
the colloidal sulphides of gold with reference to the
occurrence of gold in nature.
The formation of " colloid solutions " by washing pre-
cipitates which previously had been treated with another
compound in quantity insufficient to effect complete solution
ha- already been observed. Wright (J. Chem. Soc. 188:5,
43, 163), has stated that freshly precipitated sulphide of
iron passes over into the colloid state when treated with
potassium cyanide solution, so that a portion of it passes
into solution. On washing the residual sulphide of iron
with water, a portion of it passes through the filter and
forms a colloid solution.
The present author has confirmed that experimentally.
Indeed some years before Wright's observation the author
had remarked that on digesting ferric hydrate with
aluminium chloride solution, the former passes into solution,
Hid if an excess of ferric hydrate be employed and the
washing continued till all salts are removed, a colloid
solution is formed which is very similar in properties to the
ordinary colloid ferric hydrate solution.
Gold chloride solution was incompletely precipitated with
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the resulting liquid placed upon
a dialyser; after the course of some hours the gold chloride
solution had diffused through, while on the dialyser, however,
instead of the expected auro-auric-sulphide, finely divided
gold was found. Without doubt, the gold chloride had
acted upon theauro-auric-sulphide according to the following
equation —
AujSj + (AuCl3)4 t8H:0 = Au6 + 2 H2S04 + 12 HC1
In point of fact, a mixture of colloid auro-aurie-sulphide
with gold chloride does give rise to a separation of metallic
gold.
The following results were arrived at : —
1 . That the separation of gold in nature is due to the
action of sulphuretted hydrogen on solution of gold chloride ;
since the pyrites, which always accompanies gold, owes its
origin to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen solution on
ferric oxide compounds, at temperatures below 100°.
2. That the separation of gold is possible at a very
slight depth, and where the temperature does not exceed
100°, since it is shown in the above paper that gold chloride
separates gold from auro-auric sulphide (AujS;) at tem-
peratures much below 100°.
3. That the formation of pyrites has taken place nearer
the surface than the separation of the gold ; or that in any
case the formation of pyrites and separation of gold were
not simultaneous. For- the mineral acids formed during
the separation of gold by the action of gold chloride on
auro-auric sulphide would require for their neutralisation
a considerable thickness of rock. — II. K. T.
77ie Influence of Heat upon the Properties of Iron and
Steel Wire. M. Kudelofl. Mitt. Konig. Tecii. Versuchs.
1891, 109—140.
The material used for the purposes of the investigation
was in the form of wire. Five samples were examined,
three being wire ropes and two being telegraph wires.
They had a tensile strength of 126-3, 84-7, 76 -7, 45-1, and
36-3 kilos, per sq. mm. respectively (1 kilo, per sq. mm. =
1425-45 lb. per sq. in.), and were distinguished by the
letters A, B, C, D, E. In order to ascertain what influence
(if any) exposure to an elevated temperature in a lead bath
had upon their chemical composition, analyses were made
of three of the samples (A, B, and E) before and after they
had been submitted to this treatment, with the following
results : —
Heated to
Com-
bined
Carbon.
Silicon.
Man-
ganese.
Sul-
phur.
Phos-
phorus.
Copper.
f
A. \ 450°— 560°C
o-4(j
0-13
0-S9
o-oi
0-028
0-08
0-17
0-13
0-92
o-oi
0-029
000
USO0— 880°C. 0-32
0-17
0-OG
0-03
0-021
0-03
r .. o-i.
o-ot
1-10
I.-03
n- l«i
0-04
B.< 430°— M0°C. 0-17
0-03
1-09
O-03
11-09!
O-04
1780°— 880°C.
0-05
o-io
0-93
0-03
o-ioi
0-03
E.-i 4.30°— 560°C.
1780°— 8S0°C.
0-02
0-07
0-27
0-05
o-on
0-041
0-02
0-07
0-28
0-07
0-039
o-oi
Trace
0-08
0-28
0-07
o-on
0-02
Preliminary experiments were conducted to determine
the best method of heating the test-pieces and the time
during which it was necessary to subject them to the
temperature of the lead bath. It was found that although
the rapidity with which the full alteration in properties
was produced, varied, yet a period of five minutes generally
sufficed ; this time was therefore taken for the rest of the
experiments.
Jan. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
41
The result of these experiments is most compactly
shown in the following tables of curves : —
Infi.iknce of Heat upon the Properties of Iron
and Steel.
The temperatures must be taken as approximate only.
Certain other experiments were carried out, both to
confirm the results quoted* above, and to determine the
electrical and magnetic relations of the test specimens
before and after heating; the conclusions arrived at are
recorded below : —
(1.) The samples examined suffered no appreciable change
by heating in a lead bath to 475° C. An alteration was first
perceptible when the temperature reached 889° 0., and was
then confined to the diminution of the percentage of
combined carbon. No lead was absorbed from the bath in
any ease.
(2.) The length of time during which the samples were
exposed to a high temperature had an influence upon their
tensile strength and extension, which varied with the
character of the sample. The effect was the more marked
the higher the tensile strength, hut in all cases was complete
in five minutes ; in the case of sample A (crucible cast
steel), although the chief change was effected in five
minutes, yet a further alteration was perceptible in a second
like period.
( 3. I The tensile strength decreased as the temperature to
which the test-pieces were subjected was increased, the
conditions of time and method of cooling being the same.
II tt'ect of the heating was first perceptible at about
500° C, and in general was lower the higher the original
tensile strength of the material. The change induced by
heating was complete when the temperature reached 1,000° C.
The extension and the number of turns in the torsion test
increased with the increase of the temperature used, contrary
to what was observed with the tensile strength. Exposure
to a temperature somewhat under 500° C. merely caused
an increase in the extensibility and homogeneity of the
sample, wherefore it should be expected that in these
respects galvanised wire should be superior to the uncovered
material. The influence of an elevated temperature upon
the extensibility of the wire was complete at about 900J C.
It was found that of samples which suffered the same
diminution of tensile strength by heating, the increase in
ductility and extensibility was not necessarily similarly
related when the origin and nature of the samples differed.
(4.) Exposure of the test specimens to a temperature of
800°— 1,200° C. had but little influence upon their electrical
conductivity ; such influence as could be perceived appeared
to be due rather to an alteration in the Chemical composition
of the samples than in their mechanical properties.
(5.) The temperature coefficient of the electrical con-
ductivity and the magnetic moment of the samples
decreased as the original tensile strength of the material
increased. After heating, the temperature coefficient
showed an increase which was greater the higher the tensile
strength of the original material. (Compare Le Chatelier's
researches, this Journal, 1891, 373). The magnetic
moment was but slightly affected by heating, the tendency
being for it to increase. (Compare "Effects of Abnormally
Low Temperatures on "Structural Iron." This Journal,
1891, 1008.)— B. B.
Tempered Copper. B. Kirsch.
Museums, 1891,
Mitthcil. Techn. Gewerbe-
261—267.
So-called tempered copper has been put upon the market
by the Eureka Tempered Copper Company, samples of which
were examined at the Versuchsanstalt fur Ban- und Mas-
chinen material with the following results : —
I. Chemical Composition.
Ordinary Copper.
Tempered Copper.
Per Ont.
0'026
ao'i«o
0-082
0-046
0-017
Per Cent.
99-0S1
0'018
Total
100-101
As will be seen from the foregoing analyses, the difference
of tempered copper from copper of ordinary commercial
quality, as far as its composition is concerned, is but
slight.
II. Mechanical Properties.
The coppers of which the analyses are given above were
mechanically tested, with the following results : —
Strength
in Kilos.4
per
Sq. Jim.
Elastic
Limit in
Kilos, per
Sq. Mm.
Exten-
sion
per Cent.
Contrac-
tion in
Area
per Cent.
18-14
8-05
18-0
26-7
19-58
7-07
S.S-5
30-6
Tension, untempered ....
10-30
7-13
21-0
36-6
Tension, nntempered ...
17-17
7-08
22-5
35-7
Compression, tempered .
30-38
10-42
28-0
Compression, tempered .
37-20
9 "93
20-8
Compression, untempered
33-12
9-02
27-4
Compression, untempered
30-21
11-20
27-6
* 1 kilo, per sq. mm. = 1425-45 lb. per sq. in.
The tests and analyses quoted above were carried out in
America and are quoted for the sake of comparison with
those performed at the Versuchsanstalt, which are as
follows : —
(a.) Modulus of Elasticity. — The modulus of elasticity
determined on a specimen tested in tension, was 10,050
kilos, per sq. mm. The modulus determined by compression
test was 2,930 kilos, per sq. mm., with a load of 2' 5 kilos,
per sq. mm., and 1,020 kilos, per sq. mm., with a load of
7-2 kilos, per sq. mm.
42
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO, 1892.
(6.) Tensile Strength.
T.-^t Pieces used.
Kilos.* per Sq. mm.
Sheet, 0*11 mm. in thickness .
„ 0-13 „
,. 0'55 „ „
„ fi''-i .,
., I'M „
Wire, 0*50 mm. in diameter .
„ o-so „ „
„ 1"65 „
„ 2T)0 „
„ 4'20 „
Rod. -7 mm. in diameter
Cl-.i
52-3
3T8
72-0
52'(l
50-0
17"B
19-0
'Argentine." A. Harpf.
2584—2585, 2612—
Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16,
2614, and 2640— 2C42.
See under XIX., pages 55 — 56.
silicon, nil ; manganese, 0-15 to 0-25 per cent.; carbon,
0-07 to 0- 12 per cent. This product is next charged with
carbon, by the methods described in the above patents, up
to 1 to 1 • 5 per cent., and is transferred to a second basic-
lined open-hearth furnace. 10 to 20 per cent, of grey
ha?matite pig is added, and when the charge is thoroughly
melted, it is worked in the usual way with limestone, linie
and iron ore additions, if necessary. The charge is then
tapped and recarbonised to any required extent. A separate
furnace should be used for the second operation, since if a
furnace is used which has been employed for phosphoric
heats, it will take several charges to wash out the phosphorus
contained in the basic lining and adhering slag. It is found
that in the second melting and working the charge works
freely, and does not froth, as is usually the case with
ha'tnatite pig iron. — H. K. T.
The last named specimen had an elastic limit of 8- 1 kilos,
per sq. mm. A compression test was made in which defor-
mation began when the load had reached 8-1 kilos, per
sq. mm. The load could be increased to 219 kilos, per
sq. mm. without producing cracks, although the test piece,
which was originally 30 mm. in height, had been shortened
to 7" 8 mm.
(c.) Ductility. — The extension given by the sheet varied
between 02 — 2-0 percent., while that of the wire was
0-1 — 0-2 per cent., and that of the rod 13 "1 per cent.,
while the contraction of area at the point of fracture of the
latter was 33 per cent. From these tests, as well as by
winding tests with the wire, it appears that the material
possesses great ductility.
The foregoing series of tests shows that tempered copper
possesses properties that distinguish it from the ordinary
material, its strength in pieces of small section being
noticeably high, although that of larger test pieces is by
no means remarkable, as it shows the tensile strength of
only 19 kilos, per sq. mm., while ordinary commercial
copper gives 20 — 25 kilos, per sq. mm. Castings made of
it are of good quality, and its electrical conductivity is high.
— B. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Steel. .1. H. Darby,
Brymbo. Eng. Pat. 6303, April 13, 1891. id.
In the methods patented by the author for the direct
addition of carbon (Eng. Pats. 418 of 1888, 20,586 of 1889,
and 4030 of 1890; this Journal, 1890, 1134; and 1891,
469), considerable difficulty is experienced in bringing the
carbon into contact with the metal without great loss
through combustion. In the present patent the ground
carbon is mixed with the pulverised silicon, aluminium,
nickel manganese, or other alloy of iron which has always
to be used, and the two are added together through the
chute or other apparatus employed for the regular addition
of the carbon. (See also Ens:. Pat, 2673 of 1891, above.)
— H. K. T.
XL-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
" Argentine." A. Harpf. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16,
•j;,s(_2585, 2612—2614 and 2640—2642.
See under XIX. pages 55 — 56.
The Electrolysis of the Metallic Sulphoci/anides.
L. K. Frankel. J. Eranklin Inst. 1891, 13,' 144— 150.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Concentrating Acids.
W. C. Henens, Hanau, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2499,
February 11, 1891. id.
See under VII., page 36.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Purification of Steel
or Homogeneous Metal. J. H. Darby, Brymbo. Eng.
Pat. 2673, February 13, 1891. bd.
The author has previously described a method for the
recarbonisation of iron or steel (Eng. Pats. 418 of 1888,
20,586 of 1889, 4030 of 1890 ; this Journal, 1890, 1134;
and 1891, 469) by the direct introduction of carbon (see
also Kng. Pat. 6303 of 1891, below). The present patent is
a modification for the purpose of obtaining steel as free as
possible from sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, and manganese.
The' material used is basic pig iron low in silicon and
sulphur, and containing phosphorus and manganese. In
carrying out the process the basic pig iron is first converted
into soft steel in a basic-lined hearth or converter. Its
average composition when tapped would be: sulphur, 0-02
to 0-04 per cent.: phosphorus, 0-03 to 0*05 per cent.;
The Electrolysis of Metallic Phosphates in Acid Solution.
E. F. Smith. J. Franklin Inst. 1891, 13, 206—209.
(See also this Journal 1890, 898—899.)
Electrolytic Separations. E. F. Smith and F. Muhr. Ber.
1891,24,2175—2181; and Amcr. Chem. J. 1891, 13,
417—422.
.See under XXIIL, pages 60 — 61.
PATENTS.
A Method of Renewing and a Preparation for Fixing
Filaments in Incandescent Lamps. J. Mobile, Munich,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 16,613, October 18, 1890. 8d.
The lamp is either divided longitudinally into two parts, or
more usually pierced by an elongated opening with the help
of a blowpipe. Through this opening the old filament is
removed, the platinum wires cleaned, and a cement applied
to their ends composed of pure carbon mixed to a paste
with the solution of a salt of some metal that can be fused
only at a high temperature, such as a saturated acid solution
of platinum or copper. The ends of the filament are applied
Jan. 30,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
43
to the cement-coated ends of the platinums, and the joints
hardened and rendered conductive by an electric current
passed into each joint by one platinum wire, and led away
by a copper wire temporarily introduced through the slit
and pressed against the joint.— E. T.
Improvements in Electric Primary Batteries. T. J. D.
Rawlins, Lymington, and A. Walker, Bristol. Eng. Pat.
9683, June 8, 1891. 6rf.
The electrodes are made in the form of vertical discs
mounted on a spindle and are kept revolving. The lower
parts only are immersed, and by the frequent exposure to
the air, are prevented from polarising. — E. T.
Improvements in or Relating to Electric Accumulators.
P. Lauber, Basle, Switzerland. Eng. Pat. 17,631,
November 3, 1890. Sd.
The inventor's battery, called au " Electrothek," is to
enable " any proportion of volts to amperes " to be
obtained. A large number of lead plates are separated
from one another by insulating frames so that a series of
water-tight cells is formed, the whole resembling a filter-
press open at the top, except that there is no liquid connec-
tion from cell to cell. In charging, a current is passed in
at one end plate, through the whole series, and out at the
other end one, each plate becoming positive on one face and
negative on the other. The active material is retained in
depressions or cavities in the faces of the plates. The
number of plates depends on the voltage required, and their
area on the rate of discharge. — E. T.
Improved Means and Apparatus for Separating Alkaline
and Earthy Metals and other Products from the Salts
of such Metals, or from other Substances containing
them. G. J. Atkins and E. Applegarth, London. Eng.
Pat. 20,768, December 19, 1890. Sd.
Taking sodium chloride as an example, it is stated that
oxygen and chlorine are liberated at the anode, that sodium
hydrate is produced and dissolved in the liquid at the
cathode, and that if the latter be of mercury, an amalgam
of sodium and hydrogen will be produced. This amalgam,
however, when concentrated, causes a very high back
E. M. E., and therefore increases the cost of the process.
To diminish this the inventors cause fresh mercury to be
continually exposed as cathode, either by allowing fresh
mercury continually to stream over the surface of the latter,
or by causing the cathode, in the shape of an endless band,
to be in continual motiou, and to be constantly picking up
fresh mercury and getting rid of the old. — E. T.
Improvements in or Appertaining to Mercurial Air
Pumps. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From A. Raps,
Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2969, February 18,
1891. Sd.
See under XXIII., page 60.
Improvements in Secondary Batteries. P. Goward, London.
Eng. Pat. 7949, May 8, 1891. Sd.
The positive electrode is a tube of lead enclosing a round
perforated porous pot. A large number of f\- or ("| -shaped
incisions are made in rows round the lead tube so as to
leave metallic tongues of these shapes. The space between
the lead tube and the porous pot is packed with peroxide of
lead, or with the finely divided metal produced by pouring
melted lead into cold water. When the packing has reached
the first row of incisions the tongues of these are turned
inwards, more layers of packing are added in the same way
and bound in place by the metallic tongues till the whole
space is full. The negative electrode is of zinc and rests in
a tray of mercury. All parts are perforated to allow free
circulation of the electrolyte, and bound together by bolts
of suitable insulating material. — E. T.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. A. de Meritens,
Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 10,977, June 27, 1891. By
Internat. Convention November 28, 1890. Sd.
The negative electrode is composed of a sheet of aluminium
soldered or riveted to a sheet of lead. The positive metal
is zinc and the electrolyte a mixture of two parts of sulphuric
acid and one of nitric acid diluted with water. By local
action betweeu the aluminium and lead, the latter becomes
coated with its sub- oxide. By the action of the cell this is
reduced to metallic lead, only to be formed again by the
local action. The cell gives a very constant current, and
can easily give 25 amperes per square decimetre. Instead of
aluminium, " plates of platinum or other metal unattackable
by or possessing greater power of resistance to the action
of the acids," mav be employed. (See also Eng. Pat. 15,575
of 1891, below.)
Improvements in Means to be Employed in the Electrical
Deposition of Copper and the Obtainment of Products
from the Operation. T. Parker, Wolverhampton. Eng.
Pat. 12,898, July 29, 1891. Sd.
In the commercial deposit of copper, the solutions contain
as impurities arsenic, iron, tin, bismuth, and antimony, and
these are deposited with the copper if present in too large
quantities, or if the voltage at the terminals of the bath
should rise too high. To prevent this the electrolyte is
passed through a series of baths, one of which has electrodes
of only one-third to one -fourth the area of those in the
other baths, so that the voltage at its terminals is raised.
The foreign metals are here deposited readily, and the
solution thus kept in normal condition for the other baths.
The deposit removed from the vessels consists chiefly of
copper sulphide, silver, gold, and bismuth. It is roasted
and then treated successively with dilute sulphuric acid to
remove the copper, hot concentrated sulphuric acid to
remove the silver, and potassium cyanide to remove the
gold. The separate solutions thus obtained are electrolysed
for the recovery of the metals they contain. — E. T.
Improvements in Methods of and Apparatus for giving
Increased life and Efficiency to Arc Light Carbons.
N. M. Garland, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 14,379,
August 25, 1891. 8d.
A hood or sleeve made of metal at its upper part and of
refractory porcelain or such material at its lower part, is
fitted over each carbon, so that only the pointed parts of the
hot ends are free. Many devices are described for main-
taining the position of these sleeves. Their object is to
hinder the combustion of the carbons, and to lessen the
resistance of the lamps by leading the current as directly as
possible to the points of the carbons. There are 37 claims.
— E. T.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. A. de Meritens,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 15,575, September 14, 1891. Sd.
This patent (as in Eng. Pat. 10,977 of 1890, abstracted
above) relates to methods of eliminating polarisation by
constructing the negative electrode of two metals of different
potentials in the liquid. Platinised lead is more especially
referred to, the platinum coating only extending over parts
of the lead. The lead is the negative electrode to the zinc,
and is prevented from polarising (as in the above-mentioned
patent) by the local action which takes place between it
44
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan.3n.r392.
and the more negative metal platinum. Various designs
for electrodes and complete batteries are described in the
specification. — B. T.
An Improved Galvanic Battery. C. U. Fisher, London.
From B. H. Thompson, Xew York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
15,597, September 15, 1831. Grf.
The point of the invention is the construction of negative
electrodes of carbonised fibrous material such as rattan.
The material is used in the form of rods or in a spiral, but
the inventor prefers the former. When rods are employed
the ends are placed in a groove in a carbon plate, which
forms the top of the cell, by a cement composed of powdered
coke, lamp-black, and asphaltum, the whole being then
carbonised together. The fibrous carbon is said to be
mechanically preserved from polarisation by its corrugated
surface and porous nature, and the whole cell to be better in
this respect than a Leclanche cell— E. T.
Improvements in the Method of Making the Plates or
Elements of a Secondary or Storage Battery. S. C. C.
Currie, Philadelphia, I'.S.A. Eng. Pat. 15,621, Septem-
ber 15, 1891. 8d.
The inventor preferably employs as electrodes rods or wires
of lead enclosed in a porous or fibrous covering, such as
braided asbestos. These are rapidly formed by being made
anodes in a solution of ^inc chloride, the lead chloride thus
produced being held in place by the covering. The lead
chloride can then be reduced to spongy lead by making the
plates cathodes in the tanks and passing current for a
sufficient time. — E. T.
XII.-FATS, OILS. AND SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
Artificial Mineral Lubricating Oils — Me Condensation
Products of Allyl Alcohol with Methylated Benzenes.
(i. Kraemer and A. Spilker. Ber. 1891, 24, 2785 —
2793 and 3164.
See under III., page 22.
On a Special Process for Preparing " Sulphoriciitate."
A. Selieurer-Kestner. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1891,
499—502.
See under VI., page 33.
Grape-Seed Oil and its Technical Application. V. M.
Horn. Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museuins, 1891, 185—187.
The oil obtained from dried grape-seeds by extraction with
a mixture of ether and alcohol has been examined by the
author, with the following results : —
Specific gravity at 15° 0'9S61
Fatty acid content ( Hehner's number) 92'13
Acid number 16*2
Saponification equivalent 17s*4
Volatile fatty acids (per cent.) 0*46
Iodine number D4*0S
Glycerin content {per cent.) S-S7
Acid number of fatty acids IsT'l
Iodine number of fatty acids 98"65
Acid number of acetylated fatty acids 137' 1
Saponification equivalent of acetylated fatty acids .. 2Sr<*
Acetyl number 144*3
The oil dissolves at a temperature of 70° in an equal
volume of acetic acid of sp. gr. 1 • 0562, the solution on
cooling becoming turbid at 66-5'. It is only partially
soluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in ether. It gives
the elal'din reaction. Its close resemblance, chemically and
physically, to castor oil, suggested its possible utilisation
for the manufacture of Turkey-red oil. A small quantity
of that product was, therefore, prepared by the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid (1 part) on the oil (4 parts),
and subsequent washing and neutralisation with ammonia
(2 per cent.), a sample of castor oil being simultaneously
treated in the same manner. The two preparations were
then tested with regard to their comparative values for
Turkey-red dyeing, and the resultant shades found alike in
all respects.
( Irape seeds may be obtained in considerable quantity in
the wine-manufacturing districts on the Continent, and since
they contain up to 20 per cent, of oil, the extraction of the
same should prove highly remunerative. — E. B.
Application of Alizarin-lakes for Colouring Candles, Sfc.
(1. Ulrich. Mittheil. Techn. Gewerhe-Museums, 1891,
198—202.
Ix the course of a research on the constitution of the
Alizarin-red lake, it was discovered that the Alizarin
colour-lake prepared by dyeing aluminium oleate of the
composition A]jO(OH)3(C,3H3302)2 (obtained by double
decomposition between potassium oleate and aluminium
sulphite), is soluble in beeswax, paraffin, and ceresin, and
is, consequently, well-adapted for colouring candles, &c.
As aluminium oleate does not melt at the temperature of
boiling water and, therefore, does not dye well with alizarin,
&c. it is better, before dyeing, to render it fusible in hot
water by melting it with an equal weight of wax. The
dyeiug is accomplished by suspending in hot water the
mass so obtained, and adding alizarin, &c. until it is
sufficiently dyed, the bath being then allowed to cool and
the solidified cake removed, washed with water, and dried.
Colour-lakes were prepared in this way from Alizarin,
Alizarin-orange, Alizarin-green, and Alizarin-yellow. The
dark-coloured mass obtained by dyeing in this manner
with alizarin, when diluted with from 30 to 120 times its
weight of wax, gives dark to medium shades of red; with
still further dilution, pinks. The presence of the alumina
lakes does not interfere with the combustibility of the
candles, &c., provided the amount present does not exceed
12 5 per cent.
Aluminium ricinoleate is unsuitable for the manufacture
of lakes for the above-mentioned purpose, as it separates on
cooling from its solution in wax. — E. B.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VAENISHES,
KESINS, INDIA-KUBBEK, Etc.
"Argentine." A. Harpf. Papier-Zeitung, 1891,16,
2584—2585, 2612—2614 and 2640— 2642.
See under XIX., pages 55 — 56.
The Sizing oj Paper. J. Wunder. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15,
rni.' — 703.
See under XIX., page 52.
Jan. so, I8»a.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
45
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Production of " White Lead" or
Basic Carbonate of Lead and Apparatus therefor,
R. W. E. Maclvor and Watson Smith, London. Eng.
Pat. 16,093, October 10, 1890. 8d.
I\ this process finely-powdered litharge is added to a
solution of ammonium acetate while the latter is being
circulated by means of a pump through a " digestor " and
a " heater." lly this means, it is claimed, the litharge is
rapidly dissolved by the ammonium acetate, with production
of tribasic acetate of lead, Pb(C2H3Os)2.2 PbO, and free
ammonia. The temperature to which the solution is raised
depends upon the strength of the ammonium acetate
solution employed, the temperature ranging between 60°
and 100" C. As soon as solution is effected the liquor is
filter-pressed, the red lead and other coloured impurities from
the litharge being left behind in the press while the
clear solution of tribasic acetate of lead passes through
a cooling system (when, if the solution be strong enough,
partial crystallisation will take place) to the carbonator,
where it is suitably treated witli carbonic acid, for the
conversion of the tribasic acetate of lead into a basic
carbonate of lead. The basicity of the product is ensured
by the presence of the free ammonia, which acts as a carrier
of carbonic acid, the free ammonia becoming first converted
by the carbonic acid into ammonium carbonate, which
reacts with the tribasic acetate of lead to form basic
carbonate of lead and ammonium acetate for use over again.
To prevent over carbonation the carbonation is stopped
while the liquid is still faintly alkaline. In this way, a
white lead of great purity and basicity' is obtained (see
below).— O. H.
A New Product possessing the same, or nearly the same
Properties as Spirits of Turpentine. T. Drake,
Hudderstield. Eng. Pat. 16,916, October 23, 1890. id.
Petroleum spirit, shale naphtha or similar hydrocarbons
are treated in a suitable vessel with a current of air pre-
ferably dried by passing over lime, whereby a product is
said to be obtained having practically the same properties
as spirits of turpentine extracted from pine-wood, and
which may be used for similar purposes. Or, 40 per cent,
of the said spirit is distilled off, thus increasing its specific
gravity, and then treating the residue with chlorine ga.s
until its specific gravity is brought up to 0-900 to l-050.
The acid formed in the treatment is removed by first
blowing air through the chlorinated liquid and then washing
it with sodium carbonate or with any suitable alkali or
alkaline earth which is afterwards separated from the liquid
" by any well known chemical process or processes."
— V. A. K.
Improvements in Copying Inks, Copying Books, and
Appliances. H. Heales, Bristol. Eng. Pat. 17,373,
October 30, 1890. 4d.
The ink, which is said to copy effectively without water,
brush, or press, is prepared with softened water, logwood,
sulphate of iron, nut-galls, gum arabic, glycerin, cloves, and
vegetable black. The inventor states that copies of letters
and other documents written with this ink may be taken on
ordinary press-copy tissue paper, by merely laying the hand
on the tissue paper superposed on the writing, and drawing
the hand over the same. The invention also relates to a
specially prepared pad for steadying letters when laid for
copying, consisting of a sheet of india-rubber stretched on
cardboard. — E. G. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Basic Carbonate of
Lead or White Lead. Watson Smith and W. Elmore,
London. Eng. Pat. 19,323, November 27, 1890. 6rf.
When crude or impure litharge is used for the production
of white lead as described in Eng. Pats. 10,426 of 1888,
GSlSof 1889, and 16,093 of 1890 (this Journal, 1889, 552;
1890, 030 ; and above) the solution of tribasic acetate of lead
frequently contains copper and traces of iron, &c, which by
repeated use of the ammonium acetate for dissolving fresh
quantities of litharge gradually accumulate, and even if the
precaution as described in the above patents be adopted of not
quite fully carbonating, yet the last portions of the white lead
precipitated are likely to be coloured brownish or yellowish.
To avoid this discolouration, the carbonation is carried out
(according to the amount of impurities present and as
determined by previous laboratory experiment), so long as
possible without precipitating the impurities along with the
white lead. After removal of the highly-basic and pure
basic carbonate of lead, the solution is carbonated as usual
for the production of an inferior quality of white lead. By
adopting these precautions, litharge containing considerable
quantities of copper, rendering the litharge otherwise
worthless for the purpose, can be used for the production
of a white and highly basic white lead, the copper being
retained in solution by the ammonia till near the completion
of the carbonation. — O. H.
Production from Mineral Oils of Sulphonic Acids and
Sulphones, and the Manufacture of a New Product by
Treating Gelatinous Matters with Sulphonic Acid.
A. M. Clark, London. From the " Gewerksehaft Messel "
Grube Messel, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,502, November 29,
1 890. 6d.
See under III., page 22.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Basic Carbonate of
Lead or White Lead. Watson Smith and W. Elmore,
London. Eng. Pat. 19,784, December 4, 1890. 6d.
The improvements relate to the purification of the ammo-
nium acetate solution used for dissolving litharge in the
production of basic carbonate of lead, when by repeated use
for dissolving cupreous litharge it contains considerable
quantities of copper. For this purpose carbonic acid is
passed into the solution after the removal of the white lead
fractions, as stated above in Eng. Pitt. 19,323 of 1890, until
all the remaining lead, or all but traces, is precipitated,
when the solution is made slightly acid with acetic acid,
and treated with finely-divided zinc or lead ; or an electric
current is passed through the solution either when acid or
when slightly alkaline, electrodes of carbon or other suitable
material being employed. — O. H.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of Carbonate of
Lead or White Lead, and to Apparatus therefor.
W. Astrop, London, and F. H. Parker, Gravesend.
Eng. Pat. 684, January 13, 1891. 6d.
The " required quantity " of an alkaline carbonate is melted
in a pot, and molten lead added to it and mixed ; the pot is
then removed from the fire and the mass poured out on the
floor It is then allowed to cool and sprinkled occasionally
for about 48 hours with water, during which time it absorbs
carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere. The product is
thrown into a tank, washed, and the white lead filtered off,
the alkali being recovered from the liquors by means of
evaporation. The white lead formed is friable, and does
not require grinding, and the patentees claim that their
process is not injurious to health. There are five claims.
— F. H. L.
Improvements in or relating to Laundry Blue. J. Knowles
Bolton. Eng. Pat. 13,429, August 8, 1891. 6rf.
The blue is pressed into moulds of such a form that the
blocks possess corrugations or ribs on the surface, so as to
expose a larger surface to the action of the water during use
in washing, by which artifice it becomes possible to compress
them more strongly than usual and lessen the tendency to
" specking." — V. H. L.
4(5
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 80, 1892;
An Improved Anti-Fouling ( 'ompositionfor Ships' Bottoms.
A. McCowatt, Belfast. Eng. Pat. 14,160, August 21,
1891. id.
The ingredients and approximate proportions used are the
following : — (solids) oxide of zinc, 56 ; oxide of iron, 2 '75 ;
acetate of copper, 3 ■ 2 ; arsenic acid, 15'5; sulphur, ] 6 • 15 ;
sulphate of manganese, 5-3; and camphor, 2: (liquids)
boiled linseed oil, 16 • 4; coal-tar naphtha, 12 '5; shale
spirit, 14"2; turpentine, 2:S ; colophony, 18" lj gum, 10'5;
gutta-percha (crude), 9«1 ; and tallow, 2-2.— E. G. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of White Lead. J. C.
Fell, London. From C. A. Stevens, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 16,098, September 22, 1891. 6(2.
In the manufacture of white lead, electricity lias already been
employed (J. K. Kessler, U.S.Pat. 292,119 of 1884, %ndT.l).
Bottorue, U.S. Pat. 414,935 of 1889), metallic lead having
been " decomposed. in anjalkaline electrolyte into an oxygen-
bearing salt of the metal, after which au attempt is made to
convert the said salt into hydrated lead carbonate by the
introduction of carbon dioxide into the electrolyte." A
leading feature of this invention " consists in making the
oxygen-bearing salts of lead insoluble in an acid electrolyte
after their formation under the influence of an electrical
current, by rendering the electrolyte neutral or nearly so,
in which condition practically all of the hydroxide of lead
present will be converted into hydrated lead carbonate upon
the introduction of carbon dioxide." The following is a
precis of the steps in the process of manufacture : — " The
electrical decomposition of metallic lead in an acid electrolyte
into an oxygen bearing salt of the metal, the neutralisation
of the electrolyte after it has become charged with the
oxygen-bearing salts of lead, and the conversion of the said
oxygen-bearing salts into hydrated lead carbonate, and the
precipitation thereof by the introduction of carbon dioxide
either free or combined with the electrolyte." — E. G. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Colouring Matters. C. Dreyfus, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
17,035, October 15, 1891. 4<Z.
See under IV., page 29.
XIV -TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
Manufacture of Tanning Liquors and Extracts. F. Jean.
Monk. Scient. 1891, 5, 913—918.
Thjs high prices following the war of 1870 allowed foreign
leather to obtain a firm footing in the French market, and
ever since the native tanner has been endeavouring to over-
take his competitors. To this end hemlock, chestnut,
quebracho, mimosa, and spurge-laurel (Daphne Laureola),
or extracts thereof, have been largely substituted for the
more expensive oak bark. Unfortunately the fawn colour
of oak-tannage is regarded by the purchaser as a criterion
of the quality of the leather, and it is only by careful
mixture of the above substitutes with oak bark that the
inferior colouration which they impart to the leather can be
sufficiently avoided. According to the author, the Euglish
and American tanners can tan leather in six or even three
months, which by the French oak tannage in pit- requires
one and two years for production, because, not having to pay
so much attention to the colour of their goods, they can
employ a greater diversity of tanning materials and stronger
extracts.
There is no doubt that although for some years past
mixed tannages of chestnut, quebracho, mimosa, divi-divi,
and myrabolams with oak have been successfully employed,
yet the French tanners have a deep-rooted dislike for the
use of extracts. This is probably due to the fact that,
notwithstanding the care with which such extracts may be
made, the tanner finds it unsafe to use a tannage of whose
origin, applicability to his special purpose, and accompanying
colouring and other extractive matters he is necessarily
ignorant.
But the utility, as a means of shortening the tanning
process, of being able to add to the tannage, at a given
moment, a liquor far richer in tanuiu than such as can he
obtained in cold leaches, is now generally acknowledged.
It is with the view of enabling tanners to make their own
extracts of the required strength that the author has
designed the apparatus here described. The fault of most
extraction processes is that they are conducted under
conditions favourable for the solution of much colouring
and resinous matters and of substances resulting from the
decomposition of the wood by action of too high a
temperature and of air.
11 DF
(r\\
m4-^ ' i "
Automatic Extractor.
The automatic extractor consists of a wooden digestor
CC of about 5 cubic metres (176-6 cub. ft.) capacity,
with a chamber A underneath it and communicating with it
by means of the tube e, which descends to within 3 cms.
(1*8 in.) of the bottom of A, and has a mushroom
sprinkler h fixed on to the top end. The copper is con-
nected with a vat B of about 3 cubic metres (106 cub. ft.)
capacity, and with another vessel T. The siphon S allows
of the drawing off of the liquid in the copper into the
chamber A. The doors P and P' are hermetically sealed,
and are opened only when fresh tan is to be inserted or
spent tan removed. The tube m m, pierced with holes,
distributes water from the pipe p.
1,000 kilos. (1 ton) of tan are introduced through the
door P, which is then screwed down ; water is allowed to
flow in through m m until the tan has absorbed as much as
it will and the water stands at the level of the top of the
siphon S. The valve S' allows of the escape of air during
the influx of water. After oue or two hours' maceration
the cocks r, r" and e are opened ; the siphon fills itself, and
all liquid above the level of e siphons into A — say about
250 litres (55 gallons") — the air in A being forced into B
and through the valve S'". The cock r" is now closed, and
a current of steam passed through the coil v v fixed in A at
two- thirds of its height. This vaporises some of the liquor
in A, and causes sufficient pressure to force the liquid up
the tube c (the valve * closing the siphon) back into the
copper. When it has all passed over, the vapour in A
follows, it escapes through S', and relieves the pressure ;
the valve s opens, and the liquid is once more siphoned
over. This alternate action goes on automatically, the
Jan. 30,1892.5 THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
47
volume of the water evaporated being; made good by
addition of low pressure steam from the vessel T, fed from
a generator, or by water through the sprinkler pipe m m.
When the density of a sample drawn from o no longer
increases, extraction is complete, and the whole of the
liquid contents of the copper are drawn off into the vat B.
The water retained in the tan will amount to two-thirds
of the total added, and therefore two-thirds of the tannin
dissolved will remain in the copper after it has been
thoroughly drained into B. To displace this the cock r is
closed and r"' opened ; a slow stream of water is then
allowed to flow through the sprinkler m m until two-thirds
of the quantity originally used have passed. This will, of
course, give a weaker liquor, which can either be mixed
with the first quantity or used on a fresh quantity of tan in
order to obtain a doubly strong liquor ; to do this, the spent
tan is raked out through V, fresh tan substituted for it
through P, aud the cock r opened. This allows some of
the liquor in B to flow into A ; here it is heated by the
lower steam coil »' (•', and forced by the pressure of
its vapour back into the copper; thus the intermittent
extraction begins again and continues as before.
Figures are given in the original to show what sort of
extracts may be expected from such an apparatus. One
which would not occupy more than 2 sq. metres (21' 5 sq.
ft.) would easily yield, in 10 hours, 12,000 litres (2,640
gallons) of strong liquor.
The author recommends the use of oxalic acid for the
removal of lime salts from hard water which is to be used
for making tanning extracts, a slight acidity being favour-
able to the subsequent extraction. He also suggests the
addition of hydrofluoric acid in small quantity to extracts in
order to make them antiseptic and discourage the growth of
harmful mycelium. The amount necessary is so small as
to be in no way harmful to the skins while tanning.
The concentraction of extracts until they solidify is best
done by steam heat under diminished pressure.
The economical decolonisation of tanning extracts is a
problem yet to be solved. Gondolo's method reduces the
colour to a honey-yellow, and is often employed. It con-
sists in neutralising the extract, adding blood, and raising the
temperature, whereby a coagulum containing tannin albu-
minate and colouring matter is thrown down. Other
methods are here mentioned. They are similar to those
employed for decolourising other liquids, and are all
objectionable as removing some of the tannin.
The analysis of a tanning extract should include : — (1)
density ; (2) substances insoluble in cold water, which
should not exceed 2 per cent., except in quebracho extract,
which may have 3 — 4 per cent. ; (3) acidity, organic and
mineral ; (41 contents of tannin and gallic acid ; (5) sub-
stances extracted by hide; (6) extractive matters; (7)
substances possibly added to increase the density. To form
some opinion of the extent to which the extract will colour
the leather, some of it, diluted to V B., may he macerated
for 12 hours with pieces of unhaired skin plumped in
water. After another maceration for 18 hours in afresh
portion of extract, the samples are exposed to the air aud
compared with standard samples prepared from known
extracts. Bands of mordanted calico might be used for
ascertaining the nature of the astringent matters in the
extract, as suggested by Villon (compare this Journal,
1890, 820, 1157 ; 1891, 803 and 863).
The paper concludes with some remarks as to the position
of tanning as a French industry. — A. G. B.
Chestnut Wood Tannin. H. Trimble. Jour. Franklin
Inst. 1891,132, 303—307.
Castanea vesca (Linn.) is a large tree of rapid growth,
found in many parts of the United States. An extract of
its wood and bark has been used in the United States and
in France for many years, being especially useful in tanning,
where it corrects the reddish colour of hemlock (see pre-
ceding abstract), and in dyeing, where it gives a dead black
with iron salts. Extract of chestnut oak (Quereus Prinus,
Linn.), is by no means the same, though doubtless often
mixed with that of Castanea cesca.
The following analysis is of chips of the wood, free from
bark, collected from a large tree about 40 years old, cut in
August : —
PerCent.
Crystalline wax, melting at 50° C. soluble in hot
95 percent, and in absolute alcohol 1*03
Gallic acid 0'05
Resin 0-28
Tannin, extracted by absolute alcohol 3 '42
Mucilage 1*15
Dextrin l-89
Sugar 0'96
Tannin extracted by water 1'92
Pectin and albuminoids 1*46
Extractive, dissolved by dilute acid 2*95
Ash 7-08
Moisture 7"05
Cellulose and lignin 70-76
liiQ-00
The gallic acid may have been formed during the drying
of the chips ; determinations of tannin in a separate portion
of the wood by gelatin and alum, and by permanganate and
hide powder gave, respectively, 7-86 and 7-85 per cent.
For the identification of the tannin 2J kilos, of the finely-
powdered wood were extracted with commercial ether (about
74 parts of ether, 26 parts of alcohol, aud a little water) by
percolation. The residue from the ethereal extract was
dissolved in water, filtered, aud precipitated in three
portions by " lead oxy-acetate " ; the precipitates were
decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, and the solutions,
having been freed from excess of that reagent, were shaken
with ether. Gallic acid was thus extracted from each.
The tannin from the middle fraction was precipitated by
addition of common salt to the aqueous solution ; it was
washed with a saturated solution of salt and dried over
sulphuric acid in vacuo, then dissolved in a mixture of
ether and alcohol, rapidly filtered and evaporated. To
completely purify it the whole process was repeated.
The following reactions of this tannin are identical with
those of gallotannic acid ; but as they differ somewhat from
those already published, they are reproduced here : —
Blue-black precipitate.
Purple precipitate.
Slight clouding'.
Pale precipitate.
CAnrmonhmi chloride added .
Light-brown precipitate.
No precipitate.
White precipitate, turning light
blue.
Yellow colour.
No change.
Concentrated sulphuric acid ..
Light yellow.
White precipitate.
Flesh-coloured precipitate.
White precipitate.
Brown precipitate.
Blue-black colour and precipitate.
White precipitate.
White precipitate.
Light precipitate.
48
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
The ultimate analysis of the tannin also agrees with that
of gallotannie acid ; so the author concludes that chestnut-
wood tannin is gallotannie acid. — A. G. B.
The Application of the Alpha- Sulphonic Acid of Naphtha-
lene to the Bating and Puring of Hides and Skins.
P. S. Hums and ('. S. Hull. Technology Quarterly,
1891,4, 191—193.
After the unhairing of skins and hides by liming it is
necessary to subject them to some process for the removal
of the lime which has been absorbed by the bide fibre in
order to avoid the formation of tannate of lime when the
hide or skin is immersed in the tan pit, and the consequent
discolouration, slow tannage, and brittle leather. This is
the object of the bating and puring processes, which have
heretofore consisted in immersing the hide in an animal or
vegetable putrescent or fermenting solution, the substances
emplo3'ed being hen, pigeon, or dog dung, sugar, glucose,
and bran. Such bates are accompanied by and dependent
upon the action of bacteria, which by the dissolution of the
gelatin of the hide bring about its depletion, and allow of
the removal of the lime by subsequent mechanical means.
The authors' experiments show that the removal of the
lime is assisted by the carbonic and phosphoric acids, and
their ammonium salts, and the formic, acetic, propionic,
lactic, butyric, and similar acids contained in the putrescent
solutions. The loss of gelatin from the hide in the bate
was found by experiment to amount to a minimum of from
two to three per cent, of the weight of the dry hide ; this
loss would be nearly doubled in the tanned leather owing
to the fact that leather may be considered to contain half
its dry weight of tannic acid.
The removal of the lime by some acid with which it will
form a soluble salt is the obvious method for avoiding this
unfavourable action of putrescent bate ; hut all mineral
acids and most organic acids which form soluble lime salts
cause the bide to swell up and assume a transparent and
gelatiuous appearance, rendering it useless for making most
kinds of leather.
In a-naphthalene sulphonic acid an agent was found
which removes the lime without mechanical aid, and leaves
the hide soft aud white without any loss of gelatin ; it is,
moreover, an excellent antiseptic, effectually preventing
the action of bacteria. This sulphonic acid is sold for
tanners' use under the name " Acrilene Antiseptic Bating
and Puring Acid."
Two lots of 150 individually marked calf-skins, alike in
condition and character and each lot weighing 880 lb. in the
hair, were limed and nnhaired in the usual way ; one "lot
was then bated in hen-dung drench, and the other in 3 per
cent, solution of the a-naphthalene sulphonic acid. The
lots were then mixed aud tanned in the same vats, and
afterwards sorted into the original lots. The skins bated
with hen dung made 255 lb. of dry leather, weighing
395 lb. when stuffed ; those bated with the sulphonic acid
made 26G| lb. of dry leather, weighing 413 lb. when
stuffed. The stuffing was the same in each case, so that
the difference in the bate caused a gain of 4 55 per cent,
in the finished weight of the leather. " It was also noticed
that the hen-dung skins were very apparently lighter in
the flanks and shoulders than those bated with the sulphonic
acid." The safety with which this bate may be placed in
the hands of workmen, and the abolition of stench, are
further recommendations for its use. — A. G. B.
PATENT.
Improved Artificial Leather. J. Sadler, Mistley. Eng.
Pat. 1634, January 29, 1891. id.
Leather waste from currier- and glove makers is shredded
into small pieces and mixed in a tank with Portland cement,
lime, glue, and paste in the following proportions : — Leather
waste, 14 lb. ; cement, 1 lb. ; glue. fib. ; lime, 2 oz. ; paste
(sufficient to make the composition workable) made with
wheat flour.
This composition is placed in trays to obtain the necessary
quantities for the size and thickness of sheet required ; it
is then turned into linen sheets and compressed between
steel plates by hydraulic pressure amounting to 2 tons and
upwards per square inch. The leather boards thus made
are dried either by exposure to air or in an artificially
heated room.
It is claimed that such leather substitute is superior to
any as yet invented, and can be advantageously used for
inner soles and heels. — A. G. B.
XVI -SUG-AR, STARCH, GUM, Etc.
Researches on the Gums of the Arabin Group. Part II.
Geddic Acid, Gedda Gums, the Dextro-rotatory Varie-
ties. C. O'Sullivan. .1. Chem. Soc. (Trans.) 1891,59,
1029—1075.
Tin: gedda gums consist of the calcium salts and small
quantities of the magnesium and potassium salts of geddic
acid, together with more or less albuminoid. Of the
samples described, one contained but little nitrogenous
matter, and the other two considerable quantities. Giim B.
was diastatic, but did not invert cane sugar. The gums all
dissolve easily in water, forming a yellowish or reddish
syrup, which is neutral and dextro-rotatory.
The ash is separated by dialysing the acidified solution.
To obtain the pure gum acids, alcohol is added to the
dialysed solution until a precipitate is produced ; this is
allowed to deposit and the clear supernatant liquid decanted.
The addition of more alcohol produces a further precipitate,
which is allowed to deposit, aud so on until alcohol no longer
produces a precipitate in the clear supernatant solution.
By this method of fractional precipitation the whole of the
albuminoid is obtained in the first precipitate; the other
precipitates consist of a mixture of gum acids. The gum
acids are separated from one another by repeating this
fractional precipitation. The test of their purity is that a
fraction on solution in water and fractional precipitation
yields fractions possessing the identical optical activities
aud neutralising the same amounts of base. In this way
the gum acids shown in the following table were obtained
from two of the samples of gedda gum examined.
Name.
Gedda (rum I.
Tetr-arabinan-tri-galactan-geddic acid .
Tri-arabinan-tri-tralactan-geddic acid. .
Di-arabinan-tri-sraluctan-geddic acid . . .
Mon-arabinan-tri-^alactan-(reddic acid.
4CioHj60^. SCjoH^oOio.C^HaiOio .
SCloHlfiOs- :*C]^H..»Oio.C23H320l9
2Ci0Hi6Os. SCiaHsoOio.CjjHajOja ,
CioHi60^. 3 CisHsqOxo.CuHssOjo. >
j 0C,„H,8Os. 4C,.,H20O10.C!3H3„O,1,
7 CjoHicO^. -tCtsHjoOio.CVjHjjOis
: SCioHiflOg. 4C13Hj(lOio.Ca3H3n0ls
+ 5S
+ 4'.l
+ 43
+ 37
.V59
c-uj
6' ",
7-65
Gedda gum II. ■{
' Nnn-arabinan-tetra-jralactan-geddic acid. .
Hept-avabiiian-tetru Ralactan-geddic acid.
Pent-arabinan-tetra-galactan-geddic acid .
Tri-arabinan-tetra-galaetan-geddic acid. . .
+ 110
+ 100
+ 00
+ 80
3-43
3-'.'3
4-55
5-40
ian.30.i8M.] THE JOORNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
49
The composition of any one of these gum acids may be
represented by the general formula —
p.C10H16Os.nC12H!0O10.C;3Hss_„OS2_>
The guni acids which were soluble in the strongest alcohol
were the most optically active and neutralised the least
amount of base.
When an aqueous solution of any one of these gum acids
containing 2 per cent. H^SO^ is heated at 80° — 100° for
ID — 30 minutes, the gum acid is hydrolysed to arabinon
and a gum acid of lower molecular weight ; the greater
portion of the arabinon is at the same time hydrolysed to
arabinose.
Under the above conditions the whole of the arabinan
group is separated from the remainder of the molecule of
the gum acid, and is hydrated to arabinon and arabinose,
but by carefully restraining the reaction it is possible to
obtain gum acids still containing a portion of the arabinan
group.
The general reaction may he expressed as follows —
pC10H16O8.nC1!HMO10.GBH38-!M 0.,,-,,+ pH20 =
pC10H,sOg + flC.jrLAo.CV.H^,,, 0S3-„
and CluHls03 + H.O - 2 C5H10O,.
The gum acid may be easily separated from the sugar by
precipitating the gum by alcohol, the alcoholic solution
contains the sugar and sulphuric acid, the latter is easily
removed by baryta and the neutralised filtered solution after
concentration deposits crystals of arabinose.
On referring to the list of gum acids contained in the two
samples of gum, it will be evident, that if any one of these
from the same sample be hydrolysed according to the
general reaction, the same gum acid will be obtained ; but
that the acids from different samples will be different. The
following table shows the relationships of these gum acids
with one another, and with that obtained from gum arabic
under like conditions : —
Obtained by
the Action of
Sulphuric Acid
on 1 be I luro Acids
contained in
Name.
Formula.
H.
PerCent.
EaO in
Barium
Salt.
Gedda mmi ill.
Tetra-galactan-geddic acid
Tetra-galaetan-arabic acid
o
+ 30
+ 22
+ 20
6'51
7'49
7' I'.J
Gedda gum I. ..
S'81
These gum acids closely resemble the natural gum acids.
They are, however, less soluble in weak alcohol, but their
most marked difference from the natural gums is their
behaviour when their aqueous solution containing 2 per
cent. H2S04 is heated. They offer great resistance to the
hydrolytic action of sulphuric acid, but they are hydrolysed
slowly, the final stage being represented by the general
equation —
nC1.:H2UO10.CfflU39-:,„O22-,, + 3nHX> =
" CsH^lW, + 2 nC,H,A
The slowness of this reaction as compared with the
rapidity of the first may perhaps be partly explained by the
Fact that in the latter both the gum residue and the sugar
residue are hydrated; whilst in the former.it is only the
sugar residue that is hydrated.
The sugar produced in the last reaction is all galactose ;
the gum acid, C,3H3sO~,, is difficult to prepare in quantities
sufficient to accurately determine its properties.
It is easy to stop this reaction at any stage and obtain
gum acids still containing the galactan residue. One of
these, C;.:,H33OiS.C(jHi(,Os, has been carefully examined and
appears to be identical with an acid obtained under like
conditions from gum arabic, except that whereas the acid
from gedda gum is strongly dextro-rotatory, that from gum
arabic is inactive.
These gum acids are very soluble in alcohol of all
strengths except the very strongest, and are dialysable.
—A. L. S.
substance under investigation is levo-rotatory to the same
degree, and is therefore undoubtedly, as already suggested,
/-sorbitol the optical isomeride of ordinary sorbitol. — D. A. L.
l-.Sorbilol. E. Fischer and R. Stahel. Uer. 1891, 24, 2144.
The syrupy hexahydric alcohol, obtained in the reduction of
/•gulose, when purified by means of its ben/.al derivative and
dissolved in 7 parts of warm 90 per cent, alcohol, is, in
course of eight days, deposited in warty tufts of small
needles, retaining much water. These crystals, after drying
for three days over sulphuric acid in vacuo melt at 75°,
have the composition C6HH0,;, i H«0, and in fact resemble
ordinary sorbitol in all but its optical properties. The
latter in saturated borax solutions containing 8'69 per cent,
of sorbitol and having a sp. gr. 1 ■ 043, is slightly dextro-
rotatory, turning the plane af 20° in a 20 cm. tube, 0-25°,
the specific rotation being [a]LOn = +1*4, whereas the
Chemical Composition of Vegetable Cell Membranes.
E. Schulze. Ber. 1891, 24, 2277—2287.
In this communication the author not only introduces new
researches, but also summarises previous work (see this
Journal, 1890, 878, 956. 1143, and 1151). Firstly, as regards
those carbohydrates which are readily extracted from vege-
table cell membranes by hot dilute mineral acids ; four of
this kind, yielding on hydrolysis galactose, mannose, penta-
glucose, and arabinose respectively have been discovered in
the cell walls of numerous plant seeds, for example in the
seeds of: — yellow lupin QLupinus luleus), soja bean {Soja
liispida), coffee bean (Coffea arabica), pea ( Pisum sativum ),
beau (Faba vulgaris), cocoanut {Cocos nucifera), palm nut
(Elais guinensis), Phoenix dactylifera, Tropveolum majus,
Paonia officinalis, Impatieus balsamina and in the seed-
lings of red clover ( Trifolinmpratense) and vetch {Medicago
sativa) the first of these carbohydrates is found, whilst the
second is present in a great number of seeds, but the third
and fourth do not appear to be so widely or profusely
distributed. These particular portions of the cell walls,
which are so readily attacked by dilute acids, on hydrolysis
yield, almost without exception, a mixture of glucoses.
Turning now to the portions of the cell membranes less
readily attacked by dilute mineral acids, the so-called
celluloses, four new ones, one from white deal (Picea
excelsa), one from rye straw (Secale rerale), one from red
clover ( Trifolium pratense) and one from sesame (Sesaminn
indictim) seed cake have been investigated. The wood
cellulose was prepared by the sulphite method, and before
use was extracted by boiling for some hours with 4 per
cent, hydrochloric acid. To prepare the others the finely
rubbed material was exhausted with ether, then with
very dilute sodium hydroxide, then boiled four or five hours
with 4 or 5 per cent, hydrochloric acid, then treated with
F. Schulze's reagent (cold dilute nitric acid and potassium
chlorate), being finally washed with warm dilute ammonia,
water, alcohol, and ether. All four yield dextrose on
hydrolysis with strong sulphuric acid by Flechsig's method,
and the author has already shown that celluloses derived
50
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
from lupin grain, i>ea seeds, lupin pods, wheat bran,
coconut cake, and coffee beans also yield dextrose under
similar treatment, while Klechsig has proved the same to be
true of cotton cellulose, making in all 11 celluloses from
which grape sugar has been obtained.
The next point investigated was the kind of sugar, if
any, which was associated with the dextrose in the
products of these hydrolases.
In concluding remarks on the nomenclature of the
different chemical constituents of vegetable cell membranes,
it is suggested that the name " cellulose," if used without
an adjunct, should signify the cell constituent which is only
slightly attacked either by dilute mineral acids, dilute
alkalis, or by F. Schulze's reagent, but which dissolves in
ammoniacal copper oxide and yields dextrose on hydrolysis.
If, however, the name '• cellulose " be applied as a group-
name, it is proposed to name the last-mentioned cell
constituent dextroso-cellulose, and the cellulose-like com-
pound which yields mannose on hydrolysis mannoso- or
ruauno-cellulose. It is not considered that the wood-gums
are sufficiently investigated to be included in this scheme of
nomenclature. Hemicelluloses is the generic name proposed
for those cell membrane constituents which are so readily
converted into glucoses by the action of dilute mineral acids,
whilst the individual carbohydrates are to be named
galactans, arabans, xylans, &c, according to the sugar
produced by the hydrolysis; and when two sugars are
produced, such names as galacto-araban, galacto-mannan
are to be used. Varieties can be distinguished in the usual
way by the use of a, /3, y, " meta," and " para."
Of all the vegetable cell membrane constituents, the semi-
celluloses are characterised by the readiness with which
they are attacked by reagents ; the action of hot dilute
acids has already been noted. Lifschiitz's mixture of
sulphuric and dilute nitric acids appears to destroy them
completely even in the cold. They dissolve readily when
heated with dilute alkalis, being converted into a soluble
variety ; moreover, 5 per cent, sodium hydroxide attacks
them, although but slowly. — D. A. L.
Organic Acids from Beetroot Juice. E. O. von Lippmann,
Ber. 1891, 24, 3299—3306.
The author has already stated that the lime precipitates
which form in the evaporating apparatus, more especially at
the commencement of the campagne, and in dealing with
unripe roots, frequently carry down with them malic and
tartaric acids, besides numerous other organic acids ; the
present communication is a summary of his results.
The acids, obtained from the crude calcium salts, were
repeatedly converted into the lead salts and again decom-
posed into the acids. Ordinary levo-rotatory malic acid
and dextro-rotatory tartaric acid were separated by crystal-
lisation, and glutaric acid by taking advantage of its
solubility in ether ; the latter has not hitherto been observed
as a constituent of vegetable products, and its occurrence is
of especial interest in the present case on account of its
close relationship to glutamic acid, to glutamine, and to
a-hydroxyglutarie acid, the first being present in beetroots,
whilst the two latter have been found in molasses (Ber.
1S82, 15, 1 156). The ct-hydroxyglutaric acid from molasses
has a specific rotation [a]i)(19c,J = + 1 • 76, whereas that
examined by Bitthausen (J. prakt. Chem. [2], 5, 354) had
a specific rotation [a]„ = — 1*98 ; the two are, therefore,
optical antipodes. Two sediments obtained also at the
commencement of the campagne by heating the limed juice
were next examined ; besides oxalic acid, which represented
the chief portion of each, succinic acid and a small quantity
of normal adipic acid were separated from one sediment,
the former by its sparing solubility in ether, the latter by
its ready solubility in the same solvent ; whilst from the
other sediment glycollic acid was obtained by extraction
with ether and purification of the lead salt. During the
filtration of the juices at the same period of the year, a
white substance is sometimes precipitated, and the precipi-
tation is in some eases accompanied by the evolution of
ammonia. Some of this substance was found on examina-
tion to be insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and every
solvent tried ; after washing with water it had a dull white
appearance, a neutral reaction, did not contain nitrogen,
and only left a very small quantity of ash on incineration.
( >n boiling it with water glycollic acid was formed, and,
judging from the latter, as well as from the numbers obtained
by an elementary analysis it is identical with H. Schiff's
hexaglyoxal hydrate, C^H^O,,, + H;0 (Annalen, 172, 1).
The author has on one occasion separated glyoxylic acid
from the juice of unripe roots.
Of the acids mentioned in this communication, succinic,
glutaric, and adipic acids belong to the oxalic series, whose
first five members have now been recognised in beetroot
juice ; glycollic and glyoxylic acids are closely related to
oxalic acid, malic and tartaric acids to succinic acid. As it
can no longer be doubted that aldehydes are the first
assimilation products of the plant, it seems probable that
such condensation products as hexaglyoxal hydrate (see
above) are formed from these, which in their turn yield
acids by hydrolysis. Finally, attention is drawn to the
probability that the sugars may perhaps result by the con-
densation of glycollic aldehyde (3 C2H402 = C6H1206), a
compound which stands intermediate between formaldehyde
and glyceraldehyde. Indeed, it seems probable that such a
condensation might take place in the case of glycollic
aldehyde even easier with formaldehyde. In view of
Brunner's observations (Ber. 19, 595) on the wide dis-
semination of glyoxylic acid throughout the vegetable
kingdom, this readily yielding glycollic acid on reduction,
the question is well worthy of being submitted to further
experiment. — A. K. L.
XVII -BKEWING, WINES, SPIEITS, Etc.
Grape-seed Oil and its Technical Application. F. M.
Horn. Mittheil. des k. k. tech Gewerbe-Museums, 1891,
185—187.
Sec under XII., page 44.
Studies on Yeast. J. Kffront. Monit. Scient. 1891, 5,
1137—1144.
In a previous communication (this Journal, 1890, 1055;
Monit. Scient. 1890,449, 790, and 1013) the author has
shown that hydrofluoric acid or the alkaline fluorides, in
quantities of 5 to 15 mgrms. per 100 cc, prevent the deve-
lopment of harmful organisms without effecting the yeast
or diastase.
In the present investigation, attention was more parti-
cularly paid to the effect of the fluorides on the various
varieties of yeast.
The four varieties used were Saccharomyces cerevisi.r,
Pastorianus /., Carlsberg, and Burton.
It was found that quantities of fluorides greater than
100 mgrms. per 100 cc. very appreciably diminished the
fermentative power of all the yeasts, and that 300 mgrms.
per 100 cc. destroyed it almost completely.
If any one of these yeasts that has grown in a solution
containing fluoride be grown in a solution containing none,
it will be found to be more active than the original yeast,
the activity being more marked the more fluoride was
contained in the first solution. This is most markedly the
case with Burton yeast and Saccharomyces cerevisiw. By
taking advantage of this phenomenon it is possible to
separate Burton yeast from Pastorianus I. by growing the
mixed yeasts in a wort containing alternately 300 mgrms.
per 100 cc. fluoride and no fluoride, when after the experi-
ment has been repeated three times, the final yeast will be
found to be pure Burton yeast. — A. I.. S.
Jan. SO. MM.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
51
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Cereals for Preventing
or Arresting Decomposition, and for Preserving or
Improving the Condition thereof. E. Luck, It. Pott,
Lintt X. Pott, London. Eng. Pat. 19,168, November 25,
1890. 8d.
The object of this invention is to improve or preserve
the condition of cereals and to prevent or arrest the
deterioration thereof by moisture or by insects, &c. This
purpose is effected by treatment with sulphurous acid, and
it is claimed that b}- this means grain which has been
damaged by moisture, but not excessively so, may be
restored to its original colour and condition, and for most
industrial purposes rendered equal to new.
The sulphurous acid is preferably employed in the
gaseous state, and is produced by burning sulphur in a
current of air. The gas is washed and dried by being
passed through two vessels containing respectively water
and pumice or some other suitable material soaked in
strong sulphuric acid. Finally the gas is warmed by
passing through a coil heated externally by means of
hot air, water, or steam, and is conducted underneath a
perforated floor on which the grain undergoing treatment
is spread. When the grain has been sufficiently treated
the burning sulphur is extinguished and air alone is forced
through the apparatus. By this means the grain is dried
and rendered tit for storage.
Instead of the gas a solution of sulphurous acid ma3' be
employed, either alone or in conjunction with some alkaline
substance (such as lime or chalk), the cereal being steeped
in the solution and afterwards dried, if required.
For drawings and details of the necessary apparatus the
original specification must be consulted. — H. T. P.
Process for the Preparation of Hop Extract. A. Foelsing,
Dusseldorf, Germany. Eng. Pat. 21,044, December 24,
1890. 4rf.
The hops are treated in a battery of diffusion apparatus
with water at 00° C. under a pressure of 1 1 atmospheres.
In order to render the extraction the more complete and
to prevent the oxidation of the bitter principles of hops,
about 2i per cent, of gum tragacanth is added to the water.
The extract is concentrated in vacuo to about 25° B.
—A. L. S.
Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Champagne
and other Beverages charged with Carbonic Acid.
!•' Kliiiig, Turin, Italy. Eng, Pat. 852, January 1G,
1891. id.
The apparatus consists of two air-tight vessels, in one of
which the final fermentation takes place, while the other
receives the clear sparkling wine. These vessels are
connected by an air pipe at the top and by a liquor pipe
at the bottom, Alters of porous earthenware, cotton wool,
or asbestos, &c. being fitted on the lower pipe.
The wine is introduced into the first vessel and the air
remaining in both vessels replaced by carbonic acid gas.
All communication with the external air is cut off; the
upper pipe between the two vessels is left open and the
lower one is kept closed.
After fermentation has gone on for some time, the upper
pipe is closed and the lower one opened ; as the fermenta-
tion proceeds the pressure increases in the first vessel and
forces the wine through the filters into the second vessel,
from which the wine is bottled. — A. L. S.
A Means of Collecting Hops or other Ingredients when
Boiling or in Circulation in a Copper or similar Vessel.
F. H. Fortescue, London. Eng. Pat. 12,077, July 16
1891. 6f/.
The ordinary boiling or circulating fountain as fitted to
wort coppers is fitted with a wire cage or strainer. The
wort as it issues from the top of the fountain falls into the
cage, which retains the hops and allows the clear wort to
[iass through. — A. L. 8.
An Appliance for Distributing and Aerating Blends'
Wort. K. H. Leaker, Bristol. Eng. Pat. 17,681,
October 16, 1891. 6(/.
The appliance consists of a trumpet-shaped tube, the
narrow end of which is connected with the hop-back or
copper. Just within the wide end is suspended a bell-
shaped plate. The wort is discharged from the opening
between the edges of the trumpet-shaped tube and the bell-
shaped plate. The width of the opening is capable of
adjustment ; when the apparatus is fitted to the discharge
pipe of a copper it is fairly wide to admit of the passage
of the hops ; when it is fitted to the pipe discharging from
the hop-back on to the cooler, the opening is narrower and
is partly self-adjusting by a spiral spring ; in this case the
bell-shaped plate is perforated with holes. The wort issues
on to the cooler in a dome-shaped sheet and from the holes
as a fine rain. The apparatus is said both to cool and
aerate the wort. — A. L. S.
XVIII.-CHEMISTKY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
{A.-)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
Examination of Tin-plated Iron Articles used for the
Preservation of Foods. J. l'inette. Chem. Zeit. 1891,
15> 1109.
The attention of foreign importers of tinned foods is
particularly called to the following law which has been in
force in Germany since October 1, 1889 : —
Tin used for the tin-plating of iron must contain no more
than 1 per cent, of lead. The solder used for sealing these
articles must consist of an alloy of tin, with no more than
10 per cent, of lead.
The author proposes the following easy process for the
assay of such tin wares : — The material is (without touching
the solder) cut into small pieces and heated in a porcelain
dish with dilute nitric acid until the pieces look black. The
liquid is then at once poured off, and the residue well
washed to remove any adhering stannic aeid. The whole is
evaporated to dryness, and then again heated with nitric
acid to separate the lead and also any iron. The stannic
oxide is finally ignited and weighed. The lead is made into
sulphate by evaporation with sulphuric acid, and after
freeing it from iron by washing with dilute sulphuric acid,
it is then collected and weighed as usual. As regards the
testing of the solder, the author remarks that the different
pieces of solder from the same tin may have a different
composition. — L. de K.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Obtaining an Extract of Malt and
Hops, and in Preparing a Confection of the Same.
E. Sonstadt, Cheshunt. Eng. Pat. 21,006, December 24,
1890. 6rf.
A wort is prepared from malt and water in the usual way.
this is boiled with hops in a closed boiler, about 1 part of
hops being used for every 10 parts of malt. A current of
carbon dioxide is passed through the boiler, issuing with
the steam. The mixture of steam and carbon dioxide is
passed into a condenser, where the steam is condensed,
and the carbon dioxide, carrying with it some hop aroma,
is passed over fresh butter and ignited asbestos, in order to
remove the aroma.
After the boiling has continued for some hours, the boiled
wort is discharged and strained from the hops. The clear
extract is concentrated in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide
to the required concentration, and then cooled. The
aroma-charged asbestos is boiled with the condensed water,
the first portion of the distillate contains all the aroma, and
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. so, 1892.
Is mixed with the cooled extract : this is theu bottled,
sealed, and sterilised by being heated to boiling. If a
solid extract is required, the concentration is pushed as far
as possible, and mixed while hot with sugar, the " aroma-
water " prepared as above and the aromatised butter.
—A. L. S.
Improvements in Apparatus Jor Testing the Quantity of
Cream in Milk. H. K.Newton, London. From L. .1.
Augustenborg and K. Hansen, Folding, Denmark. Erg.
Pat. 14,797, September 1, 1891. 6<i.
The improvements claimed are in the construction of the
rotating table described below, and in the warming of the
space in which it rotates by means of a reservoir of hoi
water supported immediately above it. The rotation is
accomplished by means of a worm on the vertical spindle,
which carries the table, worked in a toothed wheel.
The table is furnished with a flange, to which are
fixed blocks, the intervals between which are fitted with
caoutchouc pads. Round the spindle in the centre of the
table is a wooden disc, the circumference of which is
covered with a rubber ring. The test tubes containing the
milk are placed radially on the table between the rubber
ring and the caoutchouc pads. — A. G. 15.
An Improved Process for Preserving Eggs. B. J. 15. Mills,
London. From A. Micault de la Vieuville, Lyons,
France. Eng. Pat. 17,717, October 16, 1891. 4<t.
The fresh eggs to be preserved arc first washed in milk of
lime in order to remove any surface dirt anil grease, ami also
to destroy "the ferments which exist in the porosity of the
shell." The eggs thus cleaned and purified arc coated with
a thin continuous layer of gelatin, obtained by plunging
them into a solution of this material. The gelatin employ ed
must be free from bad odour or taste, and should preferably
be colourless so that the whiteness of the shells may not he
impaired.
It is claimed that eggs thus prepared may he preserved
absolutely unchanged for ti year or more without any special
precautions as regards aeration and temperature of storage.
It is further stated that the shells of the eggs are rendered
stronger by the treatment, so that increased facility in
transport is obtained. — 11. T. P.
(i'.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
A Delicate Test for Alum in Potable Water. Ellen H.
Richards. Technology Quarterly, 1891, 4, 194—195.
See under XXIII. , page 60.
Manufacture if Glass Pipes of Large Diameter.
L. Appert. Bull. Soe. d'Encouragement l'industrie
Nationalc, 1891, 6, 114—121.
Si e under VIII., page 38.
PATENTS.
Improved Method of and Apparatus for Treating Smoke
and Gases from Purnaces and other Fires. A. S. I>avy,
Sheffield. Eng. Pat. 179, January 5,1891. id.
See undo- II., page 21.
Improvements in or /{elating to Means or Apparatus for
Treating Gases, Smoke, and Products of Combustion so
as to Render them Innocuous. 11. Wainwright, Leeds.
Kng. Tat. 10,427, June 19, 1891. 8<z.
See under II., page 22.
Improvements Relating to Carbonic Acid Baths, and
Tablets for use therein. E. Sandow, Hamburg, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 16,422, September 28, 1891. id.
See under VII., page 37.
XIX -PAPER. PASTEBOARD, Etc.
The Sizing of Paper. J. Wander. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15,
702—703.
Paper sized with rosin or wax easily becomes saturated
with water, but if treated with animal size it is rendered to
a certain degree waterproof. To effect this, paper is first
passed through a solution of animal size, and then through
a solution of aluminium sulphate and sodium acetate mixed
in the proportions required by the following equation — ■
Al„(SO.,)3 + 6 NaC;H10,, = AL(C.;HJ0,)G + 3 Na2SO,
Instead of sodium acetate any other acetate in equivalent
quantity, as well as other salts, e.g., sulphites, thiosulphates,
chromates, &c, may he taken.
The method ma)' be varied by adding the aluminium
sulphate to the size solution, or by dividing the latter into
two parts, mixing the one with the aluminium sulphate
solution and the other with one of the above-mentioned
salts. The final result may be rendered still more complete
by drying the paper after having passed it through the first
solution, and subsequently soaking it for about 12 hours in
the second solution. Such papers are said to be waterproof
to a high degree. — H. S.
Aluminium Sulphate. Papier-ZeituDg, 1891, 16,
2326—2328.
Pure i\eutral Sulphate. — A saturated solution at 15° C. of
pure aluminium sulphate has a specific gravity of 1'341
and contains 36-60 grms. A12(S04)3, or 10*99 grms.
Al.O, per 100 ec. If such a solution be evaporated until
it has the same specific gravity (1*341) at the boiling
temperature, it forms on cooling a magma of small crystals
which cannot be completely freed from the mother-liquor
by pressing, hut they lose water by exposure to air. If the
evaporation he carried further until the boiling point rises
to 109° C, and the specific gravity at this temperature is
1*540, the solution solidifies on cooling to a hard mass,
which is the usual commercial form of the sulphate, and
contains 46*6 per cent. Al2(SOjl-„ or 14*0 per cent. Al„( ):t.
If the cooling be conducted rapidly the solid mass will be
at first amorphous and quite white, hut become crystalline
after some time and lose somewhat in whiteness. If the
solution cools slowly the resulting solid will be crystalline.
Less evaporation gives a softer product and more evapora-
tion a harder one, but at the same time it is more vitreous
and therefore not so white in appearance ; a product
containing more than 15*5 per cent. A1203 persistently
refuses to become crystalline. When the boiling tempera-
ture rises above 109" C., the solution becomes viscid and
begins to froth, and for this reason, normal aluminium
sulphate produced on the large scale cannot well contain
more than 15*5 per cent. A1203.
Jan. an, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
53
The following table gives the composition of the salt
with different amounts of water: —
Pure Aluminium Sulphate,
withlS" with 14 with 15 % Crystallised
JUsOs AbCl. A1203 with 18 aq.
Contains in 100 parts by weight,
AljO,
1-3-00
SO -29
I 1
14'00 WOO 15'44
S2'62 34i"95 S5'98
AJ.(S04)j
H,0
*3"29 46'G2 19-95 51"4S
Bfl-71 5S'S8 50'05 48'5S
100 -on
100-00 100-00 looiiu
Aluminium sulphate dried :it 95° C. retains 8 molecules
of water, anil contains 21"2 per cent. A1,0:< ; it is pure white
in colour, can be easily ground to a fine powder, ami is
readily soluble in water to a clear solution. Aluminium
sulphate containing 38 per cent, of water, corresponding to
1 H • G per cent. AUO a, becomes after fusion perfectly
transparent, clear, ami brittle like glass.
/>asic Sulphate. — A solution of the neutral sulphate
can be diluted to any extent without precipitating, but
the basic sulphates decompose on dilution. A solution
containing 3G per cent, of A1._.(S( >4 ')., will allow of two-
thirds of the acid being neutralised with caustic soda
before a permanent precipitate forms; the same solution
diluted 10 times gives a permanent precipitate when only
one-third of the acid is neutralised with alkali.
Commercial Sulphate of Alumina.- — The impurities of
this product of special importance to the user are iron and
free acid. The amount of iron varies between 0'003 per
cent, and 0-5 per cent.; products containing less than
O'Ol per cent. Fe are commonly distinguished as free from
iron, and are used in dyeworks and in works producing the
finer kinds of white paper. Dyers and leather dressers who
object to these small quantities of iron continue to prefer
alum. The commercial article contains iron in both stages
of oxidation, and in varying proportions. For use in sizing
good nrciting paper the percentage of iron may reach
0*15 per cent, without apparent disadvantage, and if all
tin- iron is in the ferrous state the percentage may reach
03 without affecting the colour of the paper, but it is liable
in this case to acquire a yellowish tinge on longer exposure
to the air, especially under direct sunlight. An amount of
iron exceeding 0" 3 percent, renders the sulphate of alumina
applicable only for low-grade or coloured paper.
The quantity of free acid varies from 0-2 to l-0 percent.
S( >,, but is seldom above 0'5 per cent. It is not left in the
free state on account of any difficulty in neutralising, but
to give a better appearance to the article. Neutral or
feebly basic aluminium sulphate containing 0- 05 per ceut.
Fe as Fe203 is yellowish from the presence of basic ferric
sulphate, and if the iron in the ferric state amounts to
ol.j per cent. Fe the colour is as deep as beeswax. If
fnr acid were present this quantity of iron would scarcely
colour the article, and if, besides, the iron were in the
ferrous state no colouration at all would he perceptible,
only a very feeble greenish tint being seen when the ferrous
iron amounts to 0-5 per cent. A few tenths of a per cent,
of free acid is usually of no importance, especially in the
paper manufacture where a small quantity of free acid is of
advantage for decomposing the resin soap.
A third impurity, which may at times be objectionable, is
the residue insoluble in water: it rarely exceeds 03 per
cent. Other impurities may be potash, soda, magnesia,
chlorine, and nitric acid, but they are only occasional and
are not detrimental. In one sample of second grade 2 per
cent, of zinc was found, and this metal should be looked for
in the alumina determination.
The commercial article usually contains from 13 to 15 per
cent. A1203.
The raw materials for aluminium sulphate are kaoliu and
bauxite. An English kaolin much used in Germany has the
following composition after drying at 100° C. : —
Per Cent.
. I.V.;
. :;:i :.
SiO.
ALA,
FeA, 0-0
HjO (combined) ig«n
The
The composition of bauxite is very variable.
following table gives the percentage composition of several
kinds :—
French.
Irish.
German.
a.
b.
c.
d. e. ! ./'. .,.
ft.
AlA
|'i ■.!),•
59-0
8-0
1C.-C
73-0
1-5
1G 5
I'.i-s
0-7
G-3
28-1
59*8
17-9
IT.
21-0
53 '8
1-G
8-7
5-8
29-8
52-0 46-1
n; l.-.-i
12-0 10'4
ti-i 4-2
24-0 231
48-8
23-8
SiO.
3'3
TiO,
Loss on ignition:.
1G3
9-0
■2i-7
The methods of producing aluminium sulphate vary some-
what according to the materials and the degree of purity
required in the product.
Kaolin is usually calcined at a low temperature, ground,
finely sifted, and mixed with sulphuric acid of 1 45 sp. gr.
Steam is then injected to promote the reaction, which
afterwards proceeds very violently. At the end of the
reaction the mass will contain no free acid if the requisite
excess of kaolin had been employed. It is dissolved n
water to a specific gravity of 1 ■ 29, and is filtered. The
filtrate is evaporated to the required extent and then allowed
to cool and solidify. Uncalciued kaolin may be used, but
the reaction must be then conducted under pressure of steam
to secure its completion. The crude sulphate of alumina of
commerce is the product of the above reaction, omitting the
solution in water. It contains 10 — 12 per cent. A1.,03 as
sulphate and 25 — 30 per cent, of insoluble matter (silica and
undecomposed kaoliu), besides 1 per cent, or more of free
acid. It is used for the lower grades of paper, for which
the insoluble matter serves as filling. It is also used for
the clarification of waste waters.
Bauxite in a finely ground condition, without calcining, is
mixed with sulphuric acid and the product of the reaction is
treated as above, when a sulphate of dirty white appearance
is produced containing 0-5 per cent. Fe. A simple method
of separating the chief part of the iron is to treat the
solution of 1-29 sp. gr. with bleaching powder or nitric acid
to peroxidise all the iron, and to render the solution feebly
basic. On allowing it to stand for some months the iron
separates out, but not completely, as basic sulphate, accom-
panied by a little alumina. If it be required to reduce all
the iron to the ferrous state to improve the appearance of
the article, it is best done by boiling the solution with finely-
powdered charcoal.
Another method of treatment is applicable to a raw
material containing iron with but very little silica, such as
the bauxites c, d, and h. The finely-ground bauxite is
intimately mixed with soda ash and calcined at a low heat.
The mass is extracted with water, to dissolve out the
aluminate of soda. On treating the solution with carbonic
acid gas the alumina is precipitated as hydrate, which is
filtered off and treated with the requisite quantity of sul-
phuric acid for the production, without further evaporation,
of a sulphate of 14 per cent. A1203 of great purity. The
carbonate of soda left in the solution is recovered by
evaporation.
Iron in aluminium sulphate is separated by precipitation
with excess of caustic soda. The precipitate is collected on
a filter, re-dissolved in sulphuric acid, reduced with zinc,
and estimated by titration with permanganate solution.
54
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1S92.
Small quantities of iron are determined colorimetrically. and extracted with alcohol to dissolve out the free acid
Free acid is estimated by adding potassium sulphate to the which is then determined by titration with deeiuormal
solution and evaporating to dryness. The residue is powdered I alkali.
Density uro Composition of Aluminium Sulphate Solutions (Chemically Puee). — Temperature 15° C.
Inn Kilns, of Solution contain Kilos.
Inn Litres of Solution contain Kilns.
Gravity.
1
Ki-aunn-.
AljOj
SI 1
Sulphate
with 13 per
Cent. Al.il;,
Sulphate
with 14 per
rem. \lu
Sulphate
with 15 per
Cent. A1203
A1203
S03
Sulphate
with 13 per
Cent. A1»03
Sulphate
with 1 1 i"T
Cent. A1.03
Siilpli.it,.
with 1.". per
Cent. Al.ii.
L-005
0-7
0-14
1-1
■1*0
0*9
0-14
0-33
1-1
1
0-9
1-010
14
n-27
0-tU
2-1
2*0
1*8
0-28
0-65
2*2
■j
1-9
1-016
2]
■ '-11
n 15
3-1
2*9
2-7
11-42
0-98
3-2
3
2-s
1-021
2-8
(1-55
1-27
4-2
3-9
3-6
0-56
1-31
43
4
3-
1-026
3T.
0-68
1-59
5-3
1-9
4-ii
II-7H
1-63
5-1
5
4-7
1-031
4-2
0-81
1-89
6-3
5'8
.VI
0-84
1-96
6-5
6
5*6
1-036
4's
n-94
2-20
7-3
6*7
63
0-98
2-2S
7-5
7
6*5
1*040
5*4
1-07
2-50
8-3
7-7
7-2
1-12
2-61
S-6
8
7-5
1*046
6-1
1-211
2-80
9-3
s'6
8-0
1-26
2*94
9-7
9
8-4
1-050
6*7
1-33
3-11
10-3
95
8-9
110
3-26
10-8
10
9-3
1-035
7-3
1-46
3-4U
11-3
10*4
9-7
1-54
3-59
11*8
11
10-3
1*059
7-;i
1-58
3-69
12-2
11-3
ln-il
1*68
3-91
12*9
12
11-2
1'0S4
-
1-71
3-98
13-1
12-2
11-4
1-82
4-21
14-0
13
121
L-068
9-1
1 -83
1-27
14-1
13-1
12-2
1-96
I -."n
15-1
14
13-1
1-073
9-7
1-96
t-56
15-1
14*0
13-1
2- 111
4-89
16'2
l.-i
li-ll
1-078
10-3
2-Os
t,*84
n;- 0
14*8
13-9
2-24
5-22
17-2
Hi
14*9
1*082
10'9
2-211
5-12
16-9
15-7
14-6
2-38
5-55
is -3
17
15-9
1-087
in
2-32
540
17-s
16*5
1.V4
2-58
B-87
111-4
IS
16-8
1-092
12-0
2-lt
5-67
ls-7
17-4
16-2
2-G6
li-211
20-5
l'.l
17-7
1-096
12*6
2-55
5-95
19-7
18-3
17-0
2-SO
(1-52
21-5
2il
18.-7
1-101
13-1
2-S7
H-22
20*5
19*1
17-s
2-94
6-85
22-, i
21
19-6
1-105
13-7
2-7S
6-49
2f t
19*9
1S-6
3-0S
7-ls
23-7
22
20-5
1-110
14-2
2'!'"
6-76
22-3
2ir7
19*3
3-22
7 -.Ml
21- s
23
21-5
1-11 l
14-7
3-01
7-02
23-2
21-5
20-1
3-36
7 'S3
25*9
24
22-4
1-119
15-3
3-13
7-29
24-1
22-4
20-9
3-50
8*16
20-9
25
23-3
1-123
15'S
3-21
7-55
24-9
23-1
21-6
3-64
S-4S
28*0
26
2f3
1-128
16-3
3-35
7-81
2.5 -s
23-9
22-3
3-78
s-^1
29'1
27
25-2
1-13-2
16-8
3-46
8-06
26-6
24*7
23-1
3*92
9-13
30-2
2S
26-1
1-137
17-4
3T,7
8-32
27-5
25-5
23-8
4-06
9-46
3I"2
29
27-1
1-141
17-'.'
3'68
8-58
2s -3
26-3
24-5
4-20
'.1-79
32-3
SO
28-0
1-145
18-3
3-79
8-83
29-1
27-1
25-3
4-31
10-11
33-4
81
2s-'.i
1-150
18-8
3-89
9-07
30-0
27-8
20-0
4-4S
10-44
345
32
29-9
1-154
19-2
4-00
9-32
30-8
28-6
26-7
4-64
10-76
35 -5
33
30-8
1-159
19-7
4-11
9-57
SI* 6
29-3
27-4
4-70
11-09
S6-8
31
31-7
1-163
20-1
4-21
9-82
32-4
30-1
28*1
4-90
11-12
37-7
35
32-7
1-168
20-6
4-32
10-06
33-2
30 "S
28*9
5-04
11-74
38-8
36
33-6
1-172
21-1
4-42
10-29
34-0
31-6
29-5
5-18
12-07
39-9
37
34-5
1-176
21*6
4-52
10-53
34*8
32-3
30-1
.V32
12-til
40-9
38
35-5
1-181
22-1
4-02
10-77
35-6
33-0
30-8
,-.-4ii
12-72
42-11
39
36-4
1-186
22-5
4-72
11-01
36-3
33-7
31-5
5-60
13-05
48*1
40
37-3
1-190
23-0
4-^2
11-21
37-1
34T.
32-2
5-74
13-38
44-2
41
38-3
1-194
23-4
4-92
11-47
37'J
35-2
32-8
5-88
13-70
45-2
42
39-2
1-198
23-8
5-02
11-70
18*6
35-9
33-5
6-02
14-03
46'3
43
40'1
Jan. 80, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
55
Density and Composition of Aluminium Sulphate Solutions (Chemically Pure).— Temperature 15° C. — cant.
Specific Degrees
Gravity. ' Beaume,
A!,0;,
10(1 Kilos, of Solution contain Kilos.
Sulphate Sulphate Sulphate
S03 with 13 per with 14 ner with 15 per
1 Cent. Al,.o:, Cent. AUV, I Cunt. A1S03
ion l,itii's of Solution contain Kilos.
A]»0,
SO,
Sulphate
with IS per
Cent.AU>;,
Sulphate
with 14 pei-
Cent. ALOi
Sulphate
with 15 per
Cent. AM),
1-203
24-3
5-12
11-93
89*4
30-ii
34-1
6-16
14-35
47-4
44
41-1
1-207
21- 7
5-22
12-111
40*2
37-3
84-8
6-30
14*68
48-5
45
42-d
1-211
26-2
5-32
12-89
40*9
88-0
35'4
6-44
15*01
19-5
in
42-9
1-215
25-5
5-11
12-61
41-11
83-7
30-1
6-58
15-33
50-11
47
t:;-9
1-22II
25-9
5-51
12*83
42-4
311-3
30-7
6-72
15-60
51-7
48
4-1-8
1-221
26'3
5-60
13-00
i.-i-i
40-0
37-4
0-S6
15-99
52-8
49
15-7
1-228
20-7
5-70
13-28
48-9
10-7
88-0
7-H0
16-81
53-9
511
46-7
1*232
27-1
5-79
18*50
it-i;
11-4
38-6
7-14
16-64
54-9
51
47-6
L*286
27-5
5-89
13-72
45-3
42-1
39-3
7-28
lil--.nl
50-0
52
4S-5
1-2UI
27-9
5-98
13-94
4iro
42-7
39-9
7-42
17-29
57-1
53
49'5
1-2*4
28*8
6-IIS
14-16
411-7
43-4
■10-5
7-56
17-62
58-2
54
50'4
1-248
28-6
0-17
14- 3S
47-5
44-1
41-1
7-70
17-94
59-2
55
51-3
1-252
29-0
6-20
14-59
is -2
44-7
41-7
7-84
18-26
Oil -3
50
52-3
1-2511
29- 1
0'35
14 "SO
4S-9
4.5-4
12-3
7-98
18-59
111-4
57
53-2
1-2111
29-8
6'44
15-111
49-5
16-0
12-9
S-12
18-92
62-5
58
54-1
1-265
30-2
6-53
15-22
50-2
46-7
43-5
8-26
19-25
113-5
59
55-1
1-209
30'5
6-62
15-13
50-9
47-3
44-1
S-40
19-57
04-11
60
5(1-0
1-273
30-9
6-71
15-03
51-0
47-9
4-1-7
8-54
19-90
05-7
ill
50-9
1-277
31-2
6-80
15-84
52-3
48-6
45-3
S-68
20-28
,1,1-8
62
57-9
1-281
31-6
6-89
lfi-04
53-0
49-2
15 -9
S-82
20-55
(17-9
(13
58'8
1-285
31-9
6*97
16-25
53-7
49-8
40 V.
8-96
20 -88
(IS '9
64
59-7
1-289
32-3
7-fiG
16-46
54-3
50-5
47-1
9-10
21-20
70-0
65
00-7
1-293
32-6
7-15
16-66
55-0
51-1
47-7
9-24
21-53
71-1
00
ui-e
1-297
33-0
7-23
10-85
55 '0
51-7
48-2
9-38
21-80
72 2
07
62-5
11)01
33-3
V32
W05.
511-3
52-3
48-8
9-52
22-18
73-2
OS
03-5
1-305
33-7
7-10
17-25
57-u
52-9
19-4
9-60
22-51
74-3
69
64-4
1-309
34-0
7-49
17-45
57'0
53-5
49-9
9-80
22-84
75-1
70
05-3
1-312
344
7-57
17-05
58-3
64-1
50-5
994
23 16
7,1-5
71
00'3
1*816
Sl-7
7-oe
17-84
58-9
54-5
51-1
10-08
23-49
77-5
72
07-2
T320
85-0
7-74
18-04
59-11
55-3
51-0
10-22
23-81
7S-0
73
OS'l
1-321
35-3
7-SS
18-23
00-2
559
52-2
10-30
24-14
79-7
74
69-1
35-0
7-91
13-43
00-8
50-5
52-7
W50
24-47
sirs
75
70-0
1*381
35-9
7-99
18-62
IU-5
57-1
53-3
10-04
24-79
srs
70
70-9
1-335
30-2
8-07
18-81
02-1
57-7
53-8
10-78
25-12
82*0
77
71 -U
1-839
30-5
8-111
WOO
112-7
58'3
54-4
10-92
25-45
84*0
78
72-8
— G. H. B.
Papyrus. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16, 2528.
This article gives an account of the uses of the papyrus
plant amongst the ancients. It is known to have been
cultivated by the Egyptians as far back as 1800 B.C. The
young plants were used as a foodstuff, and the old ones
furnished material for baskets and other woven utensils.
Its chief use was the manufacture of paper, which became
an important industry on the banks of the Nile, where the
papyrus grew. Papyrus paper was expensive, but very
durable, rolls of it having withstood the destructive influence
of many centuries af time. Papyrus was imported from
Egypt by the Romans for the fabrication of eight different
sorts of paper. The cultivation of the plant has now almost
entirely ceased, a last attempt during this century to manu-
facture papyrus paper in Syracuse having been unsuccessful.
— G. H. B.
"Argentine." A. Harpf. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16,
2584—2585, 2612—2614 and 2640—2642.
" Argentine " consists of nearly pure tin in a very tine
state of division, and is also called " tin-dust." It is used
principally for ornamenting paper, such as silver paper, and
is manufactured in only a few places, as the demand is small.
The process of manufacture described is that carried on in
Herdiiin, near Breslau. The materials required are tin,
56
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. SO, 1802.
hydrochloric acid, and zinc. Tin is used in the granulated
form and also as it exists in all kinds of alloys, such as
gun metal and white metal, the turnings forming the waste
material of other factories heing suitable. The turnings are
placed in open copper vessels holding about 250 litres, and
ordinary hydrochloric acid of 20° — 22° B. is added and
boiled. As long as an excess of tin is present copper and
antimony will not dissolve. The solution will contain
chiefly tin and a little lead, and is run into wooden casks to
cool, when most of the lead crystallises out as chloride.
This is separated by filtration through sand, and converted
into oxychloride by Pattinson's method tor sale as a white
pigment. The clear solution has a density of 33° — 40° B.,
and contains 17 — 23 per cent. Sn, with small quantities of
lead and antimony. It is desirable that these impurities
should be small in amount, as they are injurious to ihe
colour of the product. The undissolved metal is exhausted
by boiling three times with fresh acid, when it is washed and
dried. On account of its admixture with antimony and
metallic chlorides, this waste copper is not tit for castings,
and is sold to a metal refiner. Xot all the tin is removed
by this process, as the metal residue retains about 2 — 3 per
per cent., the complete extraction of which would be
accompanied by too much antimony and lead.
The next operation is the precipitation of the tin in
wooden casks holding about half a cubic metre each. They
are filled with water, and an iron basket well plated with tin
and holding zinc scrap is suspended in each. Each cask
receives twice daily an addition of 2£ litres of the strong
solution (about 40° B.) of tin chloride, which is thereby
diluted to 200 times its volume. The metallic tin precipitated
by the zinc from this dilute solution takes the form of a
very light sponge, which is carried by adherent hydrogen
gas to the surface of the solution, whence it is removed
every morning, and well washed in a separate cask. It is
then dried in a shallow oblong steam-jacketed zinc pan, in
which it is moved about with wooden shovels. The dried
dust is sifted in a rotating sieve provided with very fine
meshes. It forms an extremely finely-divided metallic
powder of a tin-grey colour. It consists of nearly pure tin
with a very small quantity of lead and sometimes antimony.
The output was about 500 kilos, per month, and its value
was 280 — 300 marks for 100 kilos, of good quality. The
liquor in the cask becomes gradually charged with zinc
chloride, and is drawn off when its strength reaches 20° —
25° B. It is concentrated to about 50° B. by evapora-
tion in enamelled cast-iron pans, and sold for preserving
timber. An almost obsolete process for making silver
paper involved the employment of a metallic dust prepared
mechanically by grinding to powder an alloy composed of
96*5 per cent, of tin and 2*4 percent, of ziuc which was
then mixed with a solution of glue and painted on ordinary
white paper, a gloss being afterwards imparted by pressure.
A genuine silver paper was also made by cementing silver
leaf to paper with white lead and glue. By the modern
process " Argentine " is employed and the cementing
material is a "wax-solution" prepared in one of the
following ways: — Four kilos, of ordinary beeswax and
-,' kilo, of potashes are boiled with 50 litres of water ; or,
3 kilos, of starch are emulsified and boiled with 75 litres of
water containing 5 lb. of beeswax and \h lb. of potashes.
25 kilos, of "Argentine" are stirred into this solution
contained in a rocking trough through which the roll of
paper is caused to pass. The dull grey-coated paper is
then passed through a hot calender under great pressure,
which gives a high polish to the paper resembling tin-foil.
Sometimes the calender is smeared with cocoa-nut butter,
which increases the gloss and gives a greasy feel to the
paper. A practical test of the quality of a sample of
••Argentine" can be made by stirring it up with a little
water and painting it evenly on paper with a brush.
After drying the polish is given by rubbing the paper laid
on a glass plate with a round piece of agate
A considerable difficulty in the manufacture of the
" Argentine " was occasioned by the appearance of small
crystalline particles in the finished product, which had the
effect of introducing irregular blotches into the silver paper.
The author gives an account of experiments made for the
purpose of finding a cause and a cure for these crystals, and
found that the precipitated tin sponge is liable to contain
small crystalline needles of the metal when the tin chloride
solution from which it is precipitated is insufficiently diluted,
or when the zinc plates are contaminated with other metals
in such a way that electrical currents are set up in the
solution. Plates of tin and zinc connected by a copper
wire and immersed in dilute tin solution caused the forma-
tion of crystalline needles of tin at the tin electrode, whilst
the spongy metal separating at the zinc was free from
crystals. Plates of zinc and lead employed in the same
way gave similar results, and in this case impurities in the
zinc plate were found to have a less effect on the result.
As it is not possible in practice to employ pure zinc the
anther proposes to use a lead plate in electrical connexion
with the ordinary impure zinc in order to obtain a tin
sponge free from crystals. This modification of the process
gave very satisfactory results as carried out in the following
way. A wooden cask was divided into two compartments
by a wooden partition containing a few holes to allow the
solution to pass freely. Plates of lead and ordinary com-
mercial zinc were placed in the separate compartments and
connected by a copper wire. The cask was filled with
water charged with 1 per cent, of the strong tin chloride
solution (45° B.). The formation of spODge went on
regularly and quickly at the zinc plate and was quite free
from crystals, whilst only a few crystals of tin separated at
the lead plate, which became covered with a dark-grey
film. Large quantities of good sponge were obtained from
successive additions of the strong liquor. The distinction
between sponge and crystals must be taken as merely
relative, for the microscope shows the sponge to consist
entirely of very small crystals, which are not recognisable
as such by the naked eye. — G. H. B.
French Straw-Paper. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16, 2611.
Straw-pater, has been in considerable demand in France
and a good and firm article has been manufactured for the
last 40 years. The process of manufacture has not in the
meantime undergone much change. Chiefly r}-e straw is
cut quite short in a cutting machine, and this chaff is
heaped into large rectangular brick wells, where it is just
covered with dilute milk of lime. A covering of heavy
boards weighted with stones is put on, and the straw is left
in this condition for two to four weeks, when it is taken out
and worked under edge-runners for not less than an hour.
Straw worked in this manner is harder than steamed straw
and the knots are not softened, consequently the grinding
must be well done. The straw now goes direct into the
mill and after a short time into the pulp-vat. The French
straw-paper machines tire provided with shaking-troughs,
knot-catchers, presses, and several drying cylinders.
— G. H. B.
Japanese Paper. G. Lauboeck. Mittheil. Techn. Gewerbe-
Museums, 1891, 257—260.
Four samples of Japanese paper of a quality suitable
for writing purposes were examined with the results shown
in the table on next page.
The raw material from which these papers were made
was derived from "Gampi" (Wickstromia canescens) and
" Kodsu " (fironssonetia papyrifera). Gampi gives a
yellow colouration with an aqueous solution of iodine,
while Kodsu becomes brown when similarly treated. The
ends of the Gampi fibre are bulb-shaped and rounder ; its
width varies from 0-007 to 0-020 mm. When Gampi fibre
is treated with an ammoniacal solution of copper oxide, it
swells previous to dissolving, each fibre presenting the
appearance of a string of beads, a reaction which may be
considered characteristic.
The Kodsu fibre is of massive structure, and has a
diameter of 0-014 — 0-031 mm. The fibres are partly
covered with a very delicate colourless envelope which is
most readily discernible at the end of the fibre ; an
ammoniacal solution of copper oxide acts less readily upon
the Kodsu fibre than upon the Gampi fihre. The Kodsu
Jan.30,1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
57
Composition of
the Samples.
Tensile
Strength in '
Kilos.* with
the Fibre.
Tensile
Strength in
Kilos, across
the Fibre.
Breaking:
Length with
the Fibre.
Breaking
Length across
the Fibre.
Weight of
Paper per
Sq. M. in
Gnus.
Thickness in
Mm,
Percentage of
Ash calculated
on the Dry
Papcr.
75 per cent, (ismipi. .. ,
S5 per cent. Kodsu....
13*74 10*70
} - ™
8,505
6,788
fi.SIIO
('...".70 I09-20t i.liij
5,832 18-C3 0-035
2-1S
2-15
1-34 1-30 4.02H 8.601 21-33 0'05
i 1
2 -Vi
' To convert kilos, into lb. multiply by 2'205.
t 1 grm. per so- m. — 1'4864 grains per sq. ft.
t 1 mm. = 0-03937 in.
fibre is very flexible and strong, and its length averages
10 — 15 mm. AH the papers examined, the results of which
are recorded above, contained a little rice starch, but no
other loading of any kind.
It is noteworthy that the first three samples largely excel
the Lest European papers in strength, a circumstance the
more remarkable as their thickness and weight are
unusually small. It therefore appears that the good quality
of Japanese paper is largely due to the length and fineness
of the fibre from which it is made, though something must
be ascribed to the rational method of manufacture and the
personal skill of the arti/.ans. The papers are not sized
with rosin or with animal size, but with a vegetable prepara-
tion which does not unite the fibres firmly to each other, a
circumstance to which the rough appearance of the surface
of the paper may be ascribed. It will be interesting to see
what will be the effect of sizing Japanese paper by European
methods.— B. B.
Chemical Composition of Vegetable Cell Membranes.
E. Schulze. Ber. 1801, 24, 2277—2287.
See under XVI., page 49.
Properties of Cuprammonium. Prudhomme. Bull. Soc.
Ind. Mulhouse, 1891, 510—512.
See under VI., page 33.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Chemical Composition of Vegetable Cell Membranes.
E. Schulze. Ber. 1891,24, 2277^2287.
See under XVI., page 49.
The Alkaloids of the Areca-Nut. E. Jahns. Ber. 1891,
24, 2G15— 2G17.
In a previous paper (this Journal, 1890, 1146) the author
lias pointed out that arecoline, one of the alkaloids con-
tained in the areca-nut, when decomposed by acids or by
alkalis, yields the base arecaidine. Further investigations
have shown that this same body occurs in varying quantities
ready formed in the areca-nut. It can be readily separated
from the arecaidine with which it occurs by treatment with
hydrochloric acid and methyl alcohol, when the arecaidine
is converted into the methyl ester (arecolin) whilst the
arecaidine forms a hydrochloride.
In addition to the alkaloids previously isolated it has been
found that a new alkaloid, for which the name Guvacine
(from the old Indian name for the areca palm — Guvaca) is
proposed, occurs in varying quantity in several kinds of
areca seeds. This product is somewhat less soluble, both in
water and in dilute alcohol, than either arecaine or arecoline,
and can be separated from arecaidine by treatment with
methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid, being unaffected by
these reagents. It forms small glittering crystals, which
melt with decomposition at 27 1° — 272° C. These are readily
soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, insoluble in strong
alcohol and in ether, chloroform, and benzene. The
solutions are neutral. Analysis points to the formula
C6H9NOs for the new alkaloid. With acids guvacine forms
crystalline salts which have an acid reaction, and which
behave similarly to the free base with the above-mentioned
solvents. The hydrochloride, sulphate, gold and platinum
double chlorides are described. The platinum salt has the
formula (C6H?NO„.HCl)i,.PtCI4. + 4 H,,0 ; it loses its water
of crystallisation at 110" and darkens on heating to 210°,
melting a few degrees higher. The gold double chloride
contains no water of crystallisation. It melts at 194° — ■
195° C. The bases isolated up to the present by the author
from the areca-nut are the following: —
Choline CiHl3N02
Guvacine C6H,N02
Arecaine C:H„N( ), + H20
Arecaidine. C7H „\t >. + H20
Arecoline C8HuNOa
With the exception of choline these bases appear to be
closely related one to the other. Full details concerning
these bodies will be published in the Archives de l'hannaeie.
— C. A. K.
The Detection of Turkish Geranium Essence in Hose Oil,
(i. Panajatow. Ber. 1891, 24, 27U0 — 2701.
See under XXIII., page Gl.
Camphrone; a Product of the Action of Dehydrating
Agents on Camphor. H. E. Armstrong and F. S. Kipping.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1891—1892, 188 — 189.
The action of concentrated sulphuric acid on camphor
appears to have been first examined hyChautard; it was
subsequently studied by Fittig, Schwanert, and Kaehler, all
of whom agree in stating that under suitable conditions an
oily product, having a strong peppermint odour, is formed,
isomeric with acetophorone, C9H140, which consequently has'
figured in chemical literature under the name Camphor one.
The various statements regarding the properties of this
substance, however, are by no means confirmatory, Fittig
stating that it boils at 204°— 205 and that it has a relative
density of 0-939 at 12°, whereas (Schwanert gives 230°
235° as its boiling point and 0' 9614 at 20° as the relative
density.
Armstrong and Miller noticed the presence of a substance
having properties similar to those of the product obtained
by means of sulphuric acid among the products of the
action of zinc chloride on camphor; but attempts which
they made to isolate a definite substance from their crude
product were unsuccessful.
It appeared probable that, with the aid of the improved
methods of treating ketonic compounds now known, it
58
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. so, 1892.
would be possible to separate the characteristic eoustituent
from the crude oil, and this has proved to be the case.
On treating the fraction boiling at 23S —2-12 of the oil
prepared by means either of sulphuric acid or of zinc
chloride with phenylhydrazine, a mixture of a crystalline
hydrazone with dark-coloured, oily products is obtained;
the purified hydrazone crystallises in yellowish plates and
melts at about 108°. By boiling it in alcoholic solution
with ferric chloride and muriatic acid, an oil is obtained
which yields a hydrazone identical with that from which it
was prepared ; on distilling this oil, the thermometer
rapidly rises to 245°, the greater part of the liquid passing
over at 245" — 247°. On treatment with hydroxylaniine, the
oil is converted into a hydroxime which crystallises in long
prisms melting at 85° — 86°, of which the acetyl derivative
melts at 69°— 70°.
Numbers were obtained which agree satisfactorily with
the formula CI0H12O. A more complete study of the
compound to place its composition beyond doubt, especially
;i- lb.- formula Cj0H,2O is a very remarkable one, will be
made.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Oxygen. J. C.
La'wson, London. Eng. Pat. 15,998, October 9, 1890. 8d.
The object of this invention is to obtain oxygen from
the air by means of a continuous process, which consists
essentially in passing ozonised air through a compound
capable of readily absorbing the oxygen, and of giving it off
again when heated in a current of steam. The method of
working is to draw air by means of a fan through an ozone
generator, which contains a number of plates made of glass
or other insulating material. The plates are varnished
and coated on their upper sides -with perforated tin or other
metallic foil. These foils are connected alternately with
the terminals of the high potential circuit of an induction
current. The air on leaving the ozone generator passes to ;i
retort in which is placed tin- substance capable of absorbing
the oxygen from the air, such as commercial manganate ol
soda, which may be mixed with oxide of copper. The
retort is heated in a suitable furnace and is provided with a
pipe and cock for the admission of steam, and also with an
exit pipe through which the liberated oxygen can pass
through a washer to the gas-holder, a bye-pass being
being provided for the escape of the nitrogen. The sodium
manganate is first treated with steam and the evolved
oxygen collected ; when no more is evolved the steam is
turned off, and the ozonised air led through the hot retort
when re-oxidation ensues, the oxygen taken up being again
liberated on a second treatment with steam. By employing
a suitable arrangement of four retorts the process can be
worked continuously. — 0. A. K.
A New Product Possessing the same, or nearly the same,
Propertiesas Spirits of Turpentine. T. Drake, Hudders-
lield. Eng. Pat. 16,916, October 23, 1890. id.
See under XIII., page 45.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Salols and Analogous Compounds. C. Kolbe, Kadebeul,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 17,221, October 28, 1890. 6<i
Ix the various methods employed by the patentee for the
manufacture and production of salols, it has been found
that cinnamic acid can be employed in place of the different
acids hitherto used, and that the phenols can be replaced
by glycerol (Eng. Pats. 8018 of 1886; 10,260, of 1887 ; 13
and 169 of 1888 ; this Journal, 1886, 577 ; 1887, 561 ;
1888, 587; 1889, 817). In this manner the following new
bodies are produced : — Cinnamates of guaiaeol, creosol
(i.e., methyl guaiaeol), and eugenol (i.e., allyl guaiaeol);
mono-di- and tri-salicylates of glycerol; mono-di- and tri-
cresotinates (ortho, meta, and para) of glycerol and mono-
di- and tri-cinnamates of glycerol. These substances form
colourless bodies insoluble or only soluble with difficulty in
water, but soluble in alcohol, from which solvent they can
be recrystallised. They dissolve without decomposition in
cold dilute soda, but are saponified on heating the solution.
When cooled considerably below their point of solidifica-
tion these bodies often remain liquid. Details regarding the
methods of preparation of some of the above substances
are given. These new salols can be employed as healing
agents. — C. A. K.
Production from Mineral Oils of Sulphonic Acids and
Sulphones, and the Manufacture of a New Product by
Treating Gelatinous Matters with Sulphonic Acid.
A. M. Clark, London. From the " Gewerkscliaft Messel,"
Grube Messel, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,502, November
29, 1890. 6d.
See under III., page 22.
Processes for Obtaining the Two Isomeric Monomethyl-
ethers of Proto-catechuic Aldehyde. J. Bertram, Leipzig,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,264, December 12, 1890. 6d.
Tiik di-metallic sodium salt of protocatechuic aldehyde
when treated with molecular quantities of the halogen
compounds of methyl or with the methyl sulphates of the
alkalis or alkaline earths, yields the sodium salt of the meta-
rnethyl ether of proteeatechuic aldedyde (vanillin), whilst
the mono-sodium salt of the aldehyde, when similarly treated,
forms the isomeric para-methyl ether (isovanillin). These
reactions are represented by the following equations : —
ONa (4)
gi,(ONa (3)
COH (1)
CI)
(3)
(1)
Vanillin.
.O.Na
C6H3/O.CK
\COH
II.
,ONa (4)
()(II,;(ON (3) +
NCOH (1)
CH.1 =
Nal
CH,1 -=-
/
OCH3 (4)
C6H3/-OH (3) + Nal
\COH (1)
Isovanillin.
By the action of sodium methylate on mono-acetyl
protocatechuic aldehyde vanillin is obtained, whilst from the
di-acetyl compound acetyl isovanillin results, from which
isovanillin is prepared by saponification. The quantities
required for carrying out the above reactions are given in
the specification. The products are purified by distillation
in vacuo; vanillin boils at 170 C. and isovanillin at 179° C.
under a pressure of 15 mm. (Compare this Journal, 1891,
854.)— C. A. K.
An Improved Process for the Production of Camphor.
W. W. Horn, London. From F. de Mare, N. N. M.
Saunier, and G. Dambmann, Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
21,294, December 31, 1890. id.
The object of this invention is to take advantage of the
oxidising properties of ozone both on terebenthine and
campheue. Two methods are used for the oxidation of
terebenthine : Firstly, the gum is heated and a current of
ozone is caused to pass over it at the very moment of the
separation of the terebenthine, camphor being produced,
distilled, and condensed in the cold parts of the apparatus ;
secondly, ozone is caused to act upon the vapour of tere-
benthine, and tlie camphor vapour condensed. For the
preparation of camphor from camphene, the latter is obtained
by treating the monoehlorhydrate of terebenthine with an
alkaline carbonate at a temperature of 180 ('., and
distilling. The campheue is then heated in a receiver to
80° C, ozone being meanwhile introduced. The camphor
formed is deposited on the sides of the receiver. — E. G. C.
Jan. so. 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
59
Improvements in the Purification of Chloroform. S. Pitt,
Sutton. From " Raoul Pictet & Co.," Berlin, Germany.
Kng. Pat. 15,514, .September 12, 1891. id.
The purification is effected in a copper cylinder, surrounded
by a jacket hermetically sealed at top and bottom and
provided with an inlet and outlet pipe. A grating is fixed
at the bottom of the cylinder on which any suitable filtering
material can be placed, whilst a cock is attached below the
grating for running off the contents of the cylinder.
The object of the purification is to remove the various
products, such as the tetrachlorides of carbon, with which
the chloroform is invariably contaminated, even that
obtained from chloral, and is carried out in three stages.
First the chloroform in the cylinder is cooled down to 80° C.
by allowing ethylcbloride, ethylene, protoxide of nitrogen
or " Pictet's liquid," to evaporate in the jacketed space
outside the cylinder, and filtering the cold liquid mass.
Foreign bodies crystallising above this temperature are thus
removed, from which the liquid chloroform is filtered off
through the above-mentioned grating. The second stage is
to solidify the chloroform thus obtained by reducing the
temperature of the cylinder to — 82° C, when about two-
thirds of it freezes against the sides of the reservoir. The
remaining liquid is drained off, and the solid chloroform
melted and then run out of the cylinder for the second
time. The product thus obtained is finally subjected to
distillation at a very low temperature under reduced
pressure, the cylinder used in the previous stages of the
purification now serving as the receiver. The first and last
portions of the distillate are rejected, whilst the intermediate
product, amounting to about 80 per cent, of the total, is
obtained as chemically pure chloroform. — C. A. K.
Improvements Relating to Carbonic Acid Baths and
Tablets for Use therein. E. Sandow, Hamburg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 16,422, September 28, 1891. 4</.
See under ~Vl\.,page 37.
A New Antipyretic and Antineuralgic Chinoiin Derioa-
tiue, and Process for the Production of the same.
A. Bang, Leeds. From G. A. Dahl, Barmen, Germanv.
Eng. Pat. 17,493, October 14, 1891. (id.
I Ihiiio-hydroxy-quinoline, when boiled with an alcoholic
solution of an ethyl haloid ester and sodium hydrate, is
converted into ortho-ethoxy-quiuoline, as has been shown
by Fischer and lienouf (Ber. 17, 759). This product when
nitrated is converted into a mixture of mono- and dinitro-
compounds, from which the former can be separated owing
to its greater solubility in water. The mono-nitro-ethoxy-
quinoline yields the corresponding amido-compound on
reduction, which latter is converted into a mono-acetyl
compound when treated with glacial acetic acid, or when its
hydrochloride is boiled with a mixture of sodium acetate
and acetic anhydride. The resulting acetyl compound is
the new antipyretic and antineuralgic. It forms white
needles, which melt at 155° C. They dissolve readily in
alcohol, fairly readily in hot water ; they possess slightly
basic properties, dissolving readily in dilute acids to form
salts. Its mineral acid salts are readily decomposed on
boiling, and gradually on crystallisation. The constitutional
formula for the acetyl-compound is the following : — ■
/C2H30
NH
OCjH5 N
Ortho-eth>>.ry-aiia-mono-aeefyl-ami(lo-tilti)l<>lni> .
Full details for the preparation of the products concerned
are given in the specification. — C. A. K.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
High Explosives in Warfare. Commander F. M. Barber,
U.S.N. J. Franklin Inst. 1891, 131, 117—140.
The author, while mentioning that all civilised nations are
experimenting with and adopting high explosives in place of
gunpowder for many military and naval purposes, points
out that his subject is hardly practical, as high explosives
cannot yet be said to have been regularly used in warfare.
The simplest applications of these explosives in warfare are
in connexion with torpedoes. While experimenting with
different explosives under water Gen. Abbot found that
nitroglycerin was 20 per cent, less effective under these
circumstances than dynamite No. 1. His idea was that
nitroglycerin was too quick in its action, and since water is
slightly compressible, a minute fraction of time is required
in the development of the full force of the explosive.
Gun-cotton is generally employed in America and Europe
for naval purposes, although Russia, Austria, and Italy also
use blasting gelatin. Experiments in England have shown
that the explosion of 500 lb. of gun-cotton placed 40 ft.
below any ship will sink her.
Mines for harbour defence are either buoyant or on the
ground. The former contain from 400 to 500 lb. of ex-
plosive, the latter from 500 to 1,500 lb., and these are not
efficient when the water is over 100 ft. deep.
Torpedoes carry from 75 to 250 lb. of explosive, and
those of the automobile variety attain a speed of 25 to 30
knots for 400 yards. The speed of the controllable torpedoes
is about 19 knots, and their effective range one mile.
The next application of high explosives is as bursting
charges for shells. After discussing the various calculations
and experiments which have been made to estimate the
force of the different explosives, the author considers the
following a fair rough estimate of the bursting charges of
shells : —
Powder l
Gun-cotton and dynamite C— 10
Nitroglycerin 13—15
Blasting gelatin 15—17
There are two ways of applying explosives in shells. The
one, in which a comparatively thick shell is employed, for
piercing armour plates, and containing a small quantity of
explosive, the other, in which a very large amount of
explosive is thrown, contained in a shell made as thin as
possible.
In this case the efficiency does not depend on the
dispersion of the pieces of shell, but upon the devastating
force of the bursting charge itself upon everything within
the radius of its explosive effect.
There are, however, great difficulties in the firing of high
explosives in shells owing to the liability of the shock
of firing to explode the charge in the shell before it leaves
the gun or mortar. In Europe these difficulties have been
attacked by trying to modify the explosive so that it can
be fired with safety from the ordinary powder gun, while
in America the high explosive has been taken as it is, and
the gun adapted to it. In the pneumatic gun the pressure
is low and can never exceed that in the firing reservoir,
which is 1,000 lb. per square inch. Hitherto with this gun
no accidents have happened while firing the most powerful
explosives in their natural state and in quantities over fifty
per cent, of the weight of the projectile.
Projectiles weighing 950 lb. and containing 300 lb. of
blasting gelatin and 200 lb. of dynamite No. 1, have been
thrown nearly one mile and exploded after disappearing
under water. It is calculated that this projectile would
have sunk any ironclad floating within 47 ft. of where it
exploded.
The effect of high explosives upon horizontal armour is
very great, but vertical armour has not yet been shattered.
— W. M.
Ml
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. 30,1802.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
of the Specific Gravity of Viscid
.i W. Briihl. Ber. 1891, 24, 2455—
Determination
Substances.
2457.
A pipette containing the viscid substance is inserted into
a graduated flask, which being then exhausted by means of
a side tube attached for that purpose, becomes charged with
tlie viscid substance as it is sucked from the pipette. This
is the arrangement and method adopted by the author
(Her. 24, 182), which, he points out, with a 10 cc. flask
readily gives results accurate to four places of decimals, and
which he considers decidedly preferable for accurate
scientific work to Scheibler's arrangement of a pipette
closed with two stop-cocks (this Journal, 1891, 657), inas-
much as this apparatus is open to the same objection as the
specific gravity bottle supplied with a capillar}' bored
stopper, namely, inconstancy of volume, an error which
however would be diminished by using a large pipette with
small stop-cocks. — I). A. L.
Vacuum Desiccator with Heating Arrangements. J. W.
Briihl. Her. 24, 2457—2459.
The plate which carries the bell-jar is furnished with three
openings, one serving the ordinary purpose of exhausting,
the other two carrying brass tubes 1 cm. in diameter, about
12 long, and extending 7 — 8 cm. above the plate, when' they
are soldered into a circular box about 15 cm. in diameter, and
1 cm. in height, made of copper plate 2 mm. thick, and
furnished with several supports soldered inside to prevent its
bursting when the bell-jar is exhausted. The tubes are
fixed air-tight through the plate by means of brass flanges,
caoutchouc stoppers, and screw-nuts. The box serves to
support the vessel containing the solution to be evaporated,
and can be heated by hot air, water, or steam, while a vessel
filled with an absorbent may be placed under the box if
required. — 1). A. I..
PATENT.
Improvements in or Appertaining to Mercurial Air-pumps.
\V. P. Thompson, Liverpool. Prom A. Raps, Berlin,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 2909, February 18, 1891. 8d.
These improvements, relating to an appliance for auto-
matically actuating mercurial air-pumps, are claimed as
consisting, firstly, in the use of a smaller counterweight
for the oscillating lever, combined with an adjustable
weighted arm. Secondly, in the introduction of an
expansion vessel in the pipe leading from the three way
cock to the oscillating mercury receptable.
For further details the specification must be consulted.
—P.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
A Delicate Test for Alum in Potable Water. Ellen II.
Richards. Technology Quarterly, 1891, 4, 194 — 195.
The precipitation of alumina on the addition of alum to
natural waters is proportional to the amount of carbonates
or bicarbonates present in the water. The precipitation is
gradual, and a water which will give a reaction for alum
immediately after filtration may give none after 24 hours.
Effluents from filters using alum which are originally clear
frequently become cloudy on standing from separation of
aluminium hydrate. When alum is added to brown surface
waters the precipitation of alumina is due to the colouring
matters, tannin and other substances.
The author's test is as follow? : — " To 25 cc. of the water
(concentrated from one liter or more, if necessary) are
added a few drops of freshly prepared logwood decoction;
any alkali is neutralised, and the colour brightened by the
addition of two or three drops of acetic acid. By com-
parison with standard solutions, the amount of alum
present may be determined. One part of alum in 1,000,000
of water can be detected with certainty. In cases of greater
dilution, concentration of several litres may be necessary to
obtain a decisive test. The logwood chips yield the right
colour only after having been treated with boiling water
two or three times, and rejecting the successive decoctions.
The first portion gives a yellow colour, the third or fourth
a deep red." — A. G. B.
INORGANIC CHEMISTR Y.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Examination of Tin-plated Iron Articles used for the
Preservation of Foods. J. Pinette. Chem. Zeit. 1891,
15, 1109.
.See wider Will — A., page 51.
Aluminium Sulphate. Papier-Zeitung, 1891, 16,
2326—2328.
See under XIX., pages 52 — 55.
The Chlorine Industry. Laboratory Investigations.
A. Keychler. Monit. Scient. 1891, 1249 — 1256.
See under VII., pages 34 — 36.
Electrolytic Separations. E. F. Smith and E. Muhr. Per.
1891, 24, 2175— 2181 ; and Amer. Chem. J. 1891.13
417—422.
The electrolytic deposition of gold from alkaline auro-
cyanides is well known, and the author has now demonstrated
how this property may be applied to the separation of the
precious metal from palladium, platinum, copper, cobalt,
nickel, and zinc. Palladium, for example, in solutions
containing excess of potassium cyanide, requires a current
of -—L^ ampere to pass 36 hours before it is deposited, and
when gold is also present the latter can be wholly separated
in from 12 to 14 hours, and quite free from palladium.
Platinum, and also nickel, resemble palladium in their
behaviour under similar circumstances, whilst potassium
zinc cyauide requires a current of at least 2 — 3 cc. of
electrolytic gas per minute for its decomposition. The
conditions of operation and the results are indicated in
the following table, which contains some of the autl:or"s
results : —
Sold
Present.
Potassium
Cyanide
Present.
Dilution.
Current
ill cc.
Electro-
lytic Gas
Per Min.
Palladium
or oilier
Metal
Present.
Gold
Deposited
(extremes).
Grins.
0-1102
Grnis.
1-5
Cc.
150
o-s
Gnus.
Palladium.
0 1200
Grms.
0-1162—3
11-1102
1-5
150
o- J,
0-1200
0-1160—50
0-1162
1-5
150
1-0
0-1200
0-1 101—58
II-11H7
2-5
150
10
Platinum.
0-2433
0-1171-01
0-1725
1-5
150
0-s
Copper.
0-12511
0-1725
n-172.-.
:/o
150
0-8
0-1250
0-1736
II-172.1
3 V,
150
ir t
11-12511
0-1735—20
1I-17'.I2
.TO
1511
0*0
Cobalt.
0-15-0-20
0-17VJ-99
0-1725
2'.-.
150
0-5
Nickel.
0-1373
0-1721
n-172.-,
.Til
1511
ro
0-1373
0-1718
0-1467
2-5
150
tl-5
0-1373
0-1462—60
0-1702
.TO
150
0-5
Zinc.
0-2000
0-1796
••
0-6
0-2000
0-1798—90
Jan. SO, 1802.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
61
The slight excess of gold observed in the precipitate in
111:111 v instances is stated not to he due to the presence of the
foreign metal. A battery of 6 to 1(1 Crowfoot cells was used
for these experiments, and the electrodes were l\ in. apart
during the electrolysis, which was performed in a platinum
dish. '
Solutions containing 0-0770 gnu. of silver, 0-2433 grm.
of platinum, and 2-5 gnus, ot potassium cyanide per
150 cc. yield their silver free from platinum by the action
of a current of a strength of 1 ce. electrolytic gas per
minute ; a stronger current brings down traces of platinum
as well. Cadmium cannot be separated either from platinum
or nickel by this mode of treatment. Mercury, on the
other hand, is readily separated from either of the latter
metals in cyanide solution; for example, by means of
current of a strength of 0-2 cc. electrolytic gas per minute
all tlie mercury can be separated from a solution containing
0-1902 grm. mercuiy, 0-2433 grm. of platinum, and 2-5
guns, of platinum cyanide per 150 cc. — D. A. L.
The Electrolysis of Metallic Phosphates in Acid Solution.
E.F.Smith. J.Franklin Inst. 1891,13,206— 209. (See
this Journal, 1890, 898—899.)
The author now finds that cadmium can be separated from
manganese electrolytic-ally without any particular difficulty.
Some of the heavier metals were studied in the same
manner as copper and cadmium (loc. cit.).
Platinum is deposited very rapidly From its acid phosphate
solution by the current, and can be separated from the
metals of the third and fourth groups.
Palladium also separates rapidly and completely from a
solution containing free phosphoric acid, but efforts to
separate palladium from cadmium, zinc, and other metals
were fruitless, for though the palladium was always fully
precipitated, it was either associated with the other metals
or separated in black spongy masses.
Gold. — No difficulty was experienced in the case of gold
by itself, but attempts to separate it from cadmium were
unsuccessful, though the separation of gold from zinc could
be carried out without the least difficulty. The separation
of gold from cobalt was also satisfactory.
The electrolysis of zinc, nickel, cobalt and iron phosphates
have thus far not yielded encouraging results. Strong
currents seem necessary ; even then the deposition of the
metals is rather slow. — O. H.
I dilute solution could be utilised for the electrolytic deposition
J of the metals, but the other products of decomposition
[ exerted such an influence on the solution that iu but very
few eases were quantitative results obtained. Mercury and
gold were the only two metals which gave satisfactory
results, the other metals, viz., cadmium, palladium, nickel,
cobalt, zinc, iron, manganese, lead, antimony, bismuth, and
tin, yielding no satisfactory results whatever. — O. H.
The Electrolysis of the Metallic Sulphocyanides. L. K.
Frankel. J. Franklin Inst. 1891,13, 144—150.
I\ a previous paper on the above subject by the present
author in conjunction with E. F. Smith (this Journal, 1890,
80) the statement was made that manganese when deposited
from a solution containing an excess of potassium sulpho-
cyanide separates as a greyish-white deposit on the negative
pole, differing in this respect from solutions of the nitrate
or the sulphate from which manganese is deposited as
oxide. Furthermore, it was stated that nickel, cobalt, iron,
and several other metals separate very rapidly from cold
sulphocyanide solutions under the influence ' of a weak
current. In the present paper the above experiments have
been repeated, and the action of the current has been tried
on various other metallic sulphocyanides, but the results
have been for the most part of a negative order.
The decomposition of concentrated alkaline sulphocyanide
is described, and the production of a lemon-yellow
amorphous deposit, which the author finds to be similar
and identical with Bunge's " pseudosulphocyanogen " (Her.
3, 297), also described by Eidon, and with " Canarin "
(perthiocyanogen, or persulphocyanogen), a yellow colour-
ing matter obtained by the action of chlorine or bromine on
sulphocyanic acid (see this Journal, 1884, 166 — 167,255,
and 476).
In dilute sulphocyanide solutions, however, the formation
of the lemon-yellow compound takes place in but small
quantities and only after the lapse of considerable time, so
that if the current be sufficiently weak and the solution
sufficiently dilute, no turbidity will take place in the
solution. It was anticipated that this behaviour of the
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
The Detection of Turkish Geranium Essence in Rose Oil.
G. Pauajotow. Ber. 1891, 24, 2700—2701.
The rose oil which is brought into the market both from
South Bulgaria and from Turkey is very often adulterated
with Turkish geranium essence (Indris yayhi). The adul-
terant can be detected by meaus of a solution of rosaniline
decolourised by sulphur dioxide (Schiff's reagent). 2 — 3
drops of Turkish geranium oil, when shaken with 2 cc. of
the reagent in the cold, give first a blue-violet and after
two hours a line blue colouration. Rose oil similarly
treated gives a red colouration after prolonged standing
(24 hours). Even the smallest traces of the geranium
oil can be thus detected by the blue colouration formed
on shaking the sample of the rose oil with the above
reagent, owing to the fact that it forms so much more
quickly than the red colouration produced by the pure rose
oil. The geranium oil can also be detected by treatment
with strong sulphuric acid. Turkish geranium oil dissolves
in this acid to form a thick brown-red liquid which, when
treated with 95 per cent, alcohol, turns turbid and separates
a flocculent yellow precipitate, whilst the solution becomes
red, and after standing some time, yellow. Rose oil also
forms a brown-red solution when treated with strong
sulphuric acid, but this, when treated with alcohol, dissolves
to a clear, colourless solution (compare this Journal, 1891,
63 and 269).— C. A. K.
ORGANIC CHEMIST R Y—QUANTITA TI VE.
On an Extraction Apparatus for the Determination of
Eat in Milk. E. Molinari. Ber. 1891, 24, 2204—
2209.
In 1888 Schmid devised a method (this Journal, 1888, 595)
for the determination of fat in milk in which 10 cc. of the
milk were boiled iu a graduated tube with 10 cc. of con-
centrated hydrochloric acid. 30 cc. of ether were then
added to the cooled liquid, and after shaking the volume of
the upper layer, was read off, an aliquot part taken,
evaporated to dryness, and the residue of fat weighed.
The chief objections to this method are that a brown
colouring matter is formed by the action of the acid on the
casein, which interferes with the observation of the line of
separation of the liquids, aud also that one extraction with
ether is not sufficient to remove all the fat. To avoid these
difficulties the author has devised the apparatus figured
below : —
Apparatus for Determination op Fat in Milk.
62
THE JOUliNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Jill). 30, 1892.
In order to use the apparatus, 10 cc. of milk are weighed or
measured into A, 10 cc. of hydrochloric acid are added, and
the liquid heated to boiling and boiled for li minutes, with
occasional slinking. The liquid becomes first rose-coloured
and afterwards lirown (not black). The liquid is now
cooled, 25 cc. of ether are added, and the two well shaken
together. The apparatus is now inverted, allowed to stand
for 5 — 6 minutes, when the dark-brown aqueous portion is
run into the flask B, the tap being turned, so that the air-
opening a communicates with B. After separation of the
acid liquid, the apparatus is now replaced in its original
position and A is removed. 10 cc. of ether are poured
into the cap of B and allowed to enter. After shaking, B is
inverted and the brown aqueous liquid drawn off. A is now
replaced, and the two ether extracts and washings allowed
to mix in A and washed twice with water, the aqueous liquid
being drawn off as before. Finally, the ether is evaporated
in A, and the residual fat weighed. — H. K. T.
The Use of the Centrifugal Machine in Analytical and
Microscopical Work. \V. Thorner. Chem. Zeit. 1891,
15, 1201—1203.
Thk author has applied the principle of centrifugal separation,
which has been already successfully used for the determi-
nation of fat in milk by means of the " Lactocrite," to the
analysis of flour, butter, and other food products. The
machine used is that known as the Victoria hand separator,
which permits a speed of 0,000 — 7,000 revolution- per
minute being obtained.
(1.) Analysis of Flours and Starches. — One grm. of the
substance to be tested was mixed with water, alcohol, or
ether in the tube shown in Fig. 1 to within about 2 cm. of
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
w
=s
Fig, 3i
I •"•" — —
i , • •-,' ' n
Apparatus for Centrifugal Separation.
the upper edge, the contents of the tube well shaken until
all lumps had been broken up, and rotated for precisely
live minutes at a speed of 2,000 — 2,500 revolutions per
minute. The tube illustrated bus a capacity of about 15cc,
while its lower, narrower part holds about 3 ec. and is
divided into divisions of O'l cc, while these again are
sub-divided into fifths so that a volume of 0-2 cc. can be
read. The following table shows some of the results.
The results given are the mean of several concordant
determinations. The figures in the last three columns
represent the volume occupied by the 1 grm. of the sample
taken expressed in tenths of a ec. It is apparent, on
inspection, that water is the most suitable liquid to use, a»
ii gives greater differences with samples of different, origin
than either alcohol or ether. The large volume occupied by
rye flour as compared with flour from wheat, affords a
Wheat flour, I ;
Wheat flour, II
Wheat flour. III. ...
Rye Hour. I )
Byeflour.II *
Oat flour
Barley flour
Pea flour
Buckwheat flour
Rice flour
Rice starch
Potato starch
Mondamin
Percentage
of Water.
Water.
Alcohol.
r
14-8
l6-6
u-e
W5
lfi-5
l
15-3
10-0
u-n -
30-0
.'ill-ll
16-4
16-0
11 "9
SO'O
17'8
12 "5
22'0
K',-5
it-.;
22 • \
20-11
It's
19'5
15-S.
13-8
19-8
14-2
15-0
12-ti
15-S
in
13-3
n-o
14'1
13-6
12-0
Ether.
15-8
15-6
15-11
lti-0
15-7
17-0
It'll
18-0
15o
1S"9
15-8
1-2-0
12" I
means for the detection of the former when mixed with
the latter as an adulterant. How far this is possible is
shown by the following table : —
Percentage of Rye Flour.
Volume in Tenths of 1 cc.
The results hitherto recorded were obtained with ordinary
air-dried samples ; the percentage of water had a certain
influence on the results, though its exact amount has not
yet been discovered. The remaining figures are, however,
obtained from samples dried at 100°— 102° C.
Volume in Tenths of 1 cc.
33-0
30-0
22-8
i:,".:
■'■'•s
23 -S
l.-.-o
16'8
15 '3
The figures given by a mixture of wheat and rye flour
similarly dried were not greatly different from those recorded
above for air-dried samples.
The weighing of 1 grm. or 2 grms. of the sample may be
conveniently avoided by the use of the little measuring
Jan.so.l892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
63
glass shown iu Fig. 2, which contains a definite quantity of
Hour when gently tilled and closed by sliding a small glass
plate over the top.
The author has applied the method to the determination
of mineral additions, such as chalk and barium sulphate.
The centrifugal machine can be usefully applied to the
preparation of articles to be examined microscopically.
For this purpose ."> gnus, of flour are heated with 500 grms.
of water on a water-bath. 100 cc. of the resulting liquid
are treated with 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid, and another
100 cc. with 1 cc. of caustic potash solution (1:2), then
heated for ten minutes on the water-bath and rotated for
five minutes. The residue of husks, &c. left at the bottom
of the tube after rotation lends itself readily to microscopic
examination.
(2.) The method above described is applicable to the
determination of the watery constituents in butter or
margarine. The measurement of the butter for technical
purposes is best effected by the little apparatus shown in
V\g. :!, which has a capacity of 10 cc. The tube A having
been tilled with butter, its ends are closed with plates B B and
it is, after being wiped, transferred to the tube of the centri-
fugal machine, which is placed in a water-bath so as to
melt the butter and allow it to run out of A into the
centrifugal tube. The tube is then rotated at about 2,000
revolutions per minute for two or three minutes. At the
end of this time the lower layer, which has separated from
the fat, is seen to consist [of two portions, the lower being
almost clear and generally containing some crystals of salt
and other mineral additions that may be present, as well as
such organic materials as flour or starch, and the upper
consisting mainly of a layer of caseine suspended in water.
The relation of these two layers varies considerably, hut
their sum represents the total amount of butter-milk
present.
The author has also attempted to apply the above method
to the determination of fatty acids in butter, using a special
form of tube with a narrow graduated neck for reading off
the volume of the separated fatty acids. The saponilication
and subsequent separation of the fatty acids are carried
out in the same tube. In conjunction with the above
method for the examination of butter, the author recommends
the use of the refraetometer, the form devised bj' Pulfrich
being convenient. By such means, data said to be sufficient
for judging the quality of a sample of butter may be
obtained in a short space of time. — B. B.
The Determination of Indigotin in Indigo. F. Ulzer.
Mittbeil. Techn. Gewerbe-Museums, 189]', 178—184.
The author lias examined the various methods in use,
or recentlv proposed (this Journal, 1885, 489, 491 ; 1887,
455; 1888,459; 1889, U40; 1891, 488 and 721) for testing
indigo, and considers satisfactory those only which aim at
effecting a separation of the indigotin in a pure state. Such
a method is the following, which to some extent is an
improvement upon a method employed in the laboratory of
I.. Biaeh : — A solution of sodium stannite is prepared by the
addition of sodium hydrate to 10 cc. of a solution of stannous
chloride containing 88 grms. of the crystallised salt per litre.
About 0-8 grm. of finely-powdered indigo is mixed with
this solution and allowed to stand, with occasional agitation,
for an hour, to effect the reduction of the indigotin ; 15 ce.
of hydiogen dioxide solution (10 vols) are added, and the
whole allowed to stand for another hour ; then the mixture
is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, heated to boiling and
filtered through a weighed filter. The precipitate so obtained,
after being washed successively with boiling water, dilute
potassium hydrate solution, and hot aleobol, is dried at
100° and weighed. It is then ignited, and the weight of
the ash deducted from the previous weighing, the difference
giving the amount of indigotin present. The treatment
with dilute sulphuric acid removes from the indigo
indigo-gluten and similar matters, that with potash and
alcohol the indifuscin (indigo-brown) and indirubin (indigo-
red) respectively. The washing with alcohol must be
discontinued when the filtrate, which initially has a brown
or red colour, shows a clear, pale-blue colour,
following results were obtained: —
The
Indigotin.
Indigotin (prepared by Fritsche's
method).
Commercial indigo (inferior quality)
Bengal indigo
Tirhoot indigo
Benares indigo
Indigo (manufactured by ammonia
process).
I.
II.
III.
PerCent. PerCent.
97-S5 97-80
PerCent
44-19
43-91
44-50
75-01
75-40
74-81
57-92
54 39
30-115
In a series of experiments made with a view to dispensing,
if possible, with the dissolution of the reduced indigo, finely-
powdered indigo was treated directly with hot alcoholic
potash, then with dilute hydrochloric acid and finally with
water. The results obtained, however, were in all cases
much too low, the indigotin being apparently acted upon by
alcoholic potash. Simultaneous treatment of the indigo
with alcohol and alkali being, therefore, unfeasible, recourse
was had to Berzelius' method of purification: — A mixture
of 0-6 grm. of powdered indigo and 50 cc. of a 5 per cent,
solution of sodium hydrate was heated to the boil, cooled,
diluted, and filtered through a weighed filter-paper, and the
residue washed with boiling water, dilute hydrochloric
acid (1 : 10), and finally with alcohol, then weighed and
ignited. In this manner the following results were
obtained: —
Indigotin.
Indigotin
Commercial indigo
(superior quality).
Commercial indigo
(inferior quality).
As it is improbable that any considerable over-reduction
of the indigotin takes place in the first-described method of
analysis, the author concludes that the last method yields
results 2—2 • 5 per cent, too high. Should further experience
prove that this relationship is constant, the latter method
would he preferable by reason of its greater rapidity, the
results obtained being corrected to the extent mentioned.
A correction must also be made for the loss of weight
sustained by the filter-paper used for collecting the indigotin,
tins loss amounting to approximately 1 per cent, of the
weight of the dry paper. — E. B.
Method for the Valuation of Extracts of Logwood.
v. Coehenhausen. Monit. Scient. 1891, 5, 943—948.
See wider VI., page 32.
PATENT.
Improvements in Apparatus for Testing the Quantity of
(--'ream in Milk. H. ¥,. Newton, London. From L. J.
Augustenborg and R. Hansen, Kolding, Denmark. Eng.
Pat. 14,797, September 1, 1891. 6d.
See under XVIII. — A., page 52.
6+
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, ISO:!.
Chestnut-Wood Tannin. II. Trimble. Jour. Franklil
I n-t. 1891, 132, 303—307.
See under XIV .. page 17.
Reduction of Oxygen Compounds by Magnesium. C.
Winkler. Ber. 18yi,24, 1966—1984.
See under X., pages 39 — -10.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
On the Colloidal Sulphides of Gold. E. A. Sehueider.
Ber. 1891, 24,2241—2247.
See under X., page 40.
Metallic Hydmsulphides. S. E. Linder and H. Pieton.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1891 — 1892, 176.
The authors have investigated the sulphides of copper,
mercury, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, zinc, bismuth, silver,
indium, and gold. With the single exception of bismuth,
all these metals form hvdrosulphides of a more or less
complicated character, which, in most cases, undergo
molecular condensation with elimination of sulphuretted
hydrogen when submitted to the action of acids. Taking
copper as a type, on treatment with sulphuretted hydrogen,
copper hydrate forms a solution of the hydrosulphide
7 CuS.T-LS. Acetic acid, in presence of excess of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, promotes molecular condensation, a
product being formed which has approximately the com-
position 9CuS.H.,S: while acetic acid, in absence of
sulphuretted hydrogen, promotes the formation of a product
approximately represented by the formula 22 CuS.rLS.
Hydrochloric acid produces still further condensation.
Mercuric sulphide forms products approximately represented
by the formula; 31HgS.H:S; G2 HgS.H,S.~ The latter
formula represents the precipitate formed in presence of
acid, and is a remarkably stable substance. Zinc sulphide
solution obtained from the hydrate contains about 14 per
cent, excess of sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen ; in
presence of acetic acid, a product represented approximately
by the formula 12 ZnS.H2S is formed.
The authors regard their results as evidence tending to
support the conclusions that the metallic sulphides are in
most cases polymerides of very high molecular weight.
The Physical Constitution of some Sulphide Solutions
H. Pieton. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1891—1892, 176—177.
The author has specially examined the solutions of mercuric,
antimonious and arsenious sulphides. In each case the
whole of the dissolved sulphide is found to be present in
the form of very finely-divided particles. Arsenious
sulphide is found capable of existing in " solution "
in three distinct types of sub-division. The following
examples illustrate the main characteristics of sulphide
'• solutions " : —
Mercuric sulphide. — Particles are visible under the micro-
scope (1,000 diameters); not diffusible even in absence of
a membrane.
Arsenious sulphide (a). — Particles are just visible.
Antimonious sulphide Particles are not visible, and it is
not diffusible, but particles are detected by their power of
scattering light, the scattered light being polarised.
Arsenious sulphide ()3). — Not diffusible; the particles
scatter and polarise light.
Arsenious sulphide (7). — Diffusible in the absence of a
membrane ; particles are shown to exist by optical behaviour.
The solutions examined exhibit a series passing from
those in which the particles of the solid are visible to those
in which the particles simulate the phenomena of liquid
diffusion, and, although not visible to the eye, are detected
by their power of scattering light.
Subitum and Pseudo-Solution. Part I. H. Pieton and
S. E. Linder. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1891 — 1892, 177.
The authors advance what they regard as a good prima
facie case for the belief that there is a continuous series of
grades of solution passing without break from suspension
to crystallisable solution. They hold that in the lowest
grades of solution a certain loose attraction exists between
the particles and the molecules of the solvent. This con-
clusion they support with experimental evidence gathered
from their own work and from other sources. They regard
the very finely-divided particles in the lower grades of
solution (colloid solution) as large molecular aggregates
retaining many of their molecular properties. They con-
sider that in passing up through the different grades of
solution, these aggregates on the whole become smaller and
the forces by which they are held in solution become more
definitely those of chemical attraction. They describe a
new property, which seems to hold for a large range of
dilutions, extending from suspension to crystallisable solu-
tion. This property consists in the repulsion of the dissolved
substance, as a whole, from one of the electrodes of a
battery immersed in the solution. Thus, in the case of
colloidal arsenic sulphide, the sulphide aggregates are
repelled from the negative electrode. They are also
repelled, but much less strongly, from the positive electrode.
In the ease of the crystallisable colouring matter Magdaia
red in absolute alcohol, an exactly similar phenomenon is
observed, but the repulsion is this time from the positive
electrode, aud there is no perceptible repulsion from the
negative electrode at all. The property is of much interest
in itself, but also as exhibiting similarities between the
different grades of solution.
In discussion, Mr. Page suggested that observations on
the nature of solutions, such as those described by the
authors, might with great facility be carried out in capillary
tubes under the microscope. Mr. Walenn said that in
working with electro-coppering solutions containing resin
in suspension he had had occasion to notice a clearing of the
liquid at the anode, such as had been referred to. Professor
Ramsay said that the problem of Brownian motion, or
pedesis, had engaged his attention since 1878, when he
published a paper in the " Proceedings of the Geological
Society " bearing on the settling of mud in salt water. The
problem attacked by Messrs. Linder and Pieton was one in
which he thought pedesis played an all-important part, as
the small particles, the existence of which had been proved
by their power of polarising light, were in exceedingly
rapid motion. The authors had shown that there is a
regular transition from visible particles to particles or
molecules such as those of oxyha-moglobin. It must,
therefore, be concluded that such exceedingly small particles
are also in rapid motion ; and the smaller the particle the
more rapid the motion. Pedesis had not received, as yet,
any satisfactory explanation ; the only fact which appeared
to throw any light on its nature was that the addition of a
salt to the solvent, rendering it an electrolyte, hindered
pedesis, and finally caused coagulation and settling. The
discovery of the true nature of pedesis would in all probability
be the key to the problem of the nature of solution. Mr.
Warington pointed out that the coagulation of clay by salts
had been studied by Schloesing (Chimie Agricole, p. 62 ;
Premy's Encyclopedic, tome x") and YV'.Skey (Chem.Xews).
Mr. Herbert Jackson said that the phenomena discovered
by the authors were similar to those observed in the case of
the liquids produced during the washing of many pre-
cipitates, such, for instance, as lead hydrate or silver
nitroprusside, which refuse to settle completely as soon as
the liquid in which they are diffused becomes approximately
pure water, or which show a tendency to come through the
paper when washed on a filter. Such precipitates can be
made to furnish turbid liquids in which the particles are so
tine that they will not settle for many months, although, as
is well known, the addition of a drop or two of a saline
solution, e.g., sodium acetate or potassium nitrate, will
cause rapid deposition of the solid.
These opalescent liquids give the results described aud
shown by the authors when examined at right angles to a
narrow beam of stiong light.
Jan. 30,189a.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
65
He had found in the ease of lead hydrate that the
microscope revealed moving particles with an average dia-
diameter of ^^—t; of an in. Some, in the ease of silver
nitroprusside, weir less than 1)^0II of an in.
It is unite clear that it is impossible to call a liquid
homogeneous because the microscope fails to show structure.
All that can be said is that the particles in water, if not
visible with lenses of the greatest possible angle for water,
are probably not much greater than the Tlr,,' of an inch
in diameter. Of course it must be understood that changes
in the limits will be observed when the refractive index of
the particles differs very greatly from that of the fluid in
which they are diffused, as is the case with As2S3 in water.
It seems probable, therefore, that the phenomena observed
in the cases of As«S.,, and others which were mentioned,
differ only in degree, and not in kind, from those in the
eases of Sb.,S;(. and similar bodies, and from the opalescent
liquids obtained in washing many precipitates.
^fUj 3Soohs(.
Chemisch-technisches Repertorium. Uebersichtlich
geordnete Mittheilungen der neuesten Krfindungen,
Eortschritte und Verbesserungen auf dem Gebiete der
Technischcn und Industriellen Chemie, mit Hinweis auf
Maschinen, Apparate und Literatur. Herausgegeben von
Dr. Emil Jacobsen, 1890, Zweites Halbjahr. Zweite
Halftc. Berlin, 1892, B. Gaertner's Verlagsbuchhund-
lung. Hermann Heyfelder, S.W. Schiiueberger str. 26.
London : H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, C'ovent
Garden.
The Technological Repertorium closes for the year 1890
in a volume, the pages of which run from 97 to 224. It
ends with an Alphabetical Index. The text is embellished
with numerous woodcuts, and pages 217 to 223 are rilled
with a report of New Books which have appeared in the
period covered.
The subjects treated are as follows : — Food Stuffs ; Paper;
Photography ; Residuals, Manures, Disinfection, and Sani-
tation; Snaps; Explosives; Preparation and Purification
of Chemicals; Chemical Analysis ; Apparatus, Machinery ;
Electro - technology ; Thermo - technology. Appendix.
Special Preparations, Adulterants. New Books,
Kurzes Lehrbuch der Analytischen Chemie. Dr. W.
v. MrLLER und Dr. H. von Kiliani, Professoren an der
k. Technischcn Hochschule. Miinchen. Zweite vermehrte
und verbesserte Auflage. Munich: Theodor Ackermann,
Konigl. Hof. Buehhiindler, 1891. London: H. Grevel
and Co., 33, King Street, C'ovent Garden.
Octavo volume bound in the usual paper cover. It contains
Title Page, preface to the second edition, Table of Contents,
Table of Abbreviations, Table of Atomic Mreights, and 598
pages of subject-matter, followed b}r two tables, one of the
Tension of Aqueous Vapour and the other of the Density of
Gases. The work is concluded by an Alphabetical Index.
Ninetj-six woodcut illustrations are contained in the text.
The division of the matter is somewhat novel, though
undeniably very effective. It is as follows: — General
Methods. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis. Drying
of Solid Substances. Weighing of the Substance for
Analysis. Solution of Solid Substances. 1. Gravimetric
Analysis. II. Volumetric Analysis. III. Gas Analysis.
1. I'akt. — The Metals. First Group : The Alkalis.
Second Group : The Alkaline Earths. Third Group,
Fourth Group. Fifth Group. II. Part. — The Non-
Metals. Phosphorus. Nitrogen. Sulphur. Silicon. Boron.
Chlorine. Bromine. Iodine. Fluorine. Carbon. Elemen-
tary Analysis of Organic Bodies. Analysis of Smoke-,
Heating-, Illuminating-, and other Gases. Estimation of
Water in Solid Bodies. Spectrum Analysis. The last page
of the book contains a chromo-lithograph of the Solar
Spectrum. The price of the work is 10s.
Analyse der Fette end Wachsarten. Von Dr. Rudolf
Benedikt. Professor an der k. k. Technischcn Hochschule
in Wien. Zweite Auflage. Berlin : Verlag von Julius
Springer, 1892. London : II. Grevel and Co., 33, King
Street, Covent Garden.
Tins work now runs into a second edition, and consists of
an 8vo. volume strongly bound in cloth. It commences
with a Preface, and this is succeeded by a Table of Con-
tents. The text covers 460 pages, and concludes with an
Alphabetical Index. Thirty-two well executed wood
engravings illustrate descriptions of apparatus, &c, given,
and the general mode of treatment of the subject may be
gathered from the following excerpt of the sub-divisions of the
work : — I. Constituents of the Fats and Waxes. A. Acids.
B. Alcohols. II. Physical and Chemical Properties of the
Fats and Waxes. 1. Fats. 2. Waxes. 3. Behaviour of
the Fats during Saponification. III. Estimation of the
Substances not Fats, in Mixtures of Fats, and Preparation
of the Substance for Analysis. IV. Methods for Deter-
mining the Physical Properties of the Fats. V. Elementary
Analysis of the Fats. VI. Quantitative Scientific Investi-
gation of a Fat of unknown Origin. VII. General Methods
for Determining the Quantitative Composition of Fats and
Fatty Mixtures. A. Quantitative Reactions. B. Quantita-
tive Estimation of Single Constituents of the Fats. VIII.
Recognition and Quantitative Estimation of such foreign
Substances as are contained dissolved in the Fatty Sub-
stance, or melted up with it. A. Estimation of Unsaponi-
fiable Substances. B. Detection of small quantities of
Fats in Mineral ( tils. C. Investigation of the Uusaponifiahle
Constituents. I). Detection and Estimation of Resins and
Colophony in Fat. IX. Investigation of Materials and
Products of the Fat Industry. A. Candles. B. Soaps. C.
Turkey-red Oil. D. Lubricating Oils, &c. I. Glycerin.
X. Investigation of Oils. XL Investigation of Solid Fats
and Waxes. XII. Description of Individual Fats and
Waxes. XIII. Examples. The price of the work is '.).«.
Explosives and Ordnance Material, considered with
reference to some recent experiments with Emmensite,
Gelbite, and Aluminium Bronze. By Stephen H.
Emmens, Member of the U.S. Naval Institute, of the
Society of Chemical Industry, &c. Reprinted from the
Proc. U.S. Naval Institute, Vol. XVII., No. 3. Baltimore
Press of Isaac Friedenwald Co. 1891.
This is a treatise reprinted from the Proceedings of the
U.S. Naval Institute, and is handsomely hound in cloth,
forming a volume of large 8vo. size. The pages, numbering
91, are adorned with 11 well-executed photo-lithographic
plates. The treatment of the subjects may be gathered
from the following sub-division of the text ; — Chap. I.
The Ballistic Theory of Explosives. II. The Ballistic
Theory of Explosion Stress. III. The Comparison of
Explosives. IV. Some Remarks upon the Foregoing
Tables, and upon the Humanity of Text-books. V. Em-
mensite. VI. Gelbite. VII. Aluminium Bronze and
Ferro-Nickel. The work closes with an Addendum giving
some additional results acquired after the preceding matter
had been written.
66
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ Jan. 30, 1892.
A Text-Book on the Science op Brewing. By
Edward Ralph Moritz, Consulting Chemist to the
Country Brewers' Society, and George Harris Morris,
J'h.II.. !'.( I.S., I''. I.C. Basetl on a Course of Six Lectures
delivered by E. K. Moritz at the Finsbury Technical
College of "the City and Guilds of London Institute.
London : E. and F. N. Spon, 125, Strand. New York :
12, Cortlandt Street. 1891.
Large 8vo. volume bound in cloth, with 1'reface, Intro-
duction, Table of Contents, List of Plates, 514 pages of
subject matter, illustrated by 13 well-executed wood
engravings and 10 excellent plates exhibiting Microscopic
[mages. The matter is arranged and sub-divided as
follows : — Section I. Materials. Chap. I. Brewing
Waters. II. Barley and Malt. III. Malt Substitutes.
IV. Hops. Section II. Processes. Chap. A'. Mashing
and Sparging. VI. The Boiling of the Wort. VII. Fer-
mentation. VIII. The Racking and Storage of Beer.
Section III. Chap. IX. The Analysis of Water. X. The
Analysis of Malt and Wort. XI. The Analysis of Sugars
and Hops. XII. The Analysis of Beer. Appendix.
Preparation of Standard Solutions. The price of the work
is 21*.
Craue Import*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
(From the Board of Trade and other Journals.';
Russia.
Customs Decisions.
Note. — Poud = 3G lb. avoirdupois. Rouble = 100 copecks
= 3s. 2d.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the Russian Customs tariff have recently been
given by the Russian Customs authorities -. —
Bones treated with muriatic acid and forming a raw
cartilaginous mass (osseine) under section 43, point 2 of
tariff.— Duty, 1 rouble 20 cop. gold per poud.
An antimonial preparation representing a raw and an
unpurified oxide of antimony under section 92, point 1. —
Duty, 20 cops, gold per poud.
Manufactures of Britannia metal not gilt or silvered,
even though with stamped ornamentation in relief, under
section 149, point 1 (duty, 4 roubles and 80 cops, gold per
poud) ; and the same manufactures with east or engraved
ornamentation in relief, under point 2 of the same section.
— Duty, 16 r. gold per poud.
Zinc in rods, under section 147, point 1. — Duty, 50 cops,
gold per poud.
Manufacture of copper and copper alloys not gilt or
silvered, with cast ornamentation in relief, even though
th, se ornaments form the lids, handles, feet, &c, of these
goods, under section 149, point 2. — Duty, 16 r. gold per
poud.
Coal tar under section 83, point 3.— Duty, 20 cops, gold
per poud.
Sweden.
Oleomargarine is henceforward to be treated as butter.
Lead wire is freed. At present it pays Id. per kilo.
Switzerland.
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff.
Note. — Quintal = 220-4 lb. avoirdupois. Franc = 9-nyrf.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the Swiss Customs tariff were given by the Swiss
Customs authorities in the month of November last : —
" Beuzolina " (a liquid for removing stains, benzole with
the addition of a little ether). — Category 9. Duty, 10 francs
per quintal. " Benzolina " is also liable to a monopoly tax
(finance de monopole) of 3 francs 50 cents, per quintal
gross weight.
Manufactures of aluminium. — Category 143. Duty,
16 francs per quintal.
Sulphurous acid, compressed, in tank waggons, is
classified at the rate of 2 francs per quintal, according to the
net weight, increased by a tare of 30 per cent, of this net
weight.
Italy.
Changes in Customs Duties and Regulations.
Note. — Quintal = 220-4 lb. avoirdupois. Kilog. =
2-204 lb. avoirdupois. Hectolitre = 22 Imp. gallons.
Franc = 9^d.
Communications, dated the 8th and 31st December last,
have been received from the Foreign Office, transmitting a
copy and translation of an Italian decree dated the
22ud November last relative to changes in the Italian
Customs duties and regulations, and also copies and trans-
lation of a later decree of the 24th December affirming and
modifying the stipulations of the same. The various
changes introduced by these two decrees are as follows ■ —
Modifications in Internal Taxes on Manufactures as
effected by the Decree of the 22?td November. — Art. 1.
The internal tax on the manufacture of sugar is fixed at
63*15 francs for each quintal of sugar of the first class,
and 55 '95 francs for each quintal of sugar of the second
class.
Art. 2. The internal tax on the manufacture of spirits,
and the surtax on the importation of spirits from abroad,
are fixed at a scale of 140 frs. for each hectolitre of pure
alcohol of the temperature of 15-56: measured by centesimal
thermometer.
Art. 3. This article is suppressed by the later decree.
Art. 4. The following products which have an alcoholic
basis, when imported, are liable to a surtax at the following
scale : —
Ether and chloroform, 3'40 frs. per kilo, of ether or
chloroform, without abatement for the weight of the
actual receiver.
Spirituous essences of rum, cognac, or others containing
spirit. 0'80 fr. per kilo., without abatement lor the
weight of the vessel containing tin- essence.
Perfumes containing alcohol, lOO'OO frs. per gumta!,
without abatement for weight of vessel containing.
Spirit varnish, 9j'00 frs. per quintal at net legal weight.
Art. 5. The tax on the manufacture of beer is fixed at
1-20 frs. for each degree of strengtli measured with the
centesimal saccharometer at a temperature of 17 ■ 50° C. for
every hectolitre of beer.
In paying this tax the maximum limit of saccharometric
degrees is fixed at 16 and the minimum at 10.
(Details follow as to method of test.)
Art. 6. The surtax on beer imported from abroad is fixed
at 19 "20 frs. per hectolitre, with a facultative reserve to the
importer of paying at the scale of its saccharometric or
alcoholic degrees if effectually ascertained.
Art. 2 of the decree of the 24th December provides that
the tax referred to in Art. 2 of the aforesaid decree is
understood to refer only to those who receive goods direct
from the place of their origin (ai soli recipienti d'origine).
Arts. 3 to 6, inclusive, refer to distilling.
Jan. SO, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
67
Art. 7. In the case of beer exported to foreign countries,
tlie excise paid in the kingdom shall be restored at the rate
of 12 lire (about 10*.) per hectolitre.
Art. 8. Barley intended for the manufacture of beer is
allowed a free eutry under the conditions established by
Royal decree.
Art. 9. Glucose exported to foreign countries is granted
a relief from taxation of 90 per cent, by means of a corre-
sponding subtraction from the certified amount manufactured
(accertamenli di fabbriea).
Art. 10. The amount of the tax on the fabrication of
spirit used in the manufacture of vinegar (aeeto) is fixed
at the rate of 70 lire per hectolitre of pure alcohol.
Art. 11. The temporary import of sugar destined for use
in the production of sweets (canditi) for export is permitted
without consulting the (Superior Council of Commerce,
according to the forms and methods which shall be ordained
by Royal decree.
Nbw Customs Tariff of Mexico.
(See Board of Trade Journal for January, p. 55 seq.'j
Tariff on Petroleum ib France.
Report by C. Lavollee for the Committee of Commerce.
Bull, de la Societc a? Encouragement pour V Industrie
Nationale, 1891, 6, 277—284.
This report compares the duties levied on petroleum oils
imported into France, with the tariffs in existence in other
Fairopean countries, and also gives a history of the origin
of the various duties imposed since 1864. The main object
of the report is to show the necessity of reducing the
protective rates on this import. The author refers to a
paper read before the Society on 8th February 1889 by
Mr. Besnard relating to the state of perfection to which
the manufacture of mineral oil lamps had then been
brought, and to the advantages that at that time would
have followed a decrease in the Customs dues. M. Rousselle
in April 1890 brought to the notice of the Society the small
quantity of mineral oil used in the country, and solicited
an investigation on this matter by the Committee of Com-
merce. In accordance with this suggestion a report was
drawn up supplementary to the communication of M.
Besnard.
The first duty levied on petroleum dates from 4th June
1864, crude petroleum being admitted free and refined oil at
3 francs per 100 kilos. The consumption of oil steadily
increased till the eventful year 1871. The use of mineral
oil by incendiaries produced an unfavourable impression on
this import at that time, and at a sitting of the National
Assembly on 29th May 1871 a statute was passed "for-
bidding the sale or storage of petroleum (or any other
mineral oil ) without the district police prefect's permission.
The penalties for breaking this law were very stringent
(tint's varying from 16 — 1,000 frs., and imprisonment from
one month to two years). In July in the same year, how-
ever, crude oil was admitted at a duty of 20 frs., and
refined oil at 32 frs. per 100 kilos, respectively. This tariff
was augmented in 1873 to 30 and 37 frs. on the crude and
refined oils. In 1881 the duties were altered to 18 frs. on
crude and 25 frs. on refined oil per 100 kilos. The
Government at present (June 1891) proposes a tax of 18
and 24 frs. for crude and refined oils respectively, the
Commission suggesting 1 fr. less for the refined oil. The
tariff in 1871 was a measure of social defence, and has
become little by little a protective duty for the benefit of
the refining industry. The refiners state a high protective
tariff is necessary to maintain their industry, their opponents
declaring, however, that their industry is very flourishing,
anil that favour accorded to refiners, who are few in number
and employ few hands, prejudices other commerce. From
American statistics we find a great excess of petroleum
imported by us is crude, a different feature in comparison
with other countries. The following figures speak for
themselves.
Oil Exported from North America, 1S88-89.
' — —
Crude Oil.
Refined Oil.
Gallons.
63.955,708
3,064,421
8,684
Gallons.
138,518,352
58,703,730
3S,000,000
41,000,000
Now it seems a strange thing to induce such an extensively
industrious country as North America to export a natural
earthy product in a crude state when economy in transit
and manipulation would be made by exporting the refined
oil.
It is stated that lighter dues levied on the mineral oils
would very nearly ruin the vegetable oil trades, the colza
oil industry, being the one of most importance, supplying
70 per cent, of the total bulk to these oils : the colza oil
produced in FYance during 1887 being valued at 32,000,000
francs. The quantity of oil is annually decreasing in
production, owing, firstly, to extension of other lighting
agencies, and, secondly, to the farmers preferring to grow
other crops, principally beetroot. This diminution of colza
production is also noticed in Belgium and Germany.
The receipts resultiug in the mineral oil tariff are
perhaps the most important question. In 1871 revenue
was 5,000,000 francs; in 1880 (on 63 million kilos.)
21,000,000 francs; in 1888 (on 155 million kilos.) was
32,000,000 francs.
The French consumption has enormously increased
during the last 10 years, and the Parisian consumption has
multiplied three-fold in the last 10 years, notwithstanding
the double duty of Customs and city fees. It is natural
that a reduction in tariff must affect the receipts, but it is
not more certain that the deficit will be almost immediately
supplied by the augmented consumption.
As an example of comparative consumption Belgium uses
four times the quantity of oil proportionally to France.
In Belgium and England neither crude or refined oils pay
duty. In Holland equivalent to 1 ■ 17 francs per 100 kilos. ;
Switzerland, equivalent to 1'25 francs per 100 kilos. ; Italy,
equivalent to 4 • 00 francs per 100 kilos.; Germany, equivalent
to 7*50 francs per 100 kilos.
If these tariffs are compared with the French scale of
duties, the excessive amount of the latter can easily be
seen. A strong point of argument in favour of lowering the
mineral oil tax is in the fact that a tax is, as a rule, in some
measure proportionate to the value of the goods taxed.
Now, taking the tax of 18 francs imposed on crude
petroleum in 1881, -the price of the oil has so much
decreased that at the present time the duty is about 120 pet-
cent, of the value of the product. To be just and equitable
all taxes ought to be calculated in moderate proportion to
the value of the material taxed. It appears very necessary
to reduce these excessive rates at once ; a very large
number of consumers would be benefited, and an impetus
given to the trade now that lamps and better rectification of
the oils has largely increased the value of these oils as
illuminants. The extending uses of these oils for petroleum
engines and other devices render the taxation on this article
a serious and shortsighted policy which the Committee of
Commerce strongly wish to see altered. — E. F. II.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Cocaine in India.
An inquiry was some time ago instituted through the
Secretary of State by Dr. McXamara. Examiner of Medical
Stores, Madras, if the hydrochlorate of cocaine, which in
England costs 12/. per pound, couhl not be more economi-
(38
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1 SU-2.
rally manufactured either at the Government opium agencies
or al <>!»■ of the quinine factories in India. The Allahabad
Pioneer Mad says that the matter was considered, and it
was found that there ought to be no difficulty in extracting
the alkaloid in a laboratory such as that possessed by the
Medical Stores Department, Madras. In a reference, how-
ever, to the surgeon-general it was found that the total
annual consumption of the drug was only ■)', lb., and so it
was decided that, for the present at least, it would not be
worth while making it. The Erythroxylon cura has now
been cultivated for many years in several parts of the
Presidency. It grows like a weed, and the yield of cocaine
from the leaves is fully equal to that obtained from the
Americau shrub. Should there, therefore, be at any time
i larger demand for this alkaloid, there would be no
difficulty in obtaiuiug a very large amount of the leaves,
but it is doubtful if, with the prices now ruling in the
market, the cultivation of the plant in any large quantities
would pay the planter.
Hungarian Industry.
Industry in Huugary made rapid strides in 1890.
According to the Journal de la Chambre de Commerce de
Constantinople a number of the old factories have been
re-organised in accordance with all the exigencies of modern
science, while a large number of new establishments have
sprung up throughout the country. The capital sunk for
this purpose was nearly 2,500,U00/. (taking the Austrian
florin as equivalent to 2*-.), whilst the number of factories
amounted to 1,132, with those in Croatia and Slavonia to
1,249, and with the alcohol factories to 1,516. The Hun-
garian Minister of Commerce has ordered a new census of
all the industrial establishments in the country, inclusive of
Transylvania ; this shows that at the present time there are
in Hungary 1,871 factories.
Among the new industrial establishments the following
are worth mention : the gelatin factory of Pilich and Co.
at Szeged ; the industrial company for linen and hemp
products at Ujszeged ; the tallow factory of Redlich and
Sons at Kobanya ; the condensed carbonic acid factory of
Baron Gabriel Apor at Kukullo ; the match factory of
Michel Salzer at Kovaszna ; a large cement factory of
M. Lazare Blau at Hunyad ; the cotton spinnery of William
Low at Segesvar : lastly, the French Mercury Mining
Coin], any of Zalatisa, with a capital of 80,000/., the director
of which is M. Labreux, a French engineer.
Several other factories and a large number of steam mills
have been established within the last few months in different
paits of Huugary and Transylvania.
Tkadk between Spain and the United Kingdom.
Imports into the
United Kingdom from
Spain.
Exports of British and
Irish Produce from United
Kingdom to Spain.
Exports of Foreign
and Colonial Produce
from United Kingdom
to Spain.
iSlJO.
1891.
ISijO.
1891.
v,...
1891.
Quarter ended :—
31st March
30th June
e
3,i62,4S4
2,617,256
2,718,618
2,541,001
2.221,0813
3,069,234
£ £
.,-■.-"..'.■ 1,339,710
f,tj6,366 1,284,879
;,.'.,. . 1,243,072
1,177,635 1,099,706
E
1~5,8~7
f.
151,420
1 "s, ;,,-,;(
148,620
IIS, 1)57
Total tor Year
42,5*14.16
10,549,939
;.',;; ,282 1.667.367
700,01);
547,556
Sulphate of Ammonia.
Production, Deliveries, and Exports during Four
Years, 1888— 1891.
PRODUCTION :—
England, Scotland, and Ireland,
from all sources.
Deliveries ami Kxports: —
Germany, Denmark, Sweden,
Russia, &c.
France, Spain, and Italy
Belgium and Holland
America and * olonies
Homo consumption for agricul-
i ural and chemical purposes
(including the liquor used in
\ arious processes of manu-
facture).
Stocks :il works
1801. 1890. 1880. 1888.
Tuns. Tons. Tuns.
1 18,000 134,000 133,000
Tons.
122,800
28,000
30,111111
32,ll(lli
32,000
19,000
16,000
18,000
19,000
23,(100
22,000
20,000
is. 1
20,000
18,000
17,11110
1 1,11110
43,000
I2.i 100
ll.llllll
3] '
10,000
6,000
5,000
8,500
1 18,000
134,000
133.1
122,800
~Bradhury and I/irseh.
The Soukceb <>i Sulphate of Ammonia.
Tuns.
Gas works 107,000
Iron works 6,500
Shak- works 27,000
Coke and carbonising works 3,000
143,500
The production during the previous five years, adjusted
from the carefully compiled report of Mr. Alfred Fletcher,
the Chief Inspector under the Alkali Works Regulation Act,
1881, was :—
—
1890.
1 889.
1888.
1887.
ism;
102,150
1110,700
93.(1(10
85,000
82,500
5,1150
6,150
5,300
5,000
4,000
Shale
24,750
23,950
22,000
21,
is, 1
Coke and carbonising
works.
2,300
2,800
2,500
2,700
2,000
131,2511
133,600
122,800
113,71111
106,500
—Ibid.
Jan. 80.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
69
Production ob Beet Sugar in Russia in 1888 — 89.
Hull Soc. dr Encouragement Vindustrie Nationale, 1891,
'6, ICG— 171.
This article refers to the sudden rise in the output of sugar
in Russia during the season 1888 — 89, as shown in the
following figures : —
Season,
Number
of Works open.
Quantities Produced.
1881 -sl'
2:«
Ponds.
15,936,71 f
1882-38
237
17,587,890
1883 M
•Jll
18,859,739
1881— 85
210
20,953,120
1885 86
241
29,039,594
188G-87
22'.)
25,919,631
issr «
21S
23,749,028
1883—89
2-2H
28,393,027
dpi
■■ W3S1 kilos.)
The sudden rise in output in 1888 — 89 is connected
with the increase of the urea under beetroot cultivation, an
increase of not less than 6 per cent, of the three regions
(South-West and Central Goverments, and Poland), in
which beetroot is grown, the increase is greatest, 27 per
cent., in the South' West district, and least, 4 per cent., in
Poland.
Of the 220 works in operation during 1888 — 89, 186, or
more than four-fifths, were for raw sugar.
( >f the 220 works, only 8 employed hydraulic presses,
the other 212 using the diffusion method.
The number of works in which the output was above
100,000 pouds, was 101 in 1887—88 and 135 in 1888 — 89,
the principal increase being in the South-Western district.
—V. C.
Minerals in Persia.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1240—1211.
I p till now the following ores have been found in
paying quantities : Iron, copper, lead, antimony, manganese,
nickel, cobalt ; also coal, asbestos, borax, and cinnabar
Phere also exists petroleum springs. Copper and lead ores
have been worked by the natives for many ages, but it seems
that they chiefly smelted the more readily reducible ores,
such as red copper ore, malachite, azurite, white or yellow
lead ore, and galena. Ores rich in sulphur, such as black or
grey copper ore, were either not used at all, or mixed in
small quantities with the other minerals. Near old smelting
works may he seen vast accumulations of litharge, which
points to the ancient production of silver from argentiferous
galenas.— L. dc K.
The Russian- Quicksilver Minks.
In addition to the quicksilver mines in operation near
Bakhmont, in European Russia, which produce at the
present time 20,000 pouds of mercury annually, deposits of
mercury have been discovered in the province of Daghestau,
in Caucasia, and the mining administration has every reason
to believe that private enterprises will be established which
will make undertakings of this kind very profitable. The
Ministry of Domains has decided to tax Russian mercury,
as is done witli all other Russian metals. It is proposed to
establish taxes of 50 copecks per poud of pure mercury
and of 45 copecks per poud of cinnabar made from Russian
mercury. — Chemist and Druggist.
Boars of Trade Notice.
River Pollution in Spain. (Tenders for Sewage
Works.)
The municipality of Bilbao are about to invite engineers
to submit preliminary plans for a system of sewers to
prevent the pollution of the river Nervion. The best four
plans will receive premiums varying between 10.000 and
1,000 pesetas. Five months are allowed for the preparation
of the plans. Copies of the conditions can be obtained of
the secretary of the Ayuntamiento of Bilbao, and a copy
can be seen at the Commercial Department of the Foreign
Office, London, between the hours of 11 and 5.
Articles of Interest to Technologists and others.
The following articles in the Board of Trade Journal
for January will repay perusal : —
"Artificial Butter Legislation in France," p. 22.
" Belgian Coal and Iron Industries," p. 24.
" The Salmon Industry in British Columbia," p. 31.
" Mining Industry of Colombia," p. 68.
" The Production of Aluminium," p. 70.
"Quicksilver Mining in Russia," p. 71.
" Cryolite Production in America," p. 77.
"Anthracite Coal in West Virginia," p. 82.
"Fibre Industries in the Punjab," p. 85.
" The Wealth of Nova Scotia," p. 89.
" Mineral Production of New South Wales," p. 90.
•' Mineral Production m Queensland," p. 92.
"The Coal Industry of Natal," p. 95.
Post Office Notice.
Alterations of Book Post Pi i i —.
On and from the 1st January 1892, the following
alteration of the Book Post rules came into operation : —
Open Envelopes for Hook Packets.
In addition to covers entirely open at the ends, ordinary
envelopes left wholly unfastened will be admitted as covers
for book packets, whether addressed to places in the United
Kingdom or to places abroad.
UNITED STATES MINERAL STATISTICS.
(From the Engineering and Mining Journal.)
Imports and Exports of Mineral Products for Ten Months ending October 31st, 1890 and 1891.
(Extract from Report by the Bureau of Statistics.)
Imports Ten Months ending October 31.
Quantity.
Value.
WW).
Asphall mi' "i" bitumen, crude Tons
Mineral waters, all. not artificial Galls.
Chlorate of p .1 i^li I.b.
Muriate of potash „
57,073
87373
Dilhirs.
198,070
Pol hi rs.
239,801
2,289.602
1,479,109
IJ.'l.UI
293,449
311,11211*
2,591,633
33,580
2 17,900
4.-..s7'.>, i;;
03,301,008
JO2.03J
991,708
Prom October 6tli.
70
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
Imports Ten Months ending October 31, 1891 — continued.
Quantity.
Value.
Nitrate cf potash, crude Ij,t-
Other potassium salts
Nitrate of soda To"s
Sulphur and brimstone, crude ,,
Guano »
Phosphates, crude or nativo
( Itlier fertilisers
Manufactures of iron and steel, n.e.s
Oras, gold-bcarinp
Ores, silver-bearing
Platinum, unmanufactured Lb.
Plumbago Tons
Tin, in bars, blocks, pigs, or grain or granulated Lb.
Brass, and manufactures - f
Cement Lb.
Coal-tar colours and dyes
Bicarbonate of soda ,,
Causl ic soda ■
Sal soda and soda ash >■
Other salts of soda, n.c.s ..
(lays or earths Tons
Coal, bituminous
Copper ore (lino copper e mtaineu therein) Lb.
Copper, in pigs, liars, ingots, old and other unmanufactured ,
Manufactures of copper
Iron ore Tons
Viz iron »
Scrap iron and steel »
Bjr iron
Bars of iron or steel, railway „
Co'. ton ties, or balm- hoops Lb.
Hoop, band, or scroll, iron or steel „
Ingots, blooms, and billets of iron or steel „
Sheet, plate, and taggers, iron or steel
Tin plates, tome plates, and taggers, tin ■
Wire rods of iron or steel
AY ire and wire rope
Manufactures of iron and steel, n.e.s.,
Pi inns si ones, n.e.s
Lead, and manufactures of
Metals, and manufactures of, n.e.s
Marble ami stone, and manufactures of
Mineral substances, n.e.s
Mineral oils f;alls.
Salt Lb.
Zinc, in blocks or pig, and old
Zi ne. manufactures of
1S00.
12,3-22,614
651,592*
■
118,287
1,087
25,140
ism.
13,589,677
11,240,212
S9,«65
103,613
11,762
22,087
1,907
11,024
2! ,734 875
1.649
8,075
31,202,788
851,1 15,625 1,001,768,795
Tut.::..".
73,377,950
294,693,930
18,872.858
47,301
056 612
4,056,S89
104,716
1 059.660
[15,029
12,743
47,006,849
204
33,769,982
13,538,003
54,061,881
16,210,376
614,729,703
108,998,878
8,571,375
1,190,1 is
.", 1,586,958
276.697309
13,038,853
50 850
1,084,896
10,381,651
2,897,334
777,183
16,161
133,521
30,615,820
233
1.201,371
07,331,403
21,513,808
OHT.T3i.2li7
87,936,034
8,511,785
137,315,450
1,889,090
1,035,973
382,275,061
702,870
Dollars.
361,670
21,830
2,691,707
1,792,217
:,l 195
183,687
621,731
22,412*
122,768
7,197,382
513,181
6,005,573
170,036
2,535,762
1,553,117
11,301
1,516,114
3,103,001
110,916
318,829
2,213,788
303.313
30,353
90,610
2,364,643
3.31 1,227
613,660
SOOTS
5,03.-,
520,641
341,133
l.nJnnpi
506,976
19,430,503
2,045,702
Tl 1,840
1891.
Dollars.
117.163
300,101
2,311,516
•J;:o_',950
195,908
813,979
-•72.137
215,970
8,178,266
594,2 12
112,692
6,720.030
206,808
3,704,476
1,289,095
20,017
i.iie.-n;
3,567,579
91,231
374,108
3.0T3.128
772,011
253,691
95,768
2,023,246
993,812
163,116
587,1 1 1
7,016
From Oc.tob ir 6.
Jan. so, ism.] THE JOUKNAIi OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Exports Ten Months ending October 31, 1891.
71
Quantity.
Brass, and manufactures of
Bricks, building
Bricks, lire
Coal, anthracite Tons
Coal, bituminous „
Copper ore „
sr ingots, bars, and old Lb.
Copper, all other manufactures of
Fertilisers Tons
Gunpowder Lb.
All other explosives
Pig iron , Tons
Band, hoop, and semll iron LI).
Bar iron
Car wheels No.
Castings, n.e.8
I ngots, bars, and rods of steel Lb.
Machinery, n.e.s
Cut nails and spikes Lb.
Nails and spikes, all others, including tacks „
Plates and sheets, iron
Plates and sheets. sto.'l „
Railroad bars or rails, iron Tons
Railroad barn or rails, steel „
Wire Lb.
All other manufactures of iron and steel
Lead, and manufactures of
Lime and cement Brls.
Marble and stone, unmanufactured
Roofing slate
All other stone
Mineral oils, crude Galls.
Na phtha tr
Illuminating oils u
Lubricating oils n
Residuum oil Brls.
Ore, gold and silver bearing
Quicksilver Lb.
Tin, manufactures of
Zinc ore or oxide Tons
Zinc, pigs, bars, plates, and sheets Lb.
Zinc, all other manufactures of
1*11.
5,021
702,522
1,100,000
17.798
7,009,070
217,7/S
327.10.-J
14,209
12,101
2,0*6,617
9,818
283,874
11,071,310
8,347,075
1,556,071
1,516,710
1,001,989
712,537
415,118
233,058
36
160
10.055
1(1,349
19,190,285
23,092,017
2,501
3,001,206
3.S.-.2
700,160
1,337,684
31,132
60,976,348
180,391
710,614
11,982
325,03'}
2,696.158
12. 113
1,131,658
73.775
81,531,702
75,511,501
10,275,961
8,017.916
461,208,040
112,450,435
25,576,275
27,166,274
41,610
23,227
273,113
5,391
3,278,352
Value.
1890.
Dollars.
352,230
53,303
44,963
S,430,3S0
3,090,686
949,770
120,526
1,601,309
53,141
600,640
231,991
475
83.730
7:>,4H>
743.15S
16.678
7.565,480
2:::, 2-ii
125,454
41,862
1.1,663
1,156
538,691
707. HI
2,963,783
13S.923
120,640
190,617
10S.S85
499,681
5.529,256
862.110
33,338,336
3,899,640
88,256
1,993,873
88,603
223,392
162,355
108,340
18,017
Dollars.
3S9.109
29,180
37,1115
3.311,143
(.224,215
5 s.57,684
7,821,116
207,800
1.993,1112
80,169
777.51;
2U8.S1S
8.563
76,914
101,268
703.C60
33,643
8.273,697
200.S52
111.513
22,664
7.121
3,358
333, 159
772.378
3,469,077
140,20:i
113,671
140.672
61,324
1" 1.301
1,3 IS, 202
691,987
29,587,545
4,053,889
63,225
2". 123
139,492
210,028
120,607
201.S30
27,111
72
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, 1892.
Mineral Production of the United States in 1890 and 1891.
1890.
Gold Oz. 1,588,889
Silver „ 114,500,000
Pig iron Tons of 2,000 lb. 10,307,028
Steel rails Tons of 2,2*0 lb. 2,095,996
Copper Lb.
Lea.l Tons of 2,000 lb.
Zinc , „ 66,342
Nickel Lb. 200,382
Quicksilver Flasks 22,:>26
Aluminum Lb. 94,881
1891.
1.620,000
58,000,000
8,970,000
1,090,000
264,920,000 . 292,620,
181.491 205,488
76,500
144,841
21,022
163,820
Tin Lb.
Antimony ore Tons of 2,240 lb.
Anthracite coal „
Bituminous coal
Phosphate roek Tons of 2,000 lb.
Salt Brls. of 280 lb.
Bromine Db.
Pyrites Tons of 2,000 lb.
Sulphur „ „
>, ; iv;
93,000,000
637,000
9,727,697
310,000
109,431
1891.
123.360
700
12,839,799
98,000,000
659,731
10,229,691
415,000
122,438
l,2lli)
MiNKKAi. Products of the United States.
Quantity.
Value.
Metallic.
Pig iron, spol value Tons of 2,240 lb.
Silver, coining value Troy oz.
Gold, coining value
Copper, value at New i'crk Lb.
Lead, value at New York Tons of 2,0n0 lb.
Zinc, value at New York
Quicksilver, at San Francisco Flasks
Nickel, at Philadelphia Lb.
Aluminium, at Philadelphia „
Antimony, at San Francisco Tons of 2,000 lb.
Platinum, ai New York Troy oz.
Total
NON-JIBXILLIC (Spot Values i.
Bitumii scoal Tons of 2,210 lb.
Anthracite coal „
Building stone
Lime Barrels
Petroleum „
Natural iras
Cement Ban els
Sail
Limestone for iron flux Tons of 2,24 lib.
Phosphate rock „
Zinc white Tons of 2,000 lb.
Mineral water Gallons sold
Borax Lb.
Gypsum Tons of 2,0001b.
A|atiL': te Ore Tons of 2,2 m lb.
Mineral paints
Marls Tons of 2,0001b.
I 'i rii.s' Ti ins of 2,240 lb.
1889.
7,603,642
51,354,851
1,590,869
231,246,214
182,067
58,860
26,484
232,663
17,468
115
500
85,383,059
411.711,721
50,000,000
35.163,513
7,
10, 1,1
6,318,000
5511,215
2:i,iKKi
12,780,471
8,000
207,769
24,197
.•12.3117
139,522
93,705
9,202,703
54,500,
1,588,880
265,115,133
161,754
63,683
22,926
223,488
61,281
129
600
99,392,871
11,489,858
60,000,000
45,000,000
8,000,000
B,683,94S
6.521,622
510,499
11.321.S76
9,500,000
,. I)995
23 00 i
45.732
150,(1011
111,836
1889.
1890.
Dollars.
121 i
66,396,988
32,886,744
26,907,809
16,187,689
5,791,824
1,191,5011
151,598
97,835
28. i
2.009
269,591,487
91,346,809
65,879,514
51 026,721
25,000,000
26,963,340
21,097,099
5,000,000
500,090
S.159.UII0
2,(':i7,776
1,600,000
1,718,458
5 illinium
761.118
210,559
163,766
63,950
292,119
Dollars.
151,21111,110
70,464,645
32.815,1100
30,848,797
1 1,266,708
6,260,407
1,203,615
131,093
61,281
111,756
2,500
307,331,207
Il0,t2n.8ul
6), 1 15.6s:;
51,11110.11110
2s.llilll.ill ill
35.000,000
2'J,0" i, i
6,000,000
4,7i>7>;:>
2.761 is It
6,215.7:>5
1 600,
2,338,1 Hi
617.500
. 7 1.5 "1
250.111 ill
661,(1(12
65,(10(1
275,7 15
Jan. 80. 1KB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
73
Mineral Products oe the United States — continued.
Quantity.
1889.
1890.
Value.
Flint Tons of 2,240 lb.
Mien (out) Lb.
Corundum Tons <-f 2,000 lb.
Sulphur
Preciona stones ^
Specimens, gold-quartz souvenirs, &c J
Crude barytes Tons of 2 £40 lb.
Bromine -Lb.
Feldspar Tons or 2,2411 lb.
Chrome iron ore
Graphite Lb.
Fluorspar Tons ol 2.000 lb.
Slate, ground Tons of 2,240 lb.
Cobalt oxide Lb.
Novaculite »
Asphaltum Tons of 2,000 lb.
Asbestos
Eutile Ll>.
Potters' clay Tons or 2.2 to lb.
Grindstones
Millstones
Ozokerite, refined Lb.
Infusorial earth Tons of 3,000 lb.
Soapstone ,.
Fibrous talc „
Lithographic stone „
11,113
49,500
2.21.-,
1,150
19,161
418,891
0,970
2,000
21,911
387,847
8,000
3,599
la rs.
49,137
L'ollars.
57.400
50,000
32,569
106,565
89,395
7,850
1S8.807
9,500
8,250
2,000
2,
12,955
10,000
354,000
51,735
111,-11
30
71
1,000
100
2M.SU
350,000
.-,11,0011
350.00(1
3,466
2,532
12,715
13,070
23,7 iti
41,354
18
t
106,318
80,505
125,007
104,719
39,370
45,200
30,11(10
53,985
•72,662
•77,500
45.885
55.32S
20,000
20,000
31,092
25,000
32.9S0
69,909
171,517
190,116
1.S00
4,500
3.011(1
l.ooo
635,578
756,000
439.5S7
450,000
35,15.-.
73,720
2,500
21,250
23,372
50,210
231. 70S
252,309
21-1,170
3S9.196
213
Value.
1889.
1890.
Total value of non-metallic mineral products
Total value of metallic products
(Estimated value of mineral products unspecified .
( rrand total .
Dollars.
308,687,163
Dollars.
334,959,893
269,591,487 SO7.33t.207
10,000,000 10,000,000
.-i.SX.27s.05O
052.291,100
• Value of the crude product. t Not reported.
t Including lire clay, common brick-clay, terra-cotta, building sand, glass sand, limestone used as flux in lead smelting and glass making,
iron ore used as flux and lead smelting, tin ore, iridismine, stone, nitrate of soda, carbonate "f soda, sulphate ol soda, native alum, mineral
soap, strontin and pumice stone.
Nickel.
The production of nickel iu the United States was con-
siderably smaller in 1891 than in the previous year, owing
to the falling off in the output of the famous old Lancaster
Gap mine, which was idle for three months of the year.
This mine, as is well known, is rapidly approaching
exhaustion, and in the future it may be expected to show
a constantly diminishing output. Its product in 1S91,
however, as in previous years, represents practically the
entire product of nickel in the United States. The St.
Joseph Lead Company, of Bonne Terre, Mo., and the
Mine La Motte, of St. Francois County, Mo., made their
usual out-turn of nickel and cobalt, but the amount is trifling.
The ore of these mines is galena iu a gangue of magnesian
limestone, with which is associated some iron pyrites carry-
ing a small percentage of nickel and cobalt, and this pyrites
is saved as a by-product, beiDg shipped to the American
Xickel Works, at Camden, N.J., for reduction.
No work of any consequence was done at the Oregon
mines during the year, but some exploration work was done
in the Nevada mines. The latter are located at the junction
of Bolivia and Cottonwood canons iu Churchill County,
about 41 miles east of Lovelock's Station. One of these
mines, the Loudon, is owned by the National Nickel Mining
Company, of New York and London, which has been
working a force of 10 meti for the past 12 months and has
pro luced some nickel ore. A small lot of selected ore.
perhaps 40 tons, was shipped to England for a test ; this is
74
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. (Jan. so, 1893.
not included in our statement of the production of nickel in
the United States in 1891.
The production of nickel in the United States from 1K70
to 1891, both years inclusive, together with the imports into
the country and the exports from it, are given in the
following table : —
Production of Nickel in the United States ; also
Imtorts and Exports.
Tear,
Production
Valuo of
Imports.
Value of
Amount.
Average
Price.
Value.
Exports.
1876
Lbs.
201,867
Dols.
2-60
Dols.
32.'!,.-, 1 1
Dols.
10
Dols.
203,150
1881
265,668
1-10
292,235
122,130
39, ISO
1886
182,815
o-oo
100,407
141,310
;,1.:;:,::
1888
11)0,637
0-60
114,382
138,290
39.576
1890
200,332
11-03
130,210
376,279
471
1891
144,811
0-60
S6.905
••
"
During the past year the consumption of nickel has under-
gone a large increase, due principally to the growing
demand for the metai for use in the manufacture of nickel-
steel, the Creusot works, in France, alone having contracted
for a large part of the product of the Soeicte du Nickel,
while the United States Government purchased the great
quantity of 6,500 tons of Canadian matte, containing
probably about 20 per cent, nickel. There has also been a
natural increase in demand from the nickel-platers, the
German silver manufacturers, and other consumers. At the
present time, moreover, the prospects seem to be that the
consumption of nickel will further increase in 1892. During
the past autumn the United States Government made
elaborate tests of nickel-steel and other kinds of armour-
plate at Indian Head, Aid., which resulted in a decisive
victory for the nickel steel, and this has now been adopted
as the protective material for the new cruisers and battle-
ships. The use of other nickel alloys is constartly growing
and a steady expansion in demand may be expected from
this source.
The exports of nickel from New Caledonia in 1890,
according to a recent consular report, amounted to 3,300 lb.,
and of nickel ore to about 5,000 metric tons, which,
averaging about 8 per cent, nickel, was equivalent to about
882,0001b. of metallic nickel, representing a total export
of 885,300 lb. The production of nickel (in nickel-copper
matte) in Canada in 1890 was 1,336,627 lb., that being
the first year for which statistics of the Sudbury district
were published. The last official statistics of the mining
industry of Norway, those of 1889, gave the production of
nickel in that country as 149,872 1b.; the output in the
preceding year was 145,464 lb., and that of 1890 was
probably about the same. The product of Sweden in 1890
was but 17,632 lb., which was a great falling off from the
preceding year. — Engineering and Mining Journal.
All-minii m.
Aluminium was first made in any quantity in 1855, its
value at that time being 90 dols. per lb. ; with improve-
ments in the methods of manufacture the price was
gradually reduced to 4-86 dols. (1/.) in 1887, but the recent
development of the industry dates only from 1889, when the
Pittsburg Reduction Company placed aluminium made by
the Hall process on the market at 2 dols. per lb. The Pittsburg
Reduction Company commenced operations in November
1888, the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium Com-
pany being engaged at that time in the manufacture of
aluminium alloys, but is now producing pure aluminium ;
these were the only companies producing pure aluminium in
the United States in 1889, in which year the production
amounted to 47,468 lb., valued at 97,335 dols. The total
production of aluminium in the world from 1860 to 1889
inclusive is estimated by Mr. R. L. Pickard, Special Agent
of the Eleventh Census, at 232,000 lb.
Production and Imports of Aluminium in the
United States since 1881.
Tear.
Production.
Importt.
Amount.
Value.
Amount.
Value.
ISM
..
Dols.
517' 10
Dols.
6,(171-00
1882
..
..
.-,<•,(•. -so
6,195-00
1883
1,000
875
i2.;-23
5,079-00
1881
1,800
1,350
594-00
s.mroo
1885
3,40(1
2,500
439-00
4,730-00
1880
..
27.000
452-10
5,369-00
1887
..
74,905
1,260-00
12,119-00
ISSs
19,000
65.000
l,34N-.-.i
14,088 '00
1889
47,468
97,335
998-83
4,810-00
1890
•94.SS1
189,762
2.051-00
7,062-00
1891
•163,820
163.820
tl.625-05
+4.073-00
* Partly estimated. t Fiscal years.
The principal producers of aluminium in Europe at the
present time are the Cowles Syndicate Company, Limited,
and the metal Reduction Syndicate, Limited, of England,
using the Cowles and Hall processes respectively, and the
Aluminium Industrie Actien Gesellschaft, of Lauffen-
Neuhausen, in Switzerland, which uses the Heroult process.
In the United States are the Pittsburg Reduction Compauy,
with works at Kensington, Pa., and the Cowles Elec-
tric Smelting and Aluminium Company, with works at
Lockport, N.Y. The United States Aluminium Metal
Company, which controls the Heroult patents in the United
States, has a plant at Boonton, N.J., which was originally
erected for demonstrating this process and has produced
some metal, but has not been in regular operation. The
Wilson Aluminium Company is now establishing works at
Leakesville, N.C., for the application of a process invented
by Thos. L. Wilson, and expects to be in operation early in
the present year. Works are also being erected at St.
Michel, Savoy, France, at which the Minet process will be
used.
The production of aluminium and aluminium in alloys in
tiie United States in 1890 was about 95,000 1b. In 1891
there has been a noticeable increase, and the total output
for the year may be set down as 163,820 lb. The Cowles
works have run steadily throughout the year, but the
Pittsburg works were idle from April to November, during
which time the plant was removed from Pittsburg to Ken-
sington, Pa., this change having been made necessary by the
failure of natural gas in Pittsburg. The new works were
put in operation on November 12. — Ibid.
Bromine.
The production of bromine in 1891 was 415,000 lb.,
divided as follows : — Pennsylvania, 140,000 lb. ; Michigan,
45,000 lb. ; Ohio, 110,000 lb.; West Virginia, 120,000 lb.
The production for the past nine years is shown in the
following table : — -
Production of Bromine in the United States.
■States.
1SS3.
1SS5.
1887.
1889.
1S90.
1891.
Ohio
West Virginia
Pennsylvania
Michigan
Lb.
194,450
106,650
Hi.
125,0110
85,000
60,000
40,000
Lb. Lb.
104,662 •)
j .150,000
16.425 \)
78,000 j 00,000
40.0(10
Lb.
200,000
70.000
40,00(1
Lb.
( 110,000
(.120,000
140,000
45,000
Total....
301,100
310,
199,087
250,000
310,000
415,000
The output has been for several years and still remain
somewhat in excess of consumption. — Ibid.
Jan. 30, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBY.
75
BlOHROMATBS.
Baltimore is the great centre of the American bichromate
manufacture. The firm of Jesse Tyson and Sons for many
years had a monopoly of the business. Their prooess is
a secret one. Within the last few years, however, the salt
has been also produced at the Kalion Works, in Phila-
delphia. Large amounts of bichromate are annually
imported in addition to the local product.
Pboduotion, Imports and Exports op Chromium Compounds,
Production.
Imports.
Exports.
Year.*
Chromic Ore.
Value
in
California.
Chromate and Bichromate of
Potash.
Chromic Ore.
Total Value.
Total Value.
Quantity.
Value.
Quantity.
Value.
18S2
Lone Tons.
2,5011
Dols.
50.000
Dols.
2,449,875
Lb.
261,0116
Long Tons.
Dols.
Dols.
261,048
Dols.
1,548
1884
2,000
35.000
2,593,11.-,
210,077
2.677
73,586
284,383
..
1888
2,000
30,000
1,985,809
139,117
3,356
43,731
182.949
• •
lSSS
1,500
20,000
1,755,489
113,312
4,440
46,785
190,328
1890
8,599
53,985
1,166,001
95,234
063
8,190
169,240
• •
1891
••
••
1,234,085
95,951
1,092
56,982
1S4.498
* The statistics ofprodnotionare for the calendar years; imports and exports 1'or fiscal ye;.rs ending June 30.
t Including value of imports of chromate and bichromate of soda.
—Ibid.
Sulphur.
Brimstone.
The amount of brimstone produced by American mines
during the year 1891 was only 1,200 tons, all coming from
the Cove Creek mines, 22 miles from Beaver, Utah. About
25 men are now employed at the mines, and about 20 tons a
day of brimstone are being shipped. It is not to be expected
that Utah or Nevada sulphur can be sold in the Eastern
States so long as freight rates remain as at present, yet
there is no reason why they should not compete with Japan
sulphur products and supply the eutire Pacific slope at
remunerative prices. The possibility of supplying certain
trade centres from outlying mining districts depends almost
entirely upon freighting facilities, and Japan sulphur,
according to a recent consular report, cannot be carried
from San Francisco for less than 16 dols. freight, so that a
very small margin is left to the producers after mining and
refining costs are discharged. The lowest estimate we have
seen for Japan sulphur laid down in California is 2G dols.
per ton, whereas there should be no question of the ability
of Utah or Nevada mines to supply any reasonable tonnage
at a cost not to exceed 1 7 dols. delivered. The production
of brimstone and pyrites in the United States is shown in
the following table : —
Production of Brimstone and Pyrites is the
United States.
Brimstone.
Year.
Amount. Value.
Pyrites.
Amount.
Value.
Total
Value.
1832
Short Tons.
600
Dols.
21.000
Short Tons.
13,410
Dols.
72,000
Dols.
93,000
1884
500
12,000
39,200
175,000
189,000
1886
2,500
75,000
61,600
220,000
295,000
1888
••
60,850
167,058
167,658
1890
109,431
109,431
244,265
1S91
1,200
36,000
122.438
. 122,438
353,280
Progress is noted in operations aimed to open up the
great sulphur bed of Louisiana, 230 miles west of New
( Means, on the Southern Pacific Railroad. The sulphur-
bearing stratum at this location lies about 500 ft. below
the surface, and is shown, by diamond-drill borings, to be of
exceptional richness.
The importations of brimstone from Sicily continue on the
same generous scale as noted for the past three years,
notwithstanding the violent fluctuations in prices over the
year as shown by the following table : —
Imports of Sulphur into the United States
from 1867.
Crude.
Flowers
of Sulphur.
Rofined.
Total
u
Quantity.
Value.
Quan-
tity.
Value.
Quan-
tity.
Value.
Value.
1867
1871
1876
1881
1883
1885
1887
1S8S
1889
1890
Long
Tons.
24.544-10
36,131-46
46,43f72
105,090-54
94,539-75
96,839-44
96,881-55
120,104-00
135,935-00
131,086-00
Dols.
620,373
1.213,202
1,475.250
2,713.485
2,288,946
1,941,943
1,688,360
1,927,336
2,06S,208
2,147,481
Long
Ton's.
110-05
65-54
41-07
97-66
79-13
120-50
278-56
60-00
282-00
tlSl-02
Dols.
5,509
3,514
2,114
4.220
3.262
5,351
9.9S0
1,921
8,184
t5,139
Long
Tons.
250-55
92-26
43-87
70-96
115-33
114-08
83*55
10-00
+10-33
Dols.
10,915
4,328
1,927
2.555
8,487
4,060
2,383
3
299
t299
Dols.
636,797
1.221,041
1.179,291
2.720,206
3,296,695
1,951,354
1,700.723
1,929,260
2,076,691
2,152,919
* Fiscal years ending June 30th. from 1867 to 18S7, inclusive :
subsequently, calendar years endiug December 31st, unless otherwise
specified.
t Fiscal years.
This steady consumption is accounted for by the fact
that so many new plants for the manufacture of sulphuric
acid are being erected in the Southern States and by men
who, having no training in the use of pyrites, prefer the
good old way of handling brimstone whatever may be the
difference in cost.
There is a point in this choice of methods towards an end
which the newer class of fertiliser manufacturers do not as
yet fully understand, and they will no doubt cling to a use
of foreign sulphur until competition of the sharpest kind,
with a lowering of prices of all commodities, compels them
to make the change or brimstone producers to lower prices.
The older chemical concerns have been working for years
in the same rut, and it may be stated as follows : —
76
THE JOUItNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 30, isai.
Cosi of Sulphuric Ann from Brimstone (Works
burning Fori: Tons in 24 Hours).
Dols.
; ms brimstone, freights, losses in transit
and burning, at 30 dols 12
Nitrate of - ida, 0 per cent, of sulphur, 53S lb. at
2*50 dols 18-45
Labour, five men at 1*25 dols. per day *;--jr,
Coal, 2 tons at .'i dols. per ton 6'00
Superintendent and office cost fi'Oi)
Wear and tear WOO
Total cost for U - - 11. acid 161*70
Orl ton or 18 B. acid costs 8-9S dols.
Now. if this acid were to be sold on the market, it would
bring in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c,
not to exceed 8 dols. net at the factory, and for large
i|uantities even lower prices. These costs and this condition
of the market have held for years past, and while circum-
stances may modify them at time:, yet the facts are that no
manufacturer of brimstone acid alone has had a remunera-
tive business for many years.
Why. then, do we hear of new planls being erected every
year, and the older plants still continuing the use of brim-
stone ? The answer for the fertiliser concern will be an
answer for all classes of trade. One ton of 43° B. acid
costing 8 '98 dols., one ton of ground and dried rock costing
10 dol., labour and power costing 2 '02 dols., a total of
21 '00 dols., will produce two tons acid phosphate, which is
sold to average in commercial fertilisers for 50 dols. ; in
other words, so long as the ton of 48 B. sulphuric acid can
be put into any condition by mixture or change whereby it
sells for a large advance on its cost, there is no incentive
for the manufacturer to study differences between brimstone
and pyrites as available sources for supply of sulphur.
Owing to the enormous prices charged for brimstone,
which went up from a normal price of about 20 dols. to
22 dols. a ton to 35 dols., at which it sold this year, there
has been a general inquiry for data bearing upon the
subject, and during the year past several of the oldest
chemical concerns have changed their plants or added new
plants to accommoiate themselves to manufacture of
sulphuric acid from ore-.
This has brought in prominence several entirely new
sources for the supply of high grade pyrites ores, notably
the Spanish and Newfoundland ores, which have been
burned at several works along the Atlantic coast with more
or less success during the year 1891.
Causes which we have several times referred to, such as
the gradual exhaustion of the sulphur-producing territory
in Sicily, the lessened percentage of sulphur in the mine
products, the increased prices of labour, &c, have combined
to lessen the imports for the year 1891, so that an excep-
tional state of affairs exists at present, vi/.., brimstone in
store commands any price asked from 30 dols. to 40 dols.,
and " Ex ship to arrivi January " brings 29 dols. to 32 dols.
per ton.
Prices of Brimstone in New Vop.k ix 1891.
Besl I'nmixed Seconds. Thirds from 50 c. to 1 dol. less.
June.
II Khesl I1' •
2s'll
Lowest :
Spot
Futures 25*75
Price of Brimstone ix New York in 1891 — cont.
i July. Aug.
II est: Dols.
Spot 27 mi
Futures 2f70
Lowest :
Spot 24-00
Futures 22*00
Pols.
-sua
Dols.
83-00
27-iih 30-00
26-00
24511
30-00
Oct.
n ,K
SO-50
27-73
Xov.
Dols
31-50
31 00
81-00
Di . .
l>"ls.
I 1-00
SO 7.-.
SfOO
30-00
— Ibid.
Pyrites.
We note under this head only such pyrites as are mined
for sulphur contents and utilised in manufacture of sulphuric
acid, although it is well known that a very large tonnage
of pyrites is produced annually as concentrates in dressing
gold and silver ores, and that the roasting process necessary
to free them from sulphur for the after treatment might be
modified or changed to utilise most otf the sulphur they
contained. We have stated in our annual reports for past
years the fact of the general distribution of pyrites over
the several sections of the United States, and have published
from time to time all the data obtainable to localise values
of this now staple commodity. We are constrained to again
note the production of pyrites for the year 1891 as limited
to two of the Northern States. :'i/.., Massachusetts, 37,320
tons of 2.240 lb., valued at 137,280 dols. ; and Virginia,
72,000 tons, valued at 216,000 dols. (these figures being
partly estimated). This shows, as compared with last
year's reports, that these mining sections have been tilling
regular orders for established trade, within easy transporta-
tion reach, and increasing their production only as required
by the natural growth of trade in their own territory. As
reported to us the actual -ales made by these mines will
amount to about 120,000 tons of 2,240 lb., equivalent to
44 per cent, sulphur, or .")2,800 tons pure sulphur produced.
Imports of Pvrites into the United States sin< i 1881
Year.
Quantity.
Average
Sulphur
Contents.
Year.
1899
Quantity.
Average
Sulphur
]ssl
Long Tons.
11,927
1'. r Cent.
3.-.
L-mg Tons.
In
Pert ont.
13
is-::
35,811
10
1890
115,000
43
.-",11011
38
1SS1
130,000*
41
l-T
3S
* Estimated.
We estimate the sulphur consumed in the United States
during 1891 as follows: — Imports of brimstone, 120,
tons of 2,240 lb. ; imports of pyrites, 130,000 tons ( I I per
cent. Si 57,200 tons; product of American mines (120,000
tons, with an average of 44 per cent. S), 52,800 tons. We
might give details of this consumption, showing how
radically the changes are taking place in manufacture of
sulphuric arid, and how surely the tendency is to centralise
plants in localities near to phosphatic materials — the increase
in production of acids being almost entirely for dissolving
the land and river rocks mined in Carolina anil Florida.
There are 35 acid works in the States south of Maryland,
27 of them built since 18S7. It is safe to say that within
the coming three years there will be double the acid pro-
duced in territory contiguous to the newly-discovered Florida
phosphate fields, as it would seem as if the solution of the
problem of marketing the enormous tonnage sure to be
mined from the hard rock and pebble deposits depends upon
a manufacture of these phosphates into acid phosphate.
There exists at present a market for about 100,000 tons
of Florida phosphate annually. For acid phosphate there
are larger demands, and if prices were lowered to fair
manufacturing points these probably can be increased.
Jan. 30. 1804] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
77
With this prospect for Southern industries it is reasonable
to suppose we shall have new deposits of pyrites developed
in the South pending the opening of the Louisiana sulphur
heils. This seems more than likely, as freights into the
interior of the Southern States have so far been a bar to
entrance of foreign ores, and the local mines will therefore
always be able to command a certain trade.
This is shown by taking prevailing prices (which are
abnormally high for brimstone) and comparing —
II. ils.
Brimstone, at coast cities, cost 30 '00
Freight to interior factories 2'0i»
32-00
Foreign pyrites, basis is per cent, sulphur,
ex-ship 12 c 5'76
Freight to interior cities 2*50
S'26
\ irpinia pyrites, at mines 3 'On
Freight to interior cities 2*7.".
At points where consumed, the prices of sulphur in each
of the above sulphur products would be at present : —
Dols.
Inn .nuts of sulphur in brimstone 31" 00
inn in lit-- of sulphur in foreign pyrit* s IS '15
luo units of sulphur in Virginia pyrites 14*50
— Ibid.
W. T. SARGANT AND SONS' ANNUAL
METAL CIRCULAR.
Messrs. YV. T. Sargant and Sons report as follows : —
We think the, best way to describe the condition of the
metal markets during 1891 is to give the following table
ot prices of some of the chief articles : —
—
31st Dec.
1890.
31st Dec.
1891.
k,
s.
d.
£
.v.
d.
Hematite pig iron. . .
Per ton
a
13
3
2
s
0
2
2
3
1
18
1
Scotch G. M. B
„
2
6
3
2
7
II
Copper G. M. B
„
52
15
0
41 ;
15
II
„
91
0
1)
90
10
0
.,
22
10
0
22
15
II
,,
13
0
0
11
5
0
. Per bottle
9
0
1)
7
15
0
.ilsi Dec. 189D. 3i.st Dec. 1891.
Hematite pig iron stuck
Middlesbro' iron stock ..
SGOtcb warrant stu.-k . . .
Total ,
Copper visible supply. . .
Tin visible supply
Tuns.
207,71)0
Tuns.
191,600
256,2112
262,916
587,652
oi id,: i67
1,101,614
955.47:)
05,366
10,9311
66,544
12,600
The first idea on examination of such a serious and
all-round decline in values would be that supplies have
exceeded consumption and brought about an increase of
stock. The table below effectually disproves this theory.
We are disposed to attribute this unusual and contradictory
course of the markets to a combination of the following
causes : —
1st. Financial and political disturbances in South America,
in conjunction with the McKinlay tariff in the United Status,
have reduced the volume of metal exports in 1891 to
39, 230,009;., against 45,251,434/. in 1890.
2nd. The deficient harvests in Europe have so raised the
value of corn-stnffs that this country's imports for 1891 are
valued at 61,571,504/., against 53,044,507/. in 1890.
3rd. The failure of the United States Act of August 1890
to bring up the value of silver, and the abandonment for the
near future of any attempt at a Free Coinage Bill.
Tin.
In its more important aspects, this metal is in striking
contrast to the other larger ones. Whilst they show signs
of contraction this gives evidence of important expansion.
The total production of the year is 57,551 tons against
53,434 tons. The Straits shipments show an increase of
3,987 tons ; Dutch tin an increase of 654 tons ; and
Australian a decrease of 424 tons. English returns are not
yet published, but it is admitted that there is no change
worth consideration. We leave out of our returns the
Bolivian, because we cannot give accurate figures, but
although the quantity is small by comparison with other
sources it seems to be increasing. The usual reports are in
circulation as to new sources of supply in Dakota, Mexico,
and California, but beyond the reports,of sanguiue engineers
and interested promoters, there is not a shred of evidence
that tin can be produced in any of these countries on terms
that can compete with the rich accessible deposits of the
Straits, aided by the cheapest labour that exists on the
face of the globe. These favourable and unbeatable
conditions have last year been greatly assisted by the fall
in the price of silver, which raised the dollar price to a
very satisfactory level. The Banka mines are being worked
more vigorously, and an increased supply of 700 to 1,000
tons will be sold in Holland this year. Therefore the
elements of expansion in supply which have been at work
in 1891, will apparently be in full force in 1892, and the
question for consideration is whether consumption will
continue to develop in a similar ratio. According to our
calculations, the consumption of 1891 increased by 1,708
tons, but was less than the production by 1,806 tons. The
actual stocks in warehouse have remained small, and at the
end of last year were only sufficient for about rive weeks'
supply. Taking the magnitude of the trade into account,
this seems very small. As to fluctuations in market value
they have been in a smaller compass than for many years.
The lowest monthly average was 90/. 0s. 3d., and the
highest 93/. 4s. The average of the year was 91/. 3s.,
against 94/. 3s. 6</. in 1890, showing a decline of 3/. 0s. 6d.
per ton.
Stocks of Foreign Tin ami Quantities Afloat for England,
Holland, and America.
That moderate prices should have shrunk 10 to 20 per
cent, in face of direct evidence that consumption is distinctly
larger than production, proves that some extraordinary power
has been at work strong enough for the time to reverse the
natural laws of supply and demand.
Stock of foreign in London.
Foreign landing in London.
Straits ailoat for London, including
wire advices.
Australian ailoat for London, in-
cluding wire advices.
Banca on warrants in Holland
Billiton in Holland
J.'illiton ailoat for Holland ,
Estimated stock in America and
quantity floating.
Trading Company's Reserves of
unsold Banca :
Stock in Holland
Floating for Holland.
31st Hec.
1891.
31st Dec.
1890.
.",1st Pre.
1889.
Tons.
2,155
Tons.
2,52 1
Tons.
2,291)
1,162
SSO
1,4116
2,220
1.2110
2,225
802
son
600
011
867
6S0
357
277
9S4
1,912
1,390
1,330
9.124
8,005
9,520
3.52X
2,925
2.670
12.602
10,930
12,1911
3,140
2,787
4,813
"
303
60
73
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. 3o, 1892.
Production during the past Three Years.
1891.
1890.
1S89.
Thus.
9,000
31,457
5,991
5,3.10
5,758
Tons,
9,000
27.170
6,413
.",,317
.',,•232
Tons.
0,01111
Strait's shipments to Europe and
America.
Australian shipments to Europe
and America.
Bilhton sales in Java and Holland
2S.295
6,800
4,114
1,867
57,551
53.434
53,066
Consumption of Tin.
1889.
Deliveries from London, after de-
ducting all shipments to America.
Deliveries from Holland, After de-
ducting exports to London and
America.
English consumed at home
Exports of English, minus quantity
shipped to America.
American consumption of all sorts
Billiton sent to other ports than
Holland.
Straits direct to Continent, less
re-exports to America.
Tons.
17,667
Tons.
16,126
8,246
8,155
3.S34
3,872
4.990
4.5G7
15,457
10,000
1,972
1,617
3.579
3,700
.-,.-,,71.-,
54,037
Tons.
18,194
7,581
3,830
4,820
15,000
1,287
3,680
.-,1.302
Prices of Foreign Tin.
£ s. d.
Average 91 3 0
Highest I 94 10 0
Lowest J 8S 15 0
01 S
104 5
88 7
1839.
Tin Plates.
The exports both to America and other places show an
increase. The total shipments of the entire year give,
however, a very inadequate idea of the strain which has
been sustained, and, we trust, surmounted. During the first
half of the year the American shipments amounted :o
263,225 tons, out of the total of 325,145 for the entire year.
'These were all sold at very satisfactory prices, reaching
America before the new duties were imposed. Since then
the balance of 61,920 tons has been shipped, but at prices
that can barely make both ends meet. It is believed that
the surplus shipments to America have been pretty well
worked off, and that a good steady trade may be looked for.
The establishment of this industry in United States has
attained only very small proportions, and as good steel
plates with coke finish are obtainable at 12s. dd. per box
f.o.b. Liverpool, we think this country will retain the trade.
Exportation* from United Kingdom.
1S91.
is: in.
1889.
Tons.
325,1 I:,
123,687
Tons.
318,108
100,617
Tons.
93,931
448,732
418,725
430,623
Cort'KR.
The first half of 1891 developed a good demand with
firm and rising prices. Notwithstanding considerable
arrivals from America, and large offerings of further
quantities at prices relatively cheap to G.M.B., the market
for the latter was buoyant, and in June touched 56?. 10*.
Reports were industriously circulated of strong combinations
in existence, or about being formed, for the purpose of
sustaining prices at a level in accordance with the improved
statistics of the article. But these reports were inaccurate
and misleading. For, in fact, the large financiers were
steadily unloading their stocks. Under what circumstances
and to what extent this has been done is even now a
mystery to the general public ; but it is suspected that this
move was made with a view of depreciating the shares of
the Rio Tinto Company and other large concerns, and
perhaps coercing the owners of the Anaconda Mine to
entertain more modest views as to the value of their property,
which was an offer to a syndicate. Rut whatever may have
been the motives or objects of the sellers, the result was
to drive prices rapidly down, and in the month of November
14/. Is. 3d. was accepted for G.M.B. Early in December
the sale of the Society's works in France was effected to a
new group through the intermediary of the'Credit Industriel,
and since then the market has again shown more animation,
and, with rather frequent fluctuations, has netted an advance
of 30s. per ton, closing to-day at 45/. 13s. 9d. per ton.
The statistics show in Europe a decrease of visible supply
during the year of 8,822 tons, to which must be added a
very large quantity of privately stored metal. Scarcely
anything has been drawn for a long time past by the
makers of sulphate of copper, but they have been selling
their manufactured article freely, and are now believed to
hold very little of either metal or sulphate. The American
stock has decreased 10,000 tons. We estimate that the
production of 1891 is about 2,000 tons more than that of
1890, but we believe that the current prices, if continued,
will both curtail production and stimulate deliveries ; and
although strong interests have succeeded in depreciating
values considerably of late, it is quite within the bounds of
probability that equally strong interests may eventually work
actively to appreciate them.
Comparative Statement of the Chief Sources of Copper
Supplies.
Spain, precipitate and metals im-
ported into L. and S.W
Produce of pyrites, chiefly Spanish
Spanish produce disposed of in
other markets than L. and S.W..
Dnited States, America : —
Lake Superior
Butte District
Arizona District
Other United States supplies. .
Chili, year's charters
Sundry minor sources,* imports
into L. and S.W
Australia, shipments to Europe . . .
Germany
Japan, surplus shipped to Europe
1391.
l.soo.
lsso.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
21.020
23,331
22,122
13,686
14,779
14,1 so
16,000
14,000
18,000
57,000
44,450
3S.700
15,000
49,560
46,518
22,000
15,945
14,419
6,000
0,370
6,068
20,100
25,750
23,100
19,532
22,303
23,426
6,450
7,000
7,250
18,000
17.S0O
17,356
7.S52
10.G74
2,523
253,518
251,067
231,340
* Cape, New Qucbrado, Italy, &c.
N.B.— -We are a little doubtful about the divisions of American
in 18U1, but the total is correct.
Jan. 3«, 1892.] THE JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
79
Stocks and Quantities Afloat for England and France.
Slsl Dec. - 30si Dee.
1891. 1S90.
3ist Dec.
1889.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Liverpool and Swansea stocks of
27,008
18.9JS
22,400
Chili bars, ores, and1 resrulnx.
reduced to the standard of lino
nipper.
Other furnace materials, same
7,170
13,547
26,694
ports.
S.7S1
21, Mil
39,010
London stook, chiefly Australian
9,385
7,430
5,331
and Japan.
Chilian produee afloat, per mail
3,200
3,250
4,500
and wire advices.
Australian do. per mail and wire
700
050
900
advices.
56,541
63,360
!<s,st7
Quantity chartered at West Coast during December,
1,700 Tons, making for the Year as follows :
is: ii.
1890.
1889.
Estimated fine copper in
round numbers.
Tons.
20,100
Tons.
35,750
Tons.
23,400
Importation of Pyrites.
1891.
1890.
1889.
Tons
616,227
650,831
043,879
Yielding of Pure Copper on the Basis of2\ per Cent.
1891.
1890.
1889.
Tons
13,685
14,779 1 1, 199
Importations of other Sorts of Copper into United
Kingdom.
1891.
Eeaulus and precipitate from
elsewhere.
Tons.
90,004
1,322
122,015
11,514
5.90-0
26,874
Tons.
111.02S
4,715
100,192
19,716
5,355
•J t, II i2
Tons.
136.514
1,285
108,954
17,031
5.567
15,461
"We estimate totals of nliove
to produce in tine copper
| 104,000
j
106,000
10S.00O
Summary of Copper Supplies in English Market,
1891.
1890.
1889.
Production of English mines
Imports of pyrites ") (
n )
Imports of pyrites, I above )
other sorts. J \.
Tons.
1,500
13,085
101,000
Tons.
1,600
14,779
100,000
Tons.
2,000
14,489
108,000
119,185
122,279
121,4s;i
Summary of Copper Exported from English Market.
1891.
1890. 1889.
Colonial and foreign . .
English, unwrought ..
Tons.
11,752
35,5«
16,223
14,214
Tons.
10,941
45,003
13.172
17,523
Tons.
11,470
32,517
15,671
77,760
93,029
77,983
Iron.
Xo metal has experienced more depression than this.
The total exports for 1891 have declined to 3,241,035 tons,
against 4,001,430 tons in 1890. Although the Argentine
Republic shows the most considerable decrease in her
takings, yet almost every other customer has also taken
less. The home consumption has been fairly good, ship-
building in particular having taken increased quantities.
The production has been much smaller, each sort showing
a diminution; so, notwithstanding the great decrease in
exports, our stocks have actually diminished and are
extremely small. Prices have been most unremunerative
to producers, and furnaces have been dropping out of blast.
At the present time the number of Cleveland and hematite
furnaces in blast is smaller than for many years, and so soon
as demand revives, it would necessitate the establishment
of higher prices. The speculative markets for pig metal
have been extremely inactive. Owing to the weakness of
demand for export, there has been no inducement for dealing
on a large scale, and the only important event of the year was
a run on Scotch warrants in June and July, when, in conse-
quence of over sales, the dealers had to pay fancy prices to
close their accounts. But this being over, the market has
lapsed into inactivity, and there is no reason to expect any
movement in Scotch warrants, which are quoted nominally
at 47*., so long as Middlesbrough Xo. 3 can be obtained at
38s., as the relative difference is only about is. per ton.
Whenever the state of trade brings about a rise in
Middlesbrough, then the speculative dealings in Scotch
will be resumed.
Production.
—
1891.
1890.
1889.
Tons.
071.12.-,
2,f.22.732
1,272,800
Tons.
798,333
2,846,089
1,392,700
Tons.
998,928
2,771,181
1,115,200
4,517.1,057
5,037,122
5,185,309
Stock at End of Year.
579,077
262,910
191,600
613,445
236.262
257,700
1,035,840
262,385
147,700
Cleveland
1,034,193
1,127,407
1,745,925
80
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jaa.su, ism
Scotch Piy.
1-M>.
Total production
Exports and home
sumption.
Slocks on warrant
Tons,
674,425
694,310
3011,957
Slocks in makers' yards at 78,720
end of each year.
Average price of warrants 17s. lj</.
for whole year.
Furnaces in blast Slat lice. . ;s
Tons.
798,333
1,207,521
587,652
25.793
*9«.6JA
6
Tons.
998,928
1,207,521
913.775
92,065
47s. 9./.
8S
Cleveland Pit/, including Hematite, \c.
Tons.
2.622,732
Tons.
'J,- Mi "s;l
Tons.
2,771,181
Stock remaining 31st Dee. . .
262,910
256,262
2C2.385
Average price of (r.M.B.
No. 3.
Furnaces in blast 31st Dee.. .
40s.
S9
47*. 7./.
101
43s.
103
Hematite Iron in ^Yest Cumbertand and Barrow Districts.
—
1891.
1890.
1889.
Tons.
1,272,800
Tons.
1,392,700
Tons.
1,415.21111
stock remaining 31st Dee....
191,600
257.700
447,700
Average price of year
19s. s,,/.
S8s Hrf.
5 is. 6id.
Furnaces m blast 31st Dee. .
41
49
50
Exports of Iron and Steel to United Stales of America.
1891.
1890.
1SS9.
Pigs
Tons.
46,636
3,975
3,849
1 576
3,335
19,620
27,425
Tons.
101,986
:;.757
11,210
20.378
3,580
39,365
19,497
Tons.
116,346
1.5-7
18,561
Old
29.7111
3,332
25,900
33,799
109,416
199,773
232,226
Total Exports of Iron anil Steelfrom United Kingdom.
1891.
1890.
1889.
3,24,1,035
26,874,784
4,001.579
Ml..-.s:M72
4,1S8,388
.... £
■".i. 15:',. on
I.I Me
There lias been a free supply, with a diminished export.
Trices have steadily declined, and close at the worst point
of the year.
1891.
I-91.
1889.
Tons.
30,000*
Tons.
35.111111*
Tons.
10.000*
Importation of foreign into United
Kingdom.
Exports from United Kingdom
169,724
18,726
158,649
55.536
115.151
52,153
Highest price of soft pig
E «. d.
12 12 0
I" s. d.
11 15 II
L S. d.
11 15 (1
11 5 0
12 5 »
12 5 (l
' Estimated.
Quicksilver.
Importations have been the smallest recorded for four
years. Exports have been large, and exceeded the imports
by 4,700 bottles. The actual diminution of stock is this
quantity plus the home consumption. During the last
10 years, with only one exception, viz. in 1888, a process of
diminution of stock has been going on. The market has
had a declining tendency. Opening at 9'. it declined to
'I. os. in September, from which it rallied to 7/. 1 7s. Gil.
actual business and 8/. asked. Buyers, being well provided
at lower rates, are now holding off ; and to-day importers
were ready to accept 7/. 10s-.
1890.
1889.
'Production of Spanish.
•Italian
Austrian
California!!
Total
'Exports from United Kingdom
Highest price of Sp mish.
Lowest price of Spannh . .
Bottles.
47,993
Bottles.
50,202
Hollies.
49.77s
10,440
12.470
1I1.49S
13.000
14,000
ll.i «I0
2S.'»iii
21,li(ill
25.I15II
90.403
100,672
99,926
03,1 13
56.702
58,366
L ... ./.
11 0 0
t S. ■'.
Ill 7 0
t s. ./.
9 15 11
7 5 0
S 17 0
7 7 0
* Calculated November to November.
N.B. — In Borneo, Servia, Russia, and Mexico, mines exist,
but accurate returns are not obtainable.
Sheet Zi.m
is;«'. issii.
Tuns.
[mportationa of foreign into United 20,167
Kingdom.
Tons. Tuns.
17,542 19,261
Prices Realised for London rolled Zinc sold in our
Public Sales.
11 -ii s; .
I.OUcst . .
e ». a. £ s. ,;.
20 II 0 27 II 0
25 0 0 23 5 0
£ .1. d.
25 2 0
Sl'KI.TER.
Consumption and supply seem still very evenly balanced,
and high rates have been current throughout the year. At
the close some weakness was manifested which is said to be
Jan. SO, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
81
caused by the unusual ciroumstanoe of spelter being sent to
ICurope from America.
—
1801.
IN! III.
1889.
Imputations into United Kingdom .
Tons.
53,483
Tons. Tons.
56,208 1 56,1 12
Lowest price For Silosian
C s.
21 II
e s.
•_'.-. 10
111 13
C s.
21 3
111 111
Antimony.
t Ipened ;it about 72/. per ton, and remained very dear
during the first three months of the year. It then rapidly
declined, and in September as low as 381. was accepted. It
afterwards advanced to about oil/., finally closing at about
50/. to 32/. Furnace material has been scarce and difficult
to deal in.
Bar Silver.
Dealings in this important branch of the metal trade were
inaugurated last March under the auspices of the General
Produce I Hearing House. At the outset a moderate amount
of support was given by some merchants who believed in
the importance of the trade. But it was insufficient, and
after about four months' working the dealings were so
small that the affair has for practical purposes become
lapsed, lint the utility of a large open market is indis-
putable, and we think more will be heard of it. The price
of silver has on the whole been decidedly downwards, and
in view of the want of effect on quotations by the monthly
lock of 4| million oz. in the American Treasury since
August 1890, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that
the over-supply is extremely great, and that if ever free
coinage should lie adopted it will be at an altered ratio.
To day's closing rate was 43.
BO All V OF TRADE RETURNS
Summary of Imports.
Year ending 31st December
1890.
1891.
23.710,1101
8,190,389
6,991,053
41,626,155
£
23,030,124
:.:(] 1,337
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
40,035,435
Total value of all imports ....
(20,885,695
485,691,279
Summary of Exports.
Year ending 31st December
1890.
1891.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
45,222,737
8,965,849
31,535,117
£
39,230,009
8,882,059
32,193,728
263,530,535
217,272,273
Imports of Metals
for Year ending
31st December,
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
Oopper : —
(J re
111,028
101,907
90,661
123,337
£
£
8,008,150
8,319,938
Unwrought . . .
. „
1:1,473
1 1,3 18
2,766,059
2,372.2,-1)
Iron : —
Ore
4,469,390
3,180.543
3,586,456
2,453,407
Bolt, bar, 4c. . .
. „
92,899
77,1111
925,318
761,587
Steel, unwrought.
. „
8,141
8,430
85,412
87,568
Lead, pig and sheet „
158,649
109,721
2,099,016
2.137,1171
. .,
656,881
616,227
1,219,488
1.120.2(7
Quicksilver
. Lb.
4,455,783
4,707,804
:,ss.7iii
507,503
540,769
563,141
2,547,316
2,565,072
50,205
1 58,483
1,288,358
1,828,750
Other articles ...
v"alue £
metals
• •
• ■
Ii898,709
5.010,538
Total value of
123 710,11111
1 1
23.030,124
Imports of Raw Materials for Non-Textilk
Industries for Year ending 31st December.
Articles.
Quantities.
1890.
1891.
Values.
1890.
1801.
Bark, Peruvian .. Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum :—
Arabic
Lac, 4c
Gutta-percha ....
Hides, raw: —
Dry
Wet
Ivory
Manure : —
Guano Tons
Bones „
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
oparto
Palp of wood
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin „
Tar Barrels
Wood :—
Hewn Loads
Sawn „
Staves
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . . Value £
Total value .
lio.sn
2,988,100
201,009
52.700
91,83*
70,170
155,098
:,s tins
14,3 111
C8.005
69,949
499,189
34,889
217,1118
137.S37
1,627,416
1,".S5,517
181,141
2,278,374
4,778.31 t
155,995
39,812
1110,531
3,413,175
278,845
62,352
1119,351
00,911
133,208
333,002
10.032
23.021
62,943
3311,332
32,037
212,666
130,101
1,811,710
1,371,2111
124,868
2,231,577
i 378, 132
13ll.ini
18,021
£
.311,377
413,200
3,205,088
159,704
389,688
7H8,2!I0
1,191,240
1.323.170
733,104
107.181
372,048
030,0110
351,3110
1,045,742
700,841
370,023
1,729,319
120,821
5,004,554
11,11112,221
000,243
30ll,tl05
10,253,870
£
2511,097
198,383
3,351,938
102,232
420.3111
731,811
1,185,360
1,231,278
5111.2511
138,612
416,849
805,034
318,855
1,030,93S
sts.i'So
4IB 1.1 ISO
1.772.20S
79,910
4.508,787
9,379,808
51111,513
4411,133
10,883,11110
11,020,155 40,035,43!
Besides the above, drugs to the value.of 812,531/, were imported
as against 803,531/. in November 1890.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jan. .10. 1SS2.
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestuffs fob Year
ending 31st December.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
37,341
579,438
87,168
189,846
£
29,240
263,259
£
50,404
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
216,815
Brimstone „
563,641
428,778
129,470
129,512
..
..
1,441,909
1,369,073
7,808
7,011
51,065
17,547
Cutch and ganibier Tons
27,445
23,926
717,820
565,453
Dyes : —
204,538
230,301
..
• •
307,832
331,374
..
..
22.003
15.007
81,844
11,373
2,177,848
50.879
11,477
2,440,652
1.521,369
15,5 r>
903.032
1,043,442
15.S53
Nitrate of soda
1,049,818
Nitrate of potash , „
:U2,707
278.7S2
282,669
251,021
25,272
17,202
501,669
1.738.367
334,268
Other articles. . . Value £
1,654,759
Total value of chemicals
"
••
8.190.389
7.314,337
Imports of
Oils for Year
ending 31st December.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
.. Cwt.
184,109
20,187
873,023
104.809,140
22.S10
20,302
424.45S
186,469
18,105
1,018,420
130,015300
23.011
21,000
122,530
£
201,083
785,787
1,000,535
2,339,269
011, MM
110,200
644,886
878,303
£
261,228
733,135
.. Cwt.
1,186,705
.. Gall.
2,685,458
609,890
.. Tuns
154,704
Other articles ,
Value £
foils...
576,207
829,307
Total valuo c
••
••
6,991,653
7339,994
Exforts of Drugs and Chemicals fob Year ending
3 1st December.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
6,331,700
1.730,70;)
6,225,953
1 .-,11,110
£
2,089,295
508,070
£
•',335,112
Bleaching materials „
522,625
Chemical manures. Tons
317,596
322,160
2,072.«73
2,112,563
••
1,060,379
1,053,593
Other articles
3,237,426
2.858,101
..
8,965,849
8,882,059
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Year ending 31st December.
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
Brass Cwt.
100,211
111,001
£
501,058
£
.-,10,700
Copper :—
(inwrought
ou„-,:;s
710,820
2,020.214
1,97*585
270,017
324^71
917,510
1.077,930
Mixed metal
:,.-,!, i:,l
284,888
1,004330
798,61 1
• •
2,704,140
2,525,542
Implements
• •
• ■
1,338,011
4.001,430
3,241,035
31,505,387
20.S74.7SI
Lead
65,537
48,276
si -J.:;:;,!
683,015
Plated wares... Value £
• •
.'.
103,794
301 .003
Telegraph wires, 4e. „
••
■ •
1,602,205
1,434,873
102,042
103,322
503,371
102.07S
Zinc
101,170
153,555
id. on:
Other articles .. Value £
••
••
1,017,933
985,24]
••
••
48,222,737 sn.asn.nnn
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Year
[ending 31st December.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1890.
1891.
1890.
1891.
. Lb.
10,330,400
11,228,600
£
252,828
£
275,749
Military stores..
Value £
• •
• •
1,342383
1,151344
. Lb.
lJ.MO.SOO
15,889,100
201. MIS
811,817
Value £
..
..
1,222,400
1341,298
. Tons
628,441
570,201
1. -si. 0,13
1,142,294
Products of coal
Value £
..
..
1,414,677
1,572,286
Earthenware . .
ii
• •
• •
2," Is. :,(H
1,956,776
Stoneware
..
••
• •
190,000
140,341
Glass :—
Plate
. Sq.Ft.
3,070.450
3,290,557
100,21*
212,484
111,855
934.0OS
1110,001
792,065
261,106
4(3,300
242,952
371,075
Other kinds..
■>
2m3.IV:,
213,508
180,720
ISO, 100
Leather :—
Unwrought ..
. „
155,753
149,082
1,383,300
1,301,710
Value £
■ •
349,746
385,032
05,118
7U.442
1,499,556
1335,814
Floorcloth
Sq. Yds.
10,010,400
10,060,300
783,093
833,950
Pointers' materials Val. £
■ •
..
1,577.480
1,618,154
966,055
1,004,131
1,078.071
1,733,768
53,885
49,052
104,653
355327
496,930
524,507
534327
577,310
••
••
34,535,417
32,193,728
Jan. 30,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
83
iMontftlj? patent 2Lfet*
• The dates given arc the dates of the Olfioial Journals in
whieh acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
ArPLICATIONS.
1891.
21,916. 0. II. Simpson and W. 0. UiiiUin. An improved
condenser. December 15.
22,089. P. Labfirie. Improvements in apparatus for
evaporating saccharine or other solutions or liquids.
December 17.
22,248. J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthy. .SV<> Class XVII.
82,333. W. R. Earp. Improvements in or relating to
boiler anti-incrustation compounds or compositions and in
the utilisation of waste substances for their manufacture.
December 21.
22,349. A. S. Newman and .1. Guardia. An appliance
for regulating the now of compressed gas from cylinders or
other containing vessels. December 22.
22,405. A. Kerscbbaum and F. .1. Zwick. See Class
XVII.
22,474. E. Renins. Improvements in elevating or
carrying apparatus applicable for sulphate of ammonia.
December 2:!.
22,(107. D. Ry lands. Improvements in furnaces, retort
chambers, and the like. December 28.
22,039. E. S. Arrighi. Improvements in and in the
manufacture of clinical and other thermometers, and in
apparatus therefor. December 28.
22.654. T. Veevcrs. Improved means or apparatus for
boiling and evaporating purposes. December 29.
22.655. II. Williams. See Class VII.
22.656. II. Williams. Improvements in the method of
and in apparatus for drying malt, hops, grain, pulse, and
other substances. December 29.
22,077. P. Render and II. Stockheim. See Class XVII.
22,744. S. F. Samuelson and L. A. Wilstahm. Apparatus
for separating liquids of different densities. December 30.
22,870. J. Pullman and II. Lane. Improvements in the
construction of compressing machinery or apparatus for
the condensation and liquefaction of gases. December 31,
1892.
II. E. C. Peck. Improvements in taps or cocks for
liquids. Complete Specification. January 1.
lit;. .1. Bennett. An improved method of preventing
incrustation, corrosion, anil pilling in steam boilers ami
other vessels used for converting water into steam.
■January 4.
138. E. Rrook. Improvements in furnaces. January 4.
154. A. T. Danks. Improvements in appliances for
saturating air, oxygen, or other gases with the vapours of
ether or other volatile fluids. Complete Specification.
January 1.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
1194. A. Chapman. Multiple-effect evaporating appa-
ratus. December HI.
3051. L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley. Process feu
treating chemically softened water so as to prevent the
formation of an adherent deposit in the feed apparatus of
steam boilers. December 23.
3514. R. Willeox. — From F. Fouche. Apparatus for
condensing steam or vapour. January G.
391G. F. Lennard. See Class II.
3952. F. Lowe. Apparatus for straining or filtering
liquids. December 23.
3955. E. Luck. Improvements connected with vacuum
distillatory apparatus. December 31.
40G5. G. E. Relliss and A. Morcam. Machinery for
compressing atmospheric air and compressing and con-
densing gases. January G.
4308. E. 1!. Caird and T. J. Rayrier. Surface condensers.
January
12,4G9. E. Hesketh and A. Marcct. Apparatus for
producing cold by the employment of carbonic anhydride.
December 23.
12.G7G. E. Hesketh and A. Mareet. Apparatus for
producing cold by the employment of carbonic anhydride.
December 31.
17,023. W. II. Rowers. Retorts for the carbonisation of
wood and other vegetable substances, and the drying of
manures, sewage, sludge, peat, and other substances and
products. December 31.
19,983. J. K. Broadbent. Apparatus for regulating the
supply of air to furnaces. January G.
21,518. II. S. Elworthy. Apparatus for cooling liquids.
January 13.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
1891.
21,810. C. Scbubel. Improvements in incandescent
lamps. December 14.
21,881. W. Fairweatber. — From the Acme Liquid Fuel
Co., United States. Process of and apparatus lor the
manufacture of gas. Complete Specification. December 15.
22,106. C. E. Bell. Improvements in coke ovens to
facilitate the cooling or the coke before drawing. Decem-
ber 17.
22,149. A. Edelma'nn. Improved manufacture of arti-
ficial fuel. Complete Specification. December 18.
22.1G7. G. T. Reilby. Improvement in the manufacture
of cyanides. December 18.
22,280. J. Hamer. An improved fire-lighter. Decem-
ber 21.
22,292. J. A. Yeadon and W. Adgie. Improvements in
heating retorts or furnaces for the distillation of coal or
other analogous purposes. December 21.
22,297. J. H. Hedley. Improvements in the production
of solid substances containing petroleum. December 21.
22,340. J. Pullman and II. S. Elworthy. A new or
improved process for the manufacture of carbonic acid gas
and hydrogen gas, and for the separation of the two gases,
and apparatus therefor. December 21.
22,347. W. L. Rowland. A process for recovering
cyanides from coal-gas. Complete Specification. Decem-
ber 2.
84
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[.Ian. SO, 1892.
1802.
24. II. Williams. Improvements in gas purifying
apparatus. January 1.
:t--. R. Pollok, jun. Improvements in and relating to
he obtainment of cyanogen compounds. January 7.
•171. I>. Rylands and If. Naylor. Improvements in
washing and preparing and coking of smudge, slack, or
other coal, and in the application of the gases resulting
therefrom, and in apparatus therefor. January 9.
482. .1. ('. Martin. Improvements in the manufature of
coal-gas and apparatus employer] therewith. January 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7G4. D. Rylands and R. Potter. Improvements in flues
or other similar means for conveying combustible gas from
tin producer to the point where such gas is consumed.
January 13.
1386. J. Hargreaves. Generation and combustion of gas
for smelting and heating purposes, and appliances con-
nected therewith. January 6.
2918. J. II. I». Dinsmore. Manufacture of illuminating
and heating gases. December 23.
3042. J. Y. Johnson. — From P. Nadar. Apparatus for
producing artificial light lor photographic and other
purposes. 1 December 23.
347"). II. M. Carter and C. E. Fraser. Manufacture of
brick or briquette fuel. December 31.
3862. W. Dyson. Process of making gas and a product
arising therefrom. January 13.
3916. F. Leonard. Apparatus for carhnrettinggasor air,
or for distilling, evaporating, or concentrating, .human 13.
5036. W. P. Thompson.— From J. M. A. Gerard. Treat-
ment ami desiccation of peat. January 6.
17,371. K. Lares.
December 31.
19,1 IS. .1. G. Cooper.
cember 2:'..
Improved coke furnace or oven.
Treatment of petroleum. Dc-
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATIOX, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
St I. I". Leonard. Apparatus for distilling, more
especially intended for distilling tar. December '_■:;
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Application's.
1891.
21,249. E. von Portheim. Manufacture of new colouring
matters from napthyl-glycines. Complete Specification.
December 15.
22.167. C. I). Abel.— From The Actien Gesellsehaft fur
Anilin Fabrikation, Germany. Improvements in the
production of colouring matter-. December 2:'..
22,623. J. Imray. — From La Soc. I.. Durand, Hugenin
et Cie.. Switzerland. A new manufacture of colouring
matters. ( lomplete Specification. I lecember 28
22,641. P.. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture of new
colouring matters. December 28.
22,839. J. Iliekissou. Improvements in the manufacture
or preparation of mordants or fixers for use in connection
with marking ink points or pencils. December 31.
1892.
277. C. D. Abel. — From The Actien Gesellsehaft fiir
Anilin Fabrikation, Germany. .Manufacture of new colour-
ing matters. January f..
366. R. Holliday and Sons, Lim , and T. Ilolliday.
Improvements in the manufacture of azo colouring matters.
January 7.
367. I!. Holliday and Sons, Lim, and T. Ilolliday.
Improvements in the manufacture of a new sulpho-acid of
alpha-napthylamine and of colouring matters therewith.
January 7.
375. It. Greville- Williams,
matters. January 7.
Improvements in colouring
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1616. F. L. Leech and A. ETorrobin. Waterproof
solution. December 23.
2805. II. II. Lake.— From Wirth and Co., Agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters.
December 23.
2818. (i. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius ami Bruning. Production of azo colours in discharge
printing on indigo dyed fabrics. December 23.
3247. E. Coen. Manufacture of copying ink. Decem-
ber 31.
3439. 1!. Willcox.— From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. BayerandCo. Manufacture of azo dyes. December 23.
4543. J. V. Johnson.— From The liadische Anilin and
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture of improved dyestuffs suitable
for dyeing vegetable fibre with or without a mordant.
January 6.
4688. J. Y. Johnson.— From The liadische Anilin and
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture and production of new mordant-
dyeing colouring matters related to the rosaniline series.
January 13.
5184. J. Y.Johnson. — From F. von Heyden. Process
for the production of mono-bromo and di-bromo-para-oxy-
benzoic acid, suitable for conversion into proto-catechuic
acid, pyro-catechuic, and the like. January 13.
20,010. II. N. F. Schaell'er. Manufacture of alizarin
colours, and method of employing same in the^process of
dyeing. December 23.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
1891.
22,234. G. 11. Wolsteneroft. Improved means of and
apparatus for neutralising the acid in woollen piece goods
and recovering the by-products. December 19.
22,303. F. Reddaway. Improvements in ami in the
manufacture of oil baizes, American leather, cloth, and
other waterproof fabrics December 21.
Jan.so.isw. THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
85
1891'.
34. i i. A. Berenc] and II. W. Miller. Process for produc-
ing artificial cotton threads from hydro-cellulose. January 1.
209. I). E. Coe. Improvements in the manufacture of
yarn from waste. Complete Specification. January 5.
243. C. Hanson. Improvements in the process of
extracting deleterious matters from wool and other textile
materials. January 6.
177. G. llauemann. .See Class XIX.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PK1NTING, PAPEK
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
1891.
21,801. B. Ilaieji. Improvements in dyeing and apparatus
therefor. December I I.
22,028. II. II. Lake. — From La Societe Bonnet, Ramcl,
Savigny, Giraud, aud Marnas, France. An improved
method of printing silk aud similar fabrics. December 16.
22,168. T. Lye and W. T. Lye. Improvements in the
bleaching of dyeing of " chip" aud " chip-plaits." Decem-
ber 18.
22,263. L. Kilt'. Improvements in the method of anil
apparatus for preventing the escape of noxious gases in the
processes of bleaching and otherwise treating textile
materials. Complete Specification. December 19.
22.437. C. Kellner. An improved process and apparatus
for bleaching paper pulp and other similar vegetable
substances. December 23.
22.438. C. Kellner. A process and apparatus for
increasing the bleaching properties of chlorine gas. Complete
Specification. December 23.
22,538. E. Zillessen, sen. Improvements in dyeing silk
or half silk goods. December 24.
189-2.
148. A. Drcze. Improvements m dyeing vats. Janu
ary J.
282. E. Woodcock, sen., X. O. Woodcock, ami F. Wood-
cock, jiin. An improved machine for dyeing, scouring,
bleaching, sizing, carbonising, and drying. January G.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3385. W. Watson and E. Bentz. Improved method of
manufacture of certain compounds of chromium used in
dyeing and ealieo printing. December 31.
20,010. II. X. F. Schaeffer. Manufacture of alizarin
colours, and method of employing same in the process of
dyeing. December 23.
20,866. F. Hughes. — From A. Tibcrghicn. Dyeing,
mordanting, or bleaching textile fibres. January 6.
20,931. L. Weldon. Yarn-dyeing machines. January 6.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
1891.
21,909. E. .1. liarhier. Process for the treatment of
bisulphate of soda and mixtures thereof with other sub-
stances for the purpose of producing neutral sulphate ol
soda, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and
other products. December 13.
22, nlS. A. Vogt. Improvements in the manufacture of
nitric acid. December 1G.
22,320. La Soc. A. It. Pechiney et Cie. Improvements
in the manufacture of chlorine. Complete Specification.
Filed December 21. Date applied for July 2, 1891, being
date of application in France.
22,340. J. Pullman and II. S. Klworthy. See Class II.
22,481. E. Edwards. — From O. Guttmann and L. Kohr-
mann, Germany. An improved process for the preparation
of pure nitric acid. December 2:;.
22,541. J. Brock and J. T. Marsh. Improvements in the
manufacture of carbonates of strontium aud barium.
December 24.
22,558. A. M. Clark.— From The Deutsche Gold und
Sillier Scheideanstalt, vormals Eoessler, Germany. Im-
provements in the production of salts of fcrrieyanogeu.
December 27.
22,055. II. Williams. Improvements in the method of and
means for recovering salts from brine and solutions, and for
concentrating solutions. December 29.
22,704. H. II. Lake.— From Madame V. Hannetelle,
France. Improvements in apparatus for use in the con-
centration of sulphuric acid. December 29.
22,740. H. C. Bull. Sec Class IX.
22,828. J. J. Meldrum and T. F. Meldriim. Improve-
ments in or connected with the supply of liquor to ammonia
stills. December 31.
1892.
I. II. C. Bull. Improvements in or connected with the
ammonia-soda process, applicable also to other purposes.
January 1.
88. H. H. Lake.— From E. B. Cutteu, United States.
Improvements relating to the production of soda and
chlorine, and to apparatus therefor. Complete Specification.
January 2.
89. H. H. Lake.— From E. B. Cutten, United States.
Improvements relating to the production of liquid chlorine,
and to apparatus therefor. Complete Specilication.
January 2.
101. H. II. Lake. — From C. J. C. Wichmann, Germany,
Improvements in the treatment of ferro-sodium sulphide.
January 2.
192. A. S. Caldwell. Improvements in apparatus for
evaporating and incinerating spent or used alkaline lyes or
similar waste products. January 5.
212. S. C. ('. Currie. Improvements in the art of pro-
ducing insoluble chlorides direct from the metals. Complete
Specification. January 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3345. J. S. Fairfax. — From F. Crane. Sulphuretted
solutions and compounds used for the production of films
or coatings. December 2:!.
3657. J. J. Howitt. Apparatus for the manufacture of
carbonates of soda. January 0.
86
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan. an, ism.
3785. J. Simpson. Treatment of a certain material
(mineral) containing phosphate of lime for the purpose of
obtaining the latter in a highly concentrated condition as
dicalcic phosphate, together with curtain by-products.
January 13.
4068. F. M.Lyte. Production of chlorine. December 31.
20,037. C ICellner. Apparatus for the manufacture or
production of bleaching powder. January 13.
VHL— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
1891.
L'I,N2G. M. Epstein. Improvements in filtering tubes
with ball filtering material for purifying molten glass.
Complete Specification. December 14.
•J], 'J97. J. K. Thompson. An improved fire-resisting
brick ami material for lining, facing, or coating lire-places,
fire-boxes, furnaces, ovens, and kilns of every kiud.
Complete Specification. December 1C.
22,354. E. T. Smith. Improvements in the art of
decorating earthenware. December 22.
1892.
16. K. F. Yorke. Improvements in earthenware pipes.
January 1.
117. I). Rylands. Jars and similar receptacles for
sterilised milk anil similar preparations January 4.
US. T.J.Shaw. An air-tight salmon and preserve jar
made in earthenware, china, glass, stoneware, or any
metallic substance. January 4.
1 Go. T. H. Hunt. Improvements in appliances employed
in the glazing of earthenware pipes, tiles, and analogous
articles. January 5.
489. II. Warrington. Improvements in kilns or ovens
for bricks, earthenware, porcelain, and similar material.
Complete Specification. January 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3532. ('. Breuer. Manufacturing artificial stones with
glass surfaces. January G.
18,939. J. W. Bonta. Method of and apparatus for
rolling plate or sheet glass. December 31.
20,437. W. P. Thompson- From R. S. Pease. Method
and apparatus for manufacturing plate-glass. December 31.
20,439. W.I'. Thompson. — From 1.'. S. Pease. New or
improved method of and apparatus for the manufacture of
glass plates, cylinders, pipes, and certain other bodies.
1 leccmber 31.
21,350. F. Welz. Process of making rose or orange-red
stained glass. January 13.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
1891.
22,111. E. Nelson. Improvements in material for use
as a damp course in building foundations. December 17.
22,171. T. Smith. Improvements in metallic compounds
or cements, and in the methods of making and using the
same. December 18.
22,198. F. H. Willis and 14. Astley. An improved form
of fireproof floor. December 19.
22,243. T. Iircthertou. Ironcrete pavement. December 19.
22,428. J. Jackson. Improved manufacture or produc-
tion of decorative material, more especially intended for
application to walls, ceilings, or like surfaces. December 23.
22,746. II. C. Hull. Improvements in the production
of and apparatus for obtaining carbonic acid gas and lime.
Complete Specification. December 30.
1892.
50. P. A. Moreau. Improvements in the manufacture of
artificial marble. January 1,
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1890.
20,948. C. (i. Wernaer and (I. Wernaer. Method of
manufacturing artificial granite and marble. Keeemher 23.
1891.
1449. A. J. B. Ward. Fireproof Hoots, staircases, and
roofs. December 31.
3532.~C. Breuer. See Class VIII.
3797. (j. II. Skelsey. Manufacture of Portland cement.
January 13.
12,429. 1". J. Reynolds ami J. Brown. Building cements.
December 31.
13,491. C. II. Kopke. Improved fireproof material.
December 3 1 .
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
1891.
21,835. J. Harvey. Separating tin and other ores.
December 14.
21,950. W. P. Breeding.— From The Agax Metal Co.,
United States. Improvements in the cleaning and prepara-
tion of metallic sheets and other articles, and in the coating
of same with lead or alloys of same. December 15.
22,041. <'. James. An improved method of treating
plumbifcrous copper mattes and ores. Complete Specifica-
tion. December 1G.
22,(H2. A. Walker. An improved process of extracting
gold and silver from refractory and other ores containing
those metals. December 17.
22,(197. J. B. Alzugaray.
December 17.
Improvements in metal alloys.
Jan. SO, 1893. 1
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
87
22,098. J. B. Alzugaray. Improvements in metallic
alloys. Decf nihr 17.
22,177. T. J. Tresidder. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of armour plates. Complete Specification. Filed
December 18. Date applied forSeptember 3rd, 1891, being
date of application in France.
22,207. C. J. L. Leffler. Alloys of lead. December 19.
22,504. I. S. McDougall. Improvements in furnaces for
burning ores containing sulphur and sulphur compounds.
December 24.
22,694. E. Dor. A novel system of regenerative gas
furnace for the reduction of ziue ores. Complete Specifica-
tion. December 29.
1892.
53. J. Pullman and II. Lane. Improvements iu the
manufacture of shell for ordnance of forged steel, iron, or
other malleable metal. January 1.
264. I. !*■ Bottome. Tempering anti-friction and other
white metals. January 6.
392. 11. Hall. Improvements in apparatus for coating
metal plates with tin, ternc, or other metals or alloys.
January 8.
CoaiTLEiK Specifications Accepted.
1890.
14,966. J. B. Hannay. Improvements in extracting
precious metals from ores or minerals containing them.
December 31.
19,181. J. I!. Hannay. Process anil apparatus for
extracting gold from minerals containing it. December 31.
21,009. (i. II. Smith and I!. Cooper. Method and means
lor casting white metal couplings and other similar white
metal objects required to stand confined pressure. Octo-
ber 28.
1891.
1161. 1!. II. Thwaite. An improved form of high tempe-
rature furnace especially adapted for the conversion of a
high carbide of iron into the low carbide condition known as
steel. January 13.
2747. YV. Hutchinson and F. W. Harboard. The utilisa-
tion of blast-furnace and other slags in conjuction with
finely-divided oxides of iron. December 23.
3278. A. French and \V. Stewart. Obtaining gold, silver,
and copper from ores. December 31.
20,977. J. II. Hunt. Method of reducing the bulk of
scrap iron or other metals. January 6.
XI.— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
1891.
21,870. H. H. Lake. — From E. A. Clark, United States.
Improvements in voltaic cells or batteries. Complete
Specification. December 15.
21,959. E. Hermite and A. Dubosc. Improvements in
and apparatus for the manufacture of alkaline or earthy
alkaline bases and of their salts or compounds by electro-
lysis of saline solutions. Deeembcr 15.
22,030. C. Hoepfner. Improvements in the electrolytic
treatment of copper and silver ores. December 16.
22,126. A. E. Porter. An improvement in secondary
batteries. December 17.
22,178. F. Morin. Improvements in electric accumulators
or secondary batteries. December 18.
22,339. N. Wladimiroff. Improvements in primary ami
secondary batteries. December 21.
22,482. H. H. Lake.— From E. Weston, United States.
Improvements in voltaic cells. Complete Specification
December 23.
22,554. H. II. Leigh.— From . I. F. Weydc and F. Chi.-,
Austria, and J. Eisner, France. Improvements iu batteries
and accumulators. December 24.
22,708. W. Hellesseu. Improvements in the manufacture
of porous carbon for galvanic batteries and for filters.
Deeembcr 29.
22,851. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. Improvements relating
to the electrolysis of metals. Filed December 31. Date
applied for July 17, 1891, being date of application in
France.
22.855. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. A method of extracting
chromium by the aid of electrolytic baths with a base of
salts of chromium. Filed December 31. Date applied for
July 17, 1891, being date of application in France.
22.856. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. A method of extracting
chromium by the aid of electrolytic baths with chromic acid
base. Date applied for July 17, 1891, being date of applica-
tion iu France.
1892.
334. II. Nehmer. Improved form of a dry galvanic
element. January 7.
355. E. C. Furby. Improvements in or relating to the
electro-deposition of tin upon metals. January 7.
372. X. Beuardos. Improvements in soldering, melting,
and coating metals by the aid of electricity. January 7.
4'.I5. G. H. Robertson. An improved electric battery
electrolyse. January 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1890.
20,838. II. Birkbeek.— From (). Hcnrichseu. New or
improved couple or clement for electrical purposes.
December 23.
21,o:il. P. J. Davies. Production of lead plates for
secondary batteries, and the connections, straps, or lugs to
the same. December 23.
1891.
2518. W. Gibliings. Method of depositing copper or
other metals by electrolysis, with the object of refining it
or them, or of recovering the precious and (or) other metals
contained in or alloyed with the metal under treatment.
January 13.
3170. D. Rylands. Manufacture ol Leelanehe cells.
December 31.
373S. J. Marx. Apparatus for electrolysing and bleach
ing. January ii.
14,702. II. Iluuser. Secondary batteries. January 6.
19.900. \V. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Collin. Welding
or working metals electrically. December 31.
19.901. W.P. Thompson.— From C. L. CotKu. Welding
or working metals electrically. December 23.
21,442. II. H. Lake.— From I. L. Roberts. Secondary
or storage batteries. January 13.
8£
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ Jan. 30, una
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
1891.
22,297. .1. ii. Hedley. SeeCIassII.
22,363. J.Kennedy. An improved soap. December 22.
22,413. W.Saint-Martin. See Class XVII.
22,430 A. Smith. Improvements in apparatus for
separating certain impurities from oil, and especially from
oil which has been used iu lubricating machinery. Decem-
ber 23.
20,512. K. R. Graf. Method of treating oils used for
lubricating and tempering purposes to render the sauie
incombustible or fireproof.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VAKNISIIES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
1891.
22,334. W. K. Earp. A new or improved material which
may be used in arts and manufactures in the stead of india-
rubber, gutta-percha, and other similar substances, and
process lor making the same and for the utilisation therefor
of waste liquors from tanneries. December 21.
22.:US. W. Grimshaw. An improved mode of making up
for sale certain colour and pigment preparations for laundry
and other purposes. December 22.
22,391. 11. B.Johnson and T. C. Palmer. Improvements
in the manufacture of white lead and apparatus therefor.
December 2'-'.
22,610. A. I >. (iill and W. S. Gill. Improvements iu and
relating to paints and lacquers. December 28.
■2-2, so'.). M.Williams. Improvement in the manufacture
of oil paints and paint medium. December 31.
1892.
81. R. Matthews and .1. Noad. Improvements in the
treatment of oxide of lead in the production of white lead
or pigments, and certain by-products. January 2.
1,1 W J. Beale. Improvements iu the production of
substances for elastic tyres for the wheels of road vehicles,
applicable to other purposes. January 4.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3573. T. Hidden. Improved anti fouling compound or
preparation for bright or polished metallic surfaces.
January 0.
21,545. E.Waller and C. A. Sniffen. Manufacture oi
while had and neutral lead aeetate from lead ores.
January 13.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
317C. W. Bolt. A process for tanning all kinds of lodes
or skins. December 31.
3910. O. Brunner. Waterproofing leather. January 13.
1385. A. Foelsing. Clarifying and bleaching tannin
extracts or tannin liquors. January 13.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
1891.
•jlM (.n". I,. Lamattina. Improvements relating to the
conversion into manure of the refuse and foul matter from
cities and towns. Complete Specification. December is.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
1891.
22,089. 1*. l.aherie. Improvements in apparatus for
evaporating saccharine or other solutions or liquids.
December 17.
22,679. C. M. Higgins. Improvements in mucilages
sizes, and adhesive compounds. Complete Specification.
December 29.
22,682. ( '. M. Higgins. Improvements iu mucilages,
sizes, and adhesive compounds. Complete Specification.
December 29.
22,685. C. M. Higgins. Improvements in mucilages*
sizes, and adhesive compounds. Complete Specification'
December 29.
1892.
420. E. Langen. Improvements in refining sugar. Com
plete Specification. January 8.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
1891.
22,124. C. H. Jolliffe. Improved means and apparatus
for rousing, aerating, and attemperating brewers' worts
during the process of fermentation. ( 'omplete Specification.
December 17.
22,218. J. Pullman and II. S. Elworthy. A method of
and appliances for the collection, purification, and utilisation
of carbonic acid gas given off during fermentation of
saccharine and other substances. December 19.
22,399. W. 1'. Thompson. — From I) E. Nycander,
Germany. Improvements in or in the preparation of
extracts for use in (he manufacture of yeast and spirit.
December 22.
22,-ll:i. W. Saint-Martin. Improvements in means or
apparatus for maturing and improving fermented alcoholic
and oleaginous liquids. December 22.
22,4:52. A. 1'reuudlieh. Process and apparatus for
recovering certain lye-products from the waste gases or
vapours of breweries. December 23.
22,465. A. Kerschbaum and I-'. J. /wick. Improvements
in fermenting and apparatus therefor. December 2:i.
22,606. W.G. Barrett. Improvements in the manufacture
of beers of low alcoholic strength. December 28.
22,677. P. Bender and II. Stockheim. Improvements
in and connected with apparatus for cooling beer or other
liquids. December 29.
jM.suassaj THE JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
89
1892.
301. II. Prior. Improvements in apparatus for cooling
ami attemperating beer during fermentation. January C.
192. B. .1. B. Mills.— Prom T. W. Q. Uoneywill, New
Zealand, [mprovements in or uoenccted with brewers'
cleansers. January 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
32117. d. F. Itedfera. — From J. [Jradil. Method of
increasing the formation of cells during the process of
fermentation. December 31.
3978, I''. L. Calmant The manufacture of charcoal from
sawdust, wood shavings, and the like, and the treatment of
wine alcohol, brandy, cider, beer, and other matters there-
with, January 13.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
22,239. W. McDonnell. Improvements in the process
of manufacturing margarine. December 19.
22,631. J. Torhitt. A method of treating the fruit of
the potato plant (Solanim tuberosum) for its utilisation for
alimentary purposes. December 28.
1892.
96. J. Fordred. An improved malted food. January 2.
279. A. D. McKay, A new chemical food. Complete
Specification. January 0.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
22,442. J. Hanson. Improvements in the treatment of
sewage and other foul liquid or semi-liquid matters for
the clarification, disinfection, and deodorisation thereof.
December 23.
22,531. W. Ilorsfall. Improvements in furnaces for
destroying the refuse and dealing with the sewage, sludge,
and other offensive material of towns. Complete
Specification. December 21.
22.545. C. E. Bell. Improvements in the treatment of
irou ores to render them suitable for use in the purification
of impure waters and other liquids and gases. December 24.
22.546. W. Lawrence. Improvements in the clarification,
purification, and softening of water, contaminated water or
sewage in the preparation of reagents, and in apparatus for
use therein. December 24.
22,747. J. T. Wood. A new or improved method or
process for purifying sewage or foul water. Complete
Specification. December so.
C. — Disinfectants.
22,2.'>K. ().('. Leathers. A new or improved apparatus
for disinfecting or odorising purposes. December 19.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1890.
21,019. E. Sonstadt. Making an extinct of coffee and
confection !of the same, and in preserving liquid coffee
extracts. December 31.
21,106. E. Sonstadt. Making an extract of tea and a
confection uf the same, and preserving liquid tea extracts.
December 31.
1891.
2816. O. Imray. — From Calberla, Fits and Consorten,
Process and apparatus fur sterilising liquids. January 13.
2944. J. Oakhill and R. II. Leaker. Process for
preserving milk. January 13.
19,887. II. S. Elworthy. Preserving meat, fruits, and
such like perishable articles in store or iu transit.
January C.
21,372. J. C'arniick. Manufacturing kumyss compounds
or kumyss tablets. January 13.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
2846. A. McDougall and J. J. Meldrum. Disinfection
and deodorisation of sewage, and apparatus for preparing
and applying the disinfectant. December 23.
59U8. E. E. Dulier. Method of destroying smoke, and
apparatus for that purpose. January 6,
14,735. E. Devonshire. Apparatus for purifying or
treating water. December 31.
17,023. YV. II. Bowers. See Class I.
20,726. J. Norris. Disposal of sewage and apparatus
connected therewith. January (J.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
'.his;;. C. Scott. Method of vaporising carbolic and
other disinfectants, and apparatus therefor. January 6.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
1892.
133. II. Richardson and H. Glenny. Improvements in
the manufacture of paper and in apparatus used for that
purpose. January 8.
477. G. Hagemann. [mprovements in the manufacture
or production of cellular substance suitable for paper-
making and fibre suitable for spinning. January 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3S78. R. X. Redmayne. Manufacture of paper pulp for
paper-making and other purposes. January 6.
5240. J. Valeton. New or improved anti-nicotine
cigarette paper. January 13.
DO
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jan.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
1891.
22,253. L. .1. P. Pontallie. Improved apparatus for
obtaining products of distillation, or separating volatile
liquids. Complete Specification. December 19.
22,787. C. Fahlberg. Improvement in the production
of pure saccharine. December :S0.
1892.
361. C. D. Abel. — Erom C. E. Hoehringer ami Sobne,
Germany. Improved manufacture of vanillin. January 7.
Complete Specification* Accepted.
1890.
21,019. E. Sonstadt. See Class XVIII. — A.
21,106. E. Sonstadt. See Class XVIII.— A.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7635. E. Hackh. Magnesium lights for photographic
ami signalling purposes. December 23.
16,125. A. Hill. Enlarging photographic gelatin films
by the aid of chemical means ami without the aid of
enlarging apparatus. December 23.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
1891.
21,S7'J. A. Ruston ami E. Beadle. Improvement in
railway lot; signal detonators. Complete Specification.
December 15.
22,401. .1. Tinsley. Improvements in explosives.
December 22.
1892.
-11. J. Wilson. Improvements in cartridges applicable
for blasting purposes. January I.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
3881. G. A. Rosenkolter. Manufacture of lucifer
matches. December 31.
THE JOURNAL
Society of Comical 3noustry:
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. -J,— Vol. XI.]
FEBRUARY 29, 1892.
j~Non-Mernbers 80/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
L Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
C&e £>ori?tp of Cfeemftal gtftustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 1881—1882.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S 1882—1883,
Walter Weldon. F.R.S 1883—1884
W. H. Perkin. Ph.D., F.B.S 188+- 1885,
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1836,
David Howard 1886—1887
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888,
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 1888—1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 18S9— 1890,
K. Rider Cook 1890—1891
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President : Pro!. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., Tl.Sc , F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
Wm. Crowdcr.
James Duncan.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S.
David Howard.
S. H. Johnson.
Dr. Hugo Miiller, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
A. Norman Tate.
Sir John Turncy.
A. H. Allen.
Arthur Boake.
Jno. Calderwood.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
H. Grimshaw.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
Ordinary Members of Council :
E. K. Muspratt.
T. L. Patterson.
Bovertou Redwood.
Jno. Spiller.
T. W. Stuart.
William Thorp, B.Sc.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer :
E. Rider Cook, East London Soapworks, Bo
w, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr. F. Hurter.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
Chas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond. F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
TIL, XII.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors:
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X. I F.H.Leeds III., XXI.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
G. H. Beckett . . V., VI., VII.
D. Bendii m.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Bemays.M.I.C.E. I.
E. J. Bevan V..XIX.
J. Lewkowitsch,
Ph.D
Bertram Blount . [x\f S^j1, j
Arthur G. Bloiam XIV., XV.
J. C.Chorley XXI.
V. Cornish. . .VIII., IX., XIII.
W.M.Gardner V., VI.
Oswald Hamilton ... I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, } II. and
D.Sc S Gen.Chem.
Chas. A. Kohn, \ n „,
Ph.D. . . J "™- Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawsou, Ph.D. . IV.
J. Walter Leather, 1 T v
Ph.D (X •
A. Liebmann, Ph.D. { "xx1''
A. R.Ling IV..XVI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel.Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N. H. J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H. S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
HmTann?n.t.e.r:} ™., XVII.
G. II. Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut. . . Patent Lists.
H Schlichte Ph.D.. V..XV.
Edward Simp0„n .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D. A. Sutherland . . . II., III.
N. W. Tchaykovsky, B.A. Gen.
Chem. (Russian Lit.)
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H.Veley.M.A. Gen.Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV.,XIII.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
he furnished to the author.
92
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LFeb. 29,1892.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottjswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is instructed to negotiate for the purchase
of copies of the Society's Journal for January and May
1883, January, February, and April 1886, and February
1889. Members possessing odd copies of these numbers are
particularly requested to communicate at once, stating price
required, with Mr. Cresswell. The stock of all other numbers
is at present sufficient for the Couucil's requirements.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 23rd FEBRUARY 1892.
Auchinvole, David I.., Paik Hall, Dalmnir, X. P., student.
Ballard, Ernest, Colwall, Great Malvern, malt vinegar
brewer.
Bayne, Prof. Jas., Chemical Laboratory, Royal Veterinary
College, Camden Town, N.W., professor of chemistry.
Beckworth, W. Harold, Hotham House, Headinglcy,
Leeds, tanner and leather manufacturer.
Brown, Reginald B., Ellerslie, Knighton Park Itoad,
Leicester, dyer's chemist.
Burrough, Horace, jun., c/o Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, U.S.A., technical chemist.
Butterfield, Horace v., 10, Thistlewaite Road, Clapton,
X.E., foreman warehouseman.
Clark, Durand G., 53, Chancery Lane, W.C., analytical
chemist.
Colquhoun, Lewis, Ardeer Ironworks. Stevenston, Ayr-
shire, analytical chemist.
Croft, Jos., 26, Beestou Road, Dunkirk, near Notting-
ham, leather dyer.
Cullen, Wm., jun., Ardeer Terrace, Stevenston, Ayr-hire,
chemist.
Kntwisle, Edw., Alder Bank, Pendleton, Manchester,
cotton manufacturer.
( iuthrie, .(no., 50, Prospect Terrace, Hunslet Moor, Leeds,
chemical works manager.
Guttmann, Oscar, 110, Adelaide Road, N.W., explosives
engineer.
Hadtield, Thos.. Garrison Bleach Works, Birch Vale,
iieai1 Stockport, manager.
Harrison, Prof . J. B., Government Laboratory, George-
town, British Guiana, Government analyst.
Heslop, Oliver, 110, Rye Hill. Newcastle- on-Tyne,
analytical chemist.
Hobday, Thos., c/o Allsopp and Sons, Lim., 52, Granhy
Street, Leicester, brewer.
Holland, Philip H., 958, Sherbrooke Street, Montreal,
Canada, merchant.
Hosie, Geo. H., Nobel's Villas, Stevenston, Ayrshire,
N.B., technical chemist.
Jennison, Francis II.. c/o A. Illingworth, Esq., Moscow.
Russia, dyer.
Lucas, Bernard 1!., 5, St. John's Terrace, Middlesbrough,
alkali work- manager.
Macara, Thos., jun., 138, Bath Street, Glasgow, student
of chemistry.
Mel, end, .las.. Ill, High Street, Dumbarton, X.l',.,
anah tieal chemist.
Mansbridge, Win., Luther Place, Horsforth, Leeds,
chemist.
in, Albert J., 139, UV-i Street, Xew York City,
I s, A., -nap manufacturer.
Mount, Edw., Oaklands, Aughton, near Ormskirk,
assistant secretary United Alkali Company.
Mummery, Albert 1'.. 5, Castlemonnt Terrace, Dover,
tanner.
Norman, John T.. 78, Chelverton Road, Putney, S.W.,
consulting chemist.
Piker, John .T.. 15, Cedar Street, Xew York City, U.S.A.,
merchant.
Taylor, W. G. II . 3, Vernon Road, Xorth Bow, E.,
analytical chemist.
Wade. .las. I... jun., 28, West Kensington Gardens.
Loudon, W.
White, II. Osborne, 35, North Bank, Regent's Park.
N.W., white lead manufacturer.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Ballard, E. G., 1 o Curzon Park ; Newton Lane, Hoole,
( Ihester.
Barnes, Jonathan, l/o Buekton Yale : 1. Trafalgar Street,
i, teat Clowes Street, Manchester.
Batty, P. 1!., 1 ,. Lincoln Villa : Wharncliffe, Erdington,
Birmingham.
Bell, Sir Lowthian, Bart., address for subscripts
Bell Bros., Middlesbrough
Ply the, Herbert, 1 o Church ; 33, Ley land Road, Southport.
Bond, L. W., l/o En-lev: Box 506, Seattle, Wash.,
U.S.A.
Brown, F. W., l/o London ; Iuglesiile, Sambourne,
Warminster, Wilts.
Bruce, .las., 1 d Mountpottinger : The Irish Distillery,
( lonnswater, Belfast.
Burrell, B. A., 5, Mount Preston (not Pleasant), Leeds.
Chase, R. L., Journals to 155, East Main street. North
Adams, Mass., I '.S.A.
Crowther, Horace W., Journals to 21, Beeches Road,
We-t Bromwich.
Dagger, J. H. J.. Journals to Hallwater, Endon, Stoke
on-Trent.
Dnpee, II. D., all communications to Walpole. Mass.,
U.S.A.
Farnshaw, Edwin, l/o 24 ; 72, Mark Lane, E.C.
Elliot. A. II., 1 o Fast 23rd Street ; " Anthony's Bulletin,"
591, Broadway, Xew York, U.S.A.
France, G. T., Journals to Friar's Goose Works, Gates-
head-on-Tyne.
1'i.K'hling, Dr. H., I o Richmond, Ya. ; Warners,
Onondaga Co., N.Y., U.S.A.
Gamble, Jas. N., Journals to " The Laboratory," Proctor
and Gamble Co., Ivorydale, Ohio, I .S.A.
!. A If. H, Journals to Oaklands, Lowton, Xewton-
le- Willows, Lancashire.
Handy, .1.(1., l/o Fifth Avenue; c/o Hunt and Clapp,
Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.
Harmon, L. E., 1 o Lockport : c b F. Elsworth and Co.,
71, Park Place, Xew York, U.S.A.
Hccht, Jos., 1 o Philadelphia : c/o Manufacturing Invest
ment Co., Appleton, Wis., I S.A.
Hirsch, Dr. P., lo Huddersricld; Potsdamerstrasse 113,
Villa IE, Berlin, W.
Hodges, H. B., lo Omaha: 50, Beacon Street, Boston,
Mass., U.S.A.
Howorth, F. W., l/o Crmston ; c/o Lloyd Wise,
46, Lincoln's Inn Fields, W.C.
Hutchinson, C. IE, l/o Church Street: Falcon Works,
Sackville Street, Barnslev, York-.
Fob. -20, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
93
.lulus. Professor I). E., Journals to County Council
( Iffioes, Stafford.
Kent, W. ,(., l/o 1218; P.O. Box 294, Johannesburg,
S.A.R.
Kinnioutt, Professor L. P., Journals to 77, Elm Street,
Worcester, Mass., U.S.A.
Leeds, Prank H., l/o Stoke Newington; 2G, East Bank,
Stamford Hill, N.
Mabery, Dr. C. F., Journals to 9, Rockwell Street,
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Macallan, J., l/o Marino Terrace ; 3, Oharlcmont Terrace,
Clontarf, Dublin.
Macfarlane, Jas. A. (Journals) Sta. Rosalia, Baja
l California, Mexico (rid New York, Nogales, and ( luaymas i ;
and (subs.) 3, Carlyle Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
.Mackenzie, Dr. W. Cossar, l/o Newcastle; Tewfikieh
College of Agriculture, Ghizeh, Fgypt.
Masson, G. H. l'o Trinidad; 1G, Roseneath Place,
Edinburgh.
Miller, W. M., l/o Demerara ; Maryville, Mount Vernon,
near Glasgow.
Mttller, G., l/o Box 148; c/o Curry Hotel, Ironwood,
Mich., U.S.A.
N'akamura, T., l'o Mita-Nichome ; 154, Shirokanc-
Sankocho, Shibaku, Tokyo, Japan.
Xeilson, T., l/o Whitehaven ; New South Hamilton
street, Kilmarnock, N.B.
Ree, Alf., 1 (not 6), Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
Robertson, Kobt., l/o Glasgow ; Royal Gunpowder
Factory, Waltham Abbey, Essex.
Saint, W. J., Journals to 11, Queen's Boad, Aberdeen.
Smith, B. Greig, l/o Musselburgh; Durham College of
Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
Studer, S. J., l/o Manchester ; 17, Lovely Lane, War-
rington.
Todd, A. M., l/o Nottawa; 204, North Bose Street,
Kalamazoo, Mich., Lf.S.A.
Wallace, J. Stewart, l/o Queen Victoria Street; Copthall
House, Copthall Avenue, E.C.
Walsh, !'. H.) Journals to 85, Joy Street, Boston, Mass.,
U.S.A.
Warne, Thos., l/o Walsall ; 6, Wakefield Boad, Thwaite-
gate, Leeds.
Will, W. Watson, l/o Butney ; 1, Newington Terrace,
Kennington Bark, S.F.
Williams, Seward W., Fast Orange, N.J. (not Mass.).
I' S.A.
Wood, Win., l/o 124 ; 128, Chaussee dc Turnhout,
Antwerp.
ADDITION TO LIST OF MEMBERS.
Jackson, V., Park Hill, lo, Chorley Old Road, Bolton.
iratf)s.
Dittmar, Prof., F.R.S., Anderson's College, Glasgow.
February 9.
Fearfield, J. P., Stapleford, Notts.
Pontoon Section.
Chemical Society's Rooms, Buulington Housr.
Chairman : T. Tyrer.
Vice-Chairman .* W. Crowder.
Committee :
C. P. Cross. W. Kellner.
J. Dewar. B. Redwood.
A.G.Green. W. S. Squire.
S. Hall. G. N. Stoker.
C. W. Heaton. F. Napier Sutton.
J. Heron. Wm. Thorp.
D. Howard. T. E. Thorpe.
Hon. Local Secretary : John Heron,
St. John's Villas, Worple Road, Wimbledon.
SESSION 1891-93.
1S92 :—
March 7 :—
Mr. Oscar Guttmann, Assoe.MJ.i'.K. " On the Dangers in the
Manufacture of Explosives."
Drs. Evans and Wirt z, ami Messrs. Cro9S and Bevan. "On
the Acid Action of Drawing Paper. '
April 4th :—
Dr. C. E. Alder Wright, F.It.S. " On Specific Gravities for
Practical Purposes."
Mr. Alhert Baur, Ph.D. " On Artificial Musk."
Mr. F. H. Leeds, F.I.C., F.C.S. " Note on Rosin Oil."
Election of Officers and Five Members in the Local Com-
mittee.
Nominations must be signed by Ten Members nod sent
to the Secretary on or before March 22nd. Members
can onl/f sign one nomination. [See Bye-laws. I
May 2nd :—
Professor Wm. Ramsay. F.R.S.. and Mr. J. C. Chorley. " The
Distillation of Wood."
Dr. S. Rideal. " Xotrs on the Composition of some Indian
Gums of known Origin."
June 6th :—
Mr. J. A. Nettlclon. " Vinegar."
Dr. S. Rideal. " The Petroleum Jellies of Commerce."
Meeting held Monday, 4th January, 1892.
MR. THOS. TYRER, IN THE CHAIR.
The Chairman, before calling on Mr. Redwood for his
paper, referred to the loss the Society and the Section
had sustained by the decease of the London Secretary,
Mr. T. W. B. Mumford. On his motion a vote of con-
dolence and sympathy with Mrs. Mumford and the family
was passed unanimously.
The Chairman announced that in virtue of its powers
under the Sectional Byelaws, the Committee had nominated
Mr. John Heion, F.I.C, F.C S., aud past President of the
Institute of Brewing, to be Secretary.
THE GALICIAN PETROLEUM AND OZOKERITE
INDUSTRIES.
BY BOVERTO.V REDWOOD, K.R.S.E., F.I.C, F.C.S.,
ASSOC. INST. C.E.
I. — Petroleum.
The increasing consumption of petroleum in the form of
lamp oil and lubricating oil, and especially the growing
demand for the material in the manufacture of gas for
illuminating purposes, either as a substitute for eannel in
enriching coal-gas or for carburetting water-gas, are
rapidly tending to confer general industrial importance
upon sources of supply that might otherwise have remained
of merely local consequence. It is on this broad ground
that the subject of the Galician petroleum industry has
been thought to be not unworthy of the attention of the
members of the Society of Chemical Industry.
The petroleum industry of (ialicia, in common with the
corresponding industries of the United States, Russia, and
other countries, may properly be described as of crn.at
antiquity. From the earliest times of which any historical
records have been preserved the crude oil has been collected
in a primitive fashion and has been largely employed in the
manufacture of cart-grease, and as a remedial a^ent for
outward application in cases of cutaneous disease of men
and animals. The oil was also, many years ago, sent into
Bohemia, where it was mixed with small eoal to form
briquettes. In the first instance it was collected from
springs and streams of water, but the old timbered oil-wells
so frequently met with in Galicia and Roumania indicate
B 2
94
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb.2<>, lsss.
very clearly that it has long been the practice 'in those
countries to dig wells or shafts for the collection of the oil.
The petroleum of Galicia is specially referred to in local
records from the commencement of the seventeenth century,
hut evidently was not at that early date regarded as having
any commercial importance, for as Mr. Xelson Boyd,
M.I.C.E., has pointed out, it was not mentioned in the
Austrian mining laws framed in 1786, and applicable to
Poland. It was not, in fact, until 1810 that petroleum
appears to have been first officially noticed in a Government
decree relating to the registration of mining rights. There
are no statistics from which any accurate impressions of
the extent of the industry at this early period can be
gathered, but it may safely be assumed that the require-
ments of a sparse population, far removed from the
civilising influence of the capitals of Europe, cannot have
been considerable. It was not in fact until the manufacture
from the raw material of an oil for use in lamps was com-
menced that the industry assumed industrial importance,
and the pit-wells were found inadequate to meet the rapidly
increasing demands.
In the United States the petroleum industry in its present
form is generally considered to date from the drilling of
what is known as the Drake well in 1859, but long before
this time systematic attempts were made in Galicia to found
a business in the refining of the oil. As far back as 1810,
or between that date and 1818, Hecker and Mitis, who
owned wells in the Dohobycz district, are reported to have
distilled the oil, and the Alstettering in Prague is stated to
have been lighted with the product. The refinery from
which the city received its annual supplies of 300 cwt. was
situated at Kabicza, and the oil appeared to have been sold
at 35 florins per cwt. This business, however, came to an
end in 1818, and no further attempt to supply an oil suit-
able for use in lamps appears to have been made until 1852.
In that year, a manufacturer of cart-grease, of the name of
Schreiner, collected some of the liquid which condensed on
the cover of the vessel in which he was accustomed to heat
the crude petroleum. This stroug-smelling oil he took to
an apothecary named Mikolasch, whose assistants, Luka-
siewicz and Zeh, treated it with sulphuric acid and caustic
soda. This refined oil was found to burn so well that
renewed attention was at once directed to the subject. In
the following year Galician petroleum was substituted for
candles in the lighting of the station of the Emperor Ferdi-
nand's Xorth Railroad, and in 1854 the oil became an article
of commerce in Vienna.
In 1859 one of two brine-wells in the Sloboda-Rungurska
district of Galicia, excavated as far back as 1771, and
stated to have continuously yielded a small quantity of
petroleum, was deepened to 25 metres, with the result of
increasing the yield. This historic well, which bears the
name of Stanislawa, appears to have been further deepened
by digging, in 1865, to 50 metres, the original diameter of
1-50 metres being preserved to the bottom. It is stated by
Babu* to have yielded then five barrels a day, and this pro-
duction was not sensibly altered by an attempt in 1875 to
increase it by drilling from the bottom of the shaft to a
further depth of 100 metres, making 150 metres in all. In
1884 the depth of the well was further increased by drilling
to 213 metres, and the yield of oil was thereby augmented
to 10 barrels a day.
It was, however, in what is known as the Bobrka district
that the earliest systematic development of the industry
occurred, and when the writer visited the Galician oil-fields
in 1887 he was pleased to see that a stone obelisk had very
properly been erected in this district by Klobassa and
Tszecieski, the owners of neighbouring petroleum properties,
to record the fact. The monument bears an inscription of
which the following is a translation : — " To preserve the
memory of the founding of the petroleum mine in Bobrka
in the year 1854 by Ignacy Lukasiewicz. 4th Xov. 1872."
Bobrka is a village on the left bank of the Jasolka,
between Krosno and Dukla, and it was here that after many
comparatively unsuccessful attempts to collect the petroleum
by the digging of long trenches about a metre deep, and
shallow wells, Lukasiewicz, with the co-operation of M.
Klobassa, completed in 1861 the first important well, which,
at a depth of 14 metres, yielded 6,000 kilogrammes of oil
» Ann. des Mines. 8e. Scrie XIV.. 162—196.
per hour. The work of development Has thenceforward
proceeded with, and the production quickly assumed locally
important dimensions.
The active development of the Sloboda-Rungurska section
of the Kolomea oil-field was commenced in 1881, and in
1SS3 this district was reported to be yielding 550 barrels
per diem of crude petroleum within an area of 1,500 metres
in length and from 350 to 500 metres in breadth. The
Sloboda-Rungurska field was for a time by far the most
productive of the Galician oil-territories, the production at
one period having increased to over 1,600 barrels per day.
In consequence of the compact character of the petroliferous
area, and the apparent regularity of the distribution of the
oil over this area, the drilling of wells within the demarcated
oil zone in this district has been attended with compara-
tively uniform success.
Meanwhile the development of the portion of the oil-belt
in the neighbourhood of Ustrzyki has been steadily pro-
gressing, and there is now no part of the Galician oil-fields
where the industry is more firmly established or where the
prospects are more favourable.
Concurrently with the recent progress made in the
Ustrzyki section of the belt renewed attention has been
given to the western end, and at Wietzno some remarkably
productive wells have been drilled. The Wietzno field joins
the Bobrka district, where the petroleum industry of
Galicia may, as already pointed out, be said to have had its
birth. The neighbourhood of Krosno constitutes another
portion of the western end of the oil-belt in which the
efforts of the producer have Iquite recently met with con-
spicuous success, several very productive wells having been
drilled here.
The province of Galicia was originally a portion of the
kingdom of Poland. It was allotted to Austria at the time
of the partition in 1776, and is now embraced in the Empire
of Austria-Hungary. A glance at the map of Europe will
show that Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Car-
pathian mountains, which extend in a general noith-westerly
and south-easterly direction.
In this connexion it may be well to point out that the
principal petrolenm deposits occurring in various parts of
the world are closely associated with the chief mountain
ranges. In illustration of this statement attention may be
directed to the accompanying map of Europe (Map Xo. 1),
on which some of the chief petroliferous districts, deposits
not yet of industrial importance, and localities where
indications of petroleum have been met with, are marked.
Commencing, at the extreme eastern confines of Europe,
with the very important oil-fields in the neighbourhood of
Baku, evidences of the existence of the oil are found at
many points along the Caucasus mountain range between
Baku and the Black Sea coast, notably in the neighbour-
hood of Tiflis, and between Poti and Batoum. On the
Taman peninsula, inland of Xovorossisk, lie the oil-fields of
Illsky and Koudako, and farther westward are the well-
known petroleum deposits of Kertch, in the Crimea.
Still travelling westward, the Carpathian ranges are
reached, and here, in addition to the Galician oil-territory,
which as already stated lies on the northern slopes of those
mountains, there are the important Roumanian oil-fields
occupying the south-eastern and southern slopes of the
Southern Carpathians, or Transylvaniau Alps, and deposits
which as yet are of comparatively small commercial
importance in the Bukowina, Transylvania, and Hungary.
An extension of the same general south-easterly and
north-westerly line will pass through the neighbourhood of
Hanover, where petroleum is now being obtained.
Parallel to this long line of petroleum-producing localities,
but considerably to the south of it, there is a series of
localities where petroleum indications are said to occur on
the coast of Dalmatia and Albania, near the Dinaric Alps
and Pindus mountains, and to the north-westward of these
indications is situated the somewhat important oil-field of
Alsace, bordered by the Vosges mountains.
Still further south is another north-westerly and south-
easterly line of oil-bearing rocks in Italy following the
general direction of the Appenines, and to the south-
eastward is the island of Zante, where the historic petroleum
spring of Herodotus may still be seen.
It may be suggested that the oil deposits of Sicily lie on
a further parallel line, and it will be observed that such a
iVb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
95
line prolonged to the north-westward would not pass far
northward of the Pyrenees, where petroleum has also been
met with.
In Spain petroleum has been found not only in the north,
but also, it is said, in the south near Seville, not far distant
from the Sierra Nevada mountains, and if a line parallel to
those already referred to be drawn through the latter in a
south-easterly direction it will intersect the Algerian oil
deposits in the neighbourhood of Oran, with the Atlas
mountains not far inland.
Reverting once more to the Galician oil-fields, attention
may be drawn to the importance of their geographical
position, for they lie, as will be seen, almost exactly in the
centre of Europe. The " oil-belt," as far as it has yet been
defined, has a length of some 220 miles with a breadth of
from 40 to 60 miles, and it extends, as already indicated,
in a general north-westerly and south easterly direction.
The precise positions of the various petroleum-producing
properties, as well as of localities where promising oil-
indications occur, are very clearly shown in the series of
three maps (Maps Nos. 2, 3, and 4) which have been
drawn for this paper. The situations of the respective
areas of these maps are indicated on the map of the
kingdom of Austria-Hungary (Map No. 5). To all these
maps further reference will be made under the heads
of production and refining. The country, as will be seen
from the series of three maps, is to a large extent of a
mountainous character, but it is for the most part well
provided with good roads and most of the developed
properties are within a short distance of the railway.
The Carparthiaus form a long curved range of mountains
separating Hungary and Transylvania on the north, east,
and south-east from Silesia, Galieia, Bukowina, Moldavia,
and Wallachia. The inner curve of this range consists
largely of precipitous masses of rock, while the outer slope
descends gradually to the Tertiary plains of Galieia and
Koumania by a descending series of parallel folds. At the
foot of the slope is a deposit of rock salt extending through
Galieia and Bukowina into Moldavia. On the northern
declivity in Galieia the Cretaceous formation is covered with
a deposit of Eocene rocks and the whole surface has been
thrown into a series of ridges, the denuded crests of which
exhibit the successive layers. Heurteau* points out that
the rarity of fossils in these beds renders their classi-
fication very difficult ; it is, however, agreed that they are
of the latest period of the Cretaceous age or of the Eoceue
age. To these rocks as a whole the name of Carpathian
sandstone has been given. A portion of this sandstone is
bordered by a deposit of the Miocene age. C. M. Paul,
who has carefully studied the geology of the Carparthiaus,
asserts that in the neighbourhood of Cracow the Cretaceous
formation met with is only in a rudimentary stage, while
the Tertiary formation is fully developed. He describes the
four following distinct groups in descending order: —
1. Mayura Sandstone. — Quartzose noncalcareous sand-
stone, alternated with grey or whitish laminated clays,
which separate the beds of friable and shaly white micaceous
sandstone containing vegetable remains. In this formation
white or blue hydraulic marl is also met with, and at the
base is also found a characteristic quartzose conglomerate.
Fish temains also occur. This belongs to the close of the
Eocene period.
2. Smilno Schiefern. — Black laminated and contorted
shales, characterised by layers of flint and spherosiderite.
3. Belowesa Schiefern. — Hieroglyphic sandstone and red
shales in thin layers, very micaceous. To this horizon
belongs also the brown sandstone in thick layers, permeated
by veins of spathic limestone and sandstone in thin lamina;,
with fucoids.
4. Kopianka-Schiefern. — Shaly beds, micaceous and
quartzose, usually bluish-grey, containing layers of sand-
stone very difficult to distinguish from those of the upper
deposits. At Ropianka these beds lie on a greyish sand-
stone of medium grain completely saturated with petroleum.
The slopes of the Carparthians thus consist of Cretaceous
and Tertiary limestones, sandstones, and shales overlying a
mass of metamorphie rocks. The shales are for the most
part rich in vegetable and animal remains, this being
particularly noticeable in East Galieia and the Bukowina,
where thick beds of black bituminous shale are met with.
The petroleum occurs in both coarse and fine sandstone,
chiefly of the Eocene and Miocene ages, but it doubtless
was formed in the shale. The oil-bearing formation lies,
as already stated, in parallel folds, and the petroleum is
found in great abundance under or near to the crests of the
antielinals. Rock-salt, gypsum, native sulphur and various
sulphides, blende, pyrites and galena are met with in
association with the petroleum. Sulphuretted hydrogen is
also a frequent concomitant.
Of the petroliferous formation in the Ustr/.yki district,
Paul remarks that the alternating layers of shales, clays, and
sandstones of which it is composed belong to the early
Eocene age, therefore to the same geological horizon as the
oil-bearing rocks at Bobrka, Plowce, Uherce, and Schodnica.
The overlying beds are of later Eocene age, and the under-
lying have not yet been opened up.
In the following table by Rateauf some of the petroleum-
producing localities in Hungary and Galieia are classified
geologically :—
Fun nation.
Division.
Local Names.
Deposits.
Hungary.
Galbiaand Bukowina.
i
Salzthonjmippe
Recz, Kovac,
(iarbonac, Uragomer,
Sobsmezo.
Bory^luw,
Starunia,
Dwiniacz.
r
Upper
Sziput beds,
K.liwa sandslone,
Magura sandstone.
Upper Hungary
and
Transylvania.
Wherever the menilite
shale assumes a sandy
character.
Middle
Menilite shale
SmilnOi Szinna,
Marmaros, lod,
Dragomer.
Libusa, Bobrka,
Baryslaw, Wyskow,
Moldawitza.
.
Lower
Libusza sandstone
Marmaros, Zibo,
Udvarhely, .Sousmezd.
Libusza, Harklowa,
Bobrka, Sanok, Polariy.
■
Calcareous
sandstone with
nummulitcs
C Upper beds
with Hieroglyphs
and fucoids.
Lower beds
with Hieroglyphs
konyha,
Sacsal.
Prozolina, Soosmezb.
Maukova, Ustrzyki,
Pohar, l'olany,
S loboda - Run gursk a.
Schodnica, Maldawitza,
Mrasznica, Barwinek.
Upper
Ropianka beds
Mikowa, Lueli.
Ropianka. Siary, E&opa.
Middle
V/ernsdori beds
Komarnik
Kowali, Brzisko, Ivlcczany.
I
Lower
Teschen shales
Arva, Liptau.
Bittla, Kimpolung.
* Ann. des Mines, 6e. Serie XIX., 197— 261.
t Ann. des Mines, Me. Sene XI., 147—170.
96
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
I'll. 29, 18'JL'.
Feb. ii>, 1SU2.J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
97
.''.ji
98
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[ Feb. ir, 1892.
,st-.et>
,r,-*
1'Vli. 29, 1892.]
THE JOURNAIi OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
.<•'.«- *
100
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
I el i. a :msii2.1 THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
101
Mr. William Topley, F.K.S., who is well known to have
devoted special attention to the geology of petroleum, has,
with a kindness for which the writer cannot sufficiently
thank him, furnished for this paper the following particulars
of the geological occurrence of petroleum in Gahcia.
The Carpathians are composed of thick masses of rock,
mainly sandstones, which have heen thrown into a great
series of folds, trending a little south of east in West
Galicia, but turning more to the south further east, and in
East Galicia trending ahout south-east.
These sandstones, collectively termed the ( 'arpathian
sandstones, are now known to belong to the Neocomiau,
Cretaceous, and Lower Eocene formations ; or, by com-
parison with well-known strata in the south-east of England,
they range in age from the Lower Greensand to the Loudon
Clay.
The Eocene strata, the upper beds of which arc now called
( Migocene by Paul, form the rolling ground on the northern
Hanks of the Carpathians, whilst the flatter land to the
north is formed of Miocene beds. This is a rough and
general statement of the range of the beds, but the whole
district is traversed by a number of folds and anticlinals, so
that the Neooouiian beds are brought up amongst the newer
strata ; and by the extreme foldings, faults, and overthrusts
to which the beds have been subjected, the older rocks
seem ofteu to overlie the newer ones.
The general succession of the strata is as follows, petro-
leum occurring in the divisions marked * : —
•Salt Slai'l beds (ozokerite) Miocene.
Magura and Kliwa sandst tues .
< lligocene of
'Menilite beds
Carpathian
Sandstone series
,.. (some Authors,
•Upper
Mi. 1.11. ■
Lower (Ropianka beds)
-If"
■}
Eocene,
Cretaceous,
Neocomian.
The menilite beds take their name from the occurrence
therein of menilite (a semi-opal).
Different authors employ somewhat different names in
describing the beds. Some of these names may be of beds
only locally developed. It is therefore sometimes difficult
to correlate the various descriptions, or to get all the beds
mentioned into any general classification. The following are
sections given by Walter and Dunikowski, from whose
workf the accompanying illustrative diagrams (Figs. 1 and
2) are also taken : —
Fig. i-
13 Km.
■ i. Ropienka layers (Neocomiau).
h. Redclnv.
Cm Nummulitic sandstone.
(I. Upper Eocene.
./'. Menilite shales (Oligocene).
q. Upper Oligocene.
SW
CicniawsKa.
Gora
Browar
Strzylawiecki Grybow- BajorKi
NE
12 3 4
f. fiopienka layers ( Neocomian). 1
b. Red clay.
c. Nummulitic sandstone.
if. River sand, humus, &e Uluviuui.
30. Glazy bleehne, youugeri '..,
9. Older clay, older i Diluvium.
B. Coal-bearing beds ..") ~\
7. Thick-grained sandstone > / , ., .
on the hills, younger ... ) J-Ohsocene.
(i. Menilite shales, older )
The diagrams exhibit very clearly the manner in which
the older beds are, as already pointed out, caused to overlie
the newer. They also show that petroleum occurs along
the summits of the anticlinal lines, though sometimes wells
are preferably drilled where the beds have a regular dip in
one direction.
According to Walter, the petroleum-bearing rocks of
Lomna and Galowka belong to the lowest strata of the
Eocene formation, and therefore resemble those of liobrka.
The strata at Galowka are : —
1st. Soft sandstones carrying water : the so-called Kliwa
sandstones.
2nd. Black bituminous shales, with fish remains.
3rd. Hornstone and glassy sandstones.
1th. Aset of blue and red marls, without sandstones,
impervious to water.
f
- fyC
d. Upper Eocene.
/. Menilite shales (Oligocene)."
5. Upper Eocene sandstones Upper
4. Nummulitic sandstones } .
8. Red clays and glassy sandstones j *
2. Upper Eopienka beds 1 , ,,,,,.,. .....i Mi.i.n,. i-i )
1. Lower Ropienka beds I ' ppeI anaJauwle {.). (
(?) The Lower = Neocomian )
■r
Eocene.
Cretaceous.
5th. Well-developed sandstones, with thin beds of blue
marl. This sandstone is the horizon at which
petroleum occurs most abundantly.
A fine series of specimens illustrative of the petroleum
and ozokerite deposits of Galicia was exhibited by Professor
L. Szujnoeha, of Cracow, at the International Geological
Congress in London (1888). The following examples are
extracted from the catalogue of the exhibition : —
Miocene. — lioryslaw, Starunia, Dwiniacz.
Eocene. — Kleuczanv, Libusza, Lipiuki, Wojtowa, liobrka,
Glebokie, Plowce, Zagorz, Lodynia, Pasiecza, Sloboda-
Huugurska, Tekueza.
t Pas Petroleumgebeit der Galizischcn West Karpathcn.
|ss;i.
Wien
102
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
Xeocomiau (Carpathische Kreide). — Sekowa, Meucina,
Siary, Kopiauka, Mraznica.
The crude petroleum found in Galieia varies in density
and other physical characters within wide limits. The great
variation is partly due to the circumstance that oils obtained
from relatively deep drilled wells are brought into comparison
with petroleum collected in shallow pits. The latter may
be described as surface oil, and in many cases it has been
so exposed that it has lost its more volatile constituents by
evaporation. Iu some places, e.g., at Siary, Klewa, Kos-
pucie, Starzawa (or Kudawka), Rosochy, and Ropa, a light
brown or reddish-brown oil, known as red oil, occurs, which
may be burned in ordinary lamps in its crude state,* but
the greater part of the Galieian crude petroleum is dark
brown in colour by transmitted light, and exhibits a marked
fluorescence. The oil is usually free from sulphur, and its
odour is devoid of disagreeable characteristics. The oil
from the drilled wells is very fluid, but the surface oil from
the shallow pits is occasionally somewhat viscous.
According to Strippelmaun,t the extreme limits of specific
gravity recorded are 0-778 — 0-930 for West Galieian oil,
and 0-750—0-950 for East Galieian. The writer has had
occasion to examine from time to time a considerable
number of samples of crude petroleum from Galieia, and in
the following table, based upon the results obtained, the
usual minimum and maximum densities of the produce of
the drilled wells are stated : —
m
Table showing Density of Galician Crude
Petrolevm prom Drilled Wells.
Specific Gravity at HUD F.
Lowest.
Highest.
Eastern end of belt:
Intermediate i>ortion of belt :
Western end of belt :
o-s;i(i
0*835
0*846
0'868
0*814
In illustration of a statement already made, it may be
pointed out that the oil which was being obtained from the
excavated shafts on the Robrka estate, immediately adjoin-
ing the Wietzno property, at the time of the writer's visit,
bad a specific gravity ranging ordinarily from 0-869 to 0-874,
and running as high, in exceptional cases, as 0-885.
The extent of variation in the density of the produce of
a number of drilled wells in the same locality is shown by
the following particulars of properly authenticated samples
examined by the writer : —
* This description of oil is also found at Gura Humura in the
Bukowina,
t Die Petroleum-Industrie Oesterreich-Deutscblands. Leipzig,
I ^7:>
In teen Wells in the District of Sloboda-
RuNGURSKA.
No.
Date of Del"h
Completion., M(,tlvs_
Reported Production Specific Gravity
in 24 Hours i of the Oil (at
in October 1886. 60° F.).
u
1865—1881
213
Barrels.
10
0-842
2
1877
191
5
0-888
3
1881
189
10
0-885
1
1883
1G4
20
0-850
5
lssl
225
15
0-838
6
1885
275
20
0-845
7
1885
2S2
35
ii-sit
s
1885
274
15
0-8.13
a
1886
202
40
0-S03
10
1886
280
25
0-837
ll
1886
305
60
0 839
12
1886
2S0
15
o-s-iv
13
1886
282
40
0-SKI
11
1886
250
50
0-S30
15
1886
311
00
0"839
t Stanislawa. The deepening of this well to 213 metres was not
effected until 1884.
Five Wells in the Ustrzyki District.
No.
Depth in
Metres.
Average Daily
Production.
Specific Gravity
of the Oil (at
60° F.)
1
133
Barrels.
1-21
0-835
2
173
5-13
0-844
3
183
8-2
0-841
4
232
5-1
0-886
5
229
W53
0-841
In making comparisons between the oils obtained from
wells at different depths, it should be borne in mind that it
is a common practice in Galieia to employ casing perforated
at the oil horizons, and that it follows therefore that the
produce of a well may consist of oils from two or more
petroliferous strata in proportions which are subject to
variation.
In the following table some of the results obtained in the
writer's laboratory in the examination of several typical
samples of Galieian crude petroleum are given : —
No.
Locality.
Specific
Gravity
of Crude
Oil.
Specific Gravity of Distillate.
Commercial Products.
A.
R
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
II.
Sloboda Eungurska .
Sloboda- lluneurska.
Ustrzyki district
Ustrzyki district —
Harklowa
Lenczyu
0-815
0-860
0-816
0-1112
0-901
0-875
0-721
0-743
u-701
0-786
0-760
0-720
0-763
0-771
0-7S2
0-S20
0-806
0-756
0-792
0-789
0-803
0-867
0-846
0-701
0-821
0-825
0-823
irs7s
0-828
0-S41
0-S35
0-842
12-0
S-S
9-6
2-6
7-5
8-4
35-9
37-1
38-4
17-4
32-5
36-5
11-6
4O-0
11-3
58-6
61-8
50-3
A. First tenth by volume.
B. Second
C. Third
ii. Fourth
E. Fifth tenth by volume.
F. Percentage by weight of petroleum spirit.
(J. „ „ kerosene.
H. „ ., intermediate and heavy oils.
Feb. 29, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
103
In conducting the distillation of petroleum hydrocarbons
of high boiling point in ordinary laboratory apparatus at
atmospheric pressure, dissociation occurs more or less, and
for this reason the density of those fractions only of the
distillate obtained before such dissociation had obviously
commenced, are given in the table. In this connexion the
writer may reproduce appropriately a remark made to him
some time ago by Dr. Dvorkoviteh, who has had a large-
practical experience in the distillation of petroleum, that it is
not at all difficult for the chemist to report accurately what
he has obtained from any sample of crude petroleum, but to
ascertain exactly what was originally present in the oil is
extremely difficult. This will be fully endorsed by all who
are aware of the facility with which some of the hydro-
carbons of crude petroleum become resolved into others
during the processes incidental to their separation.
It may be added that the percentages of kerosene given
in the foregoing table are smaller than those obtained on
the manufacturing scale, as will be seen later.
Galician crude petroleum contains more or less of the
solid hydrocarbons. The proportion may he said to range
usually from 1 to 5 per cent., but the oil obtained from the
ozokerite mines contains a still larger amount, and, indeed,
some of the ozokerite itself may be considered to be a
petroleum very highly charged with paraffin. The salient
characteristics of the oil may be seen from the representative
series of samples exhibited.
The particulars of the first four of the following samples
of Galician crude petroleum are given on the authority of
Strippelinann, and those of the remaining samples on that
of Nawratil.
1 . From Siary, sp. gr. 0-856.
Per Cent.
Petroleum spirit, to 120° C., sp. gr. 0'740 8"50
Light oil, 1st quality, 120° to 200°, sp. gr. fl-705 22-25
Light oil. 2nd quality, 200° to 300°, sp. gr. 0'S35 22-60
Light oil, 3rd quality, 300° to 350°, sp.gr. 0' 876 11 "80
Paraffin oil, with 2*9 per cent, paraffin, 3511° and over,
sp. gr.0-915" 1202
Residue 13-25
Loss 9'18
100-00
2. Average sample from Klenczany, Librautowo, and
Starawies. Sp.gr. 0-800.
Per Cent.
Petroleum ether, sp. gr. 0"ii92 5
Benzine, sp. gr. 0-700 10
Light oil.sp.gr. 0-810 50
Paraffin nil s
Paraffin 3
Residue 18
L'iss 6
100
3. From Boryslaw. Sp. gr. 0-782.
Per Cent.
Petroleum spirit 20
Light oil, 1st quality 50
Paraffin 8
Tar for axle-grease 8
Residue 10
Loss 4
100
4. From Bobrka. Sp. gr. 0-859.
PerCent.
Petroleum spirit 10
Light oil, 1st quality 50
Heavy oil 10
Tar for axle-grease 10
Residue 10
Loss 10
100
Klenczany.
Ropa.
Ropa.
Wojtowa.
Libusza.
Seukowa.
Cretaceous.
180 metres.
Cretaceous,
03 Metres.
Cretaceous,
60 Metres.
Eocene,
100 Metres.
Eocene,
137 Metres.
Eocene,
113 Metres.
Reddish-Yellow.
Brownish-Red.
Reddish-Brown.
Greenish-Black.
Greenish-Black.
Greenish-Black.
Specific Gravity.. .
0-779
0-808
0-800
0-836
0-737
0-837
Distillate [
Specific
Gravity.
Per-
centage.
Specific
Gravity.
Per.
centage.
Specific
Gravity.
Per-
centage.
Specific
Gravity.
Per-
centage.
Speeilie
Gravity.
Per-
centage.
Specific
Gravity
Per-
centage.
°C.
100
0-742
0-775
0-783
0-80'
0-837
0-852
0-895
12-80
31-20
14-60
9-60
9-30
5-20
9 Oil
8-00
C-05
0-05
O'lO
0-738
0-773
0-810
0-841
0-805
0-885
1-90
24-70
18-00
12-40
11-60
9-80
1.V90
4-00
o-io
0-60
0-40
0-735
0-773
0-805
0-838
0-868
[ 0-880
9-30
18-20
12-80
10-80
10-60
12-30
24-30
o-io
0-80
0-50
0-761
0-792
0-822
0-849
0-862
0-895
1-60
11-90
14-60 "i
16*90.)
18-80
13-70
20W
0-20
1-10
0-80
0-745
0-803
0-S41
0-856
ro-878
(.0-915
4-30
14-70
17-90
11-40
9-90
20-80
15-70
0-60
3-00
1-80
0-747
( 0-783
(.0-823
0-857
0-879
0-907
0-914
2'00
100—150
150—200
200—260
250-300
300-350
Above 400
11-20
10-50
8-60
10-90
18-50
"Petroleum gum"
o-io
1-50
1-00
100-110
100-00
••
100-00
100-00
100-00
loo-oo
104
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 211, 1802.
Locality.
Formation.
Colour.
Specific
Gravity.
Liglil Oil,
160 C.
Petroleum
Distillate,
150 to300°.
Lubricating
Oil
above S0O°.
Coke niul
Loss.
Rnpa
\\ ojtown
Libusza
Stnrunia
Pagi irzyn
Lipinki
Siary
Siary
Menoina
KlrlllKlliy
Kryg
Harklowa
Harklowa
Cretaceous
Eocene. Ill m.
Cretaceous, 1 W m.
Salt-layer, 36 ra,
Eocene, 188 m.
Eocene, in in.
i: iceni . 182m.
Eocene, 123 m.
Eocene, 280 m.
Eocene, o7 m.
Eocene, 170m.
Eocene, 113 m.
Eocene, 111 m.
Reddish-brown
Greenish-black
Greenish-black
Greenish-black
Blaekish-brown
Brownish-black
Greenish-black
Brownish-black
Greenish-black
Dark green
Brownish-black
Brownish-black
Brownish black
0-853
0-820
irsl2
0-845
0-S47
O-S-19
0-S50
0-858
0-S5?,
0-870
0'878
o-«is
0-892
Percentage. Percentage
11-40 39-80
Percentage. Percentage.
16'50 2-30
12-40
13-30
10-90
20-00
9-80
2ir<m
11-30
19-60
3 in
8-00
6-70
5-70
i 1-60
32-80
34-90
31 20
45'50
30-30
31-90
33-10
38-60
32-60
28-20
50-70
■n - .-<i
49-40
r, 1 1 - "i >
43-30
40"60
WOO
52-30
12fio
54"50
53-20
5S'20
5.', -Til
2-50
run
3-30
5-50
4 "20
I -H
f.-il
1-40
3-.)0
0-20
C'llil
7-511
It would not improbably be of practical importance, and
would certainly be of great interest, if the oils found in the
various geological horizons could be differentiated chemically;
but it appears doubtful whether this can be done with any
degree of precision on the basis of the existent data. At
the same time Schaedler* expresses the opinion that the
geologically older petroleum of the Ropianka beds is
more limpid and contains a larger proportion of the lighter
hydrocarbons than the oils of the Eocene and Oligocene
formations, which are comparatively heavy, darker in colour,
and are rich in paraffin. While the petroleum of Sloboda-
Rungurska contains at most 6 per cent, of paraffin, that of
lioryslaw contains 8 or 10 per cent., and that of Starunia as
much as 20 to 25 per cent.
Galician petroleum was examined by Lachowicz (Ann.
der Chem. 220, 188—206 ; this Journal, 473). From
an oil of boiling point 30° to 125G C. there were separated
by distillation and treatment with strong nitric anil sulphuric
acids, normal and isopentane, normal and isohexane, and
normal heptane ; also from the higher boiling portions
nonane (boiling point 148° G), and decane (boiling point
132 to 153° C.). An oil boiling between 200° and 3007
likewise shows all the properties of the paraffins, a whole
series of which form the principal constituents of the
petroleum. The first six fractions obtained in the dis-
tillation on the large scale of the crude petroleum are not
acted upon by bromine, but the seventh and higher fractious
absorb bromine vapour with evolution of heat. It is, there-
fore, most probable that the defines do not exist in the
petroleum, but are formed during the distillation. As it is
possible that a formation of aromatic hydrocarbons might
similarly take place, only the lightest poitions of the distillate
were examined with a view of ascertaining the presence of
this class ol hydrocarbons. By fractionation and nitration
meta-dinitrobenzene, dinitrotoluene (melting point 71°), and
dinitroisoxylene (melting point 176°) were severally isolated
and analysed, and from a higher boiling portion trinitro-
mesitylene (melting point 231° to 232°). From observations
of the high specific gravity and the percentage composition
of a portion boiling between 97° and 100° it is, in the opinion
ill Lachowicz, almost certain that it consists of heptane with
somcliexahydrotoluene. The presence of hexahydroisoxylene
was not proved.
I'awlewski (Ber. 18, 1915; this Journal 4, 671) has
isolated paraxylene from the petroleum found at Kleczany.
lie found that the crude oil contained about 2 per cent, of
aromatic hydrocarbons, chiefly benzene and paraxylene.
The presence of the latter was detected by brominating the
fraction distilling between 125'3 and 145° C. Crystals of
paraxylene bromide, C6H4(CH2Br)2 = 1 : 4, were obtained,
melting at 145°.
* Technologie der Pette und Oele der Fossilien. Leipzig;, 1884.
Xaw ratil points out that crude oils from the same locality
often present considerable differences. Thus of two samples
from Klenczany, one from a depth of 189 metres was light
coloured and transparent, of low specific gravity (0-779),
and yielded light distillates containing much paraffin, while
the other, from a depth of 57 metres, was dark coloured and
opaque, of high specific gravity (0-870), and yielded heavy
distillates containing very little paraffin. Only one of a
considerable number of samples examined, viz., that from
Pagor/.yn, gave off on distillation distinct traces of
sulphuretted hydrogen.
As already stated, petroleum was first obtained in
Galicia from the pit-wells or carefully timbered shafts
excavated by hand. The influx of water and the presence
of inflammable gas prevented the sinking of such wells
tii any considerable depth, and the yield of oil was
small. In fact, the more productive petroliferous strata
could not thus be reached. The first important step in the
development of the industry was taken when hand-drilling
was introduced. The plant employed for this purpose is
shown in the illustration (Fig. 3), which is taken from a
model kindly made for me in Galicia by Mr. Elgin Scott. It
consists, as will be seen, of a derrick provided with a powerful
windlass A, by means of which a gang of men can draw up
the weighty drilling tools 15, a smaller windlass or winch
C, for use with the sand-pump D, and a long massive beam
E (pivoted not far from one end), from which the tools are
suspended in the well. The bit or drill E is either chisel-
shaped, or more often is of such a form that it may be
described as a combination of the chisel and the gouge. It
is attached to an apparatus known as the free-fall jars G.
This consists of a rod working freely within a casing or tube.
The rod is provided with a pin or stud running in a longitudinal
slot in the tube, and this slot is prolonged at a right angle at its
upper end, forming a catch for the pin. It is obvious tiiat
by slightly turning the rod when it is fully telescoped into
the tube it may thus be held or released. The tools are
attached to the beam through the medium of iron rods H,
screwed together, which are added successively as the depth
of the well increases. Each windlass is provided with a brake,
A', C. It is usual to commence drilling from the bottom of
a square shaft excavated as deep as possible, and the operation
consists in drawing down the longer portion of the beam
until the end strikes against a wooden block, I. At this
instant the driller gives a slight turn to the tools, by means
of the lever K, the pin of the jars is released from the
catch, and the bit falls a distance of three or four feet,
delivering a blow upon the rock at the bottom of the -.veil.
The longer end of the beam is then allowed to iise, and the
jars thus being telescoped or closed, the driller gives the
tools a turn in the reverse direction, and thus again brings
the pin into the catch. The beam i- usually about 30 ft. in
length and pivoted about 5 ft. from one end. A gang of six
Fob 29, im.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
105
men is required For the work in addition to the driller.
Drilling by this method is necessarily very slow, the usual
number of strokes which the writer has seen delivered per
minute being siv or seven. Moreover, the maximum weight
of the tools capable of being nsed with a hand rig is not
sufficiently great for expeditious work or deep drilling, and
in fact, very hard strata can scarcely be penetrated with
such a system. When a bit requires dressing (or sharpen-
ing), or the hole is full of detritus, the drilling tools are
drawn up into the derrick by means of a wire rope coiled mi
the larger windlass, the rods being disconnected one by one.
The well is then cleared out with the sand-pump I), which is
a cylinder provided at the lower end with a valve opening
inwards. The sand-pump is lowered into the well by the
use of the smaller windlass, and when it reaches tin
bottom the valve is pushed open by the projecting stem L,
and the mud flows in. As the cylinder is raised, the valve,
of course, closes.
Fig. 3.
About the year 1867 attempts were first made in Galicia
to substitute steam power for manual labour in drilling.
The same general arrangement of rig, with free-fall jars,
was at first adopted, and is, indeed, still in use to some
extent. In one installation which the writer saw in opera-
tion in the Sloboda-Rungurska district the piston of the
steam cylinder was directly connected with the end of the
beam, the tools being suspended from the opposite end, but
usually the oscillation of the beam is effected by means of
an ordinary steam engine with driving-wheel, the recipro-
cating motion being given by a crank and connecting Tod.
The introduction of steam power enabled the driller to use
far heavier tools, the weight of the falling portion ranging
from 800 to 1,000 kilogrammes, and rendered the work more
expeditious, the writer having seen as many as 40 blows of
the bit delivered each minute. The free-fall jars employed
are shown in Fig. 4 (P P'). While, however, the substitution
of -team power for manual labour in drilling with free-fall
jars was the second important step of material consequence
in the progress of tin- industry, a far more important
advance was made when the Canadian system was intro-
duced in 1882. Even that system, however, was found to
require modification in certain details in order to adapt to
the special requirements of the case, the character and
disposition of the strata rendering drilling far more difficult
as a rule in Galieia than it is in Canada. The derrick and
transmission, as well as the principal tools, employed in the
Galician modification of the Canadian system are shown in
the illustrations (Fig. 4) taken from drawings with which
Mr. R. Xelson Boyd has been so good as to furnish me. The
derrick is 17 " 7 metres high, ."> metres square at the bottom,
and 1 metre at the top. It is hoarded on the outside. The
working beam A, is of timber about a foot square. The end
of this beam which is over the well is cased with a spirally-
grooved cylinder of cast iron, B, carrying the chain sup-
porting the drilling tools. The chain is coiled several times
round the cylinder, and then passes to the " slipper out," C,
a small winch with ratchet, fixed on the beam. The working
beam is caused to oscillate, so that each end has a vertical
movement of about a foot, by means of the crank D,
and the connecting-rod E. The motive power is a horizontal
high-pressure engine F, of about 15 horse-power, specially
designed for the work. Steam is supplied from a boiler of
the locomotive type. It will be observed that the driller in
the derrick can stop, start, or reverse the engine, having
control of the throttle-valve in the steam-pipe, through
the medium of the " telegraph " or endless cord F', and of
the reversing link, by means of the cord F" attached to the
foot lever F"'. The engine also, by means of a belt, drives
the windlass G, for drawing up the tools. This belt runs
loose when drilling is in progress, and is tightened by the
application of a roller, H. A smaller windlass or winch for
use with the sand-pump is sometimes employed, and is
similarly driven. The larger windlass is provided with a
brake, I, which is applied when the tools are being lowered
into the well. The slipper-out, the roller for tightening the
belt, and the brake are also all under the control of the
driller in the derrick, the roller and brake being respec-
tively applied by means of the levers K and L shown in the
illustration, and the ratchet of the slipper-out being released
by pulling the chain M. A Manilla hemp cable, N, is
usually employed in raising the tools, but in many eases
recently a wire rope has been adopted, and is found to be
far more durable.
The jars O O', as will be seen, differ essentially from the
free-fall jars, P P'. There is no arrangement for locking
them when telescoped, G and P, and indeed the functions
of the two arrangements are quite dissimilar. In drilling
with the Canadian jars the whole string of tools and rods, (.},
descends, the blow being then struck and the jars R
partially closing ; as the rods rise the jars at once fully open
before the bit S is lifted, and the impact of the two links
of the jars on this upward stroke is sometimes of service in
dislodging the bit if it has become wedged in the rock.
As the drilling progresses, the driller slightly turns the tools,
so that the chisel-shaped bit S is caused to make a round
hole. The tools are attached to the beam, or rather to the
short chain already described, by means of rods, as in the
ease of hand-drilling and drilling by steam with free-fall jars,
but the Canadian rods are of wood (ash). They are 2 in.
in diameter, 16 ft. in length, and are connected by conical
screw joints T T' with iron straps, U U'. The guide W,
shown in the illustration, is an important adjunct to the
ordinary Canadian tools which has been adopted in Galicia
with a view of preserving the vertically of the well during
drilling. It consists of four wings radiating from a common
centre, and is inserted in the string of tools above the bit.
As the drilling progresses the well is cased, or lined with
iron tubing. A portion of this casing serves to exclude
water from the well, but below the water-bearing rocks the
casing is necessary to hold up the rock and prevent caving.
The difficulties met with in drilling in Galicia are chiefly-
due to the dislocated character of the strata, and the
alternations of hard and soft beds. In some places the
strata are disposed nearly vertically, and it will readily be
understood that in drilling through soft and friable rock
106
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29,1892.
Fig. I.
into hard rock at such an angle, the tools are very liable to
become deflected, and caving is also very likely to take
place. The guides are of great value in keeping the hole
straight, and caving has to be prevented by following the
bit closely with the casing. Where the drilling is, in con-
sequence of caving, exceptionally difficult under-reaming
Feb. 20, I8H2.J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
107
has to be resorted to. This consists
expanding reamer (Fig. 5) by means
Kig. :.
in the use of an
of which the well
may he drilled of the full external diameter of the casing.
It is obvious that this could not be accomplished with an
ordinary bit, which has to be inserted and worked through
the casing, and therefore drills a hole smaller than the
inside diameter of the casing. The Canadian drillers, who
have had sufficient experience in Galicia, have shown them-
selves very skilful in the use of the under-reamer, and
many wells, which would in all probability have been
abandoned, have been successfully completed with the aid
of this useful instrument. The rate at which the blows of
the chisel are delivered with Canadian tools varies with the
character of the ground. Sometimes as many as 70 strokes
per minute may he given, but the number usual1}' ranges
between 40 and 60.
The under-reamer, which is inserted immediately above
the bit, is provided with a pair of pivoted wings or dogs,
a a (Fig. 5), which are forced outwards into the position
shown in B by tbe pressure of a powerful helical spring
enclosed in the tubular rod, exerted through the medium of
the sliding collar 6. When the instrument is to be inserted
in the casing this sliding collar is raised as shown in A, and
retained in that position by small wedges c c. The wings
or dogs lie flat against the rod as shown in A. A few
strokes of the tools dislodges these wedges, and the dogs at
once assume the position shown in I!, and " ream " the well
to a diameter admitting of the descent of the casing.
The Canadian system of drilling has almost entirely
superseded the free-fall system in Galicia. It is undeniably
more rapid, and as it is accompanied with far less con-
cussion, the risk of caving is minimised.
With the introduction of appliances for the expeditious
drilling of wells by steam power, the original practice of
commencing with an excavated shaft has been abandoned,
water,
welded
though in some cases old shafts are made use of where they
happen to be advantageously situated. It is usual to case
tbe upper part of the well with what is known as riveted
casing. This consists of tubing, made of sheet iron, with
riveted seams, and is not water-tight. To shut oft the
artesian casing, consisting of wrought-iron lap-
tubing, with screwed joints, is employed. The
casing is added in successive lengths during the drilling of
the well, until it cannot be forced down any lower. The
diameter of the well is then reduced, and a smaller casing
used. In this way a completed well may have several
[' strings " of casing in it, each reaching to the surface. It
is, however, a common practice to remove some of the
artesian casing, taking care to leave that which shuts off
the water, but the riveted casing is not withdrawn. In
many instances it is found advantageous to use perforated
casing below the horizon of the water-bearing rocks, as
this, while preventing caving, allows oil to percolate into
the well. The small riveted casing with which many wells
are completed is not intended to be withdrawn, and there-
fore extends only up as far as the bottom of the artesian
casing. The following particulars of the casing of a well
inspected by the writer will perhaps make the foregoing
description clearer: —
A.
ft. nf 18 in. riveted.
I ft. of 11 in. artesian.
C. mjft.of 8| in. artesian,
u -213 ft. of Si in. artesian.
E 433 ft. of 4| in. artesian.
*' 236 ft. of 4 in. artesian perforated.
G 75? ft. of 3i in. riveted perforated.
The water was shut off with the 8i-in. casing, and the
C:-m. was withdrawn on the completion of the well. Of
the foregoing "strings" of casing, A, B, C, D, and E
extended to the top of the well, while F lined the well from
the bottom of E for 230 ft., and G completed the liuino-
from the bottom of F for the remaining 75 i ft.
In strata so much inclined, it would doubtless be extremely
difficult to drill with a cable in lieu of poles, as is the
practice in the United States, but such a serious loss of
time is necessarily involved in disconnecting and re-con-
necting the poles when any great depth is reached, that if
an oil-bearing formation lying considerably lower should be
found in Galicia, there will be a strong inducement
substitute the cable for the poles.
The following is the approximate cost in Central Galicia
of an outfit for drilling by the Canadian system :—
£
Derrick and transmission 90
Engine and boiler, 15 horse-power 250
Drilling and other tools, and pump 411)
Poles and belting 200 to 250
Casing 300 to 500
to
The drilling is frequently done by contract at 8s. a foot,
the contractor finding labour inside the derrick (a wrench
man, a scaffold man, and a third man for odd jobs), while
the well-owner provides a smith, a machinist, and a helper,
in addition to fuel for the boiler and oil for lubrication and'
lighting. Labour is cheap and the natives have exhibited
considerable aptitude in acquiring the art of drilling, but
owing to the number of church holidays it is desirable to
adopt labour-saving mechanical appliances as far as possible.
In most parts of the oil-fields fuel and water are abundant.
The diamond-boring system has been tried in Galicia, but
does not appear to have been successful. The writer saw
an uncompleted well in the Sloboda-Kungurska district
which had been in process of drilling for over a year and
had only reached a depth of 220 metres. In a paper read
before the Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society in 1889,
Mr. Xelson Boyd gave some interesting details of the drilling
of a well at Polana by the Aqueous Diamond-Boring Com-
pany. The power was supplied by a 12 horse-power engine,
and the crown was driven at the rate of 120 revolutions per
108
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
(Feb. 29, 1892.
minute. The quantity of water forced into the hole under
a pressure of 1^ atmosphere was 1-52 cubic metre per hour.
Tlii~ \\;is however, in excess of the necessary quantity, and
about one-third of a cubic metre per hour was lost. About
75 per cent, of the water requisite may be saved, so that the
actual consumption would be about half a cubic metre per
hour. At a depth of 200 metres the drawing of the rods,
the removal of the core, and the lowering of the crown
again, occupied two hours, and this had to be done for every
10 feet of boring. In shale, as much as 2" 7 metres were
bored in an hour, and in sandstone 0'828 metre. Mr. Nelson
Boyd considers that the results obtained in this well were of
a favourable character, but he points out that the inclination
of the strata constitutes a great impediment to the use of
the diamond drill in Galicia, as the upper part of the stratum
perforated is liable to slide on a joint and jam the core.
The rate of drilling in the Ustrzyki district commonly
ranges from 12 to 18 up to as much as 50 or 60 ft. in 12
hours, according to the hardness of the strata. Xot
infrequently considerable delay is caused by the breakage
of the tools, and some of the resultiug " fishing" operations
demand much skill and patience, but it is very seldom that
a well has to be abandoned in consequence of such an
accident. The depth of the wells in the Ustrzyki district is
commonly from 220 to 250 metres, the first indications of
oil being met with at a depth of 30 metres, the first oil
horizon being perforated at 120 metres £the well then
yielding from f to 1 barrel a day), and the second oil horizon
at 160 to 220 metres. It is" believed that a third and
probably more productive oil horizon may exist at a greater
depth in this district, but the wells are not drilled below the
second, when they usually yield about 20 barrels of oil per
diem but sometimes much more.
In the Sloboda-Rungurska field the depth of the wells
usually ranges from 2 15 to 330 metres, but in some instances
exceeds 400 metres. The following particulars of the strata
met with in the drilling of a well to a depth of 245 metres
in this district are given by Babu : — -.
Metres.
Green and red shales alternating SS'OO
Unimportant beds of shale and sandstone, alternating 35'00
Hard shale ]3'75
Hard sandstoue (1st petroleum horizon) 15 no
Shale 2'5U
Hard sandstone 10'25
Alternate layers, 1 to It) metres in thickness, of sand-
stone and marl 51 '87
Sandstone (2nd and more important petroleum
horizon) 44*3S
The writer was informed that the average time occupied
in the drilling of a well in this district is three months,
but he saw a well there, stated to be flowing at the rate of
70 to 80 barrels per day, which was drilled to a depth of
220 metres, with a diameter of 6 inches at the bottom, in
18 days. About 25 per cent, of the wells drilled in this
district have been unproductive and the yield of the remain-
der appears to have varied considerably. Man}' of the wells
flow at first and afterwards need pumping. One produced
for a time as much as 300 barrels per diem, aud afterwards
for a year an average of 200 barrels a day. The smallest
yield for which it is considered profitable to pump in this
district is two barrels a day.
In the Wietzno field the writer saw a well out of which
oil was flowing simultaneously from two horizons, through
the 5-in. and 6-in. casings, respectively. The estimated
yield of this well was 200 barrels a day. The depth of the
wells in this field is about 250 metres. In the historic
Bobrka field there were at the time of the writer's visit some
30 wells being pumped, some of which had yielded small
quantities of oil for 17 or 18 years, but the ordinary life of
a drilled well in Galicia is perhaps one-third of this period.
The usual experience has been that provided a distance of
20 metres intervenes, one well does not drain another. The
deepest drilled well in the Bobrka field at this time had a
depth of 409 metres and a diameter of 6 in. at the bottom,
while the deepest excavated shaft on the property had been
carried down to 154 metres, with a uniform diameter of one
metre.
The pumps used in raising oil from those wells which do
not flow are of small diameter (1 to Ik in.), and are
furnished with double or triple buckets with ball valves.
The working barrel is placed at the bottom of the well, and
i-in. gas piping is frequently used as a sucker rod. To
economise steam power a number of pumps are worked
from one engine through the medium of rods, the power
being thus sometimes transmitted a considerable distance.
The oil is conveyed to the refineries partly by barrels by
road, and partly in tank-waggons by rail. In some cases
short pipe-lines have been laid down from the wells to the
railway to facilitate transportation. The railway rates for
transport are moderate and the companies possess tank-
waggons.
The drilling leases in Galicia are commonly for a period
of 25 years, the lessee making a cash payment for the lease
of an amount depending upon the character of the territory,
and obtaining the usual rights of ingress and egress, the
agricultural rights remaining with the lessor. The royalty
payable by the lessee ranges from 12| per cent, to as much
as 37 J per cent, of the oil raised, and" the lessee also pays a
small rent for the land actually occupied by him. The
system of land registration admits of drilling rights over
oil-lands being intabulated in the land books, and thus
affords to the petroleum producer perfect security at a
trifling cost.
In the following table the production (in metre centners)*
of the petroleum properties in tbe localities specified for
1889 — 90 (12 months) is given, and on referring to the
series of three maps (Maps Xos. 2, 3, and 4) in which these
localities are marked, a good idea of the extent of the oil-
belt, as far as it has been demarcated, will be obtained. It
will be observed that notwithstanding the large amount'of
work which has been done, an immense area of presumably
oil-bearing territory remains undeveloped.
Production and Declared Value of Petroleum in
the Localities specified in Galicia, 1889 — 90.
Locality.
Owner.
Siary .
Sekowa . . .
Szczepanowski & Co..
Rogoyski
Kostral
Dembowski
Production in
Metre
Centners.
Value
in
Florins.
Dembowski
Szczepanowski.
Rogoyski
Kapuscmski...
AVankowa.
Schodnica .
Ropienka .
Rajskie . . .
lodyna ...
Spas
Lezyny . . .
Harklowa.
TVojlowa..
Libusza. . .
Wiktor
Prince Luboiunirski
Elliot and Parkinson .
Bielewicz
Skrzynski
Company Jaslo .
5,700
13,01)0
9,600
3,000
4,000
2.1100
10,000
r.,o.'0
11,500
3.000
31,500
801
4,000
4,500
12.400
5,100
8,100
2. urn
31,900
22,000
52,000
35,000
11,000
16,200
9,900
88,000
19,000
10,000
12,000
125,000
2,400
34,000
12.000
14,000
29.000
20,1(00
•24.300
7,200
10,500
• 1 metre centner = 100 kilogrammes.
Feb. 29. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
109
Locality.
Owner.
Production in
Metre
Centners.
Value
in
Florins.
KlTL' ,
Lipinki .
Bergbeunft MoGarvey.
Skrzynski & Co
Wilnsz
Stocker
Company Jaslo
Stawiarski .
Oil Co
stawiarski .
Kliinkowa.
Zargorz ...
Turzepole .
It' ipianka -
Dukla.
Bobrka . . .
Wola Kom-
boruska.
Weglowka.
Iwonicz...
Bergheim & McGarvey.. .
Baron Rhade
Tessedek
Kloli:iss:i
McGarvey
Prince Louboumirski ....
Count Kurlecki
Kroscienko Baron Hodenberg.
Bowne — Trzccieski &Co....
McGarvey
Wietzno . . Suszycki
Hajdau... Szczepanowski.
, Bubella & Co..
Pasieczna . I Ostcrr-Creditanstalt ,
Ibodoly
, Sziknli
Sundry small firms. .
Sloboda-
Rungurska.
47.S0O
10,800
1.500
3, W0
1,800
4,700
6,800
7,000
1,800
9,000
5,700
2,700
10..100
90,000
1,300
94,000
4,000
8,200
118,300
20,300
12,200
6,500
101,000
70,000
1
10,000
3,200
1,180
- 171,000
450
800
448
1.420
Bubella & Co
Rosenkranz & Margules .
Baron and Rosenkranz. . .
Szepanowski & Co
„ & Levakowski
Dr. Fedorowicz
Wolfarth
G. Maclntosb
E. J. Torosiewicz
Wincenz & Co
Dr. Trachtenberg
Salpeter & Alter
Kolomeaer Company ....
Kahane & Co
7,400
2,100
020
22,020
11,400
209
11,000
10,450
10,500
545
1,51 .1
1,000
1,430
1,500
2,918
173,000
32,(1110
4,500
13,600
14,0110
17,000
25,000
27,000
7,200
30,000
14,000
9,000
39,000
37 1.000
5,000
327,000
13.000
i year.
29,000
19,000
390,000
242,000
30,000
10,440
3,800
2,100
3,000
2,205
6,750
28,120
7,500
2,170
75,180
32,180
770
40,000
35,000
40,000
1,950
6,250
3.000
5,150
4,500
Locality.
Sloboda-
Rungurska,
Owner.
Production in
Metre
Centners.
Value
in
Florins.
Cyrus & Perkins 4,300
I. Torosiewicz 9,00n
Kinnel and Christen ! 2,400
Dr. Lewakowski 11,730
Alfons de Richard 8,530
Lipinki Oil Co 3,700
Sundry small firms ! 3,000
15,000
30,000
8,400
42,240
12,900
14,400
9,750
785,0*2
2,810,175
= in barrels, 523,300 about.
= in sterling at Fl. 12-00, 234,181?. about.
Note.— The production in the neighbourhood of Krosno commenced
too recently to tind a place in the foregoing table.
In the following tabular statement the quantities of crude
petroleum produced in and imported into the kingdom of
Austria- Hungary during the years 1883 — 90 are given.
The figures demonstrate that the local production must be
very largely increased before it overtakes a consumption
which is still growing : —
—
Production of
Austria-Hungary.
Imported into
Austria-Hungary.
Consumption.
18S3
Barrels.
166.5U0
Barrels.
735,060
Barrels.
901,560
1884
233,000
899,73.5
1,132,735
1885
333,000
937,345
1,270,345
1880
433,000
858,976
1,291,976
1887
532,000
388,110
920,110
1888
665.000
801,715
1,466,715
1889
746,000
930,191
1,676,101
1890
816,000
867,831
1,683,831
The figures given in the foregoing tables are taken from
official sources, but in the opinion of those best qualified to
judge, the quantities are largely understated.
The present average price of the crude oil is 3 fl. 45 kr.
per 100 kilos., equal to about 8s. per barrel.
At the Peczenyzen refinery in the Kolomea district,
which the writer visited in 1887, the crude petroleum is
distilled in horizontal cylindrical stills, the lower plates of
which are of steel and the upper of iron. These stills take
a charge of 200 barrels and 12 charges a mouth are worked
off. In this operation only the benzine and kerosene are
distilled off, and a portion of the residuum thus obtained is
used as fuel for the stills, being burned partly with a steam-
jet spray-producer, and partly in admixture with sawdust.
The kerosene distillate is treated with 3 to 4 per cent, of
sulphuric acid in lead-lined agitators holding 500 barrels.
The crude oil, which is obtained from the neighbouring
Sloboda-Rungurska field, is stated to yield from 4 to 8 per
cent, of benzine (according to the length of time that it has
been above ground), 58 per cent, of " standard oil " (sp. gr.
0-813 to 0-816, and flashing point 22° C), 4 per cent, of
" inflammable oil," and 2{ to 2j per cent, of solid paraffin.
The paraffin oil, which is distilled from the residuum of the
kerosene stills in small (40 barrel) stills with steel bottoms,
is " chilled" by mixing it with crushed ice, and the paraffin
is obtained by subjecting the semi-solid mass to pressure in
Canadian presses, which are wooden lever presses of simple
construction. Lubricating oils were not manufactured at
this refinery, which is the largest in Galicia, at the time of
the writer's visit. At a small refinery in Ustrzyki, which
c 2
no
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
fFeb. £!), 1892.
he inspected, the crude oil is distilled in wrought-iron
pot-shaped stills, 6 ft. in diameter and 5 ft. in height, the
condensers being worms of 3-in. iron pipe. At this refinery
various classes of crude oil were then being distilled, and
the percentage of products obtained was as follows : —
Wietzno
Crutl.-.
Ropienka
Crude.
Polana
Crude.
Per Cent.
15
Per Cent.
10
Per Cent.
5
" Saloon oil"....
30
35
40
2nd grade oil...
8 to 10
1.
15
The residuum is further distilled in the same stills, and
yields about 20 per cent, of heavy oil, which is redistilled.
The final residue usually amounts to about 10 per cent., and
the loss to about the same percentage. It appears to be
customary to mix the second grade of kerosene with
benzine, and a burning oil is thus obtained which is inflam-
mable at common temperatures, but is nevertheless used
locally as a lamp oil to a considerable extent. Galicia
would appear to offer a very promising field for the employ-
ment of a dissociation process of distillation, whereby the
yield of kerosene might be largely increased.
The petroleum industry in Austria-Hungary is a protected
one, an import duty of 10 florins (gold) per 100 kilos, on
refined oil (kerosene) and 2-40 florins (gold) on crude
petroleum being levied. An exception is made in the case
of Roumanian crude petroleum, which is admitted on
payment of 08 kr. per 100 kilos. Of this crude petroleum
164,333 metre-centners (109,555 barrels) were imported in
1889, and 155,901 metre-centners (103,934 barrels) in
1890.
Notwithstanding the encouragement thus given to the
native industry, the consumption is, as already shown, very
largely in excess of the aggregate quantity of petroleum
produced in the Monarchy. The deficiency is supplied by
the Russian petroleum imported into and refined at Fiume.
This petroleum, though nominally crude oil, is understood
to contain very far more than the natural percentage of
kerosene, and considerable dissatisfaction has been mani-
fested by the Galician refiners at what is regarded as an
evasion of the fiscal regulations. The important position
which the Fiume refinery occupies in relation to the industry
as a whole is made evident by the following table giving the
declared value in Austrian florins of the refined petroleum
manufactured at the various refineries in Austria-Hungary
for the years 1886 — 89. The table is based upon particulars
supplied by the Finance Minister, and may therefore be
accepted as an official statement, but it is generally believed
that the declared values are very largely understated. It is
thus difficult to estimate even approximately the consump-
tion of petroleum in Austria-Hungary ; some authorities
being of opinion that the figures given might in many cases,
at any rate, be doubled. The accompanying map (No. 5)
which has been drawn for this paper, exhibits more clearly
the distribution of the petroleum-refining capacity of the
Monarchy, and the output of the various refineries.
Table showing the Declared Value, in Austrian FYorixs, of the Refined Petroleum Manufactured at the Various
Refineries in Austria-Hungary, for the Years 1886 — 89.
Based on particulars supplied by the Finance Minister.
Locality.
Description
of Crude
Petroleum
Re lined.
Value (in
Yustrian Florins) on which Petroleum
Tax was Levied.
1889.
1888.
1887.
1886.
Lower Austria ....
Wien - Floridsdorfer Mineralol Fabrik,
Donauf'eM bei Wien.
Gustav Wagenmann, Wien. X.. Laaer-
^tnisse.
Galician
498,955
351,070
05S.592
358 959
3118
528.0S8
340,363
169
415,520
291,707
„
._
43
317
10
Flesch, Volker, and Co., Donaufeld bei
\\ leu.
Total
»
1,028
850,025
597,875
1,017,902
334,103
868,937
8SJ38 t
70S 325
Graf Larisch von Monnicli, Oderberg
(B&hnhof).
Galician
Galicia
Szczepanowsky & Co., ab 1 Jnli 1889,
Action Gessellschait Peczenizyn.
Bergheim & MacGarvey, Alariampole;
Goriice.
>■
870,502
326,2 13
•JM.022
254,089
4152,250
251,366
295,228
239,825
480,257
21,935
368,049
180,071
464,018
271,282
155,614
Adanj.E. v. Skrzynski, Libusza, Zagorzany
"
173,705
194,766
175.913
120.7SO
Gartenberg & Srhivier, Ivieglowice, Jaslo
171,774
137,211
132,889
129,481
120,765
125.620
97,237
127,131
Fibich&StawiarskijChorkdwka.Krosno. .
112,096
„
110,721
I3i,sii;
102,794
01,298
Ftthrer Chanina, Herzig Mechel & Co.,
Dukla,
»
103,767
70,2^2
1 1 855
42.IS0
20,474
12.7119
5,237
30,2m;
\ lexandrowioz und Nussle Landau,
Goriice.
Kallmann Nebenzahl, Str6z6\vka, Goriice
»
66,811
39,84i;
63,065
48,502
45,582
41,698
45,547
29,312
■•
36,741
85,812
88,897
30.013
45,583
38.250
55,408
25,897
Feb.29,1392.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Ill
Table showing' the Declared Value, in Ai mkian Florins, of the Refined Petroleum Manufactured at the Various
Eeflnebjes in Austria-Hungary, for the Years 1886 — 89 — continued.
Golioio — cont.
Leiser Griffel, Pasieczna,Nadworna
Hersch Bloch, Werbiaz, Kolonxea
Isaak Gleicher, Gorlice
Josef It. v. Viktor and Co., Ustrzyki dulne
Leisor Hoffmann. Hubicze, Drohobycz ...
Fibich & Stawiarski, Kolomea
[soak Reich, Ccrgowa, Dukla
Furstin Maria Luboinirska, Schodnica,
Boryslaw.
Leib La ut maun, Zarzecze, Dalalin
Moses Wertheimer, Sokol, Gorlice
Louis Dankinaier, Kleczany, Marcinkowice
Feuerstein & Co., Drohobycz
Jacob Nebenzahl, Sinry, Gorlice
J. Friedmanu, Kolomea
Weiser & Co., 'Werbiaz. Kolomea
W. Fischler. Mikietynce, Pistyn
Karl Jedrzejowski, Goreyce, Zmixrod ....
Sarah Bodner, Ropica polska, Gorlice
Salomon Baekenroth, Derozycze, Dro-
hnhycz.
Zacha'rias Handel, Drohobycz
Galician
Chaskel Gleicher, Ropica polska. Gorlice
Salamon Kreppel, Lisznia. Drohobycz —
Ferdinand Br. Brunicki, Kleczany, Mar-
cinkowice.
Aron Dcutelbaumj Ropica polska, Gorlice
Mechel Honigfeld, Przemysl
Sternbaob & Chojes, Berehy dolne,
Ustrzyki.
Moses Glanzmann, Strzelbice, StaraMiasto
Benjamin Mermelstein, Boryslaw
EiaigSehifter, Starunia, Solotwina
Ilersch Glaser, Pniow, Nadworna
Schapsel Rechter, Mraznica, Boryslaw...
Franz WoMfahrt, Lembew
Ozias Rymald. Chy row
Gebruder Gredel, Hula Komorowskn,
Kolbuszow.
Aron Kaimer, Uherce, Lisko
Ozias Brettschneider & Klias Kriss,
Badynkowcc, Husiatin.
Franz VVohlfahrt, Kurzany
Alter Salpeter, Eungury. Peczcnizyn
Frankel Clunna, Drohobycz
Josef Blech, Przemysl
Sehreier & Co., Drohobycz
Josef Alt mann , Drohobycz
Moses Drymer, Starunia, Solotwina
Moses Po.jper, Dynow
Moses Fis.l nn. Drohobycz
Value (in Austrian Florins) on which Petroleum
Tax was Leried.
1889.
31.035
80,477
27,303
27,098
23,389
20,983
20,746
19,707
ls.721
18,512
ls.lilt
18,067
17.S07
15,655
15,280
1V)77
11,309
13,397
12,503
11.271
10,893
10,235
8,080
7,533
5,315
4,113
3,03S
2.1I7S
2,083
1.591
1,514
1,296
645
Total ,
lss<.
1SS7.
10.761
28.059~~
22,757
30,663
20,28 i
132,400
20,603
18,047
11,866
11,559
111,538
24.101
32,32s
19,784
8,965
11,832
11,010
9,099
9,290
11,728
9,013
14,578
7,316
20,196
3,863
2.592
2,631
3,071
1,445
12 788
356
3,197
3,274
872
459
15.117
3I1.S79
J- 223
3S.97S
22.941
222,580
15,282
16,992
12.7 HI
13,326
19,037
17,912
29,100
29,645
11,857
14,511
16,165
9,511
10,304
7,010
S,50l>
9,821
7,20 1
13.005
3.467
2,346
1,291
2,477
1,514
12,340
725
3,472
18,401
4,370
8,538
538
204
3
2,752,799
2,612,964
2,1S7.11'J
15,102
47,302
27,440
12,235
21MI7S
189,574
5,031
21.717
7,908
11,205
12,582
6,202
21 so:
18,792
15,903
13.9SI
12,631
13,840
6,763
2,654
10,321
9,100
7.S95
15,685
915
14.6S0
1,129
1,772
1,456
2,727
455
4,720
11,085
9,871
2.454
18,008
2,473
1,615
10,988
638
508
375
£19
1,164,877
112
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, lsse.
Tabus showing the Declared Value, in Austrian Florins, of the Kefined Petroleum Manufactured at the Various
Refineries in Austria-Hungary, for the Years 1886-89 — continued.
Locality.
Description
of Crude
Petroleum
Reliued.
Bukowina .
Bohemia.
Hungary ...
Ernst Seraler und Naftali Zwiebel, Mifc- Roumanian and
toka-Drasromima mid Watra Moldwicza Galirinn.
(zusammen).
Leisor Jankel & Israel Blum, Leukoutz, „
Czernowitz.
Total
Sprecher & Co., Zabor, Elbeteinitz
David Fanto & Co., Pardubitz
Dr. Friedrich Pilz, Theusau, Falkenau . . .
Dr. Mas BOhm & Co., Privos, Mahr-
Ostrau.*
Galician
Total .
Petrol - RaHinerie - Actien - Gesellschaft, Russian
Kiiiuie.
Vicar Pctro! - Industric-Actien - Gesell- Roumanian and
schaft, Budapest, BAissian.
SiebenhurgeT Petrol -Baffinerie- Actien- Koumanian
flesellschaft, Kronstadt.
Wilhelm Spitzer, Orsova >,
Adolf Berg & Co., Budapest
Oestcrr.-ungar. Staatseisenbahn - Gesell- Roumanian and
schaft, Oravicza. Hungarian.
C. J. Joanides, Kronstadt lloiiiianiau
Adolf Barucli, Maros-Yasarhely »
Dr. Ferdinand Otroban, Kronstadt
Salomon Grunfeld, Kronstadt „
Adolf Laek, Csik-Gyimes, Bez. Szepviz .. „
Julius Gmeiner, Kronstadt
Porr and Leitinger, Toinos, Kronstadt ... .,
Georg Popp, Kronstadt „
Midler & Co., Szaczal, Marniaros-Sziget .
Ilmcarian
Total ,
somit NiederBsterreicb.
Silesia
Galieia
Bukowina
Bohemia
Cisleithanien —
Transleithanien .
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy .
Value (in Austrian Florins) on which Petroleum
Tc.x was Levied.
1SS7.
30.0S0
7'.'
28,149
763 I
75,376
2,401
30,159
28,91?, I 77,779
226,461 192.81*
108,701
302 278
335,467
2,993,383
8S3.695
31111,216
282,696
264,883
173.209
52,908
44,343
35,349
31,612
1.1 ill
193,092
2,973.317
932,787
201.467
275,028
222,686
159.108
40,181
19,200
22,762
29,481
3,356
50,228
2,725,780
823,908
67,c43
179,475
134,240
136,236
4 ,II7S
37,069
26.746
21.525
7,764
49,191
44.5:i5
42,260
56,291
2,155
58,446
560
2.861,755
793,725
82,212
100,899
97,433
52,095
32,207
25,318
20,552
2.H36
75,661
P3.798
69,9 15
.. ..
388
242
5,063,47 1
4,915.673
4.346.101
4,277378
830,025
1.017.902
868,937
708,325
397,8:5
334,103
33,381
..
2,752,799
2,612,961
2,487,412
2,164,877
30,159
28,912
77,779
58,446
335, 167
193,092
50,228
560
4,366,325
4,186.973
3,517.740
2,' 32,203
5,063,474
4.915,673
4,346,101
4,277 S7S
9,429,799
9.102.IH6
7.863,M1
7.210,086
£785316
£758,554
£655,320
£600340
* First worked in lsoo.
These statistics show, therefore, for the year 1889 as pared with lsss, an increase of 327,153 fl. = 27,2622. 18*. id. sterling, and as
cuiii pared with 1887, 1,565,958 11. = 132,996/. 10s. sterling, while as compared with 18Sd the increase amounts to 2,219,713 11. = 184,976/. Is. s,/.
sterling.
II. — Ozokerite. It is 360 metres above sea-level, and is traversed by a small
river. One kilometre to the east of it is Wolanka.
The principal seat of the ozokerite mining industry is at ( |zokerite is mined to a small extent in Dwiniacz and
Boryslaw, where the extraction of the mineral has afforded Starupia, which lie to the south of .Stauislaw. It also
occupation to a large number of men and women during the j occllrs at Truskavice and Tustanowice, near Boryslaw, at
past 80 years. ; Slanik in Moldavia, and in many other places on both sides
Borj -law is a town of 20,000 inhabitants lying in a valley : of the Carpathians. The mineral is also found in quantity
surrounded by hills at the foot and on the northern slope of I in the islands of Tcheleken and Swjatoi in the Caspian Sea,
the Carpathians, 12 kilometres south-west of Drohobicz. I and has been met with on the Transcaspian mainland as
Feb. 28 ,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
113
well as in the Kouban. Recently it has been obtained in
commercial quantities from the Wasatch mountains, 113
miles east of Salt Lake City, Utah.
The following are localities where ozokerite is reported to
occur: — ■
England — Newcastle.
Galicia, Eoumania (near Plojesti and Slauik), Hungary,
and elsewhere.
Wettin-on-Saal, East Frisia.
Derbent (near), Baku, Islands of Tcheleken and Swjatoi,
Ekaterinodar, Station of Kalochiiisky, Truchnienia.
Egypt.
Utah, Texas, Arizona, Oregon, Canada, Manitoulin Island.
It is difficult to say whether ozokerite is peculiar to any
particular geological formation. Regarding it as a de-
scription of petroleum with a high melting point, Rateau
points out that it would not lie reasonable to expect that it
would be confined to any one formation, and, in fact, it is
found in many, though chiefly in the Tertiary and Cretaceous.
The Boryslaw, Dwiniaez, and Starunia deposits arc in
Miocene, but ozokerite has been met with in the shales of
Teschen, as well as in Neocomian and other formations
elsewhere. The Kouban deposits are on the borders of the
Lower Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous. In Tcheleken it is
found accompanying petroleum in pockets in beds of sand
above the clay-shales and muschelkalk of the Aralo-Car-
pathian formation. In Southern Utah and Arizona it occurs
in Tertiary rock, probably Miocene. Rock salt and gypsum
are commonly found in association with the ozokerite in
Galicia. Occasionally these minerals occur in an almost
pure state, but the}' arc more frequently mixed with clay.
At Boryslaw salt and gypsum are often found in the
ozokerite. At Truskawice, near Boryslaw, there is a deposit
of native sulphur and sulphides, intermingled with gypsum,
ozokerite, and petroleum. The formation here is a greyish-
blue clay-shale, with sand and marl. The association of
petroleum and rock-salt is not peculiar to Austria-Hungary,
and may be said to be a frequent characteristic of oil-pro-
ducing districts. In some of the Carpathian salt-beds no
liquid or solid petroleum is met with, but large quantities of
gaseous hydrocarbons are evolved. Carbonic acid and
sulphurous acid, as well as sulphuretted hydrogen, are also
given off, and frequently under great pressure.
The soil of the valley in which Boryslaw lies is a bed of
diluvial deposit some metres in thickness. In sinking a
shaft, first jellow clay, then rounded flints and gravel, and
then plastic clay are met with. Below this, sandstone and
blue shale, much disturbed, alternate, and it is in these
beds, which have a thickness of some 200 metres, that the
ozokerite is found. The ozokerite-bearing formation, which
is considered to be of Miocene age, lies on a basis of
petroliferous menilite shale, the strata of which, as they
approach the surface, are disposed almost vertically, but
inclined towards the south. This structure, which bears
evidence of the complete disruption which the rocks have
undergone, is shown in the accompanying section by Paul
(Fig. 0). The strata are composed of layers of coarse-grained
Fig. 6.
sw
Mraznica.-'
Pit's
NE
Boryslaw
Pits
sandstone, preen marl, fine-grained «andstoue with veins
of calcite, dark shale alternating with grey sandy shale,
imperceptibly merging into the main beds of the non-
petroliferous sandstone and shale. Below these are the
Carpathian sandstones of the lower Eocene (nummulitic
sandstone) and Upper Cretaceous formations. It should be
pointed out that the basin of menilite shale and the beds
of shale and sandstone are disturbed by a fault, the
Miocene rocks having thus become mixed with the
Carpathian sandstone, and it seems reasonable to conclude
that the petroleum and ozokerite may have found their way
into the Miocene formation through this fault, for without
this means of escape the hydrocarbons would have been
imprisoned by the beds of shale lying between the Car-
pathian sandstone and the menilite shale. A. consideration
of this view led M. Rateau to express the belief that by
drilling to a depth of 400 or 500 metres large quantities of
petroleum might he obtained in this neighbourhood from
the lower Carpathian sandstone layers. The geological
conditions prevailing at Dwiniaez and Starunia are similar,
but the ozokerite is more largely mixed with petroleum.
The soil is grey and red diluvial clay, below which is a bed
of gravel, lying on the Miocene formation in which the
ozokerite and petroleum occur in association with native
sulphur, iron pyrites and zinc blende. Still lower a highly
porous calcareous rock is met with, containing cavities
filled with petroleum and sulphuretted water, and below
this again is a marl with gypsum and the salt-clay formation
destitute of petroleum.
The ozokerite occurs in the form of veins of a thickness
ranging from a few millimetres to some feet, and is
accompanied with more or less petroleum and gaseous
hydrocarbons. It fills the many fissures with which the
disturbed shales and Miocene sandstone abound, and
frequently forms thus a kind of network. The Boryslaw
deposit extends over a pear-shaped area, the axis of which
lies E. 30° S. The town of Boryslaw lies on the broader
portion of this area and Wolanka at the point of it. The
upper layers of the richest portion of the deposit occupy an
area of about 21 hectares, with a length of 1,000 metres
and a maximum breadth of 350 metres, but outside this
there is an outer zoue of less productive territory which
increases the total superficies to about 60 hectares, with
dimensions of 1,500 metres by 560 metres. The deposit
narrows considerably as the depth increases, and at a
distance of 100 metres from the surface of the ground has
a breadth of only 200 metres. This is held to indicate that
the deposit has found its way upwards from some ver
lying formation (probably through the fault already referred
to) and has gradually extended itself laterally through the
interstices in the disturbed rocks as it neared the surface.
The ozokerite-bearing formation contains also much petro-
leum, and is bordered on the south east and west by
petroliferous territory.
It has been pointed out by Babu that the study of the
geological occurrence of ozokerite may be of considerable
assistance in forming conclusions in regard to the geology
of petroleum, for the deposits of ozokerite may be followed
up as readily as a vein of metal. On the other hand,
ozokerite does not indicate its presence by rising to the
surface of the ground as petroleum so often does.
The name of ozokerite is derived from u&iv = to smell,
and Kiip6s — wax. It is usually spelt without the filial " e "
by German authors, and that form has been adopted by
Messrs. J. C. and J. Field, who are so prominently identified
with the industry. It will probably be in accordance with
usual practice to retain the final " e " in the ease of the
mineral and drop it in spelling the name of the distilled
product. The mineral, which is commonly known in Ger-
many as erdwachs, also bears, according to Schaedler, the
following designations : — Bergwachs, fossiles paraffin,
fossiles wachs, kenderbal, lehmnaphtha, mineralwachs,
steiutalg (mineral tallow), cire de terre, neft-gil (Persian),
uefta ghil (Turkish).
Ozokerite varies from a very soft material, which may be
regarded as a petroleum very rich in paraffin, to a black
substance as hard as gypsum. The density of ozokerite
ranges from 0* 850 to 0*950, and its melting point from 58°
to 100° C. It is soluble in benzol, oil of turpentine, and
petroleum. It is a good insulator, and has been recom-
mended for use as such in admixture with 50 per cent, of
india-rubber. Ordinary commercial Galician ozokerite,
such as is employed in the manufacture of ceresin, has the
following properties : — It is soft and plastic, and has a very
fibrous fracture. The colour varies from light yellow to
dark brown, and it frequently has a greenish hue owing to
dichroism. It becomes negatively electrical by friction and
exhales an aromatic odour. It becomes more plastic on
heating, and usually melts at about 62° C.
114
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29. 1892.
According to Lach (Chem. Zeit. 13, 831 ; this Journal, 8,
696), Caucasian ozokerite is inferior to Galieian. Its
melting point is 68° C , and ou treatment with 20 per cent,
of fuming sulphuric acid it yields 58 per cent, of second
quality ceresin of melting point 68 '5° C.
A material described as ozokerite is found in ( 'olorado.
It is a dull black substance, hard and pulverisable, with a
melting point of 76" C. It does not yield ceresin, but on
being subjected to distillation it furnishes the following
results : —
Percentage
(by difference).
Paraffin and oil 90-00
Loss in gas 2' 12
Loss in water 2'60
Residue 5"28
It commences to distil at 360° C, when nearly 3 per cent.
of oil setting at 30" C. comes over. At a much higher
temperature it distils steadily and furnishes a product
suitable for use as a source of paraffin.
The following are particulars of samples of ozokerite
from various sourees : —
Uaku. — Specific gravity 0-903, melting point 79° C.
Per Cent.
Paratfin mass 81*8
Gas 18-8
Coke *■■*
liio-oo
— Petersen.
Persia. — Dark green, rather hard. Specific gravity 0 925.
PerCent.
Lighl Oil, 0-740 t« 11780 2-35
I.il'Iii ..il, o- .sim to irsju :s-50
(III. 11-880 10-63
Pa ra Hi n 63-55
( )oke 10-78
Loss - 7'2t
100-00
England (Ukpeth, near Newcastle). — Soft aud sticky,
brownish. Specific gravity 0-890, melting point, 60° to
70° C.
PerCent.
Light oil, boiling point so° lo 12n" C :vim
Light oil, hoi ling point 150° to 200° C 7*50
Lubricating oil, boiling point 200°to250°C 7'sn
Paraffin 0405
dike 11-15
Gas, loss 5'60
mono
— Wagner.
Uokyslaw. — Specific gravity 0-930. I. Dark yellow.
2. Dark brownish-black.
Benzine, 0"710 toO-750 .,
Kerosene, 0-780 to 0-820 ,
Lubricating oil. 0*895. ..,
Paraffin, &c
Coke
Loss
Per Cent.
4-32
Per Gent.
3'50
25-65
27-83
7-61
6-95
5li'5t
hvn
2-85
f63
3 00
4 -82
HI0II0
liio-oo
Olive green, rather bard. Specific gravity 09236,
ineltimg point 60" 5° C.
Per Cent.
Light oil, boiling point up to 160° C n "26
Heavy oil. with paraffin, lso: to 300° C 85-10
Paraffin, &c, over 300° C 49-71
Residue in retort, and loss 8*92
100-0.1
— .losef Merz,
Ozokerite consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons in
various proportions. It contains 85-7 per cent, carbon and
14-3 per cent, hydrogen.
According to R.'Heger (Seifensied Zeit. 321 ; this Journal,
2, 473), the composition of ozokerite may be best repre-
sented by the formula C»H.,„. It appears to have been
formed by the oxidation and decomposition of the hydro-
carbons of naphtha, since the action of oxygen on these
compounds simply eliminates hydrogen. Thus, for example,
naphthalene gives dinaphthyl and water —
2C10HS 4- O =CjoHu 4- H..O
lly further oxidation there are obtained compounds of the
formula C»H2n, which react with the hydrocarbons of the
marsh-gas series, with formation of very complex carbon
compounds of various melting points, as for example : —
2 CSH,8 + ()„ = C16H.,„ + 2 fijO and
C16H32 + C8H1S + O = CMH4S + H30.
Zalozieeki (Zeits. f. angew. Cliem. 1888,261—263; this
Journal, 7, 428) has separated crystalline paraffin from refined
ozokerite (ceresin) by the use of warm methyl alcohol as a
solvent. After pressure and repeated crystallisations fiom
methyl alcohol, a product was obtained which upon fusion
and subsequent cooling formed a translucent and distinctly
crystalline material closely resembling paraffin in its
properties. The substance separated by the first solution
in the alcohol was soft and pasty, and had a melting point
of 32°— 33°, while the melting point of the ceresin was 65c.
The natural inference is that in addition to crystalline
paraffin ozokerite contains certain colloidal substances
(amorphous paraffin), the presence of which hinders the
crystallisation of the paraffin. These substances are
removed by the methyl alcohol in consequence of their
greater solubility, aud doubtless become either converted or
decomposed in the process of distillation ordinarily adopted
in the manufacture of crystalline paraffin from ozokerite.
F. Redl(Chem. Zeit. 11,415-416 ; this Journal, 6, 504)
purifies ozokerite by heating it to 120° to remove waterand
light oils and then allowing it to cool to 75°, when it is
treated with 50 per cent, of naphtha of sp. gr. 0-700—0-720.
The mixture is gently agitated, and 10 per cent, of fuming
sulphuric acid added. After further agitation, subsidence is
allowed to take place during 20 minutes, and the ozokerite
at a temperature of 70 is treated with caustic soda solution,
after which the naphtha is removed by distillation. The
decolourisation of the ozokerite is completed by means of
charcoal.
Zalozieeki (Dingl. Polyt. J. 265, 178—184) refers to the
well known fact that the yield of ceresin is largely affected
by the purification of the ozokerite with sulphuric acid,
from 15 to 30 per cent, being lost during this operation.
He finds that the loss is, if anything, smaller at a temperature
of 200" than at 160°, which he accounts for by assuming
that at the higher temperature the sulphuric compounds are
decomposed with the regeneration of sulphurous auhydride
and hydrocarbons.
In mining the ozokerite it is usual to sink a circular well
3 metres in diameter through the upper beds of clay until
the water level in the gravel is reached. This well may
havea depth of 14 to 16 metres. In the centre of it a shaft
1*3 metre square is built up of balks of timber jointed
together, the intervening space being filled with clay. The
digging aud timbering of a shaft 13 metre square is then
continued until further progress is arrested by inflammable
gas or water. When this occurs, one of the veins of
ozokerite intersected by the shaft is opened up and followed
by means of a timbered gallery. Immense pressure is
exerted by the scnr.-iluid ozokerite, and it is usual to employ
timbers not far short of a foot square placed not more than
one metre :ipart. The writer has seen timbers of this size
which had been broken like matchwood by the pressure to
which they had been subjected in the galleries. Sometimes
the ozokerite suddenly bursts into the workings and over
whelms the miners, and there are cases on record of men
having been unexpectedly raised from the bottom of the
shaft to the surface of the ground by an influx of the semi-
fluid mineral. One shaft was pointed out to the writer as
bearing the name of the Asparagus shaft, from the
Feb. 20,18»2J THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
115
circumstaDce that on a thin layer of sandstone which was
met with at a depth of 160 metres being perforated by the
miner's pick, the underlying soft ozokerite was slowly forced
up through the opening in a form which resembled the
vegetable specified, the " growth " being for a long time
renewed as often as it was removed.
The horizontal galleries cannot without serious danger be
driven to any considerable distance, not in fact beyond about
5 metres, but driving much further, even if free from risk,
would not be possible in most cases owing to the contiguity
of the properties. As it is, Frequent, quarrels ensue in
respect to the underground rights. The disused galleries
are usually allowed to fall in, but are sometimes tilled up.
The water and oil which occur with the ozokerite are drawn
off from the bottom of the shaft. The sinking of the
circular well costs about -1 fl. the metre, but in the
dislocated beds below, where the ozokerite is met with, the
cost of sinking is from 5 to 10 fl. the metre run, without
reckoning the cost of pumping out the water. The driving
of the galleries is paid for at the rate of 7 • 50 fl. to 9 fl.
per metre run. The shafts and galleries are, however, more
commonly excavated by contract, the price per metre for
the former down to a depth of 130 metres being from 20 to
25 fl., and for the latter 5 to 8 fl., both without timbering.
This brings the cost of a shaft of 100 metres, inclusive of
timbering, to 2,000—4,000 fl., or for a shaft of 200 to
225 metres, 10,000—12,500 fl.
Over the mouth of the shaft is fixed a windlass carrying a
wire rope, to each extremity of which is attached a bucket
used in drawing up the ozokerite and in lowering and raising
the miners. The desceut is made by placing one foot in the
bucket and holding on to the rope, the other foot being used
in fendiug the bucket off the sides of the shaft. Owing to
the subsidence and lateral movement of the earth due to the
extraction of the ozokerite the shafts do not long remain
vertical, so that the descent is not a pleasant experience.
The miner wears a safety belt to which a rope is attached,
which passes over a smaller windlass. Much inflammable
gas is met with in the workings, and safety-lamps are
necessarily used. Ventilation is unsatisfactorily effected by
means of a revolving fan turned by a woman. Within easy
reach of the miner in the gallery is a cord communicating
with a bell at the mouth of the shaft, by means of which he
can summon assistance ; but notwithstanding the provision
of the bell and the safety-belt, deaths from suffocation are
not uncommon. The inhalation of the gas appears to pro-
duce a kind of intoxication, which some of the miners find
enjoyable. The underground miners receive 0-75 to 1'25 fl.
per day, while the labourers employed above ground get
about 0 ■ 60 fl. The majority of the people employed are of
a low class, and they usually work on the basis of a daily
contract. Heurteau states that in 1871 of the 10,000
workmen engaged in the industry, 2,000 were underground
miners, and among these there were usually from 200 to 300
accidents per annum, nearly all fatal. In some years there
are said to have beeu as many as 1,000 deaths due to such
accidents. According to Hateau, the " admitted " annual
death-rate due to accidents ranges from 7 to 15 per 1,000
(compared with 1 -88 per 1,000 in "ordinary mining"), but
he adds that the rate is understated. It will doubtless be
evident to most visitors to Boryslaw, that notwithstanding
the salutary effect of a code of regulations which are
supposed to be enforced by officials specially charged with
the duty, much of the underground work is carried on under
uunecessarily dangerous conditions. The staff of officials
consists of an inspector, a cashier, a geometrician, three
overlookers, and six or eight police agents. To defray the
expeuses of this superintendence a charge of two florins per
shaft is levied on the proprietors. The very primitive
character of the arrangements adopted is well shown in the
illustration (Fig. 7), which is taken from an interesting
model made in Galicia, and kindly presented to the writer,
together with a number of specimens of the crude ozokerite
and various commercial products, by Mr. Wentworth
Sturgeon.
The unscientific method in which so important an industry
continues to be conducted may excite surprise, but it should
be borne in mind that the right of raising petroleum and
ozokerite belongs to the surface owners of the land, the
result being that there are in Boryslaw a number of small
landed proprietors, who, with the assistance of their wives
and children, raise as best they can the petroleum and
ozokerite lying beneath their plot of gtound. It is not
surprising that work of an admittedly difficult and
dangerous character conducted thus with insufficient capital,
inadequate appliances, imperfect organisation, and lack of
skill should have been attended with much unnecessary
loss of life, especially when the reckless character of the
population is taken into account. Attempts have been
made to place the industry upon a proper basis, and a
French company was some years ago formed with the
object of extracting the ozokerite by the adoption of a
systenmtised scheme of mining, but the shafts sunk by
this company were unfortunately not favourably situated
for the successful earning out of the project. It would
undoubtedly be very beneficial if some fusion of interests
could be effected, so that the industry might be placed on
a more satisfactory footing.
Distributed over an area of 90 to 100 hectares are many
thousand shafts, ranging in depth from 20 to 200 metres,
but the writer was informed that not more than -100 of
these were being worked when he visited Boryslaw. The
shafts are in many cases not more than from 3 to 8 metres
apart, and the available surface ground round each shaft
usually ranges from 9 to 60 square metres. When it is
considered that there are hundreds of separate proprietors
it will be understood that there is frequently considerable
confusion, and that there is great difficulty in getting rid
of the earth excavated and raised with the ozokerite. It
has been the practice to shoot the material between the
houses or on any vacant piece of ground and naturally as
near to the wells as possible. The result is that the whole
place is deeply covered with an oily mud, through which it
is difficult to make one's way. Recently arrangements
have been made for the systematic removal of the debris.
As already stated, a French company has carried out the
system of mining for ozokerite by means of a well-con-
structed shaft and carefully-timbered galleries, such as arc
adopted in coal-mining. The diameter of the main shaft
through which the ozokerite is raised is 2 metres, and there
is a smaller shaft, 1-50 metre in diameter, through which
| the water is pumped. The mine being situated near Wolanka
and to a large extent outside the zone of the most pro-
ductive territory, the system can scarcely be said to have
been fairly tested. In this outer zone there is not only
■ less ozokerite, but there appears also to be much more
water to be contended with. The main shaft is fitted with
cages running in guides and operated by a steam engine.
Ventilation is effected by means of centrifugal exhausters,
also driven by steam power.
The ozokerite occurs sometimes in sheets as thin as
paper, but more often in veins from 2 or 3 in. to a foot
in thickness disposed in the most irregular manner. The
mineral is broken out by hand with the pick and wedge,
and this may be regarded as easy work owing to the
disturbed character of the strata in which it occurs.
For the working of each shaft two miners, two labourers,
and one woman are needed. The annual cost of this labour
is 1,000 to 1,500 fl., and other charges, with interest
on capital, bring up the total working expenses, according
to Babn, to 3,500 to 4,000 fl. per shaft. Taking the
produce of each shaft at 15 to 18 tons on the average the
I cost of the ozokerite to the proprietor would be from 16 10
IS fl. per 100 kilos. Presumably this is the cost of
mining the mineral within the inner zone.
An attempt has been made to estimate the quantity of
ozokerite in the Boryslaw deposits. The basis of the
calculation is that the outer zone demarcates a territory
containing 2 per cent, of the mineral, while the proportion
in the inner zone is more than 5 per cent. Taking the
dimensions of the zones already given and further assuming
; the extraction of the deposits to a maximum depth of
j 20C metres, the total quantity of ozokerite obtainable would
be more than two million tons.
Two products are obtained from the mines, viz., nearly
pure ozokerite in fragments, and earth containing much
116
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. at, 189'.'.
Fig. 7.
A. Shed in whicil the above-ground work is carried on. In practice the sides are boarded up, and a ventilator for the
escape of the gas from the mine is provided in the roof, as shown.
a. Windlass for lowering and raising miners, and raising | f. Hammer, chisel, and pick used in the work of mining,
ozokerite. y. Blocks of cast ozokerite.
b. Windlass carrying rope attached to miners' safety-belt. A. Proprietor of the mine keeping an account of the
,, . , . . ... .- ozokerite raised.
c. Kotary blower lor ventilation. . ,,. . . . - . „ , . „ ,
J i. Miner, wearing safety -bell, and carrying safety-lamp,
a. Signal bell. preparing to descend.
e. Bucket in which the ozokerite is raised. k. Woman working blowing machine.
A
B. View of portion of shaft and gallery, showing mode of limbering.
/. Tube conveying air from blowing machine.
m. Signal cord.
it. Miner at work.
Feb. 2!), 1802.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
117
ozokerite. The former is melted as it is, while the latter is
subjected to the following operations in consecutive order; —
1. Hand picking or sorting.
2. Washing with cold water.
:(. Washing with hot water.
5. Treatment with benzine and steam.
By hand picking all the larger fragments of ozokerite are
sorted from the earthy matter. The work is performed at
the pit's mouth by women, who are provided with a small
mattock by means of which the separation of the matrix is
facilitated. After this the earth, which still contains from
8 to 10 per cent, of ozokerite, is thrown into tubs of water
and stirred with shovels. Under these circumstances the
liberated ozokerite rises to the surface and is skimmed off
with a sieve. The earth, still containing from 4 to 5 per
cent, of ozokerite, is then subjected to the action of boiling
water and the finer particles of the wax, aggregated by
fusion, rise to the surface in the form of a black oily scum,
which is removed from time to time. The fourth process,
originally suggested by Van Haecht, consists in exposing
the earth which, after treatment with boiling water, still
contains from 1 to lj per cent, of ozokerite, to the solvent
action of benzine. By this means nearly the whole of the
remaining wax is dissolved, and by steam distillation the
benzine is recovered. The ozokerite thus obtained com-
mands a higher price than which is obtained by either of
the three preceding processes.
The separated ozokerite is melted and cast into loaves or
blocks of the form of a truncated cone, and weighing about
50 or 60 kilos. One of these blocks is on the table. The
expenses of picking, washing, and melting amount to from
40 to 50 kreutzers per quintal.
There are two or three recognised commercial qualities of
the melted and cast ozokerite. The first qualitv- is trans-
parent in thin sheets and its colour ranges from yellow to
greenish brown. Adulteration by means of crude petroleum,
heavy oils, the residues from refineries, asphaltum, and even
earthy matter, are not unknown, and occasionally by a
process of double casting the exterior of the block is made
to differ in quality from the interior.
In the form of the blocks described the ozokerite is
delivered to the Austro-Hungarian refineries, and exported
to Kussia, Germany, and England. The principal refineries
are in Drohobicz, Lemberg, Vienna, Stockerau (near
Vienna), Aussig, Teplitz, Elbeteinitz, London, Halle,
Frankfort, and Hamburg.
In the following table the quantity and price of the
ozokerite raised in Austria-Hungary are given for the years
1877 — 90. The figures are official, but, as in the case of
petroleum, the production is probably very largely under-
stated. The greater part of this ozokerite is the produce of
the mines of Boryslaw, but a portion was obtained from the
deposits at Truskawice, Starunia, and Dwiniacz.
The raw material, which has been separated from earthy
matter by fusion, is treated with Nordhausen oil of vitriol,
whereby a portion of the material becomes converted into a
soluble sulpho-eompouud, and afterwards with charcoal.*
The purified ozokerite, which then bears the name of
ceresin, is separated as far as possible from the charcoal
by pressure, and an additional quantity is obtained by
exhausting the charcoal with benzine, which is afterwards
distilled off. There is thus usually obtained from the crude
ozokerite from 60 to 70 per cent., or even more, of ceresin,
which in some cases is afterwards coloured to imitate
beeswax, and is largely used on the Continent, especially in
Kussia, as an adulterant of, or even as a substitute for that
material, especially in the manufacture of church candles.
Refined ozokerite or ceresin usually ranges in melting
point from 61° to 78° C, but notwithstanding its high
melting point, when made into caudles, it exhibits a
tendency to gutter ; it also burns with a smoky flame. For
the production of the material of which candles are made,
the ozokerite is subjected by Messrs. J. C. and J. Field,
Limited, to a process of distillation, patented in 1870 by
Field and Siemssen. Under this process the ozokerite is
* The carbonaceous residue produced in the manufacture of
potassium ferroeyanide being employed.
AuSTRI A-H I'NGARY.
Ozokerite.
Year.
Production in Metre
Centners of 100 Kilos.
Average Price per
100 Kilos, in Florins.
1877
89,610
Fl.K.
25' 73
1878
103,420
29'SO
1879
90,666
25-89
18S0
105,270
34-94
1881
106,491
25-84
1832
99,300
2.V50
1883
106.299
28-78
18S4
119,669
31-31
1885
130,258
29-72
1886
139,254
25-42
1887 '
80,500
2367
1888
S7.800
21-611
1889
75,800
23-76
1*90
61,699
28-50
melted, pumped into stills, and distilled in a current of
superheated steam. t The distillate is caked, pressed with
naphtha, cleared down with Fuller's earth, and filtered.
Under favourable circumstances, with good material, about
60 per cent, of white wax, of a melting point of 140 1'.,
may thus be obtained. Candles made of this wax are
especially adapted for use in high temperatures, as they are
less liable to gutter and bend than ordinary oaraffin candles.
In addition to light oils, the crude ozokerite yields under
certain circumstances a serai-solid product resembling
vaseline, but less homogeneous. This product, known as
yellow ozokerine, is used in ointments and pomades. By
the action of Nordhausen sulphuric acid it is rendered
white, and in that form is employed by French perfumers
as a substitute for lard in the process of " enfleurage," the
almost entire insolubility of the hydrocarbon in alcohol, and
its non-liability to become rancid, giving it a great advantage
over the animal fat.
The residue in the stills consists of a hard, black, waxy
substance, for which at first no use could be found, but in
1875 Messrs. Field and Tailing took out a patent for
producing electrical insulating material by combining this
black ozokerite with india-rubber by welding through
rollers at a moderate temperature, and subsequently
vulcanising the compound. This material, with certain
modifications, has been introduced as " okonite," and is
now largely used by the Okonite Company for the insula-
tion of electrical cables. Okonite is not only a good
insulator, but is remarkably flexible and tough. By a
similar process a form of the material known as heelball is
mauufactured. This is employed to impart a black
polished surface to the heels and soles of boots ; it is also
very largely used by the Austrian Government for the
leather work of cavalry and artillery. The consumption of
the black ozokerite in consequence of these industrial
applications of what was at first a valueless by-product has
now become so great that the present demand largely
exceeds the supply.
For the very complete and highly interesting series of
illustrative specimens, as well as for much valuable informa-
tion relative to the ozokerite industry, the writer is greatly
indebted to Mr. Leopold Field, who is well known to have
devoted special attention to the technology of the subject.
The specimens include natural ozokerite from a large seam
+ If the ozokerne is subjected to destructive distillation, it is
very largely converted into gas, oil. and coke, but in the presence
of superheated steam this decomposition does not take place to any
iiuportant extent.
118
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. :>», 18S.2.
at a depth of about 350 feet (such ozokerite yields by the
system of distillation adopttd by Messrs. Field about
60 per cent, of white ozokerite (melting poiut 140 F. i 30
per cent, of black ozokerite and 3 per cent, of ozokerine, the
remaining 7 per cent, being represented by gas, light oil, and
coke) crude ozokerite (" primissima") as imported, showing
the characteristic fracture and dichroism of the material ;
distilled ozokerit, 140° F, melting point, ozokerit candles
and nigbtlights ; black ozokerite, "okouite " and heelballs :
" ozokerine," yellow and white ; ceresin.
For the specimens of electric cables insulated with
okonite, the thanks of the writer are due to the Okonite
Company.
In conclusion, the writer cannot too strongly express his
indebtedness to Mr. George Adams, whose long e\[u rience
and intimate knowledge of the industry have been generous] v
plaeed at his disposal, aud have been of the greatest value
to hira in the preparation of this paper. The writer's
cordial thanks are also due to Imperial and Koyal Com-
missioner Henryk Walter, of Cracow, who has kii)dlyr
furnished him with much valuable statistical information.
Discussion.
Mr.W. Toi'I.ky, F.K.S., ventured to assert that no one would
in future attempt to discuss or write about the petroleum aud
ozokerite industry of Galicia without referring to this paper.
He thought Mr. Redwood had dealt with the subject in a very
masterly manner. What he had to say would be mainly
geological. Mr. Redwood had been good enough to refer
to him, and to say that he had given him (Mr. Kedwood)
some information, so that for him to make general remarks
upon the geological part of the paper would be mere repeti-
tion. He could quite agree with what Mr. Kedwood had
said as to the general coincidence between the occurrences,
of petroleum aud the course of mountain ranges in Europe
A geological map would show that the mountain ranges
coincided with the geological structure. Perhaps he had
not fully understood Mr. Kedwood in some of his remarks
with relerence to the supposed connections of distant
localities. He would hardly, for instance, be inclined to
connect the petroleum of Algeria with that of the South of
Spain. He was rather inclined to think that in Algeria,
when the course of petroleum was more fully known, it
would be found to lie in an east and west direction, extend-
ing for some distance along the hills. He did not see any
geological reason for connecting the petroleum of Hanover
with that of the Carpathians. He would rather connect the
Carpathian ranges with that very interesting case in
Bavaria, south of Munich ; this was plainly suggested by
a geological map. As regards the varying chemical compo-
sitions found in different geological formations, it was very
easy to compare the composition of petroleums of different
formations from different places, but what they wanted was
a minute comparison from different formations in the same
district, and he thought that could be done in Galicia. As
regards the varying density of different petroleum deposits,
very often it appeared that petroleum at greater depths had
a lesser specific gravity. As Mr. Kedwood had pointed
out, one would expect this, because the petroleum near the
surface would lose some of its volatile matter, but an
inspection of the tables exhibited scarcely seemed fully to
bear that out.
Mr. Nelson Boyd said that Mr. Kedwood had shown
them the methods which were originally used with
hand labour, and then proceeded to show them the drilling
apparatus which was used now, namely, the Canadian, but
which he (Mr. Boyd) would prefer to call the American
system. The best method for classifying the systems of
drilling was based upon the tools that were used in the
borehole itself. In the American system, whether wot kid
by rods or rope, the tools used were the same. In Canada
they used 2-in. rods, whereas in Pennsylvania they used the
rope system, which was very useful for deep wells. The
systems wete really exactly the same. With reference to
the Canadian system not being suitable for deep boring,
he had had a hole drilled no less than 013 metres deep, and
he thought that that was a feat which had not often been
accomplished with rods. When wells were sunk to 1,400
or 1,500 ft., a rope was usually adopted, and there the
rope system had the advantage, as it was more expedi-
tious. In tact, where one got beyond 300 or 400 yards, it
took very nearly half an hour to draw up the rods. The
free-fall system had heen universally used in Europe for
boring for water, and it had also been adapted for other
borings. This system bad been described as very good,
hut then it involved the necessity of iron rods. The result
was an enormous weight and a very slow bringing up of rods,
with consequent increase in the expenditure. He thought
that the American system was infinitely superior to it.
The system used on the Continent was a modification of
the one before them, but instead of hand labour they used
an engine. There was also the so-called diamond drill, which
ought to be called the crown drill, because it was not
absolutely necessary to have diamonds at the bottom of the
crown. He had himself seen an apparatus for boring with a
preparation of emery which was sufficiently strong to go
through soft ground. In beds of clay in which petroleum is
found, the diamoud drill was absolutely useless ; it clogged
in the clay, the crown had to be given up and the chisel
used ; and then a pulp of fine sand and clay was formed,
which remained in the hole ; and not only that, but the
rotary action of the chisel formed cavities all round. He
supported Mr. Kedwood in the opinion that the Canadian
system was infinitely the best of the three. It should be
remembered that the Northern Carpathians were very much
steeper on the northern side than on the southern side, and
therefore people working on the southern side would strike
the oil line at a less depth.
Mr. Georoe Moruaixt might say, with regard to
this petroleum, that it was well known m England, aud as
far back as the years 1865 aud 1866 about 1,000 tons had
been imported to London, and was refined by the Hydro
carbon Oil Company at Southall. At that time the price of
refined petroleum was 2s. 9rf. per gaMon, whilst at the
present moment it was 4§d. Between 1864 and 1892 enor-
mous quantities of American, Canadian, and Russian oils had
been imported. The import into London in 1864 was 45,211
barrels; last year it was 1,244,115 barrels. That would
give some idea of the marvellous development of this trade.
The members of the oil trade were extremely pleased to see
these new developments leading to increased production all
over the world, because they felt convinced that, by the aid
of chemists and engineers, petroleum would sooner or later
be adopted for fuel, and also as a motor for steamships.
Mr. W. J. A. Bitterfield wished to ask Mr. Redwood
two or three questions on the applications of petroleum.
Mr. Redwood had mentioned the extensive use now made of
oil for making gas, and for carburetting water-gas. Oil for
this purpose should be free from water, and he was not very
clear whether the petroleum from Galicia was free from
water. He did not understand also whether the petroleum
was free from sulphur, or whether this was only the case
with the ozokerite. He would also like to know whether,
ou distillation, the oil gave off any ammonia or not. He
thought it would b e interesting to ascertain if the oil-fields
of America were co-exte
the oil-fields of Fiurope.
Mr. W . Patntek said he had been investigating the
existence of oil in North Africa during the last two years,
and was of opinion that that oil-field would prove an
important one in the near future. In the borings he had
made on the southern slopes of a range of the Atlas
mountains, and from other surface indications, the oil showed
very plainly over a distance of 20 miles. The oil-fields in
the district of Am Ztft, iu the Atlas mountains, corresponded
exactly to the description of those iu the Galician mountains
which Mr. Redwood had given them. His personal expe-
rience completely bore out what Mr. Redwood had said,
and he would venture to say that if they studied the
origin of petroleum it would be found to exist in Europe
aud Africa principally near limestone of the tertiary
period. The specific gravity of the Galician oils from
900 down to 764 were exactly what he had found at
various depths. At a depth of 14 or 15 yards he found it
Feb. 29, 1892.]
THE JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
119
to be 860. He had found that Ain Zeft oil contained from
it to 7 per cent, of solid hydrocarbons. Mr. Redwood had
found 5 per cent, but he had since come across some
samples of oil which contained uearly 8 per cent. It seemed
to him that in North Africa they had another extensive
petroleum Held, and the company in which he was interested
was the pioneer company in developing this field. " Ain
Zeft " is Arabic for " pitch wells."
Mr. Redwood, in reply, said that with reference to
Mr. Topley's remarks, he did not desire to carry the
argument of the north-west, south-east line too far. He
did not wish to pose as an exponent, of the view that on
the continent of Europe these deposits must occur on such
a line. He had thought it expedient to point out that the
petroleum fields to which he had occasion to refer occupied
the relative positions described. He did not desire to
advance any opinion on a geological question in opposition
to the views of Mr. Topley, and he quite agreed with him
that new deposits might be discovered, which would
necessarily modify the generalisation attempted. But,
nevertheless, there was in his mind an idea that, some sort
of general disposition on parallel lines running, broadly,
north-west, south-east, characterised the petroleum fields of
Europe. He was fully in accord with Mr. Topley in
thinking that a chemical comparison of petroleums from
the various geological horizons in Galicia might prove to
be exceedingly interesting and valuable. He might say,
however, that he had worked out that idea a little farther
in his paper, than he had, from lack of time, been able to
indicate that evening; but while he felt that a careful study
of the relative physical and chemical characteristics of
various samples of petroleum obtained from the different
geological horizons in Galicia might lead to important
results, it did not appear to him that any very definite
deductions could be drawn from the existing data. He
would like to make one remark in reference to Mr. Topley's
comments on the results obtained in the examination of
samples from a number of wells in the Sloboda district.
In consequence of the fact that in Galicia it was not an
uncommon thing to perforate the casing, not only at the
lowest oil horizon, but at every important oil horizon,
a product was frequently obtained in variable proportions
from different horizons. With respect to Mr. Boyd's obser-
vations he might remark that he had found it convenient
to apply the terms American and Canadian respectively,
to the systems of drilling with a cable and with rods. He
quite agreed with Mr. Boyd that the tools were of the same
description, but he believed that the names in question were
appropriate, since the rope system was generally used in
the United States, and the rod S3'stem in Canada. He did not
think that the remarks made by other speakers called for
any reply, except those which had fallen from Mr. Butter-
field, who asked some questions in reference to the
employment of Galieian petroleum as a source of gas for
carburetting purposes. Mr. Butterfield had pointed out in
the first place that the oil for ;his purpose should be free
from water ; and he had inquired if Galieian petroleum
was free from sulphur. As a matter of fact, crude petroleum
which had a specific gravity considerably different from
that of water could not long retain much water in suspen-
sion, and the quantity which would remain in solution might
be disregarded in the use of the oil for gas-making purposes.
The crude oils which had given trouble in gas making,
owing to the presence of water, had been of a high specific
gravity. From such oils water separated but ver}- slowly,
by subsidence at common temperatures. As regarded
freedom from sulphur he might say that the petroleum
found in Galicia was usually practically free from sulphur.
He might add that the presence of sulphur in petroleum
employed in gas making was a matter of much less con-
sequence than its presence in crude oil intended as a
source of kerosene, for it was comparatively easy to remove
sulphur from gas.
Meeting held Monday, February 1st, 1892.
— «tec<cg^
MR. THOS. TYRER IN THE CHAIR.
THE STABILITY OF CERTAIN ORGANIC
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS OCCURRING IN COAL-
TAR PITCH.
BY WATSON SMITH.
(Lecturer in Chemical Technology in University College,
London.)
This note is merely designed to call attention to a fact that
appears to have been overlooked, as well as to point to a
very simple lecture experiment for the purpose of illustrating
that such organic substances as pitch, which contain small
quantities of nitrogen in combination, if ignited so as to
become reduced to a porous coke, evolve a considerable
proportion of that nitrogen as ammonia. The exhalation of
ammonia from the porous coke is most marked when the
ignited residue has cooled down to such an extent that the
retort or other vessel is so warm that it can just he norne
upon the hand for a short time. No odour of ammonia is
perceived whilst the retort or other vessel is still very hot.
This evolution of ammonia is secured even long after attain-
ing a period in the distillation, when absolutely no more
solid or liquid distillation products come off in the case of
pitch, clearly proving that the nitrogen carbon compounds of
the pitch are those which are the most stable. The fact also
that the nitrogen is finally evolved as ammonia would appear
to prove that some hydrogen is present and is retained in
a stable form. To endeavour to show that it is not due to
the influence of the moisture in air aspirated back into the
retort after cooling of the latter, a set of drying-tubes were
adjusted to the retort, so that the air passing back should
be dry air. Ammonia was still evolved. Nevertheless, it
is quite conceivable that before the adjustment of such
drying apparatus, and after the removal of the lamp flame,
back suction of moist air may have occurred, before the
drying tubes could be fixed, as also whilst the source of
heat was still present, and during lapses of the intensity of
the flame.
An interesting and effective lecture experiment to
illustrate this stability of nitrogen, is very simply performed,
by introducing some bits of pitch into a small retort, placing
a flame under the bulb of the retort and heating strongly
until all that will distil over has passed off, and the residue
has become red hot, and the glass of the bulb is somewhat
warped and has become semi-molten. The lamp is then
removed, and the retort let cool until the heat of the bulb
can be just endured in the palm of the hand. On removing
the stopper of the retort, the stem being still inclined down-
wards, a current of air passes up the stem, through the
retort and through the stopper-rede, after the manner of the
draught of a chimney, if the nose be now held in the
ascending current of air from the stopper, a powerful, in
fact, unendurably strong odour of ammonia is perceived,
producing dense white fumes with the moistened stopper of
a hydrochloric acid bottle. Meanwhile, as an instructive,
simple, and I believe new lecture experiment I thought it
not unworthy of record or of presentation to this Society.
Discussion.
Mr. William Crowder said that he did not quite see
what the peculiar reaction was in the case of the pitch
mentioned by Mr. Watson Smith. It was a very well
known thing that in distilling nitrogenous substances a
residue of charcoal was found, and that that charcoal
always contained nitrogen. He himself had distilled large
quantities of auimal matter, and he had invariably obtained
nitrogen in the charcoal. He had found exactly the same
thing in the case of bone ; and, in fact, it was well known
that if any organic substance were distilled there was always
a residue of nitrogen left in the substance. He therefore
did not see what Mr. Watson Smith was driving at in
singling out pitch as a substance having anything peculiar
about it.
120
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, ism.
Dr. C. K. Aldkr Wright had notified that sometimes
nitrogen -was evolved in another form, cyanogen, when the
residue in the retort was coked ; sometimes ammonia and
cyanogen were obtained together. On redistillation of bone
oil (Dippers oil), a large quantity of ammonia was formed
when the residue left in the retort approached carbonisation,
and one would also frequently find a white sublimate in the
neck of the retort. This consisted partly of ammonium
cyanide, the cyanogen being easily recognised by dissolving
in water and applying the Prussian blue test ; the smell of
ammonia was persistent all through the latter part of the
distillation. Bodies analogous to those in bone oil would
be probably contained in small quantity in ordinary coal-
tars, and the formation of ammonia would probably be
noticeable there also to a lesser extent.
The Chairman asked what percentage of ammonia had
been found in such coke material, and whether it was not
possible that the nitrogen of the air might be concerned in
the formation of the ammonia ?
Mr. Watson Smith said, in reply, that the exhalation of
ammonia from the coking and coked pitch did not appear
to commence until after cooling had set in, and in fact to
a temperature that could just be borne by the hand.
Whilst other substances containing nitrogen, such as bone-
black, &c, might similarly exhale ammonia, he had never
observed the phenomenon so strongly marked as in the case
of pitch, and he had first observed it in 1 869 when con-
tinually experimenting wiih pitch on a large scale in a tar
distillery. On reheating the coked residue after it had
ceased to evolve a smell of ammonia and then letting
the residue again cool down, a fresh exhalation
commenced. Some further experiments would be required
to prove whether or not the nitrogen of the air was
at all involved in the development. It seemed scarcely
probable. He had indeed tried the experiment with coked
sugar, but without evidence of a trace of ammonia. The
probability suggested by one speaker that the com-
pounds decomposed might he cyanides and sulphocyanides
seemed likely, especially since the ammonia was ac-
companied occasionally by a smell of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and occasionally by a faint one of hydrocyanic
acid. The best way to obtain all the nitrogen of
nitrogenous cokes of any kinds, as ammonia, was to pass
steam through the red-hot material until all was consumed
but ash, and in suitable apparatus for the condensation and
recovery of such ammonia. This was no new thing, but
was well-known to and for long practised by the firm of
Brunner, Mond and Co., to the best of his knowledge, in the
case of coal.
The Chairman said that the point whether the nitrogen
of the atmosphere had anything to do with this evolution of
ammonia ought to be settled ; and the fact mentioned by
Mr. Watson Smith that no ammonia was perceptible whilst
the contents of the retort were very hot was certainly
singular. It would not be at all a difficult thing to deter-
mine by experimenting with some neutral gas. Mr. Smith
admitted that the investigation was incomplete, but was
put forward as a suggestion to be worked out by those
whose opportunities were larger than his own.
Zibrrpool £>ecttoit.
University College, Browtnlow Street.
Chairman : H . Brunner.
Vice-Chairman : A. Norman Tate.
Committee :
E. Carey. A. H. Knight.
V. C. Driffield. t). McKechnie.
P. Gossage. E. K. Muspratt.
W. I). Herman. Henry Tate.
C. L. Higgins. A. Watt.
F. Hiuter.
Hon. Treasurer: "W. P. Thompson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. Chas. A. Kolin, University College, Liverpool.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
■*ent to the Local Secretary.
18!12 :—
Mar. 2ml. —Dr. G. Shack-Sommer. "Bill to p.mem] the Law
with respccl to the Sale of Agricultural Fertilisers and Feeding
Stuffs.'1
Apr. fitli. Chairman's Address. " Manuring for the Production
of Fruit."
Meeting held Wednesday, Januaty 13'A, 1892.
MR. A. NORMAN TATE IN THE CHAIR.
MODERN* LEGISLATION' IN RESTRAINT OF THE
EMISSION OF NOXIOUS GASES FROM
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS.
BY A. E. FLETCHER,
H. M. Chief Inspector under the Alkali, Sfc, Works
Regulation Act.
Last year I read a paper on this subject before the Congress
of Hygiene meeting in London. On that occasion I sketched
the course which such legislation bail taken, and spoke of
the effects produced. This evening I have the advantage of
addressing an audience well acquainted with the practical
bearing of the subject, and propose therefore to take now a
step in advance, and, referring briefly to what has been done
in the p-ist, to set forth, and possibly lead to a discussion on,
the line of action that should be taken in future.
By way of preface I would remind the Society that the
Alkali Works Regulation Act of 1863, was, as far as 1 have
been able to discover, a new departure in the legislation not
only of this but of any other country. Prohibition of
noxious trades there have been, and local Acts to regulate
the locality of factories where noxious trades were carried
on ; but there had been before 1863 no Act of the Legis-
lature whereby an admission was implied that the emission
of noxious gases was in certain eases unavoidable, and that
such would be subject to definite regulations. The Act of
1863 recognised the existence of alkali works, and the fact
that acid gases liable to injure surrounding vegetation were
discharged from them. There was no attempt to put a
stop to such works on account of the admitted injury they
were liable to inflict on the neighbourhood, but steps were
taken to limit that injury, and to oblige the manufacturers
to adopt means for reducing the evil to the smallest possible
amount.
I think I am right, therefore, in saying that in this Act a
new principle was thus introduced, one differing widely from
that of simple repression, hitherto applied whenever an
admitted evil of the kind was dealt with. There was herein
an acknowledgment that with the evil there was associated
a greater good, and that to sweep away the one would be
Feb. *.i. ism.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
121
to destroy the other ; that it must suffice to restrain the evil,
to iusist on the adoption of the best practicable means for
diminishing it to the furthest possible limit.
A second important principle in the Alkali Act of 1863
was that its administration should not be placed in the
hands of the local authorities. The larger manufacturers,
proprietors of chemical works, and others interested in the
carrying on of processes which might cause the occasional
discharge of noxious gases, are obviously not those who
should be entrusted with the administration of a law to
control those operations in which they are particularly
concerned. It was felt to be necessary therefore that the
inspectors to be appointed under the Alkali Act should be
removed from all local influence, and that they should be
appointed by the central authority.
For this and for other reasons it was probably thought
that the local medical officers of public health would not he
suitable agents for carrying out the new la*. Their medical
studies eminently fit them for their office as guardians of
the public health, but they are not necessarily students of
chemistry nor familiar with its application to the arts.
The appointment of inspectors who should have power of
entry of the works registered under the Act was also new
and seemed to be in opposition to our instinctive feeling of
the inviolability of private property. This step was. how-
ever, necessary to the carrying out of this newer legislation.
If it were conceded that a work should not be stopped
though it might have been ascertained that some noxious gas
escaped from it, provided that such escape were kept within
the narrowest possible limits, then there must be inspectors
to ascertain the fact, and they must have opportunity of
continually examining the process and the apparatus.
As the number of chemical works increased and they
were grouped together in considerable numbers, as at
Widnes and St. Helens, it was found impossible for a
farmer in the surrounding district whose crops may have
been injured by an acid gas to fix on the factory whence
this had proceeded. The work of an inspector became
therefore the more necessary to go before and prevent the
injury, or, if necessary, single out the offender. It being
then conceded that if certain chemical manufactures were
carried on some noxious gas would inevitably from time
to time escape, and inspectors being appointed to examine
with a view to minimise the amount thus escaping, it
became necessary to give a standard for their guidance,
tr> fix a limit beyond which any emission of a noxious gas
should be considered peual.
In the original Alkali Act of 1863 the only gas dealt
with was hydrochloric acid. That gas, liberated by the
action of sulphuric acid on common salt during the first
stage of its conversion into alkali by the Leblanc process,
was in the early days of the manufacture allowed to pass into
the fire flues, thus finding a discharge through the chimney
into the atmosphere. The first effort to mitigate the
damage thus inflicted on surrounding vegetation was to
heighten the chimney in the hope that, carried to a
distance, the acid gas by extreme dilution would be
powerless for evil. Thus rose the tall structures once seen
at Newton, in Lancashire, and that still standing at
St. Kollox, in Lancashire. It was when the failure of this
palliative was realised that Mr. Gossage constructed his
now famous towers for the condensation of hydrochloric
acid gas. Brought here into contact with water distributed
over large surfaces it was dissolved and retained as a liquid
acid.
It was the operation of these condensing towers that
gave a standard for the Alkali Act. Their action was so
nearly perfect that it seemed safe to engage that 95 per
cent, should be condensed. Thus it was made penal for
an alkali manufacturer to allow more than 5 per cent, of
his hydrochloric acid to escapo into the air. As the number
five has no particular relation to common salt or hydro-
chloric acid, or to the molecular weights of either, it must
be admitted that it was taken as a conveniently familiar
figure, and sufficiently near for a first attempt. As a fact
the manufacturers from the first kept well within it, indeed
the amount of acid escaping from the condensers them-
selves was very much below the proportion named. At
the present time, adding to this the amount which escapes
through crevices in the ftirnaces, or in other ways finds its
way into the chimney, the whole does not exceed on the
average "2 per cent.
The Alkali Act of 1863, containing the novel principles
here indicated, was passed tentatively for five years only.
During this first time of trial it worked satisfactorily, the
amount of acid gas found to be escaping from some of the
works was rapidly diminished, the presence of an inspector
was not found to be excessively offensive, and it was said
that in some districts a marked improvement could be
observed in the neighbourhood of chemical works. In 1868
the Act was therefore renewed and made perpetual.
The standard of a condensation of not less than 95 per
cent, was still the only one upheld by the Act. It is said
that this had been readily agreed to by those who repre-
sented the manufacturers in the committee of the House of
Commons, as it was believed that no means existed for
determining the total amount of acid escaping from any
work, so as to calculate the proportion it bore with the
quantity generated. In order to estimate this it was not
sufficient to compare the relative acidity of the air or gas
entering the condenser with that leaving it, for should
there be leakages in the fur.iaces some gas migbt find its
way to the chimney without passing through the condenser.
It was seen that the total amount passing up the chimney
during any given time must be estimated, and a proportion
determined between that and the total quantity being
generated during the same interval. No means were,
however, available for giving all the factors necessary for
this calculation. \ measured volume of the gases passing
up a chimney or through a culvert might be withdrawn,
and the amount of hydrochloric acid there contained
determined, but there was no means of estimating the
quantity of those gases which passed in a given time. In
order to do this au anemometer was needed, by which one
could measure the speed of air of any temperature, even if
red hot, and when charged with corrosive acids, or if
heavily laden with dint or soot. But no such instrument
was provided or was known. It was only after much
investigation and the independent work of one of the
inspectors that this problem was solved, and an anemometer
constructed which should measure the speed of a current
of air even under the adverse conditions named.
Apparatus was also needed for ascertaining the amount
of acid gas in a given volume of mixed air. Some means
of withdrawing a measured portion of air from the chimney
or smoke culvert were in the hands of chemists, and for
ascertaining the quantity of acid gas contained in it, but
it was the good fortune of one of the inspectors under the
Act to devise an apparatus portable and specially convenient
for the purpose in hand. It took the form of a collapsible
cylinder constructed of ebonite and vulcanised rubber, in
size capable of holding one-tenth of a cubic foot. The
solvent for the acid or other body contained in the air
aspirated was introduced into the collapsible aspirator,
where on agitation it was brought well into contact with
the contained gases.
Thus armed with anemometer and collapsing aspirator
and a few bottles of standard solutions, it was in the power
of an inspector rapidly to determine from his own observa-
tion what proportion of the hydrochloric acid produced in
an alkali work was allowed to pass through the smoke flues
and chimney into the air.
The result of this was a notable diminution of the amount
of hydrochloric acid allowed to escape from the alkali works,
a result achieved not by means of numerous prosecutions,
but by pointing out whence and how the escape took place.
The chief source of this was a faulty method of setting the
decomposing pots, also leakages in the inner arch and bed
of the muffle furnaces in which the saltcake was roasted.
Before long all the Lancashire saltcake furnaces were
modified, so as to obviate the faults thus pointed out ; the
decomposing pots were set so that the rim was not buried
in the brickwork as formerly, but exposed to view, thus
rendering it impossible for any gas to pass round it into
the furnace flues beneath. As to the roasting furnaces,
those of the older construction, found so often to leak and
allow much of the hydrochloric acid to follow the draught
of the chimney to be thus discharged into the air, were
m.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[ Feb. 21), 1892.
replaced by furnaces wherein n slightly higher pressure
was established in the fire flues surrounding the muffle of
the furnace than in the muffle itself, thus neutralising the
tendency for the acid gas.-- to pass away with the smoke.
These were called plus-pressure furnaces. As pioneers in
their construction we are indebted to Messrs. Gamble and
Son, of St. Helens, and Messrs. Gaskcll, Deacon, and Co.,
of Wi fines.
It may thus be said of the inspection established under
the Alkali Ac*, that by introducing an exact system of
estimating the character and the amount of the waste gases
passing into the atmosphere, and by inducing the manu-
facturers to daily repeat these tests and keep a constant
record of the results, a gradual reformation has been effected
in the construction of apparatus and the conduct of works
generally.
After the renewal of the Alkali Act in 1368 a further
period of "six years elapsed, when an amended Act was
passed in 1874.
It had been found that it v ;.s possible to carry ou the
condensatio.-i of the hydrochloric acid generated in alkali
works till'far more than 95 per cent, of it was arrested, yet
the amount which still escaped from large works was in
some cases so great that unless much diluted with other
gases it was still highly dangerous to vegetation.
It was considered, therefore, that a further standard of
condensation should be adopted, also that other gases
thau hydrochloric acid should be placed under control.
Accordingly in 1874 an amended Alkali Act was passed,
wherein it was provided that no gas or smoke containing
more than two-tenths of a grain hydrochloric acid should
be allowed to escape into the atmosphere.
It was enacted also that the best practicable means must
be adopted for preventing the escape of all other noxious
gases, besides hydrochloric acid, which are generated in an
alkali work. The term noxious gases is defined to include
sulphuric acid ; sulphurous acid, except that arising from
the combustion of coals ; nitric acid, or other oxides of
nitrogen; sulphuretted hydrogen ; and chlorine.
The adoption of the standard of two-tenths of a grain of
hydrochloric acid in a cubic foot of air was not to supersede
the former standard of 5 per cent., but run with it. The
two together formed a complete cheek upon any excessive
escape of this gas. The introduction also of the injunction
to use the "best practicable means" for preventing the
escape into the air of certain other noxious gases was a
great step in advance. When a numerical standard is
adopted it is necessary that it should be loose, lest in some
cases it might be found to be oppressive ; indeed, the same
standard may be unduly loose under some conditions, yet
unfairly severe in others. The obligation, however, on a
manufacturer to adopt the " best practicable means " for
the avoidance of that which may be a source of injury to
his neighbours, is one which he can never in justice seek
to evade, or of whose fairness he can rightly complain.
The work of inspection under the now amended Alkali
Act continued, yet farmers and others in the neighbourhood
of the accumulated chemical works still complained that
the evils from which they had suffered were nor removed.
In explanation of this it should be noticed that the past
la years had been a time of rapid increase in all chemical
industries. In the year 18G4 the amount of salt decomposed
in the alkali works of the kingdom was 288, 10U tons; this
increased till it has reached the large total of 855,000 tons,
showing an increase of 200 per cent. This rapid increase
had neutralised the controlling effect exercised by the
Alkali Ac':. Indeed when it is remembered that the con-
sumption of coal had reached, both in St. Helens and in
Widnes, the large amount of about one million tons
annually, and that the sulphurous acid from this as well
as that from numerous copper-smelting, glass-making, and
other wi rks passed unrestricted into the air, it will be felt
that the repression exercised by the inspection under the
Alkali Act in enforcing the condensation and arrest of
hydrochloric acid was quite overshadowed by this wide-
spread pollution of the atmosphere. The inspectors could
only draw consolation from the fact that if their influence
were to be withdrawn a very great addition to the damage
in the surrounding country would soon become apparent.
Under these circumstances a Royal Commission was ap-
pointed to inquire into the past working of the Alkali Act,
and to report with a view to further legislation.
In 1881, therefore, an amended Act was pissed superseding
the previous Acts. In this some other branches of chemical
manufacture were brought under the inspection hitherto
reserved for the alkali works. It was not made genera'ly
a noxious gases Act, but under it cognisance is taken of
those processes of manufacture only which are there
specified, namely, sulphuric acid works, chemical manure
works, gas liquor works, nitric acid works, sulphate of
ammonia works, and chlorine works, also salt works and
cement. Concerning these, no numerical standard is given,
hut it is provided that the "best practicable means shall be
adopted for preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of
all noxious or offensive gases evolved in such works."
The increase made in the number of works now brought
under inspection was great, as is shown by the recent
annual reports under the Alkali Act. In the year 1890 the
number of works in the United Kingdom and Ireland
registered under the Alkali Act was 1 ,034, while of these
133 only were alkali works, the larger majority being
those coming under the classes mentioned in the schedule
to it.
Such is a sketch of the history of the legislation for
controlling the discharge of noxious gases from certain
processes of chemical manufacture, but from certain pro-
cesses only. There are, however, other processes from
which noxious gases may proceed, aud in most cases the
gases which are omitted are the same as those which escape
from the scheduled processes, yet they do not come within
the. scope of the Alkali Act, and the inspector cannot inter-
fere. This anomaly presents itself, for instance, markedly in
the case of nitric acid. If a manufacturer of this acid allows
any to escape owing to the leaky condition of his apparatus
he lays himself open to the penalties fixed in the Alkali
Act, but if he sells that acid to his next door neighbour
wh> by careless use or otherwise evaporates the whole,
driving it into the atmosphere, he is not amenable to the
law under the provisions of the Alkali Act. Again, if this
manufacturer, who in the ordinary use of the acid in
oxidising metals, was accustomed to discharge into the air
the whole of the nitrous fumes thus produced, which, as
stated, would be no offence under the Alkali Act ; if he, by
a process now commonly adopted, commenced to collect
this acid and by reconverting it into nitric acid condensed it
so as to prevent its escape and the consequent contamina-
tion of the atmosphere, he at once comes under the pro-
visions of the Alkali Act, and can be brought under a
penalty if any considerable quantity of it escaped.
Many anomalies of this kind may be pointed out, they
arise from the difficulty or impossibility of scheduling all
the manufacturing operations which should come under the
control of a noxious gases Act. A list, indeed, which is
complete to-day, may be no longer so to-morrow, owing to
the rapid and constant advance iu chemical industry. This
difficulty may, however, be met by enumerating the noxious
gases themselves rather than the processes of manufacture
which generate them. Nor is this difficult ; their number
is but small. Probably as short a list as the following
will be found to include all those gases with which it
would be necessary to deal in such legislation as we are
contemplating, namely: —
The acid compounds of sulphur, nitrogen, chlorine or
fluorine. Chlorine. Fumes < ontaining lead, arsenic,
antimony or zinc.
Indeed, some may think it unnecessary even to go so far
as to specify any noxious gases at all ; lhey would style the
proposed enactment, " An Act for the control of noxious
gases " or " a noxious gases Act." The definition of a
noxious gas might be "a gas which is complained of" or
which is notoriously a cause of complaint, or which in the
opinion of the inspector appointed under the Act is liable
to cause complaint.
The enactment would he that every manufacturer must
use the best practicable means for preventing the discharge
into the atmosphere of any such gas evolved in his work.
To guard against frivolous complaints being brought
against a work it might be defined that any such complaint
Feb. 29. 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
123
must be brought by, say, 10 neighbouring householders, or
a complaint held to be bond fide by the Local Government
Hoard or other central authority. Such an enactment
would certainly have the merit of simplicity ; it would
also be comprehensive, and I do not think it would be
indefinite. It is certainly clear, I think, that in future
the term " Alkali Act " should no longer be used. The
term " Acid Act " would be more appropriate. Though
the title "alkali" stands over the present Act, yet simple
alkali works, such as those for the manufacture of caustic
soda, or these where the ammonia-soda process is carried
on, do not come under it ; it is only those works where
acids are made which come within its scope.
(Should a fear be entertained that without a more precise
description of the gases to be controlled and some definite
standard by which to measure the amount of acid, &c.,
discharged into the air, manufacturers might be harassed
by restless inspectors, I would reply that the past experience
of the conduct cf inspectors has not been such as to
warrant such fear, and remind the objector that no prosecu-
tion under the Act could be maintained until the inspector
were able to convince a judge and jury that the best prac-
ticable means had not been adopted for the suppression of
the evil under complaint. To do this he would probably
have to point out some means that were acknowledged to
he practicable and were in common use for attaining the end
in view. This, too, he must do in the face of skilled
witnesses that might he brought to confront him in open
court. It is certain that no inspector would subject
himself to such an ordeal unless he had a very strong
case to maintain.
With these remaiks I leave the subject in your hands,
anxious to hear the view of the Society, many of whose
members have had long experience of the pretent Act, and
who habitually see its working, viewing it from another
standpoint than that of the present speaker.
Discussion.
Mr. Tate remarked that looking at the effect of legis-
lation during the time that the Alkali Act had been in
force, be thought it must be admitted that it had in many
ways conferred advantages upon manufacturers themselves,
especially owing to the way in which the Act had been
worked under the auspices of the first inspector, Dr. Angus
Smith, to whom manufacturers owed a great debt of grati-
tude for taking action in the way he did. It showed the
difference between inspection by men well acquainted with
the operations they had to inspect, and unintelligent inspec-
tion carried on in the ordinary policeman-like manner.
Dr. Angus Smith had set himself to work to make the Act
not only serviceable to those who were injured by the
emanation of noxious gases, but had thought also of the
difficulties under which manufacturers laboured, and so
manufacturers were not unduly harrassed by him. He
made himself thorough!}" acquainted -vith what manufac-
turers could and could not do, and endeavor red to enforce
what was feasible. As Dr. Smith worked, so had other
inspectors. They had one and all done their best, rather to
carry out the provisions of the Act by assisting manufac-
turers to do what was necessary, than harrass them with legal
proceedings. Consequently benefit had been conferred all
round. The inspectors had thrown themselves thoroughly
and intelligently into the work, as for instance, in inventing
pieces of really serviceable apparatus for the measurement
of escaping gases, and in that respect he believed no person
had worked more energetically than Mr. Fletcher himself.
His apparatus has been largely used, and so had other
apparatus designed by other inspectors.
Altogether, he (Mr. Tate") considered the operation of
the Act as decidedly beneficial, and this because it had
been worked under such an excellent system of inspection.
Mr. Caret said he had listened with great pleasure to
Mr. Fletcher's very interesting paper and to the review
be had given of the progress of legislation from its first
inception in 186.3 to 1881, and as he (Mr. Carey) was
familiar with the subject during the whole of that time,
Mr. Fletcher's account had been extremely interesting to
him personally. lie could support the lecturer's remarks
in almost every respect, especially in regard to the spirit in
which the Acts had been worked by the inspectors. If it
had not been for the judicious way in which Dr. Smith,
Mr. Fletcher, and other inspectors had acted, they would not
have seen anything like the improvement in dealing with
noxious gases which had taken place. It was desirable that
the inspection of noxious vapours should be in the hands of
the central authority, and that the inspectors should be men
of high education and character ; it was owing to attention
to these two points that the Acts had been so successfully
carried out. The only point on which he had always felt
inclined to say, " Well, don't go too far," was about the
great benefit that was alleged to have accrued to manu-
facturers owing to these Acts. It was quite clear that
the condensation of If. CI. had been of benefit to the
manufacturer up to a certain point. But if it was a benefit
to condense, up to 95 per cent, for example, it did not follow
that there would be a proportionate benefit by condensing
97 or 98 per cent. These last one or two degrees cost more
money than they were worth from a manufacturing point of
view.
He agreed with Mr. Fletcher that it was unsatisfactory to
schedule the works, and that it would be better to schedule
the gases. But the objection that he had heard taken to
that course was that if the gases were scheduled the
inspectors would be obliged to visit works iu a disagreeable
or inquisitorial manner. He understood that Mr. Fletcher's
reply to that criticism was that he did not propose to
inspect these works until some complaint had been laid by
a nnmber of responsible persons. But he (Mr. Carey) was
not sure that that reply was quite complete.
Under the present system of scheduling the works there
are great anomalies. Iu some works it is not practicable to
condense sulphuric acid arising from the decomposition of
sulphate of soda. These works are therefore not scheduled
or inspected, but if the gases were scheduled all the works
making these gases would at all events be inspected, and
if the inspectors continue to act in the same spirit as they
had acted in the past he did not think that those manufac-
turers would find that they had any cause to complain. He
would be glad to see the alteration made.
Professor Ca5ipbf.il Brown hoped the alkali manu-
facturers would, like the fabled fox who had lost his tail,
endeavour to persuade other manufacturers whose processes
emitted noxious gases or fumes, to submit to inspection
under a general Act applicable to all.
He was quite sure it would be only fair, and of great
benefit to the public. The inspector was no longer dreaded,
but often welcome. Mr. Fletcher had indicated a preference
for an Act to schedule gases rather than works, but he could
not help thinking that it was a mistake to persist too long in
piecemeal legislation. Of course it was right to begin tenta-
tively, but it was now time for Parliament to pass a general
Act providing that any works which emitted noxious gases
should be subject to inspection in the same way that certain
works now7 are. Of course it would not do to define noxious
gases as " something that anybody complained of." They
knew that if one were to manufacture pure oxygen and
turn it out into the air in great quantities to benefit one's
neighbours, somebody or other would complain of it ; but
another definition might be adopted that a noxious gas was
" a gas which did appreciable harm to health or property."
That would be very simple and workable, because if it came
to the kuowledge of an inspector that anything injurious to
health or property was emitted it would be his duty to
investigate it. If any people complained it should be their
duty to satisfy the inspector that there was injury. An
Act of that kind would be far better now that an enlarged
schedule of gases or of works brought under inspection.
He hoped for an Act which would take cognisance of any-
thing that did harm.
Dr. Hurteh pointed out that if alkali manufacturers
had not derived much beneCt from inspections, they iu
the laboratories had. He, personally, was obliged to
Mr. Fletcher for having introduced necessary apparatus
and tools which proved satisfactory in a number of
124
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
analytical operations, and he would say that he hail always
looked forward with pleasure to the days on which
Mr. Fletcher should happen to come to their works as
inspector, and that pleasure was increased when Mr. Fletcher
was accompanied by Dr. Smith. In that district there had
never been any friction between inspectors and employees
or manufacturers themselves, and so far the Acts had
worked satisfactorily. In regard to future legislation
Mr. Fletcher proposed to schedule the vapours instead of
the works. Looking over the list of gases so scheduled, he
(Dr. Hurter) was afraid that an enforcement of such limits
■as were now enforced in the alkali works would be a severe
task to fulfil for certain other industries. To condense, for
instance, the fumes to the extent to which they had to
condense them in alkali works might in glass works be a
different matter, and in copper works also. Mr. Fletcher
would have to frame his Act with different numerical limits
for different industries. To leave the definition of a noxious
vapour to householders would be a very serious matter.
Householders might very easily combine together to annoy
a poor small manufacturer for instance. v
Mr. Dagger observed that there was one thing which the
Act would not touch, a matter of serious moment, that was
the smoke emitted in connexion with the potteries. It had
been his lot to live for the past two or three years in the
neighbourhood of pottery towns, and he did not know
whether on foggy days there was much to choose between
the atmosphere of Hanley or Longton and that of Widnes.
Mr. FtETCHEB in reply remarked that inspectors might
well wait until complaints had been made ; these came
usually soon enough. Where, however, it was notorious that
an offensive gas or substance emanated from a works, it might
be assumed that the matter should come under examination.
Discharge of dust from works had been spoken of, and a
recent case had occurred where it was alleged that plants
had been injured by the dust of carbonate of soda and heavy
damages had been awarded. Mr. Fletcher agreed that the
term noxious gases might be made to cover solid emanations
of that kind. Cement works were already under the Act;
tbev emitted a certain amount of alkaline earths in a state
of extremely line-division. Many manufacturers recognised
the advantage of being under the Act, finding that they are
thereby assisted in their efforts to keep their works up to
a high state of efficiency. They prefer the visit of the
Government inspector to the interference of local officers
under the Public Health Act. He had been told by a
manufacturer that he would be willing to pay 100/. annually
rather than that the office of Government inspectors under
the Alkali Act should be abolished. The question of [lotteries
had been mentioned: they of course would come undei the
control of a general noxious gases Act, as would also the
glass and copper works, though no action could he taken in
these cases until it was known hoiv to deal with the gases
which they threw out.
A~ to coal smoke, whenever inspection concerning this
were undertaken it would be for some time a gigantic work,
but the difficulty would diminish. An association had
been started in Manchester with the object of accurately
testing all smoke-preventing appliances; manufacturers
would be wise in giving them liberal support, for they weie
doing for all what it was difficult and expensive for each
to do separately for himself.
Meeting held February 3rd, 1892.
MB. A. XORMiS TATK IN THE CHAIR.
TDK MANTJFACTl RE AND INDUSTRIAL VALUE
OF ALUMINIUM.
BY J. II. J. DAGGER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Ix the paper I had the honour of reading before this
Society in May last year I described the now well-known
electrolytic method for the production of aluminium, the
two processes which I noticed being that of Herault, as
carried on at the works of the Aluminium Industry Co.,
Limited, Menhausen, and those of the Societe Electro-
Metallurgique, at Froges, near Grenoble, and the Hall
process of the Pittsburg Reduction Co., U.S.A. These
methods are typical of the most recent advance in the
metallurgy of aluminium, and it may be taken for granted
that no departure will be made from the main outline of
these processes in the present state of our knowledge of the
conditions of the reduction of aluminium from its combina-
tions for some time to come. In these processes and in the
electrolytic process carried on at the works of the Cowles Co.,
in Lockport, U.S.A., the conditions are essentially the same,
the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in a bath of fused
haloids, salts of aluminium, and metals of the alkalis and
alkaline earths, preferably the fluoride. In the process
described by M. Minet in the Compt. Rend., February 17th,
June 9th 1889, and October 27th, 1890, the bath is com-
posed of a mixture of chloride of sodium and the double
fluoride of aluminium and sodium as expressed by the
formula —
6 NaCl + .A1F,, 3NaF
NaCl
62-5
or 3 NaF.AlF, 37-.".
348
(210)
100-0
such a mixture melting at (17.'> . The composition of the
bath is maintained constant during the operation by means
of the following mixture : —
Per Cent.
Hydrate of alumina (partly
dried) 6 (AlsOj2H,0) 416*4 = tS'2
Double fluoride of aluminium
and sodium AKFIo.O >"aF 210-4 = 2-TS
Oxyfluoride of aluminium A12F63A1203 288-4 = 27-5
100-0
This mode of alimentation enables the two-thirds of the
fluorine given off at the positive pole to be replaced. The
bath is kept at the same level by the introduction of a
mixture of chloride of sodium and double fluoride of
aluminium and sodium in the proportion before given.*
M. Minet claims that by his method he attains the pro-
duction of 32 grins, of aluminium for one h.p. hour with
E.M.F. of 4 volts, and the return of electric energy as
70 per cent. Unfortunately, however, I have been unable
to obtain further information as to this process or to verify
the results obtained. M. Miuet's papers are, however, well
worth reading, as he goes into the theory of the decompo-
sition of fixed aluminium fluoride and tabulates the results
he obtained under varying conditions of current and tem-
perature. From my own experience and knowledge,
however, the use of more easily decomposing mixtures than
those of the fluorides, even the addition of chloride
of calcium, as is sometimes advocated, is attended
with practical difficulties and requiring much greater skill
and intelligence than one could well expect from the
workmen, and therefore at present the simpler methods of
the three great companies will continue to supply the
* Tou will note that in this process it is the fluoride that is
electrolysed, in the processes before described it is the alumina that
undergoes decomposition, the loss in the bath itself being only very
slight, provided care is taken not to let the pots get out of ore
(alumina), this being shown by the increased resistance indicated
by the voltameter. Should, however, this lie neglected, the current
begins to act on the materials ot the bath, the halogen of the salts
used being given oil instead of the CO produced under normal
conditions.
Feb. 29, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
125
greatest part of aluminium required, and any further
development will lie rather in the cheapening of the methods
of preparing alumina, and improvements in the construction
of dynamos, and the application of steam, above all water
power. For the metal itself there is unquestionably a very
great future, and of that the specimens on the table before
you tell you more eloquently and more clearly than I can
hope to do. Let me again call your attention to the
oomparison of aluminium with our most familiar metals,
and ask each one to note clearly the figures given, which
show the result of tests of the average metals and do
not include exceptional or highest figures that are only
occasionally obtained in the testing room.
Influence op Tmperature on Tensile Strength op
Aluminium (Lb Chatelieb.)
Temperature.
15°
100°
150°
200°
260°
Tensile strength in
tons per sq. in...
11-68
9-5
8-1
G-3
4-8
Temperature.
300°
350°
+00
460°
Tensile strength in
tons per scj. in...
3-li
2-4
1-5
i'0
Here are the results of a number of tests made at Lockport
on bars cast in green sand : —
Diameter.
Tensile Strength.
Elongation.
0-327
Lb. per Sq. In.
17.1 U
Tons per Sq. In.
7-78
Per Cent.
14
0-324
18,483
8-25
23
0-320
19,677
8-73
20
0-311
20,069
8- 05
20
0-318
20,141
8-99
19
0-320
19,677
8-73
18
From these figures you see that the metal in castings is
about equal in strength to cast iron. When, however, the
metal is rolled or drawn we get a tensile strength of
23,000 to 35,000 lb. per square inch (11—15 tons),
approximating to gun bronze. The following figures are
given by the Neuhausen Company showing detailed test of
a metal before and after annealing ; —
Tensile Strength of Kolled Aluminium
(Neuhausen).
Reduction
of Cross
Unannealed.
Annealed.
Section by
Cold
Rolling and
Forging.
Tons per Sq.
Inch,
Klnllirrit iwll
per Cent.
per d/m.
Tons per Sq.
Inch.
Elongation
per Cent.
per d in.
20:1
80:1
Lb.
14-7 (32,928) 4'3
16-87 (37,788) 4-2
Lb.
6"25 (14,(1(111)
5-06 (11,334)
20
10
These figures show fairly the mechanical value of
aluminium, and I must again repeat what I have stated
over and over again in my former papers that aluminium
can never possibly take the place of steel and iron for
structural purposes, such as bridges and heavy machinery ;
it is not a rigid metal, and its elasticity is low, though it is
only one-third the weight of iron it has less than one-half
the tensile strength of the best wrought iron, and one-third
that of mild steel. But it is the lightest of all industrial
metals, and this lightness is combined with a tensile
strength not far below gun-metal when it is rolled or
drawn, and equal to cast iron in eastings. It is an excellent
conductor of electricity, its melting point, 700°('.. is between
that of zinc, 433° C, and copper, 1082, its high specific heat
making it most valuable of all metals for fine castings and
light machine work, and with this corrosion resistance only
inferior to the noble metals. Aluminium, surely, with these
properties, needs no special pleading.
Aluminium Corrosion Experiments.
In air at all ordinary temperatures polished aluminium
undergoes less superficial change than any metal except in ggi >]<L
and platinum, a film of oxide is formed of infinite thinness
which appears to prevent all further oxidation, the molten
metal in the crucible retains its lustre until the temperature
passes a red heat, and only at whiteness does much loss from
oxidation occur, the affinity for oxygen increasing rapidly
after bright redness is passed. This freedom from marked
oxidation in its molten state compares very favourably with
the loss undergone during the casting and alloying of the
readily oxidisable ordinary metals, there being no scale
formed and so practically little finishing needed in case of
aluminium castings. This you will see by some specimens
of castings taken directly from the sand.
At ordinary temperature water has no action on aluminium,
and as it is unaltered even by steam, would be useful for
many purposes in the laboratory, and should replace
entirely water bottles of copper and all fittings at present
made of other and corrodible metals employed for water
supply and service, combining the strength of copper with
the appearance of silver and adding to these its peculiar
value of lightness. Care must be taken, however, that it is
not in contact with other metals, as in that case a galvanic
couple might be formed and so oxidation and corrosion take
place, though the extent of this is much less than the loss
of copper or iron under similar conditions. For this
reason, also, it is essential that the metal should be as free
from foreign elements as possible, as I shall point out
later on the presence of even small amounts of impurity
influences the corrosion resistance of aluminium to an
extraordinary extent. Water containing salt has a corrosive
action on aluminium, but less than in case of iron or copper
even when the metal is repeatedly wetted and allowed to
dry in the air.
A plate of cast aluminium (99 per cent.)* 7 cm. long
by 4 cm. wide and 0-15 cm. thick, was suspended
in a saturated solution of sodium chloride and kept at a
temperature of 60^ C. during 48 hours. At the end of
the time it was found to be spotted in places, small
patches of alumina about the size of pin heads having
formed on the metal. The plate being removed from the
solution, washed in distilled water, gently brushed with a
piece of soft rubber to detach these small flocks, was
carefully dried and reweighed, showing a loss of 0 • 052 per
cent.
A similar plate of tuetalj (Al 97 -10 per cent., Fe 0-44 per
cent., Si 2-46 per cent.) containing 3 per cent, impurity
(iron and silicon) showed larger patches of alumina with
small growths of flocculent hydrate covering tiny corrosive
pits, the loss was -0078 per cent., the difference shows the
manner in which the value of this and other metals may be
affected by the presence of even very small quantities of
other elements. An experiment carried out at Neuhausen to
determine the relative value of aluminium and iron with
reference to the action of sea-water gave favourable results.
A sheet of this metal (24-578 grms.) of 1 d/m- exposed
surface was laid in artificial sea-water (in 1,000 parts —
• Al 90-151
F2 0-786
Si 0-060
KIIVIII II)
t Al 97-10
Fs 0-41
Si 2-46
100-00
D 2
126
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
•27 NaCl - 3'2MgCla - 2-2 MgS04) in contact with an iron
plate during 200 hours. At the end of this period it had lost
'.i Digrms. or 0-04 per cent., whilst the iron plate of the same
surface lost .'j4 mgrms. Another sheet of same surface
1 d m- (24-S21 firms.) being in contact with air at a t° of
80° — 90D laid in this artificial sea-water, not in contact with
iron, during 18 hours only lost 3-j mgrms. or 0-014 per
cent.
Aluminium is of course readily acted upon by hydrochloric
acid at all temperatures with the evolution of hydrogen.
Small strips and granules of this metal will be found useful
in the laboratory for reducing purposes, and has the
advantage over zinc that it is not precipitated by sulphuretted
hydrogen even if a large excess of this gas be used. Nitric
acid has no action on this metal unless exposed above
ordinary temperature or for many hours to the concentrated
acid. A sheet of pure metal 1 d/m- surface (.24—25 grms.)
laid in cold concentrated nitric acid (36° B.) showed a loss
of 0-6628 grm. on the seventh day and 1-0195 grms. in a
fortnight. (Neuhausen laboratory.)
The action of sulphuric acid is very slight at ordinary
temperature though it dissolves the metal with evolution
of SCX, on heating.
To determine this point I exposed a plate of cast metal
(99 per cent.) 7 cm. x 4 cm. x 0-15 cm. to the action of
cold concentrated HoSO., during a period of 131 days. At
the end of this time the loss amounted to 4 • 970 per cent. ;
the surface of the metal showed a fine white matt. The
action of dilute acid would, of course, be very much less,
and with regard to its use in this connexion superior to
copper, thoush not equal to lead. The presence of impurity
in small quantity has a marked influence on its resistance
to this acid. With a plate of 97 — 8 per cent., the crystal-
line etching much coarser, the metal was also covered with
tiny pits, probably due to minute particles of silicon or
ferrosilicon compounds, as a distinct trace of H.,S was
evident, both by scent and action on lead paper ; the loss
was 4-49 per cent. And here I will ,iust interpolate a note
of a curious result I obtained on exposing a turned aud
polished bar of 10 per cent, aluminium bronze to the action
of cold concentrated 1LS04. This bar was uniform in
colour and lustre, but after two days' exposure I noted a
dark coloured corrosion band running in a half spiral round
the bar. On removing from the acid, there was a strong
odour of H»S, and lead paper was at once blackened if held
close to this patch, the rest of bar being only slightly
dulled and perhaps a little reddened in colour, and activet
corrosion seemed to be confined to this one spot. The
exceedingly minute quantity of iron and silicon that had
set up this reaction (probably galvanic) was indicated by
the analysis and tha fact that the result of the mechanical
test of the bar was normal. The action of even strongest
acetic acid on aluminium is slight, a plate of cast metal
(99 per cent.) surface, as in my former experiments, was
suspended in concentrated pure acid at ordinary tempera-
ture during 131 days, the loss was 0-24 per cent, only, and
with a plate of (9*7 — 98 per cent.) metal during the same
period was only 0013 per cent. Possibly in this case the
presence of silicon hindered corrosion.
An experiment with saturated solution of citric acid
during 19 hours at 50°— 60° 0. showed a loss of 0-095 per
cent, with (99 per cent metal). The experiments tend to
show the very slight action dilute organic acids would have
upon aluminium, and are confirmed by some results
obtained in the Neuhausen laboratory, in which the metal
was exposed to cold solutions of ordinary vinegar 4 per
cent, (acetic acid), and citric acid (1 percent, solution)
containing salt for two days without evidence of loss, anil
a sheet of 1 dm", surface (weighing 24 72 grms.), after
boiling for 14 hours in a solution of common salt with 4 per
cent, acetic acid, lost only 47 mgrms., or about 0-29 per cent.
Under the same conditions a piece of iron lost 900 mgrms.
Alkalis and alkaline carbonates act readily on the metal ; it
dissolves easily in solution of caustic potash and soda with
evolution of hydrogen forming aluminates ; ammonia
solution acts more slowly, but corrosion takes place after
t Tin- actual corrosion loss was 0-1,375 per cent, in 94 hours at
ordinary temperature.
a little time, a floccuient growth of alumina forming on the
surface of the metal. Pure dry ammonia gas seems to have
no action on it,
In solutions of the alkaline carbonates the metal becomes
coated with a compact skin of alumina, but in this case the
presence of impurities modifies this action to a considerable
extent. A test plate of cast metal (99 per cent.) was sus-
pended in a solution of 10 per cent, carbonate of sodium for
24 hours at 4.">3— 50° C. On examining it I found it
covered with a fine strongly adherent skin of alumina,
which dried to a smooth enamel like surface. On (97 — 98
per cent, metal) this deposit was thicker, coarser in texture,
and corrosion of the metal was more clearly marked. On
suspending similar plates in saturated solutions of Nir.8
at same temperature the influence of even a small percent-
age of impurity in modifying corrosive action was still
more strikingly shown. The (aluminium 99 per cent.)
metal was much corroded (loss about 3 ■ 0 per cent.) and had
black stains of FeS. The (97 — 98 per cent.) metal was
corroded, deeply honeycombed, aud covered with a thick
black crust containing FeS.SiO., and alumina. The action
of metallic solutions on the metal is, of course, correspondent
to that of the combining acids. All chlorides, including
aluminium chloride (which dissolves the metal liberating
hydrogen), act readily on aluminium, the more negative
metals being liberated ; the presence of sodium chloride is
said to facilitate the reaction. The chlorides of the alkalis
and alkaline earths are, however, an exception, their action
on aluminium being only slow unless in concentrated solu-
tion and at higher temperatures. Bromides and iodides
have effects in proportion to their chemical activity.
Nitrates and sulphates act only very slowly on aluminium.
Organic salts have only very slight or no action on this
metal, and in case of acid solutions may be disregarded
unless in presence of common salt, which would increase
the corroding power. The action of fused caustic soda or
potash at a low red heat is exceedingly slight, care being
taken that the aluminium is free from silicon. It is not
affected by molten nitrate of potassium until redness is
reached, when energetic oxidation ensues, forming aluminate.
With the alkaline carbonates and sulphates the metal is
oxidised, forming aluminates with evolution of CO and
some separation of carbon. With silicates and borates the
metalloid is liberated on aluminate being formed with the
base. Molten fluorides dissolve the metal forming in case
of cryolite a sub-fluoride. No flux is needed in melting
aluminium, and this must be done in black crucibles or
crucibles lined with alumina. Many failures to obtain good
work with this metal has doubtless arisen from not bearing
in mind the importance of this point, that to the founder
and metal worker aluminium is a new metal and requires
new methods adapted to the physical and chemical pro-
perties will differentiate it widely from the old metals. It
is a metal which must be handled by skilled and intelligent
workers, aud will give to them the results of which we have
the first promises in the specimen before you. I have gone
into this question of corrosion at length because it, more
than any other, will determine the limits of the use of
aluminium, and the results given to you will have already-
suggested to your minds my possible uses for this metal.
For instance, it will replace copper and brass for kitchen
utensils, not only because it resists corrosion, but that in the
event of any taking place the salts formed are non-poisonous.
An aluminium saucepan would, while possessing the same
strength, be three and a half times lighter. Vessels of
aluminium would retain their heat for a ioDger time, an
advantage in case of workmen's dinner cans for example.
The slow- cooling of aluminium is very marked in the case of
metal in the crucible, 40 — 60 lb. heated to dark redness,
may be left half to three-quarters of an hour without fear of
its settling. Aluminium offers many advantages, and has a
nicer look than tin ware, whilst stiffer, lighter, and harder.
Dishes, plates, covers, and all articles now made of tinned
iron might be replaced by this metal. It would also
replace many vessels used in the laboratory at present
made of copper or galvanised iron. Flasks and water
bottles of all kinds, more especially for military service,
would be advantageously made of aluminium, as they would
not only be unbreakable but be lighter than the glass and
Fob. 29,1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
127
enamelled iron at present in use. Its indifference to
organic acids would suggest its use for brewers and vintners.
Von will notice among the specimens a east beer tap lent
by the Cowles Company.
Again, cups and tlasks could, if preferred, be made of
aluminium and silvered, though the metal itself has a good
appearance and will not tarnish as silver does. For scientific
instruments of all kinds, especially frames and tubes of
surveying and astronomical apparatus, for chemical balances,
and all metal work exposed to no strain above the limits of
its tensile strength, aluminium, by virtue of its lightness,
would be invaluable. Scales for measuring, and indicator
scales of this metal would not warp or crack as do those of
ivory or wood if exposed to a damp atmosphere. That
aluminium can be worked with the same facility as any
other metal will be evident to those who inspect the set of
tubes lent by the Mannesman Tube Company. For gas
and light fittings aluminium would be valuable, enabling
the weight of chandeliers, candelabra, and lamps to be
reduced one-third, whilst having the appearance of silver.
I have not gone into the mechanical value of this metal at
length, because my duty as a metallurgist is to place the
metal before you with all its physical and chemical pro-
perties, and leave the application of it to the engineer and
craftsman. I have not touched upon the value of this metal
in alloys, because to do so would involve not one, but two
or three papers ; and further I have already dealt with their
production and properties in my British Association paper
of 1889, reprinted in your Journal, No. 9, Vol. VIII. 1889,
and in a paper dealing with their mechanical properties as a
material for artillery, read before the Mechanical Section of
the British Association, 1890. At some future time of
greater freedom and lesser responsibility I hope to bring
before your notice some additional notes on the chemistry
and metallurgy of this most valuable metal. In conclusion
I would express my thanks to the directors of the Cowles
Company, to the Aluminium Industry Company, the Metal
Reduction Company, and to the Mannesmaun Tube Com-
pany, for their valuable and beautiful specimens, and also
for much valuable information as to the working and
properties of the metal.
The production of aluminium is given in the Chemical
Trades Journal for January 23rd, quoted from the Bulletin
de Musee Commercial.
Lb. per day.
The Neubauscn Workr 1,000
(The Pittsburg Reduction Co 600
l The Metal Reduction Syndicate, Lim. . 300
The Cowles Co 600—700 in alloys
and the present production of the world 2,000 lb. per day.
However, I know the figures for the Cowles Co. are
altogether too low, unless they refer, as they do truly, to
the English works alone, for that company's Lockport works
have a constant output of 1 ton per day ; this latter figure,
too, would doubtless be much nearer for the Neubausen Co.
The following figures as to the effect of temperature on
the tensile strength of aluminium are given by Andre le
Chatelier : —
Temperature.
15°
100°
ISO"
200°
250°
300"
350°
400°
460"
11-68
O'.i
s-i
6-3
4-8
3-6
2-4
1'5 .
1-0
Neuhausen Experiments. — Corrosion Resistance op Aluminium Cast and Rolled Plates.
Weight of
Metal.
Purity.
Surface
exposed.
Solution.
Temperature.
Time.
Loss.
Notes.
O rms.
21-57S
Per Cent.
99
ld/m'
Sea water
°C
200 hours
Per Cent.
o-oio.
24-82
99
,.
.,
80-90
IS hours
o-oii
..
..
99
99
1,
Nitric acid of 30° B.
cold concentrated.
••
7 days
14 days
•6628 grms.
1-0195 grms.
Weight of metal not given
2:. terms. > )
21-
ir 720
99
99
99
»
Common salt with 4 per
cent, acetic acid.
4 per cent, acetic acid
1 per cent, citric acid
Boiling
Cold
14 hours
2 days
0-29
No action.
No action.
Milton Experiments. — Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium Cast Plates.
■•
99
59-3 c/m»
Saturated NaCl
solution.
60
4S hours
0'052
Small pin-head patches of
alumina in places.
97-5
it
" "
60
"
0-U07S
Large patches of alumina with
llocculent hydrate covering tiny
pits in metal.
••
99
"
Ccld concentrated
pureH..S<>4
Ordinary
temperature
131 days
4-1 "70
Fine crystalline matted surface.
••
97-5
>,
« „
"
"
4*49
Much pitted and crystalline with
matt coarse and dark coloured.
H2S evolved by corrosion pits.
99
•>
Pure acetic acid
»
..
0*24
..
97-5
„
H
„
„
0'013
..
..
99
,,
Saturated citric acid
50—60
19 hours
0-095
..
•■
99
»
10 per cent. NajC03
45—50
24 hours
•■
Smooth adherent coating of
alumina, slight corrosion.
97-5
it
»i »
45—50
>,
•■
Thick coarse deposit flocks of
alumina suspended in solution
and marked corrosion.
99
-
Saturated Xa.s
solution.
45—50
.3*0
appro*.
Deep corrosion and black stains,
but no deposit on plate.
97-5
45—50
Deeply honeycombed and thick
Muck crust of FeS.Si02 and
alumina.
128
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29,1892.
Specimens. to ecjcustbate Paper on Alt-minium, its
Maniiai iriii: isii l.MPi ~ii:iai. Vai.ie.
Lent by the Aluminium Industry Cn., Lint., Neukausen,
Switzerland (Leisler llork and Co., Glasgow).
2 ingot* pure aluminium (99 per cent.).
.*) ,, aluminium bronze.
1 „ ferro-aluminium (10 per cent. AD.
1 piece aluminium tube.
1 „ „ sheet.
1 fireman's helmet.
1 water bottle.
1 folding drinking cup.
1 fan.
1 photograph frame.
1 ash tray.
2 stamped plates.
I -pools aluminium wire.
3 medals of the Queen, the Prince of Wales, and the
German Emperor.
Lent by the Mannesmann Tube Co., Lim., Lundore, South
1 1 tiles.
25 double pencil cases.
25 single „
6 Couplings ,.
1 tube 4 mm. ex diameter.
5 mm. „
26 mm. x 24 mm. x 3080 mm.
„ „ 1675 mm.
15 mm. x 12 mm. x 255 mm.
16 mm. x 12 mm. x 255 mm.
14 mm. x 10 mm. x 2i.j mm.
13 mm. x 10 mm. x 255 mm.
Lent by The Metal Reduction Syndicate, Lim., Patricroft.
2 painted plaques.
2 „ panels.
1 plain panel.
1 ., plaque.
3 sand eastings.
4 tubes.
Pieces of aluminium wire.
„ „ bronze wire.
Lent by The Coirles Syndicate Co., Lim., Milton,
Stoke-on-Trent.
Beer tap of aluminium (cast in sand and finished).
Two forged bolts and nuts of aluminium bronze.
Teaspoons of pure aluminium.
„ „ „ after 9 months use.
2 books lettered with aluminium leaf.
Small cross cast in open sand showing sharp clear casting.
Discission,
Mr. Tate, in opening the discussion, asked what was the
cost of aluminium.
Mr. Thompson wished to know whether Mr. Dagger
knew anything of the statement circulated in the electrical
papers that works had been started in New Jersey for
making aluminium on the sodium process, with cryolite-
producing sodium at 7 cents per lb. Regarding the electri-
cal conductivity of aluminium, he had always understood
that it was almost equal to that of copper. He was anxious
to learn whether the tubes exhibited were pressed out or
drawn from the solid. Concerning cost, he had received
a quotation from a firm who asked 4s. a lb. for large
quantities.
Mr. Carey was glad that the Chairman and others had
drawn attention to the subject of cost ; he hoped to hear
something on this head. One question he wished to ask,
that was, it, as Mr. Dagger had stated, saline and alkaline
solutions acted upon aluminium, how far would the slightly
alkaline and saline liquids met with in ordinary cooking
operations injure utensils made of aluminium.
Dr. Khun asked whether the oxyfluoride of aluminium
employed in the Minet process, as described by Mr. Dagger,
was a natural product or only a mixture of aluminium
fluoride and alumina.
Mr. Dagger, replying to the question as to the chemical
method of the production of aluminium, said probably the
works in Xew Jersey were using the double fluoride, but he
had no knowledge of such a company. In his last paper,
however, he described the last and most approved chemical
methods of production. The Cowles Syndicate Company-
produced one ton per day of aluminium, ranging from 97 —
99 per cent, purity. The tubes, he understood, were run
out from the cold metal. Touching Dr. Kohn's question
concerning the use of oxyfluoride in the Minet process, he
remarked that the oxyfluoride was really an artificial product,
not a definite compound, but simply alumina dissolved in
cryolite. The price of the metal varied, ranging from 4s.
to 3s. id. or 3s. 2d. per lb., depending upon the purity of
the metal. There had been a reduction of Is. per lb. since
he read his last paper, when he quoted 5s. The figures,
32 grms. aluminium per 1 horse-power hour, with E.M.F.
of 4 volts, which he gave, were taken from Mr. Minet's
paper, which he had read over carefully. Mr. Minet wrote
a great deal on the results not put iuto operation other than
on an experimental scale. The other figures, 22 E.H.P.
per lb. aluminium, were the amount common to the electrical
methods now in operation.
The practical difficulties arising from chloride of calcium
meant in using chloride there was a greater tendency for
decomposition to take place, and chloride to give off chlorine,
a great nuisance in the furnace room, whereas in cases of
the fluorides which had a higher fusion point, no decompo-
sition of the bath took place so long as ordinary care was
taken, but if salt be added, then decomposition of the
electrolyte was more likely to take place, and very much
more careful management was required. The product given
off in the ordinary process was CO, not C02. The loss of
carbon was practically 1 lb. of carbon for every pound of
aluminium. The cost of current amounted to something
like 75 per cent, of the cost of production. Hall gives the
following theoretical cost per pound : — Alumina, 3d. ;
carbon electrodes, Id. ; chemicals and pots, \d. ; 22 E.H.P.
water power used, 2J</. ; labour and superintendence,
\\d. ; general expenses and repairs, \\d. The difficulty
of soldering aluminium still remained with them, and he
had heard nothing since he gave the mixtures used for
soldering purposes in his last paper, though he believed
that results which were said to be successful had been
obtained by using fused potash as a flux. As to the sources
of aluminium, for the present, production was steady and
there was more than sufficient, but should there be a large
demand for the metal in the future, it would tend to
stimulate chemists to produce aluminium by taking rich
clays, treating them with acids, and getting out alumina
that way.
Mr. Carey had spoken about its use for cooking vessels ;
he had given him figures as to the corrosion by salt. In
his experiment he had used concentrated solutions, and
they would see that the loss at 60° C. during 48 hours
in 98 per cent, metal was found to be 0- 0078 per cent.,
while in the case of a pure metal it was 0'052 per cent.,
while the experiments of the Xeuhausen Company showed
only 0-29 per cent after boiling for 14 hours, and those
conditions would not be reached in ordinary cooking.
Feb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
129
i¥lanrl)f5tn- &Htioiu
Chairman : Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman .- Edw. Schunck.
Committee :
J. Angell.
G. H. Bailey.
R. F. Carpenter.
(5. E. Davis.
H. Grimshaw.
Harold B. Diion.
J. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
A. Liebmann.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P.
C. Truby.
D. Watson.
lion. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary,
Meeting held Friday, February 5th, 1892.
MR. IVAN LEVINSTEIN IN THE CHAIR.
NOTE ON THE AMOUNTS OF TANNIC ACID
ABSORBED BY COTTON UNDER VARYING
CONDITIONS.
BY EDMUND KNECHT PH.D., F.I.C., AND JAMES KERSHAW,
MANCHESTER TECHNICAL SCHOOL.
The natural affinity which gallotannic acid and the other
tannins possess for the cotton fibre, coupled with their
property of forming insoluble compounds with metallic
oxides and the basic coal-tar colours, renders these materials
of great importance in the dyeing and printing of cotton.
For the application of the tannins in cotton-dyeing, two
methods are principally employed, viz., by steeping (chiefly
used for loose cotton and yarn) and by padding (chiefly
used for piece-goods). It was namely for the elucidation of
certain points in connexion with the first of these methods
that we undertook the present work.
It is well known that cotton steeped in a tannin solution
absorbs some of the tannin, and practical experience has
shown that the amount absorbed depends upon the tempe-
rature and degree of concentration of the bath and upon
other conditions of working. It is also known that the
tannic acid absomed can be completely removed by long-
continued washing with cold water, more rapidly by boiling
water. The only exact work which has, to our knowledge,
been published on this subject is that of Juste Koechlin.*
This authority finds that cotton mordanted in a solution
containing 50 grms. per litre loses all its tannin in pure
water, but loses nothing in a solution containing 5 grms. per
litre. It only begins to lose tannin in a solution containing
2 grms. per litre. From acetic acid and alcoholic solutions
the tannin is not taken up as well as from aqueous solution.
All Koechlin's estimations appear to have been done
colorimetrically, viz., by the depth of shade produced by
developing the tanned cotton in a solution of acetate of
iron.
That it is impossible to completely exhaust a tannin bath,
is well known, but hitherto it does not appear to have
sufficiently interested anyone to know how much tannin is
actually absorbed by the fibre under given conditions, to
make it worth while carrying out exact quantitative deter-
minations. Since the introduction of the Lowenthal
process of estimating tannin, this is rendered possible and it
has been our principal aim to determine by exact methods
Bull. Soe ind. de Mulhouse T. LI. p. 13S.
the actual amount of gallotannic acid absorbed by cotton
under varying conditions of temperature, time, concentration
of water bath, &c.
The cotton used for the experiments was a bleached two-
fold 20-s. yarn. Boiled in distilled water it gave up
nothing that would decolourise permanganate.
The tannin employed was a pure pharmaceutical tannic
acid containing, in terms of oxalic acid —
Per Cent.
Tannic acid 128 "28
Gallic acid 3 " 72
The strength of the permanganate solution was 1 grm.
per litre, and this was standardised with ferrous ammonium
sulphate.
In each case, the tannin absorbed has been estimated
not directly, but by difference, an aliquot portion of the
solution being withdrawn from the bath and titrated with
permanganate. By thus ascertaining the total amount left
in solution, we were able to determine by difference what
had been withdrawn b}' the fibre. The results are expressed
in terms of the tannic acid used. A quantitative deter-
mination showed that gallic acid has absolutely no affinity
for cotton, so that under the heading, '• Left in solution,"
the amounts stated express the tannic acid plus the whole
of the gallic acid left from the 0-25 grm. tannin employed.
In the experiments, except where otherwise stated, we
used 5 grms. of cotton, 5 per cent, of tannic acid, and 30
times the weight of water (of the weight of the cotton).
The cotton was entered at 100° and was allowed to cool with
occasional stirring during three hours.
I. Effect of Temperature.
1 . The cotton was steeped cold for three hours.
2. The cotton was entered boiling and allowed to cool
during three hours.
3. The cotton was steeped at 50° for three hours.
4. The cotton was steeped boiling for one hour.
Results.
—
Tannic Acid
Taken.
Absorbed by
Cotton.
Left in
Solution.
1
Grm.
0-25
0-25
0-23
11-23
Grm.
0' 1)363
0-0513
0-0032
0.0023
Grm.
0-2137
0-1987
0'2«8
0-2175
4
From this it would appear that the method adopted in
practice, viz., entering hot or boiling is the best condition
of temperature.
II. Concentration.
Same conditions as above, but with varying amounts of
water, viz. : —
1 75 cc. water.
2 150 cc. „
3 300 cc. „
■1 450 CC. „
Results.
Tannic Acid
Taken.
Absorbed by
Cotton.
Left in
Solution.
1
Grm.
0-25
0-25
0-2
0-25
Grm.
0-0668
0-0513
IVlliNS
0*0238
Grm.
0-1837
0-1987
a
3
130
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
III. Additions to Bath.
Same conditions as stated at first.
Results.
Tannic Acid
Taken.
Absorbed by
Cotton.
Left in
Solution.
Addition.
1
Grm.
0-25
Grm.
0-9498
Grm.
0-2002
Per Cent.
in NajSI >«
0
0-25
0-0363
0-2137
50
S
0-25
0-0250
0-2250
100
0-25
0*0363
0-2137
5 H2SO,
0-25
0 -028.3
0-2212
10
6
0-25
0-0213
0-2287
20
The effect of sodium carbonate was also tried, but it was
found that on adding 5 per cent. Na.,COs to the tannin
solution, boiling and allowing to cool during three hours
(without auj- cotton), the amount of permanganate required
increased 17 per cent, on the original amount required for
the pure tannic acid. An estimation by difference was
therefore impossible.
IV. Time.
The original conditions were again adhered to, but the
time was altered.
Results.
Tannic Acid
Taken.
Absorbed by
Cotton.
Left in
Solution.
Time.
Grm.
IT 25
Grm.
0-0128
Grm.
0-2372
30 min.
0-25
0-0168
0-2332
lhr.
0-25
0-0490
0-2010
2 hrs.
0-25
0-0572
0-1928
4 hrs.
0-25
0-0609
0-1^91
6 lire.
i
The tannin is still being absorbed after six hours' immer-
sion, and although the absorption is not in a direct ratio to
the time of immersion, it is probable that the limit has not
been reached in six hours.
V. Consecutive Baths.
1. 5 grms. cotton were entered boiling and allowed to cool
during lj hours.
2. Same as No. 1. Wring out well, then enter a second
5 grms. at 100° and allow to cool again during li hours.
3. Same as Xo. 2, with a third lot of cotton.
Results.
Tannin
used.
Absorbed by Absorbed by Absorbed by Left in
1st 5 Grms. 2nd 5 Grms. ' 3rd 5 Grms. Solution.
Grm.
• •■■::,
Grm.
0'0S5S
Grm.
Grin.
Grm.
0-2145
0-25
0-0355
0-0195
..
0-1950
0-25
0-0355
0-019)
0-0103
0-1V17
VI. Washing Out.
Enter boiling and allow to cool over night.
Absorbed bv Cotton.
Left in Solution.
Grm.
0*0612
Grm.
0-1888
1. Steep in cold water (150 cc.) for one hour.
:!. Steep in cold water (150 ce.) for three hours.
3. Steep in boiling water for one hour.
4. Enter into a solution of 10 per cent, tannic acid at
boil and allow to cool during three hours.
5. As Xo. 4, using 2j per cent, tannic acid,
Results.
Left in Fibre.
Tannin extracted.
Grm.
. 0-0467"!
. 0-0398 'Out of 0-0612
. | NoneJ
.... I 0-019S + the 0-0613 absorbed
5 0-0007 lost.
Grm.
0-0147
0-0221
0-0612
n-4802
o-l2«
VII. Bleached, Unbleached, and Mercerised Cotton.
Same conditions as above.
Tannic Acid
taken.
Absorbed.
Left in Solution.
Grm.
0-25
Grm.
0-0513
Grm.
0-19S7 bleached.
0-25
m II.-,.;--
0-1932 unbleached.
0-25
0-1033
0'1467 mercerised.
The unbleached cotton was boiled previously for a short
time with soap, to remove waxy and other impurities.
Precipitated Cellulose, obtained by dissolving filter-paper
in Schweitzer's reagent, precipitating with hydrochloric acid,
and washing thoroughly with water, is capable of absorbing
under similar conditions a much larger proportion of tannin
than cotton yarn. Using 5 grms. of such cellulose, 150 cc.
water, entering at 100" C, and allowing to cool during three
hours, we obtained the following results ; —
Tannic Acid taken.
Absorbed.
Left in Solution.
Grm.
025
Grm.
0-1525
Grm.
0-0975
This is no doubt partly due to the fine state of division
of the cellulose.
Generally speaking, our results confirm quantitatively
what has been known for a long time qualitatively. It is
interesting to note what a small proportion of the tannic
acid employed is taken up by the cotton under the most
favourable conditions. If this circumstance is taken into
account, a great saviDg might frequently be effected, in our
opinion, in the application of tannin in cotton dyeing.
Feb.89.l8M.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
131
NOTE ON THE ACTION OF CHLORINE ON WOOL.
EDMUND KNECHT, l'H.1)., F.I.C, AND E. E. MILNES,
MAN l 'IIESTEK TECHNICAL SCHOOL.
The chlorinating of wool with the object of rendering it
better able to take up certain colouring matters in printing,
appears to have been first suggested and carried out by
Mercer. Since that time the chlorinating of all-wool aud
cotton warp delaines for printing has become a general
practice amoug printers.
During the latter part of last session we had begun an
investigation regarding the chemical changes which take
place in this interesting operation, but owing to Mr. Milnes
having accepted another appointment our work has been
interrupted, and as, we shall probabry not be able to take
it up again conjointly we wish to give in the following a
short resume of the results obtained.
Our original object was to determine whether the
chlorine acted by substitution, addition, or oxidation, but
unfortunately the work was prematurely interrupted.
Nevertheless some points were brought to light which may
be of some interest.
Action of Dry Chlorine. — Wool dried at 100° was treated
for several hours in a current of dry chlorine gas. Very
little change appeared to take place ; a little hydrochloric
acid gas was given off and the material (flannel) was not
perceptibly injured. Its affinity for colouring matters is
not increased.
Action of 3Ioist Chlorine. — Uool in its natural state
was treated for several hours in a current of moist chlorine.
Large quantities of hydrochloric acid gas were evolved from
the beginning aud the edges of the flannel began to assume
a gum-like, translucent appearance. Boiled afterwards in
water the material lost over 60 per cent, in weight, a thread-
bare and tendered fabric being left behind. The aqueous
solution evaporated to dryness left a brownish coloured
deliquescent residue, which retains a large amount of
(free ?) hydrochloric acid. When heated this residue
swells up and decomposes, evolving a smell of burning
horn. It does not blacken alkaline lead solution, but is
found to contain sulphur by the nitroprusside reaction. Its
most characteristic property is that which it possesses
of precipitating in aqueous solution the substantive colouring
matters, as one of us found to be the case with lanuginic
acid. It may be that this fact may account in some way
for the increased affinity which chlorinated wool possesses
for such colouring matters.
Flannel (11*18 grm.) treated for one hour with 5 per
cent, bleaching powder and excess of hydrochloric acid was
washed first in distilled water, then warmed for a short time
with very dilute ammonia (to neutralise free acid), and then
extracted repeatedly with boiling distilled water until the
water showed no opalescence with silver nitrate. The wool
was then dissolved in caustic soda, the solution acidulated
with nitric acid, excess of sodium carbonate added, evapo-
rated to dryness, calcined in a platinum dish, and the residue
tested for chlorine. It was found to be entirely free from
chlorine. This fact, coupled with the copious evolution of
hydrochloric acid in presence of moisture that modification
of sulphur which blackens with alkaline lead solution is not
destroyed by the ordinary chlorination, and only disappears
when the fibre is deeply attacked.
Another noteworthy fact is that the chlorinated wool,
even after drying and exposing to the air for several hours
or over night, is coloured brown when moistened with
potassium iodide solution. Whether this property is due
to the presence of free chlorine in the fibre or to the
formation of qninone-like substances, we have not yet been
able to determine. It is removed by prolonged treatment
with sulphurous acid or bisulphite of soda.
In most textbooks and manuals on dyeing we find the
statement that wool is deeply attacked and turned yellow
by chlorine or hypochlorites. We find that dry chlorine
has very little effect in discolouring wool. Neither has
it this property in solution if a large excess of free hydro-
chloric acid be present. F'ree hypochlorous acid, however,
rapidly turns the wool brownish-yellow. Possibly this
may account for the yellowing of pieces which sometimes
takes place in working on the large scale.
Bromine acts on wool in a similar way to chlorine.
The soluble product above referred to does not appear
to be formed by the action of permanganate on wool.
Discussion.
The Chairman : The results of Dr. Kneeht's experiments
were of the greatest importance, inasmuch as dyers have
not time to make the necessary examinations, and the
practical results were principally these : — They knew that
immense quantities of tannic acid were used in dyeing,
partly for the fixation of metallic mordant and partly for
the fixation of the basic coal-tar colours, and it was evident
that in this process there must be an immense waste. If
dyers and printers really studied these results it would lead
to considerable saving.
Mr. Grimshaw said, speaking generally, he thought the
papers were bound to be of great assistance to manu-
facturers in helping them to reduce what he might call
the qualitative to the quantitative action, and he believed
that these were the lines on which economy would be
promoted in all chemical industries Dr. Knecht had men-
tioned. Mercier, who was a striking example of one who
without adopting scientific knowledge arrived at a wonderful
amount of practical results, and it was indeed strange that
bis name was so little known.
Dr. Weber : Dr. Knecht had told them that wool, under
certain circumstances, produced lanuginic acid, which was
one of the amido-acids. Would it not be probable that so
strong an oxidising agent would attack this amido-acid,
and thereby cause them to farm a sort of condensation
product of the oxidation product of lanuginic acid and the
rest of the chloranil.
Mr. J. Carter Dell wished to know if Dr. Knecht had
tried chlorination of the wool after it had been bleached,
because it always contains a percentage of fatty matter ?
Dr. Knecht replied that he had experimented with
bleached flannel.
Dr. Kno wles, F.C.S., would like to suggest that Dr. Knecht
should continue his researches. Delaine printing was an
industry little known in this country as yet, and there was
a great amount of difficulty in the proper application of
colouring-matters. His mention of the application of
induline to wool which was not chlorinated has a parallel
in the application of naphthol black to woollen fibre. They
would find that wool which is merely scoured and bleached
is not capable of being printed on, whereas if chlorinated it
is capable of being printed on by naphthol black, which
black when properly applied is extremely fast.
umMN^
LABORATORY NOTES.
BT W. F. LOWE, P.I.C., F.C.S., ASSOC. R.S.M.
(a) The Gravimetric Estimation of Zinc as Sulphide.
The usual method of estimating zinc in blende and other
ores of zinc is by a standard solution of sodic sulphide
with a small quantity of ferric hydrate added to the solution
as indicator, or better, with nickel chloride solution
employed outside the solution as indicator ; but as this
method, even when most carefully carried out, does not
yield results nearer than 0-5 per cent, (see Fresenius' Quan-
titative, vol. II., p. 281, and Mitchell's Manual of Assaying,
p. 580) it cannot be considered a very satisfactory one, its
only recommendation being that it is a fairly quick and
sufficiently accurate for many purposes.
132
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
[Pell. 29,1892.
The great objection to it is that none of the indicators are
sufficiently sharp ; with ferric hydrate, for instance, the
solution requires to be violently agitated during the whole
of the titration and the white zinc sulphide merely tuins to a
dirty grey. Nickel chloride used on a white plate is some-
what sharper, but is by no means a really satisfactory
indicator. The standard solution used is generally made of
such a strength that 1 ce.=> 0-01 grm., and for rich ore
0-5 grm. of ore is taken, a difference of 0' 1 ce. is equal to
0-2 per cent, of zinc, so that a greater error than 0-5 per
cent, can very easily be made.
There are also the volumetric methods of estimating zinc
by means of a standard solution of potassic ferrocyanide,
but these also are stated by Fresenius not to yield results
nearer than 0 ■ 5 per cent.
There is also Mann's silver method, but in this the zinc is
first precipitated and filtered as zinc sulphide j there is not
much gained by it.
There is nothing specially novel in the method described,
but it is one, I believe, that is very little used owing to the
supposed difficulty of filtering zinc sulphide ; hut if the
necessary precautions are taken very little difficulty will be
found and exceedingly accurate results will be obtained. It
certainly occupies more time, requiring two days, but
when much greater accuracy can be obtained I do not think
that a little more time and trouble should have much weight
as an objection.
The sample having been first dried (samples from the
mines being usually wet) is ground and the whole passed
through a 60-mesh sieve, a small sample is then taken and
finely ground in an agate mortar, and it is of great impor-
tance that it should be finely ground, for otherwise it will
not readily dissolve in hydrochloric acid.
One grm. is taken, placed in a conical flask of about
300 cc. cap. 10 to 15 cc. of strong HC1 added, the flask
covered with a small fuunel and boiled on an iron plate
until dissolved. If the ore 'has been finely ground this will
take place readily. Two or three drops of strong HXO,f are
then added to ensure the complete solution of the ore. This
should not be added until the solution of the ore in the HCI
is complete as otherwise a separation of sulphur will take
place, and in such a case it is necessary to remove the sulphur,
burn it and add any residue to the solution in the flask. For
this reason it is not well to dissolve in a mixture of HN03 and
HCI, as sulphur always seems to separate. In fact Fresenius
recommends that the sulphur in blende should be estimated
by deflagration with nitre and carbonate of soda instead of
in the vat way.
As soon as all the nitrous fumes have passed off
the solution is diluted to about 100 cc. with cold water, and
a good stream of H.,S passed through until the precipitate
turns black and settles readily. It is then filtered through
a covered filter, and washed with water containing a little
H.2S.
The solution is then heated in an uncovered beaker on the
iron plate to a temperature just below boiling. As soon as
the HoS has passed off, some bromine water is added to
peroxidise the iron, the solution cooled, and an excess of
ammonia is added. It is allowed to stand for a few minutes
on the iron plate for the precipitate to settle, and is filtered
through a large filter-paper. The precipitate is washed
slightly, and is then redissolved in warm hydrochloric acid ;
it is reprecipitated with ammonia and filtered through the
same paper, and is washed with hot water containing a little
ammonia. It is very necessary to redissolve the precipitate
(chiefly ferric hydrate) even though usually it is very small
as it always carries down some zinc with it. The solution
is made up with hot water to about 750 cc, and is heated in
a conical flask nearly to boiling. Half a test-tube full
(about 10 cc.) of freshly made colourless amnionic sulphide
(NH.HS*) is added, and the solution boiled for two or three
minutes and allowed to settle. The boiling converts the
slimy precipitate into a granular one. The flask is then
covered and left to stand all night, the clear portion is
syohoned off to just above the precipitate, and this portion,
although having only a slight opalescence, is filtered through
a double filter of good Swedish filter-paper, and it is
important that the filter exactly fits the funnel, and is held
down in its place whilst it is moistened before use. The
filter-paper used has a diameter of 5^ in., and the ash of one
of these weighs 0*0015 grm., so that the tare for the two is
0'003 grm. After the decanted portion has been filtered,
the precipitate is washed once by decantation with hot water
containing a little ammonia chloride and a few drops of
amnionic sulphide. It is then transferred with hot water
containing a few drops of (NH4HS) to the filter, the filter
being kept covered with a ground glass plate. The whole
of the precipitate is very readily removed from the
flask as it does not stick to the glass. The precipitate is
then dried and transferred to a Rose's crucible, the filter
being burnt in a separate crucible and the ash added to the
precipitate; a little pure sulphur is added, and it is then
ignited in a current of coal-gas, at first gently, and then for
about five minutes in a large Bunsen flame ; it is then
allowed to cool in the current of coal-gas, and weighed.
The following results are those obtained from ordinary
samples of blende (dressed ore from the mines) ; I. and II.
duplicates of the same sample :—
I.
II.
Difference.
I.
II.
Difference,
Zinc.
Zinc.
Zinc.
Zinc.
PerCent.
57-5S
PerCent.
57-68
Per Cent,
o-i
PerCent.
60-67
Per Cent.
60-59
Per Cent.
0-08
61-79
62-01
0'22
56-42
56-55
0-13
S7"28
57-40
0-12
58-39
5S-39
Nil
Gl'SS
61-32
0-56
59-17
59-43
0-26
56-62
56-65
0-03
59-48
59-7
0-22
57-19
57-53
0'$4
67-83
58-06
0 23
58' 73
58-57
0-16
60-4
60-06
0-31
60-31
CO'57
0-26
53-79
53-84
0-05
58-46
5S-55
0-09
61-38
61-53
0-15
54:94
51-88
0-08
60-67
60-77
o-i
5: nil)
59-01
0-01
52-5
52-47
0-03
57-8
57-63
o 17
5s-e)
58-63
0-i
39-76
59-64
0-12
44-09
41-26
0-17
57-74
57-71
i i ■ i i; ;
57-19
67-05
0-14
58-36
58-39
0-03
67-42
57-72
0-3
57-96
5S-13
0-17
54-71
51-68
0-03
60-41
60-21
0-2
60-14
60-14
Nil
53-94
51-17
0-23
59-27
59-28
o-oi
57-5
57-36
0-14
56-8
56-93
0-13
55-72
."",,", ' 52
0-2
58-43
58-7
0-27
65-84
65-84
Nil
58-7
58-73
0-03
59 -9«
60-16
0-2
.-,!.■:.!
59-91
0-03
60-77
60-91
0-14
59-4
59-6
0-2
57-93
58-03
o-l
57-58
57-68
o-i
53- SI
53-74
0-07
59-01
59-03
0-02
* This will keep for about a week in the dark, but soon turns
yellow in tho light, especially in direct sunlight.
The above table contains 100 ordinary results from 50
different samples of blende, of these results 2 differ by
0-56 per cent., 6 differ from 0-3 to 0-34 per cent, 24 differ
from 0-2 to 0 27 per cent., and the remaining 68 differ by
less than 0'2 per cent., and 36 out of these 68 differ by less
than 0- 1 per cent.
If the ores contain manganese the process requires to be
modified ; the zinc can be precipitated as sulphide in an
acetic acid solution, or the manganese can first be removed
by precipitation with bromine.
Feb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
133
Tliilt the precipitation of zinc as sulphide is more accurate
than the precipitation as carbonate is obvious by the fact
that if to the filtrate from the carbonate a few drops of
amnionic sulphide arc added, a few flakes of zinc sulphide
will separate on standing a few hours, and Freseuius states
that with proper precautious a solution containing only
siiimkiii °^ zmc ma}' oe precipitated by amnionic sulphide.
An important objection to the precipitation of the zinc as
carbonate is that these ores always contain lime, so that
the sulphide must be carefully washed before it can be
rcdissolved and precipitated as carbonate.
(6.) Presence of Lead in Ammonia Solution.
In preparing amnionic sulphide I have found that it is
not unusual for so-called pure ammonia to become brownish
or black in colour on passing ILS through it. This is due
to traces of lead, and it is advisable to examine every fresh
bottle before employing it. It is easy to obtain ammonia
that is pure, but there is certainly a good deal sold that
contains this impurity, and it is one that may very easily be
overlooked. I have been informed, that it is due to the
dilution of the solution in leaden vessels, when first prepared,
to the requisite specific gravity.
(c.) Assay of Galena in Iron Crucibi.es.
The most satisfactory method for the assay of galena is
undoubtedly that in which the assay is made in wrought-iron
crucibles. The usual method is to charge the assay from
a scoop into the red-hot crucible, removed from the furnace
for the purpose. It is then heated for about 15 minutes,
the sides of the crucible scraped down with an iron rod, and
the heat continued a little more strongly for five minutes.
This is the method recommended by Phillips, and is
identical with the one taught at the Royal School of
Mines.
Makin states that the assay should only he in the furnace
for about 1 0 minutes, but I find from a large number of
assays made in different ways that the best results are
obtained if the fusion is completed in about five minutes,
the furnace being kept a little hotter than is usual. The
assay should be watched, and as soon as it has run down
and is tranquil, it should be taken out and poured, and as
usual the pot tapped on the top of the furnace, and any
shots poured into another mould. In this way I have had
excellent results in as short a time as three minutes.
From well-dressed ores the material yields from 83 to
83 '7 per cent of lead; by the longer method, the same
samples will only yield about 82" 5 per cent. These assays
were from samples representing from 50 to 200 tons of ore,
and not from small samples of pure galena.
(rf.) Use of the Assay Ton.
Having had some time ago to make a large number of
assays of gold quartz, many which contained very small
quantities of gold, it occurred to me that it would be
simpler than taking percentage weights, and more reliable
than tables, to take a weight that would give the number of
grains of gold per ton direct.
Thus for poor ores, if 78 '4 grms. are taken, and two
assays are made, ^ mgrm. from the two assays will
represent 10 grains of gold per ton (1 ton contains
15,680,000 grains), and as a good bullion assay balance
will indicate distinctly -^ mgrm. if the above weight is
taken, one can obtain results down to 5 grains per ton.
For ores containing over 5 dwf. of gold per ton,
39' 2 grms. is a convenient weight, -^ mgrm. (from one
assay) being then equal to 40 grains per ton. For richer
ores, 31 '36 grms. can be taken, when -^ mgrm. is equal
to 50 grains per ton.
Somewhat similar weights are, I believe, used in America,
under the name of " assay tons," but at the time I first
used them I did not know this, and worked out the
quantities myself.
(e.) Estimation of Free and Albuminoid Ammonia in
W ITER.
A good method for checking these results I find to be as
follows : —
A larger retort than what is usually employed is taken,
and after both free and albuminoid ammonia have been
estimated, a duplicate portion of water is added to the
residue in the retort, which is now absolutely free from
ammonia, and the total ammonia is determined. This will
always be identical with the free plus the albuminoid
ammonia if the first results were correct.
(/".) Estimation of Small Quantities of Iron in
presence of Alumina by Standard Permanganate.
For quantities of iron from 0' 5 to 4 or 5 per cent.,
such as occur in clays, the preoipitate of A1203 and F,e„03,
can be weighed together, and the precipitate afterwards
dissolved in strong HC1 in a L flat-bottomed conical flask ;
moderately strong H2S04 is then added, and the flask
heated on an iron plate till all HO is driven off. The
residue is dissolved in water and reduced with a little zinc,
and the solution titrated with K2Mu2Os. Very good results
are obtained.
Discussion,
J. Carter Bell said he had had a good deal to do with
the estimation of zinc in various ways. Thirty years ago
he estimated zinc by means of sulphide of sodium, but
found it a most unsatisfactory process, as a great amount
of practice was necessary to obtain good results. He had
also tried the method suggested by Mr. Lowe, but he had
always found a difficulty in the zinc coming down in the
slimy state. He wished to know how long Mr. Lowe boiled
the sulphide to get it into a granular condition, because the
success of the methed depended upon the time it took to
filter. He found a day or a day and a half were required
to filter it. He washed it by decantation, and then dissolved
it in hydrochloric acid, and estimated it as carbonate of
zinc. This could be filtered and washed in less than an
hour.
Mr. Grimshaw wished to know what was the average
percentage of zinc in the list of 100 ores given in the
paper ?
Mr. Lowis replied from 56 to 60 per cent.
Mr. Grimshaw asked if Mr. Hell weighed the carbonate
of zinc or washed it through the filter and titrated it ?
Mr. Bell said that he always weighed.
Mr. Lowe, in reply to Mr. Carter Bell, said that five
minutes good boil was quite sufficient to convert the
sulphide of zinc from the slimy state to the granular.
134
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29,1892.
gorfesfoiw ^rrtioit.
Chairman : Sir James Kitson, Bart.
Vice-Chairman: Dr. F. H. Bowman.
Committee :
A. H. Allen. J. Lewkowitseh,
W. Brellitt. C. Rawsorj.
T. Faivley. Jas. Sharp.
A. Hess. A. Smitliells.
R. Holliday. I. Ward.
J. J. Hummel. T. Whitaker.
lion. Local Secretary :
H. R. Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Noticc3of Papers and Communications should be addressed
the Hon. Loral Secretary.
SESSION 1S91— 92.
1S!I2 :—
March 7tb.— Mr. Siilney Lupton. "Criticisms an,! Suggestions
towards the Improvement of British Measures."
April 4th.— Mr. Thomas Fairley.
Meeting held at the Philosophical Hall, Leeds, Monday,
February \st, 1892.
PR. A. HESS IN THE CHAIR.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANALYSIS OF FATS. II.
SPERM OIL.— WOOL-FAT.— CHOLESTEKIN.
BY DR. J. LEWKOWITSCH.
In the course of some research work I undertook in the
laboratory whilst working out a technical process which I
introduced into the works 1 am connected with, I had
occasion to make some observations which may, perhaps,
prove of some little use to chemists working in the same
direction. Circumstances permit me only to give here
incoherent notes and a few new observations which I had no
time to pursue any further and round off in a satisfactory
manner as I should have desired, for, unfortunately, a
technical chemist has to break off research work just at the
moment when it becomes highly interesting to the scientific
chemist for the melancholy reason that " it does not pay."
These prefatory remarks will have to excuse the scantiness
and incoherence of the following notes.
In the course of my work the necessity arose of
determining the nature and quantity of unsaponifiable matter
in fats. The literature on that subject being very scanty, 1
bad to look out for substances containing larger quantities
of such unsaponifiable bodies and examine them myself.
Suitable material for my purposes appeared to be sperm oil
and wool-fat ; the latter being difficult to obtain, I chose
instead of it " recovered grease," or so-called " Yorkshire
grease."
I. — Sperm Oil.
Sperm oil, the liquid part of the fatty substance found in
the cavities of some whales, is known to contain higher
alcohols of the aliphatic (aAenfms : fat) series. I prepared
these alcohols in the usual way from sperm oil by saponify-
ing a pure specimen of the latter by means of alcoholic
potash, and obtained 41 per cent, of unsaponifiable
substances. A preliminary experiment was made by
distilling 50 gr. of the product in a vacuum of 24 in. The
thermometer rose rapidly to 300° C, and the bulk distilled
over between 300°— 305J C, representing on cooling a
white crystalline mass melting between 22° — 30° C.
It is well known that the ethers of the alcohols and acids
of the aliphatic series are easier to distil than the original
nodies themselves, and that even the lower members can
only be effectively separated by fractional distillation after
they have been transformed into their ethers. It was
therefore thought that by converting the sperm oil alcohols
into their acetates and by subsequent fractional distillation
of these ethers, some separation might be effected. Of
course, I did not and could not expect to arrive by this
method at a complete or even approximate separation of
bodies boiling at such high temperatures and apparently
being so nearly related to each other. Anyone who is
practically acquainted with the distillation of such high
boiling substances as, e.g., mineral oils or tar oils, will
recognise at once the futility of such work, even if carried
out with large quantities. At the outset I had, therefore,
to give up every hope of obtaining substances the elementary
analysis whereof might be undertaken with some result, but
there appeared to be a chance of deriving more information
from applying the methods used in the technical analysis of
fats to the fractions (this Journal, 1890, p. 842).
I prepared the acetates by boiling 200 grms. of the
mixture of alcohols with 300 grms. acetic anhydride in a
flask connected with a reflux condenser for a couple of
hours. The resulting product was freed from acetic acid and
acetic anhydride by repeatedly heating it in vacuo up to a
temperature of about 200° C. The mixture of acetates did
not crystallise at the ordinary temperature, and therefore
fractional distillation in vacuo was resorted to.
The distilling flask and adapter used have been described
by me (Jour. Cheui. Soc. 1889, 359), and it only remains
to add that the flask was not heated over free fire, but
immersed into an air-bath consisting of an iron dish, while
a mantle of asbestos protected the flask against loss of heat.
The acetates distilled very well indeed iu a vacuum of 26 in.,
showing no signs of decomposition, which was proved by
the excellent yield of the distillates and by the nature of
the residue in the flask, for although dark in colour it gave,
on examination, figures which stood in welcome correspon-
dence to those of the distillates. The first fraction was put
aside as possibly containing some acetic acid or acetic
anhydride ; in fact, it must have contained some, as the
saponification value of it was very high, reaching as high a
figure as 415. The distillates were collected in four fractions,
the receivers being changed when the thermometer, which
had appeared to remain constant for some time, began to
rise, and when the distilled liquor seemed to possess another
specific gravity. Thus I obtained in a vacuum of 26 in,,
between the temperature of 295° C. and 315° C, four
fractions, which, on being saponified by means of
standardised alcoholic potash, gave the following saponifi-
cation values : —
Fraction.
Saponification Value.
1st
187-7
2nd
183-0
3rd
183-0
4th
168-0
Residue
159-5
The quantities of these four fractions did not differ
considerably.
For the sake of comparison I subjoin the saponification
values, which theory requires for the acetates of cetyl-
alcohol and octodeeylalcohol t —
Cetylacetate 197"5
Octodeoylacetate 180-0
A second fractionation of the four fractious gave the
following result (the first grm. or two were discarded as
" first runnings ") : —
Fraction.
Saponification Value.
1st
W9
2nd
181-1
3rd
175-3
4th
163-7
Peb. 29,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
135
The saponification value of the first fraction has not
undergone any change, and although no definite conclusion
can be derived from these figures, this much is clear, that
Allen's* assertion that sperm oil contains alcohols of the
composition indicated by the formula ClsH2cO and C,6H3.,0,
as he has found by elementary analysis, is not borne out by
my figures, for the acetates of dodecatyl and pentadectyl
alcohol have the saponification values 2-10 and 207 ■ 7
respectively. But to remove every doubt, a third fractiona-
tion was undertaken, although no further separation could
reasonably be expected. The values, as found, are given
here : —
Traction.
Saponification Value.
1st
190'2
2nd
183-8
3rd
180-7
4th
174-4
Residue
161"4
Contrary to my expectation, these acetates were able to
absorb iodine — a fact which Allen has already recorded for
one specimen of sperm oil — and therefore the supposition
that the alcohols consisted mainly of a mixture of cetyl-
alcohol and octodecylalcohol, and some higher homologues
thereof, had to be abandoned.
In order to prepare the alcohols themselves the acetates
were saponified by means of alcoholic potash, the separated
alcohols washed free from potash, and finally filtered in a
drying oven. All the alcohols solidified on cooling.
Their iodine absorption values were found as follows : —
Fraction.
Iodine Absorption.
1st
Per Cent.
46-48
2nd
63 '3
3rd
60 -8
4th
81'S
Residue
84-9
These figures clearly show that the alcohols, or, any
way, large percentages thereof, belong to alcohols of the
unsaturated series. For comparison's sake I add the
saponification and iodine values of the following unknown
alcohols of the ethvlene series ; —
Formula.
Saponific Value
of the Acetates.
Iodine Value.
The presence of an alcohol of the formula C16H-,0O
(see Allen. Comm. Org. Analys. II., 170), seems tube
excluded, but it remains open to doubt, whether alcohols of
the series C«H;„-oO, may not be present. The higher
alcohols of the ethylene and the acetylene series are hardlv
known. Sperm oil being a comparatively cheap raw
material and at the same time easy to obtain, this subject
seems only to be awaiting further research in order to fill
up some of the gaps in the series of alcohols belonging to
the aliphatic group. The occasion appeared, however, too
tempting to leave off here, although time forbade to enter
fully into the investigation, and therefore only three
* Commercial Organic Analysis, Vol. II., p. 169.
experiments were carried out with some of the alcohols,
which, I am sorry to say, did not yield any definite result on
the first attack and had therefore to be abandoned.
Alcohols belonging to the series, C»H2,0, and therefore
containing a CH = GH group should, when acted upon by
a mild oxidising agent, become transformed into an alcohol
of the glycerol series, as has been shown by Wagner* who
actually prepared glycerol from allyl alcohol by oxidising
the latter with a 1 — 5 per cent, solution of potash per-
manganate. I tried to oxidise in this way 30 grms. of the
alcohol fraction No. 4 (absorbing 81-8 per cent, iodine
solution), adding the calculated quantity of a 3 per cent, per-
manganate and finally warming gently on the water-bath,
until all the permanganate was used up. The solution was
distilled down by means of steam passed through it and
afterwards freed from the precipitate of manganese by
filtration. The filtrate was concentrated to 300 cc. in a flask
connected with a condenser. Along with the water a white
flocculeut substance passed over which was obtained in too
small a quantity to allow any further examination. The
distilled liquid did not reduce silver nitrate on boiling.
The 300 cc. were treated with carbonic dioxide, boiled down
until salt began to crystallise and finally extracted with a
mixture of ether and alcohol. On evaporating the solvent
I obtained 16 grms. of a liquid, solidifying on cooling to a
crystalline mass. The iodine absorption value of this
substance was 71-3, thus showing that of the obtained
50 per cent, a small quantity only could have been trans-
formed into a product of the glycerol series.
A second quantity of the alcohols was dissolved in glacial
acetic acid and bromine dissolved in the same menstruum
added, until the bromine was no longer absorbed ; it was
hoped that a crystallising bromine-derivative might be
obtained. As no crystals separated from the acetic acid
solution, the acid was removed by washing with water and
the substance dried by washing with alcohol and sub-
sequently with ether. No crystals having been obtained, it
was tried to distil the oily substance, but it was found
impossible to carry this out, as at about 160° C. large
quantities of hydrobromic acid were given off, pointing to a
decomposition of the substance.
A third quantity of the alcohols was heated with potash
lime in order to convert, if possible, the alcohol into the
corresponding acid. A far larger quantity of hydrogen was
evolved than theory would require for the formation of the
expected acid, and on extracting from the potash lime the
supposed potash salt by means of water and acidulating
with hydrochloric acid, only a very small quantity of
insoluble fatty acid was obtained. The acid solution was
therefore exhausted with ether, when I obtained 0-374 grm.
of an oily acid requiring 2-1 cc. per cent, of normal potash
for neutralisation. It would not be permissible to calculate
the molecular weight from a titration of this small amount.
The exhausted aqueous solution seemed to contain a dibasic
acid. The undissolved lime contained besides some un-
changed alcohol, the lime salt of an organic acid.
It is evident that no Value must be attached to these
last-mentioned experiments, as they hardly constitute more
than the very first steps towards the examination of these
interesting alcohols.
II. — Recovered Grease.
The " recovered grease," on which the following observa-
tions were made, was mainly a so-called " Yorkshire
grease," a fat recovered from the soapsuds used in wool
scouring ; other samples, obtained from continental works,
were aho examined, but only for the purpose of controlling
the methods adhibited.
The constituents of such a recovered fat would naturally
and most conveniently be classified under the following
three heads : —
(1) Free fatty acids, resulting from the decomposition
of the waste soap by means of a mineral acid and partly
owing their presence to the existence of free fatty acids,
peculiar to the wool-fat, as has been shown by E. JSchulze,
" Beriditederdeutsclien ehetnischen Gcsellscliuft 21, 1230,3343.
and Ret'. 182.
136
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1892.
whose three papers in the Berichte derdeutsehen'chemischen
Gesellschaft V. 1076, VI. 251, VII. 571, are the most
valuable contributions to the chemistry of wool-fat.
('-'.) Neutral, i.e. saponifiable fats. These are the real
saponifiable constituents of wool-fat, the cholesterol ethers
and other ethers of fatty acids, e.g., ceryl cerotate. Mixed
with these characteristic bodies there may be present some
glycerides, remainders of the oil that has been used in oiling
the wool. Some text-books quote amongst the constituents
of wool-fat the glycerides of lower fatty acids, but I was
unable to find the original source in the literature, whilst
Schulze distinctly states that no glycerol has been found in
the wool fat examined by Hartmann (cpr. Berichte V. 107."),
footnote). I may state here at once that I did not find any
glycerol in the samples of recovered grease I examined.
(3.) Unsaponifiable matter, under which head we may
comprise free alcohols, e.g., cholesterol and isocholesterol,
as chaiacteristic for the wool-fat, and besides these, hydro-
carbons, coming from oils used in greasing wool, which may
have been adulterated with (or "improved" by, as some
will have it) a smaller or larger quantity of mineral oil.
If we accept this classification as correct, a convenient
method for separating these three classes of substances
seems to be naturally given.
The free fatty acids would have to be eliminated first, by
converting them into their soda soaps and separating these
from the substances of classes 2 and 3.
The amount of alkali required was first ascertained by
careful titration of smaller quantities and the greatest part
of the caustic soda necessary for a weighed larger quantity,
which had been previously dissolved in alcohol, added and
titrated with half-normal alkali, until the solution became
pink to phenolphtalein. A good deal of the neutral fats
and unsaponifiable matter rose to the top as an oily layer
and was thus separated from the soap solution, whilst a
smaller quantity remained suspended in the latter. The
oily layer was dissolved in ether and the soap solution
repeatedly shaken out with ether. The ethereal extracts
were united with the main quantity and the ethereal solution
washed with water to remove the last traces of adhering
soap. Although appa.ently simple, this process requires
more than ordinary patience, because only too often
emulsions are formed, and unfortunately at the last stages,
which seem to defy any attempt to separate them into two
layers. Allowing to settle out for a period of several weeks
proved of no avail, and the last resource was to deal with
the ethereal solution in small quantities, and to treat them
alternately with a diluted solution of caustic soda, or with
diluted alcohol and so on. Another source of trouble was
the appearance of an intermediate layer between the ethereal
solution and the soap solution. It was separated best by
throwing it on a filter. This flocculent stratum was found
later on to consist of a soap formed by a higher* fatty acid,
which soap was not soluble in water but dissolved readily
in the boiling alkaline solution of the other fatty acids.
Thus the free fatty acids were obtained in two "parts ; firstly
the fatty acids of the dissolved soaps, and secondly those
of the difficultly-soluble solid soaps. The ether dis-
solved in the soap solution was distilled off and finally the
fatty acids set free by acidulating the liquor with hydro-
chloric acid. The fatty acids were washed until the wash-
waters were free from acid, separated from any water, and
filtered in a drying oven. It will thus be seen that no
attention waB paid at this stage to the presence of any
volatile, soluble, fatty acids, and this course was adopted
throughout this examination — except for the ultimate
analysis of this recovered grease, which will be found
below. It may be further pointed ont at once that all the
substances have been dried and filtered before being
examined.
Weighed quantities of the fatty acids recovered from the
soap solution were dissolved in dilute alcohol and titrated
with aqueous half-normal soda for the determination of
their molecular weight. 1 found in three experiments 376,
378, 379, therefore the means 377 G. Later on in the
* Under "higher "fatty acid I shall undeista-id throughout this
paper fatty acids possessing a molecular weight above 3011.
course of my research I noticed that some of the higher
fatty acids very easily underwent an appreciable loss in the
drying oven at a temperature not exceeding 100° C, pointing
to the formation of anhydrides or possibly lactones, which
manifested itself in a very high molecular weight being
found; for these anhydrides behaved during the titration
with aqueous caustic soda, so to speak, as an inert mass, not
being hydrolysed by aqueous alkali, or, any way, not
completely (this Journal, 1890, 846). That this was so, was
easily proved by titrating with alcoholic potash, which
would hydrolyse any anhydrides formed and consequently,
the full amount of caustic being found, reduce the molecular
weight to its proper value. The fatty acids, found above to
possess the mean molecular weight 377*6, were therefore
boiled with standardised alcoholic potash and gave now the
molecular weight 327 '7 and 326, wherefrom the means
326*8 may be derived as the true meau molecular weight.
The solid soap which was obtained as an intermediate layer
between the ethereal and aqueous solutions and had been
collected on a filter, was treated with boiling water and
hydrochloric acid, and thus the fatty acids were set free.
Their molecular weight was found by titration with aqueous
soda something like 3,920, which of course is absurd ; boiled
with standardised alcoholic potash they gave, on titrating
back the excess of caustic potash, the molecular weight 520,
as the means of two agreeing determinations. These fatty
acids are very difficultly soluble in alcohol. The proportion
of the free fatty acids forming easily soluble soaps to the
free fatty acids, giving the solid soaps was as 9 : 1 ; the mean
molecular weight of all free fatty acids may therefore be
, . , 9 x 32fi + fj'20 „ . .
assumed to be r-r = 345.
The free fatty acids from the soap solution were found
to possess a higher molecular weight than was expected ;
the supposition that the higher free fatty acids peculiar to
t he wool-fat would be solely contained in the solid soap not
having been borne out by the facts. An easy method for
separating the fatty acids possessing a molecular weight
above 230 from those of about 280 (stearic and oleic acid)
seemed to be given by the observation contained in a
patent of the Norddeutsche Wollkamruerei und Kamui-
garnspincerei zu Bremen (D. K. Pat. 55,110, December 3,
1889), that the soaps of the former acids are onl}- soluble in
hot alcohol and separate out on cooling the solution below
25° C, whilst the soaps of the latter fatty acids are soluble
both in hot and cold alcohol. Therefore 50 gnus, of the fatty
acids recovered from the soap solution were dissolved in
hot alcohol and titrated with alcoholic soda until neutral.
Sufficient alcohol was added to hold the soaps easily in
solution whilst warm, and then allowed to cool below 253 C.
The soap deposited on cooling was separated by filtering
and sucking off the mother-liquor, and subsequently the
fatty acids of both the solid and the dissolved soaps were
prepared and titrated in order to determine their molecular
weights. The estimation by means of aqueous soda gave,
for the acids of the solid soap, the mean molecular weight
343, while the fatty acids of the dissolved soap gave 394.
When using alcoholic potash, as was necessary after the
above-mentioned experience, I found the respective mole-
cular weights, 303 and 338. The fatty acids of the
molecular weight 303 were solid, those possessing the mean
molecular weight 338 were liquid, which appeared at first
surprising, but may find an explanation by the assumption
that the liquid acids belonged to an unsaturated series.
It will be evident that the method of separating the
sodium salts of the fatty acids by means of alcohol would
require a tedious repetition of the same operation without,
however, apparently possessing an advantage over the older
equally tedious methods.
The higher fatty acids of the molecular weight 520
offered a special interest both on account of their high
molecular weight and their property of easily losing water.
It was easy to decide whether the normal anhydrides or
lactones, i.e., inner anhydrides, were formed. 1 have shown
that on boiling fatty acids which possess the COOH group
only, and no OH group besides, with acetic anhydride (this
Journal, 1890, 843) the normal anhydrides are formed, and
this can be easily ascertained by weighing the resulting
product, for e.g., 2 C'15H31COOH being transformed by
Feb. 20, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
137
that reagent into (C15H31CO)sO, will lose one molecule of
water. Hydroxylated acids, e.g., Ci5H3„(OH)COOH, will,
as far as the COOH is concerned, undergo the same change,
but the hydrogen atom of the OH group will at the sunn-
time he exchanged for au acetyl group aud the resulting
product, [C16HM(OC2H30)CO]30, will, on weighing, show
an increase, the loss of HjO by two molecules of the acid
being more than counterbalanced by the taking up of two
C21 1,0 groups. I boiled, therefore, 5 • 9283 gnus, of the fatty
acids, molecular weight 520, with acetic anhydride, and
obtained on a weighed filter 6 ■ 1960 grins., i.e., an increase of
4 -52 percent. ; it was, therefore, evident that they contained
to a large extent hydroxylated acids. A pure hydroxylated
acid of the molecular weight 520 would, by the same
operation, increase by 6-5 per cent. The iodine value of
these fatty acids was 21 "5, but from this no conclusion as
to the series the acids or part of them belong to, can be
drawn. One more point had to be decided by experiment,
viz., whether the higher acids of the series, CkH.,,,0;, easily
lose water with formation of anhydrides. As I possessed a
pure specimen of cerotic acid — molecular weight 410 — I
examined it in this respect. 5 grms. were heated to 130° C,
dissolved in alcohol and titrated with aqueous half-normal
soda. The molecular weight was found 415, so no auhydra-
tation has taken place.
The Neutral Fat and ihe Unsaponifiable Matter of the
recovered grease were contained iu the ethereal solution
after the free fatty acids had been removed, aud both were
obtained together by distilling off the solvent. The sub-
stances one might expect to find iu this part of the grease
have been already enumerated above. The absence of
glycerol, and consequently of glycerides, was proved by
completely saponifying a larger quantity of the recovered
grease and examining the aqueous solution. Hydrocarbons,
or, to be more correct, appreciable quantities thereof, could
not be present, as the substances extracted by ether after
such a complete saponification of the recovered grease were
completely dissolved by acetic anhydride without separating
any mineral oil on cooling. The unsaponifiable matter
would therefore most likely consist of cholesterol, isocholes-
terol, aud perhaps other alcohols. To separate the latter from
the neutral fat the mixture of both was repeatedly extracted
with boiling alcohol, in which, as Berthelot has shown, the
cholesteryl ethers are nearly insoluble. That part, however,
of them, which dissolved in the boiling liquid, separated on
slight cooling as an amorphous mass, and although it was
apparently identical with the insoluble substance, it was
still kept separate, so as to ensure my having to deal with a
substance free from any unsaponifiable matter. The
extracted part will be spoken of later on, here the neutral
fat ouly will be considered. This neutral fat is a viscous,
wax-like substance, melting into a thick liquid when
moderately heated. Jf o doubt this substance is very similar
to that part of Schulze's wool-fat which proved insoluble in
alcohol and yielded to him on saponification cholesterol and
isocholesterol, but with this important difference, that my
substance is a neutral body, whilst that of Schulze, in the
case of some specimens of wool-fat, contained free fatty acids,
which, as stated above, are difficultly soluble in alcohol.
Tor further examination this neutral fat had to be saponi-
fied, and to gain at the same time some insight into the
nature of the unsapouifiable matter contained iu the
"recovered grease," the neutral fat was analysed alongside
with the mixture of saponifiable fat and unsapouifiable
matter, as obtained direct from the ethereal solution de-
scribed above. The saponification of this neutral fat does
not take place readily even when using a large excess of
alcoholic potash and heating over free fire for an hour ; the
discordant figures which were obtained in parallel experi-
ments showing that saponification had not been completed
in every case. Satisfactory results were at last obtained
when the saponification was carried out with alcoholic
double normal potash under pressure. The use of a copper
bottle, as shown iu the diagram, was found very convenient for
this purpose ; the bottle was immersed into boiling water for
an hour or so and the contents shaken up from time to time.
Some time after I had finished these experiments a patent was
taken out by Kossel and Obermiiller (D.K. Pat. 55,057) for
the saponification of fats by means of metallic sodium throwu
into a mixture .of fat and absolute alcohol, or, what amounts
to the same, by means of sodium alcoholate. I compared
this method with the one I practised myself quantitatively,
using of course a freshly-prepared solution of sodium
alcoholate, as this could be titrated. The figures show au
absolute correspondence between the two methods : —
Requires of
1 grm. of
; Alcoholic Potash
under pressure
Sodium Alcoholate.
quantities corresponding to
A. Neutral fat
B. Neutral fat + l'n-
poninable
1-825 cc. 1/1 KOH ! l'825cc. 1/1 KOH
1-733 cc. 1,1 KOH 1-727 cc. 1/1 KOH
i
Although more expedient, Kossel and Obernmller's method
may be found a little too costly in the practice of the
analytical chemist, and it is much to be feared that for the
same reason the patentees may not find any manufacturer
who will take a licence from them for saponifying glycerides
— or even wool-fat — by means of metallic sodium and
absolute alcohol.
The saponified fats were shaken out with ether to extract
the alcohols (in case of B. the alcohols and unsaponifiable
matter), and the exhausted soap solutions acidulated with
hydrochloric acid. The separated acids were washed on a
tared filter and weighed as in Hehner's method of the
analysis of butter.
The following figures were obtained : —
A. Neutral Fat.
Fatty acids .
Alcohols ....
II.
Per Cent.
5G-3
«-2
B. Neutral Fat +
Unsapouifiable.
Pei Cent. Per Cent.
54-1 50-7
II.
Per Cent.
49-S
47-6
The sum of the analyses does not come up to 100 per
cent., although it was expected that the sum would be
102 per cent, to 103 per cent., as 2 to 3 per cent, of water
have been taken up during saponification. The error can
only be looked for in the figures for the fatty acids, and it
was therefore impossible to calculate the molecular weight
of these fatty acids from their weight and the quantity of
normal potash used duriug saponification. That the figures
for the fatty acids have been found too low may be partly
accounted for by the above stated observation that the
wool-fat acids lost some water duriug the operation of
drying, or, in other words, through the fact that during the
drying, anhydrides or lactones, or both, may have been
formed. The latter opinion was sufficiently supported by
the difference of the figures found for the molecular weights
of these fatty acids, when these weights were determined
both by means of aqueous half-normal soda and alcoholic
potash. The titration with aqueous soda gave the molecular
weight 363, whilst on using alcoholic standard solution the
values found were 325 and 330, means 327 ■ 5. The latter
value has to be considered as the correct one. It hardly
needs mentioning that the fatty acids of A. and II. were
identical.
By means of the values obtained for the molecular
weight for the alcohols, and the amount of alkali used
during saponification, it is possible to calculate the
composition of A. and B.
1S8
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1892.
A. Neutral Fat.
B. Neutral Fat +
Unsaponiliable.
Alcohols (means)
("1-825 x S27'5
•73 x 327 '5
Patty acids
r
U-7
43-00
5!)' 77
50 '00
103 37
These figures may be accepted as fairly representing the
two constituents of A. and B. after they have undergone
hydrolysis.
The analysis of the neutral fat gives us the means of
calculating the mean molecular weight of the alcohols
by means of the equation M = gg.^ = 239. The
same analysis also allows us to calculate the quantity of un-
saponiliable matter, i.e., free alcohol in the part B; for the
56-66 per cent, fatty acids of this part require for the mean
molecular weight 239 of the alcohols, 41-34 per cent, alcohol
to form neutral fat. (The same figure can be calculated
more quickly from the proportion 59-77:43-60 = 56'66:x.)
Consequently part B contained 47-55 — 41-34 = 6-21 per
cent, free alcohols. Of course, this estimation has to be
taken " cum grano salis," but analyses of this kind have
to be supplemented to some extent by calculations which
keep within permissible limits.
The fatty acids absorbed 17 per cent, iodine only, -which
excludes a larger quantity of unsaturated acids.
The fatty acids were not examined any further. The
alcohols were boiled with twice their weight of acetic
anhydride to transform them into their acetates; weighed
quantities were used, and the increases in weight, the alcohols,
acquired, were determined by collecting the resulting pro-
ducts on weighed filters, when the following figures were
obtained : —
Weight of
Alcohol.
Weight of
Acetate.
Increase.
Neutral fat
Grms. Grms.
( 4-4574 6-00S4
(_ 77:»'.7 8-SU9
Neutral fal + i 6'02i G'8621
unsaponiliable ( -.|l77 8.0202
Means.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
12-35 l
12-7
13-00 )
13-9
13-3
13-ti
For the sake of comparison I add the corresponding
values (i.e., the increase due to the exchange of one
atom of hydrogen for an acetyl group) for several
alcohols : —
Alcohol.
Increase.
Cctylalcohol
Cerylalcohol
Cholesterol or Isochol
Per Cent.
17-2
10-ti
11-3
The saponification values of the acetates obtained were
determined next, as e xperiments mentioned below showed
how tedious and comparatively useless it was to try to
separate the acetates by crystallisation from alcohol. As
will be seen in the third" part of this paper a separation of
cholesterol from cctylalcohol may be undertaken with
some success by this method, but the higher aliphatic alcohols
—and these were present to all appearances— yield oily
liquids which could not be brought to crystallisation. The
following figures were obtained : —
Acetates from Alcohols of
Weight.
Alcohol
1 1 KOH
used for
Saponi-
fying.
Saponifi-
cation
Value.
Grms,
8-5720
17-3220
cc.
24-53
100-9
B. Neutral fat and unsaponi liable
20-40
15G-3
For the above-mentioned three alcohols we arrive at the
following theoretical saponification values of their acetates : —
Acetate of
Saponification Value.
197'5
128'0
135-6
The corresponding values for octylalcohol, which Guetta
states to have found in the distillates of wool-fat, is 330.
I have not tabulated this alcohol along with the others, as
Hannau* could not prove its existence in distilled wool-fat.
I prepared about 20 grms. of the alcohols from the
neutral fat A, in the hope of isolating the cholesterol by
crystallisation from ordinary alcohol or a mixture of alcohol
and ether (a corresponding experiment carried out with the
acetates of these alcohols will be described further on), but
I discovered soon that it was impossible to arrive at satis-
factory results in this way — anyhow, in the limited time at
my disposal. Other solvents, like chloroform, petroleum
spirit, benzene, did not prove of greater use. I obtained the
same half- jelly - like, half-crystalline substances which
Schulze described, and from which he successfully separated
cholesterol and isocholesterol by means of their benzoates,
while another alcohol which was present could not be
identified by him. I had to give up any further attempts
to isolate from the mixture of the alcohols any chemical
individuals, and had recourse to the makeshift of colour
reactions. I shall speak about these colour reactions in the
third part of my paper, and shall therefore content myself
here with stating that the colour reaction quite recently
proposed by Schulze for isocholesterol (Zeits. f. physiolog.
Chem. 14, 522) was obtained with very satisfactory sharp-
ness, whilst the corresponding reaction for cholesterol could
not be obtained, but this by no means excludes the presence
of cholesterol.
The amount of unsaponifiable matter, judging from the
analysis of the part B. (mixture of neutral fat and un-
saponifiable) could be a very small one only ; it has been
calculated above as 6*21 per cent, of part B. As mentioned
above, this third class of the constituents of the recovered
grease had been obtained in the course of the preparation
of the neutral fat, and was contained in the alcohol which
had been used to effect the separation.
Whilst writing these lines I notice that Liebreieh recently
(Arch. f. Physiol. 1890, 363) proposed for the separation
of cholesterol from cholesteryl ethers two reagents not
very commonly met with, viz. : ethylaceto-acetate and
ethyl-ethylaceto-acetate.
Mineral oil, to repeat this, which would have been
extracted along with any free alcohols by the boiling
alcohol, was not found as the solubility of the extracted
mass in acetic anhydride proved. Consequently, I only-
expected to find cholesterol and isocholesterol. On cooling
the alcoholic solution small crystals were obtained, which
after being crystallised several times from that solvent
seemed pure enough for examination. The melting point
was found at 57° — 58° C, consequently the crystals were
neither cholesterol or isocholesterol. Moreover, on boiling
the alcohol with acetic anhydride 108 per cent, of the
original quantity was obtained as an amorphous substance
melting between 37° and 39° C. The substance showed
1891.
Public del Liboratorio Cliimico Centrale delle Gabelle. Roma,
Feb. 29, 1894.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
139
the isochok'sterol reactiou only very faintly and absorbed
8 • 7 pur cent, iodine ouly. It is therefore safe to conclude
that the isolated alcohol is cerylalcohol, the presence of
which in wool-fat (as the cerotate) has been stated by
Buisine.
The mother-liquors from that cerylalcohol yielded gela-
tinous and finally oily substances, which could not be
identified any further than by colour reactions, which
spoke very distinctly for the presence of isocholesterol.
In the hope of arriving perhaps at better results as far as
the alcohols were concerned, a larger quantity of the original
recovered grease was saponified and the soap solution at
once extracted with ether. Here again a large quantity
of the intermediate stratum was obtained and collected
separately in some experiments, so that all the fatty acids
contained in the recovered grease — both the free and the
combined acids — were, so to speak, fractionated to some
extent ; in other experiments all the fatty acids of the
recovered grease were obtained in one mass by dissolving
the intermediate layer in the hot so ip solution and acidu-
lating the latter.
The molecular weight of all the fatty acids, as prepared
in the last instance, was found by titration with aqueous
half normal soda: (1) 411-5; (2) 412; (3) 410-8; (4)
400 ; the determination by means of alcoholic potash,
however, gave the values 331 and 333, so that 332 must
Ik- assumed as the true mean molecular weight of all the
fatty acids of the recovered grease (regardless of any-
volatile acids).
The two fractions of the fatty acids — if I may say so —
i.e.: (u) the fatty acids of the easily soluble soaps; and
(«) the fatty acids of the intermediate stratum were also
titrated separately for their molecular weight, with the
following result : —
Fraction A.
Molecular weight by titration with aqueous soda 340
Molecular weight by titration with alcoholic potash . . 318
It was tried to further fractionate these fatty acids by
means of the above-mentioned patented method ; in this
instance also the solid fatty acids, forming the less soluble
soaps, showed a lower molecular weight than the liquid
acids, the sodium salts whereof were soluble in alcohol
below 25° C. The figures obtained for the molecular
weights were —
I. — Solid Acids.
(a) by means ol aqueous soda 323
(0) by means of alcoholic potash 309
2. — Liquid Acids.
fa) with aqueous soda 385
(0) with alcoholic potash 331
Fraction 13.
Molecular weight by titration with aqueous soda 070
The determination by means of alcoholic potash had not
hecn carried out, as at that time I was not yet aware of the
fact, that the higher fatty acids of the recovered grease
underwent some sort of anhydration when subjected to a
temperature of 100° C. The separation of these acids — or
rather of their soaps — by means of alcohol into two frac-
tions yielded a very small quantity of liquid acids ouly, the
mean molecular whereof was found by means of aqueous
soda 1380, and by means of alcoholic potash 618, whilst the
greatest part consisted of solid fatty acids of the mean
molecular weight 660 with aqueous soda, and 483 with
alcoholic potash. The latter contained hydroxylated acids,
for on boiling with acetic anhydride an increase of 3 - 3 per
cent, was found. Their iodine value was only 8-9.
The alcohols were prepared in either case by shaking the
soap solution repeatedly with ether, regardless of the
middle layer which, m this case, gave far less trouble than
the corresponding separation of the neutral fat and saponi-
fiable matter from the free fatty aeids. Quantitative
experiments showed me that — notwithstanding the trouble-
some middle layer, the filtering off of which is by far the best
way of dealing with it — the extraction of the aqueous
solution by means of ether and subsequent washing of the
ethereal solution with water gives the best and most reliable
result. The extraction of the dried saponified mass, mixed
with sand, in a Soxhlet tube caused more delay, as, owing
to the large quantity of unsaponifiable matter, the ether
dissolved larger quantities of soap, which had to be
I eliminated by renewed washing. The substitution of petro-
leum spirit for ether in the last method gives worse results
still, as it is well known that petroleum spirit, when a large
quantity of unsaponifiable matter is present, dissolves
notable quantities of soap. At that juncture 1 may point
out that Honig and Spitz (Zeitsehr. f . angewandte Chemie,
1891, 565) propose, for the quantitative estimation of
| unsaponifiable substance, the extraction of the aqueous
soap solution by means of petroleum spirit and the washing
of the latter with 50 per cent, alcohol.
The extracted alcohols gave, on being incinerated, no
ash, a test which should never be omitted in the quantita-
tive estimations of such-like substances. The alcohols
were dried, boiled with twice their weight of acetic
anhydride, and the resulting acetates washed until free from
acetic acid and dried. The increase of weight was
determined quantitatively in two experiments as 9-90 per
cent, and 10-2 per cent. The saponification value of tha
mixed acetates was found to be 150-6 (means of 149-9 and
151-3); their iodine absorption value was 44-03. The
acetates were divided into two parts. The first part — about
90 grms. — was fractionated in vacuo in the same way as the
acetates of the sperm oil alcohols. The temperature rose
quickly to 330° C in a vacuum of 26 in. — and between 330
and about 350° C. three fractions were obtained, all of
which possessed in a very marked degree that peculiar
smell which is so characteristic of the high-boiling fractions
of mineral oils. From these distillates seemed to separate
crystals embedded in a viscous mass. I subjoin the saponi-
fication and iodine values of the three fractions ; the first
fraction may still have contained a little acetic acid, judging
from its high saponification value. The residue was
lost: —
Fraction.
Solubility in
Alcohol.
Saponification
Value.
Iodine
Absorption.
1st Easily soluble 237'6(!)
2nd Not easily 136'5
soluble.
3rd Difficultly soluble 69'3
Per Cent.
:ii-i
57-0
78-3
The difference of the solubility of these three fractions in
alcohols may be considered as a fair indication of the
decomposition that evidently took place. Fraction 3 con-
tained the largest amount of hydrocarbons. It can therefore
only be looked upon as a chance that the values found for
the second fraction agreed very well with those which
cholesterol and isocholesterol would give, viz., 135-5 and
68'3 (see Third Part of this paper). On trying to separate
any cholesteryl acetate or isocholesteryl acetate from the
second fraction by crystallisation from alcohol, only flocks
were obtained, while the greater part separated as a heavy
oil. After a great many vain efforts to obtain crystals, the
whole mass was saponified to prepare the alcohols from it,
in the hope that the latter might be more easily identified.
On crystallising them from a mixture of ether and alcohol
I obtained a half crystalline mass, which showed very
distinctly the reaction of cholesterol, besides that of iso-
cholesterol. I am inclined to believe (see Third Part of this
paper) that cholesterol was present in a larger proportion
than isocholesterol. A determination of iodine values
would, of course, have been of no use. Schulze's method
of separation by means of benzoic anhydride could not he
carried out both for want of time and of the apparatus
required for heating the sealed tubes. But even this
method would not have furnished satisfactory quantitative
results. The two other fractions of the acetates — the first
and the third — were treated in the same way. From the
alcohols of the first fraction I obtained crystals which gave
140
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1893.
the reactions for cholesterol and isocholesterol. The third
fraction gave, on saponification, an oily mass, gelatinising
on cooling, and evidently containing a larger quantity of
hydrocarbons. Colour reactions of the kind described
could not give any result with such a mixture.
It was tried to break up the second part of the crude
acetates into its constituents by crystallisation from absolute
alcohol, as cholesteryl acetate is known to separate in
characteristic crystals from it. I started with 100 grms.
substance. I obtained on cooling some crystals, but the
by far greatest part separated as an oily viscous mass.
It would be too long to describe at any length the most
tedious trials to obtain the crystals in a pure form and
larger quantity. Just when they appeared pure and were
only once more dissolved to take away the last traces of
the' adhering oily substance, as I thought, a larger quantity
of the oil would separate, and thus cause a fresh repetition
of the series of crystallisations and recrystallisations. To
cut it short, I at last succeeded in obtaining 7 grms. of the
crystallised acetate, which, on redissolving in alcohol, did
not yield any more an oily substance, while the remaining
93 per cent, were brought into one lot ; for although part
of it seemed to have a tendency of crystallising, it was
impossible to differentiate the oil into several parts.
The crystalline acetate melted, on drying in the oven,
below 80° C, and so it was conjectured that it consisted
mainly of a mixture of cholesteryl- and isocholesteryl-
acetates which, according to Schulze, melts below 100 C,
but the saponification value found at 161 showed that 1
was yet far from having the pure substances. The alcohols
contained in the acetates were therefore prepared, and on
dissolving them in a mixture of alcohol and ether I obtained
on cooling an indistinctly-crystallised substance which
showed the isocholesterol reaction most beautifully, whilst
the cholesterol reaction was only occasionally noticed. The
il> termination of the iodine absorption of the alcohols (see
Third Part of this paper) could definitively settle the question
•whether larger quantities of the cholesterins were present
The alcohols absorbed only 5-1 percent.; this shows that
by far the greatest part consisted of an alcohol of the series
C,iH„n+.-.0 and, as I had found previously cerylalcohol,
this mixture of alcohols has to be considered as consisting of
cerylalcohol, isocholesterol, and cholesterol.
The oily acetates gave saponification values lying between
106 and 106' 5; the alcohol from these acetates increased
on boiling with acetic anhydride by 7-6 per cent., as found
in two experiments. From the saponification values, we
may calculate, assuming for a moment a homogeneous
substance, the molecular weight 528 for the alcohol, for
which again we should find the increase, on acetylating,
7-5 per cent. But these oily acetates undoubtedly con-
tained cholesteryl- and isocholesteryl-acetate, and their
quantity might be approximately determined by the iodine
absorption of the acetates, providing the other alcohols be
saturated alcohols, an assumption for which the presence of
cerylalcohol is only slender support. The oily acetates
absorbed 31 '99 per cent, iodine, whilst theory would
require for cholesteryl- and isocholestervl- alcohol (see
Third Part of this paper) : 61 -3 per cent. We may therefore
assume, in round figures, that the oily acetates contained
50 per cent, of the cholesterin acetates ; as the saponification
value of the latter is 135 '5, the remaining 50 per cent, of
the acetates would have to possess the saponification value
of 7 7 • . j , which again leads, for the above assumption, to an
alcohol of the molecular weight 724, or, roughly speaking,
to an alcohol of the formula C^H^O.
Bui 1 must break off here, as such calculations rest on
too unsafe a ground, and it may justly be objected that they
are nothing but " jeu de nombres."
The examination of the alcohols contained in the
recovered grease has therefore not revealed any new fact,
except perhaps that I proved the presence of free ceryl-
alcohol in it.
The free fatty acids of the recovered grease, and conse-
quently of the wool-fat, are composed to some extent of
acids having a molecular weight of over 400 and 500.
Those fatty acids, or some of them, are characterised by
their tendency of easily losing water, thereby being trans-
formed into lactones or inner anhydrides. This property
of the acids, due to the presence of hydroxylated acids, has
not been noticed before, and therefore the high molecular
weights, which, for instance, Allen quotes for the free acids
of lanoline tC'omm. Org. Analys. Vol. II., 317) as 570-9,
or which I calculate from a titration, given in the above-
mentioned German patent (100 grms. acids require 122 cc.
1/1 normal KaOH) as 820, must he considered as
inadmissible.
The neutral fat of the recovered grease, which is the chief
constituent of wool-fat. contains amongst other not identified
alcohols : cholesterol and isocholesterol. Buisine has stated
the presence of ceryl cerotate and consequently of ceryl-
alcohol in this part of the wool-fat ; but the method he
adopted (Bulletin de la Societe chimique, 1887,72,201),
does not place this beyond doubt. Buisine saponified the
wool-fat completely, and found amongst the alcohols ceryl
alcohol, whilst he isolated from the fatty acids the cerotic
acid. I have shown above that cerylalcohol occurs in the
free state in wool-fat. The analysis of this neutral fat led
us to the molecular weight 239 for all the alcohols ; as
cholesterol and isocholesterol possess the molecular weight
372, we are forced to assume the presence of lower alcohols
in the neutral fat. Buisine arrives at the same conclusion
from his experiments ; he thinks they are lower homologues
of cerylalcohol, but he has not isolated chemical individuals.
Guetta's opinion that octylaleohol occurs in wool-fat is not
ni ei ssarily invalidated by Hannau's remark, that he could
not detect it in distilled grease (see below). The fatty acids
of this neutral fat share with some of the free fatty acids
the property of easily forming lactones or inner anhydrides ;
consequently they contain hydroxylated fatty acids what
has been further proved by the increase of weight on boiling
with acetic anhydride. It is generally assumed and stated by
text-books that the fatty acids of the wool-fat are essentially
stearic and oleic acid, to which Buisine, accepting their
presence, has added cerotic acid. I am of the opinion that this
statement rests mainly on the resemblance the neutral fat
bears to the cholesteryl-oleate and stearate, which Berthelot
prepared synthetically, and further on Schulze's authority, I
believe. But the latter simply bases his opinion that the
cholesteryl and isocholesteryl oleates and stearates are
present, on the statement of t'lbricht and Reich (Anna!, del
tandwirthschaft 49, 122; a paper which is not accessible
to me) that they have found stearic and oleic acids in the
wool-fat, and remarks occasionally that oleic arid seems to
be present in large quantities. But he hastens to add that
he did not isolate the oleic acid from it. The fact that the
fatty acids of the neutral fat melt at alow temperature, may-
have been the cause of this annotation. The iodine absorp-
tion of these fatty acids was found by me 17 per cent., and
this definitely excludes a larger quantity of oleic and other
unsaturated fatty acids.
In conclusion I wish to give the complete analysis of this
recovered grease ; the figures with which the preceding notes
are interspersed, furnish us with the necessary data to base
our calculations upon. For the quantitative estimation I
proceeded a-? follows: — About 5 grms. of the recovered
grease were dissolved in alcohol and titrated with half-
normal aqueous caustic soda until pink to phenolphthale'in ;
thus I found that 1 grm. of the grease required 0-71 cc. 1/1
normal KOH for saturating all the free acids.* Another
5 grms. were boiled with an excess of alcoholic potash and
the amount actually used for saturating the free acids and
the combined acids determined by titrating back that excess ;
it was found that 1 grm. of the fat wanted 2-19 cc. 1/1
normal potash. The same test was used for estimating the
unsaponifiable matter (i.e., the alcohols), for which I
obtained the figure 36-47 per cent. It was now only-
necessary to determine the volatile fatty acids by the well-
known Reiehert-ileissl process. One grm. of the fat
* One point, that misrlit be raised, has not been considered at all,
viz.. the possible presence of anhydrides in the recovered grease.
Supposing they were present, the titration lor free acids would not
show them. They would have passed into the ethereal solution of
the neutral fatana unsaponifiable matter, andat last been extracted
along with unsaponifiable matter by means of alcohol ; for the
comparison of the analysis of parts A. and B. shows that B. contains
less fatly acids than \. But anerrordue to such a possibility is
ely eliminated by the method adopted sub. II of the com-
plete anal; sis.
Feb. so. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
141
continued ;i quantity of volatile acids which required 0*124
cc. 1/1 KOH for their neutralisation.
All the figures given are the means of three experiments,
agreeing well with each other. The calculation is now easy.
The volatile acids may be assumed to have the mean
molecular weight 104 (for CsH1202), which gives us
10-4 x 0-124 = 1-28 per cent, volatile fatty acids. It is
pretty safe to assume that the volatile acids occur in the
free state, although Schulze points to the possibility of the
presence of cholesteryl acetate ; therefore we calculate for
the remaining free acids in one grm. —
0-71 - 0-124 = 0-586 cc. 1/1 KOH,
which, for the mean molecular weight 345 (as found above),
gives 34-5 x 0-586 = 20-22 as' the percentage of the
remaining free fatty acids. The combined fatty acids
required 2' 19 - 0-71 cc. 1-48 cc. = 1/1 KOH, and this
leads us for the mean molecular weight 327 '5 to — ■
32-75 x 1-48 = 48-47 percent.
as the amount of combined fatty acids, calculated as
hydrated acids.
In practical analysis it may not be possible to use such a
detailed method as I did, but it is at least necessary to
prepare all the fatty acids (both free and combined acids)
washed free from the volatile acids and determine their
mean molecular weight by titrating with alcoholic potash.
I found in this way the mean molecular weight of all the
fatty acids (minus the volatile acids) 332 (see above), ami
this gives, as their saturation required —
2-19 - 0-124 = 2-066 cc. 1/1 KOH :
33-2 x 2-066 = 68-59 per cent.
for all the fatty acids as hydrated acids.
For better comparison I subjoin the analysis calculated
by both ways in the tabulated form : —
I.
II.
Per Cent.
V2S
20-22
" 48-47
36-47
Per Cent.
1-28
Insoluble free fatty acids ....
> 68*59
30*47
106"44
106-34
• * As hydrated acids. t i.?., alcohols.
The figure 68-59 might be checked by directly weighing
all the fatty acids on a weighed filter ; but in this case,
owing to the formation of inner anhydrides, Hehner's value
would he found too low. Still, for a commercial analysis
such a method may have some advantages and may be
worthy of the notice of analytical chemists.
Considering the difficult}- of titrating such dark solutions
as were obtained in the course of the analysis and the con-
sequent errors caused by a slightly erroneous determination
of the molecular weights, I think, the sum may be looked
upon as working out in a fairly satisfactory way. Of
course, part of the surplus above 100 is due to the elements
of water having been added during the saponification.
If we wish to further detail these figures, all of which
have been determined directly, we may introduce the per-
centage of unsaponifiable matter which was found above by
calculation as 6-21 per cent, of part B. Part B. forms
(48-47 + 36-47) percent. = 84-94 percent, of the recovered
grease or, rather, as we have to make a deduction for the
elements of water added — say 1 ■ 94 per cent. — 83 per cent,
wherefrom we calculate 83 x 0-0621 = 5-15 per cent, for
the unsaponifiable matter in the grease. Then the analysis
would read thus -. —
Per Cent.
Volatile acids 1"28
Insoluble free fatty acids 20*22
Combined fatty acids is ■ 17
Combined alcohols 31*82} gg.41
Unsaponifiable 5*15.)'
The recovered grease contains therefore, in round figures,
after deduction of 1-76 per cent, for the elements of water
added during saponification, 78 per cent, neutral fat.
1 was fortunate enough to obtain the distillates of this
very same wool-fat, both the liquid and the solid parts of
it, which had been prepared on a large scale in oil-works.
The examination of the liquid part was conducted on similar
lines as that of the raw fat. First the free acids were
neutralised and the neutral fat plus unsaponifiable matter
extracted by means of ether and recovered from it. It is
important to note that no intermediate layer was noticed in
this case. The mean molecular weight of the free fatty
acids was found to be 286, and therefore they may be
looked upon as a mixture of oleic, stearic, and palmitic
acids with a small percentage of higher fatty acids.
1 grm. of the oil required 1*92 cc. 1/1 KOH for neutrali-
sation of the free fatty acids ; therefore we have 1 * 92 x 28 ■ 6
= 54-91 per cent, free fatty acids in the oils. As the
complete saponification of the neutral oil took only 2*10cc.
1/1 KOH it was evident that the amount of neutral oil
could be very small only. A method for separating the
neutral fat from the unsaponifiable matter could not be
found as the latter was also insoluble in alcohol. I had
therefore to content myself with preparing and estimating
the acids only which were contained in the neutral fat. For
this purpose the oil obtained from the ether was saponified
by means of alcoholic potash, and the fatty acids recovered
from the resulting soap solution ; here it was noticed that
the intermediate layer mentioned repeatedly above made its
appearance. The acids from the neutral fat titrated with
aqueous soda gave in one case the molecular weight 558 ;
another preparation from another quantity gave 466. The
latter heated to 150° C. gave the molecular weight 763, and
this figure remained the same when the acid which had
been used for the titration was recovered from its soap and
reheated to 160° C. It was clear that the difference of the
molecular weights was due to a varying degree of anhydra-
tion, and in that case both preparations ought to yield
the same molecular weight, when boiled with an excess of
alcoholic potash. Such, indeed, was the case, for I found
for both acids the molecular weights 393 and 395, which
settles definitively 394 as the true value. The percentage
of combined fatty acids in the oil is therefore 39*4 x
(2-10 - 1*92) =7-09 percent.
The alcohols combined with these fatty acids would be
found in the unsaponifiable matter, which had to be
examined next. On complete saponification the distilled
fat showed 38*8 per cent, unsaponifiable matter. A pre-
liminary estimate of the quantity of alcohols contained in
the unsaponifiable part could be gained by boiling weighed
quantities with acetic anhydride and collecting the resulting
product on a weighed filter. The following four experi-
ments were carried out : —
Substance
employed.
Acetate obtained.
Substance
employed.
Grms.
4*9167
Grms.
4*9483
Per Cent.
100*9
5*2735
5*2874
10H--2
2*9995
3*0281
100*9
4*5592
4*5979
100 *S5
100*71
At the first blush one might feel inclined to ascribe the
plus of 0*71 per cent, to the errors of the method, but in
that case the question had to be answered : What has
become of the alcohol with which the combined fatty acids
have formed the neutral oil, no glycerol having been found,
even if the oil contained no free alcohol? Assuming for a
moment that that alcohol was cholesterol, molecular weight
372, then about an equal percentage to that of the com-
bined fatty acids (M.W. 394) must be present in the oil,
i.e., 7 per cent.; therefore the unsaponifiable matter, in
which these 7 per cent, are dissolved would contain the
B2
H2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29,1892
alcohol loan extent of 18 per cent., and on boiling with
acetic anhydride an increase of 18 x 0' 113 = 2-35 would
take place, or in other words the unsaponifiable matter,
as used in the last four analyses, ought to have yielded
102-35 per cent. But, naturally, we have to base such a
calculation on the figures found when examining the neutral
fat of the recovered grease (see above), namely, 239 as
the mean molecular weight of the alcohols, and 12 ■ 7 per
cent, as their increase on boiling with acetic anhydride ;
this leads us to 101-3 per cent., with which the 100-71
actually found compare favourably. (An elementary
analysis with the view of finding oxygen by difference
would not have given unmistakable results.) The same
calculation gives 4-26 per cent, alcohols in the distilled
grease or 11 per cent, alcohols in the unsaponifiable part ;
consequently, the by far greatest part of the latter consists
of hydrocarbons, a conclusion which is confirmed by its
insolubility in acetic anhydride. The alcohol might have
been extracted by means of this reagent, but on account
of its high cost I had to prefer common alcohol, in which
the hydrocarbons, especially at ordinary temperature, are
far less soluble than the alcohols. The unsaponifiable
matter was therefore repeatedly boiled up with alcohol, and
the latter, after a moment's settling, poured off from the
undissolved oil. On cooling slightly there separated the
greatest part of the dissolved hydrocarbons, and the still
warm alcohol gave at ordinary temperature a crop of indis-
tinct crystals, which, on recrystallising from alcohol-ether
yielded a semi-crystalline mass, to all appearances similar
to the mixtures of alcohols as obtained during the exami-
nation of the recovered grease. The alcohols thus prepared
show very distinctly the isocholesterol reaction.
Through the exhaustion of the unsaponifiable matter by
means of alcohol the hydrocarbons were at last left behind.
Their insolubility in acetic anhydride, and to some extent
in alcohol, as well as their behaviour towards nitric acid,
characterised them as hydrocarbons. A closer examination
of them is, for want of proper methods, a hopeless task,
and all that could therefore be done with them was to
distil them in vacuo. Thus three fractions were obtained.
AH of them possessed the smell which the crude distillates
of paraffin oils, boiling at the same temperature, possess.
These fractions are a little more defined in the subjoined
table : —
Fraction.
Sp. Gr. at 80° F.
compared with
Water at 80° F.
Appearance.
1st
2nd
3rd
0-8513
0'9162
0'9180
Clear, bright yellow oil ; bloom.
Bright oil, partly solidifying j bloom.
Darker oil, solidified ; bloom.
The residue was pitch.
I repeat the complete analysis of the distilled grease in a
tabulated form : —
PerCent.
Free fatty actds 54'9l
Combined fat ty acids 7 * 02
"Unsaponifiable , 38'§0
100-73
which can be resolved in the following way : —
Per Cent.
Free fatty acids 51-91
Combined fatty acids. 7-02 , =1,.28 per cent/
Combined alcohols . .,. 4- 2tJ j neutral fat.
Hydrocarbons 31-54
100-78
A more rapid way of analysing such distilled grease,
recommendable to analytical chemists, would be to titrate
as above, but to use for the determination of the mean
molecular weight all the fatty acids (free and combined)
and alcoholic potash or soda. Proceeding in this way I
found the mean molecular weight of all the fatty acids
300'5 (titration with aqueous soda gave 317), and therefore
the percentage of all the fatty acids 300-5 x 2-1 per cent.
This way of calculating leads to the equally satisfactory
result: — ■
Per Cent.
Fatty acids 63-1
Unsaponifiable 38'8
The weighing of all the fatty acids directly — Hehner's
method — would in this case be nearly as accurate as can be
wished for, and the adoption of such a gravimetric method
(preferably combined with the direct determination of the
Unsaponifiable) would remove the uncertainty adhering to
the commercial analysis of such distilled grease, and caused
by the assumption of a molecular weight for the acids and
calculation of the unsaponifiable matter by difference.
The solid part of the distilled grease was only cursorily
examined. 1 grm. of it required 2-19 cc. normal caustic
soda for saturating the free fatty acids. On boiling the fat
with alcoholic potash 1 grm. consumed 2-30 cc. The last
figure points to the presence of neutral fat, and its quantity
would be found corresponding to the difference 2-30 — 2-19
= 0-11. The unsaponifiable matter amounted to 34-05
per cent.
A comparison of the analyses of the recovered grease and
of the distillates therefrom shows that hydrocarbons have
been formed during the distillation to a large extent — a fact
which cannot be at all surprising. On examining such
distilled oils, the origin of which may not be known, one
might easily feel inclined to declare these hydrocarbons as
mineral oil. But such a misnomer, besides suggesting
fraudulent intentions, might lead to unpleasant consequences
for the buyer of such oils, for insurance companies
generally become suspicious when " mineral oil " is only
mentioned. The distilled grease legitimately contains a
larger amount of hydrocarbons, which, as I am given to
understand, are said to constitute the valuable properties
of such oils.
As there is no method known for distinguishing the
hydrocarbons formed by destructive distillation from any
(fraudulently) added mineral oil, due caution should be
exercised in giving a report on such oils.
A comparison of the two analyses further throws an
interesting light on the destruction that takes place. We
notice at once that the neutral fat constituting as much as
78 per cent, of the recovered grease has been destroyed
nearly completely.
In the first instance the ethers will have been broken up
into their fatty acids and hydrocarbons, the latter being
naturally formed in consequence of the fatty acids claiming
all the available oxygen for themselves. We know this
from actual experiments. Berthelot has shown that
cholesteryl stearate becomes acid on heating. We know
further from Smith's experiments (Ann. Chim. Phys. [3]
6, 40) that cetyl palmitate distilled under ordinary pressure
splits up into palmitic acid and cetene according to the
equation C15Hs,CO.O.C16H3, = C15H31COOH + C16H32.
Finally Kraft't (Ber. 16, 3019) has prepared, by the same
reaction, from the palmitates of dodecatyl alcohol, tetra-
decyl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, and octadecyl alcohol the
hydrocarbons : dodecylene, C12H2j ; tetradecylene, Ci4ilw ;
cetene, C16H:,; ; and octadecyleue, C1SH36.
As the distillation of the recovered grease is carried out
by means of superheated steam, it is not surprising to find
that part of the neutral fat escaped destruction, for we
know that cetyl palmitate, e.g. can be distilled in vacuo
without undergoing decomposition.
The free alcohols — or if any be formed by the destruc-
tion taking place in such a direction — will at such high
temperatures easily lose water and contribute their share to
the production of hydrocarbons.
It is well known that the cholesterol is decomposed into
hydrocarbons when subjected to dry distillation ; the other
alcohols may undergo similar changes, and that not only
during distillation, but already in the preceding operation
of washing with concentrated sulphuric acid. Cholesterol,
Fsb. 29,18980 THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
143
e.g. is converted by this acid into three isomeric hydro-
carbons as Zwenger (Liebig's Anualen (1848), 66, 5) has
shown.
The fatty acids in their turn undergo a breaking up into
acids of lower molecular weight, and, to all appearances,
in particular the higher fatty acids will be subject to this
change, for oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids can be easily
distilled without much destruction in a current of super-
heated steam. A small quantity of hydrocarbons, however,
are always formed when these lower fatty acids are distilled
in candle works, and so we have to look to some extent
to the fatty acids as a further source of the distilled-grease-
hvdrocarbons.
The chemical constitution of some of these higher fatty
acids, which must be claimed as hydroxylated fatty acids,
seems to make them specially fit — I nearly said to predispose
them — for this change. A certain amount of proof can be
adduced from the above-recorded observations for this
supposition. The formation of that difficultly-soluble soap,
so unpleasantly noticeable during the neutralisation of the
free fatty acids of the recovered grease, was completely
absent when the distilled grease underwent the same
operation. On saponifying, however, the neutral fat of
the latter, that intermediate layer made its appearance
again j this cannot be adduced as contradicting my
assumption, for it simply shows that the current of steam
mechanically carries over the neutral fat, and thus with-
draws it from the destructive influence of the high
temperature.
III. — Quantitative Estimation of Cholesterol.
During the examination of the recovered grease I felt
very much the want of a method of estimating cholesterol
quantitatively. The separation of cholesterol in substance
or in form of its ethers as cholesteryl acetate or benzoate
could, of course, not lead to quantitative results. An optical
method : the determination of the cholesterol by the rotation
of the plane of polarised light, was a priori excluded as
isocholesterol, which is also present in the wool-fat, is
dextro-rotatory, and would by compensation with the laevo-
rotatory cholesterol lead to completely erroneous results.
A colorometric method, based on Liebermann's cholesterol
reaction, has been proposed recently by Burchard (Ber.
1890, Bef. 752), but it was, of course, out of the
question to use this method for my purposes.
I had therefore to look out for some new method. A
contemplation of the formula for cholesterol, C.,6H43. OH,
suggests at once the possible use of methods which are
generally practised in the analysis of fats. Cholesterol
being an alcohol, it should be easily transformed into an
ether ; moreover, cholesterol being an unsaturated compound
it might add iodine ; and the existence of the dibromide,
which has been described by Wislicenus and Moldenhauer
(Liebig's Annalen, 146, 178), seemed to point to such
a method. All that had to be settled by experiment was to
determine whether the two reactions took place quantita-
tively, and for this purpose it was by no means necessary
to isolate the resulting derivatives, as the saponification
value and the iodine absorption value could give a
satisfactory answer to that question. The experiments
showed that the cholesteryl acetate and the di-iodide of
cholesterol are formed quantitatively, and that these two
methods afford an easy means for the quantitative
estimation of cholesterol, and consequently also of
isocholesterol. I subjoin the details of the analysis : —
Pure cholesterol, prepared from calf brains (in the works
of Kahlbaum), was boiled with \\ its quantity of acetic
anhydride in a flask connected with a reflux condenser ; the
resulting product was washed on the filter with warm water
until the wash-waters showed no longer an acid reaction, and
the filter with'the precipitate brought into a flask to be boiled
with an excess of standardised alcoholic potash. The alkali
used was determined by titrating back the excess.
I.
1-5681 grm. cholesterol transformed into the acetate
required for saponification 8'55 cc. ^ normal KOH;
consequently saponific. value 137 ■ 4.
II.
1 "9860 grm. cholesterol required 10-3cc. | normal KOH
saponific. value 132-4.
Theory indicates for the formula C';6Ho0 . C;H30 the
saponification value 135-5.
For the determination of the iodine absorption value the
cholesterol was dissolved in 50 cc. chloroform and 25 cc. of
an iodine solution as well as of a mercury bichloride solu-
tion— prepared according to Hubl's prescription and kept
separately until used — added. The unabsorbed iodine was
titrated back with a sodium hyposulphite solution, 17-4 cc.
of which corresponded to a quantity of 0-2 grm. iodine. It
goes without saying that a blank test was used at the same
time.
0 • 6060 grm. cholesterol absorbed iodine equivalent to 35-9
cc. of the above sodium hyposulphite solution ; where-
from iodine value 68 '09.
II.
0-5617 grm. cholesterol took 33-65 cc. of the solution;
iodine value 67-3.
Theory requires for the formation of C26H410I2 : 68-3
per cent. The last experiments prove that cholesterol
contains one CH = CH group in the lateral chain of one
benzene nucleus.
After the above results had been obtained I could try
how far cholesterol could be separated from other alcohols.
Possessing a pure specimen of cetyl alcohol I prepared from
weighed quantities a mixture of cholesterol and cetyl alcohol.
The iodine value of the mixture gave the quantity of choles-
terol direct. Th ; acetate method could not be employed
in a desired way, as the cetyl acetate — melting at about
22° C. — would pass through the filter, and when I cooled
the filter by means of ice, filtration could not be brought to
an end. I dissolved therefore the acetates in absolute
alcohol, from which cholesteryl acetate is well known to
crystallise in needles. Thus I obtained a crop of crystals,
having a saponification value of 138-4 and 132-6 in two
experiments, while the respective yields were 69-03 per
cent, and 59 • 92 per cent, of the cholesterj-l acetate which
had been formed from the cholesterol weighed in. The
mother-liquor from the crystals gave another crop, which in
the second experiment yielded another 9 per cent, with the
saponification value 168.
The first crop of crystals were nearly pure cholesteryl
acetate, whilst the second crystallisation contained already
notable quantities of cetyl alcohol (saponification value
197-5). It is evident that cholesteryl acetate cannot be
separated completely from cetyl acetate by crystallisation
from alcohol.
As I had obtained in the examination of the distilled
grease mixtures of alcohols and hydrocarbons I prepared
mixtures of pure cholesterol and of a mineral oil 0-880 sp.
gr. to test both methods for the estimation of cholesterol
in such a case.
0-8220 grm. cholesterol were mixed with 0-2393 grm. of
the mineral oil (which had been tested before with acetate
anhydride and found — as expected — not to require any
KOH) and boiled with acetic anhydride. The mixture
required for saponification 4-44 cc. half- normal KOH. The
0-8220 grm. cholesterol must have given theoretically
0-9148 grm. acetate, which had consequently the saponifi-
cation value 136-1 instead of 135-5.
The percentage of cholesterol in the mixture could have
been found at once by means of the formula —
P =
o^x_B61 x 372
S x 414 x 1S5S x 100
where o is the number of cc. 1/1 normal potash used, S the
substance weighed, 56 • 1 the molecular weight of KOH, 372
that of cholesterol, and 414 of cholesteryl acetate, whilst
135-5 is the saponification value of cholesterol. The calcula-
tion gives 77-82 per cent, cholesterol ; the mixture actually
contained 77 -45 per cent.
It 4
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1892.
The iodine method gave for the mixture of cholesterol
and mineral oil equally good results. The mineral oil
absorbed 26-3 per cent, iodine when tested separately.
(1.) A mixture of 0-7208 grm. cholesterol and 0-3379
grin, of this mineral oil absorbed 54-38 percent, iodine,
that is for the sum 0-7208 + 0-3379 a quantity of
0 • 5757 grm. iodine. The theoretical calculation gives —
U-7-208 X B8-3 + 0-3379 x 26-3 = 0.5gl()
](lu 6
(2.) 0-7263 grm. cholesterol + 0-3361 grm. mineral oil
absorbed 54-3 per cent, or 0-5771 grm. iodine; theory
requires 0-5845 grm.
This second method will allow a limited application only,
:i^ tin' iodine value of the hydrocarbons must be known,
which will not be always the ease.
In conclusion I wish to say a few words about the
qualitative reactions for cholesterol and isocholesterol.
Colour reactions, especially those requiring the use of
concentrated sulphuric acid, should always be looked upon
with some suspicion, which can only be heightened if we
remember the fate of, e.g. the isatine reaction for benzene,
of Laubenheimer's reaction for pheuanthvenequiuone, &c.
Liebermann's " Cholestol " reaction for cholesterol — acetic
anhydride and sulphuric acid ; sharper still is the test in
the modified form proposed by Burchard, 2 cc. chloroform,
20 drops of acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid — is a beauti-
ful reaction for pure cholesterol, but unfortunately resins
possess a reaction so similar to the cholesterol reaction that
a discrimination would be difficult. The corresponding
reaction for isocholesterol, recently proposed by Schulze
(Ber. 24, Ref. 671), (green fluorescence) is very sharp too,
but in a mixture of isocholesterol and cholesterol, which
which we undoubtedly have in the alcohols prepared from
" Lanolin," the isocholesterol reaction prevails, as I had
occasion to observe. Amongst a large number of experi-
ments 1 only occasionally succeeded in noticing the pink
colouration due to the presence of cholesterol, and it would
therefore be rash to pronounce absence of cholesterol, if
the green fluorescence only is noticed. The reaction with
iron perchloride and strong hydrochloric acid on a porcelain
crucible cover is not exclusively peculiar to cholesterol, for
turpentine, camphor a.o. behave in the same way (Weyl.
Ber. 1886, Ref. 619).
Discussion'.
The Chairman remarked that the subject was one of great
interest to members, as some 12,000 tons of wool grease
were recovered annually from mills in the district alone.
The author had shown that the analysis was complicated
in the case of pure wool grease ; this was much more the
case when grease was adulterated with mineral and rosin oils.
Samples of greases, though similar in appearance and con-
taining equal amounts of saponifiable matter, might vary in
value from 8/. to 16Z. per ton. He exhibited samples and
illustrated the methods of determining commercial value
in the case of a grease worth 13/., which showed : —
1. Specific gravity 0* £141
2. Flash point 415° F.
This shows it can contain no mineral oil after it has
been established that no rosin oil is present.
3. Setting point of fatty acids 101° F.
4. By titration of saponifiable matter and calculation to a
molecular weight of 282 there was found —
Saponifiable , = 51*21 per cent.
Unsaponifiable (by difference) = 4t>*79 „
,, (byetherextraction) = 4V70 „
The difference between the calculated and observed amount
of unsaponifiable matter gave, roughly, an indication of
cholesterinoid bodies present. He calculated for every
1 per cent, of difference 10 per cent, of cholesterin present.
The cerotic compounds left unsaponified formed a hard mass
of high specific gravity. On distillation the cholesterinoid
bodies changed into other hydrocarbons, and the specific
gravity sank (in this sample) to 0-914 and the flash point
to 330° F. The proportion of fatty acid did not alter
more than 2 per cent. These hydrocarbons had the
appearance of mineral oils. Dr. Hess concluded by
expressing a wish that chemists would adopt some uniform
method of determining the amounts of saponifiable and
unsaponifiable constituents in such greases, since results of
analyses of the same material by different chemists some-
times differed as much as 5 per cent.
Mr. Fairley asked whether dry distillation, or distillation
with superheated steam, was employed for purifying the
grease ?
The Chairman- said that superheated steam was always
used.
Mr. Fairley thought it surprising that so much hydro-
carbon should be formed in presence of an excess of steam.
The Chaiemax replied that the hydrocarbons were
present before, but in a different form.
Mr. Bichardson asked Dr. Lewkowitsch if he considered
the " acetyl values " were reliable, the process being used
as supplementary to the ordinary methods in the general
analysis of oils in soap, &c. He mentioned the action of
oils on samples of tops ; after an interval of a month the
iodine absorption value was reduced .from 100 to 50, due
apparently to oxidation of the oil.
Professor Hummel was surprised to learn that there was
so much unsaponifiable matter in distilled grease used to
oil wool for spinning. He believed such bodies were
difficult to scour ; the difficulty had been attributed to
intentional adulteration with mineral oil. He desired to
know what sort of a residue was left on distillation, -and
whether anything was known of its composition. He had
some years ago obtained a similar waxy product from apple
parings by extraction with ether, and it had recently been
shown that cholesterin exists in vegetable material.
The Chairman said mineral oil was often mixed
with grease and was undoubtedly deleterious to the wool.
He thought Dr. Lewkowitsch wished to find some method
of distinguishing this from cholesterinoid material. In
reply to Professor Hummel he stated that the residue left
on distilling grease was pitch. The distilled grease from
the sample shown was pressed into stearine and oleine, and
the former contained 33 per cent, of unsaponifiable matter,
and had a meiting point of 118° F.
Mr. Procter inquired if Dr. Lewkowitsch had ever come
across an animal oil possessing a distinct bloom like
mineral oils. He had once obtained, by pressing fats
obtained in gelatin manufacture, an amber-coloured oil
with green fluorescence.
The Chairman' replied that the hydrocarbons obtained
by the distillation of cholesterin had a distinct bloom, palm
oleine occasionally, showed this fluorescence.
Mr. Mackay asked how it was that an increase of 10 per
cent, in the unsaponifiable matter caused a rise in value of
3/. per ton, and, if so, would not the pure cholesterinoid
products be very valuable.
The Chairman said the increased value was due to the
extended application of such greases, as, for instance, in the
manufacture of lanolin and viuolia soap. If it were possible
to obtain cholesterinoid substances cheaply and free from
fatty acids they would be most valuable for lubricating
purposes.
Mr. Man-sbridge said he had examined large numbers of
greases and had never found more than lj per cent, of
neutral oils ; he believes that neutral fats to be almost entirely
decomposed in the still.
Professor Hummel stated that attempts had been made
of recent years to scour wool with petroleum ether, carbon
disulphide, &c., thus extracting a fatty matter containing
cholsterin. He wished to know whether a large sale of
the extracted matter could be assured, supposing such a
process were introduced.
The Chairman replied that such processes had often
been tried, but without success ; under the influence of hot
solvents, the wool became brittle and yellow. The pro-
duets would be very valuable, but the wool would be
spoilt.
Ft*. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
145
Dr. Lewkowitsch severely criticised Dr. Hess' analyses
(the details of one of which are given above). The 51 per
cent. *' sapouifiable" would only be free fatty acid. The
46-79 per cent, "unsaponitialile " be considered not at
all reliable ; it was determined merely by difference, but he
should like to know how and whether that was so, since
51-21 and 46- 79 gave 98 per cent. only. " Sapouifiable "
was also determined by calculating from an assumed
molecular weight. The extraction with ether could not
give too low a value; it might give a value higher than
the true one, as a small amount of soap might have been
extracted and overlooked. He therefore attached no
scientific value to these figures.
The Chaikjian defended his analyses and remarked that
they agreed within 0- 1 per cent, with analyses by Allen and
other chemists of the same samples. When cholesteriuoid
bodies were present it was usual to assume a molecular
weight not of 282 but over 300 in calculating the results.
In the results above given, 41 -7 per cent, would be taken as
correct. He knew the other figure was incorrect, but the
difference between it and the experimental figure gave a
rough idea of the amount of cholesterin present.
Dr. Lewkowitsch, answering Mr. Mansbridge, said that
his paper only dealt with this one fat, and that if
Mr. Mansbridge questioned the amount of combined fatty
acids in the distilled grease, he could only refer to his
figures. He had found the mean molecular weight of the
free fatty acids of the distilled grease = 2S6 ; the molecular
weight of all fatty acids (combined and free) =300-5 and
the molecular weight of the combined acids 394. The
amount of combined fatty acids corresponds to the difference
of KOH used for neutralising and saponifying = 2-10 —
1-92 = 0-18 and 0- 18 x 39 •2 = 7' 02 as to the hydrocarbons.
He showed three fractions obtained by the distillation of
the crude hydrocarbons contained in distilled wool-grease,
the specific gravity of which was respectively 0-851, 0-918,
0-92. Admixture of resin oils would, he remarked, be shown
by the high specific gravity of these distillates. The
polariscope could not be used as the hydrocarbons obtained
from cholesterins are optically active, and would contain
cholesterin as shown. In answer to Mr. Fairley, he said
that superheated steam does not act as so much water
would do, but simply as a vehicle to convey the products
out of the still as quickly as possible. Replying to
Mr. Kiehardson, Dr. Lewkowitsch suggested that the oil
used on " tops " may have been adulterated with linseed
oil, which, as is well known, contains a series of acids from
ClsH)60., to C13H30O2, the least saturated of which
(Ci8H3jO2=C1gH30Oj) easily take up O.
Mr. KiChardson explained that he had been unable to
find any linoleic acid in the oil.
Dr. Lewkowitsch, speaking of the "acetyl values,"
remarked that acetic anhydride, as he had shown receutty,
acted on normal fatty acids, forming anhydrides, e.g.
(Ci6HaiCO)sO which is not attacked easily by aqueous
caustic soda, and not hydrolysed completely by it ; on the
Othei hand, acids of a constitution similar to —
C16H3u(OH).COOH
take up one (C2H;)0) group, and the saponification value
comes out twice as great as that of the original acid.
With regard to bloom, he had not noticed it on animal
oils, but it was shown by the hydrocarbons under dis-
cussion.
He further stated that the substances obtained from
recovered grease should not be used in the manufacture of
household soaps, but are said to do for milling soaps.
The pitch left behind in the retort is valuable for greasing
the necks of hot rollers.
<§lasgoto aift £>cotttsf) £>ecttoin
Chairman : E. C. C. Stanford.
Vice-Chairman: A. Crum Brown.
J. Christie.
W. J. A. Donald.
D. B. Dott. •
C. J. Ellis.
C. A. Fawsitt.
Wra. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
It. A. Inglis.
Committee :
It. Irvine.
J. Falconer King.
G. McRoberts.
T. P. Miller.
J. Pattison.
J. B. Reatlinan.
E. Smith.
It. R. Tatlock.
Hon. Treasurer: W. J.Chrystal.
Hon. Local Secretary .-
Dr. G. G. Henderson, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices ol Papers and Communications for the Meetings to bo
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1801-5)2.
March 1st (Glasgow) :—
Mr. G. Watson, jun. "The Preparation of Pure Phosphoric
Acid from Phosphate of Soda."
Mr. W. J. A. Donald. " On Bauxite."
April oth (Glasgow) :—
Mr. C. A. Fawsitt. " The ' Dry Heat ' Vulcanisation of Rubber
with Special Refcrenco to the Uso of an improved Vulcaniser."
<®bitmrj>.
THOMAS W. B. MUMFOKD.
It is with regret that we have to announce the death
of Mr. Thomas W. B. Mumford, Honorary Secretary
of the London Section of the Society.
Early in life he entered the employment of Messrs.
James Gibbs and Co., vitriol and manure manufac-
turers, in a comparatively humble position, and by his
skill, energy, and perseverance, rapidly rose in the
estimation of the firm, and was appointed manager
of their Plymouth works, and at a later date held the
same position at their principal works in London. He
joined the Society of Chemical Industry in 1883, and
succeeded Mr. Tyrer as secretary of the London Section
in 1890, on the elevation of the latter to the Chair. He
was the author of various improvements in his own
branch of manufacture, particularly in the construction of
roller-mills for phosphates, and was joint inventor with
his colleague, Mr. Moodie, of the now well-known
Separator. He discharged his secretarial duties in an
admirable manner, and was universally esteemed by all
who knew him, not only for his high intellectual and
moral qualities, but also for his kindness of heart and
readiness to serve others, which endeared him to all and
rendered his early death so much to be deplored. He
was taken ill at the Annual General Meeting in Dublin in
July last year, and soon afterwards symptoms of con-
sumption declared themselves. A visit to Bournemouth
failed to effect any improvement, and upon his return he
took to his bed.
He died on 26th December 1891, in the 47th year of
his age, leaving a wife and two children to mourn his
loss.
146
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1S92.
CHARLES HEISCH.
MEMBER OF THE SOCIETT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
THE CITY GAS EXAMINER j ALSO PAST PRESIDENT OF
THE SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
Charles Heisch was born at Blackheath, Kent, on
the 2nd August 1820, and was the youngest son of the
late Frederick Heisch, of Messrs. Cox, Ileiseh, and Co.,
America Square, Loudon. Even in boyhood he was
distinguished by his partiality for chemical studies, and
was clever in constructing scientific apparatus and models.
This led to his being placed with Mr. Richard Phillips,
wlto was then occupying temporary premises at Craig's
Court, Charing Cross, during the construction of his
laboratory and lecture room in the Museum of Economic
Geology, Jermyu Street. In 1842, Heisch became assis-
tant to Dr. Leeson at St. Thomas's Hospital, and whilst
here made chemical analyses of the large number of calculi
forming the collection in the Anatomical Museum. Six
years later, in 1 848, he was elected joint Lecturer on
Chemistry with Mr. Thomas Taylor at the Middlesex
Hospital, a post which he retained for upwards of 20
years. Meanwhile, in 1868, he was appointed Superin-
tending Gas Examiner to the Corporation of Loudon,
the duties of which office he continued to fulfil almost up
to the time of his death on the 2nd January last.
Mr. Heisch attended the Jubilee Meeting of the
Chemical Society in May last, and was publicly referred
to as being one of the three or four survivors who took
part in the original formation of that Society in March
1 84 1 . He was, besides, one of the founders of the Society
of Public Analysts, and for some years Secretary,
becoming President, as stated, in 1881 — 82. He
likewise took an active part in the formation of the
Photographic Society, and has been for many years a
member of this Society. His most important con-
tribution to chemical science was the " Sugar Test" for
determining the quality of potable waters (Chem. Soc.
Jour. 1870, Vol. XXIII., 371.) This, with other
papers in the Journal of Gas Lighting, the Analyst, and
Chemical News, besides sundry researches in photo-
graphic practice, such as the accurate rendering of
coloured objects by means of bromized collodion, and
improvements in apparatus, make up the sum of
Mr. Heiseh's experimental record. He married somewhat
late in life, and leaves a widow, besides many private
friends, to mourn his loss.
WILLIAM D1TTMAR, LL.D.. F.R.S.
FORMERLY VICE-CHAIRMAN OF THE GLASGOW AND
SCOTTISH SECTION OF THE SOCIETY
OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRV.
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE GLASGOW AND
WEST OF SCOTLAND TECHNICAL COLLEGE.
It is with deep regret that we have to announce the
death of Professor Dittmar, of the Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College. Although for the past few
weeks he had not been quite well, no symptoms of a
serious kind presented themselves so as to interfere with
the discharge of his duties or to cause anxiety to his
friends. On Tuesday forenoon he delivered his lecture
as usual, although a want of readiness was noticeable.
In the earlier part of the afternoon he returned Ik. me,
and, while evidently out of sorts, it was only after four
o'clock that it seemed needful to ask medical advice. He
passed away shortly before midnight. It is satisfactory
to know that he was spared pain, and complained merely
of a feeling of uneasiness. The immediate cause of death
wasa failure of the nerve centre regulating the breathing,
and there was a slight cerebral hemorrhage.
Since the year 1874, when he was appointed, on Pro-
fessoTThorpe's'resignation, to the Chair of Chemistry in
the Anderson's College, the striking personality and the
high repute of Dr. Dittmar have been well known to the
Glasgow public. He was called to occupy a chair
deriving its prestige from the names and work of
Graham, Ure, and Penny, and the success with which
Professor Dittmar discharged his academic duties, while
extending the domain of his science, proves that his pre-
sence and work shed an additional lustre on -the chair
and college, already illustrious through these names.
During his 17 years of work here, Professor Dittmar has
made his laboratory second to none perhaps in Great
Britain as a training school of young men devoted to
chemistrv as a profession. Erom comparatively small
numbers in the earlier years, the laboratory roll has
risen to on an average over 50. The reason was not
far to seek. Professor Dittmar was a man of admittedly
profound knowledge, standing in the front rink of
chemists both as a theorist and a practical analyst, an
enthusiast gifted, strange as that may seem to be, with
an indomitable scientific pertinacity and a far-reaching
speculative power, brought into harmony and rendered
practically effective by a clear conception of the value of
routine. Above all, he had the mark of every great
teacher — the power of drawing to himself the hearts of
his students, and of controlling and stimulating in them
the aspirations which his instruction engendered.
Professor William Dittmar, LL.D, F.R.S.. L. and E.,
was born at Umstadt, near Darmstadt, Germany, in the
year 1833, and adds one more name to the list of
distinguished chemists, embracing Liebig, Strecker,
Kekule, and Schorlemmer, who have made the latter
town famous. Intending at first to follow the pharma-
ceutic profession, he fortunately changed his mind, and
entered in 1807 the laboratory of the celebrated Bunsen,
who, discerning the promise of his student, offered to
Dittmar an assistantship. In this capacity it was that
Professor Sir Henry Roscoe m^de his acquaintance, and
he, too, impressed by Dittmar's rare powers, invited him
to become his private assistant. After Roscoe's appoint-
ment to the Chair of Chemistry in Owens College,
Mr. Dittmar accompanied him thither, and only left
Manchester to become in 1861 Dr. Lyon Play-fair's chief
laboratory assistant. In 1869 he returned to Germany,
and during ihe next three years acted as a " Privat
Docent " and lecturer on meteorology at Poppelsdorff.
Though offered a chair in Cassel he preferred to return
to Scotland in 1872 to hold under Professor Cruni Brown
the same post that he had held under Sir Lyon Playfair.
It is pleasing to think that this led to a deep and lifelong
friendship based upon the excellence of heart, frank and
genial bearing, and high-souled integrity of both him
who is left and him who is gone. It is hard to tell
which entertained the higher opinion of the other's nature
and scientific power. One thing is certain that Professor
Dittmar was habitually called in to co-operate by
authorities such as Cram Brown and Dewar as a fellow-
expert whose opinion was, to men of science at least,
absolute. On being offered the newly-instituted Chair
of Practical Chemistry in Owens College, he removed
to Manchester, only to return after a brief period to
Scotland. The trustees of the Anderson's College here
did honour to their own judgment and a lasting benefit to
chemical science in Scotland in recognising the claims of
William Dittmar to a chair such as they had to offer.
To the transcendent ability of Professor Dittmar the
governors who elected him and their successors have
never been blind. So perfectly, indeed, has he performed
his functions, and furthered the interests of his college,
that, though his ideal of his sphere was by many felt to
be almost impracticably high, there must be in all the
conviction that it will be very difficult soou to make
good his loss.
The labours of Professor Dittmar are, in their abstruse-
ness, thoroughness, and extent, incapable of being either
duly detailed here or adequately valued by anyone not
himself an expert in physics and chemistry. As a
Feb. 29, i89i] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
147
lecturer we knew him and admired his natural, spon-
taneous, clear way of conveying his ideas. As a
laboratory teacher it was impossible not to he impressed
by the light value in which he held labour so long as
truth and accuracy might be attained, nor to be almost
taken aback by his enormous fertility of resource.
Even as a practical analyst commercial men knew
his worth. But his work as a scientist must be
left to time to estimate. One thing is certain,
critics arc united in recognising the thoroughness, great
variety, and true scientific worth of all he has done. It
is not too much to say that the honours which have fallen
to him of late years, and the crowning honour of the
Graham medal, conferred on him for his laborious,
difficult, and successful investigation of the " Gravimetric
composition of water," are only first hints of the recog-
nition of his great scientific services. It is only necessary
to mention here two of his more generally known original
contributions, and which, like the whole of his extensive
scientific work, show that striking originality and character
that were peculiarly his own. The contribution which is
probably best known to the ordinary non-scientific world
comprised the incessant and painstaking work of three
years, namely, that in connection with the "Challenger"
expedition of 1873-76. His work and publications
on the chemical balance are known to every scientist,
and he was universally recognised as one of the highest
authorities on this as on many other subjects. He also
wrote numerous and voluminous articles in all the best
known cyclopaedias of Britain and the Continent, and
was a constant contributor to some of the most famous
Continental scientific periodicals.
As a man, it is impossible to speak too highly of
Professor Dittmar. Widely cultivated, simple in his
tastes, unaffected in his manners, genial even to jocularity,
he was one who readily endeared himself to all with
whom he came in contact. But he was also a man of
thorough uprightness, who persisted without flinching in
what he thought was right, and who, generous in his
antagonism, might find opponents but could leave no
enemies. By his family, his students, and his many
friends his loss is deeply felt, for it was impossible to
find one more domestic in his affections, one more able
and willing to advise and aid, or one in whom the light
of friendship shone with greater steadiness and purity.
3ournaJ anlj patent* iliftrature*
Class. Page.
I. — General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 147
1 1.— Fuel, Gas, and Light 149
III.— Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 150
IV7.— Colouring Matters and Dyes 153
V.— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 158
VI.— Dyeing, Calien Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 158
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 161
VIII.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 102
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements . . 163
X.— Metallurgy 165
XI.— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 168
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 169
XIII.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, &c 170
XI V.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 171
XV.— Manures, &c 171
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c —
XVII.— Brewing, Wines, Spirits, 4c 171
XVIII.— Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 172
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, &e 174
XX. — Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 176
XXI. — Photographic Materials and Processes 179
XXII.— Eiplosives, Matches, &c 179
XXIII— Analytical Chemistry LSI
I.-G-ENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
A New Syphon F. Konther. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15 1126.
See under XXIII., page 181.
PATEXTS.
A Crusher and Pulveriser. W. C. Morison, Plymouth.
Eng. Pat. 14,945, September 22, 1890. 8d.
The apparatus consists of an upright stationary vessel
having a hemispherically-shaped bottom, with sides inclining
outwards, and having a circular hole in the bottom corre-
sponding with a circular hole formed in the central portion
of a hemispherically-shaped cast-iron " piece," upon which
it fits and works. The sides of this " solid piece," are also
inclined outwards. The material to be operated upon is
broken between the " solid piece " and the sides of the
vessel, and when crushed sufficiently small, drops into the
gradually diminishing space between the sides of the " solid
piece " and the vessel, until it reaches the lower end, where
it is subjected to a further grinding action, and is finally
discharged through the hole in the bottom. The incline of
the solid piece can be regulated at pleasure. This piece is
prevented from rising during the crushing of the material
by the upper portion of the revolving shaft working against
discs placed in a rigid frame, thus resisting the upward
pressure. The " solid piece " is covered and the sides of
the vessel are suitably lined with hard metal.— E. 8.
Improved Filter for Oils, Lubricants, and other Fluids.
W. H. VVillcox, London. Eng. Pat. 101, January 2,
1891. Co1.
See under XII., page 169.
Improvements in Multiple Effect Evaporating Apparatus.
A. Chapman, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 1194, January 22,
1891. Srf.
The object of this invention is an improvement of
" Yaryan " triple effect apparatus. Owing mostly to the
employment of long tubular worms, the pipes get readily
furred and filled with deposit when treating certain liquors,
unless they are blown out and cleaned once or twice a
day. This reduces the quantity of work done as well as
the density of the concentrated liquor, and the difficulty is
sought to be overcome by the addition of a vertical tubular
evaporating vessel as shown in the arrangement illustrated.
a b c represent three vessels of a triple effect apparatus ;
rf is the additional vessel containing vertical tubes passing
through a steam drum ; e vapour pipe from the last vessel c
of the "Yaryan" apparatus leading to the steam space of
drum rf. The inverted syphon / removes the condensed
• Any of these specifications may be obtained by post, by
remitting the cost price, plus postage, to Mr. H. Reader Lack,
Comptroller of the Patent Office, Southampton Buildings, Chancery
Lane, London. W.C. The amount of postage may be calculated as
follows : —
If the price does not exceed Srf \d.
Above 8cZ., and not exceeding ls.&d Id.
„ Is. 6d., „ „ 2s. id.. lid.
„ 2s.4r/„ „ „ 3s. id 2d.
148
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
water from c, and syphon g conducts the partially concen-
trated liquor to the lower end of the vertical tubes in the
vessel d, after passing which it overflows through. I and is
taken away by the pump m. The vapour passes through
the pipe h into the condenser i and air-pump h.
There are two claims. — B.
Improved Oil Filter. C. K. Masterman and " Woodhouse
and Kawson United Limited," London. Eug. Tat. 1976,
February 3, 1891. id.
See under XII., page 169.
An Improved Evaporator and Surface Condenser for Pro-
ducing Pure Distilled Water. \V. P. Cotton, London,
and E. L. Garrett, VVaUington. Eng. Pat. 2141, February
5, 1891. $d.
Is this apparatus the water is evaporated by means of steam
and is afterwards condensed. Within a vertical chamber
two series of tubes are arranged surrounded by cold water
admitted .at the lower part of the chamber. Steam admitted
to the upper series of tubes heats the water surrounding
them, and the steam formed rises to the upper part of the
chamber, and passing down pipes to the lower series of
tubes is condensed by the cold water surrounding them,
flowing away through a pipe to any suitable receptacle.
— E. S.
An Improved Apparutus for Distilling U'arer and other
Liquids. W. T. ( lotton, London, and E. L. Garrett,
Wallington. Eng. Pat. 2142, February 5, 1891. 6d.
This invention is a modification of Eng. Pat. 2141 of 1891
(see preceding abstract). Two suitably shaped vessels are
each divided into two chambers by plates, from which are
suspended, in the chamber below, a number of tubes, open
at the top but closed at the bottom. Between the two
vessels is a cistern supplying water. A pipe from the
bottom of the cistern conveys the water to the upper
chamber of one vessel, and to the tubes beneath, and over-
flows through a pipe in the lower part of the upper chamber
into the upper chamber and tubes of the second vessel.
Beneath these latter tubes an atmospheric gas burner is
placed ; this heats the water and the steam rises into the
upper chamber and passes by a pipe to the space beneath
the tubes in the first-named vessel, and being condensed
falls into the space beneath them, whence the distilled water
is conducted to any suitable receptacle. — E. S.
Improvements in Couplings for Glais Tubes or for Tubes
Lined with Glass. I). Rylands, Stairfoot, and R. Morant,
Barnsley. Eng. Pat. 3172, February 21, 1891. 6rf.
See under VIII., page 162.
Improvements in or Connected ivith Vacuum Distillatory
Apparatus. E. Luck, London. Eng. Pat. 3955, March 5,
1891. 6d.
The patentee's aim is to withdraw the spent or exhausted
liquor from an ordinary vacuum still without destroying the
vacuum, thereby enabling the process to be carried on
continuously. For this purpose he connects to the lower
part of the still when required, either a pump, or a descending
tube of such length as to enable the liquor therein to balance
the atmospheric pressure.
The claim is illustrated by one drawing. — B.
Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus for Producing
Cold by the Employment of Carbonic Anhydride.
E. Hesketh and A. Manet, London. Eng. Pat. 12,409,
July 22, 1891. %d.
The patentees claim : — (1.) An arrangement of compound
engine with cylinders fixed tandem fashion, and two com-
pressing cylinders attached capable of being thrown out of
gear separately, and the whole power of the engine applied
to one of the compressors. (2.') An arrangement of con-
densing pipes in the foundation plate. (3.) and (4.) Passing
the cold carbonic acid gas through passages cast on the
compression cylinders for keeping them cool.
For details the specification and three sheets of drawings
should be consulted. — B.
Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus for Producing
Cold by the Employment of Carbonic Anhydride.
E. Hesketh and A. llarcet, London. Eng. Pat. 12,676,
July 25, 1891. 11</.
To avoid dangerous over-pressure in the passage between
the compressor and condenser of such apparatus, when the
screw-down valve has been inadvertently closed, the patentees
introduce a thin plate of copper or other material calculated
to burst when a certain pressure has been exceeded, and
they further add a safety valve in some cases outside the
relief plate, for the purpose of preventing the escape of
the whole of the gas after the plate has burst. The patent
also covers a provision for separating any lubricant from
the carbonic anhydride after leaving the compressor, and
arrangements for facilitating the cleaning of the exterior of
the refrigerator pipes by constructing the outer tank in parts
for easy removal. When used for the production of ice the
pipes are placed close together so as to touch, with a view ,o
separate the ice coating into two parts as it is being formed
on the circumference of the pipes, thereby enabling its easy
disconnection.
Cross partitions or walls of wood may be fitted to the
pipes for further subdivision of the blocks.
There are seven claims and three sheets of drawings. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Automatic Control of
Sulphuric Acid Supply to Carbonic Acid Generators
used in Aerated Water Manufacture and other I?idus-
tries. H. C. Cox, Oltou. Eng. Pat, 17,034, October 7,
1891. 6rf.
See under VII., page 162.
Feb. 20, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
149
Improvements in or relating to Centrifugal Separators for
Granular Substances. H. Pape and W. Henneberg,
Hamburg, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,694, November 13,
1891. 6<i.
The object of this inveution is to arrange the shaft or
spindle carrying the distributing disc, in a continuous
working centrifugal separator, in such a manner that all
the bearings requiring lubrication are situated above the
disc and cover of the machine, whilst also securing a
central receiving cavity under the distributing disc. To
effect this, the spindle carrying the disc, and the framework
are supported on the cover of the receiving chamber. The
materials are brought to the disc through a pipe from a
suitable hopper, and are prevented from touching the
spindle by a sleeve extending centrally within the pipe, and
surrounding the central spindle, and are distributed iuto a
series of concentric receivers, the heavier materials being
thrown on to the outer receivers, and the lighter particles
on to the inner receivers, the lightest of all falling into a
central cavity below the disc, whence they may be
continuously removed. — E. S.
An Improved Tool for Cutting Glass Tubes. A. W.
Chesterton, Boston, U.S.A. Eug. Pat. 20,211, November
20, 1891. lid.
See under VIII., page 163.
II.-FUEL, QAS. AND LiaHT.
Petroleum and Asphalt at Palena, in Vayta. Analogy
between Salt and Coal Deposits. C. Ochsenius. C'hem.
Zeit. 1891, 15, 1866—1867.
See under III., next page.
PATENTS.
An Improved Manufacture of Incandescent Bodies for
Incandescent Gas Lamps. L. Haitinger, Klosterneuberg,
Austria. Eng. Pat. 586, January 12, 1891. 6d.
A suitable refractory material for incandescent gas lights
is made by mixing alumina with a small proportion of
chromium oxide, and heating the mixture for some time at
a high degree of incandescence. The chromium oxide may
be partly or wholly replaced by manganese oxide, and either
magnesia or zirconium oxide or lime may be substituted for
part or all the alumina. Salts may be employed instead of
oxides. Fixed acids or alkalis in small quantities are not
prejudicial. — D. A. L.
A New Fuel. A. L. Keller, London. Eng. Pat. 1237,
January, 23, 1891. id.
Natural or compressed peat, which may be mixed with
sawdust or coal-dust, is taken and moulded into bricks or
left in its natural form. Any other suitable absorbing
material may be used.
The material after drying is immersed in a suitable bath
of hydrocarbons heated to 120° to 150' C. The refuse of
petroleum or of shale oils or gas- tar may be used alone
or combined with resins, naphthalene, or other cheap solid
hydrocarbons.
About 70 per cent, of the original weight of the weighed
peat can be absorbed. After drying it is ready for use as
fuel.— D. A. S.
Improvements in or connected with the Manufacture of
Illuminating and Heating Gases. J. H. R. Dinsmore,
Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 2948, February 18, 1891. 8<f.
A hydrocarbon liquid, such as tar, and ordinary coal-gas
or water-gas, are passed into an ordinary gas retort heated
in the usual manner ; in this way a gas of high illuminating
power is produced in large quantities. The mixed vapours
and gases immediately pass downwards through a vertical
pipe which dips under water, and which is kept cool by a
water-jacket ; the object of this arrangement is to prevent
the choking of the retort outlet and to condense the unfixed
tarry vapours and arrest any solid particles, so that the
other pipes will not get stopped up.
The tar or other liquid may be simply dropped on to the
floor of the retort through a sealed pipe, or forced in by
the usual devices. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Storage of
Illuminating and Heating Gas. H. Fourness,
Manchester. Eng. Pat. 15,469, September 12, 1891.
8<i.
This invention consists chiefly in passing water-gas
combined with that from heavy oil through an additional
retort or fixing chamber, which is heated by the producer-
gas formed in heating up the producer ; in this chamber the
gas is further enriched by the vaporisation of light oil
which is admitted into the chamber. The inventor claims
that by means of this fixing chamber, the gas, besides being
enriched, is rendered more stable and so may be carried
distances or stored for considerable periods without
condensation taking place. Further, that in the formation
of the water-gas, when the coke is getting cool, in order to
prevent the formation of explosive mixtures on the admission
of air to reheat the producer, the supply of oil is shut off
and steam blown through for some time, thus clearing the
retorts somewhat as well as removing explosive gases. The
inventor also claims the mixing of water-gas and oil-gas in
a gas-holder provided with an index, by which the proportions
of the gases may be ascertained and regulated. — J. C. C.
Improved Arrangement of Coke Ovens and Retorts for the
Manufacture of Coke and Illuminating Gas. W. Cres-
wick, Wakefield. Eng. Pat. 17,222, October 9, 1891. llrf.
See under III., page 152.
Improvements in Apparatus for Manufacturing Gas.
A. Kitson, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,557,
October 14, 1891. 8d.
This invention consists of a somewhat complicated furnace
for producing fuel gas for domestic heating, &c. Steam and
air are passed downwards through the heated fuel, aud the
gases are conducted away through the perforated hearth
aud ash-pit. The furnace is slightly conical to allow the
contents to fall easily ; the hearth, which has a ring of
vertical bars, is perforated, and has both a rotary and up-
and-down motion on a hollow shaft which serves as the gas
pipe. Near the bottom of this is the horizontal take-off
pipe, the lower part of the hollow shaft serves as the ash-
pit, and this communicates with a second chamber sealed
with water, into which the ash is dumped without escape of
gas. By means of the moveable hearth the fuel is stirred,
caking prevented, and ash removed. Around the furnace
body there are two sets of coils, in the lower of which
steam is generated and passes iuto a chamber, where if
necessary it can be charged with oil ; then it is superheated
in the second coil aud is injected with air into the top of the
furnace, the air being also heated by having circulated
round an annular space round the furnace. — J. C. C.
l.V)
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. iO, 1892.
III-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION,
PRODUCTS, Etc.
TAB
The Distillation of Coal. P. Mihler. Compt. Rend.
1891,113, 862—864.
The products of distillation of the Comnientry coal were
collected and weighed, and their calorific power determined
by means of an apparatus of Bertheloi. It was found that
the calorific power of the products was 96 ■ 5 per cent, that
of the coal put into the retort. A real loss of calorific
power, but a relatively small one, accompanies the process
of the destructive distillation of coal. — V. C.
Petroleum and Asphalt at Palena, in Payta. Analogy
between Salt and Coal Deposits C. Ochsenius. Chem.
Zeit. 1891, 15, 1866—1867.
The occurrence of petroleum on the coast of Peru between
Payta and Tumbez has been known for a considerable
time. The exploration has been largely in the hands of an
English compan}', and about one-fourth of the territory for
which a concession was granted has been found productive.
The oil does not flow with sufficient force to rise
spontaneously from the wells, and has to be pumped out.
In the valley of Tucigal about 4-7 kilometres from the
coast, there are 28 wells varying in depth from 45 to
240 metres, the total daily output of which varies from
1,000 to 2,000 barrels. The crude oil from Zorritos has,
according to J. Salathe, a specific gravity of 0-868, and an
ultimate composition of 84" 9 per cent, of carbon, 13'" per
cent, of hydrogen, and 1*4 of oxygen. The sample gave
the following results on distillation : —
°c.
PerCcnt.
20—30
2-8
Rhigoline.
;;n mi
9-0
Gasoline, of very pleasant aromatic odour.
80—150
ll'l
Benzoline.
150— 230
18-5
Light kerosene.
230—280
WO
Heavy kerosene.
12-8
Light lubricating oil.
Above 280
4-8
si-o
Heavy lubricating oil. Free from paraffin
was ; becomes buttery at —30°.
Pitchy residue.
The petroleum is brought by a pipe-line to the newly made
harbour of Palena, which is about 1 1 kilometres from the
wells.
Petroleum also occurs in Peru at Cerro de Pasco and
Puno ; asphalt is also found in the neighbourhood of the
petroleum deposit.
The author draws an analogy between the method by
which coal measures have been formed and those resulting
in the production of salt deposits. In each case a bar has
formed enclosing a bay which serves as a trap for any
material that may be deposited therein. Thus, in the case
of the salt deposits, a portion of sea -water may be supposed
to have obtained access to the bay, and there under the
influence of a dry atmosphere evaporated, leaving its saline
constituents. In the case of the coal deposits, suspended
matter swept down by a river may be conceived as being
caught in the bay and gradually consolidated under climatic
conditions the converse of those necessary for the formation
of a salt deposit into fossil fuel. Many points of resem-
blance or of diametrical difference between the two
processes are indicated in the author's argument.— B. B.
The Origin of Petroleum. A. Veith and C. Schestopal.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 1891, 282, 136—138.
The authors consider that Engler's researches (this Journal,
1889, 607) go far to prove the animal origin of petroleum,
the slow decomposition of the bodies of marine animals
under the influence of warmth and pressure being capable,
under suitable conditions, of its production. The precise
mechanism of this change is, however, not yet clear.
Zaloziecki and Ochsenius have put forward hypotheses (this
Journal, 1891, 753 ; see also preceding abstract), neither of
which can be accepted without reservation. The contention
of the former that the natural production of petroleum cannot
have been effected in the manner indicated by Engler on
account of the high temperature (400J C.) used in the
researches of the latter, and of the fact that naphthenes are
present in petroleum but not in the artificial product, is
refuted on the ground that Zaloziecki himself postulates a
fairly high temperature, and this, in the opinion of the
authors, might be produced by the decomposition of animal
matter, and that naphthenes were actually present in Engler's
product, although confessedly in small quantity. Further, the
argument deduced from the alleged absence of nitrogen in
petroleum is demolished by the figures of actual analyses,
which show that an appreciable quantity is present. Beilby
has proved (this Journal, 1891, 120) that almost all samples
of petroleum, of whatever origin, contain nitrogen, either
in the form of organic bases or ammonium salts. He found
that the quantity in petroleum residues, which contain
more than the distilled oil, varied from 0'05 per cent, in
Baku oil to 3 ■ 2 per cent, in the coke from a Scotch raw oil.
Nitrogen is also found in the gases accompanying petro-
leum, 4 -31 per cent, being found in an American sample,
and 0'94 per cent, and 7 "32 per cent, in two samples from
Baku. The fact that water is commonly found accompanying
petroleum does not necessarily substantiate Zaloziecki's idea
that it must have played an important part in the production
of the latter, as its presence may be due to extraneous
sources tapped by the penetration of water-bearing strata,
or to the decomposition of the nitrogenous substances and
the fatty material from which the petroleum was produced.
The salts found in these accompanying waters may well
have been derived from saline deposits in which the
decomposition of the animal remains took place. The first
reaction tending towards the production of petroleum would
probably be the splitting off of the glycerol from the fat
acids, the latter then changing into hydrocarbons of the
fatty and aromatic series (with elimination- of carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water), and the conversion
of the former into acrolein, which would then give rise to
hydrocarbons of the aromatic series. Zaloziecki's assump-
tion that the origin of ozokerite may be assigned to causes
similar to those governing the formation of petroleum,
would necessitate the occurrence of aromatic hydrocarbons
in the former substance ; experimental proof on this point
is therefore requisite.
The hypothesis put forward by Ochsenius (preceding
abstract) that the saline waters found accompanying
petroleum have had a direct influence on the formation of
hydrocarbons from animal remains, has to encounter the
same objection as that of Zaloziecki, namely, that the
water may be present either entirely adventitiously, or
result from the decomposition of the animal remains
themselves in the manner described above. The action
of the halogen compounds of potassium, sodium, and
magnesium, upon fatty materials, would appear to be, as
far as our present knowledge goes, too slight to rank as
the chief factor in the production of petroleum ; experi-
ments to ascertain the precise result of treating fats with
the saturated solutions of these substances at high pressures
are, however, very desirable.
The fundamental objection held by the authors to the
above-mentioned hypotheses, lies in the fact that such
water as may be necessary to carry out the reactions
resulting in the formation of petroleum or to form those
supplies which commonly accompany petroleum, may be
accounted for by the decomposition of animal matter in the
process of conversion into petroleum, instead of being of
extraneous origin. — B. B.
Fab. 29, 1893.J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
151
The Rectification of Petroleum Spirit. A. Veith. Dingl.
Polyt. J. 282, 159—161.
Apparatus for Rectifying Petroleum Spirit.
The crude spirit obtained from the first distillation of
petroleum usually boils below 150° — 160° C, and has a
specific gravity of 0'750 to 0-760 (the Russian spirit being
generally somewhat heavier). This product has little
commercial value as such, owing to its odour, colour, and
the considerable amount of oil it contains ; the latter
characteristic especially preventing its use as an oil solvent.
By careful distillation through Linneman's or Le Bel's
fractionating apparatus it ma3' be split up into four products
as follows : —
Boiling Point.
1st spirit (ether) 30°— 55° or 60°
2ndspirit G0°— 80°
3rd spirit 80°— 100° or 110°
•lth spirit 110°— 110°
On the large scale, distillation with a simple condenser
fed with cold water is not sufficient to obtain more than a
spirit free from oil ; the boiling points of the distillates
varying too much to render them valuable. A considerable
advantage, however, is gained even in this case by the use
of horizontal stills, as the available heating surface does
not decrease during the distillation to the same extent as it
does with the perpendicular form.
When an efficient fractionating apparatus, such as is
described below, is employed, the heating surface of the
still should be sufficient to evaporate five times the amount
of the distillate obtained, the remaining four parts being
condensed in the fractionator and running back into the
still ; thus with an hourly yield of 200 litres (boiling point,
40° — 100°), the heating surface of the still should be
3-5 square metres, the still being heated with dry steam at
a temperature of 140° C. .
By means of the fractionator shown in the Figure, spirits
may be obtained containing only from 2 to 5 per cent, of the
higher and lower fractions, boiling, with this exception,
within the limits given above. Water, cold at first, is
supplied through the orifice G at the bottom, passing
through the tubes a and running off from A. When the first
fraction is all off the cock Bis opened, lowering the surface of
the water to the level B, and thus reducing the condensing
surface ; at the end of the second fraction, cock 2 being
opened, the water falls to C, and so on. The temperature
may also be regulated by adjusting the supply, and at the
close may be raised by admitting steam through the
perforated tube F. The apparatus is connected with two
horizontal stills having each a heating surface of 3-5 square
metres in the ordinary way, and with its aid, spirits having
a specific gravity of 0' 640 — 0' 650, or even as low as 0' 625,
may be obtained. Owing to the amount of sulphur contained
in the crude petroleum the apparatus should not be made of
copper. — F. H. L.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Production of Coke for Foundry and
other Purposes. F. J. Jones, Bedford. Eng. Pat. 19,501,
November 29, 1890. Sd.
In using the process previously patented (this Journal,
1891, 242) in which coking was effected by the passage of
gases from the combustion of fuel from a separate producer,
the coke produced has been found to contain sulphur and
other impurities derived from the producer-gases.
It is now proposed to utilise the gases given off in
the coking operation for this purpose. As the gases so
obtained are more thau sufficient to coke a similar charge,
producer-gas is only necessary to start the cycle of opera-
tions in the first ovens of a series, the formerly wasted
gases serving in turn to effect the coking of the remainder
and of the subsequent charges.
To ensure the purity of the coke, the gases are led
through condensers and purifiers, by which means ammonia
and other by-products can be recovered. The purified
gases are then passed through a reheater till raised to the
required temperature, and finally introduced into combustion
chambers or flues round the ovens. Here sufficient air is
admitted to ensure almost perfect combustion, and the
products are led into the ovens to effect the coking of the
fresh charge.
In practice the purified gases are preferably reheated b}'
mixing them with fresh gases from pure fuel in the
producer, the fuel used being the " breeze " or small coke
from a previous charge coked by this process, and conse-
quently pure. To ensure production of pure coke in the
ovens from the commencement, the producer should be
charged at first with wood or charcoal.
By suitably timing the heats and intermediate operations,
the process is rendered continuous.
The details of the plant are clearly illustrated by means
of drawings attached to the specification. — D. A. S.
Improvements in and Apparatus for Distilling, more
especially intended for Distilling Tar. F. Lennard,
London. Eng. Pat. 844, January 16, 1891. Is. Id.
This patent is said to provide means by which the distil-
lation of coal-tar can be conducted economically and
expeditiously, and so as to obtain in a manner readily under
control the different products of distillation, the heat of the
vapours of distillation being employed to effect the partial
heating of the materials to be distilled which in their turn
assist the condensation of the vapours. The invention,
although not restricted to the distillation of coal-tar, is
more especially intended for the same. The tar to be
distilled passes or is forced from the store tank into boilers
in which the ammoniacal liquor separates, the tar having
been previously heated by being forced on its way to the
boilers through a series of condensers, so that the tar forms
the condensing medium. It is then passed or forced through
heated coils placed in an oven or sand-bath. By this
arrangement the tar is heated to, or above, the point at
which its vaporisable constituents required to be extracted
would be given off in the form of vapour if not confined in
the coils. It now enters a scrubber in which the volatile
constituents vaporise and meet a current of steam, the
pitch being deposited in the scrubber whilst the other
constituents pass off by a pipe to the first condenser wherein
the heaviest products (anthracene oils) deposit, the uncon-
densed vapours passing by a pipe to the second condenser
wherein the next product (creosote oils) deposits and the
vapours which are still uncondensed passing into the last
condenser wherein the lightest products (naphthas) and the
water are condensed.
The heating apparatus consists of a furnace with return
flues, and above it a sand-bath in which are situated coils
which are in communication with other coils contained in a
chamber through which the products of combustion pass,
and which the patentee calls the " economiser." The
furnace is heated by means of liquid or gaseous fuel which
the patentee prefers to use, although he does not restrict
152
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29. 1892.
himself to its employment. The scrubber forms a vortical
tower provided with a series of tubular passages so
arranged that the tar passes downwards in a circuitous
manner, meeting a current of steam which carries off the
more volatile constituents, the pitch which is thus formed
depositing at the bottom of the scrubber. The condensers
consist of vertical vessels provided with tubes and with
outlets and inlets so arranged that the vapours pass inside
the tubes, whilst the condensing agent (the tar) passes on
to the outside of the tubes. " In the first condenser of the
series the condensing agent may he the tar from the
ammoniacal liquor separators, whilst in the others it may be
the tar which is ultimately to be distilled." The tar to be
distilled may be pumped through, say, the last condenser,
and passes around the tubes and thence either direct by a
pipe to the vessels in which the ammoniacal liquor is
separated, or before passing to these vessels, it may be
passed through another of the condensers. From the
ammoniacal liquor separating tanks the tar is forced into the
first condenser, then through the coils in the economiser, and
finally through the coils in the oven or sand-bath. Thus
the tar is heated to the temperature necessary to cause
the vaporisable constituents to vaporise. The coils of the
economiser and oven or sand-bath are preferably flattened,
and to provide extended heating surface they may have fins
on them, and there may be pipes or passages of refractory
materia] extending from the furnace or flues (or both) to
between the convolutions of the coils. Asbestos or slag
wool and sand may be used to retain the heat. By
regulating the speed at which the tar is passed through the
apparatus the proper degree of heat for distilling is obtained
irrespective of the temperature above that required for
distilling the tar at which the furnace and the oven or sand-
bath may be maintained. The specification is accompanied
by seven sheets of drawings. — D. B.
to a second oil superheater, and the heated tar subjected to
distillation in a retort aided by the injection of superheated
steam, the vaporised part of the hydrocarbon being carried
with the steam to a second condenser. The precipitated
matter in the tar retort is collected or removed in any
convenient manner. — D. B.
Improvements in or connected with Ovens, Furnaces, or
Retorts used for the Making of Coke or Charcoal, or for
Distilling or Roasting t Carbonaceous Matter, or other-
wise subjecting Carbonaceous Matter to the Action of
Heat. L. H. Armour, Gateshead-on-Tyne. Eng. Pat.
1579, January 28, 1891. 6rf.
This invention substantially consists of means for supplying
water or other liquid, or aqueous vapour, at a temperature
lower than that of the effluent gases, and in regulated
quantity, at or near the outlet for the gases escaping from
the retort or oven above the charge.
It is claimed that the clogging or obstruction of the outlet
bj- pitchy or tarry deposit is prevented, and that decom-
position of ammonia is either partially or completely
prevented. — D. A. S.
Apparatus for the Manufacture of Lamp-black Carbon-
black. E. Binney, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17.221,
October 9, 1891." By Internat. Conv. March 9, 1891. 8d.
See under XIII., page 171.
A New or Improved Method of and Apparatus for
Distilling Liquid Hydrocarbons. P. Dvorkovitz, "The
Kerosene Company, Limited," and " The Tank Storage
and Carriage Company, Limited," London.. Eng. Pat.
13.0S9, August 1, 1891. 8<J.
In carrying this invention into effect crude petroleum or
other liquid hydrocarbon is passed from a tank to an oil
superheater of any convenient construction, in which the
oil is heated to a high temperature. It is then led to a
retort where it is met by superheated steam, the temperature
of which is higher than that of the heated oil. The latter
i^ thereby split up into two portions, one consisting of oil
vaponr and the other of tar and precipitated matter. The
mixed oil vapours and steam then pass through a large
dome and are carried to a condenser. The tar is conveyed
Improved Arrangement of Coke Ocens and Retorts for the
Manufacture of Coke and Illuminating Gas. W. Cres-
wick, "Wakefield. Eng. Pat. 17,222, October 9, 1891. lid.
Is this invention the heated gases passing off from coke
ovens are utilised for carbonising coal in closed retorts
so constructed that gas and by-products are generated in
the roasting of such coal and are collected for use else-
where.
This is effected by ranging a series of coke ovens with
exit apertures opening into a large receiving flue, and a
series of retorts is also ranged, round any of which heated
gases can be led before passing to the exit flue. The coke
ovens are worked in the usual way, the escaping gases being
coursed round the retorts by means of regulator dampers.
The retorts are charged and drawn in the ordinary manner.
The claim is essentially for the combination of the ovens
and retorts in this way, and for the special settings, two
varieties of which are shown in detail in the sheets of
drawings attached to the specification. — D. A. S.
Improvements in Retorts for the Carbonisation of Wood
and other Vegetable Substances, and in the Drying of
Manures, Sewage Sludge, and other Substances and
Products. W. H. Bowers, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 1 7,623,
October 15, 1891. Sd.
The retort used by the inventor is constructed with two or
more parallel flues, extending in a longitudinal direction and
lying one above the other. These are fed by the same
furnace and eventually discharged into the same outlet.
To make the description more intelligible, it is assumed
that the retort is constructed with two flues. The space
immediately above each flue forms a chamber through
which the material to be operated upon is drawn by means
of an endless chain, which is carried upon sprocket wheels,
aud is provided with bars at suitable intervals and of such
width as to sweep the flow of the chamber. From the
hopper where it is supplied to the retort, it is carried along
and over the upper flue to its extremity, and it then falls
into a space between such extremity and the sprocket wheel
on to the chain as it runs below. The material is then
drawn by the chain in the reverse direction along the lower
flue until it falls over the extremity of that flue through an
aperture provided for its discharge from the retort. The
flues are connected by an elbow or external flue at the point
most distant from the furnace. The gas driven off during
the operation escapes by condenser pipes, and is dealt with
in the ordinary manner.
By means of this arrangement the heat from a single
furnace is utilised to heat both chambers, and the material
as it is drawn through the lower chamber is exposed to
heat coming from above as well as from below, with the
result that labour and time as well as fuel are economised.
— D. B.
Feb.SB.M9a.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
153
IY.-COLOUEING MATTERS AND DYES.
Dyewood Extracts and llieir Manufacture. V. E. Mafat.
Bull. Soc, IikI. Mnlhouse, 1891, 361—452. (See also
this Journal, 1889, 612—618.)
Mi 1--0NIK1;, iu 1829, initiated in France the manufacture
of extracts for printing on woollens. This industry did
not rise to importance until 1835.
In 1842 — 43 Panay succeeded in obtaining from logwood
liquor crystals of a deep red colour, almost black on the
surface, which were in fact hernate'in (oxidised hematoxylin)
more or less pure. He arrived at this result by placing
the rasped logwood in heaps and watering and turning it
over periodically for several weeks. Variilat (of St.
Hilaire) was the first in 1855 to adopt vacuum pans for
the concentration of the weak liquors, their use being
borrowed from the sugar industry. At present there are
44 works in Europe and 5 in America devoted to the
production of wood extracts.
Campeachy or Logwood. — The introduction of logwood
into Europe dates from the discovery of America by the
Spaniards, who denominated the wood pain campechio.
The tree (JKematoxylon campechianum') grows to a height
of 12 — 15 metres, and the trunk alone is employed in
dyeing. The wood is imported into Europe principally
from Carmen (Lower California), the State of Campeachy
in Mexico, Honduras, Yucatan, St. Domingo, Hayti,
Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, Jamaica, and Cuba.
The woods most esteemed for the manufacture of extracts
are those from the island of Hayti ; the ones most em-
ployed at Havre being Fort Liberty, Cape, Aquinus,
St. Mark, and Monte Christi woods. The Jamaica woods,
in yield of extract, are inferior to those of Hayti, both in
quantity and quality ; the colour is not so strong or the
shade so good. The roots of the Jamaica wood are also
imported. Whilst low in price they are very difficult to
grind, and their yield is in every respect unsatisfactory.
The woods from Laguna, Carmen, Honduras, and Yucatan,
whilst belonging to the same family, give a different shade ;
the colour yielded is very fine, but wanting in depth, and
these woods are not so economical in the production of
blacks as the Hayti wood. The woods from Guadeloupe,
Martinique, &c. are less esteemed, and, like those of
Jamaica, are used only because of the scarcity of the Hayti
wood.
Yellow Wood or Fustic {Morns tinctorial. — The yellow
woods are mostly got from Mexico and the neighbouring
States, the West Indies, and South America. The wood
most valued is that from the island of Cuba ; it is a hard,
compact, and heavy wood of an orange-yellow colour. The
wood most employed iu the manufacture of extracts is
undoubtedly that of Nicaragua, which is known as Corinto,
from its port of export ; it is a heavy close-grained wood of
a fine yellowish-orange colour.
Young fustic (the French fustef) is a shrub (Rhus
cotinus) the branches of which, sawn and stripped of their
bark, are used in dyeing. The young fustic of America is
held in good esteem. The colouring matter is reddish-
yellow, readily soluble in boiling water, and tolerably rich
in tannin. The colouring matter of young fustic has great
analogy with that of Persian berries (Rhamnus tinctorial),
and the extracts of the latter are frequently mixed with
young fustic.
Red Woods. — Pernambuco wood (Civsalpi?iia echinata)
comes from Brazil and Jamaica. It is a hard, compact
wood, heavier than water, and its surface after long exposure
to air is of a black-red colour. That from Paraibo is most
valued. Nicaragua, Bahia, St. Martha, and Lima woods
(Csesalpinia braniliensis) come from Mexico, Nicaragua,
California, the Philippine Islands, and Brazil. Amongst
them, the St. Martha and Lima woods are most esteemed,
as they approximate most closely to the Pernambuco wood in
shade, but on account of their high price the cheaper Bahia
wood is almost always used in the manufacture of Lima wood
extract. Sapan wood (C:rsalpinia sapan) is imported from
India, Reunion, Ceylon, Siam, Manilla, China, and Japan.
It yields colours which have a considerable resemblance to
(hose of the St. Martha wood ; it is not so rich in colouring
matter, but the shades produced are very bright. All these
red woods appear to contain the same colouring matter
named "Brmilin " by Chevreul, who first isolated it. The
extracts of red woods, both liquid and solid, are frequently
mixed with arsenious acid and tin salts to brighten or
modify their shade. A well-made solid extract represents
12 times its weight of original ground wood. It may be
remarked with regard to red woods that the heart of the
wood alone is rich in colouring matter.
There are other red woods of which the colouring matter
is insoluble or only slightly soluble in water, such as santal
(Pteroearpus santaliniis), caliatour, barwood, and cam-
wood. Santal wood comes from Asia, Ceylon, Madagascar,
Coromandel, Australia, and Indo-China ; caliatour wood
from Caliatour and Madagascar ; and barwood and camwood
from Sierra Leone. These woods, finely ground, are only
used directly in dyeing, and are not applicable for the
manufacture of extracts.
The introduction of aniline colours has led to a greatly
diminished use of the red woods, notably those of Pernam-
buco, Lima, St. Martha, and Sapan.
Manufacture of Dyewood Extracts. — The manufacture
consists of four distinct stages — (1), the ageing of the
woods ; (2), the extraction of the colouring matter ; (3), the
concentration of the liquors ; and (4), the preparation of
the solid extract. The wood, after grinding, is carried by
means of an elevator to the upper floor, where the logwood
is sprinkled with water and exposed in heaps for 24 to
48 hours, whilst the fustic goes direct to the extractors.
The extracting vats have their opening on a level with
the upper floor ; they are conical in form and are made
of oak or pitch-pine. They are arranged in sets (say of
six vats), and after being charged with the ground wood,
boiling water is circulated methodically from vat No. 1
to vat No. 6, and so becomes more and more charged with
colour ; it leaves the last vat at a strength of 2° to 2i° B.,
and passes as strong liquor to the stock vats and is ready
for concentration. The wood receives three successive
treatments with water, and becoming more and more
exhausted the third course gives only a strength of 1° B.
Finally the wood is subjected to a fourth treatment with
water, and this last liquor is returned to vat No. 1, the
whole of the vats having in the meantime been recharged
with fresh wood. The vats are provided with a false
bottom pierced with holes and covered by a wire-work
netting held iu position by a grating. There are manholes
at the side for discharging the spent wood, and steam-pipes
are provided for heating the liquors.
The strong liquors at 1^° to 2J° B. are pumped into the
concentrating pans and there evaporated to the required
strength. Up to 6° B. the liquors are only considered as
strong decoctions ; above 7° B. they are looked upon as
extracts. Extracts marking respectively 26°, 23°, and 6j° B.
in the concentrators will be 30°, 27°, and 10° B. when cold.
To make the pure dry extract, the liquor is carefully
evaporated in the vacuum pan to a density of 45° B., which
is the proper strength for making a good dry extract. The
charge is quickly run out, before it has time to thicken, into
wood or metal moulds.
In the German works closed vats (usually in sets of 10)
are used, and the woods are extracted under a pressure of
li to 2 atmospheres.
The quality of the water used in making the decoctions
is of the highest importance ; it should be pure, clear, and
soft, and if not absolutely pure, it should by preference be
slightly alkaline. It is of importance to avoid the use of
water containing iron, bicarbonate of lime, metallic salts, or
excess of alkali.
Dyewood Extracts of Commerce. — Hayti logwood yields
25 per cent, of its weight of extract at 30° B., or 16i per
cent, of dry extract. The woods most commonly used at
the present time are of inferior quality to the above and
yield only 22 per cent, of extract at 30° B., or 14-66 per
cent, of dry extract. The logwood extracts produced in
the early days of the industry were pure products, containing
only the extract of the wood itself. The competition
amongst makers and the demand for cheap products has
154
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. Vfeb. 29, 1892.
resulted in the manufacture of logwood and fustic extracts
admixed with cheaper mineral and organic bodies, such as
molasses, glucose, quercitron bark, sumac leaf, divi-divi,
turmeric root, chestnut extract or the ground wood, dextrine,
&c. When such admixed bodies are liable to fermentation
in presence of acids or alkalis it becomes a necessary
precaution to add suitable_neutralising substances. Several
of the latter bodies serve at the same time to brighten
the shade of the extract, whilst others, such as potassium
ferrieyanide and alizarine orange are added to both
logwood and fustic extracts to impart a colour which
is quite factitious. The molasses are obtained from the
sugar refineries at a strength of 42^ B. ; 100 kilos, of this
correspond to 140 kilos, at 30° B. Glucose is prepared
from potato starch by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid
and subsequent neutralisation of the acid with chalk.
Quercitron bark (Quercus tinctoria), is obtained from
Philadelphia and Baltimore; 100 kilos, of bark yieid 30
kilos, of extract at 30 '' B , or 20 kilos, of dry extract. Sumac
(Rhus coriaria) is got from Sicily, Italy, the Tyrol,
Dalmatia, Illyria, France, Spain, Portugal, and Xorth
America ; it contains tannic acid varying in amount from
10 to 22 per cent. The decoctions of sumac are only pre-
pared as required as they readily ferment, the tannic acid
being converted into gallic acid. 100 kilos, of Sicilian
sumac yield 75 kilos, of extract at 30° B., or 50 kilos, of
dry extract. Divi-divi (Cmsalpinia coriaria) is obtained
from the West Indies and Central America. Its contents in
tannin varies from 18 to 45 per cent. ; 100 kilos, of divi-divi
yield 52 to 56 kilos, of extract it 30 B., or 35 to 37 kilos,
of dry extract. Turmeric root 'Curcuma rotunda) is
obtained from the East Indies, China, and Persia, and
contains 68 per cent, of colouring matter. It is used in the
form of an impalpable powder, being added in this state to
fustic extracts which are to be converted in dry extracts.
Chestnut extract is prepared from the wood of the chestnut
tree 'Fagus castanea) which grows in abundance in Central
and Southern France, in Italy, Corsica, Spain, and Portugal.
The wood of very old trees contains 6 per cent, of tannin ;
young trees not more than the half of this. Chestnut extract
is brown and astringent ; at 20° B. it keeps well, but if
weaker than this its tannic acid is readily transformed into
gallic acid. 630 kilos, of chestnut wood yield 100 kilos, of
extract at 30° B., containing usually from 22 to 25 per cent,
tannin. Dextrin is potato starch rendered soluble by
treatment with nitric or other acid and subsequent drying in
a stove.
Commercial Extracts manufactured at Havre and
Jtouen. — There are two systems of manufacture ; the first,
in which the woods are extracted with water only ; the
second, in which the water used is charged with molasses.
In the first system the pure decoction serves as a base to
whicn the admixtures are subsequently added ; in the
second system the extracting tanks are charged, not only
with the ground woods, but also with several of the admixed
bodies that enter into the composition of the final product.
The first system is to be preferred as being best adapted
to the manufacture of products of unvarying com-
position. It is seldom that logwood extract at 30° B. is
sold in the absolutely pure state ; that sold as pure usually
contains from 14 to 17 per cent, of molasses at 30° B.
Similarly the dry extracts sold as pure are seldom such in
reality. Usually they contain 3 per cent, of chestuut
extract at 30° B. and 5 per cent, of molasses at 42° B. The
commercial hemateine in powder is prepared from 100 parts
pure logwood extract at 30° B. and three parts of chestnut
extract at 30° B. The solid extract is dried by lying on
shelves for several days and then ground in the mill. It
forms an orange-red powder of good appearance and is
packed in hermetically sealed cases, as contact with air
changes its appearance. In the preparation of the lower
grades of extracts by the first system the admixtures are
added to the strong liquors in the evaporating pans. In the
second system the only substances that are added to the
extracting vats are molasses, chestnut extract or the ground
wood, and sumac leaves. The " foots " from the clarifica-
tion of logwood extract, the powdered gypsum, potassium,
ferrieyanide, &c, are added to the strong extracts in the
evaporating pans.
In the second system the chestnut is added as ground
wood, and the sumac in the form of leaves, to the extracting
vats.
The manufacture of logwood extracts for calico printers
is uniform in all the works. The logwood liquor .at 10° B.
is allowed to settle for 20 to 25 days, and the clear liquor
is then evaporated in the concentrating pans to a strength
of from 15° to 30° B. as required. Nevertheless logwood
extracts for printers often contain molasses; thus one
frequently sold is prepared from 3,000 kilos, logwood liquor
at 10° B., 630 kilos, molasses at 30° B., and 5 kilos, soda
crystals, yielding 1,625 kilos, extract at 30° B.
Commercial Fustic Extracts. — Fustic extracts are seldom
sold pure ; with few exceptions the extracts, both paste and
dry, are admixed with foreign matter to reduce their cost.
A comparison of the price at which the " dry fustic extract,
superior " is sold at Havre, and the cost of the wood itself,
shows a margin too small to admit of the profitable manu-
facture of a pure product. Fustic of good quality (Corinto,
Cuba, or Tuspau) yields 11 to 12 per cent, of dry extract,
or 16 to 18 per cent, of 30° B. The commercial fustic
extracts contain, as admixtures, molasses, glucose, and
dextrine, which are added to the weak liquors before passing
to the concentrating pans ; whilst quercitron bark, sumac
leaves, powdered turmeric root, and divi-divi are mixed with
the rasped wood in the extracting vats. Sulphates of soda
and zinc and alizarin orange are also added to modify or
brighten the shade of the extract.
Sumac Extract. — For the manufacture of sumac extract
the Sicilian sumac is preferred ; the sumacs of Italy, the
Tyrol, Illyria, Dalmatia, France, &c, are less suitable.
Sumac extract is mixed with molasses and chestnut extract,
&c. In the manufacture the process must be continuous,
the liquors passing at once from the vats to the concentrat-
ing pans. Vacuum pans are the most suitable and the
extract, when ready, should at once be put up in casks.
Silician sumac, when carefully treated, yields 75 per cent,
of extract of 30° B. ; the Dalmatian and lllyrian sumacs
yield from 65 to 70 per cent.
Residues— The spent woods are available only for
burning iu the furnaces. The " foots " which settle from
the clarified logwood liquors contain, when dry, 48 percent,
of colouring matter. They are utilised as admixtures in
preparing low qualities of dry logwood extracts. Logwood
extract at 30° B. is calculated as yielding 7-$ per cent, of
such deposit.
Valuation of Extracts. — The paper concludes with a
description of the valuation of logwood extracts by com-
parative dyeing trials and by colorimetric comparison.
This portion of the paper has been discussed in the note
by M. Geigy, abstract of which follows this — W. E. K.
Report on Mafat's Memoir on Dyewood Extracts. \\.
Geigy, jun. Bull. Soc. Ind. de Mulhouse, 1891, 357—360.
M. Geigy, having been appointed to examine SI. Mafat's
paper (see following abstract) presented for Prize LXI.
offered by the Mulhouse Society for "a practical metlu'd
for determining the quantity of hematein contained in log-
wood and its extracts without recourse to dyeing or
printing," reports that the memoir consists of two distinct
parts ; the one a very complete account of the sources of
the various dyewoods and the manufacture of extracts from
them ; and the second a brief description of the methods
of determining the amount of colouring principle in log-
wood extracts. With respect to the former part of the
memoir, M. Geigy reports that it presents a sufficiently
complete and reliable description of the manufacture of
dyewood extracts ; at the same time he points out certain
inaccuracies and inconsistencies. Thus, whilst in one place
the author states that iu logwood extracts the whole of the
hematoxylin has been oxidised to hematein, ' he quotes
later that Erdmann has isolated hematoxylin from dry
logwood extract ; the latter statement being in consonance
Feb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
155
with the reporter's experience. Again, the percentage of
colouring matter in the dry extract is stated by the author
at Sl-7 per cent., which is very much too burn a figure;
this arises from the supposition that the portion soluble in
alcohol is all due to hematein, whilst as a fact tie greater
part of the resins are also soluble in alcohol. In the
reporter's experience not more than 10 per cent, of crystal-
lisable hematoxylin is contained in logwood extract at
30° B. The colouring principle of logwood includes in
addition to hematoxylin, and perhaps traces of hematein,
a resinous non-crystallisable substance which is distinguished
by its property of giving a black dye with wool mordanted
with bichrome, whilst hematoxylin gives a pure blue
shade.
The method given by the author for determining the
amount of hematein in logwood extract is a colorimetric
one, applied to a mixture of logwood extract with chestnut
extract and molasses in certain proporfious, such as are
used in the Havre and Rouen works. The reporter points
out that the method is useful only for extracts falsified in
a similar way, and has no general applicatiou. He quotes
instances of two classes of logwood extract quite different
from the above ; the one containing only molasses in
addition to the logwood extract, and used in wool dyeing ;
the other consisting of pure logwood extract without any
foreign addition whatever, the use of the latter pure extract
increasing year by year. The reporter considers the method
of comparative dyeing or printing trials to be the only one
at present known that gives reliable information as to the
value of logwood extracts. — W. E. K.
Action of Nitric Acid on Dimethylortho-anisidine. P. van
Romburgh. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 505— 50S.
By the action of nitric acid on dimethylortho-anisidine
Grimaux and Defevre obtained a product which melted ;it
135 , and to which they assigned the formula —
(N02)_..C6H2
/OCH3
\
N(CH3)CH2.N02
(Compt. Rend. 112, 727 ; this Journal, 1891, G92). The
author finds, however, that this formula is incorrect, and
that dimethylortho-anisidine, when acted on by nitric acid,
behaves like other dimethyl-aromatic amines which he has
examined. The product described by Grimaux and Lefevre
is in fact the nitrosamine of dinitro-monomethylortho-
anisidine —
/OCH3
(xu,)2.c0n /
\N(CH3)NO
and can be formed also from dinitro-orthomcthylanisidine
obtained by boiling the corresponding nitramine with
phenol. When dinitro-orthomethylanisidine is dissolved in
nitric acid and treated with nitrous acid, the above product
melting at 135° is obtained. — A. K. M.
fS-Naphtlutquinone Sulphonic Acids. 0. N. Witt. Ber.
1891, 24, 3154—3157.
The oxidising agents, ferric chloride and potassium
bichromate, usually employed for the preparation of $-
naphthaquinone, cannot be used for the preparation of
/3-naphthaquinone sulphonic acid from amido-jS-naphthol-
/3-sulphonic acid, as that compound, like the similarly-
constituted nitrosonaphthol sulphonic acids, has an extra-
ordinary affinity for the metals of the iron group, the salts
thus produced being decomposable only with great difficulty.
Nitric acid was, therefore, used : 10 grms. of amido-/8-
naphthol-#-sulphonic acid (" Eikonogen ") were gradually
added to 10 cc. of nitric acid of sp. gr. 12 ; the crystalline
mass produced was drained on porcelain, and then dissolved
in a small quantity of water, 6 — 7-5 grms. of golden-yellow
needles of the quinone compound being obtained on cooling
the solution to 0° C. They consist of the ammonium
sulphonate of /3-naphthaquinone which is formed according
to the equation —
C,0H5(NH2)(OH)SO.tH + O = C10H6(O2)SO3'NH<
This salt maybe dried at 100J — 110° without decomposing.
The ammonia in it is not displaced by the action of dilute
acids, but is removed by sodium hydrate, a sodium sul-
phonate being formed, which is decomposed with the
production of a brown substance by excess of sodium
hydrate. It is very soluble in water, less so in alcohol. It
interacts in the cold with o-diamines, forming azine
sulphonic acids. Sulphurous acid reduces it to the
corresponding quinol compound, which may he conveniently
prepared from amido-,3-naphthol-i8-sulphonic acid by acting
on the same with the calculated quantity of bromine and
adding the solution of the quinone compound so produced
to an excess of sulphurous acid. The ammonium salt of
/8-naphthaquinolsulphonic acid thus obtained crystallises in
snow-white plates, is very soluble in water, reduces silver
salts, is unacted upon by nitric acid of less density than
1-2, hut is reconverted by acid of that or of greater density
into the quinone compound ; when oxidised in the presence
of a para-diamine it yields a dye of the indopbenol class ;
and, unlike o-dihydroxybenzene, interacts with diazo-com-
pounds forming azo-dyes which have the property of
combining with metallic-oxide mordants (Eng. Pat. 2499 of
1889; this Journal, 1890, 172).
The j3-quinone compounds of naphthalene a- and 0-
sulphonic and 7- and 8-disulphonie acids, form yellow
crystals ; that of the ct-sulphonic acid appears to be
uncrystallisable. All these compounds are reduced to
o-dihydroxy compounds by sulphurous acid E. li.
a-NapMhol-a-Sulphonic Acid. O. X. Witt and II.
Kaufmann. Ber. 1891, 24, 3157—3163.
a-NAriiTHOL-a-suLPHONic acid is industrially prepared from
naphthionic acid by two methods, namely, by diazotising
and boiling with dilute sulphuric acid and by fusing with
sodium hydrate under pressure. The first method yields a
red uncrystallisable product, the second a grey crystalline
mass which turns brown on exposure to air. The two
products, moreover, differ considerably in regard to the
solubility and crystalline form of their azo-derivatives.
The authors, who have made a study of the two prepara-
tions with a view of explaining these differences, find that
each product consists chiefly of a-naphthol-a-sulphonic
acid, but that the product obtained by the diazo reaction
contains a compound (not isolated) which prevents it
crystallising, while that of the fusion process contains an
isomeride of a-naphthol-a-sulphonic acid as well as a-
naphthol. This was proved to be the case by preparing the
phenylazo-derivative of each product, the sodium sulphonate
obtained by the second method being, however, previously
purified from a-naphthol by extracting with ether, after
acidifying with acetic acid. The respective azo-dyes
obtained were repeatedly recrystallised until they were
undistinguishable from each other. They were then reduced
with acidified stannous chloride in the manner devised by-
Witt (this Journal, 1889, 27G) the same amidanaphthol-
sul phonic acid, C10H5 . OH .NH2.S03H + H2( I, being obtained
from e'i.eh.
A very characteristic derivative of a-naphthol-a-sulphonic
acid, and one which is readily obtained, even from a trery
crude preparation of that substance, is the /3-nitroso compound.
This is best prepared from technical a-naphthol-a-sulphonic
acid ('-'4'G grms.) by dissolving in water (300 cc), adding
concentrated hydrochloric acid (19 cc.) and then gradually,
the mixture meanwhile being well cooled, a solution of
sodium nitrite (6'9 grms.). The free nitrososulphonic acid
which quickly separates out is collected on a filter, pressed,
and recrystallised from dilute hydrochloric acid. It is thus
obtained in lustrous, golden-brown crystals containing 3|
E.,0. It is easily- soluble in water and alcohol ; possesses a
strongly acid reaction ; dissolves in concentrated sulphuric
acid with an orange colour, turning yellow on dilution ;
hydrochloric acid reduces its solubility in water to a
remarkable extent, nitric acid converts it into dinitro-
naphthol. It forms two series of salts, acid and neutral ;
166
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[.Feb. 29, 1892.
the latter in general crystallise well. The neutral ammo-
nium and sodium salts in solution have an intense purple
colour, the acid sodium salt forms orange-red needles or
prisms which dissolve readily in pure water, but with
difficulty iu saline solutions. The acid barium salt is very
sparingly soluble, but may be crystallised from a large
quantity of water in scarlet crystals containing 3 H><). The
cobalt compound has a red, and the ferrous iron compound
a green colour, as O. Hoffmann has already pointed
out (Ber. 18, 16). j8-nitroso-a-naphthol-a-sulphonic acid
readily interacts with amines, &e. : with ammonia at 160° —
180°, with the hydrochlorides of aniline, plieny Hydrazine,
hydroxylamine at lower temperatures, yielding compounds
of complex constitution ; with aniline and zinc chloride
yielding naphthaquinone-dianilide. Its most striking inter-
action, however, is with o-diamines in aqueous solution, the
sulphonic acid group being split off and scarlet dyestuffs of
the Eurhodine class being formed. The colour base of that
obtained from o-toluylenediamine crystallises in golden-
yellow needles melting at 12 .> 7 r ; sufficient of it was not
obtained for analysis. Acidified stannous chloride, and acid
sodium sulphite reduce the nitroso-compound to the above-
mentioned amido-compound. This is oxidised by nitric
acid (see preceding abstract) to /3-naphthaquinonesulphonic
acid, the sodium salt of which is easily soluble in water but
quite insoluble in alcohol. Sulphurous acid reduces the
quiuone to the corresponding dihydroxy-compound. — E. B.
The Action of Nitrous Acid on Tetramethyldiamidobenzo-
phenone. W. Herzberg and M. Polonowsky. Ber. 1891,
24, 3197—3201.
E. Bischoff (this Journal, 1SS8, 742) has stated that the
product of the actiouof nitrous acid on tetramethyldiamido-
benzophenone is a nitroso-compound of the formula —
6H4.N(CH3)2 l.CO J C6H2(N.OH)N(CH3)2 [
The authors have re-examined the product, and interpret
the reaction by which it is formed in the manner indicated
by the following equation —
\ C6H4.N(CH3)2 I .CO. 1 C6H4.N(CH3)2 I + HNOs =
CH3OH + 1 C6H4.N(CH3)2 \ .CO. C6H4.N(NO)CH3
the analysis and properties of the body in question accord-
ing with this view. The nitrosamine thus produced
crystallises from alcohol in yellow plates, melting with
decomposition at 182° — 183°. On heating with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid, it is decomposed with evolution of
gas into trimethyldiCLmidobenzophenone,ii substance crystal-
lising from alcohol iu pale-yellow plates, which melt at
204°. The latter compound in its properties closely
resembles the tetramethyl compound : its acetyl derivative
melts at 145°; on fusion with ammonium chloride it yields
a dye of similar shade to ordinary Auramine.
Nitrous acid has a similar action on the leuco-bases of
Malachite green and Crystal -violet, a nitro-compound in
addition to a nitrosamine, being obtained from the leuco-
ba e of the latter dye.
Tetramethyldiamidodiphenylmethane (1 mol.) in hydro-
chloric acid solution, is acted upon by nitrous arid (from
2 mols. of XaX< ).,) with formation of p-nilrodimethylani-
tine, a 20 percent, yield of this substance being obtained.
The agreement of Bischoff's analytical numbers with
those required for the nitroso-derivative of tetramethyldia-
midobenzophenone is explained by the presence of unaltered
ketone-base in the precipitate obtained on rendering alkaline
the crude solution of trimethyldiamidobenzophone-nitros-
amine.
Wichelhaus (this Journal, 1886, 318) has previously
prepared trimethyldiamidobenzophenone. As, however,
this chemist has described it as possessing different properties
from those observed by the authors, and as, moreover,
YVichelhaus's description of the leuco-base of (penta-)
methyl violet (from which he prepared it) does not agree
with that of O. Fischer and others, the authors consider it
probable that Wichelhaus's preparation was mixed with
tetramethyldiarnidobenzophenone, which would be pro-
duced by the decomposition of the leuco-base of hexamethyl
violet intermixed with the pentamethyl compound. — E. B.
Studies in the Induline Group III. O. Fischer and
E. Hepp. Annalen, 265, 249—263.
Benzindulines. — The authors previously succeeded in
showing that the rosiudulines are derivatives of the well-
known naphthophenazine — ■
/V\ = N_
\/
\/\y
and they now show that an analogous relation obtains for
the benzindulines and phenaziue —
/\
\y
■-x—
/\
\/
Operating with phenylinduline (Ann. 282, 256) the
authors obtained from it by heating with glacial acetic acid
and dilute sulphuric acid for about six hours at 200° C,
besides aniline three decomposition products, the largest
quantity of which consists of a brown crystalline substance
which is hydrated phenylinduline —
/\ =
X
c,.n.-x
X —
+ H,0
\/
"A"
( II XH ' X
""' n OH C„H
C6H5
—n
This base melts at about 218° O, heated to a higher
temperature it is converted into carbazol fluorindiue, which
substance is already contained in small quantities in the
original phenylinduline melt. On heating the base with
concentrated hydrochloric acid aniline is separated and a
hydroxy derivative of the base is obtained. This bydroxy-
derivative is soluble in alkalis.
The original phenylinduline is heated to 170 witli
hydrochloric acid, and on filtering yields a red-brown filtrate
containing two new compounds. One is a hydroxy-
compouud of the formula CI8H14N202, the other is benzin-
done, ClsH]2N20. They may be separated by addition of
an alkali and subsequent filtration, when the hydroxy com-
pound remains in solution, whilst the benzindone remains
insoluble on the filter. From the alkaline solution the
hydroxy-compound may be isolated by means of acetic acid
and subsequent extraction with ether, from which it is
obtained in the form of reddish-yellow crystals. From
alcohol or benzene it crystallises in the form of beautiful
brown-yellow prisms or tables. The substance possesses
the properties of both a base and a phenol. It melts at
about 280° C. The authors consider this compound to be
either a hydrate of benzindone or a derivative of hydroxy -
phenazouium —
OH
-x-/\ /\ = x_/\
mi
\/
— x
\/
OH
C,;H„
^ "A
OH CBH5
\/
ft*. 29. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
157
From the properties of the compound in question the
authors conclude the second of these formula? to represent
its constitution.
The beuzindone, ClsH12N;0, which is insoluble in alkalis,
crystallises from alcohol in well-formed plates with metallic
lustre. The substance is soluble in acids, dissolving in
strong sulphuric acid, and forming a green solution ; by this
behaviour it proves itself to be a true analogue of the
rosindones. This is further proved by the fact that whereas
rosindone on dry distillation with zinc-dust yields naphtho-
phenazine, beuzindone under the same conditions yields the
corresponding phenazine —
/\
X —
/\
\/
= X
\y
Decomposition of Amidophenylinduline with Acids. — This
induline, IV.H^X,, contains a primary amido-group, the
position of which has not been yet ascertained. The
authors prove that in treating this induline with acids neither
phenylenediamine nor benzindone is formed, so that the
composition of this induline is best expressed by the
formula —
/\
X
_/\
CJL.X
\y
— N —
NH-
\/
than by the formula of Sehultz and Julius.
Amongst the products of the decomposition of amido-
phenylinduline with acids, a compound, ClsH)5X302, was
formed, which is soluble in alkalis, and this is evidently an
amidoderivative of the already described hydroxy-com-
pound, C13HHX20.:. From the strong fluorescence of the
solutions of this compound, as well as from its solubility in
water and the pink colour of its salts, the authors consider
that it belongs to the safranines. The formation of this
substance is supposed to be expressed by the equation —
/
CV,H;,.X
"I
X-
/\
V
) - X ■
\/
+ 2 H..O
CoH4XH2
Amidophenylinduline.
HO-
X
_/\
\/
X —
V
+ C0H,XH.,
OH CjI^XH.,
/3-liydroxy-N-phenylamido-phenuzonium.
In studying the indulines, the safranines prove to be
always their inseparable companions. .Safranines, rosin-
duliues, indazines show very great similarity (Ann. 262,
262 — 263), so that it is frequently a matter of some doubt
whether a certain compound is to be classed amongst the
indulines or amongst the safranines. This is explained by
the fact that the paraquinone-azine group of the indulines,
either by hydration or by oxidation, is readily converted
into the orthoquinone group of the safranines.
Action of Aniline upon Amidophenylinduline. — On heating
the hydrochloride of the induline, C,,4HlgX4, with two parts of
aniline for some hours at 160° C, two new indulines are
obtained, which the authors believe to be phenylamido-
phenylinduline, C30H.v,X4, and amidophenylamidophenylin-
duline, C36H27XS. The two indulines may be separated by
means of hot alcohol, in which only the first-named is
soluble. The induline, C^H^X.,, can advantageously be
obtained by heating a mixture of phenylamidoazobenzene
( 1 36 grs.), aniline (140 grs.), aniline hydrochloride (65 grs.),
and alcohol (500 grs.), at about ] 60° C. for 12 hours. The
induline obtained is purified by recrystallisation from hot
alcohol. The melting point of the base is at from 245° to
250° C.
The induline, CMIL-XS, is identical with a substance
previously obtained by Witt and Thomas, and is the most
insoluble of all known indulines. It is contained in the
ordinary amidoazobenzene, melts in very small quantities
only, but by employing the azobenzene melt it may be
obtained in considerable quantities. The base of this
induline melts at from 286° to 288° C.
To determine the molecular weight of phenylinduline the
authors used Eaoult's method. The results of the experi-
ments are in favour of the formula, CMH]7rT3. The bases
of the indulines, C„4HlaX4, C30H.,._.X4. and C'.'„H.,;.N3, are too
insoluble to allow of the estimation of their molecular
weights by the above process.
The authors, whilst promising further data, especially on
rosindulines, point to the fact that these colouring matters
are coming more and more into prominence, and will very
probably soon acquire great importance in the coal-tar
colour industry. — C. O. W.
Preparation of tile Vinitrophenol,Cl)ff-i(OH)(N'Or,\l :2 : 4
and some Properties of the Diamidophenol. 15. Reverdin
and C. de la Harpe. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 16, 45—46.
For the preparation of considerable quantities of dinitro-
phenol the authors made use of the following method :
400 parts of sulphuric acid 66° B. are heated to 110', and
200 parts cf phenol are added, and the mixture is kept
heated to 130°— 140° for five hours. The product is mixed
with 600 cc. of water, and then a mixture of 800 grms. of
nitric acid 36° B. with 575 cc. of water is slowly added, care
being taken that the temperature does not exceed 40° — 50°.
The mixture is allowed to stand for 24 hours at the
ordinary temperature, and afterwards is slowly heated for
three days on a water-bath, then allowed to cool, and
filtered. The cake of crystals produced consist almost
entirely of pure dinitrophenol. To obtain the chemically
pure product it must be heated twice with 21 parts of water.
With these quantities 100 parts of dinitrophenol can be
obtained. The authors point out that the diamidophenol
obtained from this nitro-body by reduction possesses the
property of giving to fabrics, when oxidised, an intense
brown colour which is fast to light and soap. The oxida-
tion can be produced by a dilute solution of chlorate of
sodium mixed with a very small quantity of ammonium
vanadate and by other metallic salts. The wool or cotton is
put into a hot solution of the hydrochloride of the diamido-
phenol and the oxidising agent added.
The hydrochloric acid salt gives colour reactions on being
heated with aromatic amines. For example, 1 part of the
salt heated with 10 parts of aniline gives a dark blue dye,
from which a blue dyestuff can be isolated. Azophenine is
obtained as a by-product in this reaction.
The authors have paid particular attention to the behaviour
of the hydrochloric acid salt of the diamidophenol as a
photographic developer, and they find that its solution in
water with 5 — 6 parts of sulphite of sodium acts on exposed
plates with energy, but they have not yet been able to
satisfactorily control its working. The body loses this
property when mixed with a small quantity of bromide of
sodium. — E. C. C. B.
PATEXTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters.
H. H. Lake, London. From "A. Leonhardt and Co.,"
Muhlheim-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2805,
February 16, 1891. id.
If /3-naphthalcne disulphonic acid be converted into the
dinitro-compound and this reduced, a diamido-compound is
obtained which on diazotisation combines with phenol.
The dyestuff thus formed is, however, sensitive to alkalis.
158
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
By inethylating, ethylating, or benzylating the product it is
rendered fast to alkalis, the process being similar to that
described in Eng. Pat. 3994 of 1887 (this Journal, 1888,
319).~-T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Azo Dyes.
B. Willcox, London. From the " Earbenfabriken
vormais K. Bayer & Co.," Elberfeld, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 3439, February 25, 1891. %d.
This is an extension of Eng. Pat. 13,235 of 1890 (this
Journal, 1891, 760) and refers to the sulphonation of the
dyestuffs there mentioned. The specification also describes
the preparation of a number of dyestuffs from tetrazo-com-
pounds by combining these with a-naphthylamine or
a-amidonaphthol ether and either with or without sulphona-
tion, combining these products, after diazotisation, with a
phenol, naphthol, dihydroxynaphthalene, amine, amido-
naphthol, or their sulphonic orcarboxylic acids, if necessary,
sulphonating the final product. The colouring matters dye
unmordanted cotton in various shades, such as brown,
green, violet-blue, and black, those obtained from the
naphthol ethers giving bluer or greener shades than those
from naphthylamine. — T. A. L.
Erratum. — In the January number of this Journal,
page 27, col. 2, in the first formula given for (XOH) reiu*
(4)
(XOH) ' aut' m Para?ral'u 4> f°r
[CH3:XH, : X( »2=1:3:5] read [CH3: XH; : X(\,= 1:3:4].
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc-
PATEXTS.
Improvements in Fabrics for Sacks or Bays. P. B.
Hollick, London. Eng. Pat. 16,801, October 21, 1890. id.
This invention refers to the introduction of some heavy and
stout warp or weft threads into sackings or baggings which
are made of jute, these being interwoven with the said
threads at intervals throughout the width or length of the
cloth. The heavier warp or weft threads may also be made
of material other than jute, namely, flax, cotton, leather,
wire, Manilla, or any other kind of hemp, the object being
to give additional strength without materially increasing the
weight. — II. S.
Improvements in Self-registering Apparatus far Measuring
the Sensibility and Breaking Strain of Paper and other
Light and Flexible Material. Y. Leunig, London. Eng.
Pat. 18,431, Xovember 15, 1890. 6d.
Tin- invention cannot be suitably described without reference
to the drawing. — J. C. C.
Improvements in or applicable to Machines for Scouring
and Washing Wool 'and other Fibrous Materials. J.
MeNaught and W. McNaught, Rochdale. Eng. Pat.
19,878, December 5, 1890. 6d.
Tins invention relates to an improved construction of
scouring machines, whereby the sand and other heavy-
foreign substances in the scouring liquor are separated
therefrom and allowed to settle in a detached tank. The
liquid is caught from the squeezing rollers and elevated to
an auxiliary tank arranged alongside the washing tank, by-
means of a rotary wheel having scoops. The liquor drains
from the auxiliary tank to the washing tank through a
suitable aperture or communication pipe, while the heavy
substances settle and are retained in the said tank. — H. S.
Improvements connected with the Manufacture of Yarns
and Fabrics from Waste Silk, and with the Washing of
the Resulting Material or of the Clothing Produced
therefrom. B. Beyer, Grossenhain, Germany. Eng. Pat.
12,817, July 28, 1891. id.
This process, it is claimed, relieves all waste raw silk of the
offensive smell which it is well known to retain, owing to
the bast adhering to it, and thus enables clothing to be
manufactured therefrom at a cost not expected to greatly
exceed that of woollen underclothing. The yarn is boiled
for about 15 minutes daily in a bath prepared with oil soap
for a number of days. Removed from this bath the material
is washed in cold water and conveyed into a steam-bath,
where it is left for several hours, after being sprinkled with
a thin layer of chloride of sodium. After a repeated
steaming and washing the material is bleached or conveyed
into a drying chamber, a moderate temperature being
maintained. The whole operation is repeated daily for
preferably at least 20 days, after which the material is
suspended in a course of water for 24 hours. The colour
of the material is then a dull white, and it is perfectly
inodorous. The material is then ready for manufacture,
and the finished articles should be washed in cold water
containing permanganate of potash, and steeped in a
weak solution of chloride of sodium, the same solution
being used for washing the clothes when worn. — H. S.
VI.— DYEING. CALICO PRINTING. PAPER
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
Orange in Calico and Wool Printing. Oester. Wollen und
Leinen-ind. December 15, 1891.
The method for the production of orange in calico printing,
which has been in use for a long time, and is still largely-
made use of, is based on the fact that lead acetate' and
potassium chromate yield yellow lead chromate, which on
treatment with lime becomes orange. One can also proceed
in such a way that the orange lake is prepared ready and then
printed with blood albumen, or by printing the material
with a thickened lead salt, chroming, and then passing
through a bath of caustic alkali. Two and a half parts of
lead acetate are precipitated with one part potassium
bichromate in a sufficiently dilute solution, the precipitate
washed and boiled with milk of lime, well washed, filtered,
and pressed, and about 400 gtms. orange lake thickened
with 600 grins, albumen solution, printed and steamed. If
the orange is required yellower, one part of the orange lake
is replaced by one part of yellow lead chromate.
( hi printing the lead salt, about 300 grms. lead acetate or
nitrate must be taken per litre of thickening, printed and
steamed, or aged, passed through ammonia, chromed
according to the size of the pattern with the necessary
quantity of bichromate, and then passed through a boiling
concentrated milk of lime solution.
Another orange is produced with Alizarin orange, which
gives a brilliant lake with aluminium salts. Either alumi-
nium acetate, nitrate, or sulphocyanide may be used, with
the addition of calcium nitrate or acetate, printing on
material which has been impregnated with Turkey-red oil,
steaming and soaping. 550 grms. thickening and 150 grms.
Alizarin orange R (20 per cent.) are well mixed, and
50 grms. acetic acid 9° Tw. (30 per cent.), 200 grms.
aluminium acetate at 10° B., and 50 grms. calcium acetate
at 10° B. are added. The colour should be printed imme-
diately after its preparation. Alizarin orange may, for
instance, be turned more yellow by the addition of lead
acetate with subsequent chroming. A second method is to
mix with it some Gallacetophenone or Alizarin yellow
(B.A.S.F.). This yellow is fixed by means of aluminium
sulphocyanide and calcium acetate, and agrees perfectly
well with Alizarin orange.
1'Vl,. 39,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
159
Another orange, which up to the present has not had
much application, is Acridine orange (/.). This is fixed by
means of tannin on cotton material, and finally the latter is
passed through an ordinary bath.
With Persian-berry extract^ or Flavin and a tin-salt,
very line oranges may be obtained ; but these, as a rule,
are not fast to soaping.
Lately, a new orange for printing, under the name of
'Diamond orange (Bayer), has been brought out. It is a
reddish-brown paste, which has the advantage over Alizarin
orange of not settling at the bottum of the casks like the
latter, and can consequently be stirred better. A further
advantage lies in the fact that the printing colour can be
preserved for some time without losing any of its intensity.
Alizarin orange, on the other hand, alter a very short
exposure loses as much as 50 per cent, of its colouring
power, even when sulphocyanide is employed instead of
aluminium acetate.
The printing colour is best prepared by mixing well
740 grms. of thickening, 200 grms. of Diamond orange,
and U0 grms. of chromium acetate.
The chrome lake produced with Diamond orange on oiled
material is redder than the one obtained with Alizarin
orange and alumina, but can be turned yellow with Diamond
yellow (Bayer), Alizarin yellow (Hoechst), or Diamond
flavine (Bayer), as all these colours, like Diamond orange,
may be fixed with chromium acetate. A shade similar to
Alizarin orange may be obtained as follows : — 787 grms.
thickening (containing acetic acid), 100 grms. Diamond
flavine G (Bayer), 60 grms. Diamond orange, and 47 grms.
chromium acetate at 20' B., are mixed together. This is
printed on material impregnated with Turkey-red oil,
steamed one hour, without pressure, passed through a chalk
bath, and soaped about 20 minutes at 50° C.
In wool-printing, Alizarin orange It gives an orange fast
to soaping when produced as follows: — 110 grms. of
Alizarin orange K (20 per cent.), 590 grms. of thickening,
40 grms. aluminium sulphate dissolved in 140 grms. water,
20 grms. oxalic acid dissolved in 50 grms. water, and
50 grms. glycerin at 28° B., are mixed together. The
colour is developed on prepared wool by means of steaming,
washing, and soaping.
Of other colours, Croceine orange and Orange II. ( B) are
much employed in wool printing. Both give fiery shades
by dissolving in water and acetic acid and thickening with
gum-water, printing on chlorinated wool, then steaming and
washing well. The proportions are about 1 — 2 grms.
colouring matter, 8 — 9 grms. acetic acid at 6° B., 30 grms.
water, and 60 grms. gum water.
77i<? Application of Coal-Tar Colours in Paper Dyeing.
A. Keatimaun. Farb. Zeit. November 5, 1891.
For several years coal-tar colours have been largely used
in this branch of industry, though formerly, in the manufac-
ture of paper, mineral and vegetable colours were used almost
exclusively. As in the dyeing of textile fabrics, so in this
case it is chiefly on account of their easy application and
their brilliant colour-effects that they have replaced the
duller mineral and vegetable colouring matters in compara-
tively so short a time.
In paper dyeing there are two separate methods of
applviug the colours : first, surface dyeing ; and secondly,
the dyeing of the pulp itself. By the former process, in the
manufacture of the so-called enamelled paper, the colours
are mixed with water and starch paste, dextrin, &c. For
highly-polished enamelled paper, the colours are mixed with
kaolin, artificial barium sulphate (blanc fixe), or other
similar products, and fixed on the surface of the paper with
glue or gelatin.
Instead of these mixtures the general method, instead of
using the colours themselves, is to employ colour lakes. By
this means a more eveu surface is obtained with the colour.
The colour mixture obtained by either of the above two
methods is brushed on to the paper by means of either hand
brushes or machine brushes, and then worked up for a
higher polish.
The second process is the dyeing of the paper pulp. In
order to render the following description more compre-
hensible, the author first follows up the method of the
manufacture of the paper. The paper, according to its
future use, is manufactured from linen, hemp, cotton, or
jute rags, or from esparto grass, wood shavings, straw, wood
cellulose, or straw cellulose. Better qualities, are, however,
almost exclusively manufactured from rags. This raw
material, after having been thoroughly ground and dis-
integrated in a paper mill, is bleached and then glued with
eolophonium and resin soap, prepared with caustic soda or
potash with the addition of aluminium sulphate, through
which treatment the precipitation of insoluble aluminium
rosinate on to the paper fibre takes pl^ce. After this treat-
ment the paper pulp is dyed, and then worked through the
paper machine into rolls of paper.
The same property which vegetable and animal colouring
matters possess, of forming insoluble or difficultly soluble
colour lakes with certain metallic salts or organic acids, is
also possessed to a certain extent by aniline colours. The
properties of vegetable colours are made use of in paper
dyeing, in so far that the paper pulp is saturated with the
solutions of such bodies as are suitable for producing a
colour lake with the colouring matters applied. Aniline
colours, the application of which in paper dyeing has
become so general on account of their many advantages, are
usually employed as such— i.e., in concentrated solutions
— in spite of the fact that they possess the property of
forming colour lakes, by which latter a saving of colouring
matter is effected, and, besides, the waste water is free from
colour — often a serious question in the manufacture of paper.
The reason of this is because the proper method of dyeing
paper is not known in the trade.
This method of dyeing is also to be recommended because
the colouring matter becomes evenly distributed in the paper
pulp, however complex its composition may be, and
combines very firmly with the fibre by reason of the
adhesion. Through the presence of the rosin glue, which
possesses an especial affinity for colour lakes, the combina-
tion becomes still firmer, and the water remains colourless,
whether the material was glued before or after the dyeing.
When this method of dyeing is used, it is advisable first to
make small dyeings, because the colour lakes, as a rule,
give rather different shades from the directly applied
colours.
For precipitating the colouring matters, both the pre-
cipitants and the colours are made in fairly concentrated
solutions ; the colour solution is first added to the paper
pulp, and then to the precipitating agent, after a thorough
stirring.
Basic colours are precipitated by tannin.
Lead Acetate or Barium Salts in aqueous solution are
used for precipitating l'onceaux and almost all azo-
colouring matters. In the application of lead acetate, the
aluminium sulphate of the rosin glue undergoes double
decomposition, which, however, has little influence in the
dyeing if the lead acetate solution is added gradually. By
the formation of insoluble lead sulphate, the otherwise
soluble lead salts are prevented from being carried away by
the waste water, and in this way much inconvenience is
obviated.
Besorcinol Colouring Matters, such as eosin, phloxin, &c,
are precipitated most profitably with lead nitrate, or better
with lead acetate ; this latter can by prepared by treating
sugar of lead with litharge for some time, or by adding
ammonia to the sugar of lead solution until a permanent
precipitate is formed. Besides the above-mentioned com-
pounds for producing colour lakes from aniline colours,
there exists a whole series, such as stannous chloride,
calcium and magnesium chloride, acid and neutral salts of
the alkalis, &c. — especially, however, aluminium salts. In
glued paper pulp there is always an excess of aluminium
sulphate present, and with such colours as are very easily
precipitated, its presence is sometimes detrimental rather
than useful. The necessary quantity of the precipitating
agent varies according to its quality and to the colouring
matter, and can be determined at the first trial with it. The
price of the tannin and the lead salts, compared with that
of the colouring matter saved by their use, is infinitesimal.
160
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
To see whether the whole of the colour has been precipi-
tated it is necessary to take out a small pattern of the pulp,
press it, and observe whether the water which runs out is
coloured. If it should be coloured the precipitation is not
yet complete, and consequently more precipitating agent
must be added.
For deep shades of paper this method of dyeing -offers
the great advantage over the surface dyeing, of preventing
the waste of unused colouring matter.. For the preparation
of certain kinds of paper, full shades can only be obtained
by this method, and these productions are very much sought
after.
Paper dyeing would to-day stand on an equal level with
textile dyeing if more attention had been paid to this branch
of industry. In spite of the above mention of the more
economical yield of aniline colours, there are up to the
present but a few of these colouring matters which can be
applied in paper dyeing.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Printing Calicoes and other Woven
Fabrics, and in Apparatus therefor. J. V. Hulme,
Manchester. Eng. Pat. 1799, January 31, 1891. Sd.
Irregular patterns, especially in indigo, suitable for the
Indian, Chinese, Japanese, and African markets, are printed
on calico by wooden rollers wrapped with ropes, chains,
wire-netting, matting. &c. or partly covered with projecting
pieces of india-rubber or of lead of various sizes. The
printing-surfaces may also be formed of nails, screws, pegs,
or pins witli regularly or irregularly shaped projecting heads,
either employed alone or interspersed with pieces of lead,
roping, &c. Tufts of bristles arranged in an irregular
manner may also be used. The effects may further be varied
by passing the cloth c over two rollers / (see Figure)
furnished with projecting strips of india-rubber, or of other
suitable material, and revolving in water-troughs m, prior to
printing with the roller a.
Calico Printing Apparatus.
Aft. t printing, the cloth is exposed to the air to oxidise the
indigo ami i- then washed. Sometimes, in order to produce
a blurred or clouded effect, the calico is brushed or sprinkled
with water immediately after being printed. When a dark
indigo ground with a pale indigo pattern is required, the
cloth is first dyed with indigo and then printed in the above-
described manner with a discharge solution. — E. IS.
Improvements in the Construction of Machines fir Printing
Calico and other Woven Fabrics on both Sides. W.
Buckley, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 1996, February 4,
1891. 6d.
The adjustable sliding bearings and adjusting screws of a
duplex printing machine are arranged diagonally in opposite
directions, instead of vertically as hitherto. The bowls can,
consequently, not only be raised and lowered as usual, but
can be brought very close together (when the machine is in
action) or separated (to allow access for the occasional
arrangement of the printing blankets and wrappings) as
required. A more exact " register " of the pattern on the
two sides of the fabric than was formerly possible can thus
be obtained.
The printing rollers are adjustable in a radial direction as
usual.— E. B.
Production of Azo-Colours in Discharge-printing on Indigo
Dyed Fabrics. O. Imray, London. From the " Farb-
werke vormals Meister, Lucius, und Priming," Hoechst-
on-the-Maiue, Germany. Fug. Pat. 2818, February 16,
1891. 6d.
Instead of adding to the thickened solutions of diazo-
compounds an alkaline chromate and passing the cloth,
printed with such a mixture, through an acid bath, to
liberate chromic acid and effect the discharge of the indigo,
as described in Eng. Pat. 7522 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891,
924), potassium ferricyauide is added and the printed cloth
passed through an alkaline bath. The blue-dyed cloth is
prepared with an alkaline solution of i3-naphthol (29 grms.
in 25 cc. of caustic soda solution at 22" B. and 200 cc. of
water) and oleiue (50 grms. of 50 per cent, quality per
litre), and the following mixture, for example, printed on it
for a red discharge : — 83 grms. of p-nitraniline N (" a
mixture of ■'' molecules of p-nitraniline and ° molecules
of sodium nitrite with 5 per cent, of nitrite in excess of the
theoretical quantity "), 572 cc. of water, 300 grms. of paste
thickening, 45 cc. of hydrochloric acid at 22° P., 300 grms.
of potassium ferricyanide, and 60 grms. of sodium acetate.
After priuting the cloth is passed through a solution of
caustic soda of 53— 10° B. at 50°— 60°, and is afterwards
washed or soaped and dried. The above method has the
advantage of allowing all diazo-compounds to be employed,
whereas the process with chromic acid only admits of the
employment of diazoazobenzene, other diazo-compounds not
resisting the action of chromic acid. — E. B.
Improved Machinery for Dyeing Textile Materials in
Hanks. E. P/ecock, Koubaix, France. Eng. Pat. 7511,
April 30, 1891. llcf.
The hanks are placed on bearers which are carried horizon-
tally a little above the dye-vat, on two sets of endless
chains furnished with projecting abutments for their support.
The first set of chains conveys the hanks rapidly through
a portion of the dj-e-bath, thus opening them out and
allowing " the dye to come in contact freely with all parts,"
and then delivers them to the second set, which travels more
slowly " in order to ensure a gradual and enduring action
upon the material being dyed." From the latter set of
chiiins the bearers are taken by a series of vertical and
horizontal endless chains and carried upwards over the vat
to the front of the same, for the purpose of again passing the
hanks through the hath, this being repeated as many times
as is necessary. The hanks are conveyed through the bath
without rotary motion, but in passing along the overhead
system toothed pinions on the ends of the bearers come into
gear with toothed racks, so causing the hanks to alter their
position upon the bearers before the following dip. Three
sheets of drawings accompany the specification. — E. B.
Feb. 29.18W.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
161
Improvements in Apparatus for Dyeing or Bleaching
Textile Materials. J. Bertram! - Leplat, Tourcoing,
France. Eng. Pat. 11,692, July 9, 1891. 8d.
A rectangular tube, closed at one end and connected at
the other with a rotary pump, is fixed horizontally at the
bottom of a vat. The tube is perforated at intervals for
the reception of a number of tapering socket tubes which
project from the bottoms of dye-boxes, in which the
material (more particularly cotton sliver) to be bleached,
&c, is placed. These boxes arc divided into compartments
and perforated to admit the liquor. When the pump is set
in motion, the liquor passes through the mass of material
to the pump, returning thence to the vat, to circulate
again through the material. Two sheets of drawings
accompany the original specification. — E. B.
Process for Printing and Dyeing Textiles, Fibres, Hair,
Feathers, and the Like by Means of Metal Salts.
¥.. I klernheimer, Stuttgart, Germany. Eng. Pat. 17,887,
I >etobcr 19, 1891. 4(/.
TEXTILE fabrics, &0. are impregnated with solutions of the
salts of gold, silver, copper, iron, uranium, or chromium,
anil subjected to pressure between heated cylinders or
plates. In the case of certain of these salts the effect may
be varied by immersing the material to be coloured in a
solution of a reducing agent, or exposing it to the action
of reducing gases, such as hydrogen and hydrogen phos-
phide, prior to pressing or calendering. The materials thus
operated upon are coloured by the deposition on the same
of metallic oxides, basic salts, or finely-divided metals.
From sodium " aurochlorate,"' for example, according to
the process employed and the nature and concentration of
the reducing solutions, there are obtained perfectly fast
shades of grey, purple, red, bronze, and gold. — E. B.
VII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Specific Gravity of Solutions of Acetic Acid. E. Nickel.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1793.
The specific gravity of solutions of acetic acid in water at
15°, rises gradually until a maximum gravity of l-0748 is
reached with solutions of about 80 per cent., after which
point, with increasing strength of solution, the gravity falls
again until it reaches 1 ■ 0553, the anhydrous acid having
the same gravity as a 43 per cent, solution. Therefore,
taken as an indication of the strength of a solution, any
gravity below 1-0552 can only represent one strength, but
above 1 ■ 0552 the gravity would be that of two strengths ;
fo** example, with a gravity of 1 ■ 0G74 the strength may be
either 94 or 58 percent., a point which is decided by adding
water. A rise of gravity would then indicate the higher
percentage, whilst a fall would indicate the weaker solution.
— D. A. L.
Petroleum and Asphalt at Palena, in Payta. Analogy
between Sail and Coal Deposits. C. Ochsenius. Chem.
Zeit. 1891,15, 1866— 18G7.
See under III., page 150.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method of Enriching Phosphated Chalk and
other Calcareous Phosphates. L. C. Delahaye, Paris,
Erance. Eng. Pat. 18,899, November 21, 1890. 6rf.
Tin-: phosphatic material is furnaced in order to transform
the calcium carbonate it contains into caustic lime. It is
then slaked with water and digested with a solution of
ammonium chloride or nitrate which dissolves out the free
lime, and thereby concentrates the phosphatic residue, which
is collected on a filter. The solution containing a soluble
calcium salt and free ammonia is regenerated for use again
by passing a stream of carbonic acid, when calcium
carbonate is precipitated and the original amruoniacal salt
again formed.
The inventor also claims " the substitution for the
ammonia of any kind of ammonia compounds, such as
methylamines, ethylamines, whatever be their formula and
constitution." — G. H. JS.
Improvements in the Production of Chlorine and of Strong
Hydrochloric Acid. F. M. Lyte and O. J. Steinhart,
London. Eng. Pat. 21,225, December 30, 1890. Sd.
Tuts invention is for the purpose of producing chlorine from
waste liquors containing calcium or magnesium chloride,
and is based on the fact that chlorine and hydrochloric acid
are evolved when magnesium chloride is heated in admixture
with a suitable manganite such as Weldon mud, and the
yield of chlorine is considerably increased in the presence
of substances capable of retarding the giving off of the
moisture present under the action of heat. The general
reaction is expressed in the equation —
5(MgCl2 + 6H.O) + Ca0.2MnO,.H„0 + xCaCl., =
(x + l)CaCl, + Mg(OH)2 + 4 CI +~2 MnCU + 2fi ILO
In the presence of sufficient moisture the evolution of chlorine
is completed during the heating from 150° to 350° C.
The hydrochloric acid evolved in the reaction is separated
from the chlorine by condensation and is used in one or
other of the various operations so as to be converted
ultimately into chlorine only. The invention comprises a
series of operations of which the final products are calcium
carbonate and chlorine. Calcium chloride is decomposed
by treatment with magnesia and carbonic acid. The
specification is accompanied by a graphic representation of
the interdependent reactions comprised in the process, and
this diagram should be consulted in order to follow the cycle
of operations. A feature of the process is the low degree
of temperature used by which the magnesia is obtained in a
" soft burnt " condition, which facilitates the reactions.
— G. H. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Sulphate of Alumina.
J. \V. Kynaston, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 962, January 20,
1891. 6d.
Sulphate of alumina, after having been treated for the
removal of iron and other impurities, has generally a yellow
or greenish colour which is due to the presence of a minute
quantity of chromium. This invention has for its object
the removal or rather neutralisation of the colour by the
addition of a complimentary one. Methyl orange and
Tropaeolin OO are suitable colouring matters. The sulphate
of alumina solution is concentrated to the required strength,
and to the hot solution is added as much dilute solution of
Methyl-orange as an experiment has shown to be necessary.
The quality of the colouring matter varies, and one part of
Methyl orange will produce a neutral grey tint with 600 to
1,200 parts of dissolved oxide of chromium. If the
chromium be present as chromic acid it must be first
reduced to a chromic salt by means of an alkaline sulphite
or other reducing agent. — G. H. B.
An Improvement in the Process for the Simultaneous
Production of Cellulose and Oxalic Acid from Vegetable
Fibrous Substances. J. Lifsehiitz, Grunau, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 1824, January 31, 1891. Gd.
See under XIX., page 176.
162
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Automatic Control of
Sulphuric Arid Supply to Carbonic Acid Generators
Used in Aerated Water Manufacture and other
Industries. 'A. ( '. Cox, Olton. " Eng. Pat. 17,034,
October 7, 1891. 6d.
The supply of acid to the generator is regulated by the
agency of :i syphon with equal arms and turned-up ends
which remains tilled with acid when lifted out of the liquid,
It hangs in suspension over the acid reservoir attached to
the arm of a lever which is actuated by the movement of the
gasholder. When the gasholder is being emptied the syphon
sinks into the acid and delivers a stream of acid iuto the
generator, but when the gasholder is full the syphon is
raised from the acid and the flow of acid stops. — G. H. B.
YIIL-GLASS, POTTEEY. AND
EAKTHENWAKE.
Dark Brown Glaze for Hoofing Tiles. E. Cramer.
Thonind. Zeit. 1891,15, 693.
It is advisable to glaze only well-burnt non-porous tiles, as
otherwise water finding its way between the joints and at
the ungla/ed edges, and afterwards freezing, will cause the
glaze to crack off. A good dark-brown glaze which flows
readily has the following composition per cent.: silica,
.'.S-S; alumina, s ■ 1 a ; ferric oxide, 7*98; lime, 93G ;
alkalis, 6*30; loss on ignition, 8 ' 39 ; corresponding to the
formula —
0-7 CaO 1 fO-3 A1,0, , . Q.n
0-3 Na.2O/l0'2Fe2O3 + 4 N -
A loam rich in lime and ferric oxide is best fitted for the
production of a glaze of this description ; it should be
applied to the ware (the latter being iu the air-dried
condition) suspended in water. — B. B.
The Preparation of Gold Glaze for Stoneware. H. Hecht.
Thonind. Zeit. 1S91, 15, 694.
Gold glazes made with purple of Cassius are not always
satisfactory, as it is difficult to obtain a uniform admixture
of the gold with the glaze by mechanical means. A process
has been worked out by Muller, of Brunswick, which
depends on the reduction of gold chloride by means of
glucose iu alkaline solution, which the author has found to
give beautiful purple precipitates with such bodies as
magnesia, lime, baryta, silica, and alumina. As applied to
glazes, the process is carried out as follows : — A dilute
solution of gold chloride is mixed with the liquid glaze, the
mixture made alkaline with a few drops of sodium carbonate,
and slightly warmed while being stirred with a glass rod.
The addition of a small quantity of a solution of glucose
colours the whole mass bright red after a few minutes.
Leadless glazes gave the best results. For example, the
following mixture was prepared : —
I Irais.
34T»0 calcined potash.
95*50 crystallised borax.
■25'im marble or chalk.
19*25 witherite.
1 WOO sand or quartz.
12*40 boric anhydride.
80 gnus, of this were mixed with 20 grms. of Zettlitzet
kaolin and made into a "slip" and treated as described
above. Glazes containing 0*01 per cent, of gold were a
delicate rose colour after hurnmg, while those containing
ol per cent, of gold were dark red, and a mixture with
0*0033 per cent, of gold, together with a little uranium,
was yellowish-pink. The use of ammonia instead of sodium
carbonate gives dirty bluish-red tones. The brilliancy of
the glazes is very great. — B. B.
0*25 Na20 ls*4Si08 0*13 BsOa
ii-L'a Call [ derived from
0*25 BaO j
Change in Porcelain Paste bij Storage. II. Seger.
Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, 813.
When stiff porcelain paste is rendered slightly alkaline with
a few drops of sodium hydroxide, carbonate, or silicate, it
becomes much thinner, a greater part of the agglutinating
material is quickly precipitated and settles firmly at the
bottom, whilst the supernatant liquid takes an extraordinarily-
long time to become clear. If, on the other hand, the
porcelain paste is slightly acidified with hydrochloric or
acetic acid, it gets so much stift'er that it does not fall out
when the containing vessel is inverted. The author suggests
that the improvement observed in porcelain paste by keeping
may be due to similar molecular changes — probably to acid
fermentation of organic matter in the water used — and he
therefore proposes to obviate the necessity of long storage
by slightly acidifying the paste. — D. A. L.
On a Colour Test of Kaolin and Sand. E. Nickel,
them. Zei't. 1891,15, 1125—1126.
The presence of ferric oxide in Kaolin, porous tiles,
earthenware, sand, &c. may be demonstrated by the appli-
cation of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide acidified
with hydrochloric acid, the substance so treated becoming
instantly coloured blue, of an intensity corresponding with
the amount of iron present.
As the test solution soon decomposes, it must be prepared
immediately before use. Care must be taken in preparing
it that a precipitate of ferrocyanic acid is not produced.
— E. B.
Astiestos Porcelain (Porcelaine d'amiante). M. F. Garros.
Compt. l'end. 1891, 113, 864—865.
This new material is employed for the filtration and
sterilisation of water, wines, vinegar, and other liquids. It
is prepared from the purer varieties of asbestos, the fibres
of which are among the finest occurring in nature, whether
in the animal, vegetable, or miueral kingdom. These fibres
reduced to powder yield particles of extreme fineness, and
on account of the chemical purity in which the mineral is
often found, foreign particles of larger size are eutirelv
absent. If the powder is not absolutely white but coloured
with a yellowish tint it is washed with dilute acid to remove
the oxide of iron. The powder forms a paste with water
which can be moulded to any desired form. The articles
are then dried very slowly by gentle heat, and subsequently
fired for 17 or 18 hours at a temperature reaching 1,200° C.
The extreme fineness of the pores of this new species of
porcelain is shown by the fact that micro-organisms will
only penetrate the material to a certain depth, and are not
able to traverse the substance as they do in the case of
ordinary porcelain. Hence the use of the new material for
sterilisation. Water containing 1,200 colonies per cubic
centimetre was found to be absolutely sterilised after filtra-
tion. After being used for filtration, even for a prolonged
period, the asbestos porcelain is restored to its original
condition by wiping with a sponge moisteued with hot
water. — V . ('.
I'ATKNTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Leclanche Cells. D.
K\ lands. Stairfoot. Eng. Pat. 3170, February 21,
1891. G</".
See under XL, page 169.
Improvements in Couplings for Glass Tubes or for Tubes
/nicd with Glass. D. Rylands, Stairfoot, and 1'. Morant,
Barnsley. ling. Pat. ;>ArJ, February 21, 1891. Gd.
The invention consists of a socket union made in two parts,
the object achieved being the joining up of two tubes by
turning either put of the socket instead of turning the
ivi,. ,.9. isf.2.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEJIICAL. INDUSTRY.
163
tubes, as when an ordinary sleeve socket is used. The tail
part of the socket is furnished with a flange, the head part
being provided with a circular chamber, large enough to
admit the flange. A washer of gutta-percha coatod with
shellac tenders the joiut air-tight. — \ . 1 1,
An Improved Tool for Cutting Glass Tubes. A. \V.
Chesterton, Boston, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 20,211, November
20, 1891. 6d.
I.N this tool there are two " spring tensioned arms," pro-
vided with a rotating cutter, and with a cutter block
Tool fob Cutting - Glass Tubes.
respectively. There is a fulcrum block between the two
arms. One arm is spaced out to measure the length of the
tube. A clamping lever encircles both arms, and by
changing its position the pressure on the cutting disc can
be adjusted.— V. C.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for
Manufacturing Plate Glass. W. P. Thompson, Liver-
pool. From R. S. Pease, Minneapolis, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 20,437, November 24, 1891. Sd.
I.\ former attempts to improve the manufacture of plate
glass, and to make the melting continuous, the plan has
sometimes been tried of tipping the whole tank. This
involves very costly appliances. Another plan has been
to let the glass flow from an opening in the bottom or wall
of the tank. The hole, however, becomes rapidly enlarged,
and the flow cannot be properly regulated.
The present invention consists in special forms of oven,
doors, pots, and so forth, all designed for the purpose of
enabling the molten " metal " to be poured straight from
the furnace on to the table. The pots, which are somewhat
cut away on one side to facilitate tipping, stand in two rows
on either side the centre of the furnace, the floor of which
slopes so as to form a sort of trough, the bottom of which
is closed by doors or gates of fire-brick, backed with iron.
The best arrangement is to have one door for each pair of
pots. This prevents waste of heat. The floor of the oven
or chamber is mounted upon iron beams or girders carried
upon columns, leaving a space below the chamber for the
casting table, which is of the usual form. The table top is
close below the floor of the oven. When the doors or
gates are opened and the pots tipped, the metal flows out
from the lip of a pot which is itself at a uniform high
temperature through an atmosphere of the same temperature.
It encounters no cold body, as is the ordinary method, and
consequently arrives on the table in a better condition.
Furthermore, the life of the pot is greatly prolonged by this
invention, since the alternate heating and cooling is avoided,
—V. C.
New or Improved Method of and Apparatus for the
Manufacture of Glass Plates, Cylin iers, Pipes, and
certain other Bodies. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool.
From B. S. Pease, Minneapolis, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
20,439, November 24, 1891. 8ct.
It has formerly been proposed to produce a sheet of glass
by dipping an iron bar into the molten metal and then
raising the bar. Owing to the very different coefficients of
expansion of iron and glass, the glass was apt to crack
before it could be severed from the iron " bait."
In the present invention a glass " bait " is used, a plunger
being allowed to descend until the lower edge of the "bait "
dips so far into the molten metal as to cause a partial
fusion of the edge. On reversing the motion of the plunger
the molten metal follows the "bait." Sheets, hollow
cylinders, or other hollow bodies are thus formed. The
molten metal must be of the proper consistency, and not
too fluid when the " bait " is introduced, otherwise the
sheet is too thin. In order to regulate the thickness and
maintain uniformity of the glass, the " bait " (which may
have, for instance, the form of a hollow cylinder) is cooled
inside by a spray of water and outside by a current of air.
These arrangements secure a prompt cooling and hardening
which enable the thickness to be nicely regulated. — V. C.
IX.-BUILDING MATEEIALS, CLAYS,
MORTAES, AND CEMENTS.
The Manufacture and Properties of Slag Cement. G. E
Kedgrave. Proc. Inst. Civil. Eng., Session 1890—91, 105.
The manufacture of slag cement (for details of which see
this Journal, 1890, 863) can only be satisfactorily carried out
when the composition and general character of the slag
proposed to be used are accurately known. The following
table shows the chief constituents of various blast-furnace
slags, some well suited, and others wholly uusuited for the
manufacture of cement : —
Silica. Alumina, Liaie. Foreign Matter
South Wales 42-84
Lancashire . 33*49
Staffordshire 49'05
Scottish 32-10
Derbyshire 39'24
North Wales 31 '2s
Cleveland 32'15
Cleveland 35-45
28-84
10-12
10-81
2f28
23-01
12-41
W53
21-55
23-13
4G-97
34-33
35-43
S2-03
46-10
40'50
33-70
2-11
8-54
5-78
S'lO
5-6G
10-21
4-82
9-30
The cement is made by pulverising granulated slag
together with slaked " fat " lime (see this Journal, 1890, 863).
In the following analyses the composition of a typical slag
cement is contrasted with that of a typical Portland cement.
161
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1898.
Slag Cement. Portlan-1.
Lime
Silica
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Magnesia
Carl) nie acid
Water (combined with lime).
Sulphuric acid
Ins iluble and other matters .
46-33
21-10
1030
093
0-65
6-45
I
0"94
100-00
The chemical composition of a slag will not by itself
servo to gauge its suitability for making cement, as is shown
by the following two examples of slags of very similar
composition, one of which had double the tensile strength of
the other.
a.
Silica
Alumina
I
Oxide of iron ....
S0d:l 1
Carbonic acid
Bloistiu-e
'I V
.!•.,._-
lirijl
15-01
17-1"
0-03
■ >•;-
5-0i
5 " 56
U'03
0-85
6-88
lOO'OO
Tfnsii.k Strength — 1 Cement to 3 Sand.
7 Days.
•_>s Days.
' Days.
2S Days.
Lb. per Sq. In. Lb. per Sq. In.
326 431
Lb. per Sq. In
150
Lb. p r Sq.In.
208
Slag cement has a tangible advantage over Portland
• inasmuch as it cannot from its mode of manufacture
contain free lime, and therefore does not require " cooling "
in aeration. In spite of the fact that it contains about
25 per cent, of slaked lime it keeps well in sacks, a sample
thus kept for !5 months only showing a loss of tensile
strength of about 5 per cent. When tested to determine its
power of resisting attrition by the method used in Germany
(this Journal. 1891,465), slag cement does not give such
good results when used neat as Portland cement, but is
equal to the latter when a sand mixture is employed. The
author considers that the property possessed by slag cement
of giving higher results than Portland cement when mixed
with large quantities of sand gives this material a value
which has hitherto been somewhat overlooked in this
country. The following are the results given by sundry
slags from differeut ironworks : —
l Part Cement. 3 Parts
Neat.
6II-5D
7 Days.
28 Days.
7 Days.
2S Days.
22*23
Lb. ] '
Lb. per
Lb. per
Lb. per
7-22
Sq. In.
Sq. In.
Sq. In.
s., In.
South Wales....
306
350
S-.2
098
i :;j
83
120
T10
Staffordshire
117
230
250
North Wale-. . . .
10S
137
285
315
1-05
227
310
310
415
1-03
28 '
393
US
5»7
1-01
The samples had approximately the same fineness, a
residue of 10 — 15 per cent, being left on a 180 x 180 mesh
sieve. The briquettes were hardened for 24 hours in air,
and the rest of the time in water.
A sample was tested at the Government testing station at
Berlin with the following results : — A residue of 14 per cent,
was left on a sieve with 5,000 meshes per sq. cm. and of
5 per cent, on one with 900 meshes. All but 1 per cent,
went through a 600-mesh sieve. The strength in tension
and compression of the sample tested neat and with sand
are given below : —
Tensile Strength
after
Compressive
Strength after
7 Day-. 28 Days
7 Days,
28 Davs.
Cement to sand =1:3. 1-7 '
337G
4269
The results are the mean of a number of concordant tests,
and are given in pounds per square inch. — B. B.
Hyd.ra.vlic Cements. A. Busch. Dingl. Polyt. J. 1891,
232, 116-120.
The difference in tensile strength caused by measuring the
quantity of sand and cement used in making standard
briquettes by volume instead of by weight has been
investigated at the Berlin testing statiou with the following
result : —
Strength in
tension at 28
Days.
Strength in
compression
at 28 Hays.
Slag cement (1).. .
Slag cement (2) —
(
Slagc-
fBy weight ..
(.By volume..
(-By weight ..
(.By volume.
By weight .
By volume.
(~By weight..
Portland cemori
(.By volume .
i ! :,. weight.,
Portlan 1 cement (5) -
(.By volume .
By weight..
■olumc .
By weight..
!y volume .
(Byw
Portland cement I 1
(.By v
(By
Roman cement (7) <
(.By
Cilos. per
sq. em.
1- 65
Kilos, per
sq. cm.
131-0
11-25
36*1
22-90
2.17 -4
15-65
161-7
21-00
184-8
12-90
B2-2
20-90
19-2o
i-.; 0
19-90
l-s-v
17-05
151-li
19-30
189-0
18-65
171-9
B 55
ii.".-.
::■- 1
22-0
Feb. 29, 18920
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
165
The briquettes were composed of one part of cement to three
of normal sand by volume or by weight as given above, and
were allowed to harden under water for the period mentioned
in the table.
As might be expected from the comparative lightness of
slag and Roman cement, the differences observed were
greater in their case than in that of Portland cement, being
about 10 — 60 per cent, as compared with 12 per cent. All
the samples were finely ground and of normal specific
gravity.
The lengthy time necessary for ascertaining the degree
of soundness of hydraulic cements and the uncertainty of
the judgments that can be pronounced upon them by the
methods in common use, have lead to the device of more
expeditious and reliable processes. Prominent among these
i> that of Deval (.this Journal, 1891, 255).
The author has carried out some experiments upon the
action of solutions of various sorts upon slag cement. The
results are shown in the following table: —
Cement Composed of Solution Containing
Behaviour after Seven
Days.
last - furnace she; M;S< ), 1 per emt.+ Test pieces ''blow-
from Tees Bridge I NaOl 1 per cent. ins;."
[ron Works, 75 per , NaCl 2 per cent. Test pieces sound.
Slaked lime.
rent.
25 per
MirSO, 2 percent.
Sea water.
Test pieces disin-
tegrated.
Test pieces sound.
Blast-furnace slar rNaC12percent. Test pieces sound.
Iv'se S1!"!11 MgS0.2percent. Test pieces disin-
rease,7B per cent. ., tegrated.
Shekel lime •", ner NaCl 1 per cent.4- Test pieces "blow-
,,.,,, '' I MgSO,2perbent. in;.'1
LSea water. | Test pieces sound.
The samples when hardened under fresh water behaved
normally. After three months, the test pieces which Had
been hardened in all the solutions other than that of sodium
chloride showed symptoms of failure, the corners being
detachable with the finger nail. From these results it
appears that magnesium sulphate has an active destructive
effect upon slag cement. The author considers it debatable
whether this action is due to the fact that magnesium
sulphate is a salt of magnesium or to the circumstance that
it is a sulphate, and adduces in favour of the former view
the well known reaction of lime upon magnesium salts.
Against this is the statement of Michaelis, who considers
that solutions of calcium sulphate have the same effect as
those of magnesium sulphate, while magnesium chloride
has no such deleterious influence. He also believes that
calcium sulphate combines with free lime to form a basic
sulphate ( 'a.;S( >., the existence of which is confirmed by
Schott. Whichever be the precise cause, it would appear
from these data that slag cement cannot be. relied upon for
marine work.
The suitability of Sorcl's maguesia cement for mariue
work and its general capabilities have been studied by
Weber.— B. B.
Prevention of the Action of Frost on Portland Cement
Concrete. Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, 754.
Kkinhofer recommends the following mixture for concrete
to resist the exfoliating action of exposure to very low tem-
peratures:— one litre of Portland cement, one litre of lime
and three litres of clean river sand are mixed with a solution
of one kilo, of carbonate of soda in three litres of water.
The test pieces were exposed to a temperature of about
— 31 '5° C. for 14 \ hours and were afterwards heated for
three hours without showing signs of injury. ', (Compare this
Journal, 1890, 511.)— B. B.
Artificial Asphalt. E. Yaleuta. Cent. Org. f. Waaren-
kunde Tech. 1891, 1, 19 ; Chem Zeit^ Rep. 1891,
15,211.
See under XIII., page 170.
PATENTS.
Method of Manufacturing Artificial Granite and Marble.
C. George and C. Wernaer, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat.
20,948, December 23, 1890. id.
One to five parts of finely-ground blast-furnace slag are
mixed with 10 to 15 parts of "argilliferous building sand,"
one part of granite or marble in small pieces, one part of
fossil meal, " and a flux of from 3 to 6 per cent, of fluor-
spar." A further addition of 3 to 6 per cent, of silicic acid
is made if the granite or marble be very fine. The mixture
is fused and mixed with a quanta of slag and sand also
fused, and is coloured " by the addition of any suitable
colouring matter." Small pieces of granite marble, &e. may
be added so that they remain partially fused. — -B. B.
An Improvement in Building Cements. Y. J. Reynolds,
Longport, and J. Brown, Hampstead. Eng. Pat. 12,429,
July 22, 1891. Gd.
One quarter of a pound of pearlash is dissolved in one
gallon of water and freshly-burnt lime slaked with the
solution. The slaked lime may be dried, if intended to be
kept before being used in the manner described below. A
mixture of equal quantities of nitrate of soda and pearlash
may be used instead of the pearlash alone. The prepared
lime is made into the stiffest possible paste with water and
0-5 per cent, of its weight of raw sugar or other saccharine
matter added, together with sand, brickdust, blast-furnace
slag or similar gritty materials. The mixture may be
coloured with various metallic oxides, or salts such as black
oxide of manganese or sulphate of copper. It is claimed
that the use of the solutions of potash and of nitrate of soda
is to effect a finer division of the lime, especially in the case
of poor samples. — B. B.
An Improved Fireproof Material. C. H. Kopke, Hamburg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 13,491, August 10, 1891. id.
The patent relates to the utilisation of " the waste products
resulting from the manufacture of photogen (light hydro-
carbon oils), the coke of bog-head coal, for the purpose of
producing a valuable fireproof cement and other fireproof
substances." The coke is first calcined, then ground either
wet or dry, and moulded into the desired shape. The
prepared coke may be used as a cement, alone or mixed
with lime or gypsum, or may be mixed with cork, quart/,,
water-glass and other substances for the production of
fireproof materials. — B. B.
Z.-METALLUEGY.
The Manufacture and Properties of Slag Cement.
G. R. Redgrave. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., Session 1890—
1891, 105.
See under IX., pages 163 — 164.
Note on the Precipitation of Copper by Iron, and the
Action of Metallic Iron on Solutions of the Salts of the
Sesquio.ride of Iron. J. C. Essner. Bull. Soc. Chim.
1891, 3, 147
-148.
The cinders of cupreous pyrites having been alternately
moistened and dried by air, when extracted with water
166
THE JOTJBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
give- a solution of sulphate of copper and salts of the
sesquioxide of iron. This treated with metallic iron at
70 — 80° C. gives metallic copper mixed with a large
quantity of the hydrate of the sesquioxide of iron. The
copper exists in three forms : powder, grains, and fibres,
the form depending ou the structure of the iron employed.
The cupreous solution contain- a basic sulphate of the
sesquioxide of iron which reacts with the metallic iron
according to the equation —
6 Fe2(OH)4S04 + 2 Fe -= 6 FeSQ, + 4 Fe._(OH)6
In solutions of the normal sulphate of the sesquioxide
part of the salt is reduced by the iron to the salt of the
protoxide 2 l-'e.i SI ),) 3 + IV., = G FeS04. In order to avoid
the precipitation of the sesquioxide the cupreous solution
was made acid with HjSOj, and this when treated with iron
gave a clean deposit of metallic copper. — J. C. C.
Oh the Determination of the Constants and the Coefficient
of Elasticity of Nickel-Steel. E. Mercadier. Compt.
Kend. 1891, 113, 33—36.
In 1887 and 1888 the author pointed out a method (founded
on Kirchoifs theory of vibration of circular discs) by which
it was possible to determine the ratio of Lame's constants
M
for any sonorous body, and, consequently, the value of
its coefficient of dynamic elasticity. The application of this
method to various specimens of commercial steel showed
that only slight variations existed between them in respect
of their elastic properties (using the word in its usual
sense as referring to vibratory motions without permanent
\
deformation). The ratio - of their constant.- varied only
H-
about 5 per cent, above or below the mean value, and their
coefficient of dynamic elasticity varied barely 1 per cent,
from its mean value (20,700 at 15J). The ratio of the
coefficients- of dynamic and static elasticity for these
specimens was about 1*035. They contained, however,
less than 1 per cent, of foreign substances (carbon, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese).
Alloys of steel with chromium and nickel are now used
for industrial purposes, and the proportion of nickel in
these is sometimes as high as 25 per cent. The author
has examined the elastic properties of specimens of nickel-
steel from Creusot, the specimens being in the form of
circular discs which were reheated to a red heat after being
cast. Xos. 1 and 2 contained 5*55 per cent, of nickel;
Xos. 3 and 4, 25'01 per cent. Discs 1 and 2 (although
from the same melt) did not show the same degree of
homogeneity, for the ratio hail the value 2*29 for the
first, and 1*(!0 for the second: the discs were far from
being isotropic. On the other hand their coefficients of
dynamic elasticity only differed by 2 per cent, from the
mean value (19,922). The discs 3 and 4 were almost
\
isotropic, their values for being nearly equal to unity.
This remarkable result appears to indicate that the incor-
poration of nickel (in sufficient quantity) with steel tends
to make it isotropic. At the same time it produces a
considerable variation in the coefficient of dynamic
elasticity, reducing it (for 3 and 4) to 18,000, whereas
that of pure steel ;- 20,700 (a variation of 10 per cent.).
The ratio of the coefficients of dynamic and static elasticity
is 1-035 for pure steel, 1-17 for steel containing 5 -55 per
cent, of nickel, and 1 -54 for steel containing 25 per cent,
of nickel. Tests of the latter made in the manufactory by
the ordinary statical methods gave values of the coefficient
varying from 12,000 to 6,000 according to the size of the
specimen and the mode of treatment : the -pecimens
ii Ided such very different results that under the circum-
stances it was impossible to regard the coefficient of static
elasticity as having any real and determinate significance.
— 1>. E. J.
Refractory Bricks of Magnesia and Chrome Iron Ore.
Leo. Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, "00.
The author ignited a sample of magnochromite from
Tampadel in a Deville blast furnace to ascertain its
capability of withstanding the temperature of an ordinary
open-hearth steel furnace. The sample had the composi-
tion : — chromic oxide, 35 — 42 per cent. ; ferric oxide and
alumina, 19 — 22 per cent.; magnesia, 16 — 18 per cent.;
and silica, 3 — 5 per cent. The lining of the Deville furnace
was of maguesite, and a magnesia brick and a Dinas fire-
brick were heated at the same time for the sake of com-
parison. The result of the experiment shows that the
chrome iron ore and the Dinas brick were completely fused,
while the magnesiau lining and the magnesia brick were
unaffected by the heat and unattacked by the fused sample.
— B. Ii.
Action of Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid on Aluminium.
G. A. Le Boy. Bull. Soc. Ind. de Rouen, 1891, 19
232.
The author states that the commonly received view that
aluminium is unattacked by sulphuric acid or nitric acid
whether concentrated or, dilute is erroneous. Four samples
of aluminium wer; examined by him, they had the following
composition : —
—
Aluminium.
Iron.
Silicon.
A
PerCent.
98' 28
1-60
0-12
B
95-15
rrso
0-25
C
99-6
0*80
o-io
D
90 '47
IT 4)
0*13
The samples which were in the form of sheet were freed
from traces of grease by means of caustic soda, washed
with alcohol, dried and weighed and exposed to the action
of acids of various strengths for 12 hours. The results
which are given below correspond to the weight of the
metal dissolved, calculated in grms. per square metre : —
Kind of Acid. Sp. (Jr. Temp.
°C.
Pure sulphuric rsi2
Commercial sulphuric 1*842
Pure sulphuric 1-711
Commercial sulphuric 1*711
Pare sulphuric 1*580 1". 20
Pure sulphuric 1*263
Pureniiric 1*883
Commercial nitric .. . 1*383
Commercial nitric .. . r:'S2
Pure sulphuric l'S42 15n
Commercial sulphuric 1*842 150
Pure nitric 1*883 100
Commercial nitric .. . 1'3S3 100
A.
B.
C.
D.
IS'40 18*90 16*40 14*50
21-ni) 21-30 17T.il 16*40
LH'511 25-on 22'no 20 no
25*80 2f7o 24*60 22-40
19*00 18*00 !7':to 16*30
t*G0 .. 2*60 3-iu
17(10 16*00 15*50 ll'5o
20-50 19*60 18*00 16*60
L6*80 16*30 ll'oo 13-40
210 225 150 2oo
2i;7 250 210 22"
Energetic
action.
From these figures it is apparent that even commercially
pure aluminium is attacked in the cold by both nitric and
sulphuric acids of whatever quality, and that, therefore, its
proposed use for vessels for the preparation of these acid- is
ill-advised.— B. B.
Ik ji. 1S92. THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
167
The Manufacture of Cobalt. United States Consular
Reports, September 1891.
The large and important chemical works of the Maletra
Company, at Rouen, finding that the manufacture of soda
and its products had ceased to be profitable, determined to
seel some better use for the large portion of their factory
which had been used for this purpose. In searching for a
substitute which would employ the workmen, utilise the
machinery and buildings, anil employ the capital and afford
profit, the direction naturally sought for some production
for which France relied upon other countries for its supply.
They found that cobalt was almost a monopoly confined to
four or five Euglish and German houses, although the
mineral is almost entirely brought from New Caledonia,
which is a Fiench colony.
The cobalt for trial was bought in the London market and
experimented upon in the well equipped laboratories of their
works. The results were conclusive. No doubt existed
that this new departure was perfectly practicable. The only
difficulty was to obtain the raw material.
The mineral cobalt abounds in New Caledonia and is
inexhaustible and co-extensive with the island.
The working of the mines of the mineral is easy, as it is
often found on the surface, and when it is below the trench
does not exceed 20 ft. in depth. The cost is very little, and
it requires to be, for the mineral coutains only about 2 per
cent, of cobalt.
The veins of cobalt are irregular impregnations of asbolane
disseminated through large masses of clay tinted with iron.
This asbolane is found in several states. It is easily cut
with a knife, and the section is of a characteristic blue-
black lustre. It is mixed generally with silica, oxide of
iron, and clay. Although the mineral varies in the different
mines, the following analvsis gives an approximate idea
of its composition : —
Components. Per Cent.
Components.
Per Cent.
Peroxide of muii-
IS
3
1-25
8
30
a
1
1
■:,■!■::,
Pr^toxide of cobalt.
Protoxide of nickel.
Lost by drying (water
ami oxygen in
Total
100
The mineral thus obtained is sent directly to the London
market, on account of the facilities of transportation
afforded by English vessels. These ships, carrying wool
from Australia, find it very convenient and profitable to
take in for ballast the mineral cobalt, which enables them to
carry more wool, as the fibres of the wool, like those of
cotton, are liable to be broken under pressure. The freight
of the mineral to London is about 15 to 18 francs per ton.
The London market has thus become the only centre of
supply. Iu purchasing this article at London the tax
imposed of :!6 francs on entry iuto France upon articles
from countries outside of Europe brought to European
depots prevented competition in their home market "with
their English and Germau rivals. The only remedy was to
temporarily admit the mineral upon the express stipulation
that the product should be all sold out of France, and thus
avoid the payment of duties.
This deprivation of the entire French market interfered
with the plans of the company. They undertook to import
directly from Noumea by a maritime transportation
company richly subsidised by the French Government.
This company offered to carry the freight at first at
28 francs per ton. This was an advance of 10 francs upon
the London freight ; but having no competition, soon raised
their rates to XI francs, and then to 51 francs, which was
prohibitive. Iu the meantime the Maletras works sent a
most competent and experienced metallurgist to New
Caledonia. During a residence of 18 months he made a
thorough examination, and on his return reported a new
process for treating the minerals of cobalt. Soon after he
came back, about three years since, the company installed
in the part of their establishment formerly devoted to the
manufacture of soda the apparatus for treating the minerals
of cobalt.
The following is a description of the method employed by
the Maletra Company : —
The mineral in a state of powder is thrown into large
vats filled with a solution of protosulphate of iron and
thoroughly mixed up by a jet of steam. The manganese,
the cobalt, and the nickel are taken up by the liquid in the
form of sulphates. The iron that is in the mineral, as well
as that in the solution, is precipitated in the form of
peroxide and partly as persulphate, with the alumina and
silica. The liquid, containing iu solution the manganese,
cobalt, and nickel, is drawn off, and the residue (containing
iron and alumina) is passed through a filter-press and
after calcination can be used as colcothar. The proto-
sulphate of iron used in this operation is made in the
establishment by attacking scrap iron by one of the residues
rich in sulphuric acid known as bisulphate of soda. This
bisulphate of soda forms, with the scrap iron, protosulphate
of iron and also sulphate of soda, used subsequently. The
sulphate of soda is separated by crystallisation. The liquid
containing the manganese, cobalt, and nickel is run into
stone basins, to which is added sulphide of sodium, which
precipitates the whole of the cobalt and nickel, but leaves
the greater part of the manganese in solution. The
sulphide of sodium is produced in a corner of the
establishment by boiling in a closed vessel one of the by-
products of their establishment — black-ash waste from
their carbonate of soda furnaces — and the sulphate of soda
residue from making the protosulphate of iron already
described.
The precipitate containing the cobalt, nickel and a small
quantity of manganese is washed, passed through the
filter-press and then treated with perchloride of iron
(produced in one of the succeeding operations), which
dissolves the manganese. This second operation gives
(1 ) a black precipitate of comparatively pure sulphides of
cobalt and nickel; (2) a liquid containing sulphate and
chloride of manganese. To the liquid is added chloride
of lime, obtained in one of the subsequent operations, and
the manganese precipitated by the lime becomes a by-
product used in the Weldon process.
The third operation consists of drying the sulphides of
cobalt and nickel and then carefully roasting them in a
reverberatory furnace, when, if carefully done, the sulphides
become soluble sidphates of the two metals.
The fourth operation is the most difficult and remarkable
one. The soluble sulphates are now washed with boiling
water. The solution is treated with chloride of calcium
Of the solution (a) containing chloride of cobalt and nickel
a certain quantity is taken, and the cobalt and nickel are
precipitated by lime. This precipitate of oxide of nickel
and cobalt is washed to remove any chloride of calcium that
might remain, then placed in a suitable vessel, a sufficient
quantity of water added, and submitted to a current of
chlorine gas and air under pressure to produce a thorough
mixing. To the peroxides so obtained is added a new portion
(4) of the liquid a, and the two mixed up thoroughly
by a jet of steam, and a curious change takes place. The
peroxide of nickel, changing into protoxide, enters into
solution and is displaced continuously by an equivalent
proportion of cobalt from the first solution. The liquid then
contains chloride of nickel, the cobalt being precipitated as
peroxide of cobalt. The second portion (6) is calculated so
as not to displace the whole of the nickel. This liquid is
now run off and a fresh quantity of a added, aud so on
until on testing it is found that the precipitate contains
nothing but peroxide of cobalt pure, when the operation is
finished. The solutions containing nickel are treated with
lime, and the nickel precipitated as oxide. The products of
the operation are (1) protoxide of nickel, (2) peroxide of
cobalt, (3) chloride of calcium. The chloride of calcium is
required in one of the preceding operations. The separated
oxides of nickel and cobalt are filter-pressed, dried and
calcined.
168
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892,
XL-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Secondary Batteries. G. H. Kobertson. Jour. Soc. Arts,
1891, 40, 14—61.
lx the introduction the author traces briefly the historj' of
the secondary or reversible battery from its first discovery
by Gautherot in 1801, to the discovery of the peroxide of
lead — lead couple — by Plante in 1859.
Passing on to 1880, the date of the introduction of the
Faure cell, when the growth of electrical engineering led to
a commercial demand for some means of storing electrical
energy, the copper-zinc, lead-zinc, copper-lead, and alkaline
copper forms of secondary cells are shortly described.
Then the author deals with the improvements which have
been effected in the Plante and Faure types of lead reversible
batteries, and points out that since the characteristics of
the original cell are common to all, it is important to
discover whether they can be affected by mechanical
alterations, or whether they are due to the chemical
reactions involved in the working of the couple. The first
part of the paper deals with the principal improvements in
construction.
I. Improvements in the Plante Type. — The Plante type
is defined as that in which the peroxide of lead and spongy
lead are formed direct from metallic lead by electrolysis.
In this type obtaining porosity has been the chief aim of
inventors, since both the weight of the plate and the time
required for formation can be shortened by making the plate
porous, and thus exposing more surface to the action of the
acid and charging current. The methods which have been
suggested from time to time may be classified under three
headings : —
A. Chemical. — The plates are subjected to some
"pickling" process, or some special ,! forming" bath is
used.
1!. Mechanical. — The plates are made of granulated
lead, wire, or some form of finely-divided lead.
C. Electrolytic. — (1.) The fineby-divided lead is obtained
by the electrolysis of some salt of lead; (2), some salt of
lead is formed into a plate by pressure, or otherwise, and
then reduced to metallic lead.
II. Improvements in the Faure Type. — The Faure type
is defined as that in which the peroxide of lead and spongy
lead are formed by electrolysis from some oxide applied to
the plates.
In this class of till it is obviously desirable that the
supporting part of the electrode should be light and not
weakened by taking part in the chemical reactions. These
requirements have been met in many instances by replacing
the solid lead plate by a grid, usually made of an alloy of
lead and antimony, since such an alloy is less acted on by
the acid and is much stronger than pure lead.
The other improvements fall into two principal divisions: —
A. Those which have for their object the retention of the
paste on the plate, and they may be classed under four
headings : —
(1.) The plate is not perforated, but grooves or rei ssi -
are made on the surface so as to afford a lodgment
for the active material.
(2.) The support is some form of " grid."
(3.) The active material is enclosed in a perforated
conducting retaining vessel.
(4.) The enclosing vessel or plates are made of some
non-conducting material, or some inactive sub-
stance is packed between the plates to prevent
short-circuiting and retain the active material.
15. Those intended to provide better connection between
the support and the active material.
Instances under each heading are given from cells and
processes of formation in commercial use. The cells
described are the " Beynier," " I l'.s," " OerlikoD," Messrs.
brake and Gorham's " D.P.," "Tommasi," " Julieii,"
"Gadot," "Crompton-Howell," "Atlas," "Roberts,"
" Legay," " Tudor," and all the information which could be
obtained in respect to these cells is given in a tabulated
form.
In the second part of the paper the author deals with the
chemistry of the acid, and points out that although so many
different modes of manufacture and preliminary treatment
have been resorted to, all the batteries which depend for
their action on the couple formed between lead and lead-
peroxide in dilute sulphuric acid, exhibit the characteristic
peculiarities noticed by Plante in his cell, namely : — The
high initial E.M.F. of a freshly-charged cell ; the fall of
E.M.F. on breaking the charging circuit, with corresponding
rise on breaking the discharging circuit ; the very rapid
fall towards the end of discharge which occurs earlier the
more rapid the discharge is, and is not due to the exhaustion
of the active material, as after a rest a fresh discharge can
be obtained. As the defects, namely, sulphating and
buckling, which have retarded the introduction of reversible
lead batteries, are also common to the two types, it appeared
possible that they were due to the same causes which
produced the variations in E.M.F. , and which Plante has
ascribed to the formation of peroxides in the acid.
Berthelot, in 1878, discovered persulphuric acid (rLS2Os),
and showed that it is the primary product of the electrolysis
of sulphuric acid solutions, and that its decomposition is
attended with the formation of hydrogen dioxide.
As there was evidence to show that the addition of
sodium sulphate, as recommended by Barber Starkey,
affected the E.M.F. of the cell, it seemed possible that the
different behaviour of cells containing this substauce was
due to its catalytic action on hydrogen dioxide, and furnished
a clue to the reactions normally occurring.
The investigation was aided by Mr. Preece, who allowed
experiments to be carried out at the General Post Office,
where one half of the secondary cells contain 1 per cent, of
sodium sulphate and the other half ordinary dilute acid,
density 1,180. The Post Office records showed that the
sulphating was much less in the case of cells containing
sodium sulphate than iu those without. As an instance of
this, in the case of two short-circuited cells with badly
broken plates, the density of the electrolyte had fallen from
1,170 and 1,180 respectively to 1,100, while in two sodium
sulphate cells under similar conditions the density had only
fallen from 1,200 to 1,180. This was strong evidence in
favour of the hydrogen dioxide formed in the working of
the cell being appreciable in quantity, since if sulphating
were only due to local action between the support and the
paste, there does not appear any reason why the addition of
sodium sulphate should affect it.
In the sodium sulphate cells the amount of the oxidising
agent was usually less than iu the plain cells. Whenever
the cells were tested they were always found to contain
" active oxygen," which was due to the presence of
persulphuric acid and peroxide of hydrogen in varying
proportions. It was also found that electrolysed acid was
able to reduce pure peroxide of lead in a flask where the
reduction could not be due to local action.
The cause of the pink colour of the acid, sometimes
noticed, was found to be manganese. This result is
important, for it is well known that the pink colour dis-
appears from the acid iu a short time if it is taken from the
cell, and as persulphuric acid has no action on permanganate,
but hydrogen dioxide decolorises it, this disappearance of
the colour shows that the latter is formed.
The presence of hydrogen dioxide having been proved,
both directly and indirectly, its effect on the EM.F. of the
cell was tested, and it was found to increase the E.M.F.
when present at the peroxide plate, but to lower it when
present at the lead plate.
In conclusion, the author points out that from the same
faults appearing in cells of such different construction, and
judging also from the results of the experiments recorded
in the paper, it would appear that the troubles occurring in
batteries are due rather to causes arising in the working
than in the manufacture. What is required is some sub-
stance which can be added to the acid to check the formation
of the oxidised bodies iu it, which cause sulphating, without
at the same time injuring the plates in other ways.
Feb. 29, 1882.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
169
In discussion, Mr. James Swinburne said that b.2 had
tried a number of experiments on forming processes, and
thought the best results were obtained by the use of a
solution which first dissolved the lead and then precipitated
it. Nitric, sulphuric, and acetic acids, various chlorides,
and a large number of other solutions were tiied, but the
great trouble was that traces of the material were left in the
cell which would eventually eat through the plate and
destroy it. The least trace of chloride was fatal. The best
results were obtained with a mixture of acetic and sulphuric
acids. By increasing the strength of the acid a higher
E.M.F. could be got, but there was a limit to the strength
which could be used, as at a certain strength the spongy
lead began to decompose the solution. lie regretted more
information had not been given about copper and other
cells, and believed the tendency now was to turn to copper
for the cell of the future.
Mr. M. Immisch said the cells now made would be very
satisfactory if manufacturers would give them more output
in proportion to their weight. He had tried solid peroxide
plates, but though at first the results were marvellous they
did not last.
Mr. Bernard Drake said if excessive sulphating could be
avoided there would be no buckling : but if batteries were
allowed to run out, and were left under conditions which
would produce excessive sulphating, nothing would save
them. The specific gravity of the acid should be varied
according to the work required. With regard to copper
cells tlie return in proportion to weight was certainly greater
than from lead, but the invariable difficulty was that the
zinc appeared to be soluble in the solution.
Mr. Robertson, in reply, said diminution of weight
was, of course, the great point, and he hoped when they
knew more about what happened in a cell the}' would be
able to construct them better. Mr. Drake had confirmed
his view that the strength of the acid should depend on the
work to be done.
The Chairman (Mr. W. H. Preece) thought that the
cause of buckling was one of the great troubles chemists
ought to attack. He also gave an instance of the practical
use of soda. In May last it was reported to him that there
were 28 E.P.S. 13 L cells terribly sulphated, which bad
resisted various attempts to get them into order. About
half a pint of a saturated solution of carbonate of soda
was added to each cell, and at once the whole difficulty
disappeared, — G. H. R.
.1 rtificial Asphalt. E. Valenta. Centr. Org. f . Waarenkunde.
Tech. 1891,1, 19; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1891,15, 211.
See under XIII., page 170.
PATENT.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Leclanche Celts.
I). Rylands. Stairfoot. Eng. Pat. 3170, February 21,
1891. GcZ.
Tub object of the invention is to keep the porous pot in the
centre of the glass cell, and so that it shall not touch the
inside of the mouth of the glass cell. This is accomplished
in one of three ways : first, while the bottom of the glass
is in a plastic state a plunger is introduced, forming a
depression in the thickness of the glass bottom. Into this
depression the porous pot fits ; or secondly, a shallow glass
cell is introduced into such depression, and the porous pot
stands inside the shallow glass cell ; or, thirdly, the bottom
of the glass cell is indented from the outside, and the bottom
of the porous pot is indented also from the outside in such
a way that the pot fits over the raised portion of the bottom
of the glass cell, and is retained in this manner in a vertical
position in the middle of the glass cell. — V. C.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
A Rapid Method of Determining the Composition of
Lubricating Oils. 11. Clipper. Chem. News, 1892,
65, 27—28.
See under Will., page 182.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Separation or Treatment of Fatty or
Greasy Matters from the Wash-Waters of Wool-
Washing or Scouring Establishments. C. W. Kimmins,
Cambridge, and T. Craig, Bradford. Eng. Pat. 92,
January 2, 1891. 6c/.
In the processes now generally in vogue for separating fatty
matters from wash-waters, the sulphuric acid used acts
injuriously on the fatty materials as well as on the apparatus
used for their mechanical separation. To minimise the
objectionable action of the acid the patentees precipitate
tlie fatty matter from wash-waters by means of either
suitable neutral salts, such as chloride of calcium or these
in conjunction with lime or bleaching powder. From the
separated fatty matters a better cake may be obtained by
the addition of a small quantity of a soluble sulphate. The
cake is decomposed with sulphuric acid, and the colour of
the resulting product may be improved by passing through
it air, gas, or steam, at a comparative low temperature.
— K. E. M.
Improved Filter for Oils, Lubricants, and other Fluids.
W. H. Willcox, London. Eng. Pat. 101, Jauuarv 2,
1891. Gel
Tins oil filter consists of two concentric cylinders, the inner
cylinder communicating with the annular space, through
grids at the bottom, and between which a suitable filtering
medium is placed. The oil to be filtered being placed in
the annular space between the two cylinders, rises up
through the grids and filtering medium into the inner
cylinder, whence the filtered oil is removed through a
suitable pipe.— 0. H.
An Improved Oil Filter. C. E. Masterman and " Wood-
house and Rawson, United Limited," London. Eng.
Pat. 1976, February 3, 1891. %d.
Ax air-tight vessel of metal or other suitable substance
preferably cylindrical, is divided by a horizontal diaphragm
into two chambers, the upper for the reception of dirty
oil to be filtered, and the lower for the collection of the
clean filtered oil. The diaphragm consists of a disc of
perforated metal or wire gauze, upon which is laid fine
cotton waste and one or more discs of perforated metal,
with corresponding layers of cotton waste, the whole being
kept in place by a perforated plate on the top, pressed
down by a heavy iron ring. The lower chamber is fitted
with an inlet and an outlet cock at the top, and an outlet cock
at the bottom, by means of which it may be filled with
clean oil to start with, the out-flow of which will tend to
aspirate the dirty oil through the filter-plate. A separate
vessel may be connected with the upper chamber as a
settling tank for the dirty oil, and to allow any water it
may contain to separate before passing to the filter. — B. B.
Improvement relating to Candles. G. E. Farrow, London.
Eng. Pat. 16,986, October 6, 1891. 6</.
In order to extinguish candles automatically and at the
same time prevent waste, the patentee secures an obstruction
of suitable non-eombustible material upon the wick. When
the candle burns down to the obstruction this will cause
extinction. The remaining small piece of candle may now
be inverted and relighted by the projecting part of the wick
at the lower end. — K. E. M.
170
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1862.
An Improved Lubricating Compound jor the Chains and
Bearings of ( 'ycles and for other Purposes. H. H. Lake,
London. From J. Ketchum, Brooklyn, U.S.A. Kng.
Pat. 17,553, October 14, 1891. id.
Metallic ehronjites, preferably cbromite of iron, in the
condition of an inpalpable powder, mixed with glycerin or
other suitable " suspending or binding material " is said
to be an efficient lubricating compound for bearings of all
kinds. — K. E. M.
Improved Method of and Apparatus for Extracting Fatly
Particles from Emulsions. C. 'l). Hellstrrjm, Sala,
Sweden. Eng. Pat. 17,654, October 15, 1891. 6rf.
With a view to increase the rapidity and completeness of
separation of fats from emulsions such as milk, the patentee
makes use of a centrifugal separator in which the emulsion
on its passage from the centre to the casing has to take an
nndulatory path between discs or rings consisting of con-
Afparatus for Extracting Fatty Particles from
Emulsions.
centric corrugations. Annexed Figure shows the arrangement
used by patentee. — K. E. M.
XIII— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, TAENISHES.
EESINS, INDIA-EUBBEE, Etc.
Pigments and Vehicles of the Old Masters. A. P.Laurie.
J. Soc. Arts, 1892, 125, 133, 150—164, and 171—178.
Of the great variety of pigments used by the old masters
many are only suitable for miniature painting or under
conditions where they are protected from the action of
sunlight and moisture. A few only were used in fresco
painting. ( Ither pigments which were admissible in the
purer air of ancient cities or in dry climates such as that of
Italy, are unsuitable in the atmosphere of modern towns and
in moister climates. In reviewing the list of the pigments
generally employed for oil painting by the old masters oneis
struck by the fact that many are of such a character as to act
injuriously upon other pigments unless carefully isolated.
Yet such pigments are frequently found to have preserved
their brilliance for centuries. Others again are affected by
air in the presence of moisture. The author shows that the
oils and varnishes usually employed at the present time are
far from furnishing a perfect protection from the access of
air and moisture. In these experiments dehydrated copper
sulphate was coated with the varnish, placed in a desiccator
and subsequently exposed, when the more or less rapid
colouration of the copper sulphate proved the incomplete
character of the protection afforded by the varnish. Similar
experiments are considered by the author to disprove
Eastlake's theory that the preservation of the colour in such
paintings as those of Van Eyk is due to the use of an
oleoresinous vehicle, i.e., one in which a resin dissolved in
oil is mixed with oil. The author is rather inclined to
attribute the preservation of these colours to the use of
balsams such as Venice turpentine (the balsam of the
larch) which he finds to afford a fairly complete protection
from moisture. He points out, however, that these balsams
are unsuited for modern work, owing to their stickiness,
which does not admit of rapidity of execution. Much
might be done, however, for the permauence of modern
paintings by the exclusion of dangerous pigments, the
careful preparation of the pigments used, and particularly
by paying more attention to the purity and mode of
preparation of the oils.
The author deals at some length with the properties of
white lead. The old masters appear to have uniformly
employed that made b}- the Dutch process which contains
hydrate. The presence of the hydrate results in the
formation of a lead soap with the oil, thus forming a
leathery substance of great durability. The precipitated
white lead preferred by modern artists on account of its
greater purity of colour has not this property. A mixture
of the two is believed to be fairly satisfactory. The author
considers that too much importance is attached to the fact
that a sulphurous atmosphere discolours this pigment, as
the colour is restored by exposure to sunlight. — V. C.
Artificial Asphalt. E. Valenta. Centr. Org. f. Waaren-
kunde u. Tech. 1891 1, 19; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1891,
15,211.
By adding sulphur to molten rosin a clear mass is obtained
which on heating turns brown, froths up and gives off
hydrogen sulphide ; at 250° this evolution of gas is regular
until it ceases, when the mass becomes brownish-black.
The product contains sulphur, is pitchy, and closely
resembles Syrian asphalt in properties. It is insoluble in
alcohol, but dissolves readily in chloroform and benzene ; a
thin la3'er of the latter solution when allowed to dry on
glass, deposits a solid varnish which is extremely sensitive
to light.— D. A. L.
PATENTS.
The Manufacture of an Improved Preparation of Dryers
or Siccative Material for Mixing with Paints.
W. X. Hartley, Dublin, and \V. E. lilenkiusop, London.
Eng. Pat. 1267, January 23, 1891. id.
This preparation is a mixture of manganese linoleate with
a finely-powdered metallic ovide or salt, which can have no
injurious action on the paint, such, for example, as zinc
oxide, carbonate or sulph.Ue, china clay, silica, or kieselguhr.
The mixing may be made by heating the materials to steam
heat and triturating in a mortar or by rubbing with
turpentine.
Good results are said to be obtained by using 40 parts
by weight of manganese linoleate dissolved in 120 parts of
turpentine and afterwards mixing with 1,000 parts of zinc
oxide. This powder may be used for mixing with paints. To
prepare a liquid dryer an oil containing 1 per cent, manganese
linoleate is treated as described in Eng. Pat. 11,629, of 1890
(this Journal, 1891, 263), and prolonged till the oil becomes
thickened, when it is diluted with a suitable solution of the
linoleate till it contains about 10 per cent. This dryer will
then mix completely with oils or oil paints. — D. A. S.
Improved Polishing Composition. H. E. Iliekox, London.
Eng. Pat. 12,951, July 30, 1891. id.
This composition is intended as a substitute for black-
lead, and consists of either size, water, plumbago, and
ammonia, or of size, vinegar, water, plumbago, camphor
and ammonia, in suitable admixture. — D. A. S.
ft*. 29, 1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
171
Apparatus for the Manufacture of Lamp-black Carbon-
black. E. Biuney, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,221,
October 9, 1891. By Intermit. Conv., March 9, 1891. »d.
This is an improved method of making lamp-black from
oil, and carbon-black from gas, more economically.
The general practice hitherto in making lamp-black has
been to draw the oil rlarne into a special chamber for a time,
and subsequently, when the building is cooled, workmen are
sent in to scrape down and remove the lamp-black. It
is claimed the new process by saving labour is more
economical.
Hitherto carbon-black has been made by allowing a gas
flame to impinge directly on a metal surface, from which
the deposited black is subsequently scraped. This method
of manufacture tends to give the carbon-black a granular
form on account of the high temperature, and so in the
manufacture of ink, in spite of its superior colour, it has
to be mixed with lamp-black to give it flaky texture. It
is claimed that by this process the product, while retaining
the superior colour of carbon-black, has also the soft flaky
texture of lamp-black.
The apparatus is simple, and practically consists in the
suitable combination of an oil or gas burner or furnace,
with a depositing chamber, the walls of which are out
of contact with the flame. The chamber has a revolving
scraper to remove the black from the walls, and a conveyor
to cam it continuously out. — D. A. 8.
Improvements in or relating to the Manufacture of
Resinous Paint. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From
A. F. von Pereira, Stuttgart, German)'. Eng. Pat.
18,072, October 21, 1891. id.
This preparation consists of a mixture of 325 parts of
copaiba balsalm, 25 parts of lavender essence, and 15 parts
each of mastic and of dammara resin, — hich can be rubbed
up with the desired colours.
It is claimed that when this resinous paint is used the
painting;- will not become dark, nor their surface crack, nor
will their transparency and durability be interfered with, a
drawback which has hitherto attended all such resin colours
used without the addition of fatty .oils.
These colours dry completely in about 24 hours, and are
excellent for painting on glass and metal, even when
employed by themselves. When used in distemper painting
they can be painted on again with distemper if desired.
— D. A. S.
XIV -TANNING, LEATHEK, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
The Rule of Arsenic in Tanning. S. Sadlon. Der Gerber,
1891,17, 284.
The addition of sulphide of arsenic to limes is known to
effect a more complete unhairing and to prevent too much
plumping of the hides or skins. The condition of the
hides from such limes is sounder and of better quality, this
improvement manifesting itself in tawed leather by the
greater softness and gloss of the grain, and in tanned leather
by a better quality of the grain. It has heretofore been
accepted that the sulphide of arsenic merely acts in the
limes as a carrier of sulphur, converting a portion of the
lime into calcium sulphide, the arsenic being itself of no
service. The author's observations show that while it is
true that the sulphide of arsenic converts a portion of the
lime or alkalis into sulphides, the arsenic is by no means
unserviceable, for it prevents putrefaction and fermentation,
and thus greatly aids the improvement in the leather.
Although alkaline sulphides alone will not effect the same
improvement as sulphide of arsenic, an addition of common
salt, together with an alkaline sulphide, is attended by much
the same results as those obtained by the use of sulphide
of arsenic. — A. G. B.
PATENT.
A New or Improved Process for Tanning all kinds of
Hides or Skins. W. Bolt, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 3176.
February 21, 1891. id.
The inventor mixes with the solution of catechu or other
tanning material a solution of chloride of sodium or
sulphate of magnesium, or both. — E. J. B.
XV.-MANURES, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improved Method for Precipitating Solid Matter in
Sewage, Purifying and Disinfecting the Effluent Water,
and Solidifying and Preparing the Sludge for use as a
Manure. J. Hardwick and L. A. Newton, London.
Eng. Pat. 15,405, September 29, 1890. 6rf.
See under XVIII — li., page 173.
Improvements in and Relating to the Treatment of Sewage
and Sewage Deposits. H. Tatham, Burnley. Eng. Pat.
1225, January 23, 1891. 6<i.
See under XVIII. — B., page 174.
XVII -BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
On Wine Yeast. A. Rommier. Compt. Kend. 1891,113,
386—387.
A vineyard in the Dordogne was planted with vines of the
best kind from the Medoc, grafted on American vines.
After three years, a good crop of grapes was obtained
which yielded a good wine, but of no different character from
wines of that part of the country generally. If, however,
before fermentation, uncrushed grapes from the Medoc or
fresh must therefrom be added to the must from the
grapes above mentioned, a wine is obtained having
absolutely the same character as the Medoc wine A. L. S.
Iso-maltose in Beer and Wort. C. J. Lintner. Zeits.
ges. Brauw. 1891, 14, 281.
Lead acetate is added to one and a half litres of beer,
the filtrate neutralised with soda and concentrated to a
syrup. The concentrated solution is poured into one litre
of absolute alcohol ; the precipitate consists chiefly of
dextrin ; the clear alcoholic solution is concentrated and
again treated with alcohol ; a precipitate is thrown out
which, with phenylhydrazine acetate, yields a yellow
precipitate, and when purified by several recrystallisations
forms aggregations of yellow needles which begin to run at
138°— 140° C. and finally melt at 150°— 153° C. They have
the same composition and properties as iso-mallosazone
described by Fischer. This body was also obtained from
wort. — A. L. S.
77ie Application of Aluminium for \~essels for containing
Foods, a-c. G. Rupp. Dingl. Polyt. J. 1891, 283,
19—21.
See under XVIII.— A., pages 172 — 173.
172
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1892.
XVIII.-CHEMISTKY OP FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY. AND DISINFECTANTS.
(4.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
The Artificial Colouration of Articles of Food. A.
Tsehirch. Schweiz. Wochenschr. Pharm. 1891, 29, 344.
The green colouring matter of leaves is extremely sensi-
tive to light and to acids of all kinds. To prevent its
decolourisation, sodium carbonate is commonly added to
vegetables before cooking, while preserved vegetables were
formerly boiled in copper vessels but are now treated directly
with copper sulphate, well washed, sterilised, and soldered
down. The author explains the reactions taking place in
the following way. By treatment with sodium carbonate
the free fatty, and vegetable acids are neutralised, the fats
saponified, and acid salts such as potassium binoxalate
converted into the neutral compounds. Not only is the
action of the vegetable acids upon the chlorophyll, which
results in the conversion of the latter into phyllocyanic acid
(a brownish-green body), prevented by the addition of
alkaline carbonate, but there is formed the sodium salt of the
acid in question which is a fairly stable green substance
soluble in water and insoluble in ether. The corresponding
copper salt which the author has obtained in the form of
black plates with a steel blue reflection is, however, still more
stable ; the copper it contains does not give the usual
reactions until the salt has been destroyed by ignition ; it is
always formed when the green parts of plants are treated
with copper sulphate solution ; it contains about 9 per cent,
of copper. Seeing that the quantity of chloryphyll in such
vegetables as are commonly preserved in this manner, as for
example, peas and cucumbers, is very small, the amount
of copper solution necessary to preserve the colour is
correspondingly minute. The author considers that it is
impossible to procure preserved vegetables of brilliant
colour which have not been coppered, and is disposed to fix
a maximum limit for the quantity of copper, believing that
the traces usually present are innocuous. — B. B.
Fruit of the Wax Palm (Corypha cerifera L.) as a Coffee
Substitute. J. Konig. Centr. Org. f. Waarenkunde u.
Tech. 1891, 1 ; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1891, 15, 208.
The fruit of Corypha cerifera is of stony consistency, and
in Brazil is made into a substitute for coffee by roasting in
the ordinary manner. Chemical analysis of the Brazilian
fruit gave the following numbers per cent. : —
Crude.
Itoasted.
Water
Albuminoids
Fat
Sugar and dextrin
Starch
Other non-nitrogenous extract sub-
stances.
Woody fibre
Ash
Ash containing:—
potash
lime
phosphoric acid
Substances soluble in water
Rev.
The fat from the fruit differs in composition from that
obtained from the leaves. — D. A. L.
The Adulteration of Foods in Various Countries.
Inter, des falsificat. 1891, 4.
Milk. — Of 214 samples of London milk 44 had been
deprived of their cream, boracic acid had been added to 21,
and 26 were poor ; 6 had an abnormal composition contain-
ing 6-7—14-25 per cent, of fat. Of 959 samples of
Amsterdam milk 13-7 per cent, were unsatisfactory as they
contained less than 11 '25 percent, of dry substances, 15-7 per
cent, were poor as they contained between 11 "25 and 11 50
per cent, of dry substance, 209 samples contained 12 — 13 per
cent, of dry substance, 36 samples over 13 per cent, dry
substance, and 2 samples contained 15-80 and 16- 39 per
cent, dry substance. In Bremen the following results were
obtained : —
Number
of Samples.
I Specific
Gravity at
15° G.
Volume
Per Cent.
Cream.
Percent. PerD^e,,t-
1;lt- Substance.
1887.
99 market milk .
Per Cent.
1-0311
7-51
2-84
11-34
6 stall milk ....
1-0316
o-ii
2-83
11-08
1888.
S" market milk .
1-031S
8-23
2*98
11-62
23 stall milk ....
1-0310
7-59
2 -US
11-48
Iss9.
94 market milk .
1-0319
S-31
2-94
11-52
IS stall milk
1-0312
o-:i
2-3(5
10-80
Butter. — In Bremen, of 109 samples examined, 49 con-
tained foreign fats, 3 were pure margarine, many were
rancid, and one contained casein, water, salt, and a little
butter. Of 30 London butters one contained 35 per cent,
and another 90 per cent of foreign fats. Much butter is
imported into England from Normandy as pure French
butter which contains 70 — 80 per cent, margarine.
Lard. — Of 92 samples taken in Bremen 69 were adulterated
with tallow and cotton-seed oil. Lard adulteration also
goes on very largely in the United States.
Flour and Bread. — The per cent, of water contained in
Amsterdam samples were, wheat flour, 11-3 -, barley flour,
12-1; rye flour, 13-2; rice flour, 11-4; potato flour, 19.
Wheaten bread contained 32 — 40 per cent, moisture and
1 ■ 4 — 1 • 7 per cent, ash ; rye bread, 2 • 5 per cent. ash.
Soda Water. — A Bucharest sample contained alum, which
had been used to clarify the water, and another sample
contained lead.
Beer. — Two Bremen samples contained salicylic acid. It
has been enacted in Belgium that lead pipes shall not be
used for beer machines.
Spices. — Of 8 samples of mace 3 were adulterated.
The samples of pure mace contained about 1 1 per cent,
water, 42 per cent, alcoholic extract, and 2 per cent. a9h,
whilst the adulterated samples contained about 5 per cent,
water, 63 per cent, alcoholic extract, and 1'8 per cent. ash.
Black pepper contains 5 — 5 J per cent, ash, and samples
containing over 7 per cent, are adulterated with sand ; this
last spice is a very favourite one for adulterating. — A. L. S.
The Application of Aluminium for Vessels for containing
Foods, cVc. G. Rupp. Dingl. Polyt. J. 1891," 283, 19—21.
The author has subjected aluminium in various forms, such
as cups, canteens for the troops, and foil, to the action of
different foods and liquids for a length of time varying from
4 to 28 days at the ordinary temperature. An analysis of the
metal employed gave Al, 99'66 ; Si, 0-08 ; and Fe, 0'30.
Besides observing the loss of weight after treatment he also
estimated the aluminium in the food, &c. before and after
treatment ; the results are given in the table. The author
also mentions that whereas aluminium in a finely-divided
state is perceptibly oxidised by boiling water, the metal in
bulk, with the same treatment, is practically unaltered. In
conclusion he advocates the re-establishment of aluminium
for containing vessels for foods, &c.
Feb. 2», i8»a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
173
Kind of Treatment.
Duration
of
Test.
Weight of
Aluminium.
Difference
in
Weight.
Alumina
in
Solution.
Character of the
Before.
A Iter.
after Treatment.
1. Aluminium llasks
>>
White wine with 0*7 per cent. acid.
8 days
2S days
4 days
8 days
4 days
8 days
„
i hour
8 days
>
4 days
days
.»
12H -031
120 -0302
126-0291
120-0251'.
120-0218
108-210
108-2099
120-0210
120-0210
55-798
5V7977
S'8715
S-170
1-879
1*879
3-S72
3-170
3-789
3-799
1-8788
rooi
3-170
2-518
3-7886
2-172
126-0302
126-0291
126-0250
126-0218
126-0216
108-2099
108-2097
126-0210
126-0204
55-7977
53-7675
3-8714
3-170
1-879
1-8789
3-8715
3-170
3-7S9
3-7886
1-S7S7
0-9982
3-1699
2-518
3-78S5
2-157
O-00O8
0-0011
0-U035
O-0038
0-0002
o-oooi
0-0002
0-0006
0-0004
0-0003
0-0002
o-oooi
o-o
o-o
0-0001
0-0005
o-o
o-o
8-0004
0-011,11
0-0028
o-oooi
o-o
o-oooi
0-0150
o-o
o-o
Slight trace
o-o
o-o
o-o
Slight trace
00
o-0
o-o
o-o
00
o-o
Slight trace
o-o
o-o
Slight trace
0 0021 Al
O-o
o-o
o-o
0-0138 Al
Clear.
8. „ ,. ..
4. „ „ ..
5.
Faintly clouded.
C. „ „ ..
7. ., ....
Clear.
8. „ „ ..
9. .. ....
20 grms. coffee to 200 ce. water
Faintly clouded.
Milk
Curdled and sour.
Unaltered.
IS. „ „ ..
14. „ ,. ..
13. ., „ ..
Drinking water, 14° hardness
Clear.
lfi. „ „ ..
17. • „ ....
»
18. „ ....
19. „ „ ..
-
20. „ „ ..
21. Aluminium foil
finely divided.
22. Aluminium foil..
23. „ „ ..
10 per cent, acetic acid, 100 parts. ■ .
••
2*. „ „ ..
25. „ „ ..
Faintly clouded.
-J. c. c.
PATENTS.
Method and Apparatus for Drawing off and Transporting
Sterilised Liquids without being Contaminated with
Germs. O. Imray, London. From " Ctilbera Fitz und
Consorten," Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 1191, January
22, 1891. Is. Id.
This invention has for its object the transport of sterilised
fluids, e.g., milk in large quantities. The vessel is spherical
and smooth on the inside to render cleaning easy, and is
provided with protected orifices at the ends, to one of which
may be attached a complex air filter for the removal of
germs from the air admitted to replace the fluid drawn off.
(For description of the filter we refer to the original.)
Among the filtering materials are cellulose, wadding, and
charcoal, the former two being regenerated by hot air. A
cylinder of a compressed gas such as carbonic acid may be
used instead of the air filter. — L. de K.
(5.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
PATENTS.
Improved Method/or Precipitating Solid Matter in Sewage,
Purifying and Disinfecting the Effluent Water, and
Solidifying and Preparing the Sludge for Use as Manure.
J. Hardwiek and L. A. Newton, London. Eng. Pat.
15,405, September 29, 1890. 6rf.
The invention consists in first mixing the sewage with a
sufficiency (to be determined if necessary by experiment)
of a mixture of gypsum, salt, nitrate of lead, borax, alum,
and nitre, and in some cases also salicylic acid, hydrochloric
acid, and caustic potash.
The deposit is finally made into a manure by mixing it
with a compound of sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime, salt,
sulphur, borax, and magnesite.
Besides yielding a highly purified effluent water, the
inventors claim to produce a manure which, whilst possessing
valuable fertilising properties, will destroy all insect life.
— L. de K.
Improvement in Apparatus for the Filtration, Aeration,
and Purification of Water for Household or Drinking
Purposes and the Like. B. L. Ray, London. Eng. Pat.
19,512, December 1, 1890. 6d.
The invention consists in the use of an outer filter case
which may be of stone, glass, china, wood, or metal, a
filtering pan which fits into the outer case by a broad rim.
At the bottom of the filtering pan and descending from it, is
a tube or square or oblong ; and round the sides of this
receptacle are a few fine holes for straining. This receptacle
is for receiving a sterilised filtering medium. Inside the
filtering pan is a ledge, and on this is placed a flat aerating
strainer which fits the filtering pan and from the centre of
strainer rises a funnel or pipe for the purpose of aerating
the water. Air is admitted through holes in the rim of
filtering pan and slight grooves on the rim of the outer case.
— L. de K.
G 2
m
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 59, 189i
Improvements in and Relating to the Treatment of Seu-age
and Sewage Deposits. H. Tatham, Burnley. Eng. Pat.
1225, January 23, 1891. 6rf.
The invention relates to the purification of sewage and the
manufacture of manure.
The chief feature of the invention is a disintegrator, con-
sisting of two rollers, one of which is spiked and the other
plain, the former running the faster, which enables the
blocks or cakes of the manure from the filter-press to be
reduced to fine particles with rapidity and a very little cost.
— L. de K.
(C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Vaporising Oils and
other Liquids for Medicinal and Disinfecting Purposes.
W. H. Spencer, St. Leonards-on-Sea. Eng. Pat. 8629,
May 20, 1891. 8d.
The invention " consists in improved apparatus for vaporising
eucalyptus aud other oils or materials possessing allied
qualities, at such temperatures as have been found from
experience to produce the highest remedial effects under
varying conditions of disease, by charging the air with the
vapour evolved to any desired degree of saturation over
extended periods of time, without any further adjustment
of apparatus after preliminary setting." For details the
specification must be consulted. — L. de K.
Improvements in Sulphur < 'audits. S. IS. Morss, New
Jersey, and T. F. Hourue, New Vork, I'.S.A. Eng.
Pat. in, -134, October 27, 1891. 6d.
When sulphur is moulded into a block or mass it becomes
very hard and difficult to ignite when a flame is applied to
its upper surface. Further, on account of the fumes that
arise, a person cannot long remain in proximity to the
candle.
The invention consists chiefly in undermining the surface
of the candle so that a flame will attack and ignite the
sulphur quickly and positively. — L. de K.
XIX.-PAPEE, PASTEBOAKD, Etc.
Description of an American Sulphite Celhdose Paper Mill.
H. Wildhagen. Papier Zeit. 1891, 16, 2122—2124.
Ax aecouut is given of a large paper mill recently erected
at Appleton, on the Fox river (Wisconsin), on the plan
known as the Mitseherlich system. The water-power
resources of the country are very large, due to the fact
that in this section of the river, between Lake Winnebago
and Greenbay (Lake Michigan) extending for about
30 miles, there are no less than 1 8 locks, the fall of which
varies from 7 to 12 ft., the river all along its course being
used to supply power to mills and factories. Lake Winne-
bago forms the natural reservoir for this supply, extending
for about 40 miles in length and varying from 15 to 20 miles
in breadth. At Appleton a weir 8 ft. high and about
750 ft. "long gives power on the west bank of the river to
various works. On the eastern bank, situate on an island
formed by the Fox river, the Greenbay, aud the Mississippi
Navigation Canal and the Telulah Water Power Canal, lies
the paper mill in question. The river is about 750 ft. wide
at this point and is bridged by a wooden structure for
vehicular ami passenger traffic. Across this bridge is
the Greenbay aud Mississippi Canal, and thence com-
munication is obtained across a swing-bridge with the
island, which is about 2.50 ft. in breadth. Another bridge
crosses the Telulah Water Power Canal on the east and
affords communication with the mainland. Alongside the
roadway thus formed lies the building containing the
principal turbines; it is 100*5 ft. by 53, and contains one
storey only. The plant consists of four turbines of 100
horse-power each and one smaller one of 75 horse-power.
In sets of two the former supply power to the wash-house
by means of shafting, whereas the latter turbine drives the
dynamos for electrically lighting the whole of the mill. The
water for these turbines is drawn from the navigation canal.
Between the turbine-house and the wash-house lies an open
space, measuring 135 ft., upon which there is room for five
paper machines. The wash-house, 1-12 ■ 5 l>y 263 ft., consists
of one large hall subdivided into tiYn sections merely by the
columns supporting the roof. The centre section is 34 It.
high, the others being 20 ft. only, aud a row of windows
gives light to the centre of the building. Along this
section i^ arranged the large machine for drying cellulose,
East
Acid -^
Taw£R$ !
North
South
Timbek I Y> 'J>Zfr "♦"It/^.Yf Acq gg *nk,
Plan of Paper Mm, &c.
ivh. 29. ism.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
175
built up of 37 drying cylinders of 3-5 ft. diameter and
two sieve cylinders. The two sections of the west side of
the building are occupied by washing machines, pumps,
troughs, depositing tanks, and other machinery, whereas
the sections on the opposite side are taken up by offices,
and will only be used for machinery in case of extensions.
The three first-named sections have concrete floors, but
the eastern portion of the building has only wooden
flooring. Situate at the north-east corner of this building
lies that containing the digesters, of which there are
at present eight ; this building has three storeys, and is
156' 7 by 60' 7 ft.; reference to the plan will, however,
show that provision has been made for the addition of 12
further digesters. Here also the floor is concreted so that
the pulp after being dropped from the digesters is simply
flooded into the wash-house. On the third floor there
is accommodation for sufficient wood for each digester,
and as soon as one boiling is completed no time is lost in
recharging with the wood from above. The wood is con-
veyed to the store just mentioned from the saw mills, which
are about 100 ft. off, by means of a belt. The saw mills
consist of a building 58 by 60 ft., containing on the ground
floor the shafting for the bark-removing, sawing, grinding,
and various other machinery placed in the upper floor. The
refuse of shavings and sawdust, &c, is conveyed by a blower
through an iron tube 2-1 in in diameter to the boiler-house.
In the saw mill there/is, among others, one machine capable
of working over 70 cords of wood into discs of 1 '25 in. in
thickness in 10 hours. The saw mills are driven by two
100-horse-power turbines mounted in an adjoining building
facing northw, here there is also a 25-horse-power turbine for
driving a pump for the supply to the tower of water required
for the preparation of the acid. Beyond the outlet from the
Telulah Water Power Canal supplying power to this part
of the mill lies the timber yard, with a capacity of several
thousand cords of wood, and bounded in the east by a
siding of the Milwaukee Lake Shore and Western railroad.
The extensive narrow gauge lines of rail in this yard end
in the upper storey of the saw mills, running up an inclined
bridge. The boiler-house for supplying steam to the
digesters and for heating the drying cylinders and buildings
lying east of the saw mills, contains two batteries of water-
tube boilers, each with a chimney of 125 ft. in height.
The towers and sulphur furnaces lie to the east of the
Telulah canal on a small hill about 65 ft. high. An iron
bridge 420 ft. long gives access to this part of the mill,
and carries the conduits for acid, water, steam, waste gases,
and the electric current for lighting the bridge and tower.
The nine towers are each 115 ft. high and are braced
together by a staging 32 ft. wide and 44 ft. long ; a building
on the top, 32 by 44 ft. and 8 ft. high, bounded by a
8-ft. gallery, contains the water cisterns and systems of
piping for each tower ; it is heated so that this part of the
plant is not liable to become frozen in the cold season.
The lift for limestone, is placed centrally in the tower and
is driven by a small turbine 3 ft. in diameter, placed at
the foot of the tower. The water for feeding this turbine
is obtained from the turbine of 25-horse-power already
mentioned in connexion with the saw mill ; it is pumped
to the top of the tower and is always kept running, because
it is of great importance that the water required here
should be as cold as possible. For this purpose it draws
from an artesian well. North and south of the tower are
the sheds for the sulphur furnaces and sulphur stores, and
to the east lies the siding of the Milwaukee Lake Shore
and Western railroad, conveying limestone and sulphur.
Two tanks for the acid are placed by the canal side close to
the bridge, and the liquid is conveyed through an 8-in. pipe
across the biidge to two similar tanks placed on high
stagings. From here it is conveyed direct to the digesters.
The two water tanks are similarly placed on the other side
of the digester, or boiling-house, aud are supplied by two
large double-acting pumps. These six tanks measure 24 ft.
diameter by 12 ft. high each. The whole of the foundations
and canal walls are in quarry stone and Portland cement,
and the buildings in yellow brick and mortar. The mill
has a daily output of 25,000 kilos, of dry cellulose. — H. S.
The Paper Industry of Lower Austria. Papier Zeit. 1891
16, 2142.
The following is an extract from the report of the Vienna
Chamber of Commerce on the paper industry of Austria in
1890 : —
The condition of this industry has not experienced any
improvement in 1890 as compared with the previous year.
The productive capabilities of the Lower Austrian paper
mills, which are on the whole favourably situated, remained
unaltered, but the concerns did not pay as good a dividend
as in the previous year. The over-production, which had in
years gone by sought the export markets and had thus
relieved the home market, has now to be provided for
elsewhere, as many countries, formerly customers, are now
large manufacturers themselves. Thus Rouniania, the United
States, and on account of the disturbances, South America
also, were lost in rapid succession.
The export business is represented as being reduced to a
mere matter of calculating freights, and owing to the high
railway rates in Austria and the equally unfavourable
freights charged by the Austro-Hungarian Lloyd, such
calculations were rarely favourable to Austrian industry.
As compared to the development of the manufacturing
establishments of this trade and the number of mills
employed therein, the home demands appear very modest.
Although intended to be assisted by extensive printing,
newspaper, and publishing combinations, these do not exist
on a sufficient scale to be of real value. In fact the few
newspapers sold, the small number of publishing offices and
the various public demands, are only sufficient to absorb a
portion of the output.
Kepeatedly the mill-owners have pointed out that Germany
imports large quantities of printed paper into Austria, and
that by her publishing monopoly, she not only does immense
damage to the Austrian paper industry but moreover ruins
the printing aud bookbinding trades. But still more opposed
to the interests of the industry than Germany, with her duty-
free importations, is the antiquated press-law, with its fiscal
measures, such as newspaper-stamps, securities, &c, which
make it impossible for a printing and publishing industry of
any value to the country, to exist. — H. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Straining or Screening
Paper Pulp. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From
P. E. Thorn, Appleton, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 18,169,
November 11, 1890. 8 d.
In the ordinary method of agitating pulp screens, one end
only is moved. According to the present invention both
ends are agitated and the horizontal motion which is usually
given is dispensed with as being unnecessary and injurious.
— E. J. B.
Improvements in Self-registering Apparatus for Measuring
the Tensibility and Breaking Strain of Paper and other
Light and Flexible Material. F. Leunig, London. Eng.
Pat. 18,431, November 15, 1890. 6d.
This invention cannot be suitably described without
reference to the drawings. — E J. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Paper for Cheques
and like Documents. B. C. Menzies, Musselburgh, and
E. J. Bevan, London. Eng. Pat. 748, January 15,
1891. id.
FKRitoci-AXins of manganese, starch, iodide, and iodate of
potassium or sodium, and sulphate of manganese are
incorporated, with the paper. — E. J. B.
170
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29. issa.
A11 Improvement in the Manufacture of Pulp for Paper
Making and other Purposes. E. X. Redmayne, New-
castle-on-Tyne. Eng. Pat. 927, January 19, 1891. Sd.
Instead of discharging the contents of a pulp boiler into a
blow-off pit situated below the boiler, the inventor utilises
the pressure of steam inside the boiler and causes it to force
the pulp to a higher level so , as to be ready for the
subsequent operations, and thus save the cost of handling.
— E. J. B.
An Improvement in the Process for the Simultaneous
Production of Cellulose and O-ralic Acid from Vegetable
Fibrous Substances. J. Lifschutz, Grunau, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 1824, January 31,. 1891. 6d.
According to this process, wood, jute, straw, and similar
materials are treated with a mixture of dilute nitric and
sulphuric acids. The brown vapours evolved, which consist
of X..O.XO and X'02, are reconverted into nitric acid.
Xo N20 is evolved. The acid liquid is used for other
operations, the temperature being gradually increased as
the nitric acid becomes exhausted. When this occurs the
oxalic acid is crystallised out by cooling.
The ligneous material after the action of the nitric acid is
converted into pure cellulose by treatment with a weak
alkaline solution. — E. J. B.
Improvements in the Treatment of Fibrous l^lanls for the
Manufacture of Paper Pulp. J. Beveridge, Gravesend.
Eng. Pat. 2872, February 17, 1891. 6d.
Straw, esparto, and similar fibrous plants contain con-
siderable quantities of silica, which is not removed by
treatment with acid sulphite solutions. The inventor
proposes an additional treatment with an alkali which may
be applied either before or after the acid sulphite treatment.
— E. J. B.
Improved Machine for Making Parchmentised Fibre and
the like. C. X. Robinson, Wilmington, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 15,222, Septembers, 1891. 6d.
The object of this invention is to prevent the " buckling " of
sheets of parchment paper which occurs in the ordinary
method of manufacture. It is obtained by the use of
special mechanical appliances which cannot be well under-
stood without reference to the drawings accompanying the
specification.— E. J. B.
New Manufacture of Composition for Blotting or Absorb-
ing Liquids. A. Biirkel and C. Osterwald, Bremen,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 16,921, October 5, 1891. 4rf.
925 parts by weight of gypsum, 50 parts of wool fibre, 10
of lime, 10 of sodium bicarbonate, and 5 parts of sulphuric
acid are mixed together with an equal quantity of water.
The paste is moulded in the form of a block, which, when
dried, is said to he an efficient absorbent of liquids.
— G. H. B.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Snlphiinic Acids of some of the Cinchona Alkaloids.
O. Hesse. Annalen, 1891, 267, 138—142.
Fuming sulphuric acid converts the four chief cinchona
alkaloids into sulphonic acids, but since the action of strong
sulphuric acid is to form the iso-bases iso-quinine, iso-
conquinine, iso-cinchonidine, and iso-cinchonine, the sul-
phonic acids are to he regarded as derived from these
iso-bases. To prepare the sulphonic acids, the alkaloids,
either as dehydrated mono- or tri-sulphates, are dissolved
in the fuming sulphuric acid, colourless solutions being
obtained, which are neutralised by baryta, and the barium
salt of the sulphonic acid decomposed by sulphuric acid.
The resulting solution is evaporated at 50° — 60° C., when
a light-brown residue is obtained, which after drying can
be ground to a light-brown or flesh-coloured powder.
Isoquinine Sulphonic Acid, C2,|H23X202.S02.OH, is
readily soluble in water. The solution is only slightly acid,
it has a blue fluorescence, and is strongly la>vo-rotatory.
It gives an intense dark-green colouration with ammonia
and chlorine water. Platinic chloride forms a readily
soluble double chloride, whilst auric chloride yields a
yellow flocculent precipitate which, when dried at 100° C.,
has the composition G,,lH23XT.,02.S03.OH .HC'l.AuC'l3.
Isoconquinine Sulphonic Acid is isomeric with the
above and closely resembles it in its properties. It is
slightly dextro-rotatory in aqueous solution.
Isocinchonidine Sulphonic Avid, C^HnNoOSOn.OH,
gives no precipitate with platinic chloride, but a yellow
flocculent precipitate with auric chloride. It is dextro-
rotatory in aqueous solution.
Isocinchonine Sulphonic Acid resembles the preceding.
It~ is slightly soluble in water, has an acid reaction, and
gives precipitates both with platinic and with auric chlorides.
The sulphonic acids of quinine and of cinchonidine are
obtained by treating the well-dried tetrasulphates of these
bases with acetic anhydride. The sulphates of the sulphonic
acids which result when dissolved in hot water and neutra-
lised by ammonia yield the free sulphonic acids, which may
be purified by recrystallisation from hot dilute alcohol.
Quinine Sulphonic Acid, C«0H.:3N2O2..SO2.OH + H2G,
forms small white prisms, difficultly soluble in hot water,
which lose their water of crystallisation at 120° C, and then
melt with decomposition at 209" C. The hydrochloric acid
solution of the sulphonic acid is lano-rotatory — [a]„ =
— 182'2° at 15° C. The platinum double chloride —
(CooHio . NA . S02 . OH)2 . 2 HC1 . PtCl4 + 8 H20
crystallises in needles.
Cinchonidine Sulphonic -4c«i,C19H.:1X20 . S03. OH + H20,
also forms small white needles difficultly soluble in water,
which melt at 225° C. The platinum double chloride forms
orange-coloured needles which contain 3 molecules of water
of crystallisation. It is la?vo-rotatorv in hydrochloric acid
solution [o]D = - 140° at 15° C.— C. A. K.
Compounds of Quinine ivith Hydrochloric Acid. O. Hesse.
Annalen, 1891,267, 142—144.
Quinine hydrochloride crystallises in white needles with
two molecules of water of crystallisation, which it loses at
120° C, without previously melting. The requirement of
the German Pharmacopoeia that this salt should melt at
75° C. is therefore not fulfilled by the pure hydrochloride.
The dehydrated salt melts at 158° — 160° C. without change,
and is not converted into quinicine, as stated by Pasteur.
If an aqueous solution of the hydrochloride saturated at
15° C. he allowed to stand for some time at a low tempera-
ture (about 0° C), large octahedral crystals belonging to
the monoelinic system separate out. These differ from the
usual long asbestos-like needles of the salt in containing
;; instead of 2 molecules of water of crystallisation. Acid
Feb.SMKH.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
177
quinine hydrochloride, the salt specially applicable for sub-
cutaneous injection, is formed by treating the bisulphate
with the equivalent quantity of barium chloride or by
evaporating a solution of the normal hydrochloride to which
a molecule of hydrochloric acid has been added. It forms
groups of concentric needles having the composition
< IjqH ;,N i >_. .2 HC1, which can be dried without change at
110° C. It also separates as a gelatinous mass, which
becomes crystalline on gentle warming. The salt corre-
sponds therefore in composition to the hydrochloride of iso-
quinine, whence the composition of the latter cannot serve
to distinguish the two bases, quinine and iso-quinine, as has
been suggested by Lippmanu and Heissuer (this Journal,
1891, 945— 9-16).— C. A. K.
The Action of Methyl Iodide on Ouprelne and on Quinine.
O. Hesse. Annalen, 1891, 266, 240—245.
Quinine, when boiled with methyl iodide in methyl alcohol
solution, is converted into quinine-mouomethyliodide —
CjoH^.NA-CHsI + H.,0
whilst when the mixture is heated in a closed vessel to 80°
— 100° C. the dimethyl iodide is formed. The same product
results when the reaction is allowed to take place at the
boiling point of the mixture in presence of caustic soda or
of sodium methylate. It forms yellow tables having the
composition C20H2JN2O>. 2 CH3I + 3H.O, which lose their
water of crystallisation completely in the exsiccator. The
dehydrated dimethyl iodide melts at 158° — 160', which agrees
with the melting point determined by previous investigators.
Silver chloride converts this dimethyl iodide into the corre-
sponding chloride, from which both platinic and auric doable
chlorides can be prepared, both of which are difficultly
soluble in water.
Cupreine, when heated with an excess of methyl iodide
in methyl alcohol solution, yields the monoraethyl iodide,
whilst the dimethyl iodide results by prolonged heating in a
closed vessel to 80° — 100° C. The latter forms prismatic
crystals having the composition —
C^HjjNjOo-2 CH3.I +3 H.,0
corresponding, therefore, in composition to the quinine
dimethyl iodide. It loses its water of crystallisation in the
exsiccator and melts with decomposition at 210° C. When
treated with silver chloride the corresponding dimethyl
chloride is formed,whieh yields an orange-coloured, granular,
difficultly soluble platinum double chloride.
Cupreine dissolved in methyl alcohol is converted into
quinine dimethyl iodide when treated with 1 part by weight
of sodium (in the form of concentrated caustic soda or of
sodium methylate) and 6 parts by weight of methyl iodide.
(Compare this Journal, 1891, "23 and 770.)— C. A. K.
Isocinchonine. O.Hesse. Annalen, 1891, 266, 245— 248.
The author has shown that the alkaloid cinchonigine
obtained by Jungfleisch and Leger (this Journal, 1891, 724)
is identical with iso-cinchonine, which is formed by the
action of strong sulphuric acid on cinchonine. Jungfleisch
and Leger have expressed the opinion that this iso-
cinchonine contains cinchoniline (Compt. Rend. 112, 942)
which is, however, not the case. Nevertheless cinchoniline
is formed in small quantity, together with iso-cincho-
nine, when cinchonine sulphate is treated with sulphuric
acid. Iso-cinchonine is not converted into cinchoniline by
further treatment with sulphuric acid, and the author is
of opinion that the formation of this second alkaloid is due
to the presence of a second isomeric alkaloid in the so-called
" pure " cinchonine sulphate.
Other points referring to the probable presence of a second
cinchonine are discussed in the paper. — C. A. K.
A New Alkaloid from Javanese Coca Leaves. F. Giesel.
Pharm. Zeit. 1891, 36, 419.
A ssiALL-leaved Javanese coca plant contains about 2 per
cent, of alkaloid but very little cocaine.
The chief alkaloid present appears to be one closely
resembling dextro-cocaine obtained by Einhorn from dextro-
eegonine. The base is not markedly optically active ;
concentrated hydrochloric acid converts it into benzoic acid
and the hydrochloride of au ecgonine. The new base is
most probably an isomer or homologue of cocaine. — A. L. S.
Fatti/ Matter and Ethereal. Oil of Sabadilla Seed.
E. Opitz. Arch. Pharm. 1891, 229, 265.
By exhausting ground sabadiila seeds with light petroleum
and distilling the extract in vacuo, the crude fat is
obtained as a brownish-green liquid readily soluble in
alcohol, ether, and benzene. When submitted to steam
distillation this product yields about 3 2 per cent, of ethereal
oil and the residual fat then has the following percentage
composition : — oleic acid, 50 ; palmitic acid, 36"30 ; choles-
terol, 4-12 ; glycerol, 955 ; whilst the ethereal oil, on
fractionation, distils mainly between 220° — 250", the dis-
tillate having a specific gravity of 0'907, a slightly greeffcsh
colour, and an odour resembling turpentine ; it consists of
ethyl and methyl salts of hydroxymyristic and veratric
acids, aldehydes of the lower fatty acids and of high -boiling
polyterpenes. — 1). A. L.
Larch Turpentine. E. Valenta. Centr. Org. f. Waaren-
kunde u. Tech. 1891, 1, 141.
On distillation with superheated steam, pure Tyrolean larch
turpentine yields 15 per cent, of crude ethereal oil. The
residue, after freeing from water and remaining oil in vacuo,
is an amber-yellow coloured resin, and when dissolved in
acetine is dextro-rotatory. The greater part of it dissolves
in 95 per cent, alcohol the insoluble residue — a brown resin
— does not apparently exist in the original larch turpentine,
but is produced during the heating in vacuo. The alcoholic
solution contains, in addition to a colloid resin, abietic acid.
After fractional distillation, the principal portion of the
ethereal oil obtained boils at 158', is a clear colourless
la'vo-rotatory oil with pleasant odour, has a specific gravity
of 08604 at 15° and an iodine number = 201. The portion
boiling between 159° — 165° appears to be a mixture of
many turpentine oils. — D. A. L.
On the Production of Sulphate of Quinine. E. Jung-
fleisch. Bull. Soc. d'Eneouragement Ind. Nat. 1891, 6,
604—610.
No other important chemical has diminished in price during
the last 10 years so much as sulphate of quinine. The
Jahresbericht, published by Zimmer and Co. of Fraukfort-
on-the-Main, gives the following limits for the prices per
kilog. for the last few years : —
Francs.
18S0 454—443
1881 531—306
1882 414—319
1S83 322—262
1884 322—155
1885 190—105
188S 131—88
1887 106—65
1888 88—56
1889 60—38
The introduction of other antipyretics has been suggested
as a reason for this decrease in price, but the fact that the
total consumption of sulphate of quinine increases by about
one-tenth each year negatives this supposition. Speculation
is equally incapable of producing a regular diminution in
the price, nor is it due to improvements in manufacturing
processes. The true explanation lies in the reduction of
178
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[ Feb. 29, 1892.
the cost of the raw material. Improved methods of culture
have yielded far better results than were expected, both in
the quantity of the bark and the percentage of alkaloid it
contains, which far surpasses the percentage in the best
forest barks of South America. Ceylon is the country
which yields the largest quantity of cultivated bark. The
following figures are taken from The Ceylon Handbook
and Directory : —
Cinchona Bark exported from Ceylon to Europe.
Lb.
1875— 1876* l'J.'il':
1876-1877 56,589
1877—1878 173,487
1878-1879 373.511
1879—1880 1,208,518
1S80—1SS1 1.207,720
1881— 18S2 3,0119,895
1882—1883 6.925,598
1883— 1SS4 11,492,947
1884—1885 11,678^3 0
1885—1886 15,364,912
1886—1887 14,433,260
1887—1888 11,701,932
1888—1889 11,79S,46:>
The diminution of the yield during the last few years is
attributed to parasitic diseases. In India, on the plantations
begun in 1862, Government has now more than six million
cinchona trees under cultivation, and private individuals
possess about the same number. The exports of bark from
these two sources (from October 1st to September 30th of
each year) have been as follows : —
Lb.
1S80-1881 699,258
1881—1882 428,497
18S2— 1883 641,6ns
1883—1884 306.419
1884— 1885 745,730
1885—1886 857,040
1886—1887 1,286,900
1887—1888 1.449,315
1HSS-1S89 3,074.098
These numbers do not represent the total production of
sulphate of quinine, as there are factories in Bengal which
work up a portion of the bark on the spot. In 1889 these
factories produced 2,191 lb. of sulphate of quinine and
6,384 lb. of a febrifuge consisting of a mixture of
alkaloids.
In Java, where the area of the Government plantations
forms a much smaller proportion of the whole, the exports
of bark (from July 1st to June 30th of each year) have been
as follows : —
Dutch Pounds.
1883—1884 1,104.534
1884—1885 1,195,979
1885—1886 1,531,156
1886—1887 2,230,275
1887-1883 3,742.025
1888—1889 4,415,031
Thus the colonies in Asia export to Europe a total of
nearly eight million kilos, of cinchona hark. They will in
all probability soon manufacture all the sulphate of quinine
they need for their home consumption. In South America,
as the forests, which for a long time were the only source
of cinchona bark, have become impoverished, cultivation
has also been commenced and will probably soon attain
large proportions. It is impossible to obtain complete
statistics ou the subject, but the exports of cultivated bark
rich in alkaloids from Bolivia to the London market may he
quoted : —
Bales.
1885 2.599
1886 3,979
1887 7,190
1888 7,810
1889 9,552
* From October 1st to September 30th,
In many other countries, Jamaica, Reunion, St. Thomas,
the Fiji islands, &c, the plantations are too young to yield,
but they will soon be productive and export to Europe.
There are of course many varieties of cinchona of unequal
value, and the number has been increased by hybridisation.
In the same species the natural bark, mossed bark, and
renewed bark Qecorce renouvelee) contain very different
percentages of quinine, the last being the richest. But
there can be no doubt of the general increase in the per-
centage of quinine contained in the bark ; of late years it
has not been uuusual to meet with lots yielding 10 per cent,
and more of sulphate of quinine. It seems probable that
the market value of this product will not again increase to
a figure which will put it beyond the reach of the poor.
The methods for the extraction of quinine sulphate have
not changed since 1878, but the product has been more
carefully purified. When manufacturers employed, almost
exclusively the bark of Cinchona calissaya, which contains
but a small percentage of the other alkaloids and notably
of cinchonidine, the methods of Pelletier and Caventou
sufficed to give a fairly pure product. But the use of
cultivated bark, which contains a large percentage of the
other alkaloids, introduced into the commercial sulphate a
considerable amount of sulphate of cinchonidine, which
crystallises with sulphate of quinine, and indeed, causes it
to crystallise in silky needles and gives it the characteristic
appearance of " light " quinine sulphate. One per cent, of
sulphate of cinchonidine suffices to produce this silky
appearance, and this is not changed by the addition of an
excess. A few years ago, when the bark of Bemigia, which
contains no cinchonidine, was first treated, the latter alkaloid
was added, as the pure solutions yielded large brilliant needles
unfamiliar in commerce ; for the same reason the bark of
Cuprea was never treated without being previously mixed
with other barks. These circumstanes led European manu-
facturers, wheu the cultivated barks were first employed, to
produce samples of sulphate of quinine far too largel}'
admixed with sulphate of cinchonidine, a state of things
which led to new regulations for the pharmacopeia in
different countries. The French Code in 1884, making use
of Kerner's method of analysis, prescribes that 5 cc. of a
mother liquor obtained at 15° C. after treatment of 1 grm.
of the officinal salt with 10 cc. of luke-warm water, shall
remain perfectly limpid for 24 hours after the addition of
7 cc. of a solution of ammonia of density 0' 96. The manu-
facturers considered these regulations severe. However,
the new Austrian pharmacopoeia prescribed the use of 7*5 cc.
of ammonia, which is only slightly less severe a test ; and
the pharmacopoeias of Russia, Finland, Sweden, the United
States, and Japan adopted nearly the same test ; the Dutch
pharmacopoeia has reduced the amount of ammonia to 5 cc.
and the German pharmacopoeia of 1890 to 4 ce. It seems
probable, therefore, that before long only pure (" heavy ")
sulphate of quinine will be used ; and this salt may be
recognised by its crystalline appearance which resembles
that of zinc sulphate. The only objection of any weight to
the employment of the pure salt is that the expense
necessary in transforming a nearly pure into an absolutely
pure product may be disproportionate to the advantage
gained. The author thinks, however, that this expense
cannot be very great.
4. Sulphate of quinine manufacturers produce at least
four qualities of substance. (1.) The pure salt or " heavy
sulphate " of which the use has been hitherto extremely
limited chiefly on account of its unfamiliarity to the mem-
bers of the medical profession ; (2.) and (3.) Products
satisfying the requirements of the German and Dutch
pharmacopoeias ; and (4.) Products for the others of the
above-mentioned pharmacopoeias, and containining four to six
per cent, of sulphate of cinchonidine. Other products mav
have a certain commercial importance but have no " legal
status" in civilised countries.
5. It is evidently a waste of energy to ship bark to Europe
of which only a small percentage by weight is utilised.
However, the inferiority of native labour and the dearness
of acids in the countries where the bark is grown are an
obstacle to the establishment of factories on the spot.
Nevertheless, the English in India are developing an industry
which seems likely to compete with that of Europe. In
Feb. at. 1MB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
179
South America less progress lias been made, but the first
step has been token. M. Manuel Jijon has set up a factory
at Quito which supplies the whole of Ecuador, and has
begun to export a product which has a very good appearance.
The sulphuric acid necessary is manufactured on the spot
from native sulphur. — P. J. H.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Coatings for Therapeutical Purposes.
11. Lake, London. From " Ichthyol Gesellschaft Cordes,
Hermanni, and Co.," Hamburg, Germany. Eng. Pat.
588, January 12, 1891. 6d.
This invention relates to an improved coating for thera-
peutical purposes into which the remedy is incorporated.
The remedy, either solid or dissolved, is mixed with pure
dry starch, and if this should fail to keep the mass homo-
geneous, certain portions of albumen, casein, or other
similarly acting substances should be added. The inventors
give a few instances.
An ichthyol coating may be obtained by sprinkling wheat-
starch with half its weight of water and mixing with an equal
weight of ichthyol ; 1 to 1 ■ 5 per cent, of a strong solution
of albumen is then added, and the mixture triturated until
tit for use.
A glycerin coating is obtained by mixing in the same
manner 30 per cent, of glycerin with 30 per cent, of starch
meal, 15 per cent, of water and 25 per cent, of gum arabic ;
or 40 per cent, of glycerin, 40 per cent, of starch, and 20
per cent, of a strong solution of casein.
A chloride of calcium coating is prepared by mixing about
40 per cent, of its 50 per cent, solution with 40 per cent, of
starch meal, 10 per cent, of water, and 10 per cent, of a
concentrated solution of albumen. — L. de K.
A New or Improved Manufacture of Eucalyptus Products
for Various Useful Purposes. E. Dean, Epsom. Eng.
Pat. 16,910, October 5, 1891. 4d.
The leaves are dried in the sun or by artificial heat, and
after selection cut or wrapped to be used as a substitute for
tobacco, for smoking in pipes or in the form of cigars. The
leaves and fibres may also be used for the stuffing of beds,
mattresses, bolsters, pillows, and the cushions of chairs and
sofas. The leaves, whether alone or combined with tea
leaves, may be used for fumigating rooms, or, when ground,
used as a snuff, for tooth powder, or combined with the fats
employed in making soap and candles. The gum it is pro-
posed to make into lozenges for the throat and chest, also
for plasters and poultices. The seed is to be ground and
used with or without ground gum and leaves in making
bread. — L. de K.
XXI.-PHOTOGrRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
Drawings from Photographs. Papier Zeit. 1892, 17, 92.
The drawing is made in ink on a silver print which has
been fixed but not toned. The print is first washed in a
weak solution of soda in alcohol, and is then bleached by
flooding several times with an alcoholic solution of potassium
cyanide, made by mixing a saturated solution of the
cyanide with 95 per cent, alcohol ; finally the print is washed
several times with alcohol. — J. C. C.
Action of Light on Silver Chloride. \V. Guntz. Bull.
Soc. Chem. 1891, 3, 140—145.
After reviewing former work on the subject, the author
states that he has obtained by boiling with a reversed
condenser for some hours a modification of AgCl, which is
reduced by ferrous oxalate in the dark. He has proved
that iu vacuo it is coloured by lifjht, and that in air
chlorine is given off, there being loss of weight. In these
cases some Ag„Cl is formed which was identical in colour
and properties with that obtained by the double decomposi-
tion of Ag2F. He also states that with the formation of
Ag2 CI by light there is an absorption of heat of 28 cal., and
that this explains why the action is facilitated by the
addition of organic or mineral substances capable of
absorbing chlorine with evolution of heat. Ag2Cl is further
decomposed by light into Ag + CI. The author also
mentions that Ag.:Cl is very opaque to light, a film of silver
chloride being exposed for some days being only
decomposed to the depth of 10',MJ mm. Applying his results
to photographic matters, he states that a very slight exposure
is sufficient to start the process of reduction in the
developing solution, and the chlorine then liberated
supplies sufficient heat by its action on the developer
to continue the decomposition of the AgCl, and this explains
the fogging of plates by over-development ; also that this
unequal state of equilibrium explains how electricity,
mechanical, or electro-chemical action may produce complete
reduction in the developer. — J. C. C.
PATENT.
Means of Enlarging Photographic Gelatine Films bg the
Aid of Chemical Means and without the Aid of
Enlarging Apparatus. A. J. E. Hill, Norbiton. Eng.
Pat. 16,125, September 23, 1891. 6d.
The film mounted on glass or other support after developing,
fixing, and washing, is immersed in a bath composed of
hydrofluoric acid 1 part, citric (or other vegetable acid)
4 parts, glacial acetic acid 1 part, glycerin 1 part, and
water 32 parts by weight. In this the film separates from
its support enlarging at the same time ; it is then washed,
and allowed to dry spontaneously on its final support. If
further enlargement is required, it is treated again in the
same manner. The inventor also claims the addition of
sulphate of copper or iron to the bath to prevent loss of
density by the action of the acids on the silver. — J. C. C.
XXII.-EXPLOSIYES, MATCHES, Etc.
Further Experiments on the Behaviour of Explosives in
Fiery Mines. H. Lohmann. Zeits. f. Berg-Hiitten u.
Salinenwesen, 1891, 39, 183. (Compare this Journal,
1889, 419.)
The author's observations have confirmed the decision of
the Prussian Fire-damp Commission as to the danger of
" black powder," but have proved their theory that the
safety of an explosive in the presence of fire-damp or coal-
dust is nearly proportional to the amount of gas evolved on
explosion, to be untenable.
Ammonium oxalate was substituted for the charcoal in
ordinary black powder with a view of lessening the hot gases
evolved by its explosion, but the explosive force was thereby
very seriously diminished without an accompanying increase
in safety. Further experiments were made with Seidler's
explosives (D. R. Pat. 46,205), diazonaphthalene-
monosulphonic acid and diazohenzenesulphonic acid being
employed. Their behaviour to fire-damp and coal-dust
was favourable, but they are put beyond the pale by the
dense and intolerable smoke which they yield.
180
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. 29, 1892.
Experiments with the ordinary dynamites — kieselguhr
dynamite, blasting gelatin, and gelatin dynamite — continued
the former results, and showed in addition that immediate
contact of the explosive with coal-dust increases the
necessity for priming, and that tamped explosives are in
general more dangerous than free cartridges.
"Moist dynamites" ( Wetter-dynamite) were first
prepared by Miiller by the addition of salts containing
water of crystallisation to dynamite ; such are " crystal-
soda - kieselguhr - moist - dynamite," " ammonium-oxidate ■
moist-dynamite" (45 per cent, ammonium oxalate, 15 per
cent, sodium nitrate, 40 per cent, nitroglycerol with
kieselguhr), and " bicarbonate - moist - dynamite "
(kieselguhr-moist-dvnamite with 35 per cent, of sodium
bicarbonate). Ammonium-oxalate-moist-dynamite proved
safe, and bicarbonate-moist-dynamite is so safe that it can
be used even in hot, fiery mines. .Such explosives, however,
should only be regarded as expedients, being uneconomical,
because a large portion of the energy of the explosive is
consumed in vaporising the added substances ; much of
the heat being thus employed, the products of the explosion
are cooler. A " magnesium- sulphate-moist-dynamite" is
marketed in Belgium and England.
The " carbonite " adapted for fiery mines is essentially a
dynamite containing organic substances rich in carbon,
such as sugar, starch, and cellulose. Such a one, analysed
in 1888, gave the following percentage composition : —
Nitroglycerol, 17-76 ; nitrobenzene, &c, 1 -70 ; soda, 0-42 ;
potassium nitrate, 34-22; barium nitrate, 9- 71 ; cellulose,
1"55; cane-sugar, 34 '27; moisture, 0'36. Carbonite is
safe, but the quantity of carbon monoxide in its after-damp
is very objectionable.
Explosives of the Sprengel class are objectionable by
reason of their fluidity and their requiring a stronger
detonator than dynamite explosives. " Seeurite " has given
good results ; its composition has undergone considerable
change, and now consists of dinltrotoluene, ammonium
nitrate, and potassium nitrate. Koburite is an explosive of
the seeurite type and is safe. Three sorts of Eavier's
explosives were used. " Explosiv Favier " consists of 88
per cent, ammonium nitrate and 12 per cent, of dinitro-
naphthalene ; " Antigrisou (anti-fire-damp) Favier " consists
of 'JO per cent, of " Explosiv Favier" and 10 per cent, of
ammonium chloride; the third sort is for blasting in the
absence of fire-damp, and contains in its compressed portion
79 per cent, of sodium nitrate and 21 per cent, of dinitro-
naphtbalene, while its mealy portion consists of " Explosiv
Favier." The first two sorts proved favourable.
Hellhoffite is not widely applicable because of its concen-
trated nitric acid ; but by substituting nitrates for the
nitric acid, and |nitrated animal products for the organic
substances, after the manner of Sprengel, a safe and
practicable explosive was obtained. — A. G. 15.
On an Explosive Compound formed by the Action of
Baryta-Water upon Chromic Acid in presence of
Oxygenated Water. E. Pechard. Compt. Rend. 1891,
113, 39-41.
Baryta-water exercises a curious action upon chromic
acid to which oxygenated water has been added ; a buff-
coloured precipitate is produced which when dried detonates
violently on percussion, or when heated. When heated at
the bottom of a test-tube it detonates sharply and leaves a
residue of neutral barium chromate mixed with a small
excess of barium oxide. The dried precipitate is not
decomposed by contact with water ; after being treated with
water and again dried it detonates as before. In contact
with dilute sulphuric acid a blue ^colouration is produced
which disappears rapidly with evolution of oxygen. In
order to analyse the substance, it is mixed with a large
excess of sand (previously washed with hydrochloric acid
and carefully dried) and is deflagrated in vacuo. The amount
of oxygen is measured by volume, and after treatment with
dilute hydrochloric acid, the barium is estimated as barium
sulphate, and the chromium as C'r.O.,. The analyses
appear to show that the dried precipitate consists mainly of
a substance having a composition corresponding to the
PATENTS.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of Explosives
and to Apparatus therefor. E. J. Byves, Crayford.
Eng. Pat. 298, January 7, 1891. Gd.
The object of this invention is to overcome a difficulty
stated to arise when smokeless powders are used. Accord-
ing to the inventor, when powders are used in rifles,
the products of which are entirely gaseous, the barrel is
left so clean that the succeeding bullets experience great
and varying degrees of friction. He proposes to obviate
this by using an explosive compound of the .following
ingredients, which may be in the proportions given : —
Trinitro cellulose 50 50 75
Nitroglycerin 48 48 24.
Castor oil 2 2 1
Magnesium carbonate 2 2 1
Cotton paper pulp 5 8 5
— W. M.
The Treatment of Cellulose for the Manufacture of
Cellulose Nitrates or Gun-Cotton. J. Y. Johnson,
London. From " Zellstoff-fabrik Waldhof," Mannheim.
Eng. Pat. 336, January 7, 1891. Sd.
The main feature in this invention is the disintegration of
wood pulp, which has been freed from incrusting matters
and soluble constituents, in a suitable machine, it being
found that the degree of nitration and stability of the
product depends greatly on the fineness of division of the
cellulose before treatment with the nitrating acid mixtures
for the preparation of gun-cotton. — W. M.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Gunpowder and in
Apparatus therefor. G. G. Andre, Dorking, and C. H.
Curtis, London. Eng. Pat. 843, January 15, 1891 6d.
The apparatus " consists essentially of a stationary cylinder
with slot in the bottom, a perforated ring rotated thereon,"
and a roller which is rotated against the ring. The plastic
mass as it comes from the kneading machine is fed in
between the rotating cylinder and roller, and in this manner
the perforations become filled with the plastic mass. The
interior cylinder is supplied with water under pressure, and
on the filled perforations coming opposite the slot in the
bottom the water forces the pellets out into any suitable
receiver. — W. M.
A New Manufacture of Explosives. M. Keuland, Dort-
mund, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,713, July 9, 1891. 6d.
Melted naphthalene has the property of penetrating
anhydrous nitrate of ammonia so that the resulting mixture
remains unaltered even in air saturated with moisture.
The new explosive is prepared by intimately mixing nitrate
or " humate of ammonia " with melted naphthalene. Such
a mixture is not hygroscopic, nor is it affected in any way
by moist air. " These explosives can be exploded only by
means of a very intense thin flame. Tbey are therefore
unaffected by falling shock and change of temperature."
— E. J. B.
Feb. 29,18980 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
181
XXIII.-ANALTTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
A New Siphon. V. Konther. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1126.
Thk author faas devised the form of siphon shown in the
Figure.
A New Siphon.
It consists of a wide glass tube which is sufficiently
drawn out at one end to allow an india-rubber tube to slip
over it, a cork provided with two holes for the insertion of
glass tubes being fitted in the other end. To use the
apparatus the bent glass tube is closed with the finger, the
pinch-cock on the rubber tube opened, and the liquid drawn
up the straight glass tube until the upper vessel is two-
thirds full. The finger >s then removed and air admitted
into the upper vessel until the liquid commences to run out
of the bent tube, the pinch-cock being thereupon closed.
The wide tube must obviously be of greater capacity
than the two smaller tubes combined. — E. B.
Simple Method of Preventing Tumultuous Boiling.
E. Pieszczek. Cbem. Zeit. 1891, 15, H26.
Irregular ebullition of alcohol, petroleum, benzene, &e.,
may be prevented by placing a glass tube 5 — 8 cm. long
and 5 — 10 mm. wide in a vertical or nearly vertical position
at the bottom of the distilling vessel. The tube is kept in
position 1>3' a platinum wire — terminating preferably in a
loop —fused into its upper end, which is closed. — E. B.
Behaviour of Glass Surfaces towards Water, and Selection
of Glass Vessels for Chemical Purposes. F. Mylius and
F. Foerster. Zeits. f. Instrumentenkunde, 1891, 11, 311.
For the investigation of the action of water on glass
surfaces the authors use milliuormal sulphuric acid for
solution containing more than 0- 1 mgrm. of alkali (reckoned
as sodium), but for quantities below this : — the colourless
alkaline solution is shaken with some concentrated ethereal
solution of iodo-eosine and the amount of alkali is estimated
from the reduction in tint observed by comparison with a
standard. Neutral water obtained by distilling ordinary
distilled water to which a little sulphuric acid had been
added to retain ammonia, was employed in the author's
experiments on the action of water and atmospheric
agencies on glass, and the action of glass on water. Useful
comparisons may he made by exposing neutral water for
similar periods in glass vessels from different manufacturers,
and then examining the solutions.
From their various experiments the authors have ob-
served : — 1 That the action of cold water on glass is at
first very rapid, but soon becomes much slower ; the slacken-
ing is attributed to the formation of an exhausted and
difficulty permeable layer. 2. That the intensity of the
attack of water upon glass is influenced by atmospheric
conditions. 3. The relative intensity of the attack by hot
or by cold water varies with different kinds of glass.
4. That treating glass vessels of medium quality with water
to increase their superficial power of resistance is of great
utility ; this is not the case by a long way with inferior
kinds of glass. 5. Glass surfaces have the property or
absorbing alkali from solufions, and of retaining ii
rinsed with water, so that prolonged contact with water is
necessary to remove the alkali from the glass agaiu.
— D. A. I,.
A Porcelain Water-Bath. W*. Dittmar. Chem. Zeit. 1891,
15, lit;:.
Us account of the ease with which copper water-baths arc-
attacked by acid vapours, and also on account of the
difficulty of keeping such water-baths in a presentable
condition, porcelain has been tried as a substitute for
copper, but the water-baths have now disappeared by
reason, it is said, of great liability to breakage. The
author has, however, successfully used for some time water-
baths of porcelain, to which is fitted an apparatus for
keeping the water in the hath at constant height ; by such
means liability to cracking is overcome to a very consider-
able extent.
As a considerable improvement the author suggests the
attachment of a ledge to the bath ; ou this ledge a thin glass
globe may be placed fitting into a groove ; on the globe is
placed a circular piece of thick filter paper ; the globe is
cooled by the aid of a stream of cold water. By this means
evaporation is performed in absence of air and dust.
— T. L. B.
PA TEXT.
An Improved Tool for Cutting Glass Tubes. A. W. Chis-
terton, Boston, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 20,211, November 20,
1891. 6d.
See under VIII., page 163.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Electrolytic Separation of Mercury from Copper. E. F.
Smith and A. W. McCauley. Ber. 1891, 24, 2936—2938.
This separation was attempted previously (J. Franklin
Inst. April 1889) but was not complete unless the amount
of copper present in solution did not amount to more than
20 per cent, of the mercury present in solution. It has
now been ascertained that, by careful regulation of current,
it is not only possible to separate the two metals, when
present in equal quantities, .but also even when there is
twice as much copper present as mercury.
A table given shows the results obtained. — T. L. B.
On a Colour Test of Kaolin and Sand. E. Nickel.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 112.1—1126.
See under VIII., page 162.
Analysis of Galena and Lead Sulphate. 1{. Beuedikt.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 16, 43—44.
The author converts the ealena into the nitrate with the
help of hydiiodic acid. The galena, very finely powdered,
is weighed into a basin and covered with water ; a few
cc. of commercial hydriodic acid, sp. gr. 1 • 7, are then added.
If the water is omitted the action may easily become too
violent. The dish is warmed ou a water-bath till solution
is complete, when it is evaporated to dryness. The residue
is treated with nitric acid diluted 5 — 7 times, and agaiu
warmed. When oxidation is complete, the solution is
evaporated to dryness, moistened with dilute nitric acid and
filtered, when the whole of the lead will be in solution as
nitrate. With lead sulphate a great quantity of iodine
becomes free and, owing to the action of this iodine on the
sulphuric acid, sulphur is deposited on the sides of the glass.
Should any iodine be seen in the residue after moistening
182
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Feb. as, lsw.
with nitric acid, all the acid must be driven off and a few
cc. of alcohol added, and the mixture evaporated to dryness
and again moistened with nitric acid, diluted and filtered.
la order to prevent the separation of iodine and sulphur, the
author recommends the use of water containing a small
quantity of red phosphorus, which will reduce the iodine
to hydriodic acid, and be itself oxidised to phosphoric
acid.
A complicated ore containing c»her metallic sulphides in
addition to that of lead was analysed ;:.rst in the usual way,
and then by the method above described ; in the former
case 51 -41 per cent, of lead was obtained, and in the latter
51-30.— E. CO. B.
On the Determination of Small Quantities of Boric Acid.
F. Parmentier. Compt. Bend. 1891, 113, 41—43.
The presence of small quantities of boric acid in mineral
waters can easily be detected by meaus of the spectroscope.
A drop of such water, rendered acid and placed in the non-
luminous flame of a Bunsen burner, generally shows
distinctly the characteristic bands of boron. The amount of
boric acid present can be estimated roughly by the intensity
of these bands.
The author has endeavoured to determine the quantity of
boric acid present in such waters by a method depending
on the two following facts : — (!.) Boric acid has no action
upon helianthiue which has been turned yellow by alkalis.
(2.) Boric acid produces a characteristic change in the
colour of tincture of sunflowers; this change occurs just
when the acid forms a borate with the base present.
In carrying out the method it is essential that the solution
should only contain salts which are without action upon
tincture of sunflowers, such, for example, as salts of the
alkalis or •alkaline earths. Most of the mineral waters
examined by the author contain calcium bicarbonate and
often bicarbonate of iron. When evaporated down they
produce precipitates which are insoluble in water and contain
all the boric acid (as well as silica, arsenic, and phosphoric
acid). The precipitate is treated with hydrochloric acid
and evaporated down at a low temperature ; it is then
heated to 100° (to render the silica insoluble), and after-
wards treated with a slightly alkaline solution of ammonium
nitrate. The boric acid remains in solution ; the residue
contains the iron, manganese, arsenic, alumina, and phos-
phoric acid. The solution is acidified with sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid and divided into two parts. Jn one of
these the acidity is determined by means of a titrated
solution of soda, using belianthine as an indicator ; in the
other the acidity is determined with tiucture of sunflowers as
an indicator. From the difference between the results the
quantity of boric acid present can be deduced.
The author has made up artificial mineral waters with
salts free from boric acid, and has then added known
quantities of boric acid to them. By applying the above
method to these he has convinced himself that it is accurate
and reliable. — D. E. J.
A Neic Method of Determining Nitric Nitrogen, and also
Total Nitrogen. E. Boyer. Compt. Bend. 1891, 113,
503—505.
This method is based on the fact that when a nitrate is
heated with a mixture of sulphur (1 part), calcium oxalate
(2 parts,), and soda-lime (6 parts), the whole of its nitrogen
becomes eliminated in the form of ammonia. Nitrogen,
if present in the form of ammoniacal or of organic com-
pounds, is also liberated in the form of ammonia. A
combustion tube, closed at one end, is charged as follows :
— (1) with 2 grms. of calcium oxalate. (2) 10 grms. of
soda-lime, (3) 10 grms. of above reducing mixture, (4) the
substance, 0'5 grms. to be tested, intimately mixed with
50 grms. of the reducing mixture, (5) 10 grms. of the
reducing mixture, (fi) 10 grms. of soda-lime held in position
by a plug of asbestos. The tube is heated in the usual way
and the ammonia collected in standardised sulphuric acid.
—A. K. M.
Analysis of Chrome Iron Ore. C. Haussermann. Chem.
Zeit. 1891,15, 1 601.
The moisture is determined by heating the finely-powdered
substance at 100° C, and then 0'5 grm. is mixed with! grms.
of a mixture consisting of three parts of potassium carbonate
to one part of caustic soda. The whole is first heated in
a covered platinum crucible over a small Buusen flame for
two hours, after which the fusion is completed over the
blow-pipe, the lid of the crucible being removed. After
cooling, crucible and contents are boiled with water in a
deep porcelain dish ; the solution so obtained is acidified
with sulphuric acid, and made up to a litre. Should a
sandy powder remain in the dish, it is evident that the
material has been insufficiently powdered, and a fresh start
is necessary. The solution having been satisfactorily
obtained, titration with ferrous ammonium sulphate is
performed, the strength of the ferrous ammonium sulphate
solution having been previously standardised against pure
potassium bichromate. — T. L. B.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
The Use of Ammonium Sulpho-Selenite as a Test for
Alkaloids. A. J. Ferreira da Silva. Jour. Pharm. Chitn.
1891, 24, 102.
Lafox, in 1885, described the use of a solution of 1 part
of ammonium selenite in 20 parts concentrated sulphuric
acid as a reagent for morphia and iodine. The reagent is
also useful with the following : —
Aconitine. After 20 minutes a light rose colour.
Berberine. Greenish yellow, afterwards brown ; the edges
of the solution appear red, the middle violet ; after half an
hour a wine-red colour appears which remains after three
hours.
Brucine. A red changing to orange.
Caffeine and cocaine. After three hours the solution is
reddish.
Curarine. Light violet changing to red.
Delphiue. Light red changing to violet.
Digitaline. Yellow changing to a red precipitate.
Eserinc. Citron yellow changing to orange.
Morphine. Greenish blue changing through violet to
red.
Narcein. First yellowish green, then brown and then
red.
Nareotine. Blue changing through violet into red.
Papaverine. Blue changing through bottle green, greenish
yellow, and bluish violet to red.
Solauine. Green, afterwards brown.
Senegiue. Dirty yellow changing to red.
Veratrine. Yellowish colour ; after three hours a red
precipitate settles.
Atropine, cinchonidine, ciuchonine, and pilocarpine give
no reaction. — A. L. S.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY— QUANTITA TI VE
A Rapid Method of Determining the Composition of
Lubricating Oils. H. Gripper. Chem. News, 1892, 65
27—28.
The author describes a method for ascertaining the com-
position of lubricating oils containing both fatty and
mineral oils, which is stated to be quicker than the usual
process of saponifying the fatty oils, and shaking out the
unsaponifiable matter with an immiscible volatile solvent.
2 '5 grms. of the sample are saponified with 25 cc. of
alcoholic potash of one-third or one-half normal strength,
according to the amount of fatty oil supposed to be present,
and the excess of alkali titrated with seminormal hydro-
chloric acid, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, a blank
experiment for the determination of the strength of the
alkali being performed at the same time. The oils most
used for mixing with mineral oils for making lubricants
are blown cotton-seed oil with a saponification equivalent
Feb. 2U892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
183
of 252, blown rape oil 280, ueatsfoot 300, lard oil
and tallow oil 290, and castor oil 313. The amount
of potash, therefore, required for the saponification of
these oils varies from 17-90 — 22'27 per cent. Taking
the mean of these figures (20*08 per cent.) it may be
assumed that one part of caustic potash will saponify 4 ■ 98
parts of the oil, from which the percentage of saponifiable
oil may be readily calculated. The method is simply an
application of the Koettstorfer process, and its degree of
exactitude depends on the saponification equivalent of the
saponifiable oil present in the sample being approximately
equal to the mean value taken. The analysis is completed
by filtering off the mineral oil from the neutralised soap
solution, and taking its specific gravity by Hager's method,
which consists in ascertaining the specific gravity of a
mixture of alcohol and water in which a globule of the oil
will float or sink indifferently. From the specific gravity
of the mineral oil and that of the original mixture, the
specific gravity of the fatty oil can be calculated, The
method, without pretending to be exact, is adapted for
technical purposes where great rapidity is important.
The following table shows how the results compare with
those obtained by the usual method : —
By Tit
ration.
1
By Separation
and Weighing.
Per
Cent.
Specific
Gravity.
Per
Cent.
Specific
Gravity.
78'3
0#89n
21-7
G'951) |
I.
7'J't
0-891 !
79-3
0-890
20'6
0"955
20-7
0-957
78-3
0-891
•21-7
0-950.
( Hydrocarbon oil
II. , .. ,
727
0-900
74-4
0-900
"27-3
0-973
25-6
0-979
"H
76-G
9-882
76-7
0-883
2S-4
0-066
233
0-953
65-4
0-887
Gfl
0-886
3f6
0-966
35'9
0-964
79 '9
0-885~|
Saponifiablo "il
2U-1
0*963 1
v..
79-6
20-4
0-S85|
(
0-962
79-8
2ii- 2
0-886
6-959
79-9
0'88o
^Saponifiable oil
20-1
0-96SJ
vrJ
56 " 5
0-9116
41-9
0-965
43-5
0-966
58-1
0-908
— B. B.
Hull's Iodine Test for Fats. W. Fahrion. Chem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1791—1792.
Results obtained by Hubl's method or even by Holde's
(this Journal, 1891, 954) are unsatisfactory, owing to the
instability of the iodine-mercury solution. The author has
been in the habit of retaining the mercuric chloride and
the iodine solutions separate, adding first the former and
then the latter to the chloroform solutions of the fat, but
even then alterations take place, as the results tabulated
below show ; in these tests 25 grms. of iodine and 30 grins,
of mercuric chloride were each dissolved in 500 cc. of
strong alcohol, 250 cc. of each of these solutions were kept
separate, whilst the other two halves were mixed. After the
periods noted 20 cc. of the latter and mixtures of 10 cc. of
each of the former solutions were treated with potassium
iodide and water and titrated with thiosulphate.
20 cc. 10 + 10 cc.
Series I. :
Immediately after prepara-
tion.
After eight days
After fourteen days
After five weeks
Series II.:
Immediately after prepara-
tion.
After eight days
After fourteen days
After seven weeks
fe Decrease, £§«£ ; IW
Grms. Per Cent. Grms. Per Cent.
0-494*
0-3776
0-3101
0-5068
2o-(i 0-4SS2 ' 3P7
31-2 0-17S2 5-i!
15-11
3-4
43
11-8
0-2590
19-6
0-4807
0-4806
..
0-1987
0-39G1
17-6
0-4819
0-3541
26-3
0-4733
0-2397
50-1
0-4397
The irregularity is probably due chiefly to variations of
temperature, hence it is advisable to keep such solutions
at as low and as constant a temperature as possible. The
author agrees with E. Pfluger in regarding the use of starch
as an indicator not alone as superfluous but even as
pernicious, and applies this method in the following manner
both to drying and non-drying oils. The solutions he
employs are — (1.) 65 grms. of mercuric chloride in 1 litre
of 95 per cent, alcohol. (2.) 50 grms. of iodine in 1 litre
of 95 per cent, alcohol. (3.) 25 grms. of crystalline sodium
thiosulphate in 1 litre of water. (4.) 3 ■ 874 grms. of purest
dry potassium dichromate in 1 litre of water. (5.) 100 grms.
potassium iodide in 1 litre of water. (6.) Chloroform. The
strength of the thiosulphate is first ascertained by mixing
in a stoppered bottle 10 cc. of the potassium iodide, 5 cc.
of ordinary dilute hydrochloric acid, 20 ce. of potassium
dichromate, and 150 cc. of water, and titrating to a pale
blue-green colouration with the thiosulphate, the number
obtained = 0-2 grm. of iodine; the solution will remain
constant for a long time if kept in a well stoppered bottle.
The strength of the ioliue solution is then tested by
mixing, in a stoppered bottle, 10 cc. of mercuric chloride,
10 cc. of iodine solution, then 20 cc. of potassium iodide
and 150 cc. of water, and titration with the thiosulphate to
colourlessness, agitating vigorously. For the actual test,
0-2 to 0-3 grm. of the oil dissolved in 20 cc. chloroform is
mixed with an amount of iodine solution corresponding to
four times the quantity of iodine actually required for the
absorption, and with an equal volume of the mercuric
chloride solution, then after two hours for each grm. of
iodine taken, about 4 grms. of potassium iodide, in the
above solution, and 50 to 100 cc. of water are added, and
the titration with thiosulphate to colourlessness proceeded
with. A blank experiment should be carried out at the
same time. — D. A. L.
Estimation of Cholesterin. K. Obermiiller. Zeit. f.
physiol. Chem. 1891, 16, 143.
The author has applied A. KosseFs method of saponification
to the estimation of cholesterin in the following manner:
1 grm. of fat containing the cholesterin is dissolved in
ether (using sufficient quantity to keep the soap magma
subsequently formed thin enough, generally about 80 cc),
sodium ethylate (prepared by dissolving, with the aid of
heat, 0-15 grm. of sodium in as little 90 per cent, alcohol
as possible — 1 to lice.) is added, and on shaking energetic
saponification ensues and is complete in three hours at the
ordinary temperature. The soap is filtered off and washed
with ether ; the latter, as well as any alcohol and water, are
expelled from the filtrate, the dry residue redissolved in
a minimum quantity of absolute alcohol, and the cholesterin
obtained from this solution by evaporation is dried at 120°
and weighed. Solid fats yield granular soaps, fats rich in
181
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1883.
oleic acid give stringy soaps. The method only answers
for the former ; for the latter the first part of the method
is the same, but the treatment of the residue is different.
It is dissolved in carbon bisulphide and is treated with a
solution of bromine in carbon bisulphide of known strength,
until a yellowish-red colouratiou is obtained.
The action of bromine on substances analogous to
cholesterin is not known, but the author finds that iso-
cholesterin absorbs 2 mols. of bromine. — D. A. L.
The Optical Determination of Albumen in Urine. H. O.
G. Ellinger. Jour, prakt. Chem. 1891, 44, 256.
The oleorefractometer of Amagat and Jean is used for this
purpose. The albumen is removed from one portion of the
urine by boiling with a little acetic acid ; the filtrate is made
up to its original volume and placed in the outer spaces of the
prism. The untreated urine is placed in the interior prism
of the instrument. The displacement of the nought point
is proportional to the amount of albumen present. Five
determinations gave readings of 2J, 4, 4|, 5, 5. By weighing
the albumen the absolute amounts were found to be respec-
tively 2-71, 4-36, 4-94, 5-10, 522 parts ner thousand.
—A. L. S.
Choline as a Constituent of Beer. J. Kjeldahl. Med-
delelser fra Carlsberg Laboratories 1891, 3, 79.
If a large excess of a solution of iodine in potassium
iodide be added to beer or wort, fine, beetle-green needles
appear after a short time ; these are a polyiodide of choline.
To obtain choline from wort, the latter is evaporated
to one-half and treated with excess of milk of lime and one
or two volumes of alcohol. The filtrate is acidified with
sulphuric acid, evaporated on the water-bath with excess
of barium carbonate, until all the alcohol is volatilised and
then after distillation the polyiodide of choline is precipi-
tated by iodide solution. The polyiodide is decomposed
by sulphurous acid, the solution filtered, the iodine replaced
by chlorine by shaking with silver chloride and the solution
evaporated; by treatment with platinum chloride the
platinum double salt is prepared.
Several determinations of the amount of choline in beer
and wort showed that the amount was the same before and
after fermentation.
Besides free choline, beer also contains a choline com-
pound, perhaps lecithin. — A. L. S.
Testing Paper for Wood Fibre. F. v. Hohnel. Centr.
Org. f. Waarenkunde u. Techn. 1891, 1, 219.
It is pointed out that various carbohydrates, such as cane-
sugar, dextrins, &c, give reactions resembling the lignin
reactions, for instance : — Swedish filter paper, prepared from
pure cellulose, impregnated with cane-sugar solution and
tested with phloroglucol and hydrochloric acid at first gave
no reaction, but when dry it becomes distinctly red just
as if wood fibre were present. Again wood cellulose,
which tested in the ordinary way with phloroglucol and
hydrochloric acid, showed only traces of lignin, became
intensely red when, after treatment with the reagents, it
was washed slightly and then quickly dried at 100° — 110°.
The author, therefore, considers it advisable, whenever
drying or heating has taken place during a test of this
kind, to supplement the observation by a careful micro-
scopical examination for the sake of confirmation. — D. A. L.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
On an Explosive Compound formed hy the Action of
Baryta-Water upon Chromic Acid in presence of
Oxygenated Water.
See under XXII., page 180.
&t\a asoofes.
Manual op Chemical Technology. By Rudolf von
Wagner. Translated and edited by William Crookes,
F.R.S. From the 13th enlarged German edition as
remodelled by Dr. Ferdinand Fischer; with 596 Illus-
trations. 1892. London: J. and A. Churchill, 11, New
Burlington Street.
Large octavo volume, bound in cloth. Contains Preface by
F. Fischer (translated), Preface to the English Edition by
William Crookes, Table of Contents, subject-matter covering
948 pages, an Appendix of 4 pages, and an Alphabetical
Index. The subjects treated of in the volume are as
follows : —
Section I. Technology of Fuel. Section II. Metallurgy.
Section III. Chemical Manufacturing Industry, in-
cluding the following branches : — Water and Ice. Artificial
Mineral Waters. Sulphur. Sulphuric Acid. Potassium
Salts, Common Salt, and Salt Works. Soda. Chlorine,
Chloride of Lime and Chlorates. Bromine. Iodine. Nitric
Acid and Nitrates. Explosives. Ammonia. Phosphorus.
Matches. Phosphates, Manure. Boric Acid and Borax.
Salts of Aluminium. Ultramarine. Compounds of Tin and
Antimony, of Arsenic, of Gold, Silver, and Mercury, of
Copper, of Zinc and Cadmium, of Lead, of Manganese and
Chromium, Iron Compounds including Ferrocyanogen.
Inorganic Pigments, Thermo-chemistry. Section IV. The
Organic Chemical Manufactures. Alcohols and Ethers.
Organic Acids. Treatment of Coal-tar. Organic Colouring
Matters. Tar Colours. Benzene Colours. Section V. Glass,
Earthenware, Cement and Mortar. Sectio?i VI. Articles of
Food and Consumption. Section VII. Chemical Tech-
nology of Fibres. Section VIII. Miscellaneous Organo-
Chemical Arts and Manufactures. Appendix containing a
set of useful Tables. The price of the volume is 1/. 12s.
The Phosphates of America. Where and How they
Occur ; How they are Mined ; and What they Cost.
With Practical Treatises on the Manufacture of Sulphuric
Acid, Acid Phosphate, Phosphoric Acid, and Concen-
trated Superphosphates. Also, Selected Methods of
Chemical Analysis. By Francis Wyatt, Ph.D. Second
Edition. 1891. New 'York : The Scientific Publishing
Co., 27, Park Street. London : H. Grevel and Co., 33,
King Street, Covent Garden.
This work is dedicated to R. P. Rothwell, the editor of the
Engineering and Mining Journal, by the author, and is an
8vo volume, bound in cloth, and containing Prefaces to
first and second editious, 178 pages of subject-matter, and
an Alphabetical Index.
Chap. I. Introductory. II. Phosphates and their
Assimilability. III. The Phosphates ef North America.
IV. The Phosphate Deposits of South Carolina. V. The
Phosphate Deposits of Florida. VI. Sulphuric Acid
Manufacture. Under this heading occurs the following
sentence on the subject of chamber construction : — " The
subject of chamber construction is well worn, if not
exhausted ; their form and size have long been bones of con-
tention over which certain wiseacres, with plenty of time for
useless discussion, have growled ad nauseam." As to
thickness of lead to be employed, the author says, " A
happy medium may be attained by adopting seven-pound
lead for the first chamber and six-pound lead for the
second." On the dimensions, he says, " The amount of
chamber room should in no case be less than 20 cubic feet
for every pound of sulphur consumed." Speaking of the
Glover Tower, the author says, " This remarkably ingenious
and valuable addition to the sulphuric acid plant is named
after its disinterested inventor, Mr. John Glover, an
English chemist." VII. Manufacture of Superphosphate,
Phosphoric Acid, and High-Grade Supers. VIII. Selected
Methods of Phosphate Analysis and Generally Useful
Laboratory Details. On the subject of divergent analyses,
&c, the author asks, " Why should there he any material
difference between the shippers' and buyers' samples, if
both are faithfully taken according to prescribed rules and
Feb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
185
with proper regard for the true interests of each party to
the contract ?" There follows later a short chapter on
Sampling, and minute details are given. This very pro-
perly precedes any details given as to Analysis. After a
full description of the Analytical Methods, the work
concludes with a " Table showing the principal Apparatus
and Chemicals comprising the Outfit required in Phosphate
Miniug or Fertiliser Factory Laboratories.'* The work is
illustrated by means of 20 well executed wood engravings,
two maps, and 20 photographs. The price of the book is
4 dols., or, approximately, 18s. in English money.
Systematic Mineralogy, based on a natural classification,
with a General Introduction. By Thomas Sterrv Hunt,
M.A., Ll.D. 1891. New York: The Scientific Publishing
Co., 27, Park Place. Loudon: H. Grevel and Co., 33, King
Street, Covent Garden.
This work is dedicated to his friend James Douglas, the
metallurgist. It is a large 8vo. volume, bound in cloth, and
containing Table of Contents, Preface, 376 pages of subject-
matter, and the Alphabetical Index. The text is sub-
divided into Chapters, as follows : — Chapter I. The Relations
of Mineralogy. II. Mineralogica! Systems. These are divided
as involving the Natural History and Chemical Methods,
and the possibility is considered of reconciling the two.
III. First Principles in Chemistry. IV. Chemical Elements
and Notation. V. Specific Gravity. VI. The Coefficient
of Mineral Condensation. The views on this problem of
Gibbs, Roscoe, Victor Meyer, Louis Henry, &c. are given.
VII. The Theory of Solution. VIII. The Relations of
Condensation to Hardness and Insolubility. IX. Crystal-
lisation and its Relations. X. The Constitution of Mineral
Species. XI. A New Mineralogical Classification. XII.
Mineralogical Nomenclature. XIII. Synopsis of Mineral
Species. XIV. The Metallaoeous Class. XV. The Halli-
daceous Class. XVI. The Oxydaceous Class. XVII. The
Pericaustaceous Class. XVIII. Mineral History of Waters.
XIX. There then follows: — (1.) A General Alphabetical
Index, and (2.) An Alphabetical Index of Mineral Names.
The price of the book is 5 dollars, or approximately
1/. 2s. 6d.
Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds or Organic
Chemistry. By Professor V. von Richter. Authorised
Translation by Edgar F. Smith, Professor of Chemistry,
LTniversity of Pennsylvania. Second American Edition
from the Sixth German Edition. 1891. London: Eegan,
Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited.
This well-known work on Organic Chemistry, according
to the preface of the translator, is as well received in America
as it is in England. The present volume is an 8vo., bound ill
cloth, and after Prefaces and Table of Contents, commencing
with an Introductory Chapter on General Theory, Methods of
Analysis, Vapour Density Determination, &c. The special
part of the work with Introductory included, occupies 1016
pages, and an Alphabetical Index completes the work. The
eight or nine illustrations are exceedingly well executed wood
engravings:
The special part is subdivided as follows :—
Class I. — Fatty Bodies or Methane Derivatives.
Hydrocarbons. Alcohols, Acids and their Derivatives.
Monovalent Compounds. Alcohols. Unsaturated Al-
cohols. Ethers. Mercaptans and Thio-ethers. Esters of
Mineral Acids. Amines. Hydrazines. Phosphines. Arsenic
Bases. Metallo - organic Compounds. Aldehydes and
Ketones. Monobasic Acids. Cyauogen Compounds. Diva-
lent Compounds. Trivalent Compounds. Tetravalent
Compounds. Pentavalent Compounds. He.ravalent Com-
pounds. Carbohydrates. Tetramethylene Derivatives, Ifc.
Furfurane Group. Thiophene Group. Pyrrol Group.
Class II. — Benzene Derivatives. Hydrocarbons, $w
Diazo-Compounds. Azo-Compounds. Hydrazine Com-
pounds. Sulpho-compounds of the Hydrocarbons. Phenols.
Dihydric Phenols. Trihydric Phenols. Quinones. Al-
cohols. Divalent Alcohols. Aldehydes. Ketones. Ketone-
aldehydes. Di-ketones. Nitrites. Aromatic Acids. Ke-
tonic Acids. Dibasic Acids, Tribasic Acids. Tetrabasic
Acids. Herabasic Acids. Unsaturated Compounds.
Derivatives with Closed Side Chains. (1.) Derivatives of
Directly Combined Nuclei. (2.) Derivatives of Benzene
Nuclei joined by one Carbon Atom. (S.) Derivatives of
Benzene Nuclei joined by two Carbon Atoms. (4.) With
Condensed Benzene Nuclei.
Derivatives of Nuclei Containing Nitrogen. (1.) Deri-
vatives of five-membered Nuclei. (2.) Quinoline Group.
Isoquinoline Group. Benzodiazines. Cinnolines. Quin-
azolines. Quinoxalines. Acndine Group. Phenazine
Group. Safranines. Alkaloids. Terpenes. Camphor.
Resins.
The price of the work is 20s.
The Chemistry of Paints and Painting. By A. H.
Church, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts, London. Second Edition. Revised
and enlarged. 1892. London: Seeley and Co., Limited,
Essex Street, Strand.
This book is dedicated to Sir Frederick Leighton by the
author. It is of 8vo. size and handsomely bound in green
cloth, and gilt. There are Prefaces to First and Second
Editions, a Table of Bibliographical Notes of Works
consulted or recommended for consultation. Then follow
Table of Contents, 320 pages of subject-matter, and the
Alphabetical Index. The text is subdivided as follows : —
Introduction. Part I. Painting Grounds. Paper,
Vellum, Ivory, Plaster or Intonaco, Stone, Panel, Canvas.
Part II. Vehicles and Varnishes. Oils, Resins, Waxes,
Paraffin Wax. Yolk and White of Egg, Size, Glue. Gums,
Glycerin, Honey. Water-glass, Lime- and Baryta-water.
Solvents and Diluents. Siccatives or Dryers. Varnishes
and Oleo-resinous Vehicles. Part III. Pigments. White,
Yellow, Red, Green, Blue, Brown, Black Pigments.
Classification of Pigments. Tables of Permanent and
Fugitive Pigments. Selected and Restricted Palettes.
Part IV. Painting. Methods. Study of Old Paintings.
Conservation of Pictures and Drawings. Trials of Pigments.
The price of the book is 5s.
Technisch-Chemisches Jahreuch, 1890 — 1891. Ein
Bericht uber die Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der
chemischen Technologie vom April 1890 bis April 1891.
Herausgegeben von Dr. Rudolf Biedermann. Drei-
zehnter Jahrgang. Mit 263 in den Text gedruckteu
Illustrationen. 1892. Berlin: Carl Heymann's Verlag.
London : H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent
Garden.
Octavo volume, strongly bound in cloth and gilt-lettered.
It commences with a brief Preface, followed by Tallies of
Contents and Errata, and List of Works consulted and
referred to in the text, with the Abbreviations used. The
subject-matter covers 573 pages, and the work contains 263
well-executed wood engravings. The classified list of New
Books published during the year is an interesting feature,
and it immediately precedes the Alphabetical Index, which
comprises an index of authors and one of subject-matter.
The matters treated of in the text are as follows :—
I. Patent Laws. II. Iron and Steel. III. The Alkali
Metals, Magnesium, Aluminium. IV. Gold and Silver.
V. Copper. VI. Lead. VII. Zinc. VIII. Tin. IX. Nickel
and Cobalt. X. Chromium and Manganese. XI. Bismuth,
Arseuic, Antimony, Mercury. XII. Chlorine, Hydrochloric
Acid. XIII. Sulphur, Sulphurous Acid, Sulphuric Acid.
XIV. Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbonic Acid. XV. Soda.
XVI. Potash Salts. XVII. Ammonia. XVIII. Alkaline
Earths. XIX. Aluminium Compounds. XX. Glass.
XXI. Earthenware. XXII. Cement. XXIII. Artificial
Stone. XXIV. Explosives. XXV. Illuminants. XXVI. Fuel.
XXVII. Sugar. XXVIII. Starch and Starch Sugar.
XXIX. Wine. XXX. Beer. XXXI. Spirits. XXXII. Fats,
Soaps, &o. XXXIII. Water. XXXIV. Foodstuffs.
XXXV. Manures. XXXVI. Tanning. XXXVII. Organic
Acids. XXXVI II. Alkaloids. XXXIX. Colouring Matters.
XL. Textile Fibres and their Treatment. XLI. Paper.
XLII. Photography. XLIII. Apparatus and Machinery.
The price of the book is 12s.
186
THE JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
Crane Report*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
(From the Board of Trade and other Journals')
Russia.
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff.
Note. — Poud = 36 lb. avoirdupois. Rouble = 100 copecks
= 3s. 2d.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the Russian Customs tariff have recently been
given by the Kussian Customs authorities : —
Ethers or fruit essences employed for flavouring sweets
and in medicine though with an admixture of spirits and
with not less than 75 per cent, of ether, under sect. 115.
Duty, 10 roubles gold per poud ; the same ethers mixed
with spirits containing less than G5 per cent, of ether under
sect. 27, as spirits with flavouring admixtures. Duty, 12 r.
gold per poud, gross ; when imported in casks and barrels
and -when imported in bottles of i of a vedro, 1 r. gold per
bottle.
New Customs Tariff of Mexico.
Note. — Kilog. = 2-204 lb. avoirdupois. Peso = 4*. 2d.
The following is a statement of the rates of import duty
on chemicals now levied under the new Customs tariff of
Mexico, which came into operation on the 1st November
last : —
Note. — By "net weight " must In1 understood the actual weight
of the merchandise ; by " legal weight," that which includes besides
the ''net weight" that of the interior bottles, boses, winders.
wrappers, .Ve. in which the articles are imported, and by " gross
weight " the total weight of the packages. When merchandise
which pays according to the " legal weight " has no other covering
besides the one which forms the outside package, the actual weight
of the merchandise will be considered to be its legal weight.
New Customs Tariff of Mexico — cont.
No. in
Tariff.
Articles, &c.
Rates of Duty
now levied.
651
662
653
654
656
t',.-,7
658
659
660
661
('hemhal ash Pharmaceutical
Products.
Aniline oil
Acetates of aluminium, ammonia, lime,
iron, and lead
Arsenical acid
Carbonic, chlorhydrie, sulphuric, and
sulphurous acids
Acetic, nitric, oxalic, and pyrolignecus
acids
Phenic acid
Liquid acids not specified
Acids in crystals or in powder, not
specified
Gum (or cloth
Aromatic distilled waters, not spirituous
Natural alkaloids, not specified, and
their salts
664 Alcohol and spirits of wine ,
Amylie and inethylie alcohol or spirits of
wood
664 | Alizarine, natural or artificial.
865 1 Antiseplir COttOU
Pesos. Cs.
Kilo, (cross) (i-«7
., (legal) 0-08
fire.
Kilo, (gross) 0-03
„ (legal) O'lij
free.
Kilo, (legal) 0'20
„ 1-00
„ ,. ll-OS
„ 0-50
„ „ S'OO
„ (net) 0-70
„ (legal) 0-20
„ (gross) 0-05
„ (legal) 0-25
690
691
692
693
691
605
696
697
60S
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
7IKI
No. in
Tariff.
666
667
60S
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
cs:!
684
685
6S6
687
Articles. &c.
Ammonia, liquid or solid
Anthracene
Sugar of milk
Sugar, medicinal and aromatised
Varnishes, white and coloured
Benzene
Bitumen and japanning in paste or
varnish for hoots and shoes
Medicine chests
Cases with medical reagents
Capsules, drops, globules, grains, pills,
confections, medicinal, and empty
gelatine capsules and wafers
Carbonates and bicarbonates of potash
and of soda
Cyanide of potassium
Collodion, common and photographic, of
whatever formula
Colours, in powder, in crystals, or pre-
pared
Rates of Duty
now levied.
Chloral
Chlorate of potash or of soda.
Chloroform
Chlorides of calcium, sodium, or potas-
sium
Chlorides of gold and of platinum
Chloride of zinc and protochloride of tin
Cream of tartar
Creoline
Diastase
Medicinal drugs and chemical and phar-
maceutical products not specified
Antiseptic soap
I Fruit ether
Ether, not specified
Extracts of dyewoods
Phosphorus, white or red
Phosphorus and wax of all kinds
Glue (mucilage) for offices
Hyposulphite of soda
Medicinal soaps,
Concentrated lyes
Yeast of all kinds
Morphia and its salts
Nitrate of silver
1 Orchil
i Plaisters, &c
Pastes, lozenges, and jellies, medicinal.
Pepsine
Permanganate of potash
Photographic dry plates
Powders, medicinal
Pesos. Cs.
Kile, (gross) 0*01
0-07
„ (legal) 0-40
0-50
0-20
0 - 1 1 1
0-20
0-75
roo
0-75
0-03
0-08
1-00
„ (gross) 0-08
„ (legal) 1-00
0-110
roo
Free.
Kilo. (legal)16-00
„ (gross) 0-01
„ (legal) 0-10
„ „ 0-03
1-IJO
0-75
0-03
0-75
0-20
„ (gross) 0'05
„ (legal) 0-50
„ 1-50
0-30
Free.
Kilo, (legal) 0-40
,. (gross) 0-03
„ (legal) 0-03
6-00
8 -CO
„ (gross) 0'05
,. (legal) 0-30
0-75
„ roo
Free.
Kilo, (legal) 0-30
II-M0
Mi 29, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
187
Sew Customs Tariff of Mexico — cont.
Xo. in
Tariff.
Articles, Ac.
Rates of Duty
now levied.
710
Pesos. Cs.
Free.
711
Kilo, (uett) 1-00
712
,. (gross) 0'03
713
0-07
711
„ (legal) 0'08
715
S:i!ts :iml oxides of all substances not
0-15
716
Free.
717
Kilo, (gross) 0'03
718
0'03
7HI
Sulphates of copper, iron, Hnd antimony.
Free.
720
Kilo, (legal) 0'03
721
Sulphite, bisulphite, and trisulphite of
722
Kilo, (gross) 0'07
723
,. (legal) 0-10
721
Hypodermic tablets of pastilles of alka-
„ 8'00
7-25
„ (gross) il-OS
72(»
0'08
727
728
Kilo, (net) 0-25
„ (legal) roo
729
730
„ „ 1'50
Arms and Explosives.
843
Cartridges, loaded or empty, for fire-
Kilo, (gross) 0-50
„ „ 0'50
MS
F'ree.
346
Dynamite and other explosives for
817 "
Kilo, (gross) 0'30
vis
Free.
850
Kilo, (gross) 0-50
852
Kilo, (legal) 0'50
Miscellaneous Aktici.es.
854
857
Articles of guttu-perch and celluloid....
0-40
„ (gross) 0' 25
900
„ (legal) 0-50
'.«H
Sheet s of asbestos card, and tarred felt . .
„ (gross) 0-04
008
„ (legal) l'OO
019
2-00
028
„ (gross) 0*30
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
Spanish Colonies.
Perfumery Imports,
The imports of perfumery articles and soaps into Cuba are
very large ; but this country docs not appear to possess any
appreciable share in them. Florida water comes from the
United States, some very common perfumes from Germany,
and low grades of soap are manufactured locally. But all
these sources are as nothing compared with the enormous
import of French goods, especially of the finer qualities.
Fine French toilet-soap, oils, scents, powders, &c., are
exceedingly popular. Certain Paris perfumery houses are
said to export 51)0,000 francs' worth of perfumeries to Cuha
every year. Against this trade English and American
houses have hitherto tried to compete in vain. But there-
are now some German firms who send travellers through
Cuha every year, and, it appears, have met with some
success.
Drugs Jor Porto Rico.
In his review of the trade of the Spanish West Indian
colony of Boito Hieo in 1890, Consul Latimer observes that
drugs and chemicals to the amount of 71 tons, valued at
15,320/., have come from the United States, France, Spain,
England, and Germany. Not embraced in the foregoing
heading, there has been a supply of 2,31 1 tons of nitric,
muriatic, and sulphuric acid, of the value of 32,397/.,
2,128 tons of which come from Spain, while England sends
but 38 tons (If the total import of soap of 2,250 tons,
valued at 58,565/., Spain furnished 2,228 Ions, and England
and'Cuba the remainder. — Chemist and Druggist.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
The Chemical Sectional Committee of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce has had under its consideration a
communication received from Her Majesty's Consul-General
at Christiania with reference to coloured cotton goods
shipped from this country to Xorway. These goods were
alleged to contain arsenic, and in consequence of this it was
stated that injury was done to British traders, as the
Government of Xorway did not permit the import of goods
containing arsenical compounds. The secretary of the
Chamber was requested to procure samples of the goods
complained of. Fifteen samples were in due time received,
and a special committee, appointed to examine them, report
that in at least 12 samples an excessive quantity of arsenic
was found, and that three contained only traces of it. The
opinion was also expressed that the employment of arsenic
or arsenical compounds could be dispensed with by dyers
and printers. The attention of the committee was also
called to the prosecution, on the part of the Corporation, of
certain chemical manufacturers for the emission of black
smoke. The committee are of opinion that there are a
number of bye-laws now in existence which, if enforced,
would injuriously affect a large number of manufacturers,
without in the least degree benefiting the general public.
These bye-laws (they say) may be admirable for most
purposes, 1 tit s«.iue at least are impracticable when applied
to the chemical and allied trades. The difficulties which
British manufacturers of fine chemicals, chemical and
medicinal preparations, colours, dyes, &c, experience in
competing with foreign nations — especially Germany and
Switzerland — arc already serious enough without being
unnecessarily increased. In the opinion of the committee,
too little importance is yet attached by traders and manu-
facturers generally to the development of our chemical
industries, and the result of this apathy is clearly shown by
comparing, the progress by leaps and bounds made yearly by
188
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
Germany and other countries with the almost stationary
condition of these industries in this country. This want of
progressiveness is due to inferior technical education of the
highest grade, to the unfairness of our Patent Laws in regard
to foreign patentees, and to the needless exactions of some
of the bye-laws of the local authorities. These tend seriously
to increase the expenditure on plant without reason, and
without advantage to the public at large. — Ibid.
The Metric Svsikm in China ami Japan.
JJk6 Secretary of the Decimal Association writes, with
reference to the recent adoption of metric weights and
measures in Japan, that the military authorities of that
country now prefer to place their orders in France or
Germany rather than in England, because the metric
measures are followed in those countries. The secretary
further states that a recommendation is about to go forward
from a high authority in China, to whose views attention
is usually paid, that China should adopt, as Japan has
already done, the metric system of weights and measures.
Unless the importance of this statement is fully realised,
there may he a loss of valuable business to English firms ;
for. in countries where the metric systsm is used, the
Government naturally prefer to buy the foreign goods
required from countries where the same weights and measures
are followed. — Ibid.
Phosphates in 1891.
Report by the Anglo-Continental {late Ohlendorff's)
Guano Works.
We beg to append table giving the quantities and origin of
the phosphates imported into the United Kingdom during
the last five years.
There has been a serious falling off in the quantities
imported, amounting to 86,729 tons, as compared with 1890,
and to 48,181 tons as compared with 1889.
Already during the first half-year we reported a reduc-
tion in the importations, and the decrease has continued to
the end of the year, and seems to have been spread over all
the important ports alike.
The deficiency is probably due not only to a smaller
demand for phosphatie manures, but also to the heavy stocks
left over from the previous year, when importations were
evidently in excess of requirements.
In consequence of the interruption of production on the
Coosaw river the quantities received from South Carolina
were only 97,000 tons, but the shortage was partly made
good by the supply from Peace river and other Florida
phosphate mines. This pebble phosphate from Peace river
has found ready buyers as it is even preferred to Bull
ri ver phosphate.
A considerable change has taken place in our supply of
high-class phosphates containing 70 per cent, of phosphate
of lime and over. Only about 10,000 tons of phosphates
arrived from Aruba and Sombrero last year, against
respectively 16,000 and 19,000 tons in 1889 and 1890.
The supply from Florida was 35,203 tons, of which about
16,000 tous were river phosphate-, from Peace river and one
cargo from Alafia river. Part of the high-grade phosphate
from Florida was reshipped to the Continent, like most of
the Canadian phosphate which arrives in this country.
The consumption of high-grade phosphates in the* United
Kingdom will therefore not have exceeded about 50,000
tons last year.
Considerably less Somme and Belgian phosphates have
been used, especially if we consider that in the quantity of
phosphates from Belgium, a large quantity of Osso phosphate
from the new mines near Liege is included.
Although the production on the Coosaw river was
interrupted last year it appears that South Carolina produced
more phosphate than ever, the consumption in the United
States evidently increasing rapidly.
The following are the figures of the last three years : —
Tons.
1889 H32.101
1890 537,149
1891 (about) 600,000
During 1889-90, from September 1 to August 31 -
Tons.
219,812 were shipped to Europe from Charleston and Beaufort.
250.936 were sent inland by rail and coastwise.
116,000 were consumed locally.
;,s.;.7,-,s
showing that whilst about 220,000 tons, mostly river phos-
phates, are sent from South Carolina to Europe, the
remainder is consumed in the United States.
The production in Florida last year began to assume
large proportions.
Calculated at the present rate of production Florida would
furnish about 100,000 tons of river (pebble) phosphates ami
about 100,000 tons of high-class land rock with perhaps
some low-class phosphates for home consumption.
It is, however, impossible to estimate future production
with any degree of certainty, because the mines inland are
only partially developed, and some are still waiting the
completion of railway connexions, whilst other large mines
work at reduced speed, or not at all, on account of the
present low prices of phosphates in Europe.
The sanguine hopes of the many miners in Florida are not
likely to be realised, because it costs more to raise saleable
phosphates than they expected, and there is no possible
sale for large quantities of high-class phosphates in
Europe.
In the Somme district in France raisers of phosphates
have suffered under the serious fall in prices, caused by the
new discoveries in Florida, and the production last year was
probably on a somewhat smaller scale than the previous
year. As regards cost of raising, preparing for and bringing
into the market, the Somme raisers are much better placed
than any other miners ; but many properties in the Somme
were acquired at such a high cost that the present reduced
prices must be very uureinuncrative to them.
Wc have not yet received exact figures of last year's
production in Fiance, but give the following figures for
previous years : —
In 1889 the quantity of phosphates produced in the
Somme was stated to have been about 260 000 tons, of which
about 100,000 tons were of high grade, say 65 — 80 per cent.
In 1890 the production in the Somme has been stated as
250,000 tons, of which about 120,000 tous were exported.
The export of phosphates from France was —
Tons.
fSsT 50.S9S
18SS 99,673
1889 150,963
1S90 122,002
During the past year (1891) the quantity of Somme
phosphates exported from France must have been much
smaller, as is evident from the quantities landed in the
United Kingdom and Germany ; but the home consumption
in France seems to be increasing, and a large quantity of
low-class ground phosphates is used by the French farmers
direct without manufacture into superphosphate.
We have not yet been able to obtain particulars of the
quantity of phosphate raised last year in Belgium, but it
seems clear that the production of calcareous phosphate
near Mons is not reuch increasing, whilst the old mines near
Mons are about worked out. The new mines near Liege
are in full activity, and although the quantity raised will be
much less than expected, still the production will be impor-
tant for some years to come.
Germany has always been the best market for high-class
phosphates, and consequently the new Florida phosphate
has been most extensively used in that country. We have
particulars of imports during last year only from two ports,
which of course are no indication of the total quantity used
Feb. 29, is*!.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
189
in Germany, but are characteristic as to the origin of the
material, and may be summarised as follows : —
Tons.
South Carolina 13,02:!
Peace Eiver (Florida) 7,540
Florida land roek| 20, 156
Soiiine phosphates 5.S03
Canadian 1,210
Aruba Curacoa 970
52,000
Importation of Phosphates into the United
Kingdom, indicating Countries op Production.
Country whence
imported.
1857. 1888.
1 Tons. | Tons.
I'.S. of America 105,275 111.360
Florida
S.Carolina
British West Indies..., 6,451 11,010
DutchWest Indies .... 9,505 J 10,730
Hayti and San Domingo 3,041
Venezuela and Guiana . : 405
Brazil ' 1,200 I
Australia 350 i
British North America, i 19,1514
Portugal 15,612
France 11,140
Belgium 45,322
Holland
Other countries
Norway
Tons. Tons.
122,554 177,283
0,23s
12,423
6,978
39,059
54,201
1,880
1 1,730
1,094
3,870
11,703
992
1,250 | ..
23,297 21,089
1,326
Total ,
4,778 4,137
1,139 | 1,075
i
283,415 257,886
65,490
64,6-13
2,270
390
304,953
.35,659
82,096
2,428
1,070
4,161
Tons.
35,203
96,S81
1,960
8,851
1,639
540
15,918
320
18,325
70,723
3,134
1,483
1,195
343.501 ,250,772
Exports op Phosphates.
Country whence
exported.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
Tons.
7,03-1
1,443
1,609
Tons.
3.717
985
891
Tons.
1,305
9,716
1,535
1,510
Tons.
1,687
6,235
489
Total export . . .
10,086
5,623
14,066 8,311
Remaining for U.K.
273,329
252,263
290,887
335,190
The Production of Quicksilver in California.
The report of the Quicksilver Mining Company, of New
Almaden, Cal., for the year ending December 31st, 1891,
is the most unfavourable statement made by that company
during the past 21 years. The production of quicksilver was
smaller than in any preceding year, being but 68 per cent,
as great as in 1890, while in value there was a still more
important decline, the average price of quicksilver having
been 12-06 dols. per flask lower in 1891 than in 1890.
In 1890, 22,649 tons of ore were roasted, and in 1891,
25,548 tons, but the average yield of the ore during the
latter year was only I -22 per cent., against 2-02 per cent.
in 1890. On the other hand the expenses in 1891 were
very nearly as heavy as in 1890 ; the yield of quicksilver
being so much less the cost of production rose from
33-87 dols. per flask to 48-62 dols., and for the first time in
21 years the mines wers operated at a loss. The deficit
amounted to 57,523-96 dots., which was 6-97 do!s. per flask.
There seems no doubt that the New Almaden mines are
now upon the verge of exhaustion, and that within a few
years the quicksilver mining industry of California will be
a thing of the past, notwithstanding the remarkably able
and economical management of the mines. The production
of the California mines reached its maximum in 1879, when
79,396 flasks were produced. Since that time the output
has diminished steadily. In 1 881 the yield was 60,851 flasks ;
in 1891 it had fallen to 22,904 flasks.
The quicksilver mines of California have had a glorious
past and have returned large profits to their owners.
From 1850 to 1891, both years inclusive, they produced
1,590,674 flasks, or 121,696,561 lb. of quicksilver valued at
71,508,021 dols. Of this amount the New Almaden mines,
owned by the Quicksilver Mining Company, produced
924,659 flasks, or over 58 per cent. In 1881 the product
of this company was 42-8 per cent, of the total, and in
1891, 36 per cent. With the approaching exhaustion of
the California mines it would seem that we are likely to
see higher prices of quicksilver this year. No figures have
yet been compiled showing the world's production of quick-
silver in 1891, but the output of the Almaden mines of
Spain was probably about 47,500 flasks, against 50,035
flasks in 1890. The mines of Spain and California are
the largest producers and turn out about 70 per cent, of
the total amount of the world's quicksilver. — Engineering
and Mining Journal.
British Alkali in the States.
The American market for heavy chemicals has been
brisk lately, owing, says the O. P. and D. Reporter, to the
equalisation of freight rates from New York with those of
Boston, and the probability of an early advance in ocean
freights. The first reason has caused the divergence of
some trade from Boston to New York, and the second has
influenced buyers to place larger orders for earl}- forward
shipment than they probably would have done otherwise.
So far as caustic soda is concerned the effect of the present
conditions is likely to be transitory, and will not increase
the figures representing the total volume of trade for the
twelve months if the experiences of the past year are to he
taken as a criterion. The statistics of exports of the heavy-
chemicals to the United States during 1891 are just to hand,
and afford some interesting comparisons with those of the
two preceding years. The shipments of bleaching powder
are considerably larger than those of the previous year.
On the other hand, the exports of caustic soda, sal soda,
and salt cake show a decided falling off, which may be
attributed in a large part to the increasing consumption of
the domestic products.
The figures showing the shipments to the United States
from England are as follows : —
Tens.
1891.
1890.
1889.
6S.681
•19,303
31,353
5,900
8,059
67,168
45,781
37,426
9,845
8,535
42,608
6,337
7,3 13
— Chemist and Druggist.
The Glass-bottle Trade in Germany.
The German glass-bottle industry; says the annual report
of one of the biggest bottle-making firms in the world (the
Gerresheimer glassworks), has been in a rather bad way
in 1891. Instead of a profit of 608,841 marks, such as
H 2
190
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
these works made in 1890, wlicn they paid their share-
holders 9 per cent., the net profit in 1891 has only been
295,512 marks, admitting of no larger dividend than 5 per
cent . The output of bottles, however, increased from
47,660,000 in 1890 to 511.920,(100 in 1891. Of the last-
named number 29^ millions were sold to the German home
trade, and 21§ millions for export. The prices realised
declined considerably, the smaller output of 1890 selling
far 3,510,000 marks and the larger one of 1891 for
3,460,000 marks.— Ibid.
Discovery of Calcium Tongstate.
A discovery of economic importance has just been made
by Mr. W. F. Ferrier, B.A. Sc, of the Canadian Geological
Survey, in specimens collected some years ago. The
specimens were procured from an opening made for gold
on a quartz vein in the township of Marlow, Beauce county,
province of Quebec, near the State of Maine boundary line.
They are found to hold scheelite or calcium tungstate, of a
yellowish-white colour, resembling blende so much as to
be mistaken for the latter. It is the intention of the
owners to develop the property. — Engineering and Mining
Journal .
Papers of Interest to Technologists.
The following articles in the Board of Trade Journal for
February will repay perusal : —
"Prussian Mining and Metallurgical Industries." p. 135.
"Regulations for the Carriage of Petroleum through the
Suez Canal," p. 163.
" Xew Customs Tariff of Argentina," p. 177.
" The Industries of Orenbourg," p. 198.
" German Sugar Industry, 1890 — SI," p. 199.
"Fibre Industry in Queensland," p. 219.
Imports of Metals for Month ending 3 1st January.
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS
Summary of Imports.
Month ending 31st January
1891.
1892.
£
1 715,867
S52.7S7
636,434
2,378,863
£
1,822,503
Oils
566,628
2,423.0+4
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports ....
33,741,082
3S,485,244
Summary of Exports.
Month ending 31st January
1891. 1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
3,148,601
710,457
2,348,868
£
2,551,466
707,184
2,219,264
19,834,315
19,146,704
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper : —
Unwrought .... „
Iron : —
Bolt, bar, 4c ,
Steel, unwrought . . „
Lead, pig and sheet „
6,139
9,964
3,120
317,331
2,976
294
13,237
70,685
82,676
33,353
2,360
6,200
9,189
3,969
281,679
4,200
366
14,342
56,028
464,340
42,291
3,911
£
39,4s3
313,040
172.599
245,393
30,995
2,822
173,717
120,1191
8,819
153,718
53,158
395,999
£
38,821
22S.572
190,294
214,150
35,855
2 575
165,204
98,768
49,041
190,114
Other articles . . .Value £
85,242
523,877
Total value of metals
••
' 1,715,867
1
1,822,503
Imports of Raw Materials for Non-Textile
Industries for Month endlng 31st January.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891. 1892,
Bark, Peruvian . . Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum : —
Arabic
Lac, &c
Gutta-percha ....
Hides, raw: —
Dry
Wet
Ivory „
Manure : —
Guano Tons
Bones „
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
Esparto „
Palp of wood ,
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin „
Tar Barrels
Wood :—
Hewn Loads
Sawn
Staves ,
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . .Value £
Total value .
7,786
171,086
29,771
5,030
8,580
6,286
r.J.'.'s;
20,873
730
967
T.llls
37,550
1,749
24,634
8,622
119,356
111,525
2,503
110,153
69,650
0,471
■l.s'j;
6,807
£
22,784
170,486
25,655
32,556
365,263
6^05
14.0S1
10,824
35,772
2.2S4
70,308
28,761
S!>,092
41,622
42,934
1,095
30,174
1,456
5,870
7.H50
36,897
53,231
47,515
2,214
15,505
19,170
117.402
13,475
50,114
72,067
20,878
S5.118
140,746
2,427
1,101
99,0os
227,788
95,491
176,175
3,672
45,870
3,164
45,216
••
739,723
••
2,378,863 .
£
1S.292
20,350
398,788
15,374
47.983
30,924
73,056
s6,su:s
56,262
10,685
30,266
77.04S
20.142
9L857
66,686
18,870
106.980
1.630
184,940
205,135
26,110
30,716
797,646
2,423.044
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 67.623J, were
as agaiust 51,829/. in January 1891.
i mported
Feb. 29.1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
191
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 31>t January.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tannors, &c.) „
Brimstone „
Chemicals Value £
Cochineal Cwt.
Cutch and gambier Tons
Dyes : —
Aniline Value £
Alizarine
Other
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda. ... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles. . . Value £
Total value of chemicals
1,872
12,896
80,075
85S
2,i«o
13,738
268,980
26,063
1,806
1892.
3,505
313,610
t; 1,568
5S0
1,346
Values.
1892.
21,596
52,628
211,735
2.707
£
1.797
1,91 1
8,615
9II.MC
5,342
51,539
21,517
23,100
1.771
332.773
100,350
23,441
40.0S3
139,769
852.7S7
£
2,707
16,61 1
18,788
97,861
8,420
31,057
18,959
If ,694
1.187
148,224
23,682
18,554
41,131
91,313
827,080
Imports of Oils for Month ending 31st January.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
6,143
1,285
85,979
12,940,134
2,342
1,142
39,807
6,850
1,510
87,773
10,048,117
1,511
1,299
83,091
£
8,909
51,740
98,659
282,085
57,345
22,065
."■5,72:i
59,302
£
8,754
57,427
101,7311
205,483
41,249
26,156
43,190
82,039
Other articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
636,434
566,628
Extorts of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
31st January.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Other articles ... „
167,992
llii,03t
21,137
39S.3S2
85,320
20,309
£
169,007
35,379
178,004
73,867
254,200
£
152,515
33.000
217.122
75,781
228,400
710,457
7>i7,184
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending 31st January.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
8,219
6,8H
£
40,814
£
31.1S1
Copper : —
48,048
43,895
144.227
107.239
Wrought „
20,585
27,237
72,603
B4,038
Mixed metal
10,966
22,841
33,551
59.500
..
214,242
179. X92
110,787
99,505
219,419
196,678
2,112,022
1,730.404
5,149
38,797
21,710
68,312
20,517
Plated wares. . . Value £
Telegraph wires, &c. „
..
238,223
16,24.3
7.701
1 1,685
31,460
11.190
72,333
86,889
14,161
67,188
Other articles .. Value £
■•
••
3,118,601
2,551,466
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 31st January.
Articles.
Gunpowder Lb.
Military stores.. Value £
Candles Lb.
Caoutchouc Value £
Cement Tons
Products of coal Value £
Earthenware ... „
Stoneware ,
Glass: —
Plate Sq.Ft.
Flint Cwt.
Bottles „
Other kinds.... „
Leather :—
Unwrought
Wrought Value £
Seed oil Tons
Floorcloth Sq. Yds.
Painters' materials Val. £
Paper Cwt.
Rags Tons
Soap Cwt.
Total value
Quantities.
1891.
1,178,500
1.091,500
30,113
369,873
7,522
58,629
15,017
9,050
1,211
1,300,200
IN. 110
3,797
33,816
653,800
1,379,900
25,020
177,985
6,914
59,941
14,882
11,175
5,401
1,975,400
74,866
3,266
47,910
Values.
1891.
£
29,314
82,591
21,810
88,333
73,878
98,707
130,031
12,253
18,247
17,115
27,159
15,203
9,1,60 1
20,701
93,013
58,847
106.31S
117,992
30,438
39,583
2,348,85S
£
15,657
78,658
26 793
111.459
46,507
130,822
121,760
11,289
10,581
17,212
28,347
12,856
110,479
25,053
111,943
S5 7
189,366
132,235
21,311
46,695
2,219,264
192
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29. 1892.
iflontblp patent Cist.
• The dates driven are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
nspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two mouths of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
538. J. Arnold. Improvements in or connected with
thermometers. January 11.
541. L. Roumieu. Improved filtering receptacle for sub-
stances from which oil or other liquid is to be expressed by
hydraulic and other presses. January 11.
765. S. Fox. Improvements in furnaces for the applica-
tion of water-gas for heating and welding purposes.
January 14.
801. J. Pelat. Improvements in apparatus for use in
filtering and purifying oils, glucose, or other like matters.
January 14.
829. J. W. Hall. An improvement connected with gas-
producer and other furnaces. January 15.
836. A. M. Strathern and A. G. Strathern. Improvements
in and relating to apparatus for governing or regulating the
pressure or flow of illuminating gas or other fluids.
January 15.
845. H. E. Newton. — From R. N. Oakman, jun., United
States. Improvements in gas furnaces. Januar}' 15.
1054. J. H. Bovenkerk, jun., and A. C. Kuvt. Improve-
ments relating to softening water. January 19.
1172. A. T. Rapkin and F. Cossor. Improvements in or
connected with thermometers. January 21.
1181. W. J. Lomax and C. J. Lomax. A combined
refuse furnace and gas apparatus. January 21.
1210. B. Zeitsehel. Improvements in apparatus for
rapidly heating liquids. Complete Specification. January 21,
1738. \\". P. Thompson. — From J. W. Meeus, Belgium.
Nee Class XVII.
1777. B. Boltou. Improved non-conducting composition
or paint for steam-heated surfaces. January 29.
1S58. YV. L. Wise. — From C. d'Abbadie de lSarrau,
Island of Mauritius. See Class XVI.
1863. J. G. Hall. See Class XVII.
1991. J.Wright. Improvements in apparatus for heating
water and fluids of all kinds ; also applicable toammoniacal
and other liquors for distillation for steam boilers or any
other purpose. February 2.
2117. C. F. Betting. Improvements in assay or chemical
balances. Complete Specification. February 3.
2363. W. P. Ingham and E. Crowe. Improvements in
gas-fired recuperative kilns. February 8.
2510. J. A. Mays. A process and apparatus for effecting
the concentration or separation of solids. February 9.
2790. J. W. Bowley. Apparatus for producing cold in
or freezing liquids. February 12.
2895. F. M. Robertson, H. S. Fearon, and W. S. Miller.
Improvements in the process of, and apparatus for,
evaporating or drying. February 13.
Complkte Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
1071. B. Corcoran. Mixing machine for amalgamating
exact proportions of (lours, chemicals, and other substances.
January 20,
1846. J. King. Apparatus for drying granular, pasty, or
pulverulent materials, or for carbonising animal or vegetable
substances, or for concentrating or evaporating liquids ; and
an improved furnace for heating air for the same and for
other purposes. January 20.
5340. A. Dervaux. Method and apparatus for clarifying
muddy liquids. February 10.
5529. J. S. Sawrey and H. Collet. Apparatus for
separating liquids from solid matters suspended therein.
January 27.
6159. J. Hardman and J. Peake. Retort charging
devices. February 17.
6387. W. Heyes. Apparatus for concentrating acids and
other liquids. February 17.
7188. M. Merichenski. Improvements in carburettors.
February 3.
15,192. O. M. Row. Apparatus for condensing steam
and other vapours, and for heating or cooling fluids.
February 10.
19,464. E. Kerr. Improvements in furnaces. February 10.
21,248. W. Butlin. An improved tuyere. January 20.
1892.
11. E.C. Peck. Taps or cocks for liquids. February 17.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
535. G. M. S. Wilson. Improvements in the manufacture
of gas. Complete Specification. January 11.
848. G. B. Field. Means for burning straw, cornstalks,
and such like fuel. Complete Specification. Filed January
15. Date applied for August 11, 1891, being date of
application in United States.
864. J. Ruscoe. Improvements in apparatus for charging
gas retorts. January 15.
878. G. T. Beilby. Process of and apparatus for the
manufacture of cyanides. January 16.
879. G. T. Beilby. Process and apparatus for obtaining
cyanides. January 16.
927. W. B. Hartridge. Improvements in or connected
with apparatus for washing or purifying smoke. January 16.
952. W. S. Chenall and W. F. S. Chenall. Improvements
in solidifying animal, vegetable, and mineral oils, and
volatile and inflammable fluids. Complete Specification.
January 18.
964. C. Allina. Solidifying petroleum and the carbo-
hydrates contained in same for facilitating transportation
and use as fuel, also re-liquefying same. January 18.
965. W. E. Vickers and G. A. Everett. Improvements in
machinery or apparatus for effecting the complete mixture
of inflammable gas or vapour with air. Complete Specifica-
tion. January 18.
1437. I. S. McDougall and J. T. McDougall. Improve-
ments in the treatment of oils for rendering them capable
of transport or storage, and of use as fuel, or as illuminants,
with greater safety and convenience than hitherto.
January 25.
1569. J. Tennant, J. Tennant, and W. R. Tennant.
Improvements in candles. January 26.
1575. A. Klonue. Improvements in the manufacture of
illuminating and heating gas, and in apparatus therefor.
January 26.
1647. J. Mitchell. Improvements in coke ovens. Janu-
ary 27.
1804. S. Fox. Improvements in the manufacture or
production of water-gas and apparatus therefor. January 29.
Feb. 29, 18920 THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL DJDUSTKY.
193
1805. T. W. Lee. Improvements in the manufacture or
production and distribution of mixture of inflammable gas
and air, and in apparatus therefor. January 29.
1938. W. Coultas, T. Siddell, and J. L. Smith. A novel
or improved apparatus constituting a combined boiler and
gas producer for the generation of steam and the production
of gas, whether used in combination or for separate
purposes. February 2.
1960. J. Isherwood. Improved apparatus for economising
heat and fuel. February 2.
207.3. W. H. Wilson. Improvements in and connected
with the manufacture of illuminating gas. February 3.
2259. T. White. See Class IX.
2367. L. Sepulchre. Gas generator for the distillation of
mineral oils and the combustion at a distance of a part or
the whole of the products of the distillation applicable to
apparatus for lighting and heating. Complete Specification.
February 8.
2377. K. H. Courtnay. Improvements in and means for
increasing the illuminating power of candles and night and
fancy lights ; also in the holders to be used for same.
February 8.
2434. J. Swallow and C. West. Improvements in artificial
fuel. February 8.
2578. W. L. Maleolmsou and W. K. Parker. Improved
fuel. February 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
2736. V. Poltavtseff and K. Hodjaian. Means for gene-
rating heat from liquid and other fuel. February 17.
4279. C. F. Claus. Purification of water-gas or other
producer-gas from sulphur compounds. January 20.
4321. J. Baxter and W. Baxter. Apparatus for refining
paraffin. January 20.
5212. W. H. Munns. — From E. de Beauharnais. Manu-
facturing illuminating gas. February 3.
6134. J. Laing. Distillation of mineral oils, &c, and
apparatus therefor. February 17.
17,351. G. R. Prowse. Apparatus for forming oxycalcium
lights. January 20.
18,498. H. H. Lake.-From C. II. Wilder. Manufacture
of gas from hydrocarbon oils, and apparatus therefor.
February 10.
19,641. T. G. Springer. Manufacture of gas, and
apparatus therefore. February 10.
21,881. W. Fairweather. — From The Acme Liquid Fuel
Co. Process and apparatus for the manufacture of gas.
January 20.
22,347. W. L. Rowland. Recovering cyanides from
coal gas. February 17.
1892.
535. G. M. S. Wilson. Improvements in the manufacture
of gas. January 11.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Applications.
2129. II. Saxl. Process and apparatus for the production
of benzol and its homologies, phenol, naphthalene, and
anthracene, from resins or resin oils alone, or mixed with
petroleum, petroleum residues, illuminating gas, and other
hydrocarbons. February 3.
2367. L. Sepulchre, See Class II.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
6131. J. Laing. .See Class II.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
802. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of dyes of the rosaniline series and of leueo-compounds
thereof. January 14.
22,641a. B. Willcox.— From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Buyer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the pro-
duction of azo-colours on fibre. Filed January 22. Date
applied for December 28, 1891.
960. A. Bang.— From G. A. Dahl, Germany. The
production of fast yellow mordant dyeing azo-dyestuffs.
Complete Specification. January 18.
1231. H. H. Lake. — From Wirth and Co., agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture of colouring matters. January 21.
1390. H. H. Lake.-From Wirth and Co., agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture of colouring matters. January 23.
1473. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of dyes from substituted derivatives of diamido-diphenyl-
methane. January 25.
1657. B. Willoox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of colouring matters derived from anthraquinone.
January 27.
2324. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Limited, and R. J.
Friswell. A new substance suitable for dyeing and other
purposes and the process for its production. February 6.
2408. C. D. Abel— From The Actier. Gesellschaft fur
Anilin Fabrikation, Germany. New manufacture of bases
and of colouring matters therefrom. February 8.
2617. O. Imray. — From Die Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Bruning, Germany. Manufacture of ethoxy-
phenylmethylpyrazolone and of para ethoxy 1 phenyl-
23 dimethyl- 5 pyrazolone. February 10.
2718. S. Pitt.— From L. Cassella and Co., Germany.
Improvements in the production of black dyes suitable for
dyeing wool. February 11.
2789. S. Pitt. — From L. Cassella and Co., Germany.
Improvements in the production of azo dyes. February 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3622. R. Vidal. Production and separation of methyl-
amines, ethylamines, phenylamiues, and naphthylamines.
February 10.
5103. R. Holliday and Sons, Lim., T. Holliday, and
P. R. E. Seidler. Manufacture of a sulpho-acid of alpha-
naphthol and of colouring matters therefrom. February 10.
3269. W. Majert. Manufacture of aromatic glycocoll
derivatives. January 27.
5437. W. Sherwood. A new or improved composition of
ink for reproduction of copies by the manifold process.
February 10.
5904. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Bruning. Production of black colouring
matters. February 10.
21,249. E. von Portheim. Manufacture of new colouring
matters from naphthy I -glycines. January 27.
22,623. J. Imray. — From La Soc. L. Durand, lluegenin,
et Cie. A new manufacture of colouring matters. Feb-
ruary 3,
194
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
840. J. Porritt, A. Porritt, M. Porritt, and S. J. Chadwick.
A new yarn and process of manufacturing the same from
waste fibres. January 15.
1077. W. P. Thompson. — From J. P. Jaensoulin and
G. Oser, France. Improvemects in treating or deeorti-
cating ramie and other similar fibres aud in machines there-
for. January 19.
1728. C. F. Dietrich and T. J. Palmer. Improvements
in the manufacture or production of floor coverings or like
materials with coloured designs or patterns and apparatus
to be employed in the said manufacture. January 28.
1729. C. F. Dietrich and T. J. Palmer. Improvements
in the manufacture and production of materials suitable for
use as floor coverings, or for other analogous purposes.
January 28.
Compi.etk Specifications Accepted.
1891.
6294. J. Daw, jun. An improvement in lyeing mats,
carpets, or other fabrics. January 20.
1.1,072. J. P. A. Blaye. Treatment of ramie fibre, flax,
or hemp in the green or dried state. January 20.
17,642. F. J. H. Sampson. Process and appliance for
obtaining fibre from rhea. February 17.
209. D. E. Coe.
February 10.
1892.
Manufacture of yarn from waste.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
22,641a. B. Willcox. — From The Farbcnfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the production
of azo colours on fibre. Filed January 22nd. Date applied
for December 28, 1891.
1506. J. Dawson. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for utilising the heat of spent liquors or
liquids for dyeing, manufacturing, and other like purposes.
January 26.
2096. W. Searle and W. H. Elliot. Improved apparatus
for dyeing or chemically treating and drying paper, felt,
or other fabrics. Complete Specification. February 3.
2730. G. II. Craven. Improvements in dyeing machines.
February 1 1 .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,263. L. Kern. Method and apparatus for preventing
the escape of noxious gases in the processes of bleaching
and otherwise treating textile materials. January 27.
22.437. C. Kellner. Process ami apparatus for bleach-
ing paper pulp, and other similar vegetable substances.
I'd uuary 3.
22.438. C. Kellner. Process and apparatus for increasing
the bleaching properties of chlorine »:is. January 27.
Applications.
610. F. Valentiner. Process and apparatus for the manu-
facture of concentrated nitric acid. January 12.
714. J. R. Thame. An improved process for the
manufacture of the cyanides of sodium aud potassium.
January 13.
1032. P. Rogatien de Lambilly. A new or improved
method or process for the production of alkaline cyanides.
Complete Specification. January 19.
1439. I. S. McDougall and J. T. McDougall. Improve-
ments in the treatment of certain corrosive or poisonous
liquids to render them capable of being transported, stored,
or used with less danger than hitherto. January 25.
1548. P. Romer. An improved manufacture of potas-
sium carbonate from potassium sulphate. January 26.
1642. O. Imray. — From M. M. Rotten, Germany.
Improved manufacture of sodium and potassium bichro-
mates. January 27.
1652. C. F. Clans. Improvements relating to the manu-
facture of alkaline sulphides and carbonates, and to the
production or recovery of sulphide of hydrogen and other
by-products. January 27.
1659. C. J?. Clans. Improvements relating to the manu-
facture of alkaline sulphates, sulphides, and carbonates,
and to the production or recovery of the hydrate of alumina,
sulphide of hydrogen or sulphur, and hydrochloric acid or
chlorine. January 27.
1692. G. E. Davis and A. R. Davis. Improvements in
the preparation of chlorine. January 28.
1855. J. J. Tate and A. S. Ramage. Improvements in
the utilisation of ferrous chloride liquors, especially those
known as " waste pickle," from galvanising and tin-plate
works. January 30.
2165. C. H. Cribb. Improvements in the production of
carbon dioxide and lime from causticismg refuse and from
limestone and the carbonates of other alkaline earths, and
in apparatus therefor. February 4.
2389. L. Ilruuner and A. Zanner. An improved process
for preparing at the same time neutral sulphate of soda and
precipitated phosphate of lime. Complete Specification.
February 8.
2415. J. Wetter. — From the Firm of H. and E. Albert,
Germany. Process for obtaining alkali phosphates from
neutral or acid alkali sulphates. February 8.
2604. J. Morris. New or improved process for the
production of crystals and crystalline masses. February 10.
2697. A. MacFarlane. A substitute for the acid tartrate
of potassium. February 11.
2878. C. W. Kriens. Improvements in the manufacture
of nitrates. February 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1453. E. O. Lambart, — From S. Pick. Manufacture or
production of salt from brine. January 27.
2252. P. G. W. Typke. Manufacture or production of
certain phosphorus compounds. February 10.
4661. W. Mills. Manufacture of alkali and apparatus
therefor. February 17
4730. C Marriott. Apparatus used in the manufacture
of sulphate of ammonia. January 27.
5S19. D. Bowat and J. Fullertoo. Treatment of pickles
and apparatus therefor. February 17.
5844. A. (i. Haddock and L. l.ritli. Manufacture of
alkali. February 17.
6388. P. J. B. Vincent. Manufacture of salt in Mucks
and cakes. February 3.
Feb. 29, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
195
6500. J. Kolb. Production of chlorine. January 20.
10,629. K. Edwards.— From (). Gnttmann and L. Rohr-
mann. Apparatus for condensing nitric acid. January 20.
20,060. C. Kellner. Process and apparatus for the
manufacture of hydrogen and chlorine from hydrochloric
acid. January 20.
22,320. La Soc. A. E. Pechiuey et Cie. Manufacture of
chlorine from hydrochloric acid gas. February 3.-
V11I.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
697. B. J. Brearley and F. T. Brearley. Improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for rolling glass.
January 13.
L943. G. Sowerby. Improvements in apparatus for and
the method of melting glass. February 1.
1974. W. Leuder. A new and improved process
of marking glass by acids. Complete Specification.
February 2.
2375. Sir A. Hickman. Improvements in the composi-
tion and manufacture of refractory and basic bricks and
tuyeres. February 8.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4391. T. C. J. Thomas. Manufacture of glass.
January 20.
4610. F. Plant. Improvements in ovens, kilns, or
furnaces for firing pottery or earthenware, and for other
purposes. January 20.
5068. F. Query. Kilns for use in the manufacture of
pottery, porcelain, and earthenware, and other similar
goods. January 27.
5324. W.Walker. Production of glass-making materials.
February 3.
6257. W. C. Gibson. Kilns for biscuiting and burning
glazed and enamelled clay goods. February 17.
20,438. W. P. Thompson.— From R. S. Pease. Method
and apparatus for manufacturing glass plates, sheets, and
films. January 20.
20,440. W. P. Thompson.— From R. S. Pease. Method
and apparatus for producing cylinders, pipes, and other
tubular bodies of glass. January 20.
21,826. M. Epstein. Filtering tubes with ball-filtering
material for purifying molten glass. January 20.
1892.
489. H. Warrington. Kilns for bricks, earthenware,
porcelain, &c. February 17.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
736. T. J. Davcy. Chamber oven for drying clay from
slurry or any other materials of a similar nature in brick
or cement works. January 14.
795. E. Websky. Improvements in treating gypsum
casts. Complete Specification. January 14.
1195. A. Willard. Improvements in the manufacture of
artificial stone. January 21.
1827. W. Brown. Improvements in the method
of jointing concrete paving. Complete Specification.
January 30.
1861. A. J. Campion. Improvements in the manufacture
of hydraulic cement and concrete. January 30.
2131. F. W. S. Stokes. Improvements in apparatus
connected with the continuous treatment of lime, cement,
and the like materials, and in the lining of kilns and
furnaces for burning materials of a basic character.
February 4.
2165. C. H. Cribb. .See Class VII.
2259. T. White. Improvements in the burning of bricks
and cements, and in the manufacture of domestic and other
fuel. February 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
2598. J. Ballantine. Improved medium or composition
for decorative purposes. February 17.
4750. La Soc. Anon, des Ardoisieres de Deville and V.
Van der Heydeu. Manufacture of material suitable for
paving, building, &c. from waste pieces of slate. January 27.
6041. J. Craven. Kilns for burning bricks, &c. Feb-
ruary 17.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
540. A. Riider. A solder for aluminium. January 11.
581. G. Pickhardt. Improvements in connexion with the
use of aluminium and aluminium alloys. Complete Specifi-
cation. January 12.
890. W. Hutchinson. Improvements in the manufacture
of iron and steel. January 16.
1074. J. B. Alzugaray. Improvements in the treatment
of certain ores, alloys, mattes, slags, and other compounds.
January 19.
1205. C. Emo. Improvements in the manufacture or
production of aluminium. January 21.
1211. J. F. Krebs. Method of preparing plates of
aluminium or nickel or aluminiated or nickeled plates for
lithographic use. January 21.
1273. W.Hutchinson. Improvements in the manufacture
of iron and steel. January 22.
1341. T. Twyuam and J. Colley. Improvements in the
manufacture of steel and iron. January 23.
1368. A. J. Thorman. Treatment of iron sand, iron
ores, and residuums containing iron. January 23.
1443. R.B.Thomas. An improvement or improvements
in coating sheets or plates of iron and steel with lead.
January 25.
1467. C. Moldenhauer. Improvements in the process of
rtcoveriug precious metals from their ores. January 25.
1471. A.Thomas. An improved process for the recovery
of metals from their solutions. January 25.
1530. G. W. Clark. Improvements in the manufacture of
steel. January 26.
1565. H. H. Lake. — From J. Gould, jun., United States.
Improvements in and relating to the coating of metal plates,
and to apparatus therefor. Complete Specification. Jan-
uary 26.
1654. C. Hoepfner. Improvements relating to the
extraction of silver. January 27.
1776. W.Hutchinson. Improvements m the manufacture
of iron and steel. January 29.
1795. W. Gilchrist. Improvements in the treatment of
iron. January 29.
1%
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[ Feb. 29. 1892.
1901. T. C. Fawcett, sen., T. C. Fawcett, jun., and
<!. Dyson. Improvements in cupolas or furnaces for
melting iron. February 1.
1907. W. Muir. Improvements in the extraction of tin
and other products from the refuse slags and debris of tin
smelting furnaces. February 1.
1939. C. T. J. Vautin. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for hardening, tempering, or annealing
metallic wire or tape. February 1.
1934. D. Dyrenforth. Improvements in the manufacture
or treatment of iron. Complete Specification. February 2.
2193. N. Lebedeff. Improvements in the extraction and
treatment of metals. February 4.
2214. T. D. Bottome. Improvements in the casting and
tempering of pure copper. February 5.
2241. X. Lebedeff. Improvements in the manufacture
of aluminium alloys. February 5.
2261. B. Riising and the Firm of M. Foerster. Improve-
ments relating to the extraction of lead and to apparatus
therefor. February 5.
2299. J. M. While. Improvements in the manufacture
of iron. February 6.
2498. S. H. Brown and M. McBarron. Improvements in
and relating to the annealing of metals. Complete Speci-
fication. February 9.
2583. J. Woodcock, J. Smith, and W. M. Maekey.
Improvements in preparing ores, oxides, and compounds of
iron for smelting. February 10.
2590. W. K. Greenway. Improvements in galvanising
iron and steel. February 10.
2594. W. K. Greenway. Improvements in galvanising or
coating iron with other metal or metals. February 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1309. J.H.Follok. Gold extracting reagents. January 20.
1374. A. M. Clark. — F'rom La Societe Anonyme de
l'roduits Chimiques Ktablissements. Treating ores and
residues containing zinc by mcaDS of bisulphate of soda for
the production of commercial products. January 27.
2508. A. de L. Long and J. Xoble. Gas regenerative
vertical ingot heating furnace. January 20.
4050. M. Maunesmonn. Method of and apparatus for
forming, rolling, and finishing metals. February 10.
4384. J. von Khrenwerth. Processes and appliances for
the manufacture of iron and steel. January 20.
4549. W. E. May. The casting and working of metals,
and to apparatus for use in connexion therewith, and for
other purposes. January 20.
4644. J. O. Arnold. Manufacture of steel ingots, steel
castings, and ingot iron. February 10
6246. W. S. Lockhart and E. W. Streeter. Process and
apparatus for the separation of metals, precious stones,
or other mineral from gangne, &c. mixed therewith.
February 17.
10,985. F. H. Mason. Extraction of tin from tin slags
and refuse by lead or its salts, carbonaceous matter, fluor-
spar, and other suitable fluxes. January 20.
14.737. W. D. Bohm. Apparatus for leaching ores and
separating gold and silver therefrom. January 27.
14,795. K. Martin. Manufacture of compound or metal
coated wiles. February 10.
19,330. J. Johnson. — From .1. Gayley. Blast-furnace
linings. February 3.
22,041. C. James. Treating plurubiferous copper mattes
and ores. January 20,
22,177. T. J. Tresidder. Manufacture of armour plates.
February 3.
22,694. E. Dor. Kegenerative gas furnace for the
reduction of zinc ores. February 10.
1892.
540. A. Eader. A solder for aluminium, January 11.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY
Applications.
645. P. Gendron. Improvements relating to electric
welding. Complete Specification. January 12.
982. T. Parker, A. E. Robinson, and C. H. Parker.
Improvements in or connected with the manufacture or
production of chloride of zinc and alkaline sulphates, and
of zinc and chlorine by electrolysis of solutions thereof.
January 18.
1038. H. Roller. A new or improved manufacture of
an exciting material for galvanic batteries. January 19.
1061. E. Hermite. Improvements in bleaching and
disinfecting starch and fecula by electrolysis. January 19.
1141. C. Vogt. Improvements in dry electrical ele-
ments. January 20.
1 145. H. A. Walker. Improvements in the manufacture
of siliceous insulating material for electrical and other
purposes. January 20.
1391. The London Metallurgical Co. and S. O. Cowper-
Coles. Improvements relating to the coating of articles
with a new metallic alloy by electro deposition. Complete
Specification. January 23.
1426. C. G. Moor. Improvements in electrical batteries.
January 25.
1484. J. B. I^ntz and W. A. Phillips. Improvements in
and relating to secondary batteries. Complete Specifica-
tion. January 26.
1786. R. Pinna. Improvements in or relating to tanning
by electricity. January 29.
1927. W. J. S. Barber-Starkey. An improvement in
secondary voltaic batteries. February 1.
2106. H. Howard. Improvements in heating and welding
by electricity. February 3.
2225. G. Nahnsen. Improvements in the method of
purifying electrolytes containing zinc, relating to or con-
nected with the electro-metallurgic production of zinc.
Complete Specification. February 5.
2329. O. Imray. — FYoiu T. J. Montgomery, United
States. Improvements in process and apparatus for bleach-
ing by electrolysis. Complete Specification. February 6.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1049. S. Z. de Ferranti. Manufacture of dynamo-electric
machines. January 27.
3417. W. H. Munns. — From G. A. Smith. Galvanic
battery. January 20.
4757. T. L. Wilson. FUectric reduction of alumi-
nium and other metals, and production of alloys thereof.
January 20.
4781, W. J. Engledew. Solution for galvanic batteries.
January 2(1.
4860. H.Howard. Apparatus for heating and welding by
electricity. FY-bruary 10.
4877. H. H. Lake.— E. A. G. Street and L. A. W.
Desruelles. Production of porous materials and manufacture
of same into electrodes for batteries. January 20.
5918. H. I. Harris anil W. H. Power. Electric butteries.
February 10.
5999. J.Greenwood. Production of chlorine and sodium
amalgam. February 17.
Beb.28.i8M.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
197
6029. W. H. Walenn and I. A. Timniis. Electro-deposition
nf copper, brass, and bronze, applicable to other purposes.
February 17.
6030. W. H. Walenn and I. A. Timmis. Electro-deposition
of copper, brass, or bronze. February 17.
21,870. H. H. Lake.— From E. A. Clarke. Voltaic cells
or batteries. January 20.
22,482. H. II. Lake.— From E. Weston. Voltaic cells.
February 10.
1892.
C45. 11. Gendron. Improvements relating to electric
weldings. January 12.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
952. W. S. Chenall and W. F. S. Chenall. See Class II.
2257. J. J. Speaknian. Improved washing compounds.
February 5.
2320. F. Hughes. — From A. Motte & Co., France. A
new or improved mechanical process for winning the fatty
matters contained in the water used for washing wool, and
for commercial and domestic purposes. Complete Specifi-
cation. February 6.
2482. A. Lohmann. Improvements in lubricating
materials. February 9.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
747. H. Wyatt, jun. A method for making a solution of
vegetable or other resins and resinoids for internal use.
January 14.
790. W. Smith. Improvements in the manufacture of
white lead by the acetate of ammonia process, more
especially in respect of the regeneration and recovery of
acetate of ammonia from the weak liquors and washings
furnished in the process. January 14.
910. A. W.Harrison. An improved blacking. January 10.
1229. H. Tiaun. Improvements in and relating to the
manufacture of hardened caoutchouc. January 21.
1882. I). Swan. Improvements in obtaining pigments.
February I.
2183. W. G. Taylor. — From the Gutta Percha Syndicate,
Limited, Straits Settlements. Method of and process for
obtaining gutta-percha from trees of the Sapota family.
February 4.
2201. R. I. Clark. An improved manufacture of varnish.
February 4.
2253. C. H. Bigland. Improvements in paints or
protective coverings for ships' bottoms and other structures.
Complete Specification. February 5.
2562. W. L. L. Grant and H. P. T. Dennys. An
antifouling and preservative paint for protecting the
bottoms of iron or wooden vessels, or other submerged
surfaces. February 10.
2563. A. F. St. George. An improved substitute for and
compound resembling india-rubber, and manufacturing the
same. February 10.
2605. J. Dawson. An improved composition for removing
yarnish, paint or polish. February 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
2382. G. W. Scollay. Manufacture of paints or paint
stock. February 10.
5501. W. Smith and W. Fllmore. Production of white
lead or basic carbonate of lead from galena or sulphide of
lead ore, or from residual products containing sulphate of
lead. February 10.
5681. C. A. Burghardt. Pigments having a lead basis.
February 10.
6306. W. P. Thompson. — From A. Flugge. Production
of a solution of myrrhic resin. F'ebruary 10.
20,253. R. Ripley. The form or get-up of bag-blue.
February 3.
20,274. R. Lender. Rust and acid-proof paint. Febru-
ary 10.
20,407. R. Pape. Manufacture of a hard insulating
material. February 3.
21,279. W. J. Wigg. Manufacture of Venetian red.
February 10.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
544. J. Menke. Improvements in artificial leather.
January 11.
698. A. J. Boult. — From E. Rauppach and L. Bergcl,
Austria. Improvements in or relating to the manufacture
and use of glue. January 13.
838. S. Thorn. Improved substitutes for tannin of an
article in substitution of what is commonly known as
tanned leather. January 15.
951. L. Bertram. Improvements in process and appa-
ratus for extracting glue or gelatin and grease out of hide
and skin waste, and of bones at comparatively low tem-
perature. Complete Specification. January 18.
2429. H. E. Howe. An improved method of rendering
leather used for the outer soles of boots and shoes flexible
or pliable. Complete Specification. February 8.
Complete Specification Acceitkd.
1891.
12,331. J. Shepherd. — From A. Krizek and R
Mineral size. February 3.
Esche.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
1583. W. L. Wise.— From C. d'Abbadie de Barrau, Island
of Mauritius. Improvements in apparatus for use in the
manufacture of sugar. January 26.
1858. W. L. Wise.— From C. d'Abbadie de Barrau,
Island of Mauritius. Improvements in apparatus suitable
for cooling cane-juice and other substances. January 30.
2693. J. G. Healey. Anew or improved liquid cement ,
February 11.
198
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Feb. 29, 1892.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5236. A. Schneller and W. J. Wisse. Helming or
extracting sugar from raw sugar solution, juice, or molasses.
February 3.
21,059. <'. Klever and C. Kappesser. See Class XIX.
22,679. C. M. Higgins. Mucilages, sizes, and adhesive
compounds. February 3.
22,682. C. M. Higgins.
compounds. February 3.
22,685. C. M. Higgins.
compounds. February 3.
Mucilages, sizes, aud adhesive
Mucilages, sizes, and adhesive
1892.
420. E. Laugen. Kenning sugar. February 17.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
Leaker. An improved
method of and
911. K. H.
apparatus for kilning malt. January 16.
1043. G. Bamberg. Improvements in the manufacture
of condensed beverages. January 19.
1044. J. F. Henderson. Improvements in or applicable
to the manufacture of unfermented grape wine. Complete
Specification. January 19.
1445. J. S. Olver. A method of regulating the moisture
and respiration of malt growing under the pneumatic system.
January 25.
1738. W. P. Thompson. — From J. W. Meeus, Belgium.
Improvements in apparatus for registering the flow of
liquids in connexion with distilling, rectifying, or other
apparatus. January 28.
1863. J.G.Hall A new and improved refrigerator or
apparatus for cooling wort aud other liquids, and for other
similar purposes, principally used in breweries and dis-
tilleries, applicable for condensing steam, spirit, or other
vapours. January 30.
2210. J. Chalmers and J. W. Phillips. Cooling wort, to
be called a refrigerator for cooling wort. February 5.
2678. H. de Soberon. Improved liquor, resembling
brandy, and process for manufacturing the same.
February 1 1 .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891
5853. W. Heasman. Means for the hot aeration of wort.
February 10.
21,059. C. Kleyer and C. Kappesser. See Class XIX.
21,708. S. Pitt. — From A. Savalle, Sons, and Co.
Apparatus for distilling and rectifying. January 20.
22,124. C. II. Jolliffe. Apparatus for rousing, aerating,
and attemperating brewers' worts during the process of
fermentation. January 27.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods
1055. J. II. Bovenkerk, jud., and
Improvements relating to the
January 19.
A C. Kuyt.
preservation of milk.
1150. K. G. Krikorian. A new or improved method of
treating and roasting malt, and blending the same for
infusion together with coffee. January 21.
1717. S. Saker and W. C. Glover. The manufacture of
a compound for use iu preparing infusions of tea.
January 28.
2421. J. F. Boesen. A new or improved manufacture of
meat extract. Complete Specification. February 8.
Erratum. — In December Journal, p. 1051, for No. 21, 70S,
S. Pitt, read No. 21,706, O. Iniray.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1567. A. Levieux. Improvements relating to the
treatment of sewage and other refuse, and to apparatus
therefor. January 26.
1609. W. M. Greaves. Improvements in the treatment
of sewage and other refuse. January 27.
2560. H. Lockwood. Improvements in the method of
purifying sew'age by means of lime iu conjunction with a
salt of iron. February 10.
C. — Disinfectants.
755. A. Gladstone. An improved antiseptic dressing for
yarns and cloth. January 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
2051. J.Y. Johnson. — From La Societe Geneste Herschei
and Co. Means or apparatus for sterilising water.
February 10.
2444a. L. Smith. Means tor storing and preserving
food for domestic uses. February 10.
20,419. J. E. Alen. Method of preventing the curdling
of albuminous solutions. January 27.
1892.
279 A. D. McKay. New chemical food. February 17.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
10,092. F. I.ivet. Apparatus for cremating house-dust
ind like refuse on new sanitary principles. February :;.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
4352. A. Lutschaunig. A new or improved manufacture,
being a disinfectant, antiseptic, deodoriser, vermin ami
insect destroyer, and also applicable for use as an ingiedicnt
in fire-lighters. January 'Jo.
5263. J. Y. Johnson. — From F. von Heyden. Improve-
ments in the production of salicylic acid derivatives
containing chlorine and sulphur. January 20.
20,495. A. Robertson. Sheep dip. February 17.
Feb. 29, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
199
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
609. F. Hawke and W. Mottershall, A new and improved
carbon or carbonic paper for manifolding, duplicating, and
like purposes. January 13.
709. H. H. Lake.— From II. M. Lenfant, veuve Vessier,
France. Improvements in washing apparatus for use in
the manufacture of paper. January 13.
218"). \V. Jones. Improvements in or relating to the
manufacture of transfer paper. February 4.
2629. V. I!. Drewsen. An improved method of purifying
the liquid which has been used in the manufacture of
cellulose and the production of useful products therefrom.
Complete Specification. February 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
6589. C. Lenz. Manufacture of paper and cardboard.
February 17.
21,059. C. Kleyer and C. Kappesser. Treatment of
peat for the productiou of cellulose, sugar, and alcohol.
February 10.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
1438. I. S. McDougall and J. T. McDougall. Improve-
ments in the treatment of solutions of arsenic or of salts of
arsenic for diminishing the danger incidental to their
transport, storage, and use. January 25.
1794. J. Y. Johnson. — From Messrs. Valentiner and
Schwarz, Germany. Process for the manufacture of sulpho-
acid of para isobutylxyleue, or artificial musk. January 29.
1808. J. Berlinerblan. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of para-phenetolcarbamide and para-anisolcarbamide.
January 29.
1946. H. Boisseiier. A new combination of eucalyptus
and its products. February 2.
2194. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The treatment of amido-guanidine
for the manufacture of a new compound and products
derived therefrom. February 4.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5222. A. Schneller and W. J. Wisse. Formation of
ozone in presence of air or oxygen, and apparatus therefor.
February 3.
6234. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Bruning, Ghrmany. Production of basic
gallate of bismuth. February 10.
22,253. L. P. J. Pontallie. Apparatus for obtaining
products of distillation, or separating volatile liquids.
February 3.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
1938. J. Hauff. Flmployment of aromatic amido-com-
pouuds as developing means in photography. February 1.
2145. S. H. F'ry. An improved method of making
photographs by artificial light. February 4.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1953. R. J. Winkoop and J. M. Kemp. Photographic
printing apparatus, and improved method of preserving
sensitised paper, anil a protective and adhesive solution
therefor. February 10.
20,600. R. Kopp. Photography in natural colours.
January 27.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
1601. L. de Lantour Wells. Waterproof coating for
matches. January 27.
1868. H. H. Lake. — From V. Groendahl and J. Landin,
Sweden. Improvements relating to the manufacture of
ammonium nitrate. January 30.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4129. H. Maxim. Manufacture of nitro-substitution
compounds of cellulose. February 10.
5027. E vonBrauk. Explosive compositions. February 10.
5821. C. H. Curtis and G. G. Andre. Explosives.
February 10.
6128. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Dynamite Actien-
gesellschaft Nobel. Manufacture or production of
gunpowder or like explosives. February 3.
6129. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Dynamite Aetien-
gesellschaft Nobel. Manufacture or productiou of
gunpowder or like explosives. Februaiy 10.
21,879. A. Ruston and E. Beadle. Railway fog signal
detonators. February 3.
XXIII.— ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
2785. A. Tropenas and A. ¥,. Weels.
rapid determination of carbon of steel
Apparatus for the
January 2U.
200
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
("Feb. 29, 1892.
PATENTS UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Application.
7 '.i 7 . A. A. Mainly. Improvements in the combination
and treatment of certain materials for the production of a
new material or substance. January H.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
15,613. A. J. Boult. — From O. Korschelt. Producing
physiological and medicinal effects upon men, animals, and
plants, applicable also for accelerating the crystallisation
of substances and the maturing of wine. January 20.
>mn»»<
Printed and Published by Eyre and Spottiswoode, East Hardinu Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OP IHE
Society of Comical 3nbustty:
A MONTHLY EECOED
FOE ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 3.— Vol. XI.]
MARCH 31, 1892.
TNo
on-Members 80/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
Cf)e Jtometp of Cbtmt'cal lirtmstrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 18S1— 1882.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.G.L., F.R.S 1S82— 1888.
Walter Weldon.F.R.S 1883—1884.
W. H. Perkiu, Ph.D., F.R.S 1884—1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1886.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 1888—1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 18S9— 1890.
E. Rider Cook 1890— 1S91.
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Wm. Crowd, r.
James Duncan.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S.
David Howard.
S. H. Johnson.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
Dr. Hugo Muller, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
A. Norman Tate.
Sir John Turney.
A. H. Allen.
Arthur Boake.
Jno. Calderwood.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
II. Grinishaw.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
Ordinary Members of Council :
E. K. Muspratt.
T. L. Patterson.
Boverton Redwood.
Jno. Spiller.
T. W. Stuart.
William Thorp, B.Sc.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E . Rider Cook, East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr. F. Hurter.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
Ohas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Win. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the folloioing Staff of Abstractors :
( IX, XI.,
■ I XII., XIII.
S. B.AsherAron. IV., IX., X.
H.Auer TIL
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
G.H.Beckett.. V., VI., VII.
D. Beudli III.
E. Bentz IV., V..VI.
Jos. Beruays,M.I.C.E. I.
E.J.Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount
Arthur G. Bloiam XIV., XV.
J. C.C'horley XXI.
V. Cornish. . .VIII., IX., XIII,
W.M.Gardner V..VI.
Oswald Hamilton ... I.
1'. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping,) II. and
D.Sc J Gen.Chem.
ChaSphAi,Kohn: } Gen. Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIIL, XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
Leather, ") vy
J. Walter
Ph.D....
H. T. Penter-
mann
F.H.Leeds III., XXI.
J. Lewkowitseh,") TIT VTT
Ph.D ) HI, All.
A. Liebmann, Ph.D. [ IVXx1-'
A.R.Ling IV..XVI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N. H. J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H. S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
} XVI., XVII.
G.H.Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut ... Patent Lists.
H. Schlichter.Ph.D.. V..XV.
Edward Simpoon .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D. A. Sutherland ... II., III.
N. W. Tchaykovsky, B.A. Gen.
Chem. (Russian Lit.)
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
The Annual General Meeting will be held in London oil
the 20th, 21st, and 22nd July next. Full particulars will
appear in a subsequent issue.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Eider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Kule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
202
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary will be glad to hear from Members possess-
ing odd copies of the Journal for January 1882; January,
March, and May 1883 ; complete Volumes 1886 ; and
February and July 1889 — all of which are now out of
print. He is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for January 1882,
January, March, and May 1883. Members who possess
spare copies of these numbers are requested to communicate
at once with Mr. Cresswell.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 23rd MARCH 1892.
Adams, Arthur, Broonitield Place, Smethwick, Birming-
ham, science lecturer.
Bachke, A. A., Roros Vaerk, RBros, Norway, chemist
and smelter.
Baker, Julian L., Stamford, Hendham Road, Upper
Tooting, S.W., sugar chemist.
Bowes, Harry, 9, Union Terrace, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester, analytical chemist.
Clayton, Jas. S., Ewbank, Accrington, M.B.
Crip pin, Wm., The Hollies, Eccles, Manchester, dyer.
Grossman, Tom, Albion Brewery, Coldhurst Street,
Oldham, brewer's chemist.
Eddy, Harrison P., Sewage Purification Works, Worcester,
Mass., U.S.A., superintendent.
Elliot, John, Free Library, Wolverhampton, librarian.
Fanta, F., 85, Gresham Street, E.G., consulting engineer.
Flanagan, Chas. A., Globe Hotel, Regent Road, Man-
chester, manufacturing chemist.
Houston, Jno., Ill, Charlotte Street, Manchester,
dry Salter.
Jenkins, Thos. Herb., 5, Bellott Street, Cheetham, Man-
chester, analytical chemist.
Joseland, W. H., 9, Campbell Grove, Oxford Road,
Manchester, analytical chemist.
Judd, Geo. M., 207, Burdett Road, Bow, E., manager.
Kibble, W. ( takes, Norton Villa, Buekhurst Hill, Essex,
chemical engineer.
Mayfield, Harry B., Fan-view House, Heanor, near
Nottingham, dyer.
Mayfield, Thos., Fairview House, Heanor, near Not-
tingham, hosier.
< Uishkoff, P. K., Elabouga, Government of Viatka, Russia,
chemical manufacturer.
Peploe, D. H. T., 39, Sloane Gardens, London, S.W.
Phillips, H. J„ Great Eastern Railway Works, Stratford.E.,
analytical chemist.
Richardson, G. E., Howley Park, Batley, Yorks, manu-
facturing chemist.
Schlichter, Hermann C, Kammgarn Spinnerei, Leipzig,
analytical chemist.
Whiteside, Jno. L., 51, Cannon Street, Bolton, chemical
lecturer.
Wild, Wm. Ernest, 2, Stanton Villas, Eccles New Road,
Salford, analytical chemist.
Wilkinson, Dr. S., 51, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's
Gate, Manchester, analytical chemist.
Wingfield, T. K., Nelson Square, Bolton, brewer.
Winslow, Barry, e/o Karnes Gunpowder Company, Kyles
of Bute, chemist.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Aron, S. B. Asher, l/o Maida Vale ; 23, Wcstbourne Park
Crescent, W.
Auerbach, Br. C. G., l/o Friesenheimer Strasse ; 7, Breite
Strasse, Ludwigshafen a/Rhein.
Bourcart, Dr. R., l/o Geneva; 31, Rue Duquesne, Lyons,
France.
Burton, Wm., l/o Stoke ; 45, Liverpool Road, Newcastle,
Staffordshire.
Colmau, Dr. H. G., l/o Monument Road ; 28, Duchess
Road, Edgbaston.
Cornish, V., l/o George Hotel ; 1, St. James Terrace,
Winchester.
Faweett, J. H, l/o Bank of Australasia; Broken Hill
Assay Office, 72, Mark Lane, E.C.
Francis, Wm., l/o Belfast; c/o Pollok Patents Gold
Extracting Co., Taltal, Chili.
Glaser, C.,' Journals to c/o Bradley Fertilizer and Chemical
Co., Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
Hastings, Hugh, l/o Birmingham Road; 10, Yew Tree
Road, Kidderminster.
Helm, H. J., l/o Catford ; Simonstone, Hammelton Road,
Bromley, Kent.
Hollsman, F. R., Journals to Sugar Refinery, Rawcliffe
Bridge, R.S.O., Yorkshire.
Hopkiu, W. K., l/o Mowbray Road ; Fernbrae, Brondes-
bury Park, N.W.
Hunt, Alf. E., l/o 5th Avenue; 272, Shady Avenue, East
End, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.
Hutchinson, A. H, l/o Clapton ; c/o Gold Ores Reduction
Co., 34, Moorgate Street, E.C.
Johnson, T. A., l/o Winuington Park ; Field House,
Winnington, Northwich.
Koechlin, II., l/o Loerrach ; 16, Rue Massena, Lyons,
France.
Lake, G., jun., l/o Turnlee Road ; 83, Primrose Lane,
Glossop, Derbyshire.
Loewenthal, Dr. R., l/o Manchester; Sommerfield, N.L.,
Germany.
Ludlow, L., Journals to c/o Cape Copper Co., Lim.,
Ookiep, Namaqualand, South Africa.
Mackenzie, T. E., l/o Glasgow ; Dalzell Iron and Steel
Works, Motherwell, N.B.
Newton, H. C, \o Hampstead j 47, Calcott Road,
Brondesbury, N.W.
O'Beirne, W. G., l/o Partick ; British Chemical Works,
Clydebank, Glasgow.
Peace, F. K., Journals to G.P.O., Sydney, New South
Wales.
Roberts, F. A., I/o Warrington; Cornbrook Chemical
Works, Manchester.
Roberts, J. H. M., l/o Burton ; 16, Kinglake Street,
Liverpool.
Roscow, Jas., Journals to Birch Vale, viA Stockport.
Sanford, P. Gerald, Journals to 20, Cullum Street,
Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Schlichter, Dr. H., l/o Alma Square ; 3, Wells Villas,
Whittington Road, Bowes Park, N.
Shimidzu, T., l/o Tokyo ; c/o J. Takamine, 907, Chamber
of Commerce, Chicago, 111., U.S.A.
Tasker, G., l/o Langside ; 1048, Cathcart Road, Mount
Florida, Glasgow.
Watson, Eric E., retain Journals until further notice.
Williams, Rowland, l/o Manchester ; Lancaster.
Wilson, Dr. W. H., l/o Kensiugton ; 18, Kimbolton Road,
Bedford (until October 1).
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REaUTRED.
Orchard, John, l/o 100, High Street, Kensington, W.
Palmer, Thos., l/o Temple Chambers, Temple Avenue,
E.C.
Mttitt)&>
Dr. T. Redwood, Boverton, near Cowbridge, Glamorgan-
shire.
Dr. C. Meymott Tidy, 3, Mandeville Place, Manchester
Square, W.
Joseph Townsend, 19, Crawford Street, Port Dundas,
Glasgow.
March 81,1898.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
203
fcoirtion Section,
Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House.
Chairman: T. Tyrer.
Vice-Chairman: W. Crowder.
Committee:
W. Ramsay.
B. Redwood.
W. S. Sqviire.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
Wm. Thorp.
T. E. Thorpe.
Bon. Local Secretary : John Heron,
St. John's Villas, Worple Road, Wimbledon.
C. F. Cross.
J. Dewar.
A. G. Green.
S. Hall.
C. W. Heaton.
D. Howard.
W. Kellner.
SESSION 1891-92.
April 1th :—
Dr. ('. It. Alder Wright, F.B..S. "On Specific Gravities for
Practical Purposes.
Air. H. IS. Fulton. " \ote on Specific Gravity Apparatus."
Mr. Albert Baur, Ph.D. " On Artificial Musk."
Mr. F. H. Leeds. F.I.C., F.C.S. " Note on Rosin Oil."
Election of Officers and Five Members to the Local Com-
mittee.
May 2nd :—
Professor Wm. Ramsay. F.R.S., and Mr. J. C. Chorley. " The
Distillation of Wood."
Dr. S. Rideal. "Notes on the Composition of some Indian
Gums of known Origin." •
June Gth : —
Mr. J. A. Nettletnn. " Vinegar."
Dr. S. Rideal. " The Petroleum Jellies of Commerce."
Meeting held Monday, 7th March, 1892.
MR. THOS. TYRER, IN THE CHAIR.
THE HANGERS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
EXPLOSIVES.
I1Y OSCAR GUTTMANN, ASSOC.M. INST.C.E.
With a few exceptions the dangers iu connexion with
explosives may be summed up in the terrible word,
'• Explosion." Those who have witnessed one are never
likely to forget the impression. A sharp report, huge red
flames shooting towards the sky, followed by indistinguish-
able dark masses, then a dull shower of falling pieces,
followed by a dead silence. Where a second ago a neat-
looking building stood, and busy hands were working, there
is now a deep hole in the ground, and all around at great
distances lie scattered the fragments of house, machinery,
and workers. It is difficult even to identify these last. Their
clothes, if not of wool, are burnt away, their features are no
longer recognisable, and sometimes a boot on a limb, or a
mark on a body is the only clue. The cause of the explosion
can rarely be traced with certainty. Whoever has read the
reports of Her Majesty's Iuspectors of Explosives will have
nearly invariably found more than one possible cause given,
but they will at the same time have been astonished to find
a power of generalisation displayed which has never yet
failed to teach some sound moral for the benefit of those
concerned. Unfortunately such reports are published only
in Great Britain, and the few short notices which reach
other countries are quite insufficient to give the manufac-
turers adequate information to enable them to provide
effectively tor the protection of their workpeople and their
property. A feeling that it is the duty of each one to relate
his experiences has led the author to give an outline of the
sources of danger involved in the manufacture and use of
explosives.
It is generally agreed that an explosion must first be
defined as the sudden decomposition of a mechanical
or chemical mixture into its components, whereby in a
short space of time a great pressure is developed.
Such an explosion may be started by different means
and they are by no means the same iu every case. Some-
times ignition will start the decomposition, sometimes a
shock, friction, an electric spark, vibration, sodden
heating, &e. ; but as a rule it is necessary, as Sir Frederick
Abel pointed out first, that a certain amount of vibration
and vibration of a distinct nature be generated as a result of
either of the above causes, in order to produce explosion.
The explosion is quicker, the larger the number of
vibrations in unit time. The stronger the effect, the higher
the heat produced and the larger the quantity of gases
developed, as their expansion increases in proportion to
their temperature. An explosion has the maximum effect,
when the vibrations, the heat and the quantity of gas reach
their maximum at the same time.
Here may he mentioned some of tho more conspicuous
cases of explosions.
Chloride of nitrogen explodes when thrown into boiling
water. If a minute piece of paper, smeared with iodide of
nitrogen, the temperature of explosion of which is 212° F., be
allowed to fall from a height of about 3 feet, it will explode
on touching the ground. If such a piece of paper is put on
a bass-violin and the E chord is struck, it is not influenced,
but, if the G chord be struck, which gives more than
60 vibrations in the second, it explodes. If a gun-
powder mixture be ignited in a tamped borehole it burns
away by layers until the pressure of gas and the heat cause
explosion. If dynamite be ignited in this way it will simply
burn without detonation. If laid on an anvil and struck
sharply at an angle (" glancing blow ") all explosives iu
practical use will detonate. Dynamite explodes between
steel and steel when 5 " 63 footpounds of work are done upon
it (0-78 kilogramme-metres), gunpowder at 56 footpounds
("'57 kiiogramme-metres) ; but whereas the explosion
travels through the whole of the gunpowder, dynamite as a
rule only detonates in the part struck by the blow. If a
dynamite cartridge be exploded on the top of a gun-cotton
charge the latter will only burn away, but if the places are
reversed the gun-cotton is sure to detonate the dynamite.
Each explosive has a certain temperature, beyond which
it cannot be heated suddenly without detonation. This
temperature is for example 212° F. for iodide of nitrogen,
from 356° to 363° for nitro-compounds, and 518° to 608° for
gunpowder.
It is therefore obvious that an explosion is not solely due
to the explosive being heated to a certain temperature. In
fact, the shock or friction, that will cause a great many
explosives to detonate, may be quite insufficient to raise the
temperature to any appreciable extent, even if the shock
be concentrated on a single point, as in the case of a
" glancing blow."
On the other hand anything which is likely to produce
vibrations of a sufficient amplitude and frequency in the
explosive should he carefully guarded against. Thus for
iustance it is well known, that a tuning fork will give a
greater number of vibrations, if struck against an object of
steel, than against brass, stone, or wood; and the same
applies to any shock against an explosive lying between
different bodies. Steel against steel is the most dangerous,
wood against wood the most harmless. Yet it has been
proved by Dr. Dupre that a glancing blow with a broom-
stick against a wooden floor will cause the explosion of most
explosives. Of course it depends greatly in what condition
the explosive itself is. A blow given to a full cartridge of
blasting gelatin may be quite harmless; but if sufficient
force be used to flatten the cartridge and to expose the last
thin layer to a sufficient amount of shock, then an explosion
of the whole cartridge may follow. There is also a great
difference between the explosive being warm or cold. When
warm explosives are as a rule more sensitive, both to
decomposition and to shock or friction.
The causes of explosion may be placed under two
headings, mechanical and chemical. The mechanical
causes are mainly due to shock, friction, or ignition of some
sort. The chemical causes vary with the nature of the
p. 2
20i
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. vm.
explosive. Mechanical mixtures, such as gunpowder,
roburite, &c, are under oidinary circumstances exempt
from dangerous chemical changes, but chemical compounds
have always a certain amount of instability, which can only
be avoided by careful manufacture. Of course theie are
also mechanical mixtures, which are liable to decomposition,
and I need only mention the chlorate mixtures, which,
especially in the case of fireworks, have led to many
accidents.
In the following account each explosive will be dealt
with separately, and the dangers attached to it at each stage
of its manufacture pointed cut. Of course only those
explosives which are actually manufactured and in use will
be spoken of, it being left to you to draw your owu con-
clusions, hj the similarity of cases, when other explosives
come under your notice.
Gunpowder.
First by seniority and by the number of factories making
it conies gunpowder and its imitations.
In this case, as in that of every other explosive a very
important condition is, that the materials employed should
be of the greatest possible purity, both chemically and
mechanically.
In the nitrate (saltpetre, sodium nitrate, S:c.) chlorine is
the principal impurity. Although in the case of true gun-
powder no saltpetre is now used which contains more than one-
ten thousandth part of chlorine, j-et with gunpowder imita-
tions, especially where sodium nitrate is used, this is not
always the case. An assistant of mine once made some
powder mixture, extracted the nitrate, which contained a
large amount of chlorine from it, evapoiatcd the solution
in a porcelain dish to dryness and complete fusion. He
then allowed it to cool, and afftr some time, began to
remove the cake with a glass rod. when suddenly the whole
flashed up. In this case it is evident that some nitrogen
chloride had been formed, the liability of which to explosion
by the slightest vibration is so well known.
Care has also to be taken that no saltpetre or powder
comes into contact with a soldered joint. Weber found in
a particular case that nitrate of tin was formed, of which
there is an explosive variety ; this has caused frequent
accidents.
The charcoal presents no other danger than that of
spontaneous combustion. It is a good practice to have the
charcoal first ground in separate machines. .Spontaneous
combustion is due to the capacity charcoal has of absorbing
and condensing the air, producing thereby heat. This
may sometimes take place suddenly, as for instance, when
a piece of charcoal is broken, and the interior, which has
preserved its absorbing power, is brought into contact with
moist air.
The sulphur is now generally ground before mixiug it
with the other ingredients. Although by quick grinding a
large amount of heat may be produced, this is scarcely ever
sufficient to fire the sulphur. Hut sulphur mills very often
tah tire, and this is chiefly due to the well known electrical
qualities of sulphur, which arc made evident by the friction
and heat in grinding. A friend of the author connected his
sulphur mills with the earth by means of copper wires so as
to carry away the electric charge as it was produced; since
this lime he has never had a sulphur mill fire.
If a ventilator is used to carry away the sulphur dust,
lis exhaust pipe should go into a collecting chamber, as
sulphur dust is dangerous.
In this country stamp mills are no longer used for the
incorporation of gunpowder, but elsewhere they still exist.
They have generally wooden beds and brass 'stamps, and
but for the presence of grit, or some broken metal parts.
they are safe enough, provided the powder is frequently
" liquored." Still, most of the accidents occur with them,
as tbesc two conditions of safety arc often accidentally
absent, and the great amount of dust, thrown in the air by
the violent blows of the stamps, takes fire easily by a spark,
or by the friction of a stamp pole.
Mixing drums were formerly largely used, and seem to
be coining into use again in this country fur certain kinds
of powders. As they arc made of " sole " leather or wood
with brass or wood brills revolving in them, there should be
no other daDger in them than comes from overheating due
to the quick movement. There is still another source of
danger which will be dealt with presently. _
The machines chiefly used for the intimate mixture of
the gunpowder ingredients are the " incorporating mills"
having generally pans and runners of cast iron. Sometimes
the beds are made of wooden blocks on edge. Incorporating
mills are known to explode from time to time, and for-
merly the well-worn excuse of a match, or a nail having
got into the mill, used to be a readily-accepted explanation
of the accident. Such an occurrence of course is possible,
but must be very rare indeed. The chief cause is faulty
construction of the mills. The runners weigh from four
to five tons, and if the cake in the course of milling
becomes dry and hard, the runner may lift in passing
over a thicker piece, and then fall down on to a thin
one. Good incorporating mills are now made in such
a way that the runners always remain about ^ inch
off the lied, so that iron can never come in contact
with iron. Another cause, which applies to mixing drums
and nearly all other powder machinery, is electricity accu-
mulated by the friction against the sulphur. Some years
ago the author advised the " earthing " of incorporating
mills, and he believes that the number of accidents has
considerably- diminished where his suggestion has been
adopted. It is known that many of the explosions in
incorporating mills happen when they are suddenly stopped
or started after a stoppage, whereby a great amount of
vibrations are of necessity set up in a single moment. Many
accidents happen also in removing the cake from the bed,
or when repairs are being made. It is essential and rightly
enforced by Her .Majesty's inspectors that the cake should only
be taken away when damp, and that no repair should be done
without having previously thoroughly washed and cleaned
the whole building. The use of brass tools in such a case
is only a diminution of the risk, and is not by any means a
safeguard against accident, and even wooden implements
should only be used after the charge is well moistened.
To prevent communication between one mill and another,
which very often are driven in pairs from one water-wheel
or line of shafting, the drenching apparatus has proved to
be very effective. Briefly, this is a water-tank placed on
the top of the mill, and held in equilibrium by a " shutter,"
a flat lever board, which, when raised in the least degree
upsets the tank. All the shutters are connected by a shaft,
so that wdieu an explosion in one mill takes place, all the
other charges are immediately drowned.
When an incorporating mill explodes, the building only
is, as a rule, damaged, and that not always much. A
friend of the author's has adopted the excellent system of
constructing the roof of the building with a very light
framing, and securing the whole roof by two loose wooden
pins only. If an explosion occurs the roof is simply
lifted, giving enough opening to the gases to escape before
sufficient pressure to materially damage the buildiDg can
be set up.
The mill cake is next powdered in a " breaking down
machine," which is essentially a roller mill with one pair of
grooved and one pair of plain rollers. This machine
requires no more attention than other powder machinery,
except that it should be so made that the pressure on the
rollers cannot exceed a certain limit. This is generally
done.
Next comes the pressing, which is now generally done by
hydraulic machines, roller presses being very rarely used.
Formerly this pressing was done by placing in a square
wooden box with hinged sides a layer of powder meal and a
brass plate alternately, and then pressing a block of hard
wood into the box. This caused the powder to adhere so
strongly to the sides of the box that it required a gcod deal
of force to open it, and sometimes occasioned accidents.
Nowadays the damp powder meal is, as a rule, laid on an
ebonite plate, spread out flat with a shovel, and another
ebonite plate placed on the top of it, and so on, layers of
powder and ebonite alternating until the required height is
leached. This way of pressing is comparatively safe, pro-
vide 1 great care is taken to keep the presses clean, and the
hydraulic ram is not allowed to fall down too quickly. But
there is again the danger of electricity, which in this case
March 3i, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
20S
especially must not be under rated. The charge of :i cake
press with ebonite [dates can practically be considered as an
electric pile, and a large amount of friction or electric
influence from outside may cause a sufficient electric charge
CO give off sparks. Several cases have been known, and the
following instance occurred at a large continental factory.
The workman, having just finished charging, opened the
valve for the hydraulic pressure, when he became aware of
an approaching thunderstorm. According to his instructions
he left the building, and returned after tile thunderstorm iiad
passed away, but when he began to discharge the press it
exploded. The man died, but stated before his death that in
undoing the cakes a spark of 4 inches in length came on his
finger.
It is therefore advisable to take great precautions in using
ebonito. It is a very convenient material, being very tough,
of smooth surface, hard and not subject to much wear and
yet sufficiently elastic ; it is therefore largely used for plates
in cake presses, for the lining of hoppers in granulating and
sifting machines, &c. but care must be taken that no
electricity can accumulate even under unfavourable circum-
stances.
The reduction of the powder cake into grains is done by
a machine similar to that used for breaking down the mill
cake; the grains formed are continuously classified as they
fall from the rollers by sieves placed underneath. There
is a large amount of dust produced in this operation, and
the author has not yet seen a single graining machine where
the escape of dust into the room has been perfectly avoided,
but he lias seen many houses where the air looked worse
than a London fog, and where with open doors you could
see the cloud of powder dust coming out for more than three
yards. As a matter of course, there is shafting in the house,
the graining machines themselves contain a number of cog-
wheels, bearings, &c, and sometimes the shafting itself is
driven by a cog-wheel from another line of shafting. These
cause a good deal of noise, which together with the darkness
in the room produce a very uncomfortable feeling.
In many factories the graining is still done by the
Lefebvre system, which consists of one or more sieves
oscillating either longitudinally or in a circle, in which a
weighted boxwood disc, hewn like a millstone, is moved to
an 1 fro, thereby breaking the cake. This way of graining
produces of course still more dust.
In some place- a ventilator may be found which draws out
the powder dust through an opening in the building, and
deposits it on sheets of cloth, but it is never efficient
enough to clear the atmosphere of the room. It is the
author's belief that a suitable casing round the graining
machine, and a hood on the top in connexion with a good
exhaust, leading in a depositing chamber, would answer
tin' purpose much better. No cog-wheels should be allowed
on the shafting inside the building. They do not always
gear perfectly, and wear out in time, which causes danger-
ous knocks, and it would perhaps be advisable to put the
shafting altogether outside the house, unless it runs at a low
speed. The bearings of the graining machine should be
provided with constant lubricators, such as Stauffer's solid
grease cups, which prevent the inconvenience of the oil
dripping about, and keep the bearings constantly greased.
During the glazing, rounding, and sieving, the powder is
Bubjeeted to a constant friction of its particles against each
other; and during the glaziug especially, where there is still
a large amount of moisture, a good deal of heat is developed.
The plugs in the glazing barrels must be opened at regular
intervals to allow the escape of the steam formed, and care
should be taken with ail these revolving machines to carry
away any electric charge that has accumulated, which is
easily done.
The ilrying of the powder is no longer done in the open
air, however convenient this may have been. There was
always the risk of grit Hying iuto the powder, and of a
concentration of the sun's rays, if exposed to it. Artificial
heat is now generally resorted to, and in very few eases only
are the fumes of a stove carried in pipes to the drying house.
Steam, hot or warm water, are nearly always adopted now.
The introduction of steam or hot water pipes iuto the
building itself is objectionable, as a certain amount of
dust, which is always produced in charging and emptying
the trays, accumulates on tiie hot pipes. Warm water pipes
increase the time of drying a little, but are not open to this
objection. The best way is certainly to have a steara or hot
water stove outside the building, and to drive, by mean- of a
fan, a current of air ovur the stove into the drying chamber.
This allows an even temperature to be kept, and removes
all danger, provided that the air inlet be so arranged that
the current of hot air cannot pass directly over a la\ er of
powder.
Sometimes the press cake is cut into large cubes for the
so-called pebble or cube powder. No special allusion
need be made to these machines, whatever may be their
construction, as the exclusion of hard blows, the attention to
knives, bearings, &c, is the same as with all other powder
machinery.
The process which requires most attention, and which is
not always in expert hands, is that of compressing the
powder into prisms, cylinders, pellets, &c. There are two
classes of presses in use, lever and hydraulic presses. With
a lever press generally the powder is charged into a mould,
closed at the bottom by a piston, and another piston is
brought down on the top by a lever actuated by an ec-
centric. Of course there are a great variety of such
presses. Some have a " block " with many boles, into
the bottom of which comes a disc, then the powder charge,
then a piston, and the whole goes under a press. In some
presses the mould revolves on a table, and its holes are
alternately opposite a plain part ami a perforated part of
the table, and, at the same time, subject to a piston com-
pressing the charge, and, on another part, to a longer pi-ton
forcing the compressed cartridge through the hole in the
table, whence it falls out in a receptacle. Sometimes a
hopper slides over the mould, fills it, glides away, the
charge is compressed, the bottom of the mould glides
away, and the charge is forced out. Sometimes the mould
is fixed, sometimes it is balanced during the compression,
whilst a piston enters the mould from the top and from the
bottom.
These latter presses are, perhaps, the best in the way of
lever presses, provided the mould be guided vertically, and
one of the two pistons has a safety arrangement, to prevent
excess of pressure. Lever presses, where more than one
cartridge is pressed at the time, are objectionable, as ihey
seldom have a safety arrangement, and to make such an
one effective would cost as much as a suitable hydraulic
press.
It is well known to everybody who has had to do with
the compression of pulverulent substances, that it is most
difficult to have a number of moulds filled with exactly the
same quantity in each. Even little hoppers, which open at
a certain weight, will fail to given more than a rough
equality. Also the state of the atmosphere and the shape,
and diameter of the mould makes a difference, as does also
the size of the grains in the case of gunpowder.
Although gunpowder can bear a great pressure without
injury, yet it is not advisable to do too much in this
direction, as it is very easy to get local overheating by the
presence of a foreign particle or a hard grain. Also
the more powder is compressed, the more it will adhere to
the mould, and in pushing out the cartridge a greater
pressure will be required. It is the friction thus caused
which produces the greatest heat, and where the most
danger exists. When, therefore, a number of moulds are
not equally charged, and they are all compressed by pistons
fixed on a common head, the cartridge which contains most
of the powder, may, at a certain stage, receive all the
pressure intended for the lot, and will, in any case, got
more than its share. Hence the necessity of an arrange-
ment to prevent an excess of pressure. This can be done
by weighted levers on the bottom pistons, or, much better
and simpler still, by keeping eaci mould independent and
moveable.
The same applies to hydraulic presses. Most of them
have one ram only, so that the cartridge, which may vary
from lj to 3 inches in height, is far more compressed on the
bottom than ou the top. Those with one ram on top and
bottom make a better compression, and want less pressure
on either side, but they are costly and cumbersome. In
neither of them, as a rule, is any arrangement to prevent an
206
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31, 1892.
excess of pressure provided, and the best means of doing
this is the moveable mould.
Presses for prismatic powder, where needles of phosphor-
bronze enter the moulds, require careful inspection, as the
slightest bend of a needle can cause breakage.
Another method of powder mauufacture may be briefly
mentioned, which was long ago known to the Tartars, and
some nine years age practised iu this country. This method
is to dissolve the saltpetre in hot water, add the other
ingredients, and boil down the whole with constant stirring
duriug the evaporation. The English system of inspec-
tion would have soon put a stop to the way in which this was
done for some time on the Continent, where this process was
carried out in a kind of washing copper with a coal fire
underneath, and where the contents of the copper sometimes
went off through part of the powder being caked at the
bottom and excessively heated.
The manufacture of cocoa-powder does not differ from
that of ordinary gunpowder except in the preparation of
the charcoal, which is no more daugerous than the work
of a rag boiler.
In connexion with gunpowder may be mentioned also
the manufacture of safety fuses. This presents no par-
ticular danger, except that in spinning the first layers of
the fuse, where a fine stream of powder falls in as the fuse
is formed, the excess of powder falls on the floor covering a
large area, requiring precautions to be taken against friction
or the fall of the weight which keeps the fuse stretched.
Nitro-compounds.
The next group to be dealt with are the so-called nitro-
compounds or chemical explosives. These are produced
on a very large scale, and gain daily in importance ; but
their manufacture involves generally a great amount of
machinery and apparatus, and the knowledge of all the
accompanying circumstances is still far from being perfect,
besides being sometimes of a very complicated chemical
character.
Nitro-compounds are liable to explode at a lower
temperature, are more sensitive to concussion and friction
than gunpowder, and in addition, as products of chemical
action, are liable, under unfavourable circumstances, to
undergo chemical changes which may render them unstable.
A nitro-compound is generally formed by the action of
nitric acid on a hydrocarbon, sulphuric acid being added
iu order to take up the water formed duriug the process and
to keep the nitric acid as far as possible at its original
strength, so as to avoid the formation of lower nitro-
compounds, which would either reduce the force of the
explosive, or even render it unstable.
Comparatively the least dangerous to manufacture are
gun-cotton and collodion cotton. With the exception of
the nitration and the compression into cartridges, the whole
process is worked with a large excess of water, and although
it is quite conceivable that a particle of gun-cotton sur-
rounded by water may explode when struck by a heavy
weight, yet such a case is hardly likely ever to occur.
The cotton has to be very carefully purified from resinous
matter and soluble substances, as they would form unstable
by-products if allowed to remain. This is usually effected
by boiling the cotton in a solution of soda. The nitration
is done in England by dipping the cotton into the mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids, which are contained in a cast-
iron vessel, squeezing it roughly out on a grid, and then
Jetting the nitration complete in earthenware pots, which
stand in running water. On the Continent they employ
nitrating machines, consisting of a east-iron vessel with
a lid screwed on, having a false bottom which can be
moved by means of a screw passing through the lid. The
cotton remains in the machine during two hours, and
then the false bottom is lifted towards the lid, thus squeez-
ing the cotton out. In another factory suction is applied
underneath the false bottom to drain the cotton.
The nitrated cotton is further deprived of the bulk of its
acid by treatment in a centrifugal machine, whence it is
passed as quickly as possible into a washing machine.
Care has to be taken that the acid cotton remains con-
otantly under the acid or the water, or at least well covered,
else, as it absorbs moisture rapidly, it decomposes, and once
a decomposition is started it is almost impossible to stop it.
This decomposition is attended by large volumes of red
fumes, and sufficient means of ventilation and escape for
such have to be provided from the outset in case they are
formed. The warmer the mixture, and the less liquid acid
it contains, of course the more liable it is to decomposition,
hence it is on warm and moist days centrifugal machines are
most liable to fire ; this seldom happens iu the winter,
unless some water, oil, or other foreign material falls
into it.
Once it is immersed in the washing machine, whose water
has to be constantly changed, the gun-cotton is no longer
subject to sudden decompositions during the subsequent
processes of manufacture, but the acid still remaining in it
has to be eliminated with the greatest care, or else a gradual
decomposition will take place. I will not detail this mauu-
facture, as it is well known ; suffice it to say that gun-cotton,
which stands the English Government's heat tests, is quite
safe under all ordinary circumstances.
The compression of gun-cotton into cartridges requires
far more care than that of gunpowder, as this is done in a
warm state, and gun-cotton, even when cold, is more sensi-
tive than gunpowder. When coming out of the centrifugal
machines the gun-cotton should always pass first through a
sieve, in order to detect nails or matches, which may by
chance have got into it. What has been said as to gun-
powder presses applies still more to those for gun-cotton,
although the latter are always hydraulic presses. Generally
the pistons fit the mould perfectly, that is to say, they make
aspiration like the piston of a pump. But there is no metal
as yet known which for any length of time will stand the
constant friction of compression, and after some time the
mould will be wider in that part where the greatest com-
pression takes place. The best metal for this purpose has
proved to be a special steel made by Krupp, but this
also is only relatively better ; for pistons I prefer hard
cast iron. If the position of the moulds and the pistons
is not exactly the same in all cases, what the Germans call
" Ecken " (English, " binding ") will take place, viz., the
mould will stand obliquely to the piston, and a dangerous
friction will result.
For certain purposes, such as torpedoes, engineers' car-
tridges, &c, the gun-cotton has to be turned in a lathe, or
drilled or planed. This should always be done under a
constant stream of water, to keep the tool cool, as well as the
gun-cotton in contact with it.
Of course, it is necessary to protect the man working the
hydraulic valves during compression At iValtham Abbey
they have a curtain made of ships' hawsers, which is at the
same time elastic and resistant. The author has found from
experience that a partition wall 12 inches thick, made of
2-inch planks, and filled with ground cinders, gives very-
effective protection. There are scarcely ever more than
5 lb. of gun-cotton under pressure at the same time, and
in the case of an explosion the parts projected embed them-
selves in the cinders. There is a door in this partition to
get to the press, and a conical tube penetrates the wall,
which enables the man 10 see the whole work from a safe
standpoint. The roof or one side of the building should be
made of glass, so as to give the explosion a direction, and
as a matter of fact it will not injure the walls of the building,
even if they are only one brick thick.
The drying of gun-cotton is no less attended with risks,
if it is done by improperly constructed arrangements. It
is generally accepted that the drying should not take
place at a higher temperature than 104° F. To secure this
an electric alarum thermometer should be provided. If a
current of hot air passes over a layer of gun-cotton, the
cotton becomes electrified, and most, if not all, the fires in
gun-cotton drying-houses are due, in the author's opinion,
to a neglect to carry away this electricity.
I am indebted to Mr. Walter F. Reid, F.C.S., for much
information in this respect. He was the first, so far as the
author knows, to make metal frames, carriers, and sieves,
upon which is secured the cloth holding the gun-cotton, and
to earth them.
Iu drying houses there is a large amount of gun-cotton
dust produced, which deposits on walls, floors — in fact every-
where. This dust, being warm, is very sensitive to friction;
Harohai.iHBj THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
207
in fact, Colonel Cimdill once told me that even the hard
friction with a felt shoe has heen known to fire it. The
workers in these rooms should therefore always wear felt
shoes or go barefooted, avoid all unnecessary friction, and
frequently wash the floors and walls. The floor should be
covered either with india-rubber or linoleum.
On no account should an exposed metal pipe for the con-
veyance of heat be allowed in the drying room. Although
the heat may not exceed 104°, aud the radiation of the
pipe may be sufficient, yet there might be a more sheltered
place, such as a bend, a corner near a wall &c. where the
quantity of heat is accumulated, and a far higher tempera-
ture reached, than that of the air entering, aud it is just
such places that will be filled with cotton dust, which itself
will serve as an accumulator of heat. An accidental blow on
the metal pipe may also happen, so that it is best to exclude
them altogether from the room.
The above remarks about gun-cotton apply to mixtures
of nitrate and gun-cotton, such as tonite, potentite, &e.
The manufacture of nitro-glvcerin aud dynamite is by
outsiders generally considered as an extremely dangerous
one, and it certainly is in the hands of untrained and in-
experienced people ; but if conducted by experts it is far
less risky than the manufacture of gunpowder. Still, as it
is essentially a chemical operation, its safety will always
depend upon the amount of care bestowed on it by the
workpeople ; it requires a great deal of supervision to be
always on the watch for neglect of duty.
The sources of danger arising from the raw materials will
first be considered. The nitric acid used should be reason-
ably free from nitric peroxide. Opinions differ as to what is a
reasonable amount, and no doubt the heat developed during
the process of nitration is increased hy the presence of this, a
large amount of hvponitric acid; and, if sufficient care be not
taken, may cause decomposition and explosion. Some say
it should not contain more than 1 per cent., but some of the
most perfectly conducted factories use it with even more
than 4 per cent. The author's experience has been, that
nitric peroxide undoubtedly produces more heat by its
great oxidising power, but as the temperature of the mixture
is always kept under about 77° F., it means that the nitra-
tion will last longer, because the workman must allow less
glycerin to run in, and consequently he is expected to be
still more attentive. Hyponitric acid also reduces the
yield of nitroglycerin considerably. As a rule, those
factories which buy their nitric acid insist upon having as
little hyponiiric acid as possible, sometimes below half a
per cent, and those which make their own acid are not
particular about I per cent, more or less. If the process of
nitric acid making is conducted in such a way that a mini-
mum of hyponitric acid be present, it will be difficult to
have more than 93 per cent, pure monohydrate, and a large
quantity of weak acid will result. If highly concentrated
acid only is made, containing 95 to 96 per cent, pure mono-
hydrate, then more heat has to be applied, which will
always [decompose some nitric acid into hyponitric acid.
Of course a high percentage of monohydrate and no weak
acid are most to be desired, because the first gives infinitely
better results, whilst the latter is of little value, and if, there-
fore, the hyponitric acid should be eliminated, then a costly
and tedious process of bleaching is necessary. This is the
reason why a dynamite factory which makes its own nitric
acid has never been known to have less than 2 per cent, of
hyponitric acidas an average, but some even as much as
7 per cent. A new process which the author has recently
invented gives invariably less than 1 per ceut. of hypo-
nitric aeiil with from 95 to 96 per cent, pure monohydrate,
and this is now being rapidly introduced into many
factories. This process can even be worked in such a way
that the acid will not contain more than one-tenth of a per
cent, of hyponitric acid, and acid, with even as much as
99 '40 per cent, pure monohydrate, has been made by this
process. This is the strongest acid ever manufactured on a
large scale, but there is a great amount of the possible
yield lost. It may, therefore, be said, that unless the nitric
acid is after its manufacture submitted to a long and
expensive bleaching, the best which can be made on a
commercial scale will always contain about 1 per cent, of
hyponitric acid. As it is scarcely to be expected that
everybody can have the very best acid, the limit of
hyponitric acid may be set at 2 per cent., which does not
increase materially the danger of too much heat being de-
veloped. Beyond this limit the heat of the mixture may
rapidly increase, and the workmen has to be constantly on
the alert to shut off the inflow of glycerin, or to apply
more vigorous cooling aud stirring. As it is desirable
that every process should depend as little as possible on
the attention of the workmen for avoiding accidents, an
exec ss of hvponitric acid should not be allowed.
.Sulphuric acid and glycerin are nowadays made very
pure. Arsenic may be in both, especially in the sulphuric
acid, but it should never be allowed to exceed one-tenth
per cent, ou account of the well-known strong oxidising
action of arseuious acid.
Glycerin is a very intricate substance, so far as its use
for making nitroglycerin is concerned. Of course a large
amount of organic matter, such as cellular substances from
the tissue or fatty acids are both objectionable, as they
form unstable compounds during nitration. The presence
of chlorine also has to be avoided, because it will ultimately
form hyponitric acid. But even if the glycerin is nearly
perfectly pure, and contains nothing whatever but about
0-15 per ceut. of total residue, organic and inorganic, it will
sometimes happen, that the nitroglycerin made is full of
a bulky, flocculeut matter, which prevents its separation from
the acids for a very long time. This only happens with
glycerin of a special manufacture, and up to now even so
high an authority as Mr. Otto Hehner has been unable to
find out to what component or impurity this is due.
The operations of nitrating and separating the nitro-
glycerin do not require more attention than that the
temperature should not even at the finish exceed 86".
I do not refer by this to the Boutmy-Faucher process,
which in itself had a special source of danger, inasmuch as
in it the sulphuric acid was first allowed to act upon the
glycerin, which caused the orgauic impurities to become
charred, and to form minutely suspended carbon particles.
This prevented the nitric acid, at its highest concentration,
penetrating every particle of glycerin, and sometimes pro-
longed the separation for days. It will be explained later
ou why this must have been dangerous, or is still so as the
process is still said to be used on a small scale at the French
Government factory at Vonges.
It is in the apparatuses used for nitration and separation
that the chief danger lies on account of their construction.
The nitrating apparatus is now generally a large lead tank,
with a number of cooling worms, through which cold water
runs. The tanks tire closed at the top with suitable openings
for the admission of glycerin aud compressed air, for the
escape of. the fumes and for the constant control of the
temperature, also for discharging the tank either into the
separating apparatus or into a drowning tank. All these
arrangements of course complicate the nitrating apparatus,
and require constant attention. A detailed description
of the different apparatuses in use cannot be given in this
paper, as it would be sufficient for a paper by itself, but
some of the chief sources of danger, however, must be
pointed out. First is the lead itself usually used in the
construction. The combined action of nitric, nitrous and
sulphuric acids on the lead is very great ; but still greater
is that of the fumes, when mixed with the outside air, because
diluted acid attacks metals more than strong acid. The
lead should be perfectly pure, some even prefer remelted
old lead, as it becomes harder by remelting. If the
slightest amount of zinc is present the lead is very soon
perfectly honeycombed. The fumes should be drawn off
through a pipe with a good draught in it, so that the
outer air cannot enter the vessel. The compressed air
used for stirring and cooling should come from a storage
vessel, where it can deposit all its moisture, aud the pipes
leading to the apparatus should ascend as much as possible,
and have a drain tap attached. All joints should be made
quite tight, and the construction of the cooling worms must
be well understood, as they will expand aud contract, and
can easily leak. It must be understood that the slightest
leak of a water pipe may start a very serious decomposition,
and it is therefore a good plan to test the whole apparatus
every morning before starting work.
203
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. 1S92.
The manner of introducing the glycerin is another
matter for consideration. In some apparatuses where a
screw paddle agists the stirring, the glycerin runs on a
disc attached to it, and is therefore scattered by centrifugal
force in minute drops. Sometimes a perforated pipe
supplies the glycerin, and very often an injector. Those
injectors, which are placed near the bottom of the vessel,
are soon eaten away, and sometime cause a sudden inrush
of glycerin, which is of course to he avoided. Injectors
or pressure vessels, which blow the glycerin through a
pipe, are perhaps the best.
The temperature in the apparatus must be efficiently
controlled ; it is not sufficient to know the temperature of
one part of the vessel only, since decomposition generally
Starrs locally, and then spreads oyer the whole mass.
The taps for discharging to the separators and to the
safety tanks want very careful fixing, and it is commonly
said that it is a knowledge by itself to make all the
different kinds of mastic or cements that are required in a
dynamite factory. Of course the taps must not he placed
so that water can get into them. At the same time much
depends upon what pressure there is on the tap, and one
of the objections to those huge American apparatuses is
that they haye a column of acid 10 or more feet high
resting on the taps, or like 8 lb. pressure per square inch.
It is so easy to get a tap or a plug knocked out, apart from
the pressure on the tank and the enormous weight of the
cooling worms.
The apparatus should of course be made so as to empty
itself to the last drop, and the safety tap should be
sufficiently large to empty the vessel in a fe'.v minutes.
Exactly the same remarks apply to the first separators
and the bottles used in the secondary separation.
It might be appropriate to mention here, that a decom-
position in a properly constructed apparatus is a very rare
occurrence indeed, and due only to leakage, had glycerin,
or inattention on the part of workmen. Even if a decom-
position should be seen starting, there is no need to drown
a charge at once, or to lose ones head and run away. A
decomposition, as has been mentioned, begins at one point,
and spreads gradually through the whole mass. A slight
decomposition will develop a huge volume of dark red
fumes, and is certainly alarming to the novice, but it will
take sometimes 10 or more minutes before it can develop into
an explosion. The author has seen decomposing charges
entirely saved by the coolness of the workmen, who freely
used all the available means for cooling and stirring. In one
instance, the acid underneath the nitroglycerin in a
separator decomposed, and the man in charge, who was a
new hand, in his confusion opened the nitroglycerin tap
instead of the safety tap, and although the whole of the
nitroglycerin had time to run into a water tank, it was
more than a quarter of an hour before one could think of
entering the building to drown the decomposing acid.
In the process for separating the nitroglycerin from
the acids, there is the danger of a prolonged contact of
the two liquids, which has been fully investigated by the
Home Office in reference to the Pembrey accident. Nitro-
glycerin dissolves in sulphuric acid, and just at the line of
contact between the two liquids many of those lower nitro-
compounds collect which have been formed from the
impurities in the glycerin. Others collect on the top of
the nitroglycerin, where they are exposed to the action
of the ail-. Pure nitroglycerin can remain a very long
time in contact with pure nitric and sulphuric acid without
alteration : but in a process where everything is impure,
the lower nitro-compounds are soluble and unstable, and
therefore the separation should be finished as quickly as
possible. I have referred already to the glycerin retarding
the separation, but there are also mechanical impurities
in the other reagents which have even worse effect. If
the sulphuric acid contain much lead, if the mixed acids
have been in the storage tauks too long, and some lead or
iron is dissolved in them, this will be suspended in minute,
but bulky quantities in the mixture of nitroglycerin and
acids which leaves the nitrating apparatus. Still more
marked is this effect in the ease of any carbonaceous matter
introduced, such as straw from the carboys, gross organic
impurities of the glycerin, &c. This is the ease with the
lioutmy-Paucher process where by dissolving the glycerin
in sulphuric acid, the impurities in the former are charred,
and delay the separation in an extraordinary way. The
worst case known to the author was one, when a second-
hand air vessel was bought for the storage of sulphuric
acid and a thick layer of rust prevented it being seen that
the vessel had formerly been coated inside with tar. The
sulphuric acid became quite black from the tar, and after
two days' separation only half of the nitroglycerin could be
recovered.
It must be understood that the difference of specific
gravity between the nitroglycerin and the refuse acids is
only 0-100, the former having a gravity of exactly P600
and the latter about 1 ■ 700, and although the greater
fluidity of the acids facilitates to a great extent the separa-
tion, yet such bulky impurities remain for a long time
suspended and form contact between the more sticky
nitroglycerin and the acids, thus obstructing separation.
The secondary separator receives the spent acids, which
generally contain minute globules of nitroglycerin in
suspension, and it is essential that they should have time
to separate. This secondary separation is the weakest
spot in a dynamite factory. The fact that small quantities
of highly acid nitroglycerin are floating on the top of
srong acid, and, even with the best ventilating tubes, are
exposed to the air, may account for some decompositions,
but the author believes that a careful investigation of
all the facts would nearly in every case point to another
cause for an accident, and that cause either a leak of a
water pipe or the intrusion of some organic matter.
Some experiments which the author has carried out with
waste acids have shown that if large quantities of glycerin
are poured into waste acid (which has nearly invariably the
composition of about 10 nitric rnouohydrate, TO sulphuric
inonohydrate and 20 water) a turbulent decomposition
takes place in a very short time. If we take the process of
nitration to consist of an interchange between the I\( ).,
group of the nitric acid and the hydrogen molecules of the
glycerin until complete exhaustion of the former, then
every particle of glycerin entering in excess will not be
nitrated, but dissolved in the sulphuric acid, as after the
formation of the bulk of nitroglycerin the nitric acid left
occupies only about one-fourteenth of the whole mixture,
and in spite of violent stirring it is difficult to cause the
little nitric acid remaining to come in contact with the
glycerin particles. Besides, this nitric acid, as it is seen
from the composition of the refuse acids, is in a very diluted
state, and if it cou'd easily come in contact with the
glycerin, it would only form mono-and dinitroglycerin,
which are soluble. Thus it will be seen, that an excess of
glycerin forms a very dangerous mixture, and on two
occasions at least the cause of decompositions could be
distinctly traced by the author to such an excess.
It must he pointed out that a small excess of glycerin
nay happen with any operation, as it is impossible to
calculate exactly the quantity required, and a slight varia-
tion in the strength of the nitric acid will at once alter the
quantity of glycerin, which can be converted into trinitro-
glycerin.
This is another reason why very strong acid with a rather
higher percentage of nitrous acid is preferable to the reverse
as the workman can guard against overheating, but he has
no means of ascertaining the total nitrating capacity of the
nitric acid. But a small excess of glycerin, although just
affording the amount of danger connected with the work, is
still not a distinct danger, so long as proper attention is
paid. It is only a large excess which can produce a sudden
decomposition, and it would be impossible to stop this.
This excess of glycerin need not necessarily be the
consequence of an error in weighing, it can also be brought
about by using too weak nitric or sulphuric acid, or by a
mistake in weighing the acids for mixing. The only remedy
in this case is to watch the yield of nitroglycerin. If it
falls below a certain limit, then part of the glycerin must
have escaped nitration, and the only plau to adopt is to at
once drowm the waste acids, as containing too much
glycerin. With good yields of nitroglycerin and proper
attention the secondary separation never gives any trouble.
March a, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY 01' CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
209
As the waste acids are in most cases treated in a
denitrating apparatus to recover the two component acids
separately, care must be taken that every particle of
nitroglycerin is removed in the storage tanks before
working them up. Small drops may conic up after
days, and an explosion of a denization plant in Italy was
due to neglect in this direction. The storage tanks must
also be protected against the weather, and have a safety
tank attached, as their contents will sometimes decompose,
especially in hot climates.
In the operation of washing and filtering the nitro-
glycerin warm water should be used with caution, as
nitroglycerine begins to evaporate at 11)4°, and the inhala-
tion of nitroglycerin vapours in larger quantities is
injurious.
The other operations do not require more attention than
with other explosives, except the formation of cartridges
by lever presses, where the material falls through a
funnel into a tube, and a piston on a lever forces the
dynamite out in the form of a cylindrical mass. There are
two kinds of presses, one where the parchment paper is
wrapped round the tube, and the whole cartridge is made
in one pressing, and others where the dynamite is pressed
out by consecutive strokes with the lever, so that a con-
tinuous string comes out of the tube. This is broken off
when it reached the required length, and then wrapped
round with parchment paper. This kind of intermittent
pressing is no doubt the best, and the single stroke presses
are rightly objected to by the German industrial inspectors.
It is patent that in order to press out a cylinder of soft
material of about four inches in length, there is perhaps
twenty times more force wanted than for a piece of an inch
and any metal or grit particle or even a hard lump of
kieselguhr may produce enough friction on the tube to cause
an explosion. By far ihe majority of the explosions in
cartridge huts happened with single stroke presses.
Of course cartridge presses mu6t be so constructed and
secured as to prevent any hard blow or friction.
The manufacture of blasting gelatin, gelatin dynamite,
and gelignite calls for very few remarks. As the process is
carried out with the aid of artificial heating, care must
be taken to avoid excessive heating, since the collodion-
cotton may begin to decompose, and the nitroglycerin to
evaporate. The machines for mixing, if such are used,
and for making cartridges must be so constructed as to avoid
undue friction, and to allow of ready inspection and
cleaning.
The danger of freezing has still to be dealt with. It is
well known that nitroglycerin freezes at about 46° F.
Dynamite and blasting gelatin will freeze at slightly
lower temperatures. Numerous experiments have shown
that dozen nitroglycerin and dynamite are highly in-
sensible against shock, and that even a bullet fired from
a military rifle at 50 paces has failed to explode it, whereas
soft dynamite explodes readily at 300 and more paces. Yet
somehow frozen nitroglycerine does sometimes explode.
To the author's own knowledge the removing of some
frozen nitroglycerin from the ground by means of a pick-
axe, the sudden turning of an earthenware tap, around
whose plug some nitroglycerin froze, the cleaning of
vessels containing frozen refuse, and even the forcible
breaking of a frozen dynamite cartridge, have resulted in
explosions, and it is probable that similar instances are
known to others. The author believes that the explosion
of frozen nitroglycerin is due to a sudden alteration in
the molecular arrangement of the frozen nitroglycerin —
such as Professor Tyndall stated in the case of ice — and
the conssquent production of vibrations sufficiently high
to cause a detonation. This is certainly a striking illus-
tration of the fact, that explosion is not merely a result
of heat.
Blasting gelatin and the gelatin dynamites, on the
other hand, are extremely sensitive in a frozen state, which
is solely due to the collodion cotton. In the soft gela-
tinous state of course every shock is annihilated, and the
gelatins are in fact indifferent in this state ; but when
the gelatin is frozen, and forms one rigid, hard mass, a
blow will be readily communicated throughout the whole
mass, and the collodion cotton will be the first to
explode. It is therefore of high importance that the nitro-
glycerin or dynamite should never be allowed to freeze
during manufacture. Keen in moderately warm rooms the
cold earthenware taps may cause freezing, or drops of
nitroglycerin spilt on the floor may become hard, and
the danger of working frozen dynamite in cartridge presses
is very great. It has repeatedly happened that small
crystals of frozen nitroglycerin " cracked " on a wooden
floor by being rubbed with a leather shoe.
The sun has a decided effect on the nitroglycerin,
inasmuch as the heat generated will decompose it. This
is the reason why the roofs and windows should he
painted white ; especially the window panes, as they will
usually contain some faulty spots, which act like lenses.
The action of the sun on nitroglycerin that had been
inadvertently allowed to run away in the sand has several
times produced explosions.
The refuse resulting from the sweepings, the residues
on the filters, the mud in the deposit of washings, &c.
have to be carefully burned. This refuse, or even defec-
tive dynamite, if laid out in a train, and ignited, will
burn quietly for some time, but then suddenly explode.
The author is indebted to Dr. Dupre, F.R.S., for the hint,
that by pouring paraffin oil over such refuse it can be
burnt without tear of explosion.
Although all the possibilities of danger have not been
mentioned, and although perhaps the long list may have
alarmed you, yet the author confidently asserts, from per-
sonal knowledge and long experience, that the manufac-
ture of dynamite is far less dangerous and certainly less
subject to sudden and unforeseen accidents than that of
gunpowder, which has a record of casualties for more
than five centuries.
Smokeless Powder.
The manufacture of smokeless powder has within the
last four years come to the foreground, and is in many
instances similar to that of the gelatin-compounds. As
it is a comparatively new industry, chiefly in the hands
of Governments, and as none of the powders can yet cbini
to have reached the stage of perfection, it may seem to
be superfluous to enter into many details. The fact that
nearly every factory has some process of its own, because
everyone is anxious to keep its own experiences secret,
makes general remarks very difficult.
Smokeless powders are practically of two kinds, those
made from gun-cotton and a solvent only, and those made
from nitroglycerin and gun-cotton with or without the aid of
a solvent. Of late nitrated starch seems to be favoured. As
a solvent acetone is now generally used, and the process of
dissolving the gun-cotton, or making a gelatin of nitroglycerin
and soluble gun-cotton, with or without the subsequent
addition of insoluble gun-cotton and camphor, does not
want any special allusion, as the machines for incorporating
the materials are about the same as now used for the
manufacture of blasting gelatin. But the subsequent
working up into small square sheets or round discs, in
imitation of the manufacture of certain pastries, requires
more attention, although it must be said that the
acetone, of which traces always remain in the powder,
renders it comparatively safe. The jelly-like incorporated
mass, when leaving the mixing machine, is subjected to a
partial evaporation, and then passes through steam-heated
rollers to be rolled into sheets, and at the same time to
evaporate all the acetone. In these rollers small local
explosions sometimes take place which are prohably due to
some undissolved gun-cotton being submitted to heat and
friction, but which pass away without doing any harm.
Great care has to be taken to collect the acetone vapours,
as they are explosive and may spread over a large area.
The cutting of these sheets into small squares is also with-
out special risk, as the pressure on the sheet is small, and
no undue friction is likely to occur. Of course, the powdei
should not be allowed to accumulate, as although considera-
ble quantities of it can burn without explosion, yet the fire
spreads quick enough to cut off escape, as has been proved
at a fire in an Italian factory'. The manufacture of cordite,
the British smokeless powder, varies in some stages from
that of others, and being the invention of Sir Frederick
210
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. 1882.
Abel, and manufactured under his superintendence, does
not call for further remark in this paper on the dangers of
explosives.
The stability of smokeless powders with regard to
atmospheric and climatic influcuee have still to be con-
clusively tested.
Other Explosives.
Nitrobenzene is, I believe, no longer used with explosives ;
its manufacture is well known, and is only dangerous
during the nitration and through the poisonous effects of its
fumes.
The manufacture of picric acid is also to a certain extent
outside the scope of this paper. It presents no danger
during the manufacture proper, but the finished product,
when mixed accidentally with certain materials as lime,
nitrate of lead, &c, will produce a detonating mixture, as
has been successfully proved by Colonel Majendie and
Dr. Dupre in their report about an explosion in Manchester.
Under the name of " Melinite," " Ljddite," " Ecrasite,"
&c, picric acid has been used for filling shells. Picrate
of ammonia, trinitrocresol and the ammouia salt of it are
also used. They are melted in a hot water-hath aud
filled into the shells. They are exploded generally by
a primer of gun-cotton. As this work is only carried out
in military establishments, further consideration is not
necessary before this Society. Neither is it necessary
to enter into the details of manufacture of roburite, securite,
ammonite aud similar products, or fireworks. The pro-
cesses used with the former are very much the same as
those used in other manufactories of explosives. In the
manufacture of fireworks the preparation of the different
mixtures, the compression into rockets, the distribution
of pills for amorces, &c, can with little modifications be
governed by the considerations applicable to gunpowder
factories. Only the frequent use of chlorates, especially
Chertier's copper, calls for attention as the cause
of many decompositions, and all chlorate mixtures are
extremely sensitive to shock and fiction. Of course, if
the mixture is moistened to form a paste, it will stand a
great amount of shock, but when too much water is added,
some particles may become exposed to the direct action of
the blow.
The last explosive to be mentioned, before discussing the
dangers in conveyance and use, is fulminate of mercury,
which is used for filling caps and detonators. The manu-
facture is simple enough, and with ordinary precaution no
accident should happen. Of course the ebullition after
the addition of alcohol has to be carefully regulated, and
attention has to be paid to the way how the developing
vessels are carried about, the fume pipes put on, &e. ;
the nitrous ether formed should also be condensed
awav from fire. The washing of the fulminate should be
will attended to, to avoid decompositions, and the ready-
made fulminate should be stored with not less than 20 per
cent, moisture. It is chiefly in the working up of the
fulminate where the danger comes in. As to drying it, the
ordinary precautions as to heating by a current of air,
absence of metal in the room, having hair rugs or india-
rubber mats on the floor are sufficient. The mixing of the
fulminate with nitrates, chlorates, ground glass, &c, is
perhaps the most dangerous part, as thereby a large amount
of friction is produced. The process used at Woolwich is
certainly the safest, and will give a better mixture than the
usual work with a featber. It consists essentially of a silk
bag on which there are diagonally placed india-rubber discs,
like a string of pearls. To the bottom of this bag is fastened
a thread, which is moved by a lever from behind an iron
screen, thereby taking up and throwing down the fulminate
between the discs. No explosion has happened at 'Woolwich
since the introduction of this ingenious mechanism some
years ago.
The filling of caps with the fulminate is done everywhere
by carefully planned machines, which avoid friction and
overcharging. The compression of the priming composition
is best made in moulds attached to separate weighted levers
for each cap, so that in spite of the probable inequality of
filling, each charge should only receive the same pressure as
the other. In some factories the whole press is sheltered
by a screen which is automatically closed during the
compression, aud no composition is allowed to be in the
room.
In fulminate factories proper precautions must be taken
against any possible friction. These are briefly the use of
hair rugs, felt slippers, frequent washing and dusting of
floors and rugs, preventives against spilling of material, &c.
Like other mercury substances fulminate is injurious to
the body, especially the gums of the teeth, if too mueh dust
is produced and the ventilation not efficient.
The other dangers to be attended to in connexion with
the manufacture of explosives are those which arise from
the general arrangement in the factories.
This is the only country, to the author's knowledge, in
which the exclusion of iron from the interior of the build-
ings, the absence of so much as a few grains of mod or
grit on a floor, and in general the cleanliness throughout
are rigorously enforced. It certsiuly made a great stir
amongst the manufacturers when the Explosives Act came
into operation, but seldom was there on the whole a wiser
measure taken. If one remembers that last year only in
oue gunpowder factory were there fatal accidents, aud that
the mortality amongst the workmen in explosive factories
was not larger than that in all London, you will agree with
the author that the Explosives Act was very beneficial
and that the inspectors who carry it out are doing most
useful work. It is certainly not the absence of a little grit,
because in thousands of cases it will be of no harm, but the
general spirit of order, cleanliness and precaution instilled
to the workmen which makes a factory safe.
According to the Explosives Act, every danger building
must be provided with an efficient lightning conductor. In
spite of the Lightning ltod Conference, in which so many
eminent men took part, the question as to what forms an
efficient lightning conductor in a factory for explosives is
not yet definitively agreed upon. There can be no doubt
that a lightning conductor is a good and useful instrument
on a dwelling-house where an accidental disturbance in the
arrangement may not do great harm, but the ease is entirely
different with a workshop or magazine for explosives. The
thorough and reliable examination of a lightning conductor
can only be done by an electrical expert, and in a factory
where sometimes 100 of them have to be tested this takes
several days. Yet, if a gale is blowing, or the factory is
exposed to the influence of sea-atmosphere, the lightning
conductor is soon out of order again. Then take the
presence of machinery in the buildings, tram-lines, pipe-
lines overhead aud underground, and you will find that a
lightning conductor is not only a very limited preventive,
but very often a positive danger. Without further entering
into this question the author thiuks that a competent inves-
tigation of this subject with reference to explosive factories
would be very beneficial.
A great many factories are now lit by electricity. Since
this paper was written, special regulations in regard to
electric lighting in explosive works have been issued by the
Home Office. I do not wish to criticise these regulations,
as too short a time has elapsed, and their effect cannot yet be
appreciated. I will therefore only give my own experience.
It is highly important that suitable hghtniug conductors
should be attached to the circuit. From experience, the author
knows of two cases where the lightning struck into the
wires, which were carried overhead. The wires should
always enter a building from opposite sides, so as to
prevent accidental short circuits, and no joint or switch
should be allowed inside the building. The lamps should
invariably be surrounded by a tightly fitting large glass
globe, which allows sufficient radiation of the heat.
Although the heat on the outside of a lamp is scarcely
larger than 120°, yet, if a lamp be covered with explosive
dust, and the heat cannot radiate into the open air, there
will be such an accumulation of heat that serious accidents
may occur. As to an excess of tension in the current the
best plan is to have an arrangement whereby, in case the
tension rises over a certain limit, the whole of the plant is
cut out of circuit. It is by far preferable to have the place
in darkness than to see sparks travelling along the wires.
It would lie quite impossible to write a paper by itself
about the dangers in connexion with the use of explosives
March 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
211
iu mines. Miners will frequently insist upon treating
explosives with the greatest recklessness, and if it were not
as a rule accompanied by a loss of life or limbs, it would be
able to write quite an amusing paper about the innumerable
ways in which the miners handle explosives. Carrying
gunpowder iu open boxes, with a caudle on the hat or in the
hand, squeezing detonators with the teeth, charging bore-
holes with boring bars, thawing dynamite on a hot stove,
or even on an open fire, iu a straw hat, are cases that
frequently occur. It will still take a long time before
auythiug like proper precaution will be taken everywhere.
The carriage of explosives, whether by road, vessel, or
rail, is uuder ordinary circumstances free from danger. No
explosive is licensed which does not in itself present a
certain degree of safety, and the packing is so substantial
that unless the packages are very roughly handled not even
a spilling of explosive is likely to occur. For this reason,
in almost every country the carriage of explosives by rail
is allowed. Of the more important countries Great Britain
alone makes an exception as regards gun-cotton and
dynamite, but why cannot be said. The railways "ill
cany gunpowder, detonators, blasting gelatin and gelatin
dynamite, but not gun-cotton and dynamite. Gun-cotton is
always sent with from 20 to 30 per cent, moisture, in which
state it cannot be exploded by ordinary means. Dynamite
is no more dangerous than gelatin dynamite, and iu the 20
years during which it has beeu carried on Austrian railways
not a a siugle accident has- gpcured. Let us hope, that here
also this obstacle will soon be removed ; it injures the
railways indirectly more than anybody else, as they are the
largest consumers of coal and iron, which cannot be won
without the use of explosives.
Discussion.
Mr. Akxold Philip said that some 18 months previously
in going over a large dynamite works, he had seen a plant
employed for the recovery of the acids which had been used
in the manufacture of the nitroglycerin. This apparatus
consisted in part of two scrubber towers apparently built
of flags of sandstone held together outside by iron tie-rods ;
inside they contained coke or some other suitable material
on which to condense the acid fumes. The waste acids
were heated in stills connected with the scrubbers ; there
was, however, some difficulty in employing this apparatus,
for explosions were not infrequent. These explosions were
usually slight in character, and chiefly occurred in the
scrubbers, but they caused considerable financial loss by the
damage which they caused to this part of the plant. All the
trouble was due to the minute amount of nitroglycerin
which remained in the waste acids even after they had been
allowed to stand and settle tor a very considerable time.
On account of this difficulty there was a natural disinclina-
tion on the part of the manufacturers to distil waste acid,
and it was not at all an uncommon thing in nitroglycerin
factories for tons of it to be thrown away. If, however,
these traces of nitroglycerin could be satisfactorily removed,
the acids might afterwards be safely recovered, and a great
saving thus introduced. It was possible that this might be
done by dissolving out the trace of nitroglycerin by means
of paraffin. Of course the strength of the acids in question
made it quite impossible to employ either hydrocarbons of
the benzene series or ether for (this purpose. With regard
to the question of lightning conductors, it would be interesting
to know whether Mr. Guttman had had any experience with
Professor Oliver Lodge's method of protecting buildings ;
this was based on the same principle on which electrometers
were sometimes shielded by wire cages. Professor Lodge
proposed to cover buildings with what was practically a
network of galvanised iron wire. This material was of course
far cheaper than copper or any copper alloy, and although
not so good a conductor, yet for electric discharges of such
high potential as lightning, as long as there was a metallic
conductor, it really mattered very little whether it had a
high or low conductivity.
Mr. de Mosexthal said that he believed that Dr. Dupre's
experiment with the broom stick was correct only so far as
chlorate of potash explosives were concerned. Referring
to the question of lightning conductors, an explosion due to
lightning had occurred quite recently in a manufactory on
the Continent, where the rod had been examined by an
expert a few days only before the explosion occurred, and
was therefore probably in perfect order. In that case the
conductor was placed on the earth works which protected
the building, but it was generally supposed that the position
of the conductors was immaterial. As Mr. Guttman had
pointed out, very little was known about the subject ; and it
was to be hoped that the report of a Special Commission
which had been at work in Germany for something like two
years, would throw further light on the subject.
Lieutenant-Col. Cundill remarked that last year only one
fatal accident had occurred due to the manufacture of
explosives. He thought that statement spoke volumes for
the care exercised by the manufacturers. His Department
was much indebted to the trade for the way in which any
suggestions made by them before the Explosives Act came
into force had been carried out. The average number of
deaths iu England and Wales alone caused by explosions in
manufacture in the seven years preceding the introduction of
the Act was 39 '5, the average was now something under
eight for the United Kingdom. Iu 1890 there were eight
deaths, but those were all in one factory; and the accident
which caused the one death in 1891, was due to a man
hammering a cast-iron die-plate with a steel punch in a
building where there was gunpowder, this being a flagrant
violation of the statutory rules.
After some observations from Mr. Otto Hehnkk :
Mr. Guttmanx in reply said that the suggestion of
Mr. Philip to use paraffin for effecting the better separation
of nitroglycerin from the waste acids, had not, to his
knowledge, been tried with nitroglycerin, but it had been
tried with picric acid. He knew of a case wdiere it had
been used for many years for separating the picric acid, but
he had recently seen a sample of a compound which had
been found during such separation, which was a dangerous
one. He had been asked to make experiments with this
substance as an explosive, but it smelt so decidedly acid,
that he requested that it should be taken back as soon as
possible and washed. He had carefully considered Pro-
fessor Oliver Lodge's system of lightning conductors. The
idea, however, was not new. A Belgian (Mr. Melsens) was
was the first to make lightning conductors in that manner.
Professor Zenger of Prague had developed it, and it had
been very extensively tried by the Austrian military
authorities. In that country, in the mountain region of the
Karst, a thunderstorm occurred nearly every day, and the
lightning struck everything above ground. They had a
number of exposed forts and military stores there, containing
gunpowder, ammunition, ready-made shells, &c, and it was
not a pleasant feeling to find there thiugs exposed to such
thunderstorms. They had tried the wire cage system and
it was found to be a very effective protection. Col. Pb.
Hess placed in such a cage one of the bridge detonators
employed for military purposes, which are so sensitive that
the smallest amount of electricity would fire them, and he
could not get an explosion although he applied the sparks of
a W'imhurst machine. So far no more had been heard
about the practical application of this system. As to
Mr. de Mosenthal's observations, he would just mention
that the broom stick question had been discussed in that
room by Dr. Dupre. If he remembered rightly it was in
connexion with kinetite, an explosive which it had been
attempted to introduce iu this country. For a long time the
English Government would not pass it, on the ground that
it was not safe. This the agent of the firm who introduced
the explosive tried, in that room, to explain was not the case.
He remembered reading Dr. Dupre's speech on that occasion,
iu which he stated that everything in the hands of a man
who was willing went all right, but that if any person who
was uot conversant with the matter struck the substance
with a broom stick on a wooden floor it would go off. He
believed that any explosive which Dr. Dupre had tested,
did uot fail to explode when strucK with a broom stick.
Lastly, he would deal with Mr. Hehncr's observations. He
(Mr. Guttmann) had often discussed the question of
glycerin with Mr. Hehner, and he was aware that Mr.
llehner held that a small quantity of chlorine, acid, or
212
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
aldehydes in glyceriu was not very important ; yet he
believed he expressed the opinion of manufacturers wheD
he stated that they held the opposite view. Mr. Hehner
had said that experience was the principal thing to be taken
into consideration, and the experience of manufacturers
showed that the presence of chlorine developed hyponitric
acid, a body, the formation of which they desired to avoid
as much as possible. The same remarks applied to
aldehydes and poly-glycerins. It was probably these
constituents that formed the amount of organic matter in
the residue. If 1 per cent, of organic matter was present in
the residue, there was sure to be a smaller yield of nitro-
glycerin, and a larger development ot nitric peroxide.
THE ACID ACTION 01? DRAWING PAPER OF
DIFFERENT MAKES.
P.Y DR. T. XOCMIS ET.tXS AND DR. QVIRIN WIRT/.
In the proceedings of the Chemical Society of Februarv 4,
1892 (Session 1891—1892, 20), an article "appeared under
the above heading by Prcfessor W. X. Hartley, F.B S.
On reading it we were surprised to find that the author
had discovered free sulphuric acid in drawing papers manu-
facturedby such celebrated makers as Whatman, Saunders,
Hollingwortiis, and Arnold.
Papers of both old and recent manufacture are said to
have contained free acid in spite of the well-known fact that
the merest trace of free sulphuric acid will rapidly change
cellulose into the brittle hydrocellulose, completely spoiling
a paper containing it.
Professor Hartley further tries to trace the free acid to
the souring of the materials after bleaching, and state? that
linen fibres,* even when steeped frequently in pure distilled
water, persistently retain traces of free acid.
But how does such treatment as this compare with mill
practice ? This, as a rule, is somewhat as follows : after
being soured with a little sulphuric acid the materials are
circulated and washed with a large stream of hard spring
water for about four hours, and thus any trace of acid that
might otherwise be left in the fibres is neutralised. If we
examine the reactions on which Professor Hartley bases his
opinion that free acid is present in the papers that he
examined ; we find, as a well-known fact, that the two
indicators, namely, litmus and helianthin, used by him
show an acid reaction when brought in contact with pure
potassium alum. Now such alum is almost invariably used
in sizing high-class papers with animal size, the object of
its use, being to reduce the adhesiveness of the gelatine, on
which also it acts as in antiseptic.
The question which we will next attempt to answer is
this : Did not Professor Hartley mistake the alum reaction
for that of free acid ?
In order to answer this in a satisfactory manner we wrote
to the manufacturers of Whatman's paper, and asked them
to kindly send us some sheets of the same four qualities of
paper as those which Professor Hartley had examined.
These we tested as follows : — 50 grms. of each of the
papers was seven or eight times treated with boiling water
until all soluble matter was extracted and no residue was
left on evaporating a small quantity of the water. The
extract so obtained was concentrated by evaporation and
then made up with distdled water to 200 ec. Both the
original dilute solution and the concentrated were found acid
to litmus, but both were neutral to Congo red, which, as is
well known, is unaffected by alum, but is turned blue by the
smallest trace of free acid. Asa further proof of the absence
of free acid we determined the total sulphuric acid
present in one portion of the concentrated extract, ami
evaporated another portion todrynesson the water-bath and
' Hi.- papers we examined contained more cotton than linen.
the residue obtained was fused with hydrogen potassium
sulphate. The mass was then dissolved in a dilute hydro-
chloric acid and the amount of alumina, lime, and magnesia
determined.
Results of Analysis Expressed in Percentage of
Weight of Paper Analysed.
Whatman's Drawing Papers.
Double Elephant.
Found.
PerCent. Per Cent.
S03... 0*8025
A1203.. 0*1328 (trace Fe203) calculated as potash alum SO.,.. 0*4183
CaO... 0 „ CaSi >, „ O'-'tisi
5Ii?0.. 0-093! „ MgSOj
0-8688
Total si >3 found 0*8025
Deficiency 00663
Found.
Imperial 110 lbs.
Per Cent.
Percent.
Sii: ... 0-5635
AIM... 0-0548 (trace Fe303) calculated as potash alum S03.. 0-171S
CaO... 0-2261 „ CaSO< „ 0*3234
MgO.. 0-01*5 „ MgSO, |389
0-5241
Total S03 found o*5US5
Excess 0*0444
Imperial 9G /6s.
Found.
Percent. PerCent.
SO '652 i
AlaOs.. 0*0940 ( trace FcjOj) calculated aspotash alum SO.,.. 0*294 I
CaO -2648 „ CaSn, „ 0*3783
MgO.. 0*0153 „ MgSO, „ 0*0306
0 TOSS
Total S03 found 0*6520
Deficiency 0*0515
Imperial 72 Lbs.
Found.
Per Cent. per Cent
mi ... 0*6939
AlaO3..0*08i0 I trace of Fc303) calculated as potash alum S03. .0*1037
CaO. ..0*2812 „ „ 1 *0 0*4017
MgO.. .0*0561 „ „ Mjsij, o*1122
0-IU76
Total S03 found 0*5939
Deficiency 0*0237
The calculations were made as follows : —
From the amount of alumina found the amount of potash
alum present was calculated, and the sulphuric acid (S03)
it would contain deducted from the total acid found. The
amounts of sulphuric acid necessary to combine with the
calcium oxide and magnesia found were also deducted from
the total. We found in three cases out of four the amount
of acid required to combine with all the bases was slightly
deficient, possibly indicating the presence of a basic alum.
In the case of the Imperial 140 lb., which we analysed
twice with agreeing results, we cau only suppose that there
was an excess of alkali bases which we did not determine,
as the paper and extract were basic to Congo paper.
Although it is possible that alum, even when basic and
present iu small quantities, may act on certain colours, such
as ultramarine, it would, in the absence of experimental
data, be hazardous to express an opinion as to the nature
and extent of such action.
■=*=**<*cc'?e««*'=
March 81, 1892,] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
213
THE ACID ACTION OF DRAWING PAPERS.
BY C. F. CROSS AND E. .T. BEVAN.
Is a recent communication to the Chemical Society (Proc,
Chem. Soc. 1892, 19) Professor W. N. Hartley has culled
attention to the " acid action " of drawing papers. After
examining representative specimens — chiefly " Whatman "
papers — he arrives at the following conclusions : —
1. That the majority of papers of this class show an acid
reaction. 2. That the acid reaction is due to the presence
of free acid. 3. That this acid is sulphuric acid left in
the " fibre " (rags) through imperfect washing after the
process of souring. 4. That this conclusion from the
results of analysis is supported by the observation of
the difficulty of removing sulphuric acid from linen fibre by
successive and exhaustive treatments with pure water.
It would occur to anyone familiar with the technology of
paper-making that Professor Hartley was unaware that the
details of manufacture render his conclusions in the highest
degree improbable, and that therefore the evidence upon
which they are based should have been proportionately
unimpeachable.
To these conclusions, taken in order, we will oppose the
results of our own experience in regard to these papers,
which afford a much simpler and, a priori, more probable
explanation of the acidity which Professor Hartley has
observed.
1. The reactions of these papers, if and when acid to
certain indicators, such as those employed by Professor
Hartley, are basic to others, e.g., methyl orange and Congo
red. i. That the apparent " acidity " is due to the presence
of a basic sulphate of alumina, alum being an essential
constituent of the mixture used in sizing these papers.
:i. That in the making of the " Whatman " papers no free
acid could survive the long process of washing of the
n .I rags. They are in fact treated for 3 to 4 hours in an
" engine " with a continuous stream of the exceptionally
hard water of the district (Maidstone). 4. In the "What-
man " papers cotton and not linen (flax) cellulose is the
preponderating constituent.
To bring the matter, however, to a more direct experi-
mental issue we procured samples of the following makes of
"Whatman" paper, which were submitted to examina-
tion : —
1. Imperial 140 lb. 1891.
2. Imperial 721b. 1892.
3. Imperial 96 1b. 1892.
4. Double Elephant 1331b. 1892.
These papers all showed a distinctly acid reaction with
litmus and cochineal. The aqueous extracts from weighed
quantities of the papers were titrated with standard alkali
in presence of litmus as indicator ; the results are given
below, calculated to 100 grms. of the papers : —
1. Required to neutralise l'S CO. normal NaOH
2. „ , 2'3 cc.
3. „ , 1-3 cc. „
1. „ „ 4-S cc. „
With carefully neutralised solutions of Congo red and
methyl orange on the other hand, the papers, as well as the
aqueous extracts, gave a distinctly basic reaction.
Analysis of the aepjeous extracts showed that they con-
tained in each case a basic sulphate of alumina, and
estimations of alumina showed that the quantities present
were approximately in the ratio of the above results of
titration.
Papers (1) and (4) were further treated with pure
absolute alcohol. After evaporating the alcohol, the
residues were treated with water, and the solutions, basic to
methyl orange, were titrated with standard acid. Calcu-
lating the results on 100 grms. paper: —
1. Required to neutralise 0"G cc. norma] acid.
4. „ „ 0"5 cc. „
It is sufficiently proved by these results that the papers
do not contain free acid ; on the other hand, that they do
contain sulphate of alumina, but in the form of a basic salt
with a ratio S03:AI.,0;, ; certainly less than 5:2. (Com-
pare this Journal, 1886, 73 ; 1889, 253.)
We do not deny of course tint papers may contaiu free
acid, and it is not for us to say that the papers examined
by Professor Hartley did not contain tree acid. What is
certain, however, and what we desire to emphasise, is that
the evidence adduced by him being merely that of an acid
reaction, is no proof whatever of the presence of free acid.
We now suggest the only probable explanation consistent
with the experience* of specialists, and with the results of
examination of fair, trade samples of the particular papers
which he has found to possess the serious defect in
question, and Professor Hartley will no doubt take this
suggestion into consideration in any further investigations
on this subject.
We may now look a little more generally at the important
questions opened up by the communication which we have
found it necessary thus to criticise.
1st. Is the " acidity " of a sulphate of alumina more or
less basic — which we take to represent a normal acidity of
hard-sized papers — prejudicial to the permanence of
pigments applied in the form of water colours to the paper
coutainiug this salt ? The answer to this must come from
those who have made a special study of pigments in
relation to the conditions under which they have to
struggle, so to speak, to retain their beauty unimpaired.
2ndly. Admitting for the moment that the condition of
" acidity " does prejudice the life of pigments, is it in the
power of the paper maker to suppress this acidity without
prejudicing on the other hand the quality of his paper qua
paper ?
To this question we can give an answer based upon
experience. Most of the high-class papers made in the
Kentish district are finished with a neutral or slightly basic
reaction. There is every reason, a priori, why this should
be so. The souring of bleached rags is an exceptional
treatment, and, this excluded, the treatment which the rags
undergo, i.e., boiling and bleaching, are uniformly with
alkaline or basic reagents. The alum of the size is then the
only contributor of acid, and to its action is opposed, [in
addition to the basic residues from the above treatments,
that of the exceptionally hard waters (14 — 20 grms. CaC03
per gallon) used in the manufacture — aud we may reckon
at the very lowest 5,000 gals, per ton of paper used on the
machine — and also that of the soap, which is a usual
ingredient of the mixture used in sizing.
Thus at Messrs. Joynson's mills, St. Mary Cray, where
the process of souring the rags is seldom resorted to, the
papers produced, including the drawing paper, finish with a
neutral or slightly basic (to litmus) reaction.
At Messrs. Balston's mill, where the ■' Whatman " papers
are made, the souring process is practised ; but the
condition of the subsequent treatments are so adjusted that
the alum used in the sizing is reduced to the condition of
a basic sulphate in the finished paper.
Our final conclusions are therefore these —
(1.) The " acidity " of drawing and other papers — when
normally acid — is not due to the presence of free acid, but
to sulphate of alumina, always more or less " basic," but
with reactions which are acid to certain indicators.
(2.) That if shown to be a defect in relation to any
uses for which the papers are intended, the acidity may be
suppressed by the adoption of very simple expedients,
without prejudice to the qualities of the papers.
Discussion.
Mr. Wm. Thorp had not heard the original paper, and
therefore was not fully informed on the subject. His
experience had been that it was easier to get chemicals into
fibres than to get them out. lie had first encountered the
question in the case of water analysis some years ago,
when it had been necessary to free filter-paper from
ammonia. He had passed many litres of water, free from
* The sum of tlis evidence adduced by Professor Hartley is the
acid reaction together with precipitation <>i BaSO«in adding BaCl2
to the aqueous exhaust. The ii priori interpretation of this evidence
should have been the presence of a sulphate having acid reactions.
214
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[March 31, 1892.
ammonia, through a filter, and the ammonia was present in
the filtrate to the end of the chapter. That led him to the
conclusion that the ammonia was present inside the fibre
of the paper, and required time for removal. The difficulty
was overcome by soaking the filters for some days in water
free from ammonia, then, on using them without drying,
they imparted no ammonia to the filtrate. His remarks
were made, not so much as a criticism of the paper, but as
a hint to those present as to the difficulty of removing
soluble substances from fibres.
Dr. Samuel Rideal thought that the authors' statements
came rather late in the day. He was under the impression
that the last numbers of the Chemical News and Proceediugs
of the Chemical Society contained a paper by another
author, who stated that the presence of sulphuric acid was
probably due to alum being present in the fibre of the
paper. There was one point which had not been raised by
the authors, and which was mentioned in the discussion on
the original paper by Professor Hartley, namely, whether it
might not have been possible that the papers had absorbed
sulphuric acid from the air. That would exonerate the
manufacturers, but at the same time render it possible for
sulphuric acid to be present. He had been offered a sample
of Whatman's paper, made in 1837, and he would be very
glad to present it to the authors of the paper if it could be
of any use to them.
Mr. Joseph Arnold, as a manufacturer of one of the
papers mentioned, would like to state that no acid whatever
had been used in the manufacture of his papers, they were
simply made of linen and cotton rags washed in pure water,
no acid, chlorine, or chemical of any kind being used. He
could not, therefore, understand how Professor Hartley
could find acid in his (Mr. Arnold's') paper.
Mr. W. F. Anderson, as one who had had a wide
experience in making drawings, wrould like to say that he
was always under the impressiou that drawing paper was
made of linen, and cartridge paper of cotton. There was a
very great difference between proper drawing paper and
cartridge paper. He had known the size to disappear from
the paper, and had in fact found that a roll of drawing
paper invariably got spong)' after 12 months, owing to that
cause. Those who were makers of drawing paper would
do well to look into that point. He did not know what the
paper mentioned by Dr. Rideal made in 1837 could be. If
he was right in his suspicions, it would be little better
than blotting paper now.
Dr. Rideal thought it would be interesting to see
whether the paper referred to contained any alum, i.e.,
whether the sizing had been rendered antiseptic by the
addition of alum. As the paper referred to had been
exposed in a stable for 20 years, any sulphuric acid which
might have been present would probably he found as
ammonium sulphate.
Mr. R. Gallon explained that the reason why paper
became spongy was that it was not kept properly. Paper was
a most delicate substance to keep in working order, and after
a few j'ears the size would be affected by damp, and
sponginess and spottiness would ensue.
Mr. Bevan, in reply, said that with reference to Mr.
Thorp's observation as tc the difficulty of removing chemicals
from fibre, he would like to point out that this difficulty
chiefly applied to solutions of an alkaline nature. It was
well known that it was extremely hard to remove caustic
soda from cellulose, but it was a simple matter with acid.
The process to which rags were subjected was much more
drastic than any laboratory treatment. The rags were
broken up until they formed almost a milk in the water.
Referring to Dr. Rideal's remarks as to the possibility of
the paper being acid on account of the action of sulphurous
acid derived from coal-gas, if the facts were as he (Dr.
Rideal) had stated, Professor Hartley ought to set the
matter right, so as to exonerate the paper-maker. He
(Ml. Bevan) presumed that Mr. Arnold's statement that
no chemicals were used in the manufacture of his paper
referred to the first treatment of the rags. He supposed
Mr. Arnold would not wish it to be understood that no
chemicals were used in the sizing. (Mr. Arnold remarked
that chemicals were used in the sizing.) He (Mr. Bevan)
would point out that certain makes of paper, such as
Joynson's, not only contained no free acid, but actually
gave a slightly alkaline action to certain reagents.
-~nuQQQr»y»»
explosive: nitrates from the jute fibre.
by c. f. cross and e. j. bevan.
In a recent issue of Dingl. Polyt. J. 283, 88, we read a
communication by Otto Mulhiiuser under the title, " Die
Jute ein Rohstoff fur Shiesswolle."
Following the appearance of this communication, we
observe that the journal "Industries," 1892, 236, gives
prominence to an abstract of the author's results under the
title, " Nitrojute, a New Explosive."
Those who have studied the chemistry and chemical
technology of the jute fibre will, with ourselves, be anxious
to discover what Dr. Mulhauser has contributed to the
advance of either, or both* The substance of the commu-
nication in question we take to be the quantitative study of
some four preparations of the well-known explosive nitrates
obtainable from this fibre. The conditions of " nitration "
chosen were a comparatively long immersion in the nitrating
acid, the composition of which (ratio H2S04 : HN03) was
varied, as was also the proportion of acid to fibre. With
the long exposure (3 — 4 hours) to the nitrating acid, there
is, as the author states, a disintegration of the fibre bundles,
and the nitration is attended by secondary decomposition
and conversion into products soluble in the acid mixtures.
These facts were fully described by ourselves some few
years ago (Chem. Soc. J. 55, 202), and from them we
concluded that the highest yield of nitrate is represented by
an increase of weight of 55 per cent., corresponding approxi-
mately with the formation of a tetranitrate of the ligno-
cellulose, which latter we formulate for statistical purposes
as C1::H,s09. In this product the general structural features
of the original fibres are preserved. This high yield is only
obtained with exposures of short duration: in fact, after
15 minutes' immersion at the ordinary temperature, decom-
position is usually seen to ensue with liberation of gas and
the appearance of nitrous fumes.
In Miilhauser's experiments it is evident, from the
conditions of the treatment and from the low yield of the
products (130 per cent.), and from the disintegration of the
fibre bundles, that such secondary decompositions took
place, and that the products probably, therefore, approxi-
mate to derivatives of cellulose rather than of the ligno-
cellulose, the more oxidisable " non-cellulose " or lignone
constituents having suffered decomposition.
The author, in fact, regards his product as a cellulose
pentanitrate— C15HI505(ONO.:>)5, but appears to consider it
unnecessary to account for the intermediate steps by which
such a product has been obtained from a compound cellulose
(of the approximate formula n.C13H1809). We have
suggested the above explanation on the basis of our own
researches, and hope that it may receive due consideration
in any further investigations which the author may carry
out on the subject.
From the point of view of technological application, we
have always failed to see any advantage in the lignilied
textile fibres as raw materials for explosive nitrates.
There are a large number of raw materials approximating
more or less to a pure cellulose which can be obtained at
from 10?. to 25/. a ton, and which will yield on treatment
from 150 to 170 per cent, of explosive nitrate, superior in
explosive power and stability to the products obtainable
from jute ct similia. In our opinion, therefore, the applica-
tion of the latter is not within the range of practical
consideration.
* Dr. Miilhauser's views of the constitution of the jute fibre as a
chemical individual1 are hardly reconcilable with our own (Chem.
Soc. J. 1880, C«6 i 1SS2, 90 ; 1889, 199 : Chem. News, 77)
starch si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
215
Ou the other baud, there are certain raw fibrous materials
which yield nitrates of very ditinctive characteristics, e.g. ,
the Sunn hemp (Crotalana Jitncea) and the Madar fibre*
(bast fibre of Calotropis gigantea). These certainly invite
investigation, both from the scientific and practical point of
view, and we hope that Dr. Miilhauser will extend his
investigations to include these and other raw materials, as
also to clear up some of the points which he has left
untouched in his study of the " nitration " of the jute fibre.
BETTING'S BALANCE.
EXHIBITED BY MESSES. GROSSCURTH AND LUBOLDT.
This balance aims at two ends. One, securing greater
accuracy by reason of non-exposure of the working parts
during the operations of weighing. The second, preserving
the weights from the inevitable wear and tear which constant
handling entails, and also to facilitate the speed at which
weighing can be performed.
The beam is stiffened in an upward direction, and the
possibility of its bending reduced to a minimum. The planes
are all of agate.
The weights are made to rest, when not upon the pan,
on forked levers worked from the outside. The same
method is employed for the riders, so that the minimum of
exposure and the maximum of convenience are gained. A
provisional specification has been filed.
ittanrijesstn* Section.
Chairman : Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman : Edw. Schunck.
Committee :
J. Angell.
(i. H. Bailey.
R. F. Carpenter,
(i. E. Davis.
H. Griuishaw.
Harold B. Dixon.
J. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
A. Liebraann.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P.
C. Truby.
D. "Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
,T. Carter Bell.
Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
Meeting held Friday, February oth, 1892.
MR. IVAN LEVINSTEIN IN THE CHAIR.
A discussion took place on the New Building Bye-Laws,
1890 — 1891, issued by the Manchester Corporation, in the
course of which it was pointed out that annoyance and
injury would be inflicted on those engaged in the chemical
and allied trades if they were compelled to submit plans of
apparatus and plant before erecting them. It was also
contended that the word "building," as used in the bye-
laws, was intended to refer only to public builaings, ware-
houses, shops, and residences, and not to chemical works
• See Report on Indian Fibres by Cross, Bevan, and King, E. and
F. N. Spon, 1887.
or the plant therein ; and a desire was expressed to obtain
au authoritative definition of the term " building " from the
Corporation.
Finally the following resolutions were passed : —
1. "That, in the opinion of this meeting of the Man-
chester Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, annoy-
ance will be caused and injury inflicted on all persons
engaged in the chemical and allied industries if the bye-
laws of the Manchester Corporation, 1890 and 1891,
referring to new streets and buildings be interpreted by the
Corporation as also applicable to plant."
2. " That the Chemical Section of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce be requested to consider the Bye-
Laws of the Manchester Corporation of 1890 — 1891, refer-
ing to new streets and buildings, so far as the same affect
the interests of those engaged in the chemical and allied
industries."
Errata.
This Journal, 1892 (February Number), page 1.11, col. 1,
19 lines from bottom of page, after the word "moisture,"
insert the following : — "makes it appear probable that the
action is one of oxidation. The following word " That," to
begin a fresh sentence, as " That modification," &e.
This Journal, 1892 (January Number), page 8, col. 1,
the last line should read : —
" „ „ unaltered, G7s."
^ottinsbam £>nctom
University College, Nottingham.
F Clowes.
J. B. Coleman.
C. H. Field.
H. Forth.
E. Francis.
S. J. Pentecos
Chairman : L. Archbutt.
Committee :
E. W. Small.
H. J. Staples.
C. Taylor.
Sir John Turney.
J. T. Wood.
Treasurer: J. M. C. Paton.
Hon. Local Secretary :
R. L. Whiteley, University College, Nottingham.
Meeting held at University College on Friday,
December 4th, 1891.
THE ESTIMATION OF SILICA IN CLAY,
BY L. ARCHBUTT, F.I.C., F.C.S.
During the last few years, at least two writers have called
attention to errors inherent iu the usual process for deter-
mining silica in silicates, errors which have not recently
been discovered, but against which we have long been
warned, but perhaps not sufficiently, by Fresenius at any
rate.
George Craig (Chem. News, 60, 227) states that by
fusing pure silica or siliceous matter with mixed alkaiine
carbonates, decomposing with 1IC1, and evaporating to
dryness, not more than 97" 5 per cent, of the silica can be
found in the insoluble residue left on dissolving up, and
this statement has led James P. Gilbert to make a number
of experiments with silicates of different compositions, the
results of which are given in a valuable paper to be found
in the Chem. News, 61, 270 and 281.
Gilbert's experiments show that in the analysis of silicates
containing AL03, but which are practically free from CaO
and MgO, dehydration, even at the high temperature of
280° 0.| will not prevent some milligrammes of the silica
216
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. tMareh8i.is».
from passing into the filtrate, so that in accurate analysis
the silica in the filtrate must always he recovered: and,
secondly, that it is better to dehydrate at a temperature of
100° C, hecause the silica obtained is purer by dehydrating
at that temperature than at higher temperatures, and quite
as much is rendered insoluble.
As the presence of TiOcin clay makes it always necessary
to volatilise the silica with HF after weighing it, the
presence of a little more impurity is of no great conse-
quence ; and as silica cannot be prevented from passing
into the filtrate, it seems best to estimate silica on a separate
quantity of clay, and to estimate the other chief constituents
in a portion of the clay from which all silica has been
removed by treatment with HF and H.2S04.
It has been pointed out by L. Smith (Fres. Quant. Anal.,
Tth edition, 1, 192 ^ that the silica obtained by decomposing
clay by means of KHS04 is liable to contain a large amount
of impurity owing to the formation of a sparingly soluble
double sulphate of Al and K, but I was not prepared to
find that the silica obtained by this method is liable to be
considerably below the truth.
The clays which were subjected to analysis contained
SiO.:from 46 to 53 per cent., Al.O, from 21 to 24 per cent.,
Fe.,03 from 7 to 13 per cent., alkalis from 2 to 3j per
cent., HoO (combined and moisture) from 8 to 10 per cent.,
with smaller quantities of TiO;, Fe( ». C'aO, and MgO.
1 grm. of the clay, rubbed as fine as possible in an agate
mortar, was fused for 2 hours with 10 grms. of pure
KHS(>4 which had previously been fused till quite calm.
The temperature during the whole time of the fusion was
not higher than that required to maintain the contents of
the covered platinum crucible quite fluid. The melt was
then placed in cold water mixed with some H2S04, and left
to dissolve. The insoluble residue was washed until the
washings gave no precipitate with BaCls even on standing,
and the dried siliceous matter was ignited at the highest
temperature of the muffle until constant in weight. The
SiOo was then volatilised with HF and H2S04, and the
residue was again ignited until constant in weight. The
results obtained were as follows : —
Xo. of
Sample.
Time
fused.
Residue left by HF
Pure SiO. calculated as i
of original Clay.
1 hour
2 hours
Per Cent.
4-0
50-60
4-3
51-70
3-0
44-95
S-35
I9"2S
355
49-25
13-00
50*75
4-5
Wishing to obtain a confirmation of these results, I deter-
mined the Si02 in the first three samples by the mixed
carbonates method carried out as follows : — 1 grm. of
the finely-powdered clay was fused with 5 grms. of pure
mixed carbonates and a little KC103. The fusion was
extracted with water, decomposed with excess of HO,
and dried up over a steam-bath, the solution being stirred
well just at the last to reduce the residue to small grains.
The dish was covered with a clock glass and placed in the
air oven at 150 C. for one hour. It was then allowed to
cool, the residue was treated with 10 ec. of IIC1
(1-11 sp. gr.) and 20 to 30 cc. of water, and heated on the
steam bath for a short time in the covered dish, then
dried down and again heated to 150= C for one hour. '1 he
dry residue was now digested with 20 cc. HO in the
coveted dish for half an hour at a gentle heat, then water
was added, and the dish was heated on the steam bath.
Finally, the silica was filtered off, washed, dried, and
weighed, after ignition at a high temperature till constant.
The SiO.; was then volatilised as SiF^ and the residue was
weighed.
The following results were obtained : —
Xo. of Sample.
Pure Si02
Residue left by
HFar.d H..SO, oaleu-
lated as per Cent, of
the Original Clay.
Per Cent.
51-15
51-75
4565
0'45
0-95
It will be seen that Xo. 2 clay gave the same result by
this method as by the K1IS04 method; but Xos. 1 and 3
gave results from 0 ■ 5 to 0-7 per cent, higher. At this stage
the work had to be set aside for several weeks, and, on
resuming, it was thought desirable to try the effect of
decomposing the clays by fusion with mixed carbonates
and then evaporating with sulphuric acid.
It was decided, however, not to decompose the solution of
the fusion at ones with H.,S04 and evaporate, because,
according to Gilbert, this leads to obtaining silica which is
very bulky and gelatinous. The solution was therefore first
evaporated to dryness with HO, and then in the case of
Xo. 1 clay 20 cc. of pure concentrated H.2SOj were added,
and when the violent effervescence had ceased the lid was
removed from the dish and the evaporation was carried on
until HoSOj fumes were evolved. The residual contents of
the dish were cooled, treated with 20 cc. HO (l'l) and
some water, and digested hot for one hour, then filtered.
It was observed that the Si02 contained small lumps,
which were not altered by heating with HO. In the case
of Xo. 2 clay, 25 cc. of sulphuric acid were added to the
dry HO residue, and when action had ceased, the rod and
sides of the dish were rinsed down with water and the
solution evaporated until H.,80., fumes came off. In the
case of Xo. 3 clay, the residue left by evaporation with
HO was first treated with enough water to dissolve up
the KO and NaO, and then 20 cc. of pure sulphuric
acid were added, by degrees, to avoid loss by the violent
effervescence which occurred, and then evaporated till
II ^i >, fumes came off.
The SiO-. obtained in each of these experiments was
lumpy. After filtering and washing, the filtrates were
evaporated and again heated until H;.S04 fumes came off
strongly. On dissolving up in HO and water it was found
in each case that a further small quantity of silica had
been rendered insoluble. This further quantity was weighed
separately in the case of Xo. 1, but in Xos. 2 and 3 it was
added to the main quantity.
The following results were obtained :—
Xo.
Main
SiO»
SiO, out
of Filtrate.
Total Ture
SiOa
Residue left by HF
and H2S04 calculated
as per Cent, of
Original Clay.
Out of
Main
Silica.
Out of
Second
Silica.
1
Per Cent.
5D -02
Per Cent.
o-so
Per Cent.
51-32
52 73
1C-30
1-4
0-05
3
0
0
St
99
It will be seen that these results are from 0-17 to
0-98 per cent, higher than the last, although dehydration
had been effected by heating with H;S04. It seemed to
me, therefore, that the reason why the KHS04 method first
used had given low- results might be due to the fact that the
clays had not been ignited before fusion, and that the water
which they contained had never been completely expelled
at the temperature of the fusion.
To test this, 1 grm. of Xo. 1 clay was taken first heated to
strong redness for 10 minutes, and then fused with KHS04 for
2 j hours at as high a temperature as could be obtained with-
out driving off much H2S04. The fusion when cold was heated
March 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
217
with HCl (l'l) and water in about equal volumes, instead
of treating with cold dilute H.,S04. This was done to try
and obtain a purer silica. After filtering and washing the
filtrate was evaporated withiiocc.of pure concentrated 1 1 ;S( >4
and heated until fumes came off strongly for some time.
This resulted in the obtaining of a little more silica, which
was filtered off. The filtrate was evaporated a second time
until H.2SO.| fumes came off strongly, and again dissolved
up. This time a mere trace of insoluble matter remained,
it was, however, filtered off and the two recovered traces
were weighed separately. The result obtained was : —
PerCent. Per Cent.
Pure Si02 (main quantity) . . . 50*96 plus a residue of 4"(>9
Pure SiOa (from filtrates) ... 0'45plus a residue of 0*05
Total pur,. SiOi 51-41
It seems from these experiments almost hopeless to obtain
by a single dehydration the whole of the silica, and I have
therefore provisionally adopted the following method as
being upon the whole the least troublesome and th.- most
reliable.
The Process.
1. Strong ignition of 1 grin, of the finely powdered clay.
L\ Fusion with .3 grms. of pure mixed carbonates.
3. Extraction with water (about 200 cc.), acidifying with
HC1 in good excess, and evaporating to dryness on the
steam-bath in a porcelain dish, reducing the residue to small
grains.
4. Heating the dish and dry residue in an air oven to
150° C. for 1 hour.
5. Dissolving up in HCl and water, filtering, and washing
the silica.
6. Evaporating the filtrate with 20 cc. of strong H2SO.(
till fumes are evolved very strongly. The acid will fume
before it is fully concentrated, and the object to be aimed at
is to heat till the acid is fully concentrated.
7. Dissolving up in HCl and water, filtering, and washing
tin' additional small quantity of silica.
8. Igniting the mixed silicas at the highest temperature
of the muffle until constant in weight. Then volatilising
with 111-' and a few drops of H;8(J4, and igniting the residue
till constant in weight. The difference is pure Si02. The
last three out of the six clays were treated in this way, but
the recovered Si02 was weighed separately for information.
PureSiOj (perCent.)
No.
Residue left by IIP.
calculated as per Cent.
of original clay.
1st ppt.
2nd ppt,
Total.
1st ppt.
2nd ppt.
4
50-72
0-70
51-42
0-15
0'G5
5
51-32
0-90
52-23
0-15
0-03
6
51-98
0-40
52-33
11-21
0-05
For easy comparison I have arranged the results in the
following table: —
Percentage of Puke SiO., obtained.
No
Byfusi I'
ununited Clay
witn kiisi>;
for 2 lirs. at
temperal ure
just bigli
By fusion of
ignited Clay
with IvIImi,
nil- 21 Ins. at
higher
temperature.
enough to keep anil evaporating
tin- mass filtrate with
Suite fluid. , II.SO4.
By fusion
with mixed
Carbonates
and
dehydration
i wice
at 15ii' C. in
the usual way
By fusion
wiih mixed
Carbonates,
dehydration
once at
l.-.ft ('., and
heating filtrate
with ILSO,.
50-65
51-70
44'95
49-25
49-25
50-75
51-15
5f75
45-115
51
32
52
73
4(1
3G
51
42
52
22
52-33
It is evident from these results that sulphuric acid cannot
be depended upon as a dehydrating agent for silica unless
the evaporation be pushed to the extreme.
Discussion.
Dr. Clowes asked if any check experiments had been made
with pure silica, and wished to know if the highest results
obtained really represented the total amount of silica present
in the clay?
Mr. Whitei.ey asked if any other dehydrating agents
had been tried besides pure sulphuric acid ?
Mr. Archbutt replied in the negative, and said that the
results did not pretend to he any more than one of those
incomplete investigations which not unfrequently had to be
undertaken in the ordinary routine of laboratory work.
f>ork9l)ire lectio it.
Chairman: Sir James Kitson, Bart.
Vice-Chairman: Dr. P. H. Bowman.
Committee :
A. H. Allen. J. Lewkowitscli.
\V. Breffltt. C. RawsOD.
T. Fairley. Jxs. Sharp.
A. Hess. A. Smitliells.
R. Holliday. G. Ward.
J. J. Hummel. T. Whitaker.
Son. Local Secretary .-
H. R. Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Notices of Tapers and Communications should be addressed to
the Hon. Local Secretary.
SESSION 1891-92.
1892 :-
April 4th.— Annual Meeting.
Mr. Thomas Fairley. "On the Analysis of Cr&l-Gas for
Impurities."
Mr. 11. R. Procter. "On the Analysis of Ganibier." (II.)
Meeting held Monday, March "th, 1892.
SIR JAMES KITSON, BART., IN THE CHAIR,
MEASURES.
Bit SYDNEY LUPTON, M.A.
At first sight nothing seems more easy than for a Govern-
ment to provide a uniform and accurate system of measures,
and to render the use of it compulsory throughout its
dominions. When we examine a little further into the
matter, we cease to be surprised that all the labour and
ability which has for so long been expended upon the
subject has produced such very unsatisfactory results.
Our system of measures has gradually grown up by
a series of survivals of what was considered to be the
fittest, and ought in reality to be treated from an historical
point of view. Want of time, and the fact that I am
addressing those specially interested in the use of units as
they now are, compels me to omit all historical and
theoretical details, and many different kinds of measures
such as those of value, time, and angles, and to confine my
remarks to the more common measures of length, area,
volume, mass or weight, density or specific gravity.
218
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March Si, 1892.
Two systems of measures only are so widely used as to
require special discussion, the English or imperial system,
and the metric or French system.
Speaking very roughly, the imperial measures may be
said to be used more or less in Great Britain and Ireland,
the British possessions, the United States, and to a small
extent in Russia. In all these countries the metric system
is permissive. The metric system is used throughout the
continent of Europe, except in Russia and Turkey; in
Central and Southern America, and in Japau. In all these
countries survivals of older systems are used along with
the metric. Outside these limits each country uses a special
system of measures of its own.
Before we can usefully discuss the two systems, it is
necessary to dwell in some detail upon three conditions
which are universally present and affect all systems of
measurement. They are (i.) temperature ; (ii.) the
pressure oi the air ; (iii.) gravitation, or the attraction of
the earth.
(i.) Speaking generally, substances expand when they
are heated, and therefore some definite temperature must
be chosen at which our measures are to be made or to
which they must be reduced by calculation.
In the English system 62° F., 16-6 C, or one-sixth of the
distance between the freezing and the boiling point of
water, has been selected. Considerable care and accurate
thermometers are required to keep a body at this tempera-
ture for any length of time ; on the other hand, it is so near
the ordinary temperature of our rooms, that for rough
purposes any correction may be neglected.
The standard temperature in the metric system is 0° C. or
32° F. ; it is easily and correctly obtained for any length of
time by the use of melting ice, but is so far from the
temperature at which we live that considerable corrections
must in most cases be made.
A
Coeff. Lin. Exp.
for 1° C.
Exp. 0° to
16-6° C.
8-1
S-4
7-S
21-5
2-5
0-56
0-000019
0-00001771
0-0000112
0-0000086
0-000009
O-0CI00O5
0-001131
Bronze {Baily's metal)
0-0003
0' 00019
0-00014
0-00015
O'OOOOS
Coeff. Cuh. Exp.
for 1°C.
Exp. 0° to
it;-o°c.
Water . . .
Mercury .
Platinum
Air
From 1° C.
li' 18
0-0000257
0-00867
0-00112
11-1103
0-00013
0-061
1-003
apparent weight + the weight of the air which it displaces
— the weight of the air displaced by the weights —
(ii.) The second condition affects only the apparent mass
of bodies. We live and work in an atmospheric ocean
which exercises a pressure varying about a pound each way
from a mean value of 14-7 lb. per square inch (1,033 '3
grm. per scm.) on every surface exposed to it. Solids and
liquids are practically unaffected by this change of pressure,
but the mass of a given volume of gas. such as the air itself,
varies directly with the pressure upon it. The pressure of
the air is measured by the barometer, that is by the height
of the column of mercury which balances it.
On the English system the standard height of the
barometer is 30 in. at 62° F.; on the metric S3 stem,
760 mm. at 0' C. Hence the English standard is equal to
30 x 25 *4
- = 759-72 mm. of the metric standard.
When two bodies are counterpoised in a balance, each
apparently loses a weight equal to the weight of the air
which it displaces. So that the true weight ol' a body is its
As A w I
The weight (a) of a cubic centimetre of air at the tem-
perature t° C. under a barometric pressure h mm. when
the tension of aqueous vapour is v mm. and the attraction
due to gravitation is g, is —
0-001293 H - 3W8
O) = , o., , * -^7T- x 9l9*
1-^0-00367 t
760
The correction is usually a small one, amounting to the
addition of 1-06 grm. when a litre of water is weighed
against bronze (A 8-4) weights.
(iii.) The last condition introduces a small correction
when masses are compared by a spring-balance at different
places, or work is measured in units, such as foot-pounds or
kilogramme-metres, which depend upon the attraction of the
earth.
The attraction which the earth exercises upon a body is
measured by twice the distance through which the body
would fall freely towards it from rest in a second. This
distance is usually measured in feet or metres, and
symbolised by g. By comparing pendulum observations
taken as far as possible all over the world, it has been found
that g varies with the latitude. Each nation used to take
the value of g in its own capital as the standard attraction
of the earth, but the value of g at sea-level in latitude 45°
has now been generally accepted as the unit. The value of
g at any other place in latitude <p may be calculated from
g=gib (1 — 0-00257 cos 2 </>). If the place of observation be
situated on a fiat plain li metres above sea-level, g is further
decreased by a coefficient (1 — 0-000000 2 A). The following
table gives a few of the more important values of g at sea-
level : —
.V = gib (1 - 0-00257 cos 2 <f>)
ga = 32-1727 ft. = 9-80606 metres.
Approximate Place.
Equator
Bordeaux
Paris O
Lizard Point.
Taunton
London s.i ). .
Tewkesbury .
Nottingham .
Leeds
Harrogate . . ,
Newcastle ...
Edinburgh . ,
Brsemar
Dunrobin...,
Kirkwall
Poole
0°
45°
48° 50' 11"
50°
51°
01° 29' 53"
52°
53°
53° 48' 20"
54°
55°
56°
57°
58°
59°
90°
99743
0000000
0003432
„ 441)3
., 5780
.. 8217
.. 7084
., 777H
., 7042
„ 8790
„ 9627
(1010453
„ 11266
„ 1200.-)
„ 25700
A pound weight true at Bordeaux would apparently weigh
nearly 5j grains too much on a spring-balance in Leeds, and
the work done in lifting a pound through a foot in Leeds is
about 1 • 0008 of that done in performing the same operation
in Bordeaux.
In each of the systems there are two fundamental units,
that of length and that of mass : —
The yard is the distance between two fine lines cut on
plugs of gold sunk in a bar of Baily's metal.
The pound is the mass of a cylinder of platinum marked
P.S. This cylinder has the specific gravity 21 • 1572 com-
March 31,1392.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
219
pared to water at 62 : F. ami displaces 0*40282 grains of
standard air.
The metre is the length of a rectangular platinum bar
known as the Metre des Archives.
The kilogramme is the mass of a cylinder of platinum
known as the Kilogramme des Archives. (A 20'5IS7 ?)
Both these metric standards are not very satisfactory, the
platinum is of low and uncertain density and probably
impure. The shape of the metre is not theoretically the
best and it has been accidentally injured.
Numerous copies of these standards have been made to
save the wear and tear of frequent reference to them.
Thus the brass commercial standard pound ( W) (A 8 ■ 143)
has the same weight in vacuo as P.S. displaces 1 ■ 04706 grains
of standard air and is assumed as the unit for all ordinary
weights.
The brass commercial standard kilo. (A 8 -206) is used
for a similar purpose in France.
From these fundamental units all the other subsidiary
i lined ; thus the acre is 4,840 square yards, and
the hectare is 10,000 square metres.
The measures of volume would seem to follow naturally
from the cubes of the measures of length, but in practice
tlu-y arc obtained from the measures of mass.
The gallon is the volume occupied by 10 lb. of water
weighed in air against brass (A 8' 143) weights, understand
at sea-level in London. It is nearly 0' 16 of a cubic foot.
The litre is the volume occupied by a kilo, of water at
at 4° C. in vacuo; for all practical purposes it is a cubic
decimetre. This close connexion between the measures of
volume and length is a marked advantage in the metric
system.
The so-called Mohr's litre, somewhat largely used by
German men of science, is the volume occupied by a kilo-
gramme of water weighed in air at 1 7 • 5 = C. and 760 mm.
against brass weights ; it is about 1-00231 of a true litre.
The density of a substance is measured by the number of
units of mass contained in the unit of volume of it.
The specific gravity of a substance is measured by the
number of times it is heavier than an equal volume of some
standard substance, usually water.
Owing to the relation between" the kilo, and the cubic
decimetre of water in the metric system, specific gravity
referred to water at 4° C. and density measured in kilo, per
cubic decimetre or grammes per cubic centimetre are
expressed by the same number.
In the English system, specific gravity must be multiplied
by 62*2786 (mass of a cubic foot of water) to obtain
density in commercial pounds per cubic foot.
For technical purposes use is made of many hydrometer
scales which give specific gravities referred not to water but
to some other liquid too often entirely hypothetical. Three
common examples may be mentioned.
Sykes' hydrometer, used in the English Excise, sinks to
zero in " standard alcohol " which has a specific gravity of
0'825 at 60° F. The scale is marked with 11 divisions,
and weights numbered from 10 to 90 can be added below
the surface of the liquid. A table supplied with the instru-
ment gives the proportion of " proof spirit " specific gravity
0-919 at 60 F.
The scale reading of Twaddell's hydrometer multiplied by
5 added to 1,000 gives the specific gravity referred to water
taken as 1,000.
In Beaume's scale for liquids heavier than water, the zero
point is the density of water, while the specific gravity of a
solution of 15 parts of salt in 85 parts of water is marked
15 (A 1 ■ 1116), equal divisions are continued to 68 at the
base of the rod (A 1 ■ 8425).
In the metric system all multiples and sub-multiples of
the unit are obtained by the use of 10 and its powers.
The convenience of this method for working at sight or for
using tables is enormous, but the multiplier is occasionally
too large or too small for convenience, i.e., the foot is much
more useful than the decimetre.
The English multipliers seem to have been chosen hap-
hazard and the result is not satisfactory. A mile contains
1,760 yards and a yard 36 inches, it does not occur to every-
one automatically that a mile contains 63,360 inches.
The relative advantages of each system may be briefly
summed up as follows: —
Of the metric system —
(i.) Decimal multiplication and division.
(ii.) Close connexion between measures of length, area,
volume, mass, and density,
(iii.) Standard temperature easily obtained.
Of the English system —
(i.) The foot and pound are found practically to be
more convenient units than the decimetre and kilo-
gramme,
(ii.) The standard temperature is nearly the mean
ordinary temperature, hence the reductions are small
and may frequently be neglected,
(iii.) Multiplication and sub-multiplication by 12 or 2
is often more convenient than that by 10.
One of the strongest and most effective arguments for
the introduction of the metric system into France was the
intolerable burden of the great variety of measures which it
superseded. The same argument has not lost its force in
England at the present time. Almost every petty town and
every trade has its own special measures for the bewilder-
ment of the learner and the confusion of the trader.
Many local measures seem luckily to be dying out, and
there seems some hope that the 1 6 different acres which
were in use in Great Britain and Ireland a few years ago
may shortly be reduced to one. On the other hand, each
trade seems to demand its own peculiar measures ; thus, an
imperial stone is 14 lb., a stone of glass 5 lb., a stone of
meat 8 lb. in London, 10 lb. in Leeds, a stone of sugar or
butter 16 lb., and a stone of hemp 32 lb.
Owing to the complication of our systems of measures
but few children in our elementary schools progress in
arithmeric beyond the tedious subjects of measures and
money, and a very easy calculation shows that at least
500,000,000 working hours are annually wasted in elementary
schools.
Trade customs also afford to the dishonest trader great
assistance in fraud ; a purchaser would expect a blanket
12 quarters wide to measure 9 feet ; he finds by the custom
of the trade it measures only 7 feet. A quarter being not
9 inches but 7. A further iniquity is the introduction into
trade of " reputed " pounds or stones, which simply means
that the purchaser buys paper at the price he is willing to
give for tea or tobacco. In any individual retail transaction
this seems a very small amount, but the true measure is
the weight of paper used by the retail trader in a year.
Each ton he has bought at 3<f . a pound and sold as tea at
2s., has put 196?. of illicit gain into his pocket.
Everyone will probably admit that such trade measures
and customs as the above ought to be absolutely and entirely
abolished.
Three ways out of the difficulties of our present system
seem to be possible, though each way bristles with
difficulties —
(i) to adopt an entirely new system.
(ii) to adopt the metric system with possibly some small
alterations which would probably be accepted by those
nations which now use it.
(iii.) to keep as nearly as possible our present units, but
to modify the sub-multiples and multiples, and to make the
connexion with the metric system easy.
(i.) No one has yet been bold enough to propose an
entirely new system of measures for general adoption. The
C.G.S. system, which expresses all measures in terms of
the centimetre, gramme, and mean solar second, has met with
very limited acceptance, even among men of science, and in
practice the Board of Trade unit, the 1,000 watt-hours, or
3,600,000 volt-coulombs, has invaded the very electrical
sanctuary of the method.
For engineering purposes Rankine proposed the general
use of the foot, pound, and second.
Both these systems, though good in theory, require the use
of very small" and very large numbers. We are more
accustomed to think and speak of a week than of 604,800
seconds.
(ii.) Most men of science, who are habituated to the
facilities of the metric system, desire at once to make it,
with all its faults, universally compulsory.
220
THE JOURNAL O? THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31,1892.
I may quote for tlnir consideration from Mr. Chrisholm's
report to the Eoyal Commission in 1809, rive slifjhtlj-
modified objections to the metric system, and add three
others : —
(a.) The metre and the kilogramme are not the scientific
units which they profess to be, but only a definite length
and a definite mas-.
(i.) The relation between the kilogramme and the cubic
decimetre of water is not exact.
(e.) The original metric standards are very imperfect in
construction, and to a certain extent impaired by use.
They are the absolute property of the French Govern-
ment.
((i.) Though the decimal division has great advantages,
there are some counterbalancing disadvantages. Thus,
while 10 is exactly divisible only hy 5 and 2 ; 12 may
be divided by 6, 4, 3, 2. And again, to weigh from 1 to
10 decimal subdivisions, five weights — 1, 1, 1, 2, and 5
— are required, while with binary subdivisions, five
weights — 1, 1, 2, 4, 8 — will weigh from 1 to 16. Duo-
decimal or binary division seem in some respects more
adapted to the practical needs of the people, e.g.,
mechanical engineers use the binary subdivisions of
the inch.
(e.) More than 30,000,000 of our present measures would
have to be thrown aside as useless, and the cost of
replacing them would be considerable. A large number
of bottles, casks, &c. would have to be re-made.
(/".) Though the metric system has been permissive iu
England since 18G4, and in India since 1870, it has not
come at all into practical use, which seems to show
that the need is not equivalent to the trouble and cost
of the change.
(jr.) The metric system has no units so practically con-
venient as the foot and the pound.
(Ji.') The metric names are so cumbrous and pedantic that
they must be changed before the system is introduced
into England.
I believe that the opinion of men of business, on the
other baud, is almost unanimously opposed to the intro-
duction of the metric system.
Some may at once ascribe this opposition to the natural
conservatism and obstinacy of the British mind, especially
where trade customs are concerned. I prefer to attempt to
investigate the causes which give rise to the feeling.
So far as measures are concerned, the operations of trade
may be classed as manufacturing, internal, and external.
(a.) In the great majority of manufacturing operations
proportions arrived at by trial and continually used are
quite familiar to the workmen. In comparatively few cases
does the master or scientific adviser arrive at theoretical
results by the aid of the metric system and translate them
for the use of the workman.
(i.) In the case of internal trade the manufacturer,
wholesale dealer, and retailer soon becomes familiar with
the comparatively few measures used in his own special
branch, and gets over any difficulties of calculation by
traditional rule of thumb or the use of tables. Unfortunately,
as has already been pointed out, so far as the general
public go, the legal maxim "caveat emptor" is onlv too
true, and opportunities for fraud should be minimised by
the abolition of trade customs. Were this reform strictly
Carried out, in retail trade at all events, experience in France
docs not seem to show the great superiority of the metric
system.
(c.) External trade. Many of our Consuls abroad declare
that we lose a good deal of export trade owing to supplying
our goods of a length and weight not generally understood,
and that we should sell more if the goods were packed
according to the metric system. How far there is real
ground I'm- this suggestion is a matter for the careful eon-
sideration of traders ; but an outsider would imagine that
if the necessity existed each firm could for itself make the
few changes required without waiting for the initiation of
the ( lovernment. The mere conversion of English to metric
measures is very easily accomplished by the aid of a table
of multiples which can almost be printed on a visiting-
card.
The total value of British imports and exports in 1890 is
returned as 748,000,000/. ; of which 340 millions were
transacted with countries using British measures : 300
millions with countries using metric measures; and 108
millions with countries using special measures.
It does not seem that under any of these three heads
there is great urgency for an immediate change.
(iii.) In conclusion it may be expected that I should
attempt the impossible, and mention modifications which
might render our present S}rstem more satisfactory.
The objects to be aimed at seem to be (a.) absolute
uniformity throughout the Empire ; (6.) decimalisation ;
(c.) convenient relationships between the different kinds of
measures; ((/.) easy conversion to and from the metric system.
Many proposals have been made, but none fulfils all, or
even the greater part of these conditions. The first very
slight reform, uniformity of measures throughout even
Great Britain and Ireland, would probably be stoutly resisted
by traders. We should no longer have the gallon divided
into four quarts, but into also six wine bottles holding
11,666| grains of water each. The gallon of beer, 33/40 of
the imperial gallon, divided into eight reputed pints, and so on.
If we assume that the foot and the pound are the most
convenient fundamental units, to bring them into con-
formity with the metric system, each must be somewhat
increased, and we have : —
Measures of Mass.
1 New Pound = 1-10231 Old Pound = A kilo.
Value of New Weighs in
Of Old
Weights in
Old Pounds.
^ew Pounds.
Old Pounds.
O'OOOl
a- 11
•000113
o-oi
o-i
1-0
io-o
ioo-o
2.1100-0
o-on
o-u
1-1
11*0
110-2
2,204-6
0-0039
0-0025
1-0
IfO
112-0
2,240-0
The ton would be equal to the metric tonne, and the
pound to half a kilo. Many of the existing weights could
be utilised by slightly reducing them.
The changes required in the measures of the length are
somewhat more considerable. According to Kupffer, the
metre must be reduced by four parts in a million, that a
kilogramme of water at 4° C. may occupy a cubic decimetre.
Suppose this change universally accepted, and the foot
taken as one-third of the metre.
Measures of Length.
1 New Foot = 1-09363 Old Foot = | metre.
1 New Foot Square = 1-196 Old Foot Square.
1 New Foot Cube = 1-308 Old Foot Cube.
Value of New Measures in
New Feet. , Old Feet.
Old Measures
Old Feet.
Jot
Foot
o-oi
o-i
1-0
lo-0
loro
iiiiiini
io,ooo-o
100,000-0
0-0109 J"= 0-104
0-1093 1 0-083
1-09 1-0
3'2S 3-0
ln-9 6-0
Chain
109-4 CO
ajiio
1093-0 G60-0
101.3G-3 6280*0
109363-0 158 Ml -0
March si 189?.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
221
Three feet would be a metre, and three furlongs a kilo-
metre, the new mile would be rather more than twice the
old one. The old inch, so widely known for engineering
purposes, would he very nearly represented by eight jots.
The length of 3° or 180' of mean latitude on the surface
of the earth is 180 x fi,o7G = 1,093,680 old feet, or almost
exactly 100 new miles. Hence if we return to the old
definition of the knot as 1' of mean latitude, we have the
simple relation 0 knots = 5 miles.
The old acre of four roods contained 10 square chains of
6G feet or 43,560 square feet. Though the change is
considerable it seems best to derive the measures of surface
directly from the squares of the measures of length.
Measures of Area.
Value of New Measures in
New Ohl
Square Feet. Square Feet.
Of Old
Measures in
Old
Square Feet,
Hole..
Rood .
Acre ..
100 110-1! 272'26
100 00 j 11060-0 lOS'JO'O
1000 000 ! 1190000-0 *3560-0
The new acre would he equal to about 27-45 old acres
and the new rood to 14/51 of an old acre.
The Fahrenheit should be replaced by the Centigrade
scale of temperature, and efforts should be made to abolish
the last traces of Keaumur. The standard temperature, for
scientific and accurate work should still be the melting
point of ice, 0° C. As a subsidiary standard temperature
for all ordinary purposes, 17° C. or 290° absolute would be
a great convenience. Thermometers accurate at that tem-
perature to 1° are now obtainable at a comparatively cheap
rate, and there does not seem to be the same necessity
which there used possibly to be for reducing say all
barometric readings for meteorological purposes to 0° C.
For all trade purposes, specific gravities referred to water
at 17° C. are sufficiently near if taken in the laboratory
without reduction.
The standard height of the barometer should be still
taken abroad as 700 mm., but at 17° C. instead of at 0°C.
This would be equal to 22-8 inches at 173C, a small
reduction of about 3 parts in 1,000 would have to be
made in the normal masses of gases, and the coefficient of
expansion would become 0-00345.
A cubic foot of water at 4" C. would weigh 2000/27 =
7 I ■ 1 174 lb. ; but since a cubic foot of water at 4° C. becomes
1-001162 cubic feet at 17° C. and | of a cubic foot of air
at 17 C. weighs about O-OS lb., a cubic foot of water would
weigh at 17 C. in air against brass weights very nearly
74 lb. Hence specific gravities referred to water at 17° G.
multiplied by 74 would give densities in commercial pounds
per cubic foot.
Since a kilo, of water weighed iu air at 17° C. occupies
1 -002223 cubic decimetres, a true cubic decimetre under
the same conditions weighs 997-78 grnis.
The gallon or volume of 10 lb. of water in air against
brass weights would contain 135 '3 new or 305-4 old cubic
inches, and might be divided into five bottles or quarts and
10 pints. If a similar definition were accepted in the
metric system a quart would be a litre. The use of these
measures should be restricted to liquids ; coals, grain,
fruit, and other solids in small pieces should be sold only
by weight.
The following numbers show the relations of the new to
the old measures :—
46-2 cubic inches.
Old quart C9'4
Old pint 3f7
New quart... 61*1
New pint.... S0"5
Reputed quart . 57 '2
Reputed pint . . 2S'6
The pharmaceutical fluid ounce contains 437 '5 grains
of water, the new fluid ounce would contain 770 grains, h
would possibly, however, be better to follow the German
example and make up prescriptions by weight. A scruple
of 10 grains, rather less than half the old scruple, might
possibly be convenient.
Specific gravity referred to water at 17° C. would be
expressed by the same number as stones per gallon or
pounds per pint.
According to the old measures at 0° C, a cubic foot of
air weighed 0-080728 lb., and of hydrogen 0-005592 lb.
To convert to the new measures at 17° C. —
(1 -09363)3
" 1 ■ 06239 x
1023
1-117
hence a cubic foot of air weighs 0-09016 lb., and of hydrogen
0-006246 lb.
For all practical purposes 100 cubic feet of air weigh
9 lb., and specific gravities referred to air at 17° C. multiplied
by 9 give densities iu lb. per 100 cubic feet.
Discussion.
The Chairman opened the discussion by remarking that
he found no difficulty in our present system in ordinary
commercial transactions, but in dealing with countries using
the metrical system great confusion arose. In a recent
visit to America he found a 2,000 lb. ton was in use
throughout the iron trade. He considered that there was
no possibility of displacing the inch as the mechanical unit
of length, the inch being used iu India and the Colonies,
United States of America, Mexico, South America, &c. At
the same time, in fulfilling some French and Spanish contracts
his mechanics had Lad occasion to use the metrical system,
and he found that the English mechanic readily comprehends
and works the system and finds it very convenient, lie-
considered the adoption of the metrical system would
greatly facilitate the comparison of prices, &c., but would
have no great advantage in ordinary commercial transactions.
He would strongly advocate two simple reforms, viz. : —
I. A 2.000 lb. ton.
II. A 100 1b. cwt.
Dr. Lewkowitsoii agreed with Mr. Lupton in con-
demning the hydrometer scales in use, TwaddeJl's degrees
as meaningless, and Beaume's several scales as entirely
irrational.
He inquired why pounds should be preferable to kilos.
He contended that in practice there was a greater liability to
error by using the English measures (e.g., converting pounds
into quarters and hundredweights) than in the metrical
system, where ouly the ordinary mistakes made iu adding
were possible.
The contention that the kilo, was not exactly what it
pretended to be was merely sentimental ; probably 100
years hence further research would show corrections to be
necessary of which we had at present no knowledge.
With regard to the difficulty of effecting the change, he
recollected the transition stage in Prussia ; the system was
first introduced in the schools, and was rapidly adopted in
commercial circles.
So far as he had studied them in the short time allowed,
Mr. Lupton's proposed measures appeared good. The idea of
making the pound equal to half a kilo, was that adopted by
the Zollverein iu 1858, and this measure made the transition
to the kilo, easier.
He would prefer to use 0° C. rather than 17° as the
standard temperature, and so obviate the errors due to
incorrect calibrations of a thermometer.
Mr. Procter suggested that the reason why the metrical
system had not come into use was that it had not been
taught largely in schools, although it was a legal (allowed)
measure and of much greater importance than many of the
extraordinary measures taught. By teaching the metrical
system to children they would be able to compare the two
systems and would doubtless become dissatisfied with our
present measures. He would suggest as practical reforms
that the names of the metrical units could be shortened,
and the denomination written directly after the whole
222
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[March 31, 1892.
number and before the decimal figures, to avoid errors in
the decimal place., e.g., instead of ] 3 ■ ."< 7 G kilos, write
13 k, 576, a method used in Germany.
Professor Smithells also remarked that the metrical
system was too seldom taught, even in schools bearing a
good reputation, and he seldom found a new student who
had any real idea of the magnitude concerned. He thought
the effect of teaching it, as opposed to our own irrational
system, would be beneficial, the system being logical and
concise, and theiefore tending to clearness of thought. He
believed the introduction of a new system would be largely
dependent on philanthropic and public-spirited endeavour
on the part ol those anxious for the convenience of their
fellow creatures and in the pressing exigencies of business.
He considered the use of " proof " spirit and irrational
hydrometers by the Excise Department to be a disgrace to
the country.
He thought certain reforms, such as the introduction of
rational hydrometers, the doing away with the local varia-
tions of the stone weight, and the adoption of the 2,000 lb.
ton, should be immediately attempted.
As to Mr. Lupton's measures, he doubted whether it
would be easier to adopt them than the metrical system.
Mr. G. W. Si.ajtkk, in reference to hydrometers, re-
marked that he had found them so faulty in graduation that
he always used specific gravity flasks or the hydrostatic
balance.
Mr. Lotton, in replying, said that he had chosen 17° C.
as his standard because for ordinary work this would
involve no correction for temperature. When the standard
was fixed at 0° C, there were no thermometers in the
market sufficiently accurate for taking the ordinary tempe-
rature, whereas now a bs. instrument would be exact enough
for ordinary work.
The pound was proved to be a more practical unit than
the kilo. The German " pfuud " and French " demikilo. "
were more extensively used in retail trade than the kilo.
His scheme was merely a rough draft, and he was sur-
prised that it had not been more severely criticised.
(glascjoto anti £>rotttsf) &Htiom
Chairman : E. C. C. Stanford.
Vice-Chairman: A. Crura Brown.
i. Christie.
W. J. A. Donald.
D. B. Dott.
C.J. Ellis.
C. A. Pawsitt.
Wm. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
R. A. Iuglis.
Committee :
R. Irvine.
J. Falconer Kins.
G. McRoberts.
T. P. Miller.
J. Pattison.
J. B. Readman.
E. Smith.
R. R. Tatlock.
Bon. Treasurer: W. J. Chrystal.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. G. G. Henderson, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to bo
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1891-92.
April 6th (Glasgow) :—
Mr. C. A. Fawsitt. " The ' Dry Heat ' Vulcanisation of Rubber
witli Special Reference to the Use of an improved Vulcaniser.'
Meeting held in tin- Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh,
on Tuesday, February 2nd, 1892.
PROFESSOR iiail BROWN, D.SI ., P.R.S., IX THE CHAM.
THE PUOPERTIES AXD MAXUEACTUKE (IF
CELLULOID.
BY WALTER HOGBEN, P.C.S.
Celluloid is a frank forgery of many of the auxiliaries of
civilised life. Its existence depends on the closeness of
its resemblance to what is scarce, and, in consequence,
costly.
The methods necessary to produce so close a resemblance
to the real article cannot be followed out without con-
siderable cost, and it is necessary to bear in mind that the
cheapness of really good articles in celluloid is only relative
to the value of the originals. Of these latter, perhaps
ivory is the most important, and the decline in the supply
necessarily tells heavily in favour of this department of the
imitative industry; and, certainly, no better substitute than
celluloid has as yet been found. But, indeed, it may
generally be stated, as the specimens exhibited will show,
that many of the results obtained, besides ivory, such as
tortoiseshell, coral, amber, &c. resemble so closely the
article copied that only experts can detect the difference.
In the case of the imitations to which I have hitherto
alluded, the material is in a hard state, but it is also made
in a more pliable form, which is used extensively in the
manufacture of collars and cuffs, resembling closely when
well made those in linen, the appearance of the threads and
stiches being effectively produced.
The discovery of celluloid is said to have been made by
a -Mr. Hyatt. Newark, U/nited States, but a patent for a
similar material was taken out by an English chemist, the
late Alexander Parkes. There can be no doubt that the
latter produced a material corresponding in every respect
to celluloid, which he named " Parkesine."
Celluloid is made from cellulose, which having gone
through a nitrating process is dissolved by suitable solvents
and then dried. Cellulose being, therefore, the base of the
manufacture, naturally comes to be considered first. It
has been defined, in a few words, as "the residue from the
exhaustive alternate treatment of vegetable tissues, with
alkaline solvents and weak oxydants."
The substance of bleached cotton may be taken as the
typical cellulose, the process of bleaching having removed
the foreign substances with which the cellulose is associated
in the plant. A neat and clean arrangement for the
purpose of bleaching pulp is a good deal used by paper
manufacturers and others in France, where, I may say,
much of my practical experience has been gained. It is
known as Hermite's electro-chemical process of bleaching,
and a short description of the apparatus may be found
interesting in this connection. The electrolyser consists of
a bath made of galvanised cast iron. The negative elec-
trodes are formed by a certain number of zinc discs upon
two small rods or shafts, which turn round slowly. Between
each disc are placed the positive electrodes, wrhich are
composed of platinum gauze fitted into ebonite frames, the
platinum gauze being soldered to a piece of lead and
perfectly isolated. Each frame or positive electrode
communicates by the piece of lead with a bar of copper
which traverses the electrolyser, and the contact is made
by means of a nut and screw, so that each frame containing
the platinum gauze can be taken out while the machine is
working. The copper bar to which are fixed the positive
electrodes is in communication with the positive pole of the
dynamo. The current is distributed in all the platinum
electrodes, from which it passes, through the medium
used, to the zinc discs forming the negative electrodes, and
thence to the negative pole of the dynamo. Each elec-
trolyser produces in twenty-four hours of work a power of
bleaching equal to 125 kilos. (275 lb.) chloride of lime at
33 per cent, chlorine, and requires S.1, horse-power. The
liquor is a mixture of chloride of magnesium, common salt,
March si, 1892.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. 223
and caustic soda, and is pumped through the electrolyser
until the liquor is strong enough for use, when it is allowed
to flow over the pulp to be bleached.
To turn, however, from the appliance to the material
dealt with, cellulose has a specific gravity of l-45. Its
empirical composition corresponds to „(Cr,H10O5), by which,
together with its constitutional relationships, it is included
in the group of carbohydrates. If examined through the
microscope it will be found to be, when pure, a white
translucent substance, but more or less opaque in the mass.
It may be identified by its property of giving a blue reaction
with iodine solution, in presence of, or after, treatment with
dehydrating agents. When burnt — owing to the presence of
mineral constituents — there is always an ash, however small,
which usually takes the form of the original fibre. Another
inorganic constituent, essential to the fibre under ordinary
atmospheric conditions, is its hygroscopic moisture, or water
of condition. The quantity usually present in cotton is
6 to 7 per cent., varying with the temperature and the dew
point. Cellulose is a typical colloid, which, when fully
hydrated, takes a gelatinous form. We are told that "in
life there is a gradual and molecular dehydration of the
tissues, and a progress from the gelatinous and amorphous
condition to the specialised forms of maturity. Dehydra
tiou of a vegetable tissue, by exposure (after isolation) to
air, but more especially by contact with alcohol, confers
in a measure the properties which distinguish the fully
elaborated cellulose and vice versa, the rehydration of the
cellulose by artificial means may be regarded as in a limited
sense the reversal of the process of growth."
Seeing that science has not yet found a direct practical
means of rendering cellulose soluble, attention has therefore
turned to nitrating the cellulose as a means to this end.
True, cellulose has been dissolved by the ammonia-copper
reagent (cupric hydrate in strong ammonia), in contact
with which the fibre gelatinises, aud finally disappears on
complete solution. There is, however, no value in this as a
practical method. Messrs. Cross and Bevan have, it is said,
discovered a process of dissolving it, but no details of
the process are available. The nitration process has, in
consequence, been accepted as the only practical means of
obtaining the desired object.
Pure cellulose, then, having been got in a suitable form,
such as cotton or specially prepared paper, the manufacture
now divides itself into three stages : —
(1.) The production of the pyroxyline.
(2.) The treatment of this compound with solvents in
order to make it plastic.
(3.) The drying process.
first, then, the Production of the Pyroxylin is accom-
plished iu the following manner : — To avoid weakening the
mixed acids more than is necessary and increasing the
temperature, the cellulose must be as dry as possible.
Tliis having been seen to, the material is now ready for the
conversion process. The nitrating shed is fitted with acid-
mixing tanks, reservoirs for stocks, pots for the nitrating
process, and washers. Weighed quantities of the cellulo.-e
are plunged into the mixed acids contained iu earthenware
pots. Nitric acid of moderate strength is used (1*38 to
1 -45 sp. gr.) so as to avoid the formation of higher nitrates,
the dinitro-cellulose being what is wanted. Sulphuric acid
of 168° Tw. is employed. The temperature is from 70° to
90° F., according to the state of the acids. After about
20 to 30 minutes the cellulose is chemically converted into
pyroxylin or nitro-cellulose, water being at the same time
formed in the reaction —
C6H10Os + 2 HNO:l = C6H8(N02)A + 2 H.,0
The mixed acids are now run off and the pyroxylin
allowed to drain for a minute or two, after which hydraulic
pressure is employed so as to squeeze out as much of the
acids as possible, these being valuable for future use when
brought up to the necessary strength. The cake thus
formed is then taken to washers arranged so as to break it
up quickly, after which it is thoroughly washed in clear
water in a succession of tanks. Bleaching — the next
process — is done, either with chloride of lime or permanga-
nate of potash. The water is allowed to drain off, and the
pyroxylin is further freed from it by a hydro-extractor,
after which it is chopped into small pieces aud the rest of
the water got rid of by hydraulic pressure.
(2.) The Treatment of the Pyroxylin with Solvents. — ■
Pyroxylin is not soluble in alcohol alone, but is readily-
soluble iu a mixture of alcohol and camphor, and this is the
solvent generally adopted. A mixture of this is therefore
made and sprinkled over the pyroxylin in close boxes, tho
solvent being sparingly used on account of the cost.
Having been allowed sufficient time to soak thoroughly into
the mass the product is cut out of the boxes in pieces, and
placed on rollers gently heated. Here it undergoes,
thoroughly, a kind of kneading process, until it is uniform,
when it is cut away from the rollers in sheets of the desired
size and thickness. This process goes on until a sufficient
number of sheets is obtained, when they are piled one above
the other, aud the whole pressed into a solid block by
means of a hydraulic press. The block thus formed is
next taken to a planing machine, specially constructed and
beautifully adjusted, so that a sheet may be cut from the
solid block of celluloid as thin as note paper. On this
machine the block is placed and cut up into the thickness
required, whether it be thin sheets for the manufacture of
imitation linen, or thick ones for knife handles or other
purposes.
(3.) The third and last process, that of Drying the
Material, maj be described in a few words. The sheets
having been cut are placed in a heated chamber, where they
are allowed to remain from one day to six months,
according to the thickness and nature of the stock. When
ready the celluloid is worked, by means of intricate
machinery, as well as by the more ordinary methods of
carving, turning, and moulding, into an endless variety of
articles of both beauty and use.
As regards the colouring and markings, it is sufficient to
say that they are the results of elaborate experiments and
processes which are jealously safeguarded as secrets of
the industry.
It may be added in conclusion that celluloid has a
specific gravity of from l-30 to 145, according to the
degree of pressure to which it is subjected and the quantity
of pigments in its composition. It is not affected by weak
acids, and is water- as well as air-proof.
Discussion.
Dr. J. E. Paterson said that he would like to ask the
following questions, viz. : — If the piodnction of the article
to imitate ivory was a secret ? If the substance was easy
to work ou the lathe ? Did it work as well as vulcanite '!
And if any efforts had been made to obtain a solvent that
would do away with the smell of the article ?
The Chairman asked if when the gelatinous mass was
made into such a cake as that shown, it shrunk much in
the process of drying ; and if the manufactured article got
softer as it got older, for as it smelt strongly of camphor
it was bound to be continually losing that commodity ?
Mr. E. C. C. Stanford said that they were very much
indebted to the author for this paper if it were only from
the fact that there could be so few chemists who knew any-
thing about the manufacture of celluloid. He supposed there
was no doubt that it really was a mixture of collodion and
camphor. One great drawback it had was its inflammable
nature. Some time ago, one of the principal American
manufacturers of this article (he believed there was only the
one manufacturer in the United States) wrote to him
sending some fine samples, one of great transparency, and
he said he could introduce the article very largely for
windows, &c, which could not be broken ; but the one
great difficulty he had was that if you put a candle to it the
whole thing burst into flames. He wanted to know if some
method could not be adopted to prevent that ? He (Mr.
Stanford) would therefore like to ask Mr. Hogben if this
substance could not be denitrated, for if it could, then it
would be a most valuable article for many things. He
would call particular attention to the imitation of ivory
224
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31, 1892.
shown, because that was one of the most difficult things to
imitate, a* it was produced by successive layers of natural
growth, and the sample was beautifully done.
Dr. A. P. Aitkem asked if celluloid was harder than horn.
Mr. W. I. Ma< ADAM said he had seen some celluloid balls,
similar to the sample shown, which on standing in a shop
window had completely collapsed.
Mr. J. Lajng asked if bottles had been manufactured
from this material, and if it would be suitable for lining
trunks. Also what was the size of the largest sheet made,
and if the sheets could be joined together.
Mr. Hogben, in reply to Mr. Paterson, said (1) the
imitation of ivory was a secret ; (2), the substance was
easily worked on the lathe ; and (3) a solvent had been
obtained to do away with the smell, but there were practical
difficulties attending its use. With reference to the
Chairman's questions — (1), the gelatinous matter did shrink
until it was dried in the stoves ; and (2) yes, the manufac-
tured article got harder as it got older. In regard to Dr.
Aitken's question, celluloid was harder than horn. As to
Mr. Macadam's statement about the balls he had seen
collapsing, perhaps the reason of this shrinking was that
they had been made too thin. Then, in reply to Mr. Laing,
bottles had not been made from celluloid, but he fancied it
would be quite suitable for the lining of trunks, if its
inflammability were not an objection. The largest sized
sheets that were made were 4 ft. long x 20 in. wide, and
these could easily be joined together. Lastly, in reply to a
question by the Chairman, he said that it was only a thin
layer of celluloid that was put upon billiard balls.
Meeting held at the Societies' Rooms, 207, Bath Street,
Glasgow, on Tuesday, March 1st, 1892.
MR. E. C. C. STANFORD IN THE CHAIR.
THE LATE PROFESSOR DITTMAR.
The Chairman said that since their last meeting the hand
of death had again been busy among them, and had taken
from their midst their valued friend Professor Dittmar.
He need not say that in his death they had lost not only
one of their colleagues, but a man of eminent position in
science, and the committee had prepared the following
resolution, which they proposed to transmit to Mrs.
Dittmar : — " The Committee of the Scottish Section of the
Society of Chemical Industry hereby record their deep
sense of the great loss the. Society has sustained by the
death of their late colleague. Professor Dittmar, a loss
which will be felt wherever the science of chemistry is
known. They desire to express their Bincere condolence
ami deep sympathy with his widow and family in their
affliction."
THE PREPARATION* OF PUEE PHOSPHORIC
ACID FROM PHOSPHATE OF SODA, WITH
AX ACCOUNT OF SOME EXPERIMENTS ON
THE PHOSPHORUS-NITRIC ACID METHOD
OF MANUFACTURE.
BY GEORGE WATSON, P.I -.
PfRE phosphoric acid is a substance used to a certain
extent in pharmacy, constituting, as it does, one of the
ingredients of metallophosphatic syrups of various kinds.
The acid, usually sold for the preparation of these syrups,
is a thick colourless liquid of a sp. gr. of 1"50, con-
taining about 89 per cent, of orthophosphoric acid. It
must conform to all the tests of the British Pharmacopcea,
that is to say, it must be free from notable quantities of
lime, iron, magnesia, or other basic substances. It must
cot coagulate albumen or produce a precipitate when
wanned with mercuric chloride solution. Neither may it
contain nitric or sulphuric acids, and it must be absolutely
free from arsenic.
It is commonly prepared, so far as I am aware, frcm
yellow phosphorus, but as this latter substance is itself
made from crude phosphoric acid by means of carbo-
naceous reduction, it is evident that the preparation of
pure phosphoric acid from phosphorus, viewed in con-
junction with the phosphorus manufacture, is essentially
its preparation from crude phosphoric acid, the inter-
mediate production of phosphorus being simply a method
of eliminating the various impurities inherent in the crude
acid.
As phosphorus is a somewhat expensive article, however,
although less so now than formerly, the possibility of doing
away with its use and of preparing the pure from the crude
acid by some cheaper process, naturally suggests itself.
Some years ago, therefore, I made some experiments
with this object, and although I was unsuccessful in
working out a paying prosess, yet as I had also carried
out some experiments on the phosphorus-nitric-acid method
of manufacture, I thought a description of the whole might
be of interest to the Section.
After several abortive trials, which it is needless to
describe minutely, such as the lixiviation of " super-
phosphate " with methylated alcohol, the ignition of
amnionic phosphate, the boiling of amnionic phosphate
with hydric nitrate and with "aqua regia," it occurred
to me that in the treatment of sodic phosphate with
hydric chloride, there existed a reaction which was some-
what hopeful. For hydric chloride, in its affinity for
bases, is, at ordinary temperatures, one of the most power-
ful acids known, while hydric phosphate is a relatively
weak one. On consulting tables of the relative affinities
of acids it is seen that the strengths of these two acids
are in the ratio of 1 to 0-25. In other words, if, for
example, a formula weight of monosodic phosphate in
dilute aqueous solution be mixed with a formula weight
of hydric chloride, the soda divides itself between the two
acids in proportion to their affinities. If the amount of
base existing as chloride when equilibrium is attained be
represented by the symbol " a " then the total amount
present being one equivalent, \—a represents the amount
retained by the hydric phosphate, and the ratio "- is a
measure of the relative strengths of the two acids. In
the case under consideration this ratio is equal to
from which the value of " a " is found to be 0'80, or
80 per cent, of the soda now exists in solution as chloride.
Further, as sodic chloride is practically insoluble in a
saturated solution of hydric chloride, then by saturating
the solution with this gas, one would expect to have all the
dissolved sodic chloride precipitated, and the relative
amount of hydric chloride being simultaneously much
increased a further decomposition of the remaining 20 per
cent, of sodic phosphate might be expected to take place,
resulting in the liberation of an increased proportion
of hydric phosphate. As the use of dilute solutions,
however, was out of the question on the ground of economy,
March 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
225
my first practical experiments were confined to gassing
melted crystals of disodic orthophosphate with hvdric
chloride. A preliminary experiment, in which 4 11). of
pure disodie phosphate, mixed with a little water, were
used, showed that the soda was virtually all separated by
this treatmeut ; the resulting liquoi on draining off from the
sodie chloride being found, on analysis, to contain soda
equal to only 0-705 percent, of the syrupy hydrie phosphate
(sp. gr. 1- 750) actually present. I then proceeded to try
the process on a larger scale, the following being a few
typical experiments.
Thus, G5 lb. of pure disodic phosphate, melted and
gassed with hydrie chloride, weighed after saturation 90 lb.
On settling, syphoning and draining off the clear superna-
tant, 48 lb. of liquor were obtained, which on evaporation
gave 12 lb. of syrupy hydrie phosphate, corresponding to
a yield of 60 per cent, of the theoretical amount. The acid
was found, on testing, to be quite free from all impurities
with the exception of a small amount of soda similar to that
mentioned above.
Another experiment, in which 691b. of sodie phosphate
were used, absorbed 24 lb. of hydrie chloride, while the
liquor, drained off from the precipitated sodie chloride,
weighed 53 lb. On evaporation of this liquor 13| lb. of
syrupy phosphoric acid were obtained corresponding to
nearly 66 per cent, of the theoretical quantity.
In the next trial the proportion of hydrie chloride was
increased. To 67 lb. of melted sodie phosphate crystals
were added 20 lb. of pure aqueous hydrie chloride
(sp. gr. 1'160), then the whole saturated with hydrie
chloride gas as before. Of this, 23 lb. were absorbed, an
amount almost identical with that absorbed in the previous
trials. On draining off, 80 lb. of liquor were got, giving,
on boiling up, 15 lb. of hydrie phosphate, equal to a yield
of about 75 per cent.
Another experiment was then made in the following way :
70 lb. of sodie phosphate were melted and saturated with
hvdric chloride as before, the amount absorbed being 29 lb.
while the liquor drained off amounted to 5C lb., and gave
on evaporation 14 lb. of hydrie phosphate, or two-thirds of
the total amouut obtainable. The residual salt was then
digested with, one gallon of water for a few hours. This
liquor on draining off weighed 13V lb. On saturation with
hvdric chloride it weighed 16j lb., and gave 2 lb. of syrupy
hydrie phosphate. Uu digesting the original salt with a
second gallon of water, 17^ lb. of liuuor were produced,
absorbing 4 lb. of hvdric chloride gas and giving 1 j lb. of
hydrie phosphate, the total yield being thus equal to
81 per cent, of the theoretical.
In the two experiments first described, the weight of
sodie chloride produced, supposing all the hydrie phosphate
to have been liberated, is 22 S lb., while the weight of liquor
obtainable, if the sodie chloride had been obtained anhy-
drous, should have been 69§ lb. The difference between
this "right and the mean weight of liquor actually chained
off is therefore 19 lb. As this seemed a large amount of
liquid to be held by 22 V lb. of sodie chloride, I was inclined
to believe that a considerable portion of the sodie phosphate
was not decomposed, but was simply thrown down as
monosodic phosphate.
Consequently I then proceeded to examine the reaction
more carefully on a small scale, using, instead of crystallised
disodic phosphate, anhydrous sodie pyrophosphate and
digesting it with definite weights of pure aqueous hydrie
chloride.
The sodie pyrophosphate used was made from the
ordinary pure disodic phosphate of commerce by a further
threefold crystallisation. The purified crystals obtained
were then melted, filtered through paper, and the filtrate
evaporated to dryness. The residue after powdering was
then ignited, in successive small portions, to a red heat for
about an hour. The hydrie chloride used was prepared by
distilliug ordinary pure analytical acid and bringing the
distillate up to the requisite strength by bubbling in well-
washed hydrie chloride gas. It was found, by alkaline
titration, to contain 40-736 grms. of hydrie chloride per
100 ce., measured at 12° C, while the specific gravity at
the same temperature was 1-176, thus indicating 34' 63 per
cent. A specific gravity determination at 15° C. gave 1 ' 174,
which from Kolb's table is equal to 34 • 45 per cent, of hydrie
chloride.
In carrying out an experiment, the pyrophosphate was
always again ignited just before weighing out, and while
still warm was again ground in an agate mortar. A weighed
quantity was then placed in a dry stoppered bottle, a definite
quantity of hydrie chloride ruu in, and after inserting the
stopper the whole shaken up at intervals and allowed to
stand a prescribed time.
In the first experiment 10 gc-ms. of pyrophosphate and
40 ce. hydrie chloride were digested together for 24 hours,
then the liquid filtered off through a funnel plugged with
glass wool into a i litre flask, and the residual matter
washed with methylated alcohol until acid free. The filtrate
was then made up to the mark with water and the hydrie
phosphate estimated in 20 cc. by "magnesia mixture,"
after having boiled it for 30 minutes to ensure that all the
pyrophosphoric acid was converted into the ortho form.
The precipitate obtained weighed 0-3337 grm., equivalent to
7-365 grms. of hydrie phosphate in the ^ litre. The total
amount of hydrie phosphate obtainable from 10 grms. of
sodie pyrophosphate being 7-368 grms., this result is equal
to 99 ■ 95 per cent.
Experiment No. 2 was similar to the above in all respects
saving that 30 ce. of hydrie chloride were used iustead
of 40 cc. The precipitate obtained from 20 ee. weighed
0-3356 grm., equivalent to a total of 7-407 grms. of hydrie
phosphate, or 100 per cent. The result of this experiment
may be expressed symbolically as follows : —
Na4P207 + 8-9HC1 + aq. = 2 HbP04 + 4 NaCl
+ 4-9 HC1 + aq.
or as a general expression representative of the complete
decomposition of sodie pyrophosphate by the minimum
of hydrie chloride ; we have —
Na4N,07 + nHCl + aq. = 2 IXT'O, + 4 NaCl
+ C«-4)HC1 + aq.
in which n = a number less than 8-9. Other three experi-
ments were then made to ascertain the value of n.
Experiment No. 3. — 7-4215 grms. of pyrophosphate and
1 1 ■ 636 grms. of hydrie chloride were digested 48 hours.
As in this case, however, there might not be a sufficient
excess of hydrie chloride to prevent some of the sodie
chloride from going into solution, 50 cc. of methylated
alcohol were added before filtering off, the liquid being then
filtered through paper into a litre flask, and the residue
washed acid free with alcohol as before. The filtrate was
then made up with water to the mark, and 50 ce. taken for
the determination of hydrie phosphate. The precipitate
weighed 0-2225 grm., equal to a total of 3-929 grms. of
hydrie phosphate in the litre, or a yield of 71-841 per cent.
Experiment No. 4. — 10 grms. pyrophosphate were
digested with 17-5 grms. hydrie chloride for 48 hours,
diluted with alcohol, filtered off, and the filtrate made up
to a i litre. The precipitate obtained from 20 cc. weighed
•2955 grm., equal to a total of 6-522 grms. of Irydric
phosphate, or 88-518 per cent.
Experiment No. 5. — In this experiment 10 grms. of
pyrophosphate were digested with 16 cc. hydrie chloride for
66 hours, then diluted with alcohol and treated as before,
the filtrate being made up to a A litre. The estimation of
hydrie phosphate in 20 cc. gave a precipitate weighing
0-3315 grm. equal to 7 -317 grms. of hydrie phosphate in
the i- litre or 99-348 per cent.
In experiments Nos. 3 and 4, an interesting relation
between the hydrie phosphate set free and the hydrie
chloride required for its liberation exists, which enables us
to calculate the value of n. Thus in experiment No. 3, the
weight of anhydrous hydrie chloride contained in the
11-636 grms. of aqueous acid taken is 4-0190 grms. If
from this weight there be subtracted the weight of dry
hydrie chloride required to combine with half the soda in
the 7-4215 grms. of pyrophosphate (i.e., the amount
necessary to transform the normal sodie pyrophosphate
into disodic pyrophosphate or possibly monosodic ortho-
226
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1S92.
phosphate') there is obtained the number 1-982:5.
Multiplying this by 2 gives 3 9646, a number practically
identical with the weight of hydrie phosphate found to be
liberated (3 '929 grms.). From this experiment it is seen
that the hydrie chloride acts with two functions : firstly a
portion is used to saturate half the soda in the pyrophos-
phate, then the remainder acts on the resulting salt and
sets free twice its weight of hydrie orthophosphate.
Examining experiment Xo. 4 in the same way, a similar
result is arrived at. Thus deducting from the weight
of hydrie chloride used (6-0444 grms.) the weight re-
quired to combine with half the soda of 10 grms. pyro-
phosphate ( = 2-7443 grms.) there is obtained 3-3001,
which multiplied by 2 gives 6-6002, a number virtually
identical with the weight of hydrie phosphate bound to be
liberated (6- 522 grms.).
Assuming then this relation to hold for all quantities of
hydrie chloride, and calculating the least weight necessary
to completely liberate the hydrie phosphate from 10 grms.
of pyrophosphate, there is obtained 6-4283 grms. of dry
hydrie chloride which is equal to 15-8 cc. of the aqueous
hydrie chloride, used in these experiments. In experiment
No. 5, 16 cc, or only 1-3 per cent, more than this, was
found to liberate all the hydrie phosphate from this weight
of pyrophosphate, so that the statement made may be
taken as true. The following equation represents therefore
the final distribution of matter when equivalent weights of
sodic pyrophosphate and aqueous hydrie chloride are
digested together at the ordinary temperature under the
conditions specified : —
Na4T207 + 4 HC1 + aq. = 3-49 NaCl + 1-49 II3P04
+ 0-51 HC1 + 0-51 NaH2P04
while the expression representing the complete decompo-
sition of the pyrophosphate by the minimum of hydrie
chloride is —
Na4P307 + 4-685 HC1 + aq. = 2 H3P04 + 4 NaCl
+ 0-685 HC1 + aq.
The symbol " aq. " signifies, of course, the amount of
water eoutaiued in the aqueous hydrie chloride.
This reaction was not found to constitute a paying process
for the manufacture of phosphoric acid. The washing out
of the acid retained by the salt by means of alcohol was
inadmissible, .vhile the use of hydrie chloride solution for
this purpose would have led to the necessity of considerable
evaporation and the recovery of the hydrie chloride used if
the costs were to be kept within reasonable limits. Further,
it was found that the sodie phosphate had to be quite free
from sulphates, otherwise the soda was not completely
separated. The sodic sulphate thus left in the syrupy acid
had, when in small quantities, the effect of imparting a
gelatinous consistency to it, while in some cases when the
amount was larger the acid became quite solid on cooling.
In other eases again the acid was apparently all right when
at first prepared, but on standing for some days it became
milky from the separation of sodie sulphate. This precipi-
tate of sodic sulphate took a long time to settle, and the
separation not being complete the clear supernatant acid
had always a gelatinous appearance. Only when the sodic
phosphate was quite free from sulphate was the acid
suitable.
The practical experiments described above were made
in the early part of the year 1888. Alter they had
been completed there appeared in the Chemical .Society's
Journal, 54, 321, an abstract of a paper by A. Bettendorft,
published in the Zeits. Anal. Chem. 27, 24 — 26, in which this
reaction is made use of for the detection of sodium in glacial
phosphoric acid. According to this chemist 98'5 per cent.
of the sodium of sodic pyrophosphate is separated as
chloride on digesting the pyrophosphate with aqueous
hydrie chloride of 1-19 sp. gr. He also suggests this
reaction as a convenient method of preparing hydrie
phosphate directly from sodic phosphate. I find also that
a similar process has been proposed by A. Joly (Compt.
Rend. 102, 316 — 318) in the ease of monammonium phos-
phate, the liquor obtained, however, after separation of the
amnionic chloride, being heated by him with successive
portions of hydrie nitrate in order to complete the expulsion
of the remaining ammonia as well as the hydrie chloride.
I have now to describe the experiments made on the
phosphorus-nitric-acid method of manufacture. As this is
an oxidation process, however, it may be of interest to
review shortly, in the first place, the results obtained by
other chemists on the oxidation of phosphorus by various
means.
Phosphorus is not so easily oxidised into the state of
pentoxide, or of hydrie phosphate as one might imagine
from its great inflammability. It is true that when burned
in abundance of air or oxygen, the pentoxide is the only
final product, but when it is burned in a confined air space,
as, for example, under a bell-jar, a considerable amount of
the trioxide is also produced in addition to a certain quantity
of the suboxide P4 O. (See also this Journal, 1885, 574,
et seq.).
Thorpe and Tutton have shown (Trans. Chem. Soc. 57,
545-573) that when phosphorus contained in a combustion
tube is burned in a comparatively rapid current of air, in
addition to the formation of the suboxide, a certain quantity
of the trioxide is also formed, the oxidation being, however,
under the conditions of their experiments, a relatively feeble
one, if compared with that taking place in the open air.
On the other hand, according to the same chemists, phos-
phoric oxide is the only oxide formed when phosphorus
glows in the air at the ordinary temperature (Chem. Soe.
Trans. 49^ 833) while they also prepared from the products
of the slow oxidation of phosphorus in dry air an oxide of
the formula P204 (loc. «'£.)• This oxide they consider to
be the true tetroxide of phosphorus, and not the anhydride
of hypophosphoric acid (H4l\oi() obtained by Salzer, by
the slow oxidation of phosphorus partially immersed in
water.
Again, I. Corne (J. Pharm. Chiru.), by heating phosphorus
to 75° C. in a solution of cuprie nitrate, found that hypo-
phosphoric acid was formed while J. B. Senderens (Compt.
Rend. 104, 175-177) states that amorphous phosphorus
when heated with solutions of argentic or cuprie nitrates
gives in the one ease a precipitate of silver, in the other a
precipitate of copper phosphide, the phosphorus being at
the same time oxidised into hydrie phosphate.
It is also known, that on dissolving yellow phosphorus in
dilute hydrie nitrate, a certain amount of hydrie phosphite
is produced which amount is greater at the initial stages of
the solution (Fresenius' Qual. Analyses, 9th ed., 176), but
no determinations of the relative proportions of the two
acids seem to have been made. I therefore thought it
would be of interest to examine this point.
For this purpose a flask of about 1 litre capacity,
having a short, thick welted neck, was taken, and a glass
condensing tube of about three feet in length and three-
quarters of an inch bore fitted to it by grinding. An in-
definite weight of yellow stick phosphorus (usually about
60 grms.) was then placed in the flask and 500 cc. of
dilute hydrie nitrate run in. The condensing tube was then
inserted, and the contents heated up till the reaction was
started, the reaction being then kept going for the pie-
scribed time, external heat being used when necessary.
The phosphorus used was a good sample of commercial
stick phosphorus, containing a little arsenic, and the hydrie
nitrate used was prepared by distilling pure analytical acid
and diluting the distillate to a sp. gr. of 1-223. A
titration of this acid with standard soda showed that it
contained 35-77 per cent of HSOa. This acid was used in
experiments Xos. 1, 2, and 3, while in the remainder weaker
acids made from it by dilution were used. At the end of
an experiment the solution was diluted to a convenient
strength and two comparable volumes taken for the esti-
mation of total phosphorus and that existing as hydrie
phosphate. The hydrie phosphate was always precipitated
as ammonio-maguesic phosphate directly from the solution
after having diluted it to a volume of 250 cc. The total
phosphorus was estimated in its portion of the liquid after
it had been evaporated to a film with 60 cc. of nitro-
hydrochloric acid, this treatment being found to effect a
complete oxidation of the hydrie phosphite. The annexed
table contains the results of these experiments.
March si, 1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
227
No. ol
Experi-
ment.
Strength
or Hydric
Nitrate.
Time of
Cohoba-
tion.
Weight ofMg P.O,
Precipitate obtained =
H3PO, produced.
Weight of Mu-jP.O- Precipitate
obtained = Total Phosphorus
dissolved.
Ratio of Phos-
phorous to Phos-
phoric Acid.
Remarks.
l
)Vr Cent.
35 77
5 liours
Co. Grin.
40 gave -3461
Cc. Gnu.
20 gave "IBM
1 : 10-47
2
3
»
About 2
liours.
i hour
5 „ -2071
20 „ -1353
5 „ -2713
20 „ "2646
1 : 3-85
1 : 1-35
Allowed to proceed to an end
without external heating.
i
29-70
2 hours
5 „ -1373
5 „ -2215
1 : 1-94
5
a
23-15
i liuur
2.1, hours
411 „ -UsC,
20 „ -2213
20 „ -122S
10 „ -2412
1 : 1-11
1 : 1-013
H^P03 oxidised by Br water
in estimation.
7
„
i hour
40 „ -1190
20 „ -1296
1 : 1-014
S
W06
8-37
} hour
£ hour
20 „ -0965
50 „ -1028 ■
20 „ •21B5
50 ,. -2203
1 : -901
1 : -994
Liquor not diluted before
withdrawing portion for
analysis.
Do. do.
From these experiments it is seen that as the strength
of the hydric nitrate is reduced, the ratio of the phosphorous
to the phosphoric acid alters until in experiments Nos. 6
and 7 it corresponds to that of equal weights. In the two
last experiments, in which still more dilute hydric nitrate
was used, the proportion of hydric phosphite formed is
slightly greater, although not to auy remarkable extent, the
ratio still practically being that of equal weights. Further,
from the first five experiments, in which the strongest
acids were used, it is seen that the effect of reducing
the time of cohobation is also to increase the propor-
tion of hydric phosphite formed. These show that in
addition to the fundamental reaction, a secondary one
is going on, in which the hydric phosphite formed in the
primary reaction is being oxidised into hydric phosphate.
The primary reaction, therefore, must correspond to the
formation of some larger proportion of hydric phosphite
than that found in experiment No. 3 for example. If, then,
the effect of diluting the hydric nitrate be to eliminate this
secondary change, the ratios found in the last four experi-
ments probably represent the fundamental reaction, and
these ratios correspond to the formation of equal weights of
hydric phosphite and [phosphate. From a consideration of the
results obtained by the chemists already mentioned it might
have been expected that the primary reaction would have been
one in which equivalent weights of the two acids were
formed, corresponding to the ratio . , "! = — L , but in only
° . _ HaFO, 1-196
one experiment (No. 5) is this relation at all approximated
to, and this experiment does not represent a state of equili-
brium. At the same time, it is possible that this may be
the principal reaction, and that the excess of hydric phos-
phite is due to another bye reaction. For, in boiling yellow
phosphorus with hydric nitrate, little globules of phosphorus
are thrown up to the surface of the liquid and there undergo
a slow combustion in the atmosphere of the flask, with the
result that the upper part of the vessel becomes filled with
white fumes. In all these experiments these fumes were
formed and issued from the end of the condensing tube into
the air. In nearly every case a portion condensed in the
cool end of the tube as a white film, while in experiment
No. 8 a series of lambent flames passed continually down
the tube from the orifice. At the conclusion of experiment
No, 1 this film was washed into a small beaker with cold
water. It did not wholly dissolve in the cold even after
digesting for half an hour, but on boiling it went into solu-
tion with separation of a pale yellow powder. The solution,
when tested qualitatively, showed the presence of both phos-
phate and phosphite, the latter so far as could be judged
in larger amount. The white fumes, therefore, evidently
consisted largely, if not wholly, of phosphorous oxide. On
the other hand, if the equal weight ratio be due to this
secondary reaction, it is remarkable that the ratios found in
experiments Xos. 6 to 9 do not show a greater variation
among themselves than they do. On the whole, I think
that the balance of evidence, so far as it goes, is in favour
of the statement that the primary reaction taking place is
one in which equal weights of hydric phosphite and hydric
phosphate are formed, but further experiments are necessary
on this point.
In carrying out this reaction for the preparation of
phosphoric acid a few points have to be attended to. As
the formation of hydric phosphate from phosphorus,
oxygen, and water liberates a much larger amount of heat
than the corresponding formation of hydric nitrate, the
reaction between phosphorus and hydric uitrate is an
exothermic one. The speed of the reaction, and therefore
the period of time in which this heat is evolved, depends on
the concentration of the hydric nitrate and the extent of
phosphorus surface exposed to it. Consequentlv, if the
oxidation is being done in a glass retort cooled only by
radiation, and the amount of heat generated be greater than
can thus be dissipated, the excess is spent in distilling over
water from the retort. The hydric nitrate becoming in this
way continually stronger, the reaction may become more
and more tumultuous, until, when all the liquor has been
driven over, the temperature has risen so high that any
phosphorus still present begins to distil, and the vessel
may be broken. The strength of the hydric nitrate and
the extent of phosphorus-surface exposed to its action
must therefore be such that this does not happen. The
strength given in the text-books for the hydric nitrate is the
best one, viz., an acid of about 1-200 sp. gr. From
my own experience, it is not advisable to use an acid of
greater gravity than 1 ■ 250 nor one much below 1 ■ 200, so
that the limits are somewhat narrow. By increasing the
surface of the phosphorus, however, the speed of the reaction
can be safely accelerated to a certain extent. Thus, using
1 lb. of phosphorous and 12 lb. of hydric nitrate
(sp. gr. 1-215), and reacting for one working day, 2y lb.
of syrupy phosphoric acid were produced. With the same
weight of hydric nitrate and lj lb. of phosphorus, and
reacting for as nearly as possible the same time, 3 lb. of
phosphoric acid were obtained, while 1^ and lj lb. of
phosphorus gave under the same conditions 3| and 3j lb.
nearly of phosphoric acid respectively.
When working the process continuously, it is not advis-
able to continue the oxidation until all the phosphorus
has been dissolved as the reaction becomes very slow
when the phosphorus becomes small in amount, but it is
better to pour off the liquor at the end of a day's working
and re-start with an augmented amount of phosphorus
and a new quantity of hydric nitrate.
The liquor obtained in this way, which still contains some
hydric phosphite, is then evaporated in glass retorts until
all the hydric nitrate has been expelled, by which time the
oxidation is complete. The oxidation of this remuant of
hydric phosphite seems to take place in stages, as duriug
the concentration the liquid, which is at first nearly colour-
228
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
less, becomes brown, and evolves nitrous fumes. It then
becomes clearer until the concentration has proceeded
further, when it again becomes brown, and evolves more
nitrous funics, and so on, the final oxidation taking place
.when the evaporation is almost finished. The heating is
then continued until the liquid stops bubbling, and is kept
hot for a short time in order that the acid may be rendered
quite colourless. The strong acid at this temperature has a
corrosive action on glass, so that the heating must not be
too long continued, otherwise, the temperature rising, the
retort may be spoiled, but even with all care the glass in
course of time becomes so thin that the retorts have to be
laid aside.
The phosphoric acid obtained still contains the arsenic
originally present in the phosphorus from which it has to be
purified. This is done by precipitation as sulphide. A
suitable quantity of the acid is diluted with water to a gravity
of from 1-200 to 1 -250, and heated up in a stoneware pan
to a temperature of about 70° C. A stream of hydric sul-
phide is then passed in until the arsenious sulphide, which
at first imparts a uniform yellow colour to the liquid, sepa-
rates out as a precipitate. The liquor is then allowed to
stanil about 18 hours until cold, when it is again well gassed
with hydric sulphide. After standing till the next day it is
filtered through a sufficient thickness of calico, and the
filtrate, which is now free from arsenic, evaporated to a
gravity of 1 ' 750.
This concludes my experiments on this subject at the
present time, but when time permits I intend to examine
the action of aqueous hydric chloride on several other
phosphates, phosphites, and hypophosphites of metals which
form chlorides insoluble in hydric chloride, and will have
pleasure in placing the results before the Society at a future
date.
Discussion.
The Chairman said that a record of experiments of this
sort upon any point in chemistry— even if, or perhaps
especially if, they proved failures — was very valuable. He
o-athered that in' the experiments related in the first part of
the paper the phosphoric acid was made pure, with the
exception of the presence of soda. Perhaps that was not so
bad an impurity as others. Arsenic was often present, and
that was worse. This impurity prevented the use of such
phosphoric acid in medicine.
Professor E. J. Mills asked if Mr. Watson had tried the
experiment of simply passing a current of air through the
nitric acid during oxidation, and, if not, he might be
allowed to suggest it to him.
Mr. C. A. Fawsitt said that Mr. Watson's paper,
coming as it did from a manufacturer of pure acids, would
no doubt be a valuable contribution to the literature on the
subject, lie had occasionally to use phosphoric acid, and
found it difficult to obtain, with even a moderately small
percentage of iron, at a reasonable price. The author had
stated that the acid he had examined contained notable
quantities of iron: would he kindly say what it was in
per cent. Some phosphoric acid that he had seen was more
like a solution of phosphate of iron than phosphoric acid.
Mr. W. G. O'Beirne asked: In what vessels did
Mr. Watson evaporate his phosphoric acid from the dilute
to the syrupy condition ? He had made some experiments
on a semi-manufacturing scale with a view to produce pure
phosphoric aeid, from bone-ash, Florida:rock, and Bull-
river-rock, in the course of which he found the phosphoric
acid to act very severely on the metallic vessels employed —
glass or porcelain being too small for the purpose. Lead,
copper, and tin were tried under similar conditions, lead
lost 2'0 percent., copper 0-4 percent., and tiu5"l percent.,
thus showing that neither of these met ids was very well
adapted to the purpose. He fully agreed with Mr. Fawsitt
in saving that the preparation of a really pure phosphoric
acid "was not an easy matter, as he found, when working with
natural phosphate.-, that the elimination of all traces of CaO
and S03to be very difficult, and the acid so obtained almost
invariably darkened in colour on obtaining a specific gravity
of about 1-5. He, however, found that a strong, though
really not pure, acid could be obtained in this way. He did
not consider a process in which spirits were employed could
be a financial success, and also thought the preparation of
phosphoric acid from phosphorus by oxidation with nitric
acid was a costly method. He had been told that a
phosphoric acid, which be found to be comparatively pure,
had been obtained from a superphosphate prepared from
Florida-rock and sulphuric aeid, hut as his own results did
not confirm this, he could not say if the statement were
correct.
Mr. E. Rodger said that he understood Mr. Watson
objected to the process of obtainiug phosphoric acid by
the oxidation of phosphorus in the usual way, because, of
the presence of arsenic. He did not see what advantage
the process of oxidising with nitric acid had over the ordi-
nary one, as in both cases the arsenic was oxidised, and so
the phosphoric acid was contaminated ; but Mr. Watson
had doubtless some good reason for making use of nitric
acid. Regarding the manufacture of phosphoric acid from
phosphate rock, he might say that if pure sulphuric acid
were use! to decompose phosphate of lime, a very decently
pure phosphoric acid was obtained straight away, which did
not contain either arsenic or soda.
Mr. Watson in reply said that in regard to the prepara-
tion of phosphoric acid, there were two qualities made, a
pure quality used solely for medicinal purposes and a crude
or impure one made in larger quantities and used, he be-
lieved, in certain processes of the sugar industry. The
paper referred only to the former, and he had no experience
of the manufacture of the latter, lie used glass vessels in
the .concentration, which were quite suitable for the quanti-
ties required: but even for the concentration of larger
quantities he thought that the use of glass retorts, such as
those used in vitriol concentration, should be feasible. No
metal dishes, with the exception of platinum ones, could be
used in evaporating phosphoric acid to a sp. gr. of
l-7i0. When he said that the acid mtht be free from
notable amounts of iron, lime, &c, he meant that it must
fulfil the tests of the British Pharmacopoeia, and although no
definite percentages were there stated he supposed that a
half per cent, of total impurity, exclusive of arsenic, would
be the limit. Arsenic could not be tolerated. He had not
tried the experiment suggested by Professor Mills, but had
no doubt it would recover a large proportion of the nitric
acid. Mr. Rodger was mistaken in saying that he objected
to the process of obtaining phosphoric acid by the oxidation
of phosphorus in the usual way, and as he (Mr. Rodger)
said, the arsenic being derived from the phosphorus, it was
certain to appear in the phosphoric acid, no matter by what
method the phosphorus was oxidised. Hence it had to be
eliminated afterwards, and he found that precipitation as
sulphide in the way described was a convenient way of
doiug this. Phosphoric acid made from rock phosphate
and sulphuric acid could no doubt be obtained free or nearly
so from lime, but it would still contain the alumina, magnesia,
and oxide of iron present in the mineral phosphate, and
these substances, especially alumina, were objectiouable in a
pharmaceutical phosphoric acid. He had recorded his
experiments on the nitric aeid method of oxidising phos-
phorus (and, indeed, all the experiments described) simply
in the hope that the description might be of interest to the
members and not because he preferred the process as a
practical method of making pure phosphoric acid.
4$I)ttuai'p.
EMERITUS PROFESSOR REDWOOD.
Dr. THEormLus Redwood, Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry ami Pharmacy to the Pharmaceutical Society
of Great Britain, died on Saturday, March 5, at his Welsh
home, Bovertou, Glamorganshire, in the house where be was
born eighty-six years and five days previously.
Mnvh 3i,is92.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
229
Dr. Redwood was very fond of his home at Boverton.
It was a small estate belonging to his father, and was where
he passed his boyhood. It came into his possession after
the death of an elder brother, and for many years the
Professor turned thither every summer vacation. His
■wife died there in 1868, and he is now buried beside
her in Llanwit Major Churchyard. During the last two
or three years he has spent the greater part of his time at
Boverton, paying only occasional visits to London when
important business required his attention at his laboratory.
He had a little laboratory at his home ; but his hobby at
Boverton was to make improvements on his estate — ■
gardening and such other country work as came in his way
— for others as well as for himself. He was well known,
and much loved and respected by his neighbours, poor and
rich, for many miles round — his helpfulness and his
unvarying kindness being often called into requisition.
Dr. Kedwood was first introduced to the drug trade at
Cardiff, and in that same town last August he appeared
before pharmacists for the last time. His son tells us that
he believes that occasion was the last on which his
father took part in any public function of any kind.
Very hearty indeed was the reception given to him wheu he
stepped forward to second the vote of thauks to the
President for his address. It was just seventy years ago,
Said the speaker, that he commenced his pharmaceutical
studies in that town. He had a claim, therefore, to look
upon himself as a Cardiff pharmacist. In those seventy
years, he reminded his audience, Cardiff had grown from
a little town with four or five thousand inhabitants, with
neither docks nor railroads, to the great busy place with
its l'J8,000 inhabitants, and its vast docks and industries.
Young Redwood went to the shop of his brother-in-law,
Mr. Charles Vachell, who did a large general trade and
also practised as an apothecary.
Some three years later a Quaker lady who knew John
Bell, of Oxford Street, was staying at the house of young
Redwood's father, and through her influence an opening
was made for him in that celebrated pharmacy. Some four
or five years after he had entered the house, and when he
had arrived at the principal-dispenser counter, it was found
necessary to enlarge the pharmacy. The firm offered a
premium for the plan which should he approved by them
for enlarging and remodelling the shop, and all in the place,
partners and assistants, were invited to compete. Many
drawings were sent in, but the one which received the prize
was Redwood's. His design was approved in every detail,
and though it involved some structural alterations, these
were carried out exactly as described, and the shop as it
now exists is almost the same as that which young Redwood
planned.
While he was engaged in the business of John Bell &
Co., the son of the chief, Jacob Bell, came into the establish-
ment. Jacob Bell was four years younger than Redwood,
and he had the sense to take him as his guide and instructor
in pharmaceutical matters.
Redwood left Oxford Street and established a business of
his own in Crawford Street. There he fitted up a small
factory, and began the manufacture of some chemical and
pharmaceutical products, devoting especial attention to the
perfection of the preparation of extracts in vacuo. His
business subsequently passed into the hands of Mr. Thomas
Biggs, to whom succeeded Mr. Frederick Curtis, who
removed it to Baker Street, and whose successors, Messrs.
Jameson and Son, are the present proprietors.
In 1841 Jacob Bell commenced the organisation of the
Pharmaceutical Society, and from that date till Mr. Bell's
death, in 1859, Mr. Redwood was the thoughtful, pains-
taking, wise, but singularly unobtrusive supporter of the
enterprise to elevate the status of the British chemist and
druggist. Through those years Mr. Redwood was the
organiser of the Society's scientific, and, to a great extent,
of its educational work. Some Jubilee reminiscences,
from Mr. Joseph Ince, show how the scientific work of
tin Society was done in its early days. There were
excellent evening meetings, good papers were read, im-
portant processes explained, and there were several able
nun who could be relied upon to discuss whatever was
brought forward. The Council appointed a committee to
provide for the evening meetings, but Redwood, as the
scientific officer of the .Society, communicated all papers.
There arose complaints that Redwood was too much in
evidence, and Mr. Bell, always anxious to encourage every
one to take part in the common work, stepped into the
background, and took his friend with him. The entire
control of the evening meetings was handed over to the
committee, and when the session of 1851-52 opened there
was no paper and no suggestion, and October 1851 is a
blank in the official records. Mr. Bell and Professor
Redwood were requested to resume their original positions.
Mr. Redwood was appointed Professor of Pharmacy to
the Society when the school was first founded, and when
Mr. Fownes resigned, on account of ill-health, the Chair of
Pharmacy was united with that of Chemistry. The labora-
tory, which was the first in this country specially arranged
for giving practical instruction in chemistry and pharmacy,
was planned from Professor Redwood's designs. The
College of Chemistry, under Dr. Hofmann, and the
Birkbeck Laboratory at University College, under Professor
Fownes, followed soon afterwards, the latter of these being
constructed on the same principle as that of the one in
Bloomsbury Square.
Professor Redwood was for many years Secretary of the
Chemical Society, and also of the Cavendish Society. His
degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the University
of Giessen, at the special request of Liebig when he was
resigning his professorship at that institution.
In 1847 Redwood edited and partly re-wrote a new
edition of Gray's Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia. In
1849 a further edition was produced, and as by this time
there was scarcely any of the original left, it appeared
as Redwood's Supplement. Subsequently he edited and
adapted for English readers a work on practical pharmacy,
which was published as " Mohr and Redwood's Practical
Pharmacy." A great part of the English edition was
new matter written by Redwood. Another important
literary work which he undertook was the re-casting of
Pereira's " Materia Medica." This work was done in
collaboration with his colleague Professor Bentley. He
assisted Mr. Bell to found the " Pharmaceutical Journal,"
and to conduct it until that gentleman's death in
1859. From 1859 to 1870 Redwood was himself the
chief editor. When the first British Pharmacopoeia was
published, in 1864, it was found so unsatisfactory that
the Medical Council was obliged to call in the aid of
some pharmaceutical experts. Dr. Redwood and Mr.
Warington, of the Apothecaries' Hall, were engaged to
prepare a new edition.
For fullness of knowledge on pharmaceutical matters
Dr. Redwood had, perhaps, no equal in this country.
When he had to speak in public he was generally very
deliberate, but always very clear, and his words were always
exactly the correct ones. But when he had to reply to an
attack on his work, he was at his very best.
Dr. Redwood was married in 1845 to Charlotte Elizabeth,
the eldest daughter of the late Mr. T. N. R. Morson, but
he had the great misfortune to lose her in 1868 after a
long illness. He leaves six sons and two daughters. A
younger sister of his wife, the widow of his half-brother,
kept house for him at Boverton, and was with him at his
death.
Dr. Redwood was public analyst for the county of
Middlesex, for the London districts of Holborn and St.
Giles, and for the borough of Luton.
The Redwood Scholarship founded in his honour by a
general subscription some six years, when he retired from
the active duties of his professorship, will after the present
session be appropriately a;sociated with the Research
Laboratory.
To the majority of those who read this tribute, Dr.
Redwood has always been an old man in years, though
as young as the youngest in thought, in quickness of
apprehension, in debate, and in cordiality. From his
earliest days to his latest he seemed absolutely free from
prejudices.
230
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCEETT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March U.U9B.
journal ant) patent* literature*
Class. Pa*e-
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 230
II.— Fuel, Gas. ami Lieut 2.(1
III —Destructive Distinction, Tar Products, 4c 235
I v.— Colouring Matters and Dyes 235
V.— Textiles: Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c —
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printins, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 237
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 237
V III.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 239
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements. . 241
X.— Metallurgy 242
XI.— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 2 17
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 250
XIII —Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, 4c 250
XI v.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 253
XV.— Manures, tc 2°3
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, 4c —
XVII.— Bretfing, Wines, Spirits, 4c 255
XVIII — Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chimistry, and
Disinfectants 257
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, ic 2'.1
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids. Essences, and Extracts 261
XXI.— Photoeraphic Materials and Processes 366
XXII— Explosives. Matches, 4c 267
XXIII.— Analytical Chemistry 267
I .-GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
On the Durability of Aluminium. C. Winkler,
angew. Chem. 1892, 69.
See under X., page 244.
Zeits. f.
Improvements in Chemical Fire Extinguishers. J. Haslani,
Tonge. Eng. Pat. 4839, March 18, 1891.
These improvements relate to stoppers or covers for
chemical fire extinguishers, with a view to prevent the
escape of gas produced by the action of the carbonate or
other solution, through the accidental application of heat or
from some other cause when not in use. One of the
arrangements is shown in the accompanying illustrations
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Cooling, Heating, and
Drying Liquid and other Substances. T. A. Shaw
and J. Rushton, Bradford. Eng. Pat. 4597, March 14,
1891.
In a closed chamber of rectangular section the inventors
dispose a number of perforated plates horizontally, sur-
mounted bv a filter and a distributing plate. On opposite
sides of the chamber, at alternate divisions between the
plates, are fixed the inlets of pipes connected with main
pipes through which air or steam can be made to enter as
may be required, the surplus escaping through one or two
outlets in the third side of the chamber. Two similar but
smaller receptacles are placed at a lower level, one on each
side below the main vessel, and these are similarly fitted up
with partitions, pipes, and exits. The liquid to be treated
enters by a pipe in the top of the larger vessel, passes over
the distributing plate through the filter, and descends
through the perforated partitions, being exposed on its way
to the action of the steam or hot air, if it is a question of
evaporating or heating, or to that of cold air if the liquid is
to be cooled. Two outlets near the bottom of the chamber
lead the liquid through suitable pipes to the two lower
vessels, where it is similarly treated, issuing finally from
the lower ends of these vessels in the heated or cooled state
as required.
The patentees claim the arrangement described and
shown, and the specification is accompanied by two sheets
of drawings. — B.
* Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
srf.— the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack. Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
Improvements in Chemical Eire Extinguishers.
which will explain themselves. India-rubber or other
pliable material is employed for making the joint at the
mouth of the vessel, and is indicated in the drawings by the
thick black lines.
The patentee makes five claims and illustrates five
different devices. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Drying and Disinfecting
Cereals and other Granular or Sub-divided Materials.
G. Borgarelli, Turin, Italy. Eng. Pat. 5486, March 28,
1891.
This refers to an apparatus for drying grain in bulk by
passing it slowly down a vertical chamber over partitions or
diaphragms, which at the same time admit of air being
passed through in the opposite direction.
Each diaphragm consists of a number of ridged parallel
surfaces like small roofs or inverted troughs, with openings
at the top capable of being regulated by means of slides
worked from the outside. Or the openings may be on the
sloping sides of the ridged surfaces in the manner of louvres,
and the ridges are placed crossing each other in alternate
diaphragms, whilst the openings through the tops or sides
are also disposed in a way to cause the grain to descend in
zig-zag fashion. From a plate over the uppermost diaph-
ragms in the chamber depends a number of hopper openings
through which the grain is admitted, and hoppers are
similarly provided under the lowest partition for its removal.
Above the lower hoppers the chamber is encircled by an
air-belt which admits air into the chamber through various
holes, and there are arrangements for heating the air as well
as the upper part of the chamber itself. Disinfecting gases
or vapours may be admitted at the same time.
The claim is for the arrangement of tiers, as described,
and the specification is accompanied by one sheet of
drawings. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Separating Liquids from
Solid Matters suspended therein. 3. Sawrey and
H. Collet, London. Eng. Pat. 5529, March 31, 1891.
In an upright cylindrical vessel a number of partitions of
hopper-like shape are arranged, with perforations through
their conical sides, and each centre opening provided with a
long spout approaching the centre hole of the next lower
hopper. The liquid enters near the lower end of the vessel,
and on rising through the perforations allows the solid
matters suspended therein to settle in the hoppers and slide
down their inner sides, collecting in the bottom of the
vessel, where they can be withdrawn. — B.
Improved Apparatus for obtaining Products of Distilla-
tion or Separating \~olatite Liquids. L. J. P. Pontallie.
Eng. Pat. 22,253,'Deeember 19, 1891.
The object of the invention is to obtain the separation of
liquids from a mixture of vapours, upon the principle of
passing such vapours through vertical narrow spaces,
March 81, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
231
whereby those which are less volatile condense at a lower
level than those which are more volatile. One arrangement
of the apparatus upon this system is shown in the accom-
panying figures, which will make the matter clear.
Fig. 1.
-'-'. •• - - • „;
Fig. 2.
Apparatus for Distilling and
Liquids.
Separating Volatile
The injector D receiving steam through the valve g and
pipe V draws the liquid from the tank O into the atomiser
A, whence it reaches the narrow cooling spaces in the
column above. Part of the heated spray and vapour passes
through the column and is delivered by the pipe a into a
condensing coil at F, whilst that part which is condensed in
the lower .part of the upright column runs off through the
pipe 1! into the cistern T. Through this cistern passes a
coil of pipes connected with the suction from the cistern O,
by which means the distilling liquid takes up heat before
reaching the atomiser. E and/ are thermometers, and h is
a tap for regulating the temperature, which is to be main-
tained at the boiling point of the distillate near the thermo-
meter/.
Fig. 2 shows a cross section of the condensing columu,
the cooling spaces being more contracted as they near the
upper end.
The apparatus is said to separate rapidly and accurately
alcohol, benzene, toluene, &c.
Oue sheet of drawings and five claims. — B.
II -FUEL, GAS, AND LIGHT.
The Luminosity of Coal-Gas Flames. Vivian B. Lewes.
Pi'OC Chem. Soc. 1892, No. 105, 2 — 8.
The author has quantitatively studied the actions which
lead to loss of luminosity in a Bunsen flame.
The volumes of varying mixtures of nitrogen and
oxygen required to render 16- 3 candle coal-gas non-
luminous in a Bunsen burner are shown in the following
table : —
Gas.
Volume
of
Mixture
required.
Composition of
Mixture.
Volume of
Oxygen
Nitrogen.
Oxygen.
Amount
required.
1 vol.
2-30
1
Nil.
Nil.
1 vol.
■:■; 30
5
1
0'38
l vol.
2-27
4
1
O'lo
1vol.
2-112
3
1
0'50
1 vol.
1-19
2
1
0'50
1 vol.
rno
1
l
0-50
l vol.
0'50
Nil.
1
0-50
It is evident that until the percentage of oxygen reaches
the amount present in the atmosphere, the diluting
influence of the nitrogen is so strong that it prevents the
oxygen having any practical effect in destroying luminosity;
but that as soon as the quantity of oxygen present has
risen above 25 per cent., then its activity has so far over-
come the diluting influence of the nitrogen, that the latter
has ceased to exercise any retarding influence on it.
In the case of other gases, the results are as follows : —
1 vol. of coal gas requires 0 ' 5 vol. of oxygen .
„ „ 1*26 vol. of carbon dioxide.
„ „ 2-30 vol. of nitrogen.
2'27 air.
,, ,. 5*11 carbon monoxide.
,, „ 12 'i hydrogen.
It is shown by experiment that dilution has the effect of
destroying luminosity by greatly increasing the temperature
necessary to decompose heavy hydrocarbons with liberation
of carbon, so that at the temperature existing in a flame a
volume of gas which undiluted will deposit 0-22 grm. of
carbon, when diluted with 2'3 vols, of nitrogen, will only
deposit 0-0013, but the higher the temperature, the less is
the retarding action.
Experiments are next described in which the effect of the
surrounding air on a flame is examined, and it is shown
that, although the air introduced into a Bunsen is capable
of bringing about certain changes in the flame when alreadj-
burning in air, yet that it is quite unable by itself to keep
the flame burning.
When a Bunsen burns under normal conditions, it has a
bluish central zone, but if the air supply be largely in
excess of that required for non-luminous combustion, the
flame becomes smaller and fiercer with formation of a
green central zone, which marks the change from a com-
bustion in which the diluting influence of the nitrogen is
still playing a certain part in causing non-luminosity, to a
combustion in which the oxygen present having exceeded
0-5 vol. for each volume of gas, the nitrogen has ceased to
exert any retarding influence.
By means of a platinum, platinum-rhodium thermo-
couple, the temperature was determined in various parts of
a non-luminous Bunsen flame, burning 6 cubic feet of coal-
gas per hour : —
232
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. vm.
Foint in Flame.
Flame rendered Non-
luminous by
NtoEen. Carl,™
Luminous
Flame
from
Bunsen.
o
0
•
0
-' inch above burner.
51
30
35
135
I' Inch above burner
175
111
70
421
Tip of inner cone ...
1,090
441
393
913
Centre of outer cone.
1,533
999
770
1,323
Tip of outer cone ...
1.175
1,151
951
72S
Side of outer cone
level with tip of
inner cone.
1,333
1,236
970
1,236
A determination was made of the temperatures existing
during the normal and also the " green centre " combustion
of a Bunsen : —
- —
Blue
Inner Cone.
Greenish
Inner Cone.
° C. " C.
I.ii'.'il 1,575
1,533 1,600
1,175 1.515
Side nf outer cone level with the tip
of inner cone.
1,333
1,511
Analyses of gases extracted from luminous flames at the
points at which the temperatures had been determined show
that in the inner zone there is a rapid diminution in the
quantity of hydrogen as the gases ascend in the centre of
the flame, a slow diminution in the quantity of the un-
saturated and saturated hydrocarbons, and a large increase
in the quantity of carbon monoxide in the first half of the
flame. Analysis also revealed the fact that the outer non-
luminous zone of a flame is not an area of complete
combustion, but a portion of the flame in which the rapid
entrance of air cools, dilutes, and finally puts out the flame,
allowing not inconsiderable amounts of methane, carbon
monoxide, acetylene, and even hydrogen, to escape
unburn t.
The undoubted presence of acetylene in the products
escaping from the flame, and the fact that the incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbon gases always gives rise to the
formation of this compound, suggested the idea that it
might play an important. part in the changes taking place
in the interior of a flame, and experiments were made to
ascertain if any appreciable quantity were formed during
the destruction of the hydrocarbons in the flame gases.
It would seem that in the interior of the luminous flame
the hydrocarbons are at once attacked by the small propor-
tion of air which penetrates into the inner zone, and that
their incomplete combustion gives rise to acetylene, which,
by the time the top of the inner non-luminous cone is
reached, constitutes over 70 per cent, of the unsaturated
hydrocarbons present, some of the acetylene, however,
having probably been formed b3' the interaction of methane
and carbon monoxide. A small propoition of some more
stable unsaturated hydrocarbon may remain undecomposed
and penetrate into the luminous zone, but the chief effect is
due to the acetylene which is decomposed by the higher
temperature, and the liberated carbon being for a moment
heated to incandescence gives luminosity to the flame.
The author therefore regards the formation and decom-
position of acetylene as the main cause of luminosity in a
hydrocarbon flame, and if it be necessary, for purposes of
simple description, to divide the luminous flame into zones,
he thinks it would be most accurately regarded as consisting
of three, viz. : —
1 . The inner zone, in which the temperature rises from a
comparatively low point at the mouth of the burner to
about 1,0003 C. at the apex of the zone ; in this portion of
the flame various decompositions and interactions occur,
which culminate in the conversion of the heavier hydro-
carbons into acetylene, carbon monoxide being also pro-
duced.
2. The luminous zone in which the temperature ranges
from 1,000° C. up to a little over 1,300° C. Here the
acetylene formed in the inner zone becomes decomposed by
heat with liberation of carbon, which at the moment of
formation is heated to incandescence by the combustion of
the carbon monoxide and hydrogen, thus giving luminosity
to the flame.
3. The extreme outer zone. Here, combustion being
practically completed, the cooling and diluting influence of
the entering air renders a thin layer of the flame non-
luminous, finally extinguishing it.
This description of a luminous flame is of necessity far
from complete, as it leaves out of consideration the causes
which lead to the formation of the acetylene and the
numerous interactions which take place between the pro-
ducts of combustion and the carbon in the upper zone of
the flame.
The various actions which tend to cause the loss of
luminosity in a Bunsen burner, in the author's opinion, may
be summarised as follows : —
1. The chemical activity of the atmospheric oxygen,
which causes loss of luminosity by burning up the hydro-
carbons before they, in their diluted condition, can afford
acetylene.
2. The diluting action of the atmospheric nitrogen, which,
by increasing the temperature necessary to bring about the
partial decomposition of the hydrocarbons, prevents forma-
tion of acetylene, and in this way will by itself cause non-
luminosity ; in the normal Bunsen flame it acts by doing
this until destruction of the hydrocarbons by oxidation has
taken place.
3. The cooling influence of the air introduced, which is
able to add to the general result, although the cooling is
less than the increase in temperature brought about by the
oxidation due to the oxygen in the air.
4. In a normal Bunseu flame the nitrogen and the oxygen
are of about equal importance in bringing about non-
luminosity, but if the quantity of air be increased, then
oxidation becomes the principal factor, and the nitrogen
practically ceases to exert any influence.
In the discussion which followed, Professor Smithells
directed Professor Lewes' attention to the controversy on
the cause of delumination of flames which had taken place
between Blochmann and Heumann (Annalen, 207, 167 ;
Ber. 14, 1250, 1925, 2210); also to Waldie's observations
(Phil. Mag. (1838), 13, 88), in which delumination was
effected by introduciug luminous flames into atmospheres
containing gases neutral to combustion. Waldie sought to
establish a relationship between diffusibility and delumi-
nating effect. The abormally great effect of carbon dioxide
in destroying luminosity had been generally attributed, not
to its high specific heat, but to its power of taking up
carbon.
In a paper, which is in the press, it would be clearly
demonstrated, he thought, that there are four distinct
regions in a flame, however many gradations of chemical
change there may be. He considered that the most
important point in the paper which they had heard was
thai relating to the presence of acetylene in the flame. In
his own experiments with ethylene he had also found that
during luminous combustion scarcely any other hydro-
carbons than acetylene are present in the aspirated gases.
He was not satisfied, however, with Professor Lewes' proof
of the escape of acetylene from ordinary luminous flames ;
whilst there was no a priori evidence against such an
occurrence, unless the extraction of acetylene had been
effected otherwise than by introducing cold aspirating tubes
into the flame, it might be that the production of acetylene
was a consequence of the method of experiment — it being
well known that acetylene escaped freely from flames in
contact with metallic surfaces. Accepting it as proved that
the formation of acetylene in flames was an important
HirohSMHB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
233
(actor in tin' origin of luminosity, the question was by no
means worked out. It remained to discover exactly what
became of tin' acetylene.
Professor Lewes, in reply, said that the theory thai
carbon dioxide acted in destroying luminosity by converting
ethylene into carbon monoxide and methane was, he
thought, disproved, both by the experiments on the effect
of heat in restoring luminosity to the flame and by the
thermal changes taking place, as shown by the temperature
of the diluted flame.
Undoubtedly Sir Humphry Davy went rather too far in
his theory of luminous flames; but in a paper on the
subject by him, in the Phil. Mag. for 1817, he says, "The
intensity of light of flames depends principally upon the
production and ignition of solid matter in combustion," also
" Flame is gaseous matter heated so highly as to be
luminous," and " when in flames pure gaseous matter is
burnt, the light is extremely feeble," so that it seems
hardly just to insist that he considered solid matter
absolutely essential to luminosity,
The determination of the combustible gases escaping
unburn! From the outer zone of non-luminous flames, had
been mode by taking a platinum tube 2 mm. in diameter,
bent into a ring, and pierced on the inside with minute
hoi,-. ; this ring was placed round the flame, but not in
contact with it. and the products of combustion were
aspirated through this, so that the acetylene could not be
due to tlie action of the tube.
The speaker regarded the conversion of the hydro-
carbons into acetylene as the chief cause of luminosity in
(lame, because acetylene was practically the only heavy
hydrocarbon present in that part of the flame where
luminosity commenced, and as it was known that acetylene
was an endothermic compound, which could be decomposed
by detonation, it seemed highly probable that it would be
readily decomposed by heat and liberate carbon.
The Baltimore Meeting of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers. Kng. and Mining J. 1892, 229.
Thh Simultaneous Pboduction of Ammonia, Tab,
mo Heating (lis. Alphonse Hennin.
It i^ well known, said A. Heiinin. that under certain
conditions ammonia is found in the gas produced by the
distillation of coal. For many years little or no importance
was attached to its presence, and no attempt was made for
its recovery. A. W. Hofmann wis the first to establish a
n lation between the percentage of nitrogen in the coal and
the proportion of ammonia in tin- coal-gas. If all the
nitrogen in the coal could he converted into ammonia the
value of this product would, itself, give handsome profits on
the operation. Indeed, a coal containing 1| per cent, of
nitrogen would produce per ton the equivalent of ii;l 1!.. of
ammonium iulphate, worth, at the present prices, 5 dols.
In 1ST". Dr. II. Grouven, of Leipzig, discovered that in a
large excess of superheated -team, when the necessary
i liti.ui- of temperature, time, and contact are supplied,
combined nitrogen is transformed into ammonia.
Between these theoretical actions, however, ami the
establishment Of an economical manufacturing process there
were many difficulties to overcome. The practical operation
had to he so conducted as to maintain the proper heat,
make the conditions for the decomposition of ammonia as
unfavourable as possible, and at the same time to produce
sueh a gas as is required in the metallurgy of iron and steel.
where rapidity of heating and melting with the lowest per-
centage of waste is of prime consideration. Mr. Heiinin
states [hut he has found that when high-pressure steam is
moderately superheated and evenly distributed and diffused
II] tlie glowing mass in a gas-producer, a limited supply of
air drawn into the generator is sufficient to maintain the
temperature needed to admit continuously from 1 lb. to
1 | lh of high-pressure steam per pound of coal, and that
this proportion of steam is ample to provoke the necessary
"''''on- which transform into ammonia 50 percent, to Gil
l" I cent ol the total nitrogen of the coal and still to pro-
duces gas of the foil. .wing composition: CO.. 10'50 per
cent.: ii loo p,_r cent.; I'D 2O-00 per cent.; methane
and homologous compounds I ■ jo per cent.; hydrogen
38'00 per cent. ; nitrogen 26-00 per cent.
This gas is rather high in carbonic acid, but the total of
ibustil.lc matter is considerable and the efficiency of the
gas in a regenerative furnace is very high. It burns with a
sharp, white-bluish flame, not without luminosity, and heats
more rapidly and more economically than the ordinary
Siemens gas. With well-designed producers ami the proper
plant, when the art of managing ami controlling the heat in
the different zones his been mastered, there is no difficulty
in producing regularly, with the proper amount of steam,
from each ton of coal, 70 lb. to 8.1 lb. of sulphate of
ammonia, 130,000 cub. ft. to 150,000 cub. ft. of heating gas
of high quality, and, in addition, some 15 gals, to 'Jo e .[-.
of tar, according to the nature of the eoal (this Journal,
lsss, 735—737).
PATENTS.
An Improved Method and Apparatus for the Removal or
Prevention of Smoke and Fog, and the Purification of
Air in Towns nuil other Places, fur the Heating and
Ventilation if Houses and other Structures, for the
Melting if Snow, and Jar the Extinguishing of Eire.
F. Oades, Wokingham. Kng. Pat. 19,044, November 24,
1890.
For. carrying out some of the objects mentioned above two
sets of pipes or mains are laid under the roadway, and are
provided with suitable traps or gratings through which the
air or fog is drawn by means of pumps placed in any con-
venient position ; 1. ranch pipes leading into the different
apartments, and into the chimneys or fireplaces of the
adjoining buildings are connected with each of the two
mains. The fog and smoke pumped in from the street and
from the buildings is passed into furnaces or stoics of
special construction, where the smoke is consumed, unci the
fog or other suspended matter dissipated.
The ventilation of sewers might also lie effected with an
apparatus of this kind, the foul air being rendered harmless
in passing through the furnaces; it is desirable, however,
that separate mains, quite independent of those connected
with the buildings, should be provided for this purpose.
flic smoke from ordinary coal fires may be consumed
without the employment of mains, by causing it to pass
through a small gas stove packed with asbestos and placed
in a convenient position above the grate; tin- hot air from
the stove may he passed between two corrugated plates,
forming an overmantel, so that tlie greater (art of the heat
would he utilised. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Gas-Producing Apparatus for Thermal
Motors, (i. 1''. Kedferii, London. From " La Societe
Anonyme des Moteurs Thcriniipies Gardie," Nantes,
France. Eng. I'at. 19,047, November 24, 1890.
The improved gas producer is specially applicable for use
with the gas engine previously described (fine. Pat. 2(149
of lss'.i). its principal feature being that the gas is produced
under pressure (up to several atmospheres) ; this is effected
by having air tight doors to the ash-pit ami to the openings
communicating with the hearth. The fuel ( coal or anthracite)
is added continuously by means of a hopper, which is
provided with an air-tight cover above, and at the lower part
with a large cock. The air necessary for tlie combustion of
the fuel is forced under the grate with the aid of a steam
injector, the heat of the generated gas being used for the
production of steam for working the gas producer. There
are four claims and two sheets of drawings. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Generation and Combustion of Gas
for Smelting and Heating Purposes, and in Appliances
connected therewith. .1. Hargreaves, Widnes. Eng.
Pat. 1386, January 26, 1891.
Soun fuel, sueh as coal, coke, or charcoal, is fed into a
closed chamber and is there ignited ; part of u measured
quantity of a mixture of hot air and -team (or hot air alone)
234
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, mm.
under pressure is then brought into contact with the ignited
fuel, so that a combustible gas is generated in the chamber.
This gas is then led to the melting hearth, and is there
burnt with the aid of the remainder of the definite quantity
of heated air, the flame passing over the substance to be
heated or melted. A chamber filled with chequer brick-
work, which serves as a heat regulator and air and steam
superheaters, are employed in connexion with the rest of
the apparatus. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Distribution of
Gaseous Fuel, and in Arrangements and Apparatus
therefor. J. W., A. K., and J. Onuiston, Glasgow.
Eng. Pat. 1009, February 3, 1891.
The apparatus employed for the production of the gaseous
fuel consists of a large cupola or chamber, like that of a
blast furnace, which is provided with twyers, charging
appliances, &c, in the usual way. Instead of ordinary coal,
any carbonaceous materials which contain a large propor-
tion of earthy matter, such as poor shales, or mixtures of
such minerals, may be employed. A certain amount of
limestone, blast-furnace slag, or other suitable substance is
mixed with the charge in order to form a fluid slag with the
earthy matters ; this slag is tapped off at the bottom of the
furnace when necessary, without interrupting the process of
gas-making.
The advantages claimed for this method of producing gas
arc, amongst others, that carbonaceous materials hitherto
regarded as valueless may be employed, and that the labour
involved in removing the " cinder " or ashes is entirely done
away with.
The gas may be distributed by means of underground
tunnels pierced through rock or dense strata, and
communicating with vertical shafts or branches at suitable
points. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Carburetting Gas or
Air, or for Distilling, Evaporating, or Concentrating.
F. Lennard, East Greenwich. Eng. Pat. 3916, March 4,
1891.
The apparatus here described is for use in cases when it is
desired to distil off the volatile constituents of a liquid, and
at the same time to utilise the vapours for carburetting air or
gas. The liquid to he distilled is first warmed by the hot
vapours produced at a later stage of the operation, anil then
caused to flow down a series of vertical tubes which are
heated by steam or hot air ; in this way a large surface is
exposed, and the more volatile constituents are readily
vaporised. When air or gas is to be carburetted it is
admitted under pressure, and caused to pass upwards
through the heated vertical tubes down which the liquid is
flowing.— F. 8. K.
Tmprovtmentsinthe Purification of Water-Gas, or other
Producer Gas from Sulphur Compounds. C. F. Claus,
London. Eng. Pat. 4279, March 10, 1891.
The gas to be purified is passed through iron cylinders or
boxes, tilled with iron or copper; the metal maybe em-
ployed in the form of granules or scrap, hut it is preferable
to prepare it in a spongy condition by reducing it from the
oxide with hydrogen or water-gas. The iron cylinders or
boxes are either set iu brickwork, so that they can be
heated from the outside, or else they arc lined inside with
brickwork so that they may be heated by hot gases internally,
such heating being necessary when the process is first
started. The hot gas, at a temperature of from 500° —
700° C. as it leaves the producer, is passed through two or
more purifiers, ami is there deprived of its sulphur com-
1 ids; the heat of the gas and that generated by the
chemical action is sufficient to maintain the requisite
temperature when the process is in full operation. When
the purifier is spent, or partly spent, it is disconnected and
cold or hot air is passed through it until the whole of the
sulphide of the metal has been converted into oxide; the
oxide is then reduced to metal by treating it with water-gas
at a suitable temperature, and the purifier is then ready for
use again.— F. S. K.
An Improved Method of and Apparatus for the Puriji-
fication of Smoke in Chimneys. E. It. Salwey, Bristol.
Eng. Pat. 4565, March 14, 1891.
See under XVIII.— B., page 260.
Improvements in or relating to Gas Generators for Motor
Engines. A. J. Boult, London. From " Compagnie des
Fondcrics et Forges de l'Horme" and A. Lencauchez,
Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 4798, March 17, 1891.
The object of this invention is to obtain generator gas
which can be employed in the place of ordinary coal-gas for
feeding motor engines ; for this purpose certain improve-
ments have been made in the ordinary apparatus iu order
to produce a richer gas.
The air for supplying the blast of the generator is first
passed through a tubular superheater, iu which its tem-
perature is raised to 200' — 300° by the hot generator gas ;
it is then passed under pressure into a hollow chamber
situated under the generator, and partly filled with hot
water, which, coming from the cylinder of the engine, is
caused to spray against the metallic portion of the grate,
whence it falls to the bottom of the chamber. The air,
thus saturated with water and superheated, is now forced
through the generator, and in this way a combustible gas,
rich in hydrogen, is produced. This gas is first passed
through the air superheater, whereby it is cooled, aud then
through a scrubber or washer of the usual form. It some-
times happens that the grate loses its brightness to a
certain extent owing to the loss of heat which is involved
in producing the generator-gas ; this difficulty is overcome
by surrounding the grate with a coil- or ring-burner, fed
with gas under pressure from a separate gasometer.
— F. S. K.
Improvements in Means of Consuming Smoke. S. Iloyle
ami A. Ilaslam, Radclifte. Eng. Pa't. 4912, March 19,
1891.
liv this invention a box or chamber is provided extending
beneath anil up the back of the fire-bridge and communi-
cating with the furnace, above the fire-bars, by a set of
parallel passages ; below the bars, by a wide opening. In
working, heated gases are drawn in through these inlets
and issue at a grided outlet just behind the top of the tire-
bridge ; there they come iu contact with the smoke and
consume it. — 1). A. I..
Improvements in the Art of Manufacturing Illuminating
Gas. W. II. Munns, London. From E. de Beauharnais,
New Bedford, U.8.A. Eng. Pat. 5212, March 24,
1891.
Crude petroleum is allowed to drip through a perforated
cover on to ground corn-cobs, on .the surface of which a
small quantity of ashes, made from the wood aud hark of
the white ash-tree, is placed. After leaving the oil in
contact with this mixture for about 24 hours, it is mixed
with rain-water and introduced into a U-shaped retort
together with heated air and steam ; the gas produced in
this way passes along one horizontal limb of the retort, and,
at the bend, comes into the current of a jet of steam, wdiich
is directed towards the outlet of the other limb, and which
accelerates the passage of the gas from the retort; the gas
is then carburetted in the usual manner.
It is stated that the gas produced from petroleum treated
as described above is a very superior illuminating gas, but
what the chemical effect of this treatment may be is not
known. — F. S. K.
Harcli si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
23i
Improvements in Carburettors. M. Merichenski, London.
Eng. Pat. 7188, April 25, 1891.
The carburettor consists of a square, rectangular, or
cylindrical vessel made of glass, glazed earthenware, or
some other suitable material ; it is packed with a light
absorbent wood, crushed into a mass and saturated with
oil. The vessel is divided by partitions in such a way that
the gas to he carburetted passes through as great a length
as possible of the saturated wood. A portion of the last
channel through which the gas passes is filled with charcoal,
or with mineral wool, so that it acts as a cooling or con-
densing chamber, in which the gas is freed from surplus
carbon. The apparatus is charged with oil at intervals as
required, either from a can or from a reservoir. The
carburettor is designed to he introduced locally in buildings ;
it is stated that by its use the illuminating power of ordinary
coal-gas is raised from 12 to 50 per cent., and that the
carbon monoxide and sulphurous gases are wholly consumed.
— F. S. K.
Improvements in in- Relating to Magnesium Flash Lights.
I.'. Raddan, London. From F. II. F. Engel, Hamburg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 7IS7, April 30, 1891.
See under XXL, page 267.
Process of and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gas.
W. Fairweather, Glasgow. From " The Acme Liquid
Fuel Company," New York, U.S.A. Fug. Pat. 21,881,
December 15, 1891.
Tins invention relates to the manufacture of heating and
illuminating gas from hydrocarbons, from hydrocarbons
and water, and from hydrocarbons and hydrogen.
The hydrocarbon is first heated by means of a steam coil,
then passed into a vaporiser, and finally superheated ; the
fixed gas obtained in this way may theu be mixed with
superheated steam. When hydrogen is employed it is
mixed with the hydrocarbon vapour before the latter is
superheated. For details the original must be consulted.
There are 50 claims and two sheets of drawings. — F. -S. K.
III.-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
On Pirene. It. Lespican. Hull. Soc. Chitu. 1891, 6,
238 — 239.
AMONGST the products resulting from the action of ethylene
bromide on naphthalene in presence of aluminium chloride
was a hydrocarbon described by Koux as boiling at -150°,
and crystallising in scales melting at 300". In taking up
the further study of this substance the author found much
difficulty in freeing it from dinaphthyl and naphthalene
derivatives, but after several distillations and crystallisations
the melting point rose to 337", and the substance thus
purified was found to resemble the hydrocarbon termed
picene described by Burg. Its close affinity to picene was
shown by the formation and analysis of the bromide, a
substance m elting at 294°, insoluble in chloroform, but
soluble in xylene. Burg gives C.:.,H14 as the formula for
picene. — G. II. B.
The Melting Points of Mixtures of Hydrocarbons.
1.. Vignon. Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 133—136.
The melting point of mixtures of naphthalene and diphcnyl-
naphthalcne and phenanthrcne, naphthalene and triphenyl-
methane, diphenyl and phenanthrcne, diphenyl and
triphenylmethane in proportions varying from 1 molecule
of the one to 4 molecules of the other is in all cases lower
than the mean of the melting points of the two bodies
composing the mixture. In each case a minimum melting
point is reached, corresponding to the following molecular
proportions :• -
MeUing
Point.
Naphthalene and diphenyl C10H8.(Ci3H,i))2 5U°C.
Naphthalene anil phenanthrene i('i,iHjl..CuH,o 53° C.
Naphthalene and triphenylmethane. CioHe.CH(C0H3)3. ... 53° V.
Diphenyl and phenanthrene (CwHioJg.Ci+Hio CV* C.
Diphenyl and triphenylmethane (C1BH „,),..(.' II (CGlf -. i,,. 50° C.
In the majority of these cases the mixture consists of
2 molecules of the more fusible and 1 molecule of the less
fusible hydrocarbon. Mixtures of anthracene with diphenyl,
triphenylmethane, phenanthrene, and naphthalene do not
show such regularities. The melting point of the mixture
is higher than the mean of those of the components and
rises fairly regularly with an increase in the proportion of
anthracene.—! '. A. K.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Carburetting Gas or Air,
or for Distilling, Evaporating, or Concentrating.
F. Leonard, Last Greenwich. Eng. Pat. 3916, March 4,
I Hill.
See under II., preceding page.
The Manufacture of Charcoal from Sawdust, Wood
Shavings, and the like, and the Treatment of Wine,
Alcohol, Brandy, Cider, Beer, and other Matters
therewith. F. L. Calmant, Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
397S, March 5, 1891.
See under XVI I., page 257.
An Improved Coke Furnace or Oven. K. Lares, Karwin,
Austria. Fng. Pat. 17,371, October 12, 1891.
The coke oven described in this patent with the aid of five
sheets of drawings is designed for working with large
charges, the main object of the invention being to combine
steady working with rapid coking, and at the same time to
prevent as much as possible the deterioration of the oven.
The gases from the combustion chamber pass through a
series of flues, and are thus brought into contact with the
outer surfaces of the side walls, of the hearth, and of a part
of the crown of the furnace : the air necessary for their
complete combustion is admitted through suitable passages.
— F. S. K.
Improvements in Apparatus fir Distilling and Rectifying.
S. Pitt, Sutton. From "A Savalle, Sous & Co." Paris,
France. Fng. Pat. 21,708, December 11, 1891.
See under XVIL, page 257.
IY.-COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
Preparation of a-Trinitrotoluene. C. Hiiussermann.
Ziits. f. angew. Chetn. 1891, 661 — 662.
Toluene can of course be directly converted in a single
operation into the 1:2:4:6 trinitro-derivative, but it is
more advantageous to start with the o-n-dinitrotoluene,
which is prepared by allowing a mixture of 75 parts of
91 — 92 per cent, nitric acid and 150 parts of 95 — 96 per
cent, sulphuric acid to run in a thin stream into 100 parts
of p-nitrotoluene while the latter is continuously stirred and
the temperature maintained between G0° — 65° ; as soon as an
the acid has been run in, the mixture is heated for half all
D 2
2nn
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March Si, 1899.
hour at 80 to 85 , and when cold the excess of nitric acid
is removed; the residue is a homogeneous crystalline mass
of o-p-dinitrotoluene, solidifying at 69'5°. To convert th's
into the trinitro-derivative, it is dissolved by gentlj heating
with four times its weight of 95 — 96 per cent, sulphuric
acid, and while keeping cool is mixed with lj, times its
weight of 90— 92 per cent, nitric arid; it is then digested
at between 90' — 95 . with occasional stirring, until the
evolution of gas ceases in about tour or live hours. The
operation is thru stopped, and when the product is cool the
exci ss of nitric acid is separated from it ; the residue, after
washing with hot water and very dilute soda, without further
purification, solidifies at 79 to an almost white, radiating
crystalline mass,-which by recrystallisation from hot alcohol
yields trinitrotoluene in brightly sparkling crystals, melting
at 81'5°. 100 parts of dinitrotoluene yield 105 parts of
the trinito-derivative. 1:2: 1:6 Trinitrotoluene can also he
obtained from ordinary commercial dinitrotoluene, melting
between 60 —64 , hut when this is used the reaction is more
violent ; lii per cent, more nitric acid i< required and in per
rent, less product obtained. It should be borne in mind
when washing trinitrotoluene that it is not quite insoluble in
hot water, and moreover that it is decomposed by dilute
alkalis or alkaline carbonates. — 1). A. L.
Action of Benzyl Chloride on Meta-xylidine. Jablen-
Gonnet. 'Bull. Soc, Chim. 1891, 6, 21—22.
Benzyl chloride acts on meta-xylidine at 160° — 165° C.
to form the benzyl compound —
0,,H,(< H), (11, .tXIKUr,. ('„![-)
ii yellow liquid, boiling at 200° — 210 C, insoluble in water,
soluble in alcohol and in benzene. The product forms
unstable salts, readily decomposed by water and which are
soluble in alcohol. Alky] iodides and acetyl chloride react
with benzyl meta-xylidine to form alkyl and acetyl com-
pound- respectively, which are under investigation.
— C. A. K.
.1 New Method of Preparing Amido-alizarin. C. Lauth.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 836.
Beta-AMIDO-ALIZARIN may he readily prepared by the
action of dimethylaniline on niti-o alizarin One part of
nurd-alizarin is dissolved in four parts of dimethylaniline,
find either one p.ut of syrupy dimethylaniline hydrochloride
or 0-75 part of hydrochloric arid is added. The mixture i-
gradually heated to 150 ( . on an oil-bath, and maintained
at that temperature until a test-drop, when dissolved in
caustic soda, forms a pure blue solution. The operation is
thin arrested, and the mass is washed with warm dilute
hydrochloric acid to remove the dimethylaniline. The
crystalline residue consists of impure amido-alizarin. It
may he obtained quite pure In re-solution in caustic soda
ami re-precipitation by h\ drochloric acid. The reducti >f
nitro-alizarin may In- effected b\ dimethylaniline alone,
although not so readily, as well as by aniline itself in
preset if fti tess of sulphuric acid. — II. T. P.
PATENTS.
The Manufacture and Production of Improved Dyestujfs
suitable for Dyeing Vegetable Fibre with "/ without a
Mordant, .1. Y. Johnson, London. Fromthe" Badische
Auilin mid Soda Fabrik," Lndwigshafen-on-the Rhine,
' ,.in\. Eng l'at. 4543, March 13, 1891. (Second
Edition.) 6d.
It has long lien i known ( Beyer and Kegel, Tier. Pat. 38,310,
1885) thai certain safranines, on diazotisation and combi-
nation with naphthol sulphonic acids, yield azo-compouuds.
(twine to their being unsuitable for dyeing purposes, the
patent was abandoned. If, however, a diazotised safranine
lie combined with a- or fl naphthol. the azo-eompound thus
formed is converted into a valuable colouring matter
to treating it with an acid, preferably hydrochloric or
acetic acid. The safranines which yield good results are:
Pbenosafranine, Safranine T (obtained by oxidising a
mixture of molecular proportions of toluylene diamine,
o-toluiiline, and aniline), anil Safranine A S (obtained by
oxidising p-amidodimethylaniline, o-toluidine, and p-tolui-
dine). The following example illustrates the method
employed: — Dissolve 7 kilos, of Safranine T in 700 litres
of water, cool to 0 , and diazotise by the addition of 2 kilos.
of sodium nitrite in 20 litres of water and 23 kilos, of
hydrochloric acid of 30 per cent. IK'l. The solution thus
obtained is run into 3 kilos, of fi-naphthnl dissolved in 1G5
litres of water and 25 kilos, of caustic soda-lye containing
35 per cent, of NaOH. After stirring for several hours,
the blackish-violet precipitate formed is filtered off, washed,
and pressed. To convert it into a colouring matter it is
suspended in 400 litres of water, and 46 kilos, of hydro-
chloric acid are added. The hydrochloric arid salt formed
is then filter-pressed and used preferably as :i paste. The
colouring matters obtained from the various safranines
yield different shades, varying from dark violet to indigo
blue. They can be employed either with or without
mordants, and arc fast to washing and light. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of New Mordant-
dyeing Colouring Matters related to the RQsaniline
Series. J. Y. Johnson, London. From the " Badische
Anilin und Soda Fabrik," Ludwigshafen-on the-llhine,
Germany. Eng. l'at. 4688, March 16,1891. (Secoud
Edition.) 8d.
Ax extension of the processes described in Fug. Pat. 4850
of 1884 (this Journal, 1885, 204) and of Eng. Pat. 5038 of
1884 (this Journal, 1885, 279). It has been discovered
that by condensing certain hydroxy compounds with tetra-
methyl- or tetra-ethyl-diamidohenzophenone compounds,
new bodies are produced, which by reason of their hydroxy
groups are capable of combining with metallic mordants
to give a variety of shades. The following dihydroxy
Compounds give good results: — (1-2) Dihydroxynaphtha-
lcne, (2-:i) dihydroxynaphthalene (Eng. Pat. 15,803 of
1890; this Journal, 1891, 762), (2'7 or 2-2') dihydroxy-
naphthalene, pyrogallol. — T. A. L.
Manufacture of New Colouring Matters from Naphthyl-
-glycines. E. v. Portheim, Prague, Bohemia. Eng. l'at
21,949, December 15, 1891. Gd.
Direct dyeing cotton colouring matters are obtained hy
combining tetrazo-compounds of the dipheoy] series with
a- and |8-naphthyl-glycines (O. Jolles, Her. 22, 2372).
The colours and properties of several of these dyestuffs ate
given in the following table : —
Diaz >i ised.
Combined
Willi
Colour.
Water.
Spirit.
Benzidine
a-glyeine
Blue-red
Soluble Solubl,
e glycine
i: i
Soluble
0 glycine
Blue red
InsoUible
a-m Tolidine
: glycine
Red
1 1 line sulphone
glycine
Blue
Soluble
Benzidine snlphone
.: glycine
"
[nsoluble
Benzidin^sulphonie acid .
s glycine
Blue-red
Solul.le
Benzidinesiilphome acid . .
(3-glycine
"
„
Benzidined sulphonic acid
a -i!ly< iii«'
Beuzulinedisulplioni i ai id
3-slycinc
B) nzidine3ul phoned isul-
phonic :i id.
Benzidincsnlphonedisnl-
I lionic ai id,
a-glycine
p-glycine
Blue
-T. A. L.
M»rohsi,iB9a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTHY.
237
I Veic Manufacture of Colouring Mailers. J. Iinray,
London, From " La Societe L. Durand, llugucnin el
Cie," Bale, Switzerland. Eng. Pat. 22,623, December 28,
1891.
Bute colouring matters for mordanted wool are produced
by condensing gallocyanine with trimcthylamine, iso-
butylamine, amylumine, diamylamine, dipropylamine, and
dicthylamine, the first three under similar conditions to
those described in Eng. Pat. 18,526 of 1890 (this Journal,
1891, 138), tliiit is. in a concentrated aqueous solution on
tlir water -batlj. The other amines arc employed in an
anhydrous condition, the condensation with dry gallo-
cyanine also taking place on the water-bath. — T. A. L.
VI.-DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER-
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
Improvements in Turkey-Red Dyeing. T. Baldensperger.
Bull. Soc. liul. de Rouen, 1891, 399.
In order to overcome the difficulties experienced in dyeing
piece-goods with alizarin the author bas proposed the
following plan for dyeing them in the jigger. The
prepared pieces liist pass through the jigger, which is
filled with cold water, to which a little lime-salts have
been added. The solution is then heated to 50 C, and
;i solution of alizarin in ammonia added in 2 or in 1
portions. The pieces are allowed to soak for half an hour,
during which time the solution is heated to boiling, and
then kept at the boil for a quarter of an hour longer. The
hath is completely exhausted and the fabric dyed after
In turns. The alizarin solution consist- ot 10 kilos, of
'Jo per cent, alizarin dissolved in -to litres of water, and
1 kilo, of ammonia. The red obtained by this treatment
is brighter and purer than that got without using ammonia,
whilst I per cent, less alizarin reckoned on the weight of
the material can be employed, since the ammonia solution
has greater covering power. Attempts to employ a solution
of alizarin in lime-water were unsatisfactory. The process
can doubtless be employed for violet, garnet red, and other
colours obtained in alizarin dyeing as well as in Turkey-red
dyeing. — C. A. K.
Action of Water on Basic Salts of Copper. G. Rousseau
and G. Tite. Compt, Bend. 1891,113, 191—193.
gee under VII., page 2:ss.
New Crystalline Oxychlorides of Iron. (1. Rousseau.
Compt. Rend. 1891,113, 542—54 1.
See under XX., page 262.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Means and Method of Dyeing or Colouring
Went, Silk, Hair, Fur, Feathers, and other Animal or
Vegetable Fibres or Plain Cut Pile, Raised Pile, or
Looped Fabrics composed thereof . II. A. Foster, Queens-
bury, and J. Frost, Huddersfield. Eng. Pat. 47S,
January 10, 1891.
I'iik materials specified in the title are coloured by im-
pregnation with a soluble salt of lead " or other metallic
salt whose sulphide gives the desired colour or shade,"
and treatment with hydrogen sulphide, in the gaseous state
or in aqueous solution, or with a solution of an alkaline
sulphide. A design "or ornamental effect" is then pro-
duced on them by printing a thickened solution of hydrogen
dioxide. To produce coloured effects dyes are added to
the hydrogen dioxide mixture, and the printed material
steamed, if necessary, to ii\ the dye; or the material may
he dyed red, yellow, blue, or green, before or after being
coloured with the lead sulphide, and then he printed with
the suitably thickened hydrogen dioxide. — E. li.
Process for Clarifying ami Bleaching Tannin Extracts or
Tanning Liquors. A. Foesling, Diisseldorf, Germany.
Eng. I'at. 1385, March 11, 1891.
Tin: liquors obtained by the extraction of such tanning
materials as chestnuts, oak-hark, and divi divi, arc brought
to a density corresponding to 4 It. at 17'. C., and drawn
oil into a tank; to every 10,000 litres of such tannin-
liquor, 500 grms. of oxalic acid, and 2 kilos of " sodic
chloride," dissolved separately, are added. The liquid is
I hen heated to 60 ( '. and subjected to electrolysis.
•' The electric current, besides decomposing the oxalic
acid and sodic chloride, produces between the two poles a
voluminous deposit which consists chiefly of resin, cellulose,
and colouring matter, that is to say, substances other than
tannin."
The electrodes may be made of platinum wire netting
mounted in frames. The strength of the current depends
on the quantity of liquid to be clarified, and the time in
which the clarification is to take [dace — A. (1. 11.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Alizarin Colours,
ami in Ike Method of Employing same in the Process of
Dyeing. 11. X. V. Schaeffer, Lowell, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
20,010, November 18. 1891.
A soluble mixture or compound of alizarin is prepared
by drying the commercial paste and mixing one part of it
by weight with two parts of borax. On the addition of
hoi water to this mixture, a perfect solution of the alizarin
is produced, the latter, in the inventor's opinion, becoming
combined with both the acid and base of the borax,
forming a definite sodium boro-alizarate. The solution
thus obtained may he employed at once in dyeing, the
fibre being impregnated with it, and the mordanting salt
subsequently applied, or "may and preferably will be"
evaporated to dryness and stored ready for use or packed
for transport.
The colours produced by tin' interaction of sodium
boro-alizarate and a mordanting salt tire more brilliant
and intense than those usually obtained in dyeing.
Instead of alizarin, anthrapurpurin and its homologucs and
allied dyestuffs may be employed in the above process.
— E. U.
Erratum.
This Journal, 189-2, page 31, col. 1, 25 lines from the
bottom, for dihlazyl-»i-phenylenediatnine read dibcnzyl-m-
phenylenediamine.
Th
VII -ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
he Art ion of the Alkaline Bases on the Solubility of
Sails of Ike Alkalis. R. Engel. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891
6, 15—17.
Tin: author has previously examined the action of carbon
dioxide on the solubility of certain neutral carbonates, and
that of hydrochloric acid on the solubility of a large number
of metallic chlorides, and has shown that one molecule of
hydrochloric acid precipitates one molecule of monovalent
and half a molecule of divalent chlorides from solution in
all cases where the chloride does not combine chemically
with the hydrochloric acid. The action of th.' hydrates of
potassium and sodium on the solubility of their respective
233
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
chlorides is, that one molecule of the hydrate precipitates
half a molecule of the chloride from its saturated solution :
or that the prccipitatiou of oue molecule of the salt is
effected by one molecule of the oxide K.:U or Na.,0.
Tabulated results are given showing that the above
relationship, although not absolutely correct, is approximately
so with solutions containing varying amounts of the chloride
and the hydrate. In the case of very soluble salts, such as
iodide or nitrate of potassium, the precipitation is more
rapid, and does not always amount to one molecule of the
salt for one molecule of the hydrate. In the ease of sodium
nitrate, one molecule of sodium hydrate precipitates 0-71
molecules of the salt. — C. A. K.
The Action of Ammonia on the Solubility of Ammonium
Chloride. ' R. Engel. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1091, 6, 17.
Thk presence of ammonia at tirst hardly decreases the
solubility of ammonium chloride at all and then increases it,
as shown by the results obtained. This in the opinion of
the author points to the formation of compounds of
ammonia with ammonium chloride' such as have been
described by Troost. — C. A. K.
Action of Water on Basic Suits of Copper. (!. Rousseau
and G. Tite. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 191—193.
Wateii transforms a number of neutral metallic sails into
basic salts, and in some eases the oxide is formed, as in the
case of antimony chloride and of certain borates. The
authors have ascertained that both basic acetates of copper
are transformed completely to oxide on heating "with water
in sealed tubes at 160 C. for 20 hours. Basic sulphate is
completely transformed into oxide by heating witli water
at 240° to 250" for about 50 hours. Basic chloride was
slightly decomposed only after 48 boms' heating at 210' to
260 C, and basic phosphate showed no change on heating
for several days at 275.— T. L. 11.
New Crystalline Oxychlorides of Iron. G. Rousseau.
Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 512—544.
See under XX., page 202.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus connected with the
Manufacture of Sulphate of Ammonia. 1!. Dempster
and J. Dempster, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 12,661,
August 13, 1890.
With a view of conveniently removing the sulphate of
ammonia a pump is placed within the saturator, the
suction pipe extended to the bottom of this vessel, and the
delivery pipe connected to the drainers.
The patentees state they make no claim to anything
described by Wilton in Erig. Pat. 19,225 of 1889" (this
Journal, 1S90, 623).— K. E. Si.
Improvements in or Appertaining to Apparatus for the
Manufacture of Carbonates of Soda. J. J. Howitt,
Runcorn. Eng. Pat. 3657, February 28, 1891.
Fob carbonating ammoniated brine the patentee makes use
of a high tower with perforated floors, through which two
long vertical rods are passed. By means of these rods
every floor may be raised up on one side, so as to enable the
gases to pass through the column by a circuitous course.
The water used for cooling the tower by trickling down
outside is further used for cooling the carbonic acid before
entering the tower.
The mother-liquor from the carbonating tower containing
principally chloride of ammonium, i> decomposed by ime
and distilled in an ammonia-distilling tower, the main
improvement of which consists in the substitution of
corrugated or ribbed caps for the ordinary plain hoods.
The ammonia liases from the distilling tower pass through
a cooling apparatus consisting of an annular chamber
cooled inside and outside. It i- supplied with a number of
floors communicating with one another in such a manner
as to cause the gases to pass through nearly the entire
" auuulus " before reaching the next floor. The ammonia,
deprived of practically all steam, is then used for saturating
fresh brine.
For details of the apparatus the drawings accompanying
specification must be consulted. — K. E. M.
Improvements in the Treatment if a certain Material
(Mineral) containing Phosphate of Lime for the
Purpose of obtaining the Latter in a Highly
Concentrated Condition as Dicalcic Phosphate,
together with ( 'ertain Bye-Products. J. Simpson,
Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 3785, March 3, 1891.
Natural phosphates or slags sufficiently free from lime are
treated with hydrochloric acid of preferably 10 Tw. The
resulting solution is decanted off from the insoluble
residue. The latter may be used for the manufacture of
cement, the former containing phosphate of lime is imper-
fectly neutralised with milk of lime, so that the precipitated
dicalcium phosphate may not contain any free lime. The
solution is now completely neutralised ivith lime, any excess
of which may be utilised by an addition of fresh
" phosphatic solution." — K. E. M.
Improvements in Apparatus used in the Manufacture of
Sulphate of Ammonia, C. Marriott, Kedcar. Eng. Pat.
4730, March 17, 1891.
Tin. invention consists in conveniently removing the sulphate
of ammonia from the saturators by " self-acting means."
Prom under a bell-shaped vessel, through which the
ammonia gas enters the saturator, the sulphate of ammonia
is continuously carried away by means of an endless apron
entering the back of the saturator and travelling up its
inclined front. The mother-liquor drains back into the
separator. The crystals are removed from the apron by a
scraper or other suitable means. — K. E. M.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Salt in Blocks or
Cakes. V. J. B. Vincent, Paris, France. Eug. Pat.
6388, April 14, 1891.
Salt is fused and run into moulds to cool with a view of
obtaining salt iu blocks, which are said to be unaffected by
climatic influences, and afford iireat facilities for transport.
— K. E M.
Improvements in the Production of Chlorine. if. Kolb,
Lille, France. Eng. Pat. 6500, April 15, 1891.
The pot gases, and especially the roaster gases from the
salt-cake furnaces contain a certain proportion of sulphurous
and sulphuric acids, which soon destroy the decomposing
material used in the Deacon process. The mixed gases
from the pot and the roaster may be purified by passing
them through a series of externally heated cylinders charged
with salt. As shown by Hargreaves, sulphurous acid is
hereby converted into sodium sulphate, and chlorine or
hydrochloric acid is given off. The gases, which still
contain a small amount of sulphurous acid, are passed
finally through a cylinder charged with bricks, previously
saturated with magnesium chloride and copper chloride.
The chlorine now evolved oxidises the sulphurous acid into
sulphuric acid, which in its turn is retained by the bricks
in the form of magnesium sulphate. Dealing with pot
gases alone, the latter cylinder by itself is found efficient.
— H. A.
March si,i892J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Improved Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture or
Production of Bleaching Powder. ('. Kellner, Vienna,
Austria. Kng. Pat. 20,037, November 18, 1891.
Tiik apparatus consists of a vessel provided with trays,
with alternately placed slits. A vertical shaft passes through
the vessel, carrying arms to pass over each tray. Dry
slaked lime is introduced on the top shelf and is raked by
means of the arms on the shelves below ; in its down-
ward movement it meets a current of previously washed
chlorine which enters from below. " By this means the
chlorine combines with the hydrate of lime, and chloride of
lime or bleaching powder ready for use passes out at the
bottom of the apparatus." A sheet of drawings illustrates
the specification. — H. A.
Improved Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture or
Production of Hydrogen and Chlorine from Hydro-
chloric Acid. C. Kellner, Vienna, Austria. Fug. 1'at.
20,060, November 18, 1891.
Tin: invention refers to the electrolysis of a hot solution of
h\ ill ochloric acid, whereby chlorine is given off at the anode
ami hydrogen at the cathode. The apparatus consists of a
number of superposed receptacles made of acid-proof
material and tightly joined together on the outer walls.
Each of these receptacles is divided into longitudinal cells,
formed by ribs extending both from the bottom and the
top of the receptacles, and either meeting (in which case
the ribs are perforated), or else separated by means of
interposed diaphragms. These cells contain horizontally
placed electrodes, arranged in alternate order, and in such
a way that all cells situated vertically over one another
should contain a similar pair of electrodes. A solution of
hydrochloric acid is introduced in the uppermost receptacle,
and flowing through the compartments runs by means of a
lateral overflow pipe or overflow wall into the receptacle
beiow, and traversing this, overflows at the opposite end into
another receptacle, b}- which means the acid is caused to
circulate through the whole apparatus, leaving the bottom
division as weak acid. The gases evolved flow in separate
streams through ascension pipes, connecting the respective
superposed cells ; these pipes are placed at the alternate
ends of the cells, thus forcing the gases to take an opposite
course to that of the liquid. The liquid is heated by means
of indirect steam, conveyed in a coil of lead piping.
The description is given of it round apparatus, composed
of superposed receptacles, each of which is divided by an
annular rib (attached to the bottom of the next higher
receptacle) into an inner circular chamber and an outer
annular one, containing the respective electrodes.
In a modified apparatus the electrodes are placed ver-
tically in a common trough, and the alternate rows of anodes
and cathodes are separated from one another by means of
perforated partitions. The electrodes arc fixed to a sup-
porting bar which forms a gas-tight joint with each cell.
The hydrochloric acid enters the apparatus through a false
bottom, under which it is heated with steam ; it ascends
through the cells and leaves through two lateral openings on
the upper part of the vessel. The gases evolved are led
away by means of ascension pipes, which pass finally
through the top bar.
Two sheets of drawings accompany the specification.
— H. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Chlorine from
Hydrochloric Acid Gas. " La Societe A. B. Pechiney
and Cie," Salindres, France. Kng. Pat. 22,320,
December2l, 1891. By Internat. Conv. July 2, 1891.
Instead of passing a mixture of hydrochloric acid gas and
air (or oxygen, or either of these) through the east-iron
tubular apparatus, as used in the Deacon — or in the De
Wilde and Bcichler process — the inventors propose to pass
the gases through any of the well-known hot blast stoves of
Cowper-Siemens, Whitwell, and others. It is expected that
a higher temperature with less wear and tear on the appa-
ratus will be attained, as also the possibility of using
the cheaper decomposing substances, such as De Wilde and
Reichler's mixture. — II. A.
YIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
The Composition of Chinese lied Gla:es. II. Seger.
Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, 853.
The author having dealt with the general points in con-
nexion with the preparation of Chinese red cuprous oxide
glazes in a previous paper (Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1890, 14, 354
and 3G8), gives the composition of the glazes best suited
for the so-called " Seger-porcelarh," as follows : —
Dark Red
Glaze,
Light Hcd
Glaze.
Blue Irides-
cent tilaze.
75-00
O'lo
l-llil
0-50
23 -35
70-00
5' 00
O'S— l'O
-■(in
22-00
70-00
5-00
roo
2-00
1-00
Baryta ftlazc
2f00
1(10-00
100-00
ioo-oo
Composition of the baryta
0*5 Nn.O")
i glazc-
J-5 SiO
,0-5.BaO;
■
0-3 BaO j
In each case the heating of the mixture is effected in a
reducing fire, and the product then ground up. The blue
iridescent glaze becomes especially marked if the glaze is
covered for a second time with the baryta glaze and then
burnt. The most beautiful colours are obtained with other
porcelain and earthenware glazes, when the difference in
the melting point is very great, i.e., when the earthenware
glaze is very fusible. — C. A. K.
The Composition of Sub-Glaze Colours for Soft Porcelain.
11. Seger. Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, 891 ; and Chem. Zeit.
Bep. 1891,15,347.
The sub-glaze colours are produced by means of thick oil
and turpentine, or of glycerol on burnt porcelain. After
painting, aud before putting on the final colourless glaze,
the coloured porcelain must be heated to about the melting
point of silver in order to drive out the oil or glycerol.
1. Blue Colours. --These arc produced by cobalt oxide
or phosphate ; the latter gives clear transparent tones.
183 parts by weight of cobalt phosphate aud 103 parts of
commercial aluminium hydrate are ground together, dried,
heated, again ground, and then washed with water.
Lighter tints are got by using a larger proportion of
alumina or by the addition of zinc oxide, but in this case
the resulting colour is opaque. For light blue, 40 -6 parts
of pure zinc oxide, G9 parts of cobalt phosphate, and
103 parts of ignited alumina are used. A very light blue,
closely resembling Turkish blue, results by employing a
mixture of 71 parts of oxide of zinc, 17 -2 parts of cobalt
phosphate, and 103 parts of ignited alumina. For a black-
blue, equal proportions of cobaltous and nickel oxides are
used. The addition of chromic oxide gives green tints ; for
dark blue-green, 165'G parts of cobalt oxide, 7G-2 parts of
chromic oxide, and 154-5 parts of ignited alumina are
required. Light blue-greens are got by using either 40- 6
parts of oxide of zinc, 56-4 parts of cobalt chromate, and
103 parts of ignited alumina, or 71 parts of zinc oxide,
14 parts of cobalt chromate, and 51" 5 parts of ignited
alumina. The cobalt chromate is prepared by the precipi-
tation of 154-8 parts of anhydrous cobalt sulphate, by 97-1
parts of neutral potassium chromate; the precipitated
chromate is washed, dried, and ignited.
240
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, UO.
2. Green Colours. — Nickel and chromic oxides are used.
Nickel oxide alone gives olive green, 119"6 parts of
nickel oxide and 76 • 2 parts of chromic oxide give a dark
green Pure chromic oxide give a chrome-green, and the
so-called " Victoria Green " gives a bright green in a
reducing fire.
;<. lied Colour*. — These arc produced by means of gold,
as already described by the author. (Chum. Zeit. Rep.
is'.'!. 15, 284.)
4. Blink and Grey Colours. — Chrome iron ce or an
artificial ore prepared by heating 40 parts of ferrous oxide
and 76*2 parte of chromic oxide in a reducing fire, is used.
If the proportion of iron in the above mixture is doubled, a
brown-black glaze results. By the addition of 20 parts of
cobalt oxide to the mixture, a blue-black is obtained.
Grey colours ate got by diluting with porcelain mixture, or
by adding ."> parts of iridium sesquioxide and 95 parts of
porcelain mixture.
5. Brown Colours. — Both iron and manganese oxides
ari too readily dissolved by the glaze. The following
mixtures gives the best results : —
Parts by Weight.
Dark
Brown.
II. rl
Brown.
Light Red
Brown.
Yellow
Brown.
Feme
Chromic oxidi
I i alumina
/ im oxide ......
6. Yellow Colours. — Antimony is destroyed. The best
yellow colours arc gol 1>\ using II I parts of uranium oxide,
and loii pails marble, or 40 parts ignited t utile and 40'G
parts oxide of /inc.
All the above mixtures must be fired in the finishing
oven foi soft porcelain, as this aids the development of the
colour-. Also special attention should be paid to the
thorough washing of the porcelain mixture. To make the
colours more proof against the heat of the lire, they are
ground up intimately, after being heated, with 33-3 per cert.
of the porcelain mixture. — C. A. K.
Cuprous Oxide Sub-Glaze Colours foi Soft Porcelain.
II. Seger. Thonind. Zeit. 1891, 15, 908.
(ri'iiii oxide is not suitable for the production of sub-glaze
colours on soft porcelain when an oxidising tire is employed,
owing to its volatility which causes it to spread, but when a
reducing tiic is used this volatilisation does not occur.
tnstead of using pure cupric oxide the author recommends
the following mixture wl ich produces i red colour : —
Patt-S bj
Weight.
I in.' oxide 7'.~.
l'in oxide Pen
; jV1,')' 52-6.SiOs.O- I.JJjO 82-5
-C.A. K.
Baryta Blaze j " ''
Composition oj Glass suitable for Chemical Apparatus.
K. Weber. Zcits. f. angew. i'hem. 1891, CC2— 665.
.See under Will., page 267.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Glass. T. 0. •'
Thomas, London. Enj. Pat. 1391, March 11, 1891.
The inventor formerly obtained a patent ( Eng. Pat. 12,076 of
1S86; this Journal, 1888, 35) for the use of oxygen in the
manufacture of glass) the oxygen being Mown through the
molten metal and thus burning awaj carbonaceous matter and
removing other impurities. The present invention consists
of an arrangement whereby the oxygen is collected and
stored for use after being blown through the molten glass.
The glass pot in which the " frit " is melted is provided
with a cover furnished with two openings for the passage of
the supply pipe and theontlet pipe. The outlet pipe passt -
to a gasometer. — V. C.
Improvements in the Production of Glass-Making Material.
W. Walker, London. Kng. Pat. a324, March -25,
1891.
In Eng. Pat. 2019 of 1891 (this Journal, 1891, 643) the
inventor has described a process for the production of
silicates for glass-making, by heating together sand, calcium
chloride, and common salt. In the present process lime is
substituted for calcium chloride when the latter cannot be
readily or cheaply obtained. — V. C.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for
Manufacturing Class Plates, Sheets, ami Films.
W. 1'. Thompson, Liverpool. From R. S. Pease, Min-
neapolis, U.S.A. ling. Pat. 20,438, November 24,
1891.
This invention is a further extension of the principal of
thai described in Kng. Pat. 20,439 of 1891 (this Journal
1892, 163).
The plunger which serves as a "bait " to draw out a film
or sheet of the molten or plastic glass when raised from the
tank in which it bad been dipped is in the improved process
caused to form such a lilm or sheet, both during the upward
and the downward stroke. For this purpose the bottom of
the receptacle for the molten glass is furnished with gates.
The metal hackings of the gates are brought to a sharp
edge where they bear against the plunger, making a close
joint. When opened these edges serve as gauges to
deb rmine the thickness of the sheet or film. The thickness
is further regulated and made uniform by rollers, between
which, and the plunger, the adhering plastic glass is com-
pressed. If desired the rollers may be used for figuring or
marking the plates. When the sheets or films have been
drawn downward to a sufficient distance tiie gates of the
receptacle for molten glass are thrown upwards and against
the plunger thus severing the sheets and preventing further
escapeof the molten glass.
The above process allows four films or sheets to he
produced at a complete stroke of the plunger, two on the
downward and two on the upward patt of the stroke (see
following abstract). — V. C.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for Pro-
ducing Cylinders, Pipes, and oilier Tubular or Hollow
Bodies of Class. W. I'. Thompson, Liverpool. From
K. S. Pease, Minneapolis, U.S.A. Kng. Pat. 20,440,
November 21, 1891.
A "bait" of suitable form (see preceding abstract) is
allowed to dip into a receptacle containing molten glass and
provided with a raised central boss, of such dimensions that
it is just covered by the " bait." While the " bait " is being
drawn, air pressure is supplied through a tube or blowpipe
communicating with the central boss, which is hollow. In
this way the glass taken up by the " bait " is blown out to
the required diameter. The diameter being once attained
the air pressure is adjusted so as just to keep the body ;il
this diameter.
The enlarging operation though not absolutely essential
is highly desirable, since it enables a much smaller bait to
hi' used and the drawing operation can be commenced under
much more favourable conditions than would otherwise be
the ease. — V. C.
March si, 1802.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
341
Process of Making Hose or Orange-Red Stained Glass.
F. Welz, Klostergrab, Austria. Eng. Pat. 21,350, Decem-
ber 7, 1891.
Rosi coloured glass is produced by adding selenium to
tli. iMitenls of the melting-pot, the depth of tint depending
on 1 1 il- quantity of selenium used and also upon the ingre-
dients of the glass, whether for hard or soft glass.
The orange-red colour is produced by mixing cadmium
sulphide with the selenium before adding to the contents of
the melting-pot, the amount of the yellow tint depending
on the proportion of cadmium sulphide. In this process it is
not necessary to reheat the articles after being manufac-
tured and to dip them in a colouring mixture, as in the
ordinary process of making red glass.— V. C
Improvements in Filtering Tubes with Hall Filtering
Material I'm- Purifying Mullen Glass. M. Epstein,
Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 21,826, December II,
1891.
Tins invention attains a continuous delivery of purified
molten glass by the following device: — Into a melting-pot
receiving the glass dips a tube with openings near the
bottom. As the level of the molten glass in the melting-pot
rises the glass flows in, and clay balls, till then resting on the
bottom of the tube, are iioated up on tin' surface of the
molten glass till they reach a grid placed across the tube,
against which they are retained in position by the upward
flow of Ljiass. As the level of the i^lass in the melting-pot
risrs the liquid passes by upward filtration through the
interstices of the clay balls. As long as the level of liquid
in the melting-pot is maintained sufficiently high, a supply
of the Altered glass can be drawn off for use from the
filtering tube. The number of working hours of the furnace
is much increased by this invention, owing to its avoiding
the necessity for re-charging, and the wear and tearing of
plant is diminished. — V. C.
IX -BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
Influence oj the Presence of Gypsum in the Hair Materials
of Portland'Cement. Knlmenger. Zeits. f. angew. Chem.
1891, 593— -595.
( Iypsum is often used in the manufacture of Portland cement
to retard the rate of setting, the addition of 0'5to2per
cent, tit the finished cement sufficing for this purpose.
Discretion is necessary in its use, as the addition of a com-
paratively small excess may lead to blowing and cracking.
The same danger occurs when the gypsum is added to the
raw materials instead of to the finished cement. It seems
probable that much of the blowing may be due to the
calcium oxide of the gypsum unduly increasing the total
amount of lime iu the cement. Should, however, the proper
relation between the basic and acid constituents of the
Cement be maintained by increasing the proportion of clay,
much larger quantities of gypsum may prove harmless.
It must not, however, be forgotten that a portion of the
lime will remain as calcium sulphide (which gives the
cement a dark colour that deepens as the amount increases i,
from which calcium sulphate, with all its well-known
tendencies to cause blowing, may afterwards form. One
characteristic of cement made from raw materials containing
gypsum is the tendency of the clinker to break up more
readily than ordinary well-burnt cement. The following
table shows the results of some experiments on the effect of
gypsum added both to the raw materials and to the finished
cement : —
Percentage
of
Tensile Strength (Kilos. perSq. Cm. Dt 28 Hays )
< rypsuin in Raw
Material.
Withoul the Addition
or Gypsum to
[lie Fiinsllri! Cement.
Willi -J perCent. of
Gypsum added to
tin' Finished Cement.
Nil
I'll':,
■Jl-ii
1-5
3f0
29-0
3-5
22-0
..
4
23-5
5
23"0
10
24'0
..
15
18-0
••
The age of the briquettes differed slightly in some
instances from the normal period of 28 days, but not
sufficiently to affect the value of the results. The tests
were made in all cases on a mixture of 1 part of cement and
3 parts of sand by weight. A steady increase in strength
occurred after the lapse of periods longer than that quoted.
High and progressive results were also obtained with neat
cement. Although the figures given in the original paper
are thus favourable, it must he noted that the longest period
of experiment was four months, save iu the ease' of the
cement containing an addition of 10 per cent, of gypsum,
which at seven months showed a tendency to retrograde.
Further experiments with cement made from a raw material
containing an addition of 20 and 50 per cent, of gypsum
showed that the product was unsound, and possessed a
strong tendency to blow. The same raw material was used
throughout, save that as the percentage of gypsum increased
the quantity of lime was correspondingly diminished. The
percentage of gypsum added is reckoned on the mixture
ready for burning, and not on the quantity of cement to
which it was added. — 15. B.
PATENTS.
Method of Manufacturing Artificial Stones with Glass
Surfaces. C. Breuer, 1'unzlau, Germany. Eng. Pat.
3532, February 26, 1891.
Artificial stone with a glass surface is made by casting a
concrete mixture upon the back of a sheet of glass placed
face downwards in a mould with hinged sides. The hack of
the glass may be previously roughened and toughened, or
coloured, etched, or otherwise decorated glass, in one sheet,
or several pieces may be employed. Before the concrete is
fully hardened, it may be grooved on the surface to aid the
adhesion of mortar. The method is cheaper than that in
which plate glass is attached to blocks of artificial stone as
practised at present. — B. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement.
G. H. Skelsey, Hull. Eng. Pat. :i7'J7, March 3,
1891.
The patentee claims to manufacture Portland cement from
hard chalk, such as is found in the neighbourhood of Hull,
and usually considered valueless for this purpose, by
grinding the chalk in an edge runner with specially con-
structed heavy runners, before it goes into the wash mill.
— B. B.
JIJ
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March Si, 1892.
A New Manufacture of Materials suitable for Building,
Paving, and other Purposes, from Waste Pieces or
Debris of Slate. " The Societe Anonyme des Ardoisieres
de Deville " and V. V. der Heyden, Deville, France.
Eng. Pat. 4750, March 27, 1891.
100 tarts by weight of crushed slate are mixed with
7 parts of a mixture of equal parts of " colophouium " ami
tar or pitch, and the whole heated to 125° C. One half
or one quarter per cent, of "olibanum " may lie substituted
for a similar amount of " colophouium," a portion of which
may be replaced by Venice turpentine to modify the
properties or the composition. 8 parts of lime, 4 parts
of gelatin, and 1 or 2 parts of alnumen may be used as
the cementing material to add to 100 parts of the
ground slate instead of the mixture described above. In
this case the mixture is first made in the cold and then
heated to 100° C. The composition may be moulded into
Mocks, slabs, or pipes, or used for making artificial slates,
either alone or as a coating to wood, paper, or sheet metal.
It may be used as a pavement after the addition of fine
ballast ; for this purpose the surface may be roughened or
grooved. Ornamental effects may be produced by the
incorporation of pigments. The material is said to be
strong and water-proof. Joints can be made in it by simply
heating the touching surfaces. The name patented for the
material is " Ardoisine." — 13. B.
Metallised Plates or Fabric of Asbestos or other Fibrous
Material for Hoofing and other Purposes. K. Graf,
Westphalen, Vienna, Austria. Eng. Pat. 8831, May 25,
1891.
Plates or fabrics made of asbestos or such like fibrous
material are inconveniently porous and liable to dis-
integration. The remedy proposed by the patent consists
in covering the asbestos plates or fabric with electrolytic-ally
deposited metal (copper or aluminium for instance), the
article to be coated having first been rendered conductive
by .i film of graphite. Should the asbestos fabrics contain
a cementing material such as glue, starch, or chloride of
zinc, which is affected by free acids, the metal covering
must be deposited from a neutral solution. The material
to be coated may be manufactured so as to be waterproof
by the following method : 50 parts by weight of fibrous
asbestos are mixed with 10 parts of pounded asbestos felt
waste, 10 parts of zinc oxide, and 300 to 500 parts of
water ; to which is added in succession, the mixture being
constantly stirred, 7 parts by weight of zinc chloride
solution (50° to 60° 1! ), 10 parts of a solution of soap
(" 1 part by weight of best quality soap to 10 of water")
2 parts of a solution of alum (" 3 parts by weight of alum
to 21 of water"), 0'3 part of soda dissolved in 2 parts of
water, and 0-8 part of lead acetate dissolved in 2 parts of
water. The mixture thus prepared is moulded into plates,
which are then metallised as described above. — P. B.
X.-METALLURGY.
Calorimetrieal Investigations of the state in which Silicon
and Aluminium exist in Cast Iron. F. Osmond.
Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 474—476.
Silicon. — Troost and Hautfeuille (Compt. Rend. 81, 264)
obtained the following results on dissolving silicides of iron
in bichloride of mercury and measuring the quantity of heat
liberated : —
Heat liberated.
Found.
Calculated
from
Composition
of Silicide.
Diffcren-.-c.
Silicide containing 3*5
percent. Si and 0 6 per
cent. C.
Silicide containing 7 per
cent. Si and (1*4 per
cent. C.
Silicide containing 12 per
cent. Si and 0*4 per
cent. C.
Silicide containing 1 1 per
cent. Si and let per
cent. C.
i lalories,
071 1
1,050
1,270
Calories.
£70
1,125
1,295
1,425
tin
155
If the law indicated by these figures hold good for lower
values than 3' 5 per cent, of silicon, then it is obvious that
silicon when present in very small proportion must be
dissolved by iron with absorption of heat. The experi-
mental verification of this inference has been undertaken
by the author, who had at his disposal a series of samples
obtained from 11. A. Hadtield well suited for the purpose.
The following table gives the analyses of the samples : —
Mark of Sample.
K9i \.
t D. 898 G.
Carbon 0-135 0-190
Silicon 0-200 2'100
Sulphur 11-074 0"060
Phosphorus i 0-014 0-039
Manganese O'llO j 0-150
II -2 HI
4-100
0-042
0-054
0*200
808 1.
Fcrro-
silieou of
Commerce.
0-155
7-310
u-270
2-0S0
11-720
0-020
ll'll.-,(l
CS20
The first three samples were forged and reheated ; two
others were not forgeable and were merely cast. The
analyses and the calorimetrieal tests were made upon fine
filings passeil through a sieve of 80 meshes (to the centi-
metre I-1). The solvent used for the calorimetrieal tests was
a saturated solution of the double chloride of copper and
ammonia (500 ec. to each l'S grm. of metal). The results
obtained were as follow : —
Mark of Sample.
898 A.
8!>8 D.
898 G.
898 1.
Ferro-
silicon.
Cal.
Cal.
Cal.
Cal.
Heat liberated bv 1 Krm.
)
of metal (a correction
- 7I-.5
843
907
926
beinjr inadeforcarbon.)
)
Excess of"]
heat com- found
paredwith V
sample calculated
898 A. J
0
78
112
lt',1
0
60
123
225
Difference between
0
+ 18
+ 19
- 64
*' found " and " cal-
culated."
Time required for solu-
3
0
5
11
tion in minutes.
In conformity with the inference drawn from Troost and
Hautefeuille's experiments the difference between the
quantities of heat found and calculated changes sign for a
certain content of silicon.
The calculated amount of heat was arrived at from the
formula —
4 CuCIj + 2 1LO + Si (amorphous) = 4 CuCl + 4 HO + SiO., (dissolved)
— (4 x 62,600 + 2 x 69,000) + (4 x 33,340 + 4 x 39,300 + 207,400) = 109,560 cal.
Say 3,910 cal. per grm. of silicon, and 3,910— 760
3,160 cal. for line grm. of silicon replacing one grm. of iron
iu the reaction.
The time required for the solution of the samples increases
as the percentage of silicon in the samples increases. The
sample of ferro-silicou containing 1 1 • 7 per cent, of silicon
March si, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
243
was attacked with difficulty by the solvent, and after our
hour a residue remained equal to 59 per cent, of the weight
of sample taken, which was found to contain nearly the
whole of the silicon present.
From these experiments it is evident that silicon can
combine with iron with accompanying liberation of heat,
hut the compound formed is dissociated by an excess of
iron ami only exists when the silicon occurs to a sufficient
degree in the alloy. Analogous examples are furnished by
the solution of salts in water.
Aluminium. — The samples used were also obtained from
11. A. Iladtiehl. They were treated in the same way as the
samples of siliceous iron. The following was the com-
position of the samples : —
A.
U67A. 11G7G. 111)7 1.
Carbon 0-140
Silicon Q'207
Sulphur 0*080
Phosphorus 0-050
Manganese trim
Mi-minium 0"000
0-150
0-210
0-220
0-180
0-180
0"200
o-ioo
0-090 |
0-080
0-040
o-oso
0-030
o-iso
0-180
n-2211
0-210
2--W0
6-200
The following calorimctric-.il results were obtained: —
i Cal. i Cal. Cal. ] Oal.
Heat liberated by l grm. of metal*)
(a correction being made for > 751
silicon ami carbon) )
Excess of heatc ared ffound • • • •
^th 898 A Icalculated
PinVivu-v ltrtu'.-1-n "futiiitl " nu!
" calculated "
i •
The calculated excess of heat was arrived at from the
reaction —
6 CuClj + 2 Al = Al'jClj + 6 CuCl
- 6 x 62,600 + -175,600 + 6 x 33,340 = 300,040 cal.
say 5,480 cal. for 1 grm. of Al, ( = 27-4) and 5,480- 760
= 4,720 cal. for 1 grm. of Al, replacing 1 grm. of Fc in the
reaction.
The above results show that the discrepancy between the
amounts of heat found and calculated is in each case small,
and the relative difference becomes of less importance the
higher the percentage of aluminium in the sample. But
this difference is always of the same sign. Moreover
all the samples, up to 10 per cent, of aluminium (which
was the alloy richest in aluminium that was used in these
experiments) dissolved with equal rapidity in the solution
of the double chloride of copper and ammonium.
It follows, therefore, that aluminium under the conditions
in which it is used in the metallurgy of iron, dissolves in cast
iron with absorption of heat. If then, as practical men
affirm, a liberation of heat actually takes place, this cannot
be ascribed to an exothermic combination of the two metals,
but must be due to the reduction by the aluminium of the
dissolved oxide of iron, aud probably also to the formation
of an allotropic modification of the iron. That modification
which is produced normally at about 850° when iron is
cooling, is found not to take place in the presence of a
sufficient quantity of aluminium, and consequently the
modification should occur at the moment of adding the
aluminium.— H. S. P.
Volatility of Nickel in Presence of Hydrochloric Acid.
P. Sehiitzenberger. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 177—179.
Hydrochloric acid gas would seem to play a part
analogous to the part played by carbon monoxide in its
action on nickel. If pure chloride of nickel, previously
sublimed in a current of nitrogen, be reduced in dry
hydrogen, a volatile product is obtained containing nickel,
as may be shown by heating the after part of the reduction
tube to dull redness, when a deposit of nickel chloride is
obtained. To ascertain whether this was to be accounted
for by some of the chloride being mechanically conveyed
away by the hydrochloric acid formed during reduction, the
hard-glass reduction tube was half-tilled with the anhydrous
chloride, after which came a long layer of closely packed
glass wool. To the end of the reduction tube was then
attached a narrow glass coil, giving a path of four metres
to the gases escaping from the reduction tube ; from this
coil the gases passed through a straight glass tube, entering
through a wad of glass wool. Nickel chloride carried
mechanically from the reduction tube could not possibly
reach the second straight tube with such an arrangement,
aud no condensation whatever was noticeable in the coil,
which was kept at the prevailing atmospheric temperature •
yet on heating the second straight tube to redness a deposit
of nickel chloride was obtained. Analogous results are
obtained on passing dry hydrochloric acid gas over finely-
divided nickel. The true composition of the volatile com-
pound has not yet been ascertained, though the author
seems inclined to consider it a hydrochloride of nickel.
Iron aud zinc give a similar reaction. (Compare this
Journal, 1890, 808 ; 1891, 644 and 836.)— T. L. B.
On the Volatilisation of Iron and Nickel by Carbonic
Oxide. J. Gamier. Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 189— 191.
In connexion with recent publications concerning volatile
carbonic oxide compounds of metals (see this Journal, 1890,
808 ; 1891, 644 aud 836, and preceding abstract), the author
makes the following observations : —
The gases escaping from a charcoal blast furnace in
normal action give a perfectly blue flame on burning, but if
the temperature of the furnace be allowed to fall somewhat,
the escaping gases form a thick smoke and burn with a
white flame, ferruginous matter being deposited. The
explanation would seem to be, according to the recent
observations of lierthelot, that carbouyl compounds arc
formed and evolved at the lower temperature which
cannot exist at the higher temperature. As the cooling
of such furnaces sometimes causes a deposit of zinc, the
whitening of the flame has been attributed to zinc, but
this could not be the case in the furnaces at which the
present observations were made. Further, the instance
of manufacturing iron-nickel alloys is quoted, where nickel
and east iron arc melted together in plumbago crucibles ; on
removal from the furnace an immense shower of sparks
escapes, which, it is suggested, may be due to volatile
carhonyl compounds. — T. L. B.
Behaviour of Hydrogen towards Lead and other Metals.
G. Neumann and F. Streintz. Mouatsh. 1891, 12,
642—660.
See under XI., page 247.
The " Ore Process " in the Basic Open - Hearth
Furnace. Dr. Leo. Dingl. Polyt. J. 282, 13—17,
41—45, and 81—85.
After a historical review of the development of processes
of steel manufacture in open-hearth furnaces, the author
describes the experiments made by M. L. Imperatori on the
further substitution of ore for scrap in the modern process.
The method adopted as a result of these experiments was
to mix finety-powdered ore with just sufficient powdered coke
to reduce it to metal without carburising it, damp the whole,
shape it into briquettes or blocks by hydraulic pressure,
thoroughly dry, and smelt. The ore used should be roasted
free from carbonic anhydride and water and should not
contain less than 50 per cent, of iron ; it should be as free
as possible from silica and lime; sufficient lime may how-
ever be introduced to form a mono- or bi-silicate with any
silica present. About 22 — 25 per cent, of powdered coke
244
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. 1893.
or 26—35 per cent, of coal are required for rich Elba arc.
The blocks weigh about 20—30 kilos, each j they are air-
dried under cover for 7 to 8 days, then brought near the
furnaces and thoroughly dried; they acquire a certain
solidity from the conversion of a portion of the sesquioxide
of iron in the ore into the hydrated oxide !•>_,< )3.3 BsO
which acts as a cement. These Mocks are not generally
smelted alone: they maj be introduced into an iron bath in
a Siemens furnace, or mixed charges of pig iron, blocks and
scrap may be worked. In the latter case the pig iron is
first charged in, a layer of blocks is then added, and the
whole is covered with scrap ; the charge melts in about an hour,
when quantities of 30— -In blocks are repeatedly introduced
at intervals of 1- — 15 minutes. When the bath is at work
it is covered with a slag which is black at lirst, but gradually
turns a light green, and. contains very little iron. It is
rarely necessary to add ore to the bath to soften the metal,
this result being attained by adjusting the composition of the
blocks so that no carburiscd iron is produced and a slight
excess of oxide is available for the decarburisation of the
bath. The decarburised metal is so hot that the end of an
iron pole thrust into it is melted in a few seconds, and, on
adding ferrosilicon and ferrbmanganese to the bath, the
resulting steel may at once be tapped.
In working open-hearth furnaces in the usual manner the
experimenter's ordinary charges consisted of about 30 per
cent, of Hawed ingots, rail-ends, -rah', &c, from the
preceding charge, about 35 — -Jo per cent, of pig iron,
and 30- 35 per cent, of other matters, chiefly scrap.
The first experiment with ore blocks was made with
the object of substituting them for this 30—35 per
cent, of scrap. 1,050 kilos, of ore (from Elba), 380
kilos, of powdered coal, and 25 kilos, of lime in the
form of milk of lime were well incorporated, consolidated
with heavy stamp- into 62 blocks, dried for 10 days in the
air and for 24 hours near the furnace, 800 kilos, of grey-
Bilbao pig iron were now charge. 1 into the furnace, and on
this the 02 blocks were placed ; the charging occupied 20
minutes, and only one of the blocks broke up during the
operation, [n an hour theblocks became spongy, and in
l.l hoursfrom the commencement of the charging 800 kilos,
of steel scrap were placed on the half-molten sponge ; one
hour later, a sample taken consisted of a fine-grained steel :
the slag was glassy, light green in colour, and contained
prills of soft metal ; three hours after charging, 50 kilos, of
ore were thrown into the centre of the bath, the temperature
bring sufficiently high, and 20 minutes later 30 kilos, more
were added; 10 minutes afterwards the metal was soft.
3 hours 40 minutes alter charging. 1'") kilos, of ferrosilicon
with 1 t per cent, of silicon and 25 kilos, of ferromanganese
containing 40 per cent, of Mn were thrown in ; five minutes
later 30 kilos, of ferromanganese with 7'J per cent, of Mn
were added and the charge tapped. The product consisted of
five flawless ingot- weighing 407 kilos, each and 84 kilos,
of scrap. See., thus affording a yield of ,V>7 kilos, of iron
for the 1,100 kilos, of ore. "The composition of the natal
was: Carbon 0-252 per cent., -ilicon, 0-250 per cent.,
phosphorus 0-oGo per cent., sulphur 0-100 per cent.,
manganese l-090pei cent. The product was tough and could
be rolled with facility. Test pieces of rails made from this
metal, weighing 36 kilos, per metre and placed on supports
1-10 metres apart, were uninjured after receiving three
blows from a ram of 600 kilos, weight falling from a In ighl
of B unto-, the te-t piece- being three times bent back at
the poinl ol impact. A test piece, 160 mm. long ami
1 6 mm. diameter, had a breaking strength of 56 kilos, per
square millimetre, an elongation of 20-10 per cent., and a
diminution of sectional area of 41 per cent.
The high percentage of sulphur was principally due to
the coal used, and could have been reduced by weathering
(lie block- lor a longer time, the sulphur under these con-
dition- being oxidised to sulphate, which is decomposed in
the furnace. When working on an acid hearth, weathering
the block- affords the only means of eliminating the
i ulphur.
In another experiment an attempt was made to n nder
the blocks more compact by substituting coke for coal, so
thai the whole charge of blocks might be introduced at once
into the furnace. An excess of coke (iS1- per cent.) was
however used with the result of making the mass very
infusible, prolonging the operation for lo hours, and
necessitating the addition of a considerable quantity of
spiegeleisen to promote fusion. The introduction of the
whole charge of blocks at once also proved preju licial
The yield was however, very good (56*1 per cent, of the
ore ), and the product was a good quality of ingot iron. The
slag was very acid and poor in iron. In viewr of the refrac-
tory character of blocks prepared with coke, a number of
trials was made with single blocks, and from tic,-, it
appeared that by decreasing the amount of coke added, and
substituting a little dolomite for the lime, the time of
reduction could be reduced by one-half and a readily fusible
-lag obtaiued. This depends on the formation by the excess
of oxide of a fusible silicate of iron 3 FeO . Si( 1.. which
combines with magnesia, forming a very fusible double
silicate, which is subsequently reduced by the carbon in the
pig iron.
For the next charge a batch of 120 blocks were
accordingly compounded of 2,625 kilos, of powdered- ore,
551 kilos. (21 per cent.) of powdered coke, 131 kilos.
(5 per cent.) of dolomite, and 10 per cent, of water. Five
tons of Bilbao pig iron were charged into the furnace, then
4 tons of small -crap; this operation occupied two hours.
In 3 hours 20 minutes from the commencement the metal
was incompletely fused ; the blocks were now added in
small quantities at intervals of 10 — 15 minutes; 3 hours
10 minutes later the bath was completely fused, and a sample
taken out consisted of a hard high-carbon steel. 7 hours
30 minutes after starling, 230 kilos, of lump ore were added
in portions, and a sample taken out was found to be com-
pletely decarburised. < >ne hour later, 70 kilos, of ferrosilicon
containing 11 per cent, of silicon ami loo kilos, of ferro-
manganese with 40 per cent, of manganese were added; the
metal was not however tapped till half an hour later, in
consequence of an accident : it was then a homogeneous
iron, almost too soft for rails. The composition was :
Carbon 0-17 per cent., silicon 0095 percent., phosphorus
0-1013 per cent., sulphur 0-074 per cent., manganese
0-531 per cent. The yield from the 'J.s.'i.'i kilos, ore
introduced was 1,635 kiios. of iron (57*2 per cent.)
The preceding experiments were all conducted in an acid-
lined furnace, but experiments are in progress on the
smelting of ore blocks on the basic hearth. Ores poor in
silica may be expected to yield good results and a product
free from sulphur' and phosphorus. Five per cent, of lime
in fragments is mixed with the ore to eliminate the sulphur,
but the addition of milk of lime or other substances which
might prevent the intimate contact of the ore and fuel must
be avoided. Phosphorus is gradually removed from the
bath during the oxidation period when the bath is being
decarburised. It is preferable to substitute well-washed
powdered caking coal for coke, and a high pressure should
1" used in i solidating the blocks; the temperature of the
furnace should be rather high, so that the reduction (of the
Elba ore) occurs according to the equation —
Fe:03 + 3 C = 2 Fe + 3 C02
the slag should be periodically- removed to prevent re-
absorption of the sulphur.
The Imperatori process appears to require a larger
consumption of fuel than the ordinary process, but the
amount of this excess has not been clearly ascertained.
'The remainder of the paper is taken up with an account
of the basic open-hearth process as practised in England,
and with a description of the Hilton -Eston modification of
the Batho furnace. — S. II. A. A.
On the Dxirability of Aluminium. C. Winkler. Zeits. f.
angew. (.'hem. 1S92, 69.
Tin: author published results a number of years ago
(Deutsche Indu-tric/cit. 1877,64) showing that with con-
tinuous use the losses in three spoons of different composition
were as follows : —
Pei I i mi. pei feat
0" 103
A uminium spoon "630
German silver spoon I "000
March si.1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCTETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
245
Thi' silver and aluminium spoons have been in daily use
now for 16 years ; tin- third spoon, however, has not 1 u
nsed with the same regularity. The loss during the 16 years
has amounted in thecase of tho silver spoon to 8*78 per
Gent., a result rendered too high by continual polishing ; the
aluminium spoon has lost 5*83 per cent., a result which
in iv be taken as eorrect, since this spo >n lias been rubbed
merely with a soapj flannel as attempts at polishing were
ageless : lastly, the lo^s in the oase of the third spoon has
amounted to 5"62 per cent., a result decidedly low, seeing
that this spoon has not been regularly used.
It thus serins evident that, as regards durability, there is
not very much to choose between silver and aluminium,
whilst German silver wears away more easily than either.
Hence [jiibbert and Roscher's statement (see Zeits. f. angew.
Cliein. I8'J2, 7) is assumed to be without foundation.
— T. 1;. 11.
Direct Production of Iron and other Metals from their
Ores. \. l.rbied'ieff. Swod. priv. 1890, l(j and 20;
Them. Zeit. Rep. 1891, 15, 350.
The pn ss consists in combining the oxides of the metals
with strong liases either by fusing the finely-ground ore
with potash, soda, limestone, dolomite, &c.,or, as in the case
of chromium and of manganese by roasting a mixture of the
ure and the above liases in a furnace, with access of air, the
mass being repeatedly well mixed during the operation.
The addition of sodium chloride or of salpetre aids the
process. Also some compounds of the metallic oxides with
alkalis, such as the aluniinates, can lie prepared by a wet
method. The fusion can be carried on either in blast
furnaces, open hearths, or reverberatory furnaces. The
charge consists of thcore mixed with basic oxides as slated, to
which mixture wood-charcoal or coke and sufficient siliceous
material to form a slag with the resulting metal, are added.
To prevent the furnaces from being attacked they should be
lined with some neutral material. For the reduction of iron
and other easily reducible metals the coke may he replaced
by reducing gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen
or hydrocarbons. In this case the fusion is conducted in
reverberatory furnaces heated either in the usual way or by
regenerative tires, into which the gases are led by pipes
which pa*s to a certain depth in the fused mass ; or else the
pipes pass into the furnace through the side walls aud are
com ted. on the other hand with high-pressure generators
or gasometers. As the fusion proceeds and the metal
separates, small quantities of tin- ore mixed with tin- basic
oxides air added from time to time so as to form a thin
covering over the molten mass. In eases where the metallic
oxiihs will combine with the basic oxides by direct fusion,
ill. preparation of the ore aud the fusion can be carried on
in one and the same furnace. Readily fusible metals are
tapped as they separate, whilst the more difficultly fusible,
such as iron and chromium, are removed from the furnace
when a sufficient quantity has accumulated ami separated
from the alkaline salts by treatment with water or acids
after cooling, when the metal remains behind in the form of
small plates. Another method is to add to the reduced
mass some substance which will lower the melting point of
the metal and thus allow of its being tapped; for instance
this may he effected in the case of iron by the addition of
cast iron rich in carbon. — C. A. K.
Conversion <>f Cast Iron into Wrought Iron ami Steel.
N. Lebiedieff. Swod. priv. 1891, 18 ; Chem. Zeit. Rep.
1891, 15, 350.
Tim author employs the above method of working (see
previous abstract) for the conversion of cast iron into
wrought irou and steel aud for the purification of other
metals from impurities such as -aibon, sulphur and silicon.
To effect this the compound of the metallic oxide with a
strong base is fused in a reverberatory furnace and the cast
iron then added to the fused mass. The latter melts and
under the influence of the basic oxides the carl , sulphur
and silicon are oxidised, whilst the metal originally added as
Oxide separates in the free state. Small quantities of the
ore are added from time to time as the process proceeds :
stirring aids the reduction. The choice of the basic oxides
depends upon whither the pure metal or an alloy is required.
In the former case a compound of ferric oxide ami a basic
oxide is mixed with the cast iron ; whilst in the preparation
of wrought iron or of steel containing chromium, manganese
or aluminium, the oxides of these metals are employed in
addition, — t '. A. K.
On Certain Ternary Alloys. Pari HI., C. It. Alder Wright
and C.Thompson; Part IV., ('. 1!. Alder Wright, ( '.
Thompson, and .1. T. Leon; Part V.,< '. 1!. Alder Wright,
Proe. Roy. Soe. 49, 156, 171; 50, 372.
The experiments described in these three papers are in
continuation of those previously abstracted (this Journal,
1890, 944). The later results are expressed in accor-
dance with a system of graphical representation proposed
by Sir G. G. Stokes in a note embodied in Part IV., in
which the composition of a given mixture of three substances
is expressed by the position of the centre of gravity of three
weights placed respectively at the three corners of an
equilateral triangle, and representing the relative masses of
the three constituents. With certain pairs of metals, e.g.,
lead aud zinc, each will only dissolve the other to a limited
extent when molten, so that a mixture of the two (outside
of certain proportions) separates into two binary alloys, one
containing mainly lead with a little zinc, the other chiefly
zinc with a little lead, the exact proportions varying slightly
with the temperature. If the weight representing the
heavier metal, lead, be placed at the left of the base of the
triangle, aud that representing the lighter one, zinc, at the
right, the compositions of these two alloys are respectively
indicated by two points situated on the base line not far
from the two corners respectively. If a third metal, e.g.,
tin, be added to the mixture, such that this third, or
•' solvent " metal will mix in all proportions with either of
the other "immiscible " metals separately, the composition
of the entire mass is indicated by a point within the triangle
raised above the base to an extent proportionate to the
amount of tin added (the weight representing tin being
placed at the apex of the triangle), ami inclining to the left
hand side or to the right according as lead predominates
over zinc, or vice versd. The mixture thus formed is a
''real" alloy if it remains uniform in composition when
well intermixed and allowed to stand molten for some time ;
but in many instances this is not the ease, the mixture
separating into two different ternary alloys, a heavier one
where lead predominates, whilst some tin and a little zinc
air present, and a lighter one mainly consisting of zinc but
also containing some lead and tin. The points indicating
these two alloys consequently lie respectively to the left aud
right of the point representing the entire mass, or " ideal "
alloy employed. The line joining them is termed a " tie
line " or " tie ;" necessarily, the point indicating the " ideal "
alloy used is situated 011 this line nearer to the one or the
other of the " conjugate points," according as one or the
other alloy is formed in larger quantity, IJy employing a
series of mixtures with the "solvent" in gradually
increasing proportions, two branches of a '■ critical curve"
are traced out by the positions of the left-hand and right-
hand members of the various pairs of conjugate points
deduced. These two branches tend to run one into the
other, meeting at a point termed the " limiting point "
where the system of tie lines ultimately vanishes. The
critical curve thus indicates tin- boundary between "real"
and "ideal" alloys; all points lying inside the space
included between the base of the triangle and the critical
curve correspond with ideal alloys, whilst all points inside
the triangle but outside the critical curve correspond with
real alloys. If the tie lines slope downward to the left,
the "solvent" is contained in larger proportions in the
heavier alloy than in the lighter one, and rice versS if they
slope downward to the right.
A number of the earlier experiments appeared to indicate
that the positions of any two conjugate points (with respect
to the poiut representing a given ideal alloy from which the
two alloys indicated by these points are formed) are to a
24(5
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1S9&
slight extent variable with the relative proportions in which
the heavier ami lighter immiscible metals are contained in
the ideal alloy used. This matter has been carefully
investigated, with the result of demonstrating that the
apparent variation is simply due to the great difficulty
experienced in obtaining a sufficiently thoiough and com-
plete intermixture of metals melted in a crucible. The
error introduced is sensibly least when the two ternary
alloys formed are produced in approximately equal volumes,
or at any rate when the heavier one does not predominate,
which would render thorough intermixture more difficult, By
substituting for molten metals substances fluid at the ordinary
temperature (more especially mixtures of chloroform and
water as " immiscible " substances, with glacial acetic acid
as "solvent"), it was found that absolutely invariable
conjugate points were obtainable with all proportions of
materials forming mixtures representing different points on
a given tie line, when thorough intermixture was brought
about by shaking vigorously for some time in a stoppered
bottle. A critical curve was thus traced out for water,
chloroform, and acetic acid, such that the ties uniformly
sloped downwards to the left (chloroform). The position
of the limiting point was not the point of the curve reaching
the greatest elevation above the base, but was situated
lower down on the left-hand side ; at this point the ratio of
water to chloroform was sharply that indicated by the
formula 2 CIK'l, .5 1LO. " Ideal " mixtures situated any-
where near this point were found to be excessively sensitive
to temperature variation, a difference of a few tenths of a
degree making a wide difference in the composition of the
two ternary mixtures formed, and in some cases making all
the difference as to whether the mixture remained an " ideal "
one, or become " real " ; in all cases the effect of tempe-
rature variations was such as to be included in the general
rule, the critical curve fur a hit/her temperature lies inside
that for a lower one.
Exactly the same peculiarities (mutatis mutandis) are
found to characterise the curves obtainable with suitable
metallic mixtures; the same rule as to effect of temperature
variation always applies, so that the sensitiveness of the
mixture to temperature is very considerable for ideal alloys
near the critical point, although towards the base of the
curve comparatively little effect is producible, even by a
difference of 50c or 100°. Certain differences, however, are
noticeable with particular metallic mixtures, as regards the
general characters of the critical curves and tie lines ; with
some ternary alloys the ties always slope to the left (e.g.
lead — zinc — silver and bismuth — zinc — silver) ; with others,
always to the right (e.g. bismuth — zinc — tin) ; with two (and
two only, out of a dozen under examination, viz. lead — zinc
— tin and lead — aluminium —tin) the lower ties slope in one
direction (to the left) and the upper ones in the opposite
direction ; this appears to be due to the existence of a
tendency towards the formation of definite atomic com-
pounds, on the oue hand of tin and lead, SnPb3, on the
other of tin and zinc, or tin and aluminium, respectively
SnAlj aud SnZn^. With most ternary mixtures no marked
irregularity in the contour of the critical curve is noticeable,
but in some cases notable exceptions to the rule exist ;
thus alloys of lead — zinc — silver, and bismuth— zinc — silver
exhibit remarkable bulges (inwards and outwards) in both
branches of the critical curve, the situation of which, and
the positions of maximum bulge, lead to the deduction that
two definite compounds of zinc and silver exist, respectively
AgZn5 and Ag4Zn5. No such bulges, however, are noticed
in the corresponding alloys where aluminium replaces zinc.
In any given curve containing lead as one of the two
immiscible metals, substitution of bismuth for lead invariably
depresses the critical curve, eeteris paribus; so that the
bismuth-containing alloys furnish critical curves lying
inside the respective analogous curves obtained with lead-
containing alloys. Precisely the opposite effect appears to
be produced by the substitution of aluminium for zinc.
The exact positions of the various limiting points, it was
found, could not be arrived at by direct experiment on
account of the sensitiveness to temperature variation near
these points, and because the two alloys formed differed but
little in density, and therefore did not readily separate from
one another. Close approximations, however, were deducible
by means of two graphical methods suggested by Sir G. G.
Stokes. The limiting points thus deduced never coincided
with the point in the critical curve where the elevation above
the base line was a maximum, but always lay more or less
lower down, on oue side or the other, on the left-hand side ;
when the upper ties sloped downwards to the left (e.g., lead —
zinc — silver, bismuth — zinc — silver, chloroform — acetic acid
— water), on the right-hand side if they sloped downwards to
the right (e.g., lead — zinc — tin, bismuth — zinc — tin). The
two immiscible metals were present at the limiting points in
ratios close to those indicated by definite atomic formula' ;
but the formula' varied according to the nature of the
solvent metal, being wholly different with tin as compared
with silver, thus —
With lead— zinc— tin alloys the ratio was near PbZnc
With lead— zinc— silver alloys the ratio was near ... Pb^Zn
With bismuth— zinc— tin alloys the ratio was near . BiZn10
With bismuth — zinc— silver alloys the ratio was near BiZn,
Full details of the methods of investigation aud analysis
employed are given in the papers, together with numerous
tables of values obtained and plottings of the critical curves
ami tie lines thence deduced. — C. B. A. \V.
The Baltimore Meeting of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers, February 10 — 20, 1892. Knc. and
Mining .1. 1892, 227—229.
The Copper Mines op Vermont : H. M. Howe.
The ancient slates of the Appalachian range contain a
series of large beds of iron pyrites extending from Alabama
to the St. Lawrence. These deposits occur in the form of
enormous lenses, and though they have many of the
characteristics of fissure veins, are not generally thought to
be such, but to be true ore beds, their irregularities being
due to folding and distortion during metamorphism. In the
majority of cases, although there are marked exceptions,
these lenses pinch out in depth. In the Southern States
the upper part of the ore body has been decomposed and
the copper leached out. Below the gossan is found a rich
layer of copper ore, resulting, perhaps, from the re-
precipitation of the leached copper. Below this again is the
region of undecomposcd sulphides, which become impove-
rished as depth increases.
In the Northern States both the gossan and richer portion
are eroded, leaving the undecomposed sulphides exposed at
the surface. The sulphides continue in depth without loss
of their percentage of copper, and in some eases are said to
have been enriched. In the Elizabeth mine the ere has
been worked down on the pitch for 1.500 ft., and in places
some 60 ft. in width. At the Union mine, while the ore
body does not extend continuously to a great depth, jet
continuations of new lenses are found by cross-cutting
when the lense pinches.
Although at present the pyrrhotite ores are placed at a
disadvantage with the pyritous ores, as far a, utilisation for
acid-making is concerned, the}- contain a larger proportion
of copper, and when (he gigantic sulphur beds of Louisiana
are developed they will he on a par, at least, with the
pyritous ores.
The Magnetic Ores of Ashk Coi'ntv, N. C. :
H. B. C. Nitze.
These iron ore deposits, situated in an area of crystalline
rocks and embracing an extent of 150 square miles, are
practically undeveloped, though some small prospecting has
been carried on, and one small Catalan forge, making a
very superior tough iron, is in operation. The ores are
principally magnetites, suitable for the manufacture of
Bessemer pig iron, though hematites and red specular ores
of excellent quality are also found, but in very limited
quantities. Mr. Nitze divides Ashe County into three main
belts- -the Ballon or River belt, the Red Hill or I'oisou
Branch belt, and the Titaniferous belt.
The Ballon belt has been opened at several points,
showing thick beds of ore material running from 41 *36 per
Marohsi.iWB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
217
cent, metallic iron to 60-48 per cent., and extremely low in
phosphorus and sulphur, but high in silica. The Red Hill
or Poison Branch belt has been opened at numerous points
along its outcrop, showing large bodies of ore. In addition,
the bodies have been traced over unopened ground by the
dipping needle. The ore generally is good in character,
although certain portions are high in sulphur. The Titani-
ferous belt is extensive and persistent, and shows large
quantities of ore, but the percentage of titanic acid from
8' 8 per cent, to 9'7 per cent, condemns it for blast
furnace use.
TITANIFEROUS IRON IN THE BLAST FURNACE.
K. W. Raymond suggested that for the benefit of
iron workers the boundaries of the titanic ores, which seem
to run in a belt from the large developments in the South,
through New Jersey, New York, and into Canada itself,
should be determined. Raymond stated that the Durham
furnace had been paying a rental for 20 years on a
magnificent body of iron ore which was absolutely useless
to it on account of its high percentage of titanic acid,
although it was extremely low in phosphorus. The titanic
acid ran as high as 14 per cent. It was well known to
metallurgists, he said, that titaniferous ores could be treated
in the blast furnace by carrying large quantities of alumina
in the slag ; but at Durham, where they relied upon the
Trenton dolomite as a flux, the alumina was not obtainable.
Many of the metallurgists of the Lehigh V alley had found
accretions of uitro-cyanide of titanium in their furnaces,
showing that where titanic acid occurred in small quantities
it was accumulative. In the late T. Sterry Hunt's classifi-
cation of crystalline rocks the titaniferous ores had been
placed as characteristic of a certain era, and although this
hypothesis has not been proved conclusively, it was in
his (Raymond's) opinion most likely to be correct. The
aluminous and titaniferous slags, Dr. Raymond said in reply
to a question, ran poorly and were difficultly fusible. They
were sometimes used to " heal " a damaged hearth.
President John Birkinbine stated that the titaniferous
iron deposits of Northern New York and Canada were
bounded on either side by bodies free from that element.
Titaniferous bodies, strange to say, were placed in the most
inviting of positions ; huge outcrops enticed the miner.
It was Birkinbiue's opinion that the salvation of the
titanium difliculty lay in the use of large hearths removable
while in blast if necessary. This has been done on a small
scale, he said, and why not on a large one.
Dr. Raymond thought the remedy, if any, would be the
employment of some of the modern direct open-hearth
processes. Howe, however, coincided with Birkinbine.
Birkinbine continued by saying that magnetic concentration
reduced materially the amount of titanic acid in the product.
Dr. Egglestou said that this was true, but that he had made
a number of experiments, which showed plain jigging would
effect the separation of certain titaniferous minerals from
magnetite,
Improvements in the Manufacture of Galvanised Iron.
J. W. Richards. Eng. and Mining J. 52, 24, 1891, 677.
The author has found that the presence of small quantities
of aluminium in the galvanising bath leads to the deposition
of a highly crystalline as well as a permanently brilliant
and adhesive coating of zinc. The aluminium is best added
to the bath in the form of a zine alloy containing 2 per cent,
of aluminium, 4 oz. of this alloy being added to the
galvanising bath for every ton of zinc.
Calculation of Slag Components. G.Murray. Eng. and
Mining J. 1892, 281.
See under XXIII., page 270.
XL-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Behaviour of Hydrogen towards Lead and other Metals.
G. Neumann and F. Streintz, Monatsh. 1891, 12,
642—660.
In order to explain some physical phenomena which take
place at the negative plate of a secondary battery, it was
assumed in a previous paper that lead has the power of
absorbing hydrogen ; the authors attempted to put this
assumption to the test of experiment under conditions
similar to those existing in a secondary battery, but no
trustworthy conclusions could be drawn from the results.
They then examined the behaviour of molten lead, and
found that it has the power of absorbing 0-11 — 0-15 vol.
of hydrogen. Several other metals were examined as
regards their power of occluding hydrogen, and the results
are given in a table.— F. S. K.
Determination of Eleeti olytic Dissociation of Salts by
Solubility Experiments. A. A. Noyes. Technology
Quarterly, 1891, 4, 259—291.
The effect which one salt exerts on the solubility of another
has been the subject of numerous investigations. These,
however, yielded nothing more than a mass of empirical
results, until Nernst showed that the electrolytic dissociation
theory offered an explanation of this phenomenon of solu-
tions. The author has already (Zeits. f. Bhys. Chem. 6, 241)
tested by experiment the validity of Nerust's theory, and
has generally found it to hold good. Such discrepancies as
did occur were probably due to the incorrectness of the
dissociation values used in the calculations, i.e., to the
assumption that dissociation and molecular conductivity are
proportional. Now, just as the solubility of one salt in
presence of another can be calculated if the values of the
dissociation be known, so conversely can the degree of
dissociation be determined from the values of the solubility
experimentally obtained. Up to the present time electric
conductivity is the. only physical property of a solution
which has been used to furnish a measure of the dissociation
of the substances dissolved in it. Although this method, as
used by Ostwald and others, gives reliable results in the
case of organic acids, the author believes that it cannot be
depended on in the case of better conductors, such as most
metallic salts and strong acids and bases. These considera-
tions have led the author to study the dissociation of the
chlorides of various metals by methods depending on their
solubility. He arrives at the following general results.
The effect of 11 different chlorides on the solubility of
thallous chloride was investigated, each in four distinct
concentrations, and the dissociation of each was calculated
from the solubility effect. The three alkali-metal chlorides,
potassium, sodium, and ammonium, were found to be equally
dissociated, their dissociation increasing from 65 per cent,
in the ease of a solution of 0'2 normal strength to 89 per
cent, at 0-03 normal. The dissociation of hydrochloric
acid was slightly greater (73 per cent, to 89 per cent.).
With a single exception all the bivalent-metal chlorides
investigated (Mn, Ca, Ba, Zu, Mg, and Cu) proved, like the
univalent-metal chlorides, to be equally dissociated. Their
dissociation is about 5 per cent, less than that of the alkali
chlorides. Cadmium chloride forms the exception spoken
of, its dissociation being 33, 43, 53, and 60 per cent., as
against 62, 69, 78, and 82 in the case of solutions of the
other chlorides of corresponding concentration. The results
were confirmed by corresponding experiments with lead
chloride. — D. E. J.
PATENTS.
Manufacture of Porous or Spongy Plates, applicable for
Use in Secondary Batteries, $•<?. F. T. Williams and J.
C. Howell, Llanelly. Eng. Pat. 2573, May 23, 1883.
(Second Edition.)
This invention relates to the formation of porous blocks of
lead or its alloys by removing in a peiforated ladle, such as
24S
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[March 31, 1898.
is used in the separation of lead and silver, some of the
molten metal which Ins been allowed to cool slowly until
it is just crystallising out. The liquid metal drains through
the perforations, and the miss which remains sets into a
porous block, which can be cut up into battery plates or
be used for the manufacture of white lead. — dr. H. It.
Improvements in Extracting Precious Metals from Ores
or Minerals containing them, and Apparatus therefor..
J. 15. Haunav, Dumbarton. Eng. Pat. 14,966, September
22, 1890.
In En?. Pat. 14,061 of 18SG (this Journal, 1887, C73) a
process is described for extracting gold from refractory ores
bv the combined action of chlorine, a cyanide, and electric
currents. In the present patent, chlorine is dispensed with,
the electrolyte being kept in a state of circulatory agitation
by means of a screw or propeller. Gold or silver ores are
reduced to a fine powder and mixed to the consistency of a
fluent sludge with water containing not more than 2 per
cent, of potassium cyanide.
Apparatus is illustrated and described for effectively
carrying this method into effect I see below , Eng. l'at. Hi, 181
of 1890).— E. T.
An Improved Process and Apparatus for Extracting Cold
from Minerals containing it. .J. B. Hannay, Dumbarton.
Eng. Pat. 19,181, November 25, 1890.
Tins patent is for an improvement m apparatus for effecting
the process described in Eng. l'at. 14,9GGO of 1890
(abstracted above). The negative electrode is of mercury,
immediately under a propeller mounted on a vertical shaft
passing through the bottom. The positive electrode is a
hollow inverted cone of carbon mounted immediately over the
propeller. By the action of the latter, the sludge i- drawn
through the hole in the cone and driven up round the sides
to oner more enter the hole at the top and continue the
circulation. — E. T.
A Xeir or Improved Dry Couple or Element for Electrical
Purposes. II. Birkbeck, London. From O. Henrichsen,
Copenhagen, 1 in, mark. Eng. l'at. 2o,s:;s. December 20,
1890.
Ix this cell, the carbon is placed in the centre, with its
tower half surrounded by a mixture of pyrolusite ami
graphite. Between this layer and the zinc, which is in the
shape of a cylinder surrounding the whole, is the solution
of sal-ammoniac, of which the absorbent material is
siliceous marl. There is then a thin horizontal layer ol
siliceous mail, made firmer by the addition of plaster of
Paris. Above this there i- a very deep layer of sawdust or-
such material. The cell is closed at the top by layers of
plaster ol Paris and asphalt or resin. A bole is left
through tie' two top layers, and, if desired, a long bent
tube may be attached to it, so that any gases liberated musl
pas- through a great length of ahsorbent material contained
in it, the tub.' itsell being wholly c mtained in the cell.
— E T.
Improvements in the Production of Lend Plates or
Elt ctrodes for Secondary Batterit s, and the < 'onnexions,
Straps, or Lugs In the same. P. .1. Davies, London,
ling. Pat. 21,031, December 24, 1890.
Tin- pat. nt i- fur mechanical means of producing such
deeply grooved plates as are used for Epstein electrodes.
The grooves may In- formed by casting in moulds, by
pressure between dies, by rolling or ploughing out. The
moulds "r dies are formed of a number of steel laths
fastened together, those which have to form the grooves in
the electr ides being) of course, n ider than the others. Polls
are made in a similar way bj stringing together washers,
those for forming the grooves being of larger diameter than
the others. V.ij numerous drawings are given illustrating
the details.— E. T.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries for Producing
Constant Currents. \\". Wcnsky, Berlin, Germany.
Eng. l'at. 11), January 1, 1891.
This cell is designed for the production of constant currents
for a considerable length of time. A plate of copper placed
horizontally is covered with copper subchloride. Above
this is supported, between suitable osmose cloths, first a
layer of powdered zinc and then a /.in1 plate. Tie.' electro
lyte is a In per cent, solution of zinc chloride containing
1 per cent, of mercury perchloride. A number of such
cells are made up into a single vertical block b\ the help of
rubber rings. In the decomposition of the subchloride,
copper is deposited on the copper plate, and zinc chloride
formed. — E. T.
Improvements in Electric Cells or Batteries. II. T. Eagar,
Canterbury, and K.P. Milburn, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Eng.
Pa! 899, January 17, 1891.
An electrolyte suitable more especially to those cells which
contain aluminium as one electrode (Kng. l'at. 6924 ol
1890), is composed of sodium bichromate. :', oz. ; water,
12ii oz. j sulphuric acid (commercial), s oz. ; hydrochloric
acid, la grains. The proportions may be varied, and a
suitable quantity of ammonium bichromate used instead of
the so limn salt. — E. T.
Improvements in Primary Batteries. S. W. Maquay,
London. ling. Pat'. 1035, Januarj 20. 1891.
This patent relates to the raising and lowering of battery
elements bv means o!' :, chain and roller or sprocket wheels,
and also to clamps for h ildiug the zinc plates and all
of their rapid replacement.— E. T.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. F. Poudroux, Paris
Fiance. Eng. l'at. 3198, February 21, 1891.
In an outer jar is placed a cylinder of carbon, and within
this a porous pot containing a zinc cylinder ; inside this a
second porous pot containing a carbon rod. The inner
carbon is bathed in water, 20 parts; potassium nitrate, 2;
manganese dioxide, 1 ; sodium bichromate, :'. : sulphuric
aiod, 2 parts. The solution round the zinc consist- of
water, 20; sal-ammoniac, 3; potassium nitrate, 2 part-.
Surrounding the outer carbon i- a solution of -odium bi-
chromate with one-tenth pari by weight of sulphuric acid.
It is claimed for this cell that it will last a very lung time
with. cat attention, and that by the employment of a solution
containing no acid, the zinc very seldom requires ami
tion.— E. T.
An Improved Galvanic Battery. YV. II. Manns, London.
From (1. A. Smith, Halifax, Canada. Eng. Pat. 3417,
February 2.",. 1891.
'I'm- invention consists in a battery composed of zinc and
carbon elements so connected to a plate working vertically
no guide bars, that b\ means of a lever placed on the
outside of the enclosing case the plates can be raised out of
or immersed in the electrolyte.1— G. IL 1L
Process for Clarifying and Bleaching Tanning Extracts
or Tanning Liquors. A. F nesting, Dusseldorf, Germany.
Foe. Pat. Lis:.. March ii, 1891.
.s-,, under VL, page 237.
A lYeut or Improved Solution or Electrolytic Fluid for
Galvanic Batteries. \V. J. Engledue, Byfleet. Eng,
l'at. 1781, March 17, 1891.
Tin invention consists of a solution for galvanic batteries
composed of sulpbu'-ie acid, hydrochloric acid, bichromate
ol soda, and water. — G. H. R.
M„,i, ii.iw.i THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
249
Improvements Relating to the Production of Porous
Materials, and to the Manufacture of the same into
Electrodes or Plates for Electric Batteries. II. II.
Lake, London. From E. A. G. Street, and A. W.
Dcsruelles, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 4781, .Mann 18,
1891.
This invention consists in making plates for batteries by
mixing intimately one of the oxides of lead, or manganese,
with "any suitable calcareous or porous material " which
is DO) attacked by tile electrolyte to lie used. The mass is
made into a paste with albumen and moulded into
[dates, which are then heated to coagulate the albumen.
— G. II. R.
Improvements in Apparatus fir Preparing Bleaching
Solution anil Bleaching Powder by Electrolysis.
K. K. Lever, Altriuchain. Fug. Pat. 11,621), July S,
1891.
\\ arrangement of tank and electrodes is described for
i Erecting the decomposition of brine or sea-water The tank
may be made of cast iron preferably, with a porcelain
porous partition between the I no compartments. The
chlorine is led into a chamber containing lime to Form
bleaching powder. The whole vessel may he warmed by
steam. — E. T.
Improvements in or Connected with Accumttlators or
Secondary /latteries. II. Hauser, Madrid, Spain.
Bug. Pat. 14,702, August 31, 1891.
According to this invention tin.' plates are composed of
a number of troughs arranged horizontally one over the
other in a frame, and connected at their ends to its vertical
sidt S, one of which is prolonged and forms the terminal.
The troughs, which are made of an alloy of lead and
antimony, are tilled with the active material, which is
preferably some oxide of lead. — G. II. 11.
Obtaining a Fluid far Primary Batteries, and Utilising
lla' Waste Products of such Batteries. II. II. Leigh,
London. From J. B. Gardiner, Xyack, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 16,487, September 29, 1891.
Tins patent is to reduce the cost of working by the
employment of a cyclic method. A chromic acid cell is
given as an example. Lead eliminate is treated with
sulphuric acid, giving chromic acid — Port A — and lead
sulphate — Part B. The chromic acid is used In the
battery, and when spent is treated with an alkaline
carbonate- evaporated, and ignited; potassium eliminate
and zinc oxide are thus obtained. The latter is of
immediate commercial value; the former is treated with
Pari II above — lead sulphate — with the production once
more of lead chromate and potassium sulphate. The lead
eliminate may now go through the whole cycle again.
The method maybe modified as follows: Chromate Of
lime and sulphuric acid give chromic acid and sulphate of
lime. The spent chromic acid after use in the cell is treated
with the sulphate of lime produced alone, or with carbonate
of lime, dried, and ignited, with the production of chromate
of lime once more and zinc oxide. The principle cau be
applied to a great number of salts.— E. T.
Improvements in Electric or Galvanic /latteries, ami in
Mat, rials therefor. D.J. N. Lamb, Boston, IS A.
Eng. Pat. 17,1:10, October 13, 1891.
The " active " material consists of a mixture of granules of
potassium bichromate, copper sulphate, sal-ammoniac,
manganese peroxide, lead shot, &c, some or all of which
are rendered impervious to moisture by a coating of resinous
or waxy material. A special form of cell is also described,
in which this active material seems to surround zinc and
carbon alike. The electrolyte may be water. — E. T.
Improvements in and Retatiny la Electric Batteries.
1!. Schcithauer, Ilallc on-thc-Sualc, Germany. Eng.
I'at. 17,994, October 20, 1891.
I I.XYGEM is introduced into each cell of the battery in order
that it may combine with the hydrogen formed at the
negative plates, and so prevent polarisation. — F. T.
Improvements in Secondary Batteries. M. Waddell,
.1. II. Entz, and W. A. Phillips, Bridgeport, U.S.A.
Eng. I'at. 18,431, October 27, 1891.
Tiik positive electrode is made of copper wire surrounded
with copper oxide, which is held on with a braiding of Hue
copper wire, the whole being covered with a braiding of
cotton. Two such wires placed side by side are doubled
on themselves and then turned backwards and forwards
into a mat, one wire thick, with the four ends at the top.
This mat is held in shape by stout insulated wires round
the edges and along the faces. The negative electrode is
a perforated sheet of iron doubled round the positive like
the zinc of a Grove cell. The solution is sodium and
potassium zincate. The binding wires mentioned above,
which hold the mat in shape and also insulate the positive
plate from the negative, are covered with a cotton braiding
impregnated with whiting and silicate of soda. When
ininn rsed in the potassium .solution the covering becomes
very stiff and glassy. The iron negative electrode may
be plated with nickel, tin, or any other suitable metal.
— F. T.
Improvt no nis in Electric . Iccumulators or Storage Batteries.
W. 1'. Thompson, London. From N. II. Edgcrton,
Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng. I'at. 19,458, November 10,
1891.
The lead plates of the electrodes are placed, without
metallic contact, in thin Mat metal cells or cases, which
are Idled with active material such as a lead oxide. The
;ases appear to be water-tight boxes reaching to the top of
the containing cell. Three such electrodes, each with its
case, are placed in each cell, the centre oue of one cell
being joined to the two outer ones of the next. "The
object sought, being the polarising of the battery, that is
to say, the construction ami airangcnient, to develop an
increased voltage or tension of electrical energy." — F. T.
Improved Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture or
Production of Hydrogen and Chlorine from Hydro-
chloric Acid. C. Kellner, Vienna, Austria. Fug. Pat.
20,060, November IS, 1891. 11;/.
See under VII., page 23U.
Improvements in the Manufacture of a Hard Insulating
Material. 1!. 1'apc, Berlin, Germany. Eng. I'at. 20,407,
November 24, 1891.
Three parts of soapstone are incorporated with •! parts of
powdered chalk, or magnesia and chalk, by means of
rotating rollers or drums, until the material has a soapy
touch. Such prepared chalk can be compressed into denser
nia-ses which have a very line gloss, and can be worked up
with tools without crumbling and without easily blunting
the tools. For use as an insulating material the prepared
chalk is mixed, gradually and with constant kneading,
with :> parts of resin or shellac dissolved in alcohol until a
dough is obtained ; this is dried, powdered, warmed, with
constant stirring, to 30' C, and finally compressed in
suitable hot moulds. — A. G. B.
Improvements in Secondary or Storage Batteries.
II. II. Lake, London. From I. I,. Roberts, New York,
U.S.A. Eng. I'at. 21,4 12, December 8, 1891.
In this battery the electrodes are iron and carbon plates
separated by a porous partition of vulcanised libre. The
230
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [MarcUsi im
electrolyte is chloride of iron. and ou charging 51 s pii-
chloride of iron is formed in the anode, or carbon, com-
partment; while iron is deposited on the iron plate. On
discharge the chloride of iron is reformed. — G. H. K.
Improvements in Voltaic Cells or Batteries. II. II. Lake,
Loudon. From E. A. Clark, Huston. U.S.A. Eog. Pat.
21,870, December 15, 1891. 6a*.
The electrolyte is arranged in the form of a pad composed
of layers of paper, or other porous material, which enclose
the sulphate of copper, or other salt, used with a copper
zinc couple. Moistening the pad sets the battery in action.
XII.-FATS, OILS. AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Tin' Suliil Products which result from the Oxidation of
Drying Oils. A. Livache. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113,
136—139.
Ci.oez has shown that the products of the oxidation of
drying oils consist of fatty acids together with a neutral
insoluble body, to which Mulder has given the name of
Linojrin. When these oxidation products are treated with
solvents, such as petroleum ether, ether, oil of turpentine,
acetone, ethyl acetate, or carbon bisulphide, in the cold,
the action is very slight, but on boiling the oxidised
oil with a small quantity of the solvent, the solid product
becomes more transparent, swells up, and gets broken
up into fragments which form an elastic mass. If an
excess of solvent be used it becomes coloured yellow,
and when evaporated leaves a solid sticky residue, which
softens at a very low temperature. The insoluble portion
is a friable, elastic mass. Mineral essences do not dis-
solve any portion of the oxidised oil, but only break it up
forming an opaque greyish mass of a cohesive nature.
The author points out the similarity between the physical
properties of the oxidation product of drying oils and those
of caoutehouc, and considers that the soluble portion of
the former could be employed with advantage in an
analogous manner to caoutchouc for manufacturing purposes.
— C.A. K.
On the Polymers of Ricinoieic Acid. Scheurer-Kesther.
Comp. Rend. 1891, 113, -"1 -203.
The author has already shown that Turkey-red oil. pre-
pared by treating castor oil with monohydrated sulphuric
acid, contains polymers of ricinoieic acid (see this Journal,
1891,471).
Polymerisation may be effected also by heating with
water alone. The acid product, obtained by heating with
water at 150 C, has, when freed from glycerol, an oily
consistency, and is heavier than ricinole'ic acid ; according
to the molecular weight it is a mixture of ricinoieic and
diricinoleic acids. With increase of temperature polymerisa-
tion is carried further, as far as tetra- and penta- ricinole'ic
acids.
Diricinoleic acid and its congeners resist saponification by-
soda, decomposition not being effected below 100°. The
molecular weights were determined with acids dried by
calcium chloride, the solvent used for products up to diri-
cinoleic acid being acetic acid, and for products above this
benzene. — T. L. B.
XI1I.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
New Method of Examining Chromt Yellows. M. Lachaud
and C. Lepierre. Hull. Soc. ('him. 1891, 6, 235—237.
See under XXIII., page 269.
Varnishes. Dr. HugoMiiller. Nature, 1892,45,241—245.
After pointing out that mastic varnish is simply a surface-
varnish, and should never be mixed with oil varnishes, he
proceeds to speak of fat or oil varnishes, which are of
greater importance than mastic varnish. They arc com-
pounds of the harder resins, such as amber and the
different kiuds of copals, with linseed oil, and diluted with
oil of turpentine. They form in reality the vehicle or
medium for modern oil-painting, and consequently furnish
ultimately the matrix in which the particles of the colour
arc embedded and held together. Next to the stability of
the colours, it is then the durability of this varnish medium,
in combination with dry linseed oil, on which the permanency
of the oil-painting mainly depends. On the assumption
that the valuable qualities of the hard resins are maintained
in the varnishes derived from them, it is understood that
arti>ts' varnishes are prepared only from the hardest and
most tenacious kinds of resins. Unfortunately, these are
the most unmanageable and the least soluble, and require
the highest degree of heat to bring them into fusion for the
purpose of effecting the combination with the linseed oil
and oil of turpentine, in the process of making varnish.
Even the most powerful solvents, such as acetoue, ether,
benzene, chloroform, aniline, and phenol, have only a
limited solvent action upon amber or the harder semi-fossil
kinds of copal; and their solution can only be effected after
they have uudergone a profound change by fusion or other-
wise. In opposition to what is generally stated, neither
amber nor the semi-fossil hard copals are fusible in the
ordinary sense of the word; for they require to be kept at
a high temperature, in suitable vessels, for a considerable
time before they become gradually liquefied by the action
of the heavy oily products of their own decomposition.
Amber and copal, when thus once melted, are completely
changed ; they are now fusible at a low temperature ; they
have become readily soluble in ordinary solvents, and
miscible with heated linseed oil ; but at the same time the
original hardness of the resin is greatly reduced, and the
colour has become of a more or less dark tint.
It remains to be proved whether much is gained by using
the very hardest resins, instead of softer and more tractable
kind- which yield lighter-coloured varnishes ; and this is a
subject which, in Dr. Midler's opinion, deserves investiga-
tion. Varnish-making is still a secret trade, and the nature
of varnishes, more than any other artists' materials, is
involved in much obscurity. There are no chemical methods
known for ascertaining the nature or proportion of the
ingredients used in their preparation, and as time is the
most important factor iu proving the quality of varnishes,
direct practical experimental tests may be misleading.
Anew process for making varnish, said to be iu use on the
Continent, consists in heating the resins with the solvents iu
autoclaves under high pressure; and there are also processes
recommended which seem especially adapted for those who
\\i~h to make their own varnishes on a small scale. These
latter depend on the peculiar change which the hard copals
undergo when exposed for some time, iu a state of very
fine powder, to the action of hot air, whereby the resin is
rendered more soluble without becoming much discoloured.
Professor Church {Chemistry of Paints and Painting')
(this Journal, 1S92, 185) describes such a process, in which
the finely-powdered resin, after having been exposed for
some time to the action of air at a temperature of 220° C,
is first dissolved iu chloroform, then mixed with oil of
turpentine, and after the chloroform has been distilled off,
the resulting solution is gradually incorporated with the
March .-H.1892J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
251
(Irving linseed oil. Although 220° C. is repeatedly mentioned
as the temperature to which the powdered resins have to
be exposed, Dr. Muller suggests that this must be amistake.
Neither amber nor the copals will endure tin* temperature
for any time without meltiug and becoming of ;i dark brown
colour, or otherwise decomposed.
On the other hand, Dr. Muller has found that the various
kinds of copal, which, by exposure in a finely-powdered
condition for some weeks to the action of hot air in a steam
closet, have become readily soluble in chloroform or acetone,
are nevertheless almost entirely precipitated again on adding
oil of turpentine or benzene to such a solution, and no
amount of digestion, either with or without linseed oil, will
re-dissolve them. Amber thus treated behaves in a similar
manner, but the amount rendered soluble in chloroform or
acetone is much smaller. It would, then, appear that this
matter requires some further elucidation before this new
process can be made readily available.
There are no special tests for ascertaining the quality of
a varnish. Spreading a thin layer on a sheet of glass, and
then observing the character of the film produced on drying,
seems all thai can be done. It ought to become dry to the
touch within eight or ten hours, and uot become fissured
even when exposed to sunshine during a year; nor should
the surface become dull during the appearance of
"bloom," caused by the minute exudation of solid fatty
acids originating from the linseed oil employed in its
preparation.
As the drying of the solution of resins in a volatile solvent
depends solely on the volatilisation of the solvent, this
process is accompanied by a shrinkage of the body of the
varnish which sets up a tendency to breaking-up of the
surface. Linseed oil, on the other hand, becomes dry or
solid in consequence of combining with a large quantity of
oxygen, and this is attended by an increase in bulk. It
follows that as long as a sufficient proportion of oil is in
combination with the resin the tendency to crack is com-
pensated, but if the artist, from habit or other reasons, uses
with his colours a medium deficient in oil, he encounters
the risk of the body of his paintings becoming fissured in
the course of time, and readily subject to the destructive
action of the atmosphere.
There is still much to be learned with regard to the
chemical processes involved in the so-called drying of
linseed oil, and this subject deserves a thorough re-investi-
gation in the light and with the means of modern chemical
research. It is, for instance, a well-known fact that linseed
oil under certain conditions becomes itself a most powerful
oxidiser — so much so that cauvas or paper soaked with
it will become destroyed in the course of time ; and it seems
that this effect is especially marked when oil of turpentine
has been used along with it. It is quite conceivable that
this activity of linseed oil may be one of the agents at work
in the deterioration of oil-paintings ; but whatever dangers
may arise from this, the use of linseed oil cannot be
dispensed with. It is otherwise with oil of turpentine, for
which a very much superior substitute might be found in the
higher members of the benzene series, which could now be
obtained at a sufficiently moderate cost if a demand for
them should arise. These hydrocarbons, whilst indifferent
to the action of atmospheric oxygen, possess greater solvent
power than any other, and on this accouut they are also
well adapted for the preparation of varnishes. Hut for this
latter purpose a still more suitable vehicle will be found in
the amylic acetate, which dissolves even the hardest copals
almost entirely after having been previously finely powdered
and kept for some time in a hot closet. In this way excellent
varnishes may be produced.
Section I. contains
On the Durability of Modern Pigments in Oil. A. P.
Laurie. J. Soc. Arts, March 11, 1892, 383—387.
Professor Church, in his recent book on the " Chemistry
of faints and Painting" (this Journal, 1892, 185), has
drawn up a selected palette of 25 pigments suitable for oil-
painting, lie divides them into two groups.
Flake white.
( ladmium yellow.
Cobalt yellow.
Yellow ochre.
Viridian.
French ultramarine.
Vermilion.
Madder carmine.
Light red.
Raw umber.
Cappagh brown.
Ivory black.
Section II. contains :
Haw sienna.
Naples yellow.
Baryta yellow
Green oxide of <
Tcrre vcrte.
Malachite.
Kiuerald green.
Purple madder.
Madder brown.
hromium. Cobalt blue.
Prussian blue (insol.).
Burnt sienna.
Caledonian brown.
This selected palette is the outcome of many years of
experimenting and of useful observation of the behaviour of
pigments. It is also sufficiently complete to supply all that
is needed in painting a picture. On the other hand, it
cannot be regarded as final. Doubtless, as knowledge
increases, certain pigments will be excluded from this list,
and others introduced.
The pigments which require careful preparation and
careful testing before being finally included, are cadmium
yellow, cobalt yellow, vermilion, madder carmine, French
ultramarine, Naples yellow, baryta yellow, purple madder,
madder brown, malachite, emerald greet), Prussian blue —
all these pigments are artificial except malachite, which is
of little importance ; aud much will depend on the method
of preparation, careful washing, exclusion of dangerous
impurities, and freedom from gross adulteration. The other
pigments in the list are permanent, if genuine ; and there-
fore all that is necessary is to look out for adulteration.
To take then the yellow pigments mentioned in the first
column, and to begin with Cadmium Yellow, careful readers
of Prof. Church's book will find that he refers to only one
shade of this yellow as being perfectly safe, an orange-
yellow shade. The pale cadmiums are notoriously fugitive,
and contain free sulphur, while the deep orange cadmiums
seem apt to change into the yellow varieties.
The endeavour has been made to obtain a cadmium of a
pure light yellow, which shall contain no such objectionable
constituent as free sulphur, ami shall also be molecularly
stable. Some lately prepared was subjected to a dull red
heat before grinding. This ought to increase molecular
stability, and would, of course, prove destructive to pale
cadmium, made the usual way. The pigment is probably
wot thy of a trial as it ought to be stable.
Cobalt Yellow (Aureoline). — This pigment (a nitrite of
cobalt and potassium) is prepared from a recipe very similar
to the one given by Prof. Church. After thorough washing
and grinding in oil it appears unaffected by 12 months'
exposure out of doors towards the south ; so that as far as
the tests go, confirmation is afforded of Prof. Church's
good opinion of it.
Yellow Ochre. — Attention was directed to a most objec-
tionable adulteration of yellow ochre with lead chrome
yellow. Out of seven samples of " Oxford ochre" sent by
wholesale dealers in pigments, two contained chrome yellow,
(hie of the two consisted veryr largely of whitening, tinted
with chrome aud mixed with a small quantity of a pale
ochre. The result was a sample which looked as bright as
the best samples of genuine Oxford ochre. Prof. Church
mentions adulteration with yellow lake- -uo such case has
yet been met with.
Vermilion. — Many English samples were found to contain
alkaline sulphide, and genuine Chinese vermilion was pre-
ferred. The following are the percentages of ash found in
different samples of Chinese vermilion obtained direct from
China : —
(1.)
(2.)
(S.)
(4.)
(-,.)
(0.)
0-1
(1- 1
0 • OG
0-12
0-Ofi
OMlt
E 'i
252
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, im.
Some of tin- English vermilions can be very mucli improved
by washing with weak acid, as the following analysis
shows ; —
Per Cent.
Ash before washing 0"52
Isli after washing 0'1-i
All vermilions, iucluding the best Chinese vermilion,
blacken in sunlight, hut are probably stable pigments when
, sposi '1 to tli'' diffused light of a room or gallery.
Madder Carmine. — Tin- madder lakes experimented on
were of the author's own making. They were prepared by
dyeing well-washed alumina with artificial alizarin, ami
again thoroughly washing. A purple, a ruby, and a rose
madder were prepared. After a year's exposure the purple
had, possibly, l"-t a little, the ruby was unchanged, and the
rose was very slightly faded, and hail become purpler in
tint. They win' all, practically, unaltered, but with a slight
advantage in Favour of the ruby madder.
The only other pigment open to question in this palette
is French ultramarine. No experiments on this pigment
were made.
Naples Yellow. — No difficulty was found in preparing a
real Naples yellow, that is a compound of oxide of lead ami
antimony of a line colour, hut it was not exposed for a
sufficient time to test its durability.
Baryta Yellow, or Lemon Yellow. — Church points out
that lemon yellow is often a strontium, not a barium
eliminate, and that the barium eliminate is much the most
permanent of the two. Author therefore only experimented
on the barium chromate, preparing it himself. It seemed
to lose slightly in brilliancy after 12 months' exposure. As
had chrome and Prussiau blue are known to be mutually
destructive, it was thought a- well to test a mixture of
barium chrome and Prussian blue A bright green was
produced, only slightly dulled by 12 months' exposure.
Here and there the Prussian blue seemed to have laded,
causing the yellow to -how up through it a little more,
hut they ili'l not seem to have any mutual injurious
action.
Brown Madder of author's own making was not tested
for a longer period than six months, for that period it was
not affected
The two next pigments of doubtful stability were
malachite ami Emerald Green. Malachite is little used,
and was not experimented on. Elsewhere the property
which emerald green possesses of slightly dissolving in the
linseed oil, and slowly diffusing through it after it is dry,
is described. It is, of course, fatal both to cadmium yellow
and vermilion, turning them black. For this reason, it is
better rejected, or, if used, only occasionally by itself, and
far away from any cadmium yellow on the picture. Author
advises the introduction of cobalt green into the palette. It
is a durable and beautiful pigment,
Prussian Blue. — It is very difficult to buy Prussian blue
that lias been properly washed. It is apt to contain as
much as0'3 per cent, of free sulphuric acid, ami often large
quantities of potassium ferrocyanide. English makers
are, in the author's experience, peculiarly careless ; ami be
has found it best to buy Prussian blue in Germany. It is
troublesome to make. The blue he has obtained from
there never contains more than 0-01 per cent, of free acid,
so that it is easily washed sufficiently. He had some of a
perfectly washed blue exposed for 12 months. It was
found to be faded somewhat, and had become greener in
[int. It must be remembered, however, that, in the dark,
Prussian blue recovers ; so that it should be stable in an
ordinary room. It may be mixed with cobalt yellow with
impunity. All the other pigments in this palette are of
undoubted stability, ami are beyond question.
In the course of the notes, more than once the effect of
light on these pigments has been referred to. The method
of testing this was as follows : — An attic window looking
nearly due south was selected, ami outside it a woollen
frame was hung, into which glass plates (half-plate site)
coiihl I"- slided. After preparing, washing, and drying a
pigment, it was ground in pure roll pressed, sun-refined
linseed oil, ami rubbed out on two glass plates, getting the
two patches of colour to look as nearly the same as possible;
Both were put away to dry, and thereafter one plate was
slipped into the frame and the other put away into a plate
box. In this way the plate outside was exposed to all the
weather and sun for 12 months, from September to
September. The pigments tested were : —
Twelvk Months,
Run; madder Unchanged.
Rose madder More purple, very sllghtl}
fade i.
Purple madder Perhaps very slightly railed.
Cobalt yellow Unchanged.
Lcinnti yellow (barium) i A little duller.
Vermilion (Chinese) Black,or dirty brown.
Prussiau blue i Faded, greener.
Six Months.
Brown madder ' Unchanged.
These tests were of such except! il severity, the
exposure being outside, that probably none of these
pigments should be removed from the selected palette, i
they have practically (with the exception of vermilion)
proved permanent. The reasons for not distrusting
vermilion have beeu given elsewhere. As far then as the
experiments have gone, the author would only exclude
emerald green from this palette, provided the pigments
mentioned are properly prepared, ami with such restrictions,
as the avoidance of impure vermilion and of pale cadmium
yellow, as at present manufactured. Of the other pigments,
the most affected by exposure (after vermilion) is Prussian
blue. Of the other blues, of coarse cobalt blue is perfectly
safe, but Flench ultramarine requires careful testing.
(in the whole, this palette seems a very trustworthy
one, anil not at present open to much improvement. There
are, however, various pigments excluded which are worthy
of further trial, and may ultimately he re-introduced.
In all these experiments the pigments have been merely
ground in pure oil. Different vehicles have a powerful
influence on the durability of many pigments, and are
worthy of special study.
Tile results may be briefly summed up as follows ; —
Linseed oil is permeable by moisture and gases, and con-
sequently affords poor protection to pigments liable to be
affected by moisture or certain gases.
The dissolving of resin in the oil, so as to make oil
varnishes, such as copal-oil varnish and amber-oil varnish,
has little or no effect in protecting the pigments, the
moisture still penetrating.
Pure resin, when made into vehicles by solution in
volatile liquids, and natural varnishes or balsams, such as
Venice turpentine, idea de abrzzn, and others, do protect
very effectively, excluding moisture and gases, and
enhancing the durability of the pigment under adverse
conditions.
(This probably accounts for the durability of most
coloured lacquer work from Japan, when natural varnishes
arc used ; and there is some historical evidence to show
that balsam was largely used by both Flemish and Italian
painters on vehicles.)
( crtain pigments are soluble in linseed oil. For instance,
verdigris is readily, emerald green slightly, soluble. Such
pigments diffusing through the oil may be very destructive.
They are not soluble to the same extent, if at all, in resin.
These results, the author hopes, may lead to the discovery
of an improved medium, which will protect and isolate
pigments ground iu it, and so add to the durability of
pictures.
In the discussion, Mr. If. Shields asked whether, in
regard to the action of sulphuretted In drogen iu turning
chrome yellow black, the lecturer bad tried the effect of
March J1.18M.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
353
Itrong electric lijrlit in reproducing the yellow colour, after
it had beeu turned black. He imagined, as the arc light
was extremely strong in active rays, that, after the exposure
of a few hours to a strong arc light, one could definitely
decide whether it were likely that the colour would be
restored by sunlight. In the case of white, the electric
light restored the colour sooner than the sunlight ; at least
Bach sunlight as they were able to get in the neighbourhood
of Loudon. His attention was first directed to this matter
through some experiments tried by a friend in connexion
with phosphorescence.
Mr. Laurie said the suggestion had not occurred to him,
and it seemed a very good one.
Mr. Wollaston asked whether it would not be possible to
produce a vermilion, by the aid of hydrogen sulphide under
pressure, SO as to avoid the alkaline sulphates.
Mr. Laurie said these Chinese vermilions were prepared
bj BUblimating the sulphur and mercury together, and then
one got the red sublimate on the top of the crucible; but
he had not the faintest idea what would be produced
by acting upon mercury and hydrogen sulphide under
pressure.
PATENTS.
A Process for Printing on Celluloid, Iron/, limn, and
like Substances. A. A. C. de Coetlogon, Paris, France.
Eng. l'at. 5586, March 81, 1891.
A FINE close grain is produced on the surface of the
materia!, either by baud or by mechanical means, such as
the sand blast. The surface is then washed with water or
alcohol, and covered with a varnish consisting of two parts
of fatty varnish, one part of white copal varnish, and one
part of rectified essence of turpentine or lavender, " &c."
The varnish is rubbed oil' and thus made to penetrate into
the graining while it is removed from the surface. An
impalpable powder of equal parts of sulphate of magnesia
and sulphate of baryta, with or without colouring matters,
is now applied ami allowed to remain on the surface For
some hours, after which the surface is thoroughly wiped
and subjected to any known satining process. Printing upon
such a surface is as easily and effectively accomplished as
upon paper — A. G. B.
From
Eng.
Improvements in Size. J. Shepherd, London.
A. Kii/i-k and II. Esche, Geneva, Switzerland.
Pat. 12,331, July 21, 1891.
1*375 kilos, of "amidin "are moistened with a portion of
93-875 kilos. of water; there is then added 0- 100 kilo, of
" acid of salicylicum," to which 1-375 kilos, of "natrium
hydricum (hydrate of soda) " have been added, in small
quantities ; the remainder of the water is then stirred in
little by tittle. An addition of 0-150 kilo, of "chrysoidin "
and 0* 1*2.") kilo, of ether '• (spiritus aetheras) " completes
the manufacture. All the ingredients are used cold.
It is claimed that the new size produces the same effect
as two to four coats of animal size. — A. G. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of a Hard Insulating
Material. R. Pape, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,407,
November 24, 1891.
See under XL, page 219.
XIV.-TANNING. LEATHEE. GLUE, AND
SIZE.
The Weighting oj Skins. W. Eitner. Der Gerber, 14, 27.
Skins which have been weighted with sugar ami dried in
air easily mould and ferment ; this is prevented by heating
the skins to 50' — 60J for G — 10 hours, the glucose changing
to the less hygroscopic anhydride. The presence of sugar
may be quantitatively ascertained by treating 1 grin, of the
finely-divided leather with 10 cc. of water for five minutes ;
tin solution is then shaken with freshly ignited magnesia
until the liquid becomes pale, the filtrate is then treated with
2 — 3 drops of a 15 — 20 per cent, alcoholic solution of
a-naphthol and twice its volume of concentrated sulphuric
acid. When sugar is present n deep blue-violet colouration
is produced, and on addition of water a blue precipitate is
thrown down (Mblisch's reaction). Epsom salts, barium
chloride, and a mixture of Epsom salts and glucose are also
employed as weighting materials. Skins yielding more than
:'. per cent, of ash ought to be regarded as weighted.
-J. c. c.
Waterproofing of
Eog. Pat. 3910,
PATENTS.
Improvements in and Relating to the
Leather. * '■ Brunner, Manchester.
March I. 1891.
The waterproofing solution consists of 1 oz. of finely-divided
Castile soap wiili 4 oz. of turpentine oil. Five ounces of
such solution arc said to be sufficient for the soles of two
pairs of boots ; it is spread over the surface of the soles with
a brush, in successive coats. A fixing mixture of 2 V oz. of
concentrated silicate of soda to 'A oz. of linseed oil is then
applied, 5g oz. of the mixture being required for the two
pairs of soles. Each coat i~ allowed to dry be for.- another is
applied and the leather is finally exposed in a warm place
for three or four days. \ further fixing may be applied by
immersing the soles in a solution of 1 oz. of bicarbonate of
soda in 4 oz. of water for a quarter of an hour ; hut this i>
not necessary. The mixtures must lie shaken immediately
before use.— A. G. B.
Process for Clarifying and Winching Tannin Extracts or
Tanning Liquors. A. Foesling, Uiisseldorf, Germany,
Eng. Pal 4385, March 11, 1891.
See under Yl.,page 237.
Improvements in the Preparation of Peptone Extracts,
and in the Application of the same to various Useful
Purposes. M. P. Hafschek, London, <i. A. Clowes,
Needham, and L. Briont, London. Eqg. Pat. 2207,
February 6, 1891.
See under XVIII. — .1., page 259.
XY.-MANUEES. Etc.
The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.
Sir J. B. Lawes and J. II. Gilbert. Jour. Royal. Agric.
Soe. 1891 [3], 2, 657—702.
The scientific interest and the practical value of leguminous
crops depend largely on the amount of nitrogen they contain,
on the sources of this nitrogen, and especially on the great
differences in these respects between them and tie- other
agricultural crops. Thus, the grain crop^, the root crops,
and potatoes, all of which yield a comparatively small
amount of nitrogen over a given area, and coutain a com-
25 !
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si. 1893.
parativelyjow percentage of nitrogen in their dry substance,
and which yield comparatively large amounts of non-
nitrogenous products — carbohydrates — are especially
benefited by the application of nitrogenous manures,
although the increased produce is characteristically non-
nitrogenous. Leguminous crops, on the other hand, which
are characterised by their higher percentage of nitrogen,
and which accumulate more nitrogen over a given area of
land than any other crops, are comparatively little benefited
by direct nitrogenous manuring.
Boussingault's experiments and those made at Rothamsted
in 1858 — 59, in which the action of electricity and of microbes
was excluded, showed conclusively that neither non-legu-
minous nor leguminous plants can fix free nitrogen under
these conditions. And the evidence now at command still
justifies the conclusion that, except in the case of the
Leguminosie, free nitrogen is not available for agricultural
plants. With regard to the Leguminosse, the authors have
long admitted that the whole of their nitrogen could not
be acoounted for in a satisfactory manner. The residts of
Hellriegel and Wilfarth, showing that certain leguminous
plants may acquire nitrogen brought into combination under
the influence of lower organisms, were obviously of great
importance, and led the authors to make experiments on
similar lines. The first set of experiments (in 1888) included
peas, yellow lupins, and blue lupins, which were grown : —
No. 1 in washed sand with mineral manure, Xos. 2 and 3 in
the same sand with minerals, but infected with soil organisms,
No. 4 in soil. The peas, which grew well, gave very definite
results, showing an increase of growth and considerably in-
creased nitrogen fixation, under the influence of soil-extract
seeding. The second series of experiments included peas,
beans, vetches and lupins (as annuals), white clover, red
clover, sainfoin and lucerne (as plants of longer life). The
white clover experiment is still going on. A white sand was
used which, after being well washed, was sufficiently sterilised
by heating for some days in a water-oven. The results are
very definite and striking and abundently illustrate the fact
that under the influence of suitable microbe-seeding there is
nodule-formation on the roots, aud coincident!?, increased
growth, and gain of nitrogen. Where no soil-extract was
given no nodules were found on the roots and the growth
was very slight anil contained only about as much nitrogen
as was contained in the seeds sown. Nobbe's recent experi-
ments indicate that there arc several kinds of nodule
organisms, and that those organisms arc most beneficial to a
given plant which have been obtained from the nodules of
a similar plant. The observation made by Hellriegel, and at
Rothamsted, that the extracts of all soils are not equal as
ii gards nodule production, and the fact that the nodules on
the roots of different plants differ widely from each other in
form and in their distribution, seem to lend support to this
view. Besides the strictly quantitative experiments above
described, another set of experiments was made in which
the same four annuals, and the same four plants of longer
life, were grown in sand to which soil-extract was given and
in soil, in pits so constructed that the plants could be taken
up and their roots examined at three (or four) different
periods of growth. It was found that when grown in sand
infected with soil-organisms, the infection was more local
an 1 limited than was the ease in soil ; in sand the nodules
were fewer, but of great size ; in soil, smaller but more
numerous. The analyses made with the nodules from the
roots of annuals indicate that at the ripening period the
nodules had lost both in dry' matter and in nitrogen ; in the
case of plants of longer life, some of the nodules appeared
to have become exhausted, whilst others, doubtless new and
active, were richer in nitrogen.
The results of both sets of experiments make it probable
that free nitrogen is fixed in the course of the development
of the organisms within the nodules, mid that the resulting
nitrogenous compounds are absorbed and utilised by the
host.
With regard to the practical aspects of the subject,
Sehultz of Lupitz has for years devoted a considerable ana
of coot sandy land to the growth of leguminous crops by
means of kainitc and phosphatic manures ; and he found the
land very much enriched for subsequent corn and other
crops. The system is extending in Germany and i^ being
studied in Hungary. In this country Mr. Mason of Eyns-
ham Hall, Oxfordshire, who commenced, in 1889, experiments
with various Leguminosse in small plots, and afterwards ii>
specially-built tanks, has now devoted about 200 acres to
the practical application of facts recently brought to light
regarding nitrogen fixation, his idea being to grow nitrogen-
accumulating crops for home consumption and afterwards
nitrogen-consuming crops for sale.
It is clearly established that there is a great gain of
nitrogen under some conditions, and that the infection of the
soil aud of the plant is essential to success. It may also be
concluded that the soil may be duly infected for one or
more descriptions of plants but not for others. Land which
is, so to speak, quite exhausted so far as the growth of one
leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very luxuriant
crops of another description of the same family, but of very
different habits of growth, -and especially of different
character and range of roots. This, though more or less
due to other causes also, is nevertheless in some cases
doubtless dependent on the existence, the distribution and
the condition of the appropriate microbes. In aoy system
involving a more extended growth of leguminous crops
it will be necessary to have a considerable variation in the
description of plant grown. It will generally be necessary
to give liberal applications of potash and phosphate manures
and to chalk or lime the land for the leguminous crop. Then
the question would arise, how long the leguminous crop
should occupy the land, to what extent it should be con-
sumed on the land, or the manure from its consumption be
returned ; or under what conditions the whole or part should
be ploughed in 't Lastly, such a system would probably
benefit light and poor soils more than the heavier or richer
soils.— N. II.. I. M.
Behaviour of Tricalciwn Phosphate towards Carbonic
Arid and Ferric Hydroxide. G. v. Georgtevics.
Monatsh. 1891,12, 566— 581.
The author describes a large number of quantitative ex-
periments on the action of carbonic anhydride, alone and
in the presence of ferric hydroxide, on tricalcium phosphate.
It was found that tricalcium phosphate, suspended in water,
is decomposed by carbonic acid in accordance with the
equation —
I ';..,( I'l »,). + CO., + II,0 = Ca-J^tPO,)., + CaCO:, ;
in most of the experiments this decomposition was far from
being complete.
When carbonic anhydride is passed into water containing
tricalcium phosphate and ferric hydroxide in suspension
the calcium salt is decomposed, and the phosphoric acid
combines with the iron ; under certain conditions the whole
of the phosphoric acid is thus withdrawn from the calcium
salt.
These results have an important bearing on the question
of the use of phosphatic manures, as they show that in the
presence of a sufficient quantity of ferric hydroxide and
carbonic anhydride, the whole of the phosphoric acid in
the calcium phosphate applied to the soil may finally
become converted into phosphate of iron. Alumina, which
doubtless acts in the same way as ferric hydroxide, plays
nevertheless a less important part in decomposing the
calcium phosphate, because, being the most powerful
silicate base, it is formed by' the weathering of rocks in
comparatively much smaller quantities.
These experiments also afford an explanation of the
fact that lysimeter- and drainage-water invariably contain
only traces of phosphoric acid. In what way the phosphoric
acid combined with the iron or aluminium in the soil
can again be brought into solution is, as yet, unknown,
although the fact observed by Tuxeu, namely, that the
combined phosphoric acid is more readily soluble in water
containing sodium salts than in pure water, points to a
solution of the question. — F. S. K.
March SLUM.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
2&S
Manufacture of Superphosphate from Ferruginous
Phosphates. Schucht. Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1891,
0G7— fi71.
Srpabating (lie phosphoric acid and preparing from it
alkaline salts, also treatment with acid alkaline sulphates
have been suggested as means r f converting ferruginous
natural phosphates into superphosphates. The author
draws attention to the properties and behaviour of the
suhstances which render these particular phosphates un-
suitable for the preparation of superphosphates in the
ordinary manner. He maintains that they can all he
decomposed by sulphuric acid with more or less facility,
according to the character of the phosphate and the
Strength of the acid, the iron passing into solution partly
as acid phosphate and partly as sulphate, inasmuch as
much as 2 per cent, of the latter can remain in solution
with the acid calcium phosphate ; hut then the iron sulphate,
as far as the excess of acid permits, hy reacting with this
calcium salt gives rise to calcium sulphate, which in its
turn draws water from the phosphoric acid holding the
iron phosphate ill solution, and consequently the latter is
rendered insoluble.- A similar effect is produced when the
natural phosphate is imperfectly decomposed, as the un-
dceomposed calcium salts attack the phosphoric acid
required by the iron to hold it in solution, and so " revert "
it. The author is, therefore, of opinion that if sufficient
sulphuric acid is used to ensure the complete decomposition
of the phosphate, and that sufficient excess of phosphoric
acid to keep the iron in solution is maintained, there need
then he no fear of reversion. Alumina is not regarded as
exerting any direct influence on the reversion, and ferrous
salts are stated not to act on acid calcium phosphate, so
that when a solution of the latter salt is mixed with a
ferrous salt no precipitation takes place until oxidation from
contact with the air or otherwise has ensued. In order to
make use of this reaction for preventing reversion the
author suggests the following method for the preparation
of superphosphates from ferruginous natural phosphates.
Decompose portions of the phosphate in the presence of
ammonium sulphate with the total quantity of sulphuric
acid, then reduce with sulphurous acid, and as this pro-
duces a large quantity of sulphuric acid, mix the remainder
of the phosphate with the reduced mass. Experimentally
a phosphate containing per cent., P.,<>,, 30 '7 ; CaO, 39'2j
!•>,< ),, I ■ 2 ; ALU,, 1-9 s MgO, 06j COs, 5 0; Fe, 1-1;
and Si(X„ r 8, was employed, and 750 grins, finely pul-
verised was warmed with 880 grms. of sulphuric acid
60° B., until decomposition was complete, then 100 grms.
of powdered ammonium sulphate were put in, and 220 grms.
of water saturated in the cold with sulphurous acid, added,
= about 10 litres of this gas, really an excessive amount
of it. The mass, a thin magma, w.\s reduced by heating in
Hat closed iron vessels fitted with a safety-valve. Sub-
sequently the excess of sulphurous acid was got rid of and
the remainding 250 grms. of phosphate mixed in. After
two weeks the superphosphate contained 11 '2 per cent, of
phosphoric acid with 13 -8 per cent, soluble in water ; after
four and six weeks the total phosphoric acid was 14 3,
the soluble 13-8 per cent. It is advantageous to use the
more readily decomposable phosphates for the subsequent
decomposition. The author gives figures for the manu-
facture on a large scale and for the production of the
sulphuric acid required; also suggestions for the storage
anil economy of the sulphurous acid. The author does not
consider that this ferrous superphosphate will oxidise
readily, firstly, because it is dry, anil secondly, because
the ferrous particles would be protected by the gypsum ;
the admixture of bone-meal would still further lessen
chances of oxidation. As regards its behaviour towards
plants the author considers that in the quantities sufficient
to supply the phosphoric acid to a crop, there would not
be enough ferrous iron present to exert an injurious action.
' —1). A. L.
The Baltimore Meeting of the American Institute of
Miniin/ Engineers. Kng. anil Mining .1. 18U2, 2_'s.
Tiik Phosphate Deposits of Fxobida :
(J. II. Eldkidoe.
After a topographical and geological description of Florida
in which he said that the formation was of the Tertiary age,
divided into Kocene, .Miocene, Pleiocene, Tost Pleioceue,
ami Recent, Mr. Eldridge said that the principal portion, as
far as the phosphate deposits were concerned, was Kocene,
the age of the friable white limestone underlaying the surface
being determined, without, question, by its fossils. A portion
of the Median portion had been metamorphosed principally
by alteration into phosphate of lime. The Miocene lime-
stones were confined to a small territory in the vicinity of
Tampa Bay and the upper western portion of the State.
These limestones were always bedded, whereas the Eocene
was never bedded. But the Miocene limestone itself bad
suffered alteration to phosphate of lime, differing but little
from that of the Kocene. The Pleiocene covers a large
section of the State, the constituents being clay, marls, and
limestones.
Phosphate deposits in the Recent arc in the course of a
number of rivers, where it occurs as pebble phosphate.
The Lafayette occurring it the northern border of the State
was a formation very interesting, since it was the southern
continuation of the red clays and marls which extend from
the Potomac.
Ther.3 are four classes of phosphates, he said— the hard
rock, the soft rock, the land pebble and the river pebble.
The gradations from the laminated variety strengthen the
theory of deposition, especially as specimens of rock entirely
similar in appearance were found at the Mammoth Spring
in the Yellowstone, where they were deposited by the geyser
mineral waters. The origin 'of the phosphates is in doubt,
but phosphate of lime is found iu many sea plants and
animals. To account for these deposits through deposition
and substitution there are four requirements — phosphate of
lime, carbonate of lime, water, and a reagent to dissolve
those minerals. Evidence goes to show that the surface
waters in Florida carry to-day large quantities of carbonate
of lime, carbonic acid, the real solvent, and humic acid,
derived from the soils. These waters may have passed
through fissures, and the phosphate of lime deposited as the
carbonic acid was neutralised by the limestone. The a<re,
however, was the Kocene. The boulders were formed by
cavities in the limestone, being filled with phosphate of lime
and the exterior casing being washed away,
XVII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
The " Ginger-Beer Plant " and the Organisms Composing
it: A Contribution to the Study of Fermentation-Yeasts
and Bacteria. F. Marshall Ward. Proc. Roy. Soc
1*92, 50, 261— 265.
This organism occurs in semi-transparent yellowish accre-
gations or as a deposit at the bottom of the fermentations.
It consists essentially of a symbiotic association of a yeast
and bacterium and as met with naturally is invariably
associated with other yeasts, hacteria, and moulds.
The two essential organisms are both new species.
The yeast (Saccharomyces piriformis) is an anaerobian
bottom yeast forming spores and developing large quan-
tities of carbon dioxide, but very little alcohol ; it has also
an aerobian form of pyriform cells, whence the proposed
name. It inverts cane-sugar and ferments the products,
but does not ferment milk-sugar. At suitable temperatures
it forms spores in 24 — 48 hours.
The bacterium (Bacterium vermiforme) occurs in the
fermentation as rodlets or filaments, curved or straight, and
encased in a thick firm gelatinous sheath, and is markedly
anaerobic, the best results being obtained by cultivating iii
carbon dioxide under pressure. The filaments or rods
256
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1882.
eventually break up into cocci, which escape from the sheath,
become free, and divide rapidly like ordinary bacteria.
The "ginger-beer plant " has been synthesised by mixing
pure cultivations of the yeasl and bacterium ; the association
of these two acts much more vigorously than each one
separately.
Of the other organisms found in the fermenting liquid,
two {Mycodermn cerevisin and Bacterium aceti) were
always present, and the following very frequently : a pink
yeast, a small aerobian top yeast, Saccharomyces ceri visix,
three or four rare v» asts ; Oidium lactis, VeniciUiumglaucum,
Pematium pvllvlans, other torula; and bacteria.
A full account of this research will shortly be laid before
the Royal Society. -A. L. S.
On the Presence of an Aldehyde containing Finn- Aloms
of Carbon in " Kau-de-Vie de Piquette." .1. A. Muller.
Bull. Soe. Chim. 1891, 6, 796- 800.
In an "eau-de-vie de piquette," distilled from an inferior
wine obtained by washing pressed grapes with water, the
author has detected a substance resembling iu odour
a-croton-aldehyde. The piquette in question had been
accidentally rather excessively exposed to air and possessed
a very disagreeable flavour, whilst the spirit itself was
ilndrinkahle. The aldehyde supposed to be present was
converted into the corresponding acid by digesting the
spirit on the water-bath with moist silver oxide. The
liquid after concentration yielded on treatment with strong
alcohol, a caseous white precipitate, possessing the formula
( ,1U >;,Ag. The acid itself formed a syrupy, strongly
acid liquid, consisting, so far as could be determined from
the small amount of material at the author's disposal, of
7-hydroxybutyric acid, I'll ,< 111 .( TI...( II ,.('<>< HI. All
attempts to prepare the silver salt "f this acid from
a-croton-aldehyde by treatment with silver oxide failed,
either silver crotonate or some compound containing a
smaller percentage of carbon being obtained. Theoretically,
by the simultaneous oxidation and hydration of a-croton-
aldehyde, only a- or /3 hydroxybutyric acid, or a mixture of
the two, is obtainable. On the other hand, iso-croton-
aldehyde, if it exist, might yield 7- or /3-hydroxybutyric
acid.— H, T. P.
Specific grai i i v . .
Mcobol
Acid
1-023
1 "ii."! per cent . by weight.
0-S2 .. (asHsS04)
The Manufacture and Properties of Fig Wine. .1. H.
Vogel. Zeits, f. angew. Chem. 1891, 641- 643
In a recent communication (this .loaned, 1891, 718) furies
describes a method for the detection of fig-wine in admix-
ture with grape-wine, based on the fact that the former
contains mannitol. In recent years, figs have been largely
employed in Portugal for the manufacture, not so much of
wine as of a species of brandy, and this fact has induced
the author to repeat Carles' experiments in order to test
tin 1 rrectness. Fig-wine was prepared from ripe second-
year fruit, according to the process indicated by Carles.
The wine obtained possessed a most agreeable, refreshing,
acid flavour, and differed in no way from the local red
grape-wine, except that its colour was less intense. The
disagreeable smell peculiar to fresh tigs had entirely dis-
appeared. The wine (rather more than one month old)
gave the following results on analysis : —
The brandy distilled from the wine possessed a most
agreeable flavour and smell. The author was unable to
confirm Carles' statemenl that the syrup obtained by
evaporation of the wine s,,ii,|iii,.s to a crystalline muss on
standing in a cool place for some time. No crystallisation
whatever was observed, and it was only after extraction of
the syrup with alcohol, decolonisation with charcoal, and
evaporation of the alcoholic solution, that ;i quantity of
crystals were obtained. The crystals were by no means
pure, but were contaminated with a brown syrup which
rendered their quantitative estimation impossible. Some of
the wine which had been kept for three weeks longer it
corked bottles had the following composition: —
Specific r*rovity 1*020
\ 1c ihol 4*20 per cent, by weight.
A< i.l 0*60 (asHsSO,)
\ 1 0*69
Extract 6*98
Phospln in' acid (contained in
the nsh I 0*03
The ash contained much COs. On testing for mannitol
practically the same result was obtained as before.
Another portion of wine which lead been exposed to the air
from the beginning became covered with a white film and
deposited a voluminous light precipitate, whilst at the edges
of the vessel numerous worms, 4 — -8 mm. in length and
strongly resembling " cheese-mites," were observed. At
the same time a strong cheesey odour was developed,
resulting, no doubt, from the decomposition of the
mannitol.
In view of these results, the author is of opinion that
the mannitol test for the identification of fig-wine is un-
satisfactory. ' >n the other band, the determination of
extract might be of value, for only a sweet grape-wine (of
equal specific gravity) could contain so high an extract.
I'll,- ash of tig-wine also considerably exceeds that of any
grape-wine. — H. T. P.
.V™- Experiments mi flu Effect which n Treatment with
Tartaric Acid has on Brewery Yeasl. E. C. Hansen.
Zeits. f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1892, 2 — 6.
In a previous communication (Carlsberg Mitteilungen, 3,
Heft. 1), the author has described experiments made to test
Pasteur's method for purifying brewery yeast by growing it
in a solution of cane-sugar slightly acidified with tartaric acid.
Duclaux, Velten, and others have of late drawn attention to
this method and assert that it is as efficacious as that of
Hansen (cultivation from a single cell).
In the communication above referred to the author
described experiments with a view to testing the value of
this method, and found that not only was it quite useless, hut
even harmful, as it led to a considerable increase in the
proportion of wild yeasts.
Velten has criticised these experiments, objecting that the
mixture of yeasts used by Hansen contained considerably
larger amounts of wild veasls than would lie present in
a brewery product, and that the temperature at which the
cultivations wen- made (25 < '. > was too high.
hi order to leave no shadow of doubt on these points,
the author has made further experiments.
A veast was obtained from a beer which had been brewed
with pure yeast, the beer being perfectly satisfactory in
everyway. The yeast on being grown on gypsum blocks
at 25 ( '.. produced few. if any, spores during six or seven
days, thus showing that either very few or no wild yeasts
were present,
Two series of cultivations of the yeast in the slightly
acidified cane-sugar solution were made ; one at the
ordinary room temperature (about ]"(.'.) and the other
al :i C'.
In the experiments carried on at the room temperature
tin yeast was SO altered not only after 4 or 5 cultivations
hut even after 3 cultivations, ami that after a final cultivation
in wort a yeast was obtained which on a gypsum block at
25 C. showed a plentiful spore formation after 3 — 1 days,
thus proving that a considerable quantity of wild yeasts
were present. From a microscopic examination these
yeasts appeared to he chieflj Paslorianus and Ellipsoideus.
Alleronlv two cultivations iu the acidified sugar solution
and a final cultivation in wort the pure yeasts -till remained
III excess.
The second series of experiments at 9° C. gave similar
results, except that, of course, owing to the low temperature,
t!ie time required for the successive cultivations was
longer.
I hese experiments leave no doubt as to the accuracy of
the statement previously made, that this method of purifying
March si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHKMIOAL INDUSTRY.
2.77
yeast is nol only useless but absolutely noxious ; in fact
there is no antiseptic known which when added to fermenting
liquids will kill :ill the wild yeasts and leave only those
suitable for the manufacture of beer ; yet there is no doubt
that if yeasts contaminated with bacteria he cultivated in
a slightly acidified solution of cane-sugar, most of the
bacteria will (lie and onjy yeasts remain.
These experiments, besides a tmplishing their primary
object, have given us a method for easily analysing brewery
yeasts, it successive cultivations of the yeast be made in
acidified cane - sugar solutions, as employed in these
experiments, any wild yeasts present will, in the final
cultivation, bear a much greater proportion to the brewery
yeasts than in the original, and will be easily detected under
the microscope. — A. I.. S.
On /In' In/htcHct of Oxygen and Concentration on
Fermentation. A. J. Brown, l'roc. Chem, Soc. 1892,
107, 33.
The au t hoi- describes ox p.-i iments on the reproductive power
of yeast, from which it appears that all fermentable nutritive
solutions encourage the increase in number of yeast nils to
some fixed point beyond which they will not reproduce
themselves; and he shows that if a greater number of cells
be introduced into a fermentable liquid than the liquid
could originally develop, no increase in number of cells
takes place. As under conditions like these fermentation
still proceeds vigorously, a number of disturbing factors
which complicate the results obtained under ordinary con-
ditions may he eliminated by using non-multiplying yeast
cells.
A series of experiments are described in which fermen-
tations were conducted in presence of large amounts of
oxygen, whilst at the same time duplicate experiments were
made in which oxygen was excluded: the same number of
non-multiplying yeast cells being used in both cases, and all
the other conditions, such as temperature and agitation, &c,
being kept constant. Under these circumstances it was
found that both equal numbers of yeast cells and equal
weights in presence of oxygen exercised more fermentative
power than when unexposed to its influence. The author is
unable to reconcile these results with M. Pasteur's theory
of fermentation.
Experiments carried out with a fixed number of non-
increasing yeast cells also showed that the amount of sugar
fermented in a given lime by them did not depend on the
concentration of the solution, but that within the limits of
'JO ami 5 per cent, solutions of dextrose, approximately the
same weight of sugar was fermented. When the strength
of a solution reaches 30 per cent, of dextrose fermentation
proeeeds much more slowly.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method of Increasing the Formation of Cells
during the Process of Fermentation, ti. F. Redfern,
London, From .1 . llradil, Alt-1 lobelli. < icimany. Kliur.
Pat. 3207, February 21, 1891.
The above object is said to be attained by the addition of
'• vegetable mucilage " to fermenting liquids, the incomplete
fermentation of which is ascribed to a deficiency of
" mucilage." The mucilage in question is prepared by
boiling certain parts of plants, such as quince and flax
seeds, plantago pysllium, fugacex, unicellular algse, and
other plants, the tubers of orchids, the roots of althea, &c,
with water for a long tiine. The extract thus obtained is
strained and concentrated, or reduced to complete dryness
by evaporation. Vegetable mucilage when dry forms a
horny mass, which swells up in water to a transparent, non-
adhesive jelly, but does not dissolve. This jelly may be
added either to the liquid to be fermented or to the
fermenting agent itself, some indifferent substance likewise
being added, if necessary, to effect the more complete sub-
division of the jelly. The amount of mucilage to be
employed varies greatly according to circumstances. In
the ease of a potato mash 25 — oil grins, may be used per
1,000 litres of wort.— H. T. P.
The Manufacture of Charcoal from Sawdust, Wood
Shavings, ami the like, and the Treatment of Wine,
Alcohol, Brandy, Cider, Beer, and other Mailers
therewith. V. I.. Calmant, Paris, France. Fug. Pat.
:197S, March 5, 1891.
The charcoal is made by carbonising sawdust or compressed
shavings in crucibles. When completely carbonised the
charcoal is quickly crushed and sieved and preserved in an
air-tight vessel. The temperature of carbonisation varies
from 000° — 1,000° C. according to the use for which the
charcoal is intended. Different kinds of wood are to be
carbonised separately as they are suitable for different
purposes.— A. L. S.
Improvements in Apparatus for Distilling ami Rectifying.
S. Pitt, Sutton. From *' A. Savalle, Sons, and < lo.," Palis,
France. Fng. Pat. 21,708, December 11, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a horizontal cylinder, divided
into communicating compartments by discs ; a shaft passes
through the cylinder to which is attached in each compart-
ment a disc with a paddle and scraper.
The liquid to be rectified is introduced at one end and
steam at the other, and the rectified vapours and the waste
escape at other openings. — A. I.. S.
Improred Means and Apparatus for Rousing, ASrating,
and Attemperating Brewers1 Wort during the Process
of Fermentation. C. F. Jolliffe, St. Helens. Fug. Pat.
22,124, December 17, 1891.
At intervals the wort is pumped from the bottom of the
fermenting vessels into trays with perforated bottoms
placed over the fermenting vessels ; by this means the wort
is well roused. — A. L. S.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY. AND DISINFECTANTS.
(A.)— CHEMISTRY up FOODS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Seltzer
Water; Arrangement of the Syphon. M. de Pietra
Santa. Compt. Kend. 1891,113,253.
Tiif, Pans works employ the waters of the Dhuis and of the
Valines, which are first subjected to repeated filtrations. The
water is aerated by liquid carbonic acid by decreasing the
pressure on the liquefied gas contained in cylinders from
12 or 14 to 8 or 9 atmospheres." The head of the syphon is
composed of an alloy of pure tin, the use of lead being
strictly prohibited. The central tube of the syphon is made
of glass, and is held by means of copper in a cylindrical
piston made of ebonite. The inside of the head of the
syphon, as well as the supply pipe, are coated with a glaze
of tine porcelain, so that the water has no contact with
metal in any part of the syphon bottle. — C. A. K.
PATENTS.
Improvements In and relating lo Sterilising Apparatus
K. Cohn, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,348, Decem-
ber 13, 1890. (Reprint.)
The patent refers to various forms of apparatus for auto-
matically closing bottles of which the contents have been
sterilised. In its simplest form the device consists of a
vertical bar passing through and connected with the lid of
the sterilising box, ami having at its lower end a V-shaped
trough-piece by which the closing-pieces of the bottles can
258
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 189S.
be actuated. By regulating the position of the vertical bar
relative to the lid, the closing of the bottles can be effected
earlier or later than that of the sterilising vessel. A more
complex form consists of a sterilising chamber containing a
waggon running on rails within it, and provided with spaces
for as many bottles as may be necessary. The closing-
pieces of the bottles are actuated by closing-bars, motion to
which is communicated by a vertical rack turned by toothed
segments working on a shaft running from end to end of the
apparatus, the outer end of which passes through the door
of the sterilising chamber, and is there connected with a
lever, by means of which both it and the bolts closing the
door of the chamber are controlled. The position of this
lever relative to the spindle and the.loekingbars of the door
can be regulated so as to vary the relation of the time of
opening tbe door to that of closing the vessels. In another
arrangement which is figured and described, the closing of
the bottles is effected by drawing the waggon containing
them along the rails on which it runs by means of a
horizontal spindle working in a nut, so that rollers carried
on the closing-bars pass under cams depending from the
roof of the sterilising chamber, whereby the closing-bars are
forced down, and the closing-pieces thus given the requisite
vertical motion. In this form of apparatus an automatic
safety-valve, which by opening permits of the final rush of
steam being greater than it otherwise would be, is provided.
The invention described in Gronwald and Oehlinan's patent
No. 206 of 1890 is expressly disclaimed. — li. 1!.
Improvements in Milking an Extract of Coffee, and a
Confection of the same, and in Preserving Liquid Coffee
Extracts. E. Sonstadt, Cheshuut. Eng. Pat. 21,019,
December 24, 1890.
Certain improvements are described relating to an apparatus
and method for the manufacture of coffee extract previously
patented by the inventor (Eng. l'at. 3172 of 1S89; this
Journal, 1890, 539). The improvements are as follows : —
1. The exclusion of air from the digester and evaporator
by means of a current of carbonic acid gas or nitrogen, tbe
former being preferable,
2. The use of butter, &e. as an " aroma-absorbing agent,"
and the subsequent employment of the product thus
obtained in the manufacture of a coffee -confection by
admixture with sugar and concentrated coffee extract.
:s. The substitution of asbestos, glass-wool, &c. for animal
or vegetable wool as an aroma absorbent.
I. The use of a long, shallow digester (admitting of a
more rapid and complete extraction of the coffee) in con-
junction with a comparatively small boiler, from which the
extract is drawn off from time to time (preferably).
5. The preseivationof liquid eoffee extract by sterilisation
at 100= C.
Full details of the method of producing liquid and solid
coffee extracts and confection, as well as drawings of the
necessary apparatus, are given. — H. T. P.
Improvements in Making an Extract of Tea, and a
Confection of the same, and in Preserving Liipiid Tea
Extract. E. Sonstadt, Cheshuut. Eng.' Pat. 21, 10C,
December 27, 1890.
Tuts invention is an addition to a previous patent (Eng.
Pat. 20,182 of 1889; this Journal, 1891, 65—66). The
modified process and apparatus here detailed are precisely
tin- -am. a> those given tor the preparation of coffee extract
(Eng. Pat. 21,(119 of 1890 : Bee preceding abstract).
— II. T. P.
Improvements in the Preparation of Peptone Extracts,
and in the Application of the same to various Useful
Purposes. M. P. Hatschek, London, (1. A. Clowes,
Needham, and L. Briant, London. Eng. Pat. 2207,
February 6, 1891.
This invention forms an extension of two preceding patents
(Eng. Pats. 3363 and 18,399 of 1888; this Journal, 1888,
859 and 1890, 8-1). The method, formerly described, of
preparing malto-peptone extract, although preferably em-
ployed, may be varied, more or less water, or simply hot
or cold water alone being used, with or without the addition
of antiseptics, for extracting the malt-culms.
" llalto-peptone extract is used for the following pur-
poses : — 1. As a yeast food and stimulant. 2. A* an
addition to bakers' ferment and sponges, and for producing
buns, rolls, &c. 3. As a direct addition to bread, cakes,
biscuits, chocolate, &c, and other liquid and solid foods in
order to raise their nutritive values." "The extract may
also advantageously be used, either alone or mixed with oil,
glycerin, &c. as a substitute for yolks of eggs in tanning
and dressing leather. Further, it may be employed as a
nutrient in pharmaceutical preparations, either alone or in
admixture with malt extract, cod-liver oil, &c." Meat-
peptone may also be used for any of the above purposes,
although it is not so suitable as malto-peptone. — II. T. P.
An Improved Process for the Manufacture of Artificial
Mineral Waters. H- Hiibener, Berlin, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 2245, February 7, 1891.
This invention has for its object the manufacture of
artificial mineral waters free from atmospheric air, and
containing mineral matters of a nature more beneficial than
those usually found in waters of this class. For this
purpose the following ingredients are dissolved in every
1,000 gnus, of air-free distilled water: —
Onus.
Phosphate ofsdda "free from air"... 0'73
Sulphate of soda free from air V3S
Carbonate of lime 0 tfi
and a small quantity of citrate of soda according to taste.
Preferably the solution is sterilised and rendered perfectly
free from air by boiling ; or the air may be removed by
suction. The air-free water is finally led into a closi d
vessel containing carbonic acid, and from thence to a
machine in which it is eh irged with carbonic acid at 2'
atmospheres pressure, and bottled in tbe usual way.
—II. T. P.
Processand Apparatus for Sterilising Liquids. O. Imray.
prom " Calberla, Pit/ end Consorten," Berlin, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 2816, February 16, 1891.
The patented process is designed to sterilise milk and
similar liquids continuously ami in large quantity.by means
of an apparatus of which all the parts are permanently
connected during the operation. A device is also patented
for removing the objectionable flavour of milk that ha-
been heated in order to sterilise it. The apparatus consists
essentially of a pasteurising vessel of cylindrical form, and
having the whole of the steam, water, and air pipes, a- well
as the agitator, suspended from the lid, so that they can be
removed at one operation for cleaning. The vessel is
connected with a set of four vessels provided similarly
with a supply of water, air, and steam, which act as
germinators, the object being to develop those spores that
have resisted the action of the first pasteurising apparatus,
which suffices to destroy fully-developed bacteria. The
milk having passed through these vessels i>- again pasteurised
in an apparatus similar to that already described, and then
flows into the final germinators of form similar to the first
set. Thus there are two sets of both pasteurising and
germinating vessels, and in consequence the milk undergoes
two distinct treatments of each kind. In the case of the
condensation of the milk being required for foreign transport,
an ordinary vacuum apparatus in provided immediately
after the final germinators. The last portion of the plant
is a sterilising apparatus similar to the pasteurising apparatus,
but fitted in addition with a rose-like device by means of
which cool sterilised air is forced through the milk with the
view of improving its flavour. The air is sterilised in a
separate vessel into which an antiseptic fluid, such as
essential or volatile oil, is sprayed in a contrary direction
to the flow of the in-coming air. The bottom of the vessel
is provided with a liquid seal for drawing off the antiseptic
liquid without opening the vessel. The cocks and joints of
the apparatus are fitted with casings filled with antiseptic
material-. — B. B.
Mm I, -1,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
259
An Improved Process for Preserving Milk. J. Oakhill
and K. 11. Leaker, Bristol. Fng. Pat. 2914, February
18, 1891.
Fresh milk, contained in hermetically-sealed vessels, is
gradually heated in a water-bath up to a temperature
(about 300° F.) sufficiently high to destroy or render inert
the micro-organisms present in the milk. The bath is then
allowed to cool down, and the milk is finally cooled to 32'"' F.
by placing the containing vessel in oold water or ut a
refrigerator.
"Milk thus treated remains iu a sound and unimpaired
state while the vessel remains unopened."
Drawings of apparatus accompany the specification.
— H. T. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Jurying and Disinfecting
( 'weals and other Granular or Sub-divided materials.
P. Hovgarelli, Turin, Italy. Eng. Pat. 5486, March 28,
18111.
See under I., page 2no.
Improvements Relating to the Making-up or Paching of
Baking Powders. W. P. Clotworthy, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 18,491, October 27, 1891.
Bl this invention it is intended to avoid the rapid deteriora-
tion of baking powder, due to the gradual interaction of its
acid and alkaline constituents during storage. For this
purpose the acid and the alkaline carbonate or bicarbonate
are packed in layers, a layer of starch or flour being placed
between the two. Baking powders thus prepared will retain
their aerating power for any length of time. It is con-
venient to make them up in packets containing sufficient for
one pound of flour (see following abstract). — II. T. P.
Improvements Relating to the Making-up or Packing of
Baking Powders. W. P. Clotworthy, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 18,499, October 27, 1891. (..See preceding
abstract, Eng. Pat. 18,491, 1891).
Tm-: layer of starch separating the acid from the alkaline
carbonate may be dispensed with, the two constituents of
the baking powder being simply packed consecutively in a
suitable receptacle. The portions of acid anil carbonate in
immediate contact form a layer of neutral salt which
effectually prevents further action. — II. T. 1'.
Improvements in Means for Preserving Meat, Fruits, ami
such like Perishable Articles in Store or in Transit.
II. S. Klworthy, Sujaupur, India. Eng. Pat. 19,817,
November 16, 1891.
The process consists in storing the meat, &c. to be preserved
in a closed chamber charged with moist carbon dioxide or
sulphur dioxide under pressure. The preservative influence
of the gas employed may be increased by saturating it with
some volatile antiseptic, such as creosote, which for this
purpose is placed in the chamber in a dish, or sprinkled on
a cloth, &c., or cotton wool, &c„ soaked in the antiseptic
may be placed in the gas inlet pipe. The carbon or sulphur
dioxide is preferably employed in the compressed or liquefied
slate, a reducing valve being used to lower the pressure to
the desired extent. Details of the necessary apparatus are
given.— H. T. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Carbonated Waters.
M. L. Orr, Blackro'ek, P. G. Hovenden, and .1. Vass,
Dublin. Eng. Pat. 19,927, November 17, 1891.
llv means of this invention it is intended to more highly
charge carbonated waters with carbonic acid. To this end
the excess of carbonic acid, escaping through the automatic
valve of the carbonating cylinder is passed into a strong
closed subsidiary tank containing the liquid to be carbonated.
This tank is fitted with a valve made to open at a lower
pressure than the valve on the carbonating cylinder, so that
the air expelled from the water by the carbonic acid may
readily escape. The liquid in the tank is maintained at a
constaut level by means of a floating ball which actuates
either the inlet-tap or a water pump, which it throws in and
out of gear. Any salts which it may be desired to add to
the water are forced (in solution) into the tank by a second
pump of suitable diameter. In operation, the water in the
subsidiary tank becomes gradually charged with carbonic
acid. It is then pumped into the carbonating cylinder and
impregnated with a further quantity of gas in the usual
way ; and it is claimed that in this manner highly charged
waters may be obtained at a comparatively low pressure.
— H. T. P.
Improved Method of and Appliances for Filling Sterilised
Liquids into Vessels, and in Closing said Vessels
Air-tight. H. D. Fit/patrick. From G. H. Neuhass,
J. F. H. Gronwald, and E. H. C. Oehlmann, Berlin,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,086, November 19, 1891.
The method patented consists in the use. of an elastic
rubber tube for filling the vessel intended to contain the
sterilised liquid, which, after the vessel has been filled, can
he drawu flat across the mouth, the stopper forced in, and
the tube afterwards cut off. A separate elastic cover can
be used instead of the end of the delivery tube, to avoid
the gradual shortening of the latter which otherwise occurs.
In order to prevent air leaking into the bottle after closure
has been effected, the elastic tube may be tied up and cut
off so as to form an elastic bag, which may be everted into
the bottle and thus prevent the passage of any air to the
liquid. Alterations in flu.' external pressure are provided
for by the expansion and contraction of the hag, and thus
the formation of a space between the liquid and the stopper
is avoided. The bag may be filled with a liquid not liable
to change in contact with the air, and the stopper may be
hollow to provide an additional reservoir of liquid. A hole
bored through the stopper allows the pressure of the
atmosphere to be transmitted to the bag and its contents.
Another form of the method described, consists in the
attachment to the neck of the vessel lo be filled, by
means of washers and clamps, of a cylindrical cover with
side tubulures for the introduction of the sterilised liquid, and
provided with vertical plungers passing through stuffing
boxes for inserting the stopper and wiring it down by any
ordinary form of bow-fastening.— B. Ii.
An Improved Method of Preventing the Curdling of
Albuminous Solutions. .1. E. Alen, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Eng. Pat. 20,419, November 24, 1891.
This invention relates to a method of preventing the
curdling of samples of milk intended for analysis, and
consists in adding to the milk a small quantity of a soluble
ehromate. 0'025 grm. of potassium bichromate per 100 cc.
of milk suffices to preserve it at the ordinary temperature
for 12 days, whilst 0' 01 grm. per 100 cc. would probably
prevent curdling for 24 hours. To preserve milk for 1 — 2
months, an addition of 0-1 to 0'2 grm. of the salt is
necessary. A soluble compound of mercury may be
employed instead of the ehromate, or may be used iu
conjunction with the latter to increase the preservative
action. Samples of milk collected during several days'
working may be preserved by this process and finally
united to form an average sample, thus avoiding the
necessity of having each day's sample separately analysed.
— H. T. P.
An Improved Process of Manufacturing Kumi/ss Com-
pounds or Kumi/ss Tablets. J. Carnrick, New York,
l.S.A. Eng. Pat. 21,372, December 7, 1891.
The object of this invention is to manufacture an artificial
dry kumyss compound from which, by solution in water, an
effervescent kumyss beverage may he readily prepared. To
200
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Match 31, 1892.
this end, fresh milk, deprived of most of its fat, is
subjected at 125 P. to the action. of a digestive ferment,
preferably pancreatine, for half an hour, or until 30 per
cent, of the caserne has been digested and rendered soluble.
The milk is then sterilised by heating to 190° K., and
subsequently evaporated to dryness in a vacuum pan.
Daring this operation sufficient cocoa-butter is added to
replace the natural fat originally removed, ami cane and
milk sugars are also added in such proportions that the dry
extract may contain In per rent, and 20 per cent, of them
respectively. The dry residue is ground to a fine powder
and mixed with sufficient bicarbonate of soda and citric
acid to render it effervescent, lactic acid or a small quantity
of a suitable ferment being also added to produce a further
fermentation if desired. Finally, the mixture is moulded
into tablets. These tablets when dissolved in water in a
tightly-stoppered bottle yield liquid kumyss a-- a white
opaque fluid " perfectly free from lumps or curds," and
which, when the bottle is opened, forms "an agreeable
effervescent, nutritious food-beverage adapted for the use
of invalids and convalescents." If the bottled kumyss he
kept l"i 2 - I days, fermentation sets in with the production
of lactic acid, alcohol, and carbonic acid, whilst the easeine
is rendered still more readily digestible. — H. T. P.
Improved Apparatus/or Cooling Liquids. II. S. Elworthy,
Sujanpur, Italia. Kng. Pat. 21,518, December 0, 1891.
Tin: apparatus for which the claim is made, and which is
also applicable to the aerated water machine described in
Kng. Pat. 19,815 of 1891, is illustrated by the accompanying
diagrams.
Fig. 1.
^
Appakatt/s fob Cooling Liquids.
tank B contaius the liquor which is to be cooled.
Within it i> placed the receptacle C containing brine, which
surrounds another vessel D, closed at the top and fitted
with a central tube finishing with a nozzle at the bottom.
The vessel 1) is further encircled by a small spiral tube e'
which enters the vessel at its lower end but i- free to the
atmosphere at the top. < )n a connexion being established
between the central tube erf ami the bottle A containing
compressed gas, and the valve O being opened, the gas
escapes through the nozzle into the vessel I), where it
expands and produces intense cold, the coiled pipe *'
allowing it to escape to the atmosphere, and, on its way, to
abstract heat from the brine. — li.
(7?.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
Behaviour of Tricalcium Phosphate towards Carbonic
Arid and Ferric Hydroxide. G. v. Georgievics.
Monatsh. 1891, 12, 5G6— 581.
See under XV., page 254.
Physiological Research on Carbon Monoxide. X. Grehant.
Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 289—290.
The author's experiments show that one part of carbon
monoxide in 10,000 parts of air may be detected by
aspirating the air through dog's blood and testing the
respiratory capacity of the blood before ami after the
experiment. By passing 200 litres of air containing 20 cc.
of carbon monoxide through 50 cc. of blood the respiratory
capacity was found to decrease from 2.1 • 7 cc. to 23'0 cc,
showing, according to the experiments of C. Bernard, that
0' 7 cc. of carbon monoxide had replaced an equal volume
nf oxygen in the blood. When the air was passed through
the blood under a pressure of 5 atmospheres, the respiratory
capacity was reduced much mon — from 2 5 - 7 cc. to 1 7 - _' ec,
corresponding to an absorption of (j-5 cc. of CO. By
passing the air under pressure in this maimer the delicacy
of the test becomes considerably increased, whilst it is also
shown that the absorption of the carbon monoxide by the
haemoglobin of the blood is dependent upon the pressure
and is proportional to the weight of carbon mom side con-
tained in a given volume of air. and not to the pen
of contained Lras. — C. A. K.
PATEXTS.
\n Improved Method of and Apparatus for tin Purifi-
cation of Smoke in Chimneys. V It. Salwey, Bristol.
Eng. Pat. 4565, .March 14, 1891.
A r.voK loosely tilled with asbestos wool or other suitable
non-inflammable material is placed in the upper part of the
chimney for the purpose of removing sooty particles, &c,
from the smoke, more particularly that arising from the
domestic hearth. When necessar] the cage i^ either
removed for cleaning or it is burnt clean in situ by means
of a gas jet. — I). A. ]..
Improvements in Mean* far Consuming Smoke. S. Hoyle
and A. Hasiam, Kadcliffc. Eng. Pat. 4912, March lit. 1891.
See under II., page 234.
(C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
fl-Naphthol Benzoate or " Benzonaphthol" a New Tn-
testinal Antiseptic. Voon and Berlioz. .1. l'liann. < him.
1891.24, 179.
See under XX , page 264.
March 31, 1883.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
261
XIX.-PAPER, PASTEBOAKD, Etc.
The Acid Action of Drawing Paper if Different Makes.
W. S. Hartley, F.tt.S. Proc. CUem. Soo. 1892, No. 100,
l'J — ^2.
The author bad experimented with varidus kinds of the
best paper in use, both of old and recent manufacture,
aud had come to tin- conclusion that such papers were
invariably acid, even those of the most excellent quality.
The fact was accounted for as follows : — The fibre of
which the paper is made is steeped in dilute sulphuric
acid, anil the subsequent washing with pure water <loes
nut entirely remove the acid from linen fibre, of which
the best papers are made. He actually found line linen
to retain traces of acid aftei it had been steeped in
frequently renewed pure distilled water for a period of
'lu'. weeks. The acid seems to combine with the fibre,
and the resulting compound is only slowly decomposed or
dissolved by the action of water. Such linen gives a blue
colour when an aqueous solution of iodine is dropped upon
it. There was uo intention to convey the idea that the
paper contained free acid in such quantity that it could
In- easily removed by washing, or that it would affect
litmus paper, which generally is not a sensitive agent.
The samples of paper exhibited at the meeting were care-
fully tested in the following manner: — A pure and neutral
solution of a/.olitiuin prepared from litmus was allowed to
drop upon the paper and soak into the fibres; the edges
of the drops wen- then examined, arid found to be red.
The bulk of the liquid was then removed by a piece of
the same |ia|er. with the result that in every ease a red
spol was seen, which dried red. Another mode of testing
was as follows: — A ileal' sable brush washed ill distilled
water was used for applying a wash of pure neutral
azolitniin solution, as if it were a pigment, such washes
turned red upon the paper.
Prof . Church, in his work on " The Chemistry of Paints
and Painting," 290, published in 1890, remarks that he is
unable to endorse author's statement that the best drawing
papers have an acid action. He finds, in fact, that sized
papers are gem-rally neutral to test-papers, aud that
inferior papers are more often slightly alkaline than acid.
The papers examined by the author were all of the best
quality, most of them being of Whatman's make. That no
question may arise on this point, he has tested the samples
named below in three ways : first, by dropping litmus
solution upon the paper; secondly, by washing with a
sable brush ; thirdly, by steeping strips of paper in pure
distilled warm water, and testing the water for acidity, and
also for sulphates. The acid action was recognised by a
pure litmus solution, by an ordinary laboratory preparation
and by a carefully prepared solution of helianthin, though
this last agent is not very sensitive.
The results are identical with those obtained on former
occasions. The description of the samples and their actions
is as follows : —
1. Whatman's hand-made paper, 96 lb., old make.
Washes, acid ; drops, acid; water, decidedly acid. Large
precipitate with barium sulphate insoluble in dilute chlor-
hydric acid.
2. Whatman's double thick Imperial, 14(1 lb. Washes,
acid ; drops, acid ; water, decidedly acid. Large pre-
cipitate of barium sulphate, as with Xo. 1.
:;. Whatman's double elephant, hand-made. Washes,
acid ; drops, acid ; water, strongly acid. Large precipitate
of barium sulphate, as with Xo. 1.
4. Whatman's band-made, 72 lb., 1-887. Washes, acid ;
drops, acid; water, decidedly acid. Large precipitate of
barium sulphate, as with No. 1.
0. Saunder's hand-made. Washes, acid ; drops, acid ;
water, decidedly acid.
<i. Hollingworth's machine-made paper. Washes, barely
acid ; drops of strong litmus neutral in colour; water, very
slightly arid, almost neutral.
7. Arnold's unbleached band-made paper. Washes,
acid.
No further tests for acidity were recorded.
It will he seen from these notes that there were good
grounds for attributing an acid action to even the best of
drawing papers. In other words, if a very sensitive
solution of [Hire litmus be applied to paper in the same
manner as a strong pigment, as for instance in delicate
washes, the action is, in almost every case, distinctly acid ;
but if a drop of a strong solution be allowed to sink into
the paper and dry up, its colour may be so slightly changed
as to appear violet, leading to the inference that the papei
is neutral. The strength of the solution of litmus, and tin;
manner in which it is applied, must therefore be taken
into account, because the quantity of the purple colouring
matter in contact with the paper may be more than sufficient
to overpower the red tint caused by the acid present in the
moistened material. It is therefore extremely probable
that there has been only an incomplete understanding as
to the degree of acidity of the paper. Solutions of helian-
thin painted on the various samples of paper gave at first
a pure yellow tint, which gradually changed to a colour
intermediate between rose-colour and yellow. Very dilute
solutions, washed on freely, showed after some minutes a
pale rose-colour, mixed with a yellowish tinge. A suffi-
ciency of acid yields a tiue rose tint with such a solution.
Hollingworth's paper did not show in any degree an acid
action with helianthin, although it gave a slight indication
with litmus.
The Acid Action if Drawing Papers. 0. Beadle, Proc.
Chem. Soc. 1892, No. 107, 34— 35.
Prop. W. N. Hartley recently communicated a note on
this subject (previous abstract) which raises questions of
considerable technical importance. The fact of the "acidity "
of papers need not lie discussed, and Prof. Hartley's con-
tention that an acid constituent in the paper has a serious
effect on " water colours " applied to the paper the author is
not in a position to criticise. He merely wishes to point out
that Hartley is probably in error as to the cause of the
acidity, which he takes to be a residue of sulphuric acid
left in the "fibre" (rags) after the process of "souring"
and washing.
The mill where the "Whatman" papers are made is
situated at Maidstone, and the water used in the manu-
facture is the characteristically hard water of that district.
The " souring " of the rags is followed by a long process of
continuous washing in the " engine," and after some \ ears'
experience of paper making in the Kentish district the author
is satisfied that no acid can survive this treatment.
On the other hand, the papers are sized with gelatin and
alum and it is to the presence of the latter constituent that
the " acidity " is, in his opinion, due. In a recent examina-
tion of one of these papers the author obtained, by treating
with distilled water, an exhaust which showed " acidity "
equal to 2-3 cc. normal ILSO., per 100 grrns. paper, using
litmus as indicator in the titration, aud yet this exhaust was
basic to methyl orange. Sulphate of alumina, Al2, 3 SO,,
being acid to methyl orange, the evidence is complete that
the apparent "acidity" of the aqueous exhaust is due to
the presence of a basic sulphate of alumina (this Journal,
1891, 202).
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Conversion of Gallic Acid and Tannic Acid into Benzoic
Acid. C. K. Guignet. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 200—
201.
A MIXTURE of ammonia and zinc dust is heated in a flask
fitted with cork and tube. So soon as the evolution of
hydrogen is sufficiently regular a warm solution of gallic
acid is added little by little. By keeping the temperature at
262
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Mud,
60 ('. the gallic acid is completely converted utter several
hours. To extract the acid the mixture is boiled with
potassium carbonate alter the zinc lias been precipitated as
carbonate and the ammonia transformed into carbonate,
evaporated to dryness, and taken up with alcohol, which
dissolves the potassium benzoatc. The same end may be
attained by heating gallic acid with zinc and dilute sulphuric
acid ; in this case the benzoic acid is obtained in the form of
yellowish insoluble particles. These are filtered off and
washed free of zinc sulphate; the residue, consisting of
benzoic acid and excess of zinc, may be treated with alcohol,
or distilled directly. The sulphate of zinc solution contains
also some benzoic acid, which may be separated as potas-
sium benzoate by adding excess of potassium carbonate,
evaporating to dryness, and extracting with alcohol. Tannic
acid may be converted into benzoic acid under exactly
similar conditions.
This reduction of gallic acid is in agreement with the
synthesis by treating di-iodosalicylic acid with potash.
Catechu-tannic acid is likewise closely allied to benzoic
acid. This tannin is intimately connected with eatechin,
which accompanies it, and gives the same derived products.
Catechin dissolved in potash gives protocatechuic acid,
which is one of the dioxybenzoi'c acids. The methods of
reduction may thus very considerably facilitate the study of
the tannins, such as the tannin of oak bark. — T. L. B.
A'ew Crystalline Oxychlorides of Iron. G. Eousseau.
Compt. Kend. 1891, 113,542— 544.
A concentrated solution of ferric chloride, containing
over 80 per cent, of Fe.,CI6, kept for some time at a
temperature between 160° and 220°, gives rise to a
crystallised oxychloride of iron, 2 Ke:0„ Fe:( 'I,,, ■'! ILO. This
compound in contact with boiling water is gradually
changed into a hydrate Fe..O;i, 3 H30, which is completely
isomorphous with the oxychloride. The author has carried
on the study of the decomposition of solutions of ferric
chloride at temperatures higher than 220°. The solutions
contained 85 to 90 per cent, of FejCl, , and were sealed in
glass tubes with a fragment of marble. In the interval
between 225 and 280° reddish-brown scales are deposited;
their composition corresponds to that of the anhydrous
oxychloride Fe«03, FeX'lr,. Between 300' and 340 \ brownish-
black scales of a new oxychloride 3 Fe.,0,, FeX'ls are pro-
duced. These oxychlorides are only slightly soluble in dilute
mineral acids. Heated in boiling water for 150 to 200
hours in presence of marble they lose all their chlorine, and
are converted into brownish-red sesquioxide. — D. E. J.
500 ec. of solution of common salt : this solution is filtered
and allowed to run iuto the first. The solution becomes
violet in colour anil a precipitate of salicylate of bismuth
is formed according to the equation —
BiCl3 + C;n u Xa + 2 NaOH
C';Hi(BiO)03, H20 + 3 NaCl
The mother-liquor is decanted off and the salt is washed
with water slightly acidulated with nitric acid until the
washings arc colourless. The salt thus obtained is in the
form of microscopic prisms. When heated it decomposes
with loss of salicylic acid. — I). E. J.
On the Solution of Bismuth Chloride in Saturated Solutions
of Common Salt and on Basic Salicylate of Bismuth.
H. Gansse. Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 547—549.
The author has previously shown that ammonium chloride
binders the dissociating action of water upon salts of
bismuth, and has now found that sodium chloride acts in
the same way. Thus if dilute hydrochloric acid (about
1 to 4) is allowed to act upon bismuth oxide until no
further solution takes place, it is always found that the
amount of oxide dissolved is much smaller than (about
one-half) that required to saturate the acid ; in other words,
a considerable portion of the acid is required to maintain
the solution in equilibrium. If the solution is now saturated
with common salt and again placed in contact with bismuth
oxide it will dissolve a further quantity. The author finds
that the total amount held in solution in the latter case is
almost exactly that required for complete neutralisation of
the acid present. He has applied this method to the pro-
duction of basic salicylate of bismuth, which is prepared as
follows : — 35 grms. of bismuth oxide are dissolved in 40 cc.
of concentrated hydrochloric acid ; this solution is mixed
with 500 cc. of a saturated solution of common salt ; the
free acid is then neutralised either by adding oxide or
carbonate of bismuth, or by pouring in a saturated solution
of sodium carbonate and chloride until the precipitate
produced refuses to dissolve. 'J grms. of caustic soda
and 22 grms. of salicylate of soda are introduced into another
The Action of Benzoic Acid on Turpentine. G. Bouchardat
and J. Lafont. Compt. Bend. 1891, 113, 551—553.
Benzoic acid appears to combine slowly in the cold witb
French turpentine; at 150 , taking equal weights of acid
and turpentine, the action is rapid ; after heating for
50 hours the change is complete. The treatment is lust
carried out in a copper vessel with a reversed condenser.
Several products are obtained. Before proceeding to isolate
them it is necessary to remove the uncombined acid by
means of an alkaline solution. The product is distilled up
to 200° — 220°, the thermometer dipping into the liquid.
The portions which volatilise above 200° consist of
eamphene, which is. solid, boiling at 157°, and terpilene
its liquid isomer, which boils at 175J — 180°. Both have
only a slight action on polarised light. About half the
product distils above 220°. It partially decoinpo-i - on
distillation, but if the pressure is reduced to 3 cm. it can
be distilled at 190° — 195°. The residue consists of poly-
terpilenes (principally coiophonium) volatilising at about
315°. This product, distilling iu vacuo at about 190°,
consists of an oily mixture of benzoic ethers of camphenol
and isocamphenol. These benzoates are scarcely attacked
by boiling aqueous solutions of the alkalis ; on the other
hand they can be saponified in the cold by an alcoholic
solution of potash. The product after saponification should
be washed and fractionated, the fractions being collected
for intervals of 2-5°. The fractions distilling above 205c
deposit, on standing at 15°, abundant crystals of laevo-
rotatory camphenol, mixed with a little dextro-rotatory
isocamphenol. The portions distilling between 185° aud 205J
are dextro-rotatory, those above aud below are la:vo-
rotatory. — D. E. J.
The Preparation of Crystallised Hydroxylamine.
L.Crismer. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 793—795.
Tw< i methods are given for the preparation of this substance
from zinc dihydroxvlaminc chloride ZnCl»(NH2.OH)2.
1. The dry zinc salt (10 grms.) is distilled in vacuo witb
some organic base, preferably aniline (20 cc. of pure,
recently distilled aniline), capable of displacing the
liydroxylamine from the double salt. A strongly refracting
liquid passes over at first ; but towards the end of the
distillation the drops crystallise as they enter the receiver,
and soon the whole of the distillate sets to a mass of large,
colourless plates. The solidification may be hastened by
placing the receiver in ice. Finally, the crystals arc
transferred to a filtering tube, plugged with glass-wool, and
washed free from adhering aniline with a small quantity of
absolute ether. Moisture must be carefully excluded
during the whole of the operation by means of calcium
chloride tubes, &c. The liydroxylamine thus obtained
possesses all the properties ascribed to that substance. It is
soluble in water in all proportions ; and the crystals on
exposure to air attract moisture so rapidly that they liquefy
and volatilise.
2. A current of dry ammonia gas (dried by KOH) is
passed into a mixture of a few grms. of the zinc salt with
100 cc. of anhydrous ether, contained in a flask, moist air
being carefully excluded. The zinc salt is decomposed,
aud swells up. The reaction being completed, the ether is
decanted and distilled in vacuo. The crystalline residue
lift in the retort consists of pure liydroxylamine. — H. T. P.
March si, 18S2.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
203
Action of Hydriodic Acid oh Vinchonine. (i. 1'umi
Monatsh, 1891, 12, 582—588, (Compare Skraup, this
Journal, 1891, '.U0, and Lippmann and Fleissner, ibid,
945).
Civ iiiimxk combines with 3 inols. of hydrogen iodide,
forming a com] id of the composition t *,.,! I ...,N A >(HI)3,
which begins to decompose at 223, and melts at 230°;
when this salt is carefully treated with alcoholic ammonia at
the ordinary temperature it is converted into an unstable
base of the composition CigH^NjOIg, which melts at
1ST — 1 90°, but begins to decompose at about 17.V. This
base, which is named dihydriodocinchonine, forms a
crystalline nitrate, ClgHMN3OI3l 1IXO,, and a crystalline
sulphate (t',,,11 24N3< >Ij)3, HjS04 ; when it is boiled with an
alcoholic solution of sodium ethoxide it yields cinchonine
and a smaller quantity of a substance, the composition of
which was not determined ; when warmed with silver
nitrate in dilute alcoholic solution, it is converted into
cinchonine. —F. S. K.
Action of Hydriodic Acid on Cinchonine. E. Lippmann
and F. Fleissner. Monatsh. 1891, 12, 661—066.
(Compare I'uni, preceding abstract).
'I'm; authors have repeated some of their experiments on
the formation of hydriodociuehonine, C^H^NoOI, and have
confirmed the results previously obtained. They have also
prepared the dihydriodocinchohine described by Pum
(/»c. c//.) by a method similar to that employed by the
latter; this compound is decomposed by ammonia in the
cold, yielding bydriodocinchonine. When a mixture of
molecular proportions of cinchonine trihydriodide (compare
Pum, loc. tit.) and bydriodocinchonine is dissolved in hot
alcohol, a substance, melting at 187° — 190°, which seems to
be identical with Pum's dihydriodocinchonine, is deposited on
cooling. — F. S. K.
Dissociation in Dilute Solutions of Tartrates.
S. Sonucnthal. Mouatsh. 1891,12, 003—619.
The author has examined very dilute solutions of various
acid and neutral salts of tartaric acid, in order to ascertain
the influence of concentration on the rotatory power ; the
results of his investigations may be summed np as
follows : —
( 1 .) Aqueous solutions of neutral, and of acid tartrates,
undergo a change of condition when a certain degree of
dilution is attained.
( 2.) This change begins to take place in the case of
solutions of the neutral tartrates at between 0'4 and 0'3
per cent., but in the case of solutions of the acid salts not
until between 0-3 and 0-2 per cent.
(3.) The commencement, and the amount, of this change
is dependent on the nature of the salt-forming metal or
radicle ; the greater the atomic weight of the metal, or the
molecular weight of the radicle, the greater the concentration
at which the change begins, and the greater also the
departure from the normal condition.
(1.) The rapidity with which the change in condition
takes place seems to be dependent solely upon the greater
or less solubility of the salt in question.
It would seem from these results that this change in
condition is a dissociation phenomenon, more especially
because relatively large masses of water must he present in
order to produce the change, and, further, because the
larger the atomic weight of the metal the sooner the change
commences. — F. S. K.
Behaviour of Quinidiue and of Quinine towards Hydriodic
Acid. -\". Schubert and Z. 11. Skraup. Monatsh. 1891,
12, 607 — 690. (Compare this Journal, 1891, 946.)
J)ilii/driodoquinidinehydriodide,C::lt\].Y^.1(>,\.,. If 1 is formed,
together with dihydriodo-apoquinidine hydriodide (see
below) when anhydrous quinine is warmed with hydriodic
acid of sp. gr. 1 • 7 ; if quinidiue is heated with concen-
trated hydriodic acid (sp. gr. 1-90) at 100' for three hours,
dihydriodo-apoquinidine hydriodide is the sole product,
whereas when the reaction is carried out at the ordinary
temperature and in the dark only dihydriodoquinidine
hydriodide is formed. The last-named salt crystallises in
large yellow plates, melts at 230', and is insoluble in potash ;
when treated with alcoholic ammonia at the ordinary
temperature it is converted into dihydriodoquinidine
Co0HMNaO3T?. This base melts at 218— 220 , decomposes
at about 228 ', and is only very sparingly soluble in alcohol,
and almost insoluble in water ; it forms a crystalline oxalate
(I '..„H.,„X..( ).,!.,).., C'.,li.,0„ and a crystalline hydrochloride
CjoHsoNjOjIj, HC1.
Dihydriodoapoquinidine hydriodide, CijHjjNjOoL, .III,
melts at about 252°, and is soluble in potash. Dihydriodo-
apoquinidine,Ci9HM'S203Xi, melts at about the same tempera-
ture as dihydriodoquinidine, and forms a crystalline
hydrochloride, C,9H.,4N,0.,I„, HO, and a crystalline nitrate,
C,s,HMNjOsIa. HN03.
A base of the composition C21)H24N2< )2, isomeric with
quinidiue, is obtained when dihydriodoquinidine hydriodide
is warmed with silver nitrate in dilute alcoholic .solution ; it
melts at 78° — 79°, and dissolves in acids yielding solutions
which show a blue fluorescence aud which give a green
colouration with chlorine and ammonia. When dihydriodo-
apoquinidine is treated in a similar manner, it yields a base
of the composition C|9H.:2N,.02. This substance melts at
157°, and its acid solutions, which show a very slight
greenish fluorescence, give with chloriue and ammonia a
green colouration ; this base seems also to be produced
when dihydriodo-apoquinidine hydriodide is heated with
aniline at 1003 for a long time.
By heating anhydrous quinine with hydriodic acid of
sp. gr. 1 ' 17 at 100°, the authors obtained a salt melting at
228° — 230° with decomposition, and identical with the
hydriodoquinine hydriodide, CjjH^NjOj, 3 Hi, described by
Lippmann and Fleissner (this Journal, 1891, 945). This
substance seems to be a mixture of two salts, because it is
decomposed by alcoholic ammonia at the ordinary
temperature, yielding a mixture of two bases having the
composition C20H25N2O2I and C20H2(;X2O;I2 respectively,
the former being present in the larger quantity.
The base of the composition C'20H25N2O2I {hydriodo-
quinine) is readily soluble in alcohol, but only sparingly in
ether, and melts at 155° — 160° with decomposition ; its
solution in dilute sulphuric acid shows a blue fluorescence,
and gives a brownish-yellow precipitate with chlorine and
ammonia.
When quinine is heated with hydriodic acid of sp. gr. 1 ■ 96
methyl iodide is evolved, and a salt of the composition
CigHojNoO^ 3 HI is produced ; this compound melts at
236° — 238°, is soluble in potash, and is decomposed by
alcoholic ammonia at the ordinary temperature, yielding a
mixture of two bases having the composition Ou,H,,.1N202I2
and C19H23N2()2I respectively, of which the former is
produced in by far the larger quantity. It would seem,
therefore, that the original salt is a mixture of the
hydriodides of these two bases. — F. S. K.
The Alkaloids of the Solanacese. W. Schiitle. Arch. Pharm.
1891,229,492.
The investigations have been undertaken in view of the
opinion expressed by Scheering that the root of Atropa
Belladonna does not contain any atropine but only
hyoscyamine (Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1891, 15( 117). The
author finds that the young aud wild belladonna roots
contain only hyoscyamine, whilst the older roots, both wild
aud cultivated, contain atropine in small quantity side by
side with the hyoscyamine. The ripe berries of cultivated
Atropa belladonna nigra contain both atropine and
hyoscyamine, whilst the fruit of the wild plant contains
atropine only. The ripe fruit of Atropa belladonna lutea
contains no hyoscyamine, the atropine being associated with
a base perhaps identical with atropamine (this Journal,
1891, 158). The unripe fruit of the wild deadly nightshade
contains essentially hyoscyamine, together with a little
264
THE JOUKNAE OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ March si.iws
atropine. The leaves of both deadly nightshades contain
both alkaloids, the atropine again being present in small
quantity onlv. Both fresh and old seeds of Datura
stramonium consist essentially of liyoseyamine, but also
contain a little atropine and scopolamine. Solarium
tuberosum contains betatn, together with an alkaloid
possessing a mydriatic action which has not been identified.
A similar alkaloid also occurs in ver\ small quantities in
Li/cium barbarum, Solatium nigrum, and in Nicotiand
tabacum. In the seeds, leaves, and root of Anisodus luridus
byoscyaminc alone occurs. — C. A. Iv.
$ Naphthol Benzoale, or " Benzonapthol" a New Intes-
tinal Antiseptic. Yvon and Berlioz. J. l'liann. Chini.
1891,24,479-
P-Naputhol salicylate or "betol" produces objectionable
secondary reactions in the system when the kidnej - are
disordered, owing to the separation of salicylic acid that
takes place. To remedy this defect in the drug the authors
have replaced the salicylic acid in betol by benzoic acid.
The resulting benzonaphthol is decomposed in the body into
ii -naphthol, which remains in the bowels, and benzoic acid,
which is eliminated in the urine either as such or as
hippuric acid. To prepare the benzoate, 0-naphthol ami
benzoyl chloride arc heated gently to 125 I'., and after-
wards to 170 C, the mixture being kept at the latter tem-
perature for half an hour. The product of the reaction
is purified by recrystallisation from 90 per cent, alcohol, or
any excess of 0-naphthol may be removed by washing with
m\ dilute caustic soda at 50°— 60 C. Benzonaphthol
1 1 .11 ,' t :llll7)< . >.:) is almost insoluble in water, fairly soluble
in alcohol, and readily so in chloroform; it melts at lit) C.
The pure product should not be coloured blue by the
addition of solid caustic potash to its solution in pure,
chloroform and then warming, nor should the alcoholic
solution be reddened on the addition of nitric acid, ami a
lew .Imps of acid mercuric nitrate.
Benzonaphthol can be taken inconsiderable doses without
producing any toxic effect. For adults the dose recom-
mended is 5 grins, per da}', for children '2 grms. — C. A. K.
Corydaline. .1. J. Dobbie and A. Lauder. Proc. Chem.
Soc. 1892, 105, 13—14.
A\uei- of the alkaloid, as well as of its salts and deriva-
tivi s, led llerm. Wicke (Annalcn, 1886, 137, *-" ' > to assign
to corydaline the formula C^II^X' >.,. The authors have
purified samples by recrystallisation from a mixture of
alcohol and ether, and have obtained the alkaloid in the
form of riat, prismatic, colourless crystals, melting at I34"5 .
In analysing it they obtained results irreconcilable with
Wiekc's formula, I , .. 1 1 , , N I > , , and propose instead the
formula (-11,., N't),.
( in oxidation with potassium permanganate, corydaline
yields a number of products which the authors are now
engaged in investigating.
Limettin. W. A. Tilden. Proc. Chem. Soc; 1892,107,
33—34.
I.iai iiin is the name given by the author to a crystalline
substance deposited from the essential oil of the lime,
originally described by him in conjunction with ('. It. Beck
t S. Trans., 1890, 323),
Further investigation of it- properties shows that, instead
of the formula (',,, 11,, I >,, first attributed to it, limettin has
the composition expressed bj the molecular formula CMIIiri< >,,
which requires nearly the same percentages of carbon and
hydrogen.
15y the action of nitric acid it is converted into a nitro-
derivative (. ',, II„( Xu.)i »,, and bj the action of bromine
into a dibromo-derivative ( ,,ll,i;i t i,. while chlorine converts
it into a trichloro-com] I CUH7C1304. The dibromo-
compound also exchanges the third atom of hydrogen for
chlorine, giving Cull-l!r,( '!(•,. Oxidising agent- convert
limettin into acetic or oxalic acid without definite inter-
mediate products. Potash fusion produces fioiu it phloro-
glucol and acetic, but no other acid. Treatment with
concentrated solution of hydrogen iodide causes the elimi-
nation of two methyl groups.
Sulphuric acid slightly diluted causes limettin to assimilate
a molecule of water forming a phenolic compound of which
the diacetate was prepared and analysed.
Limettin is not attacked by acetyl chloride, by phenyl-
hydrazine or by sodium amalgam, and it gives no colouration
with ferric chloride. It forms very pale 3 ellow, thin prisms,
which melt ai M7'"> ; it dissolves in alcohol, benzene,
toluene, and acetic acid pretty freely, but scarcely in water
or in light petroleum. Dilute solutions exhibit a beautiful
violet fluorescence. It seems to have the constitution
C6H3(OCH3)2.C3H02.
Synthetical Carbolic Acid. II. W. Jaync. American
J. of l'harm. December 1891.
1 1 has been known for some years that carbolic acid 1 phenol I
could be produced by numerous synthetical methods, but
interest in the subject has been especially manifest* d recently
on account of several firms, in response to the constant
demand for purer preparations, having undertaken its
manufacture on a commercial scale. ( If the many reactions
by which phenol can lie produced, only two arc, at present,
commercially practical, both usiuir pure benzene as the
starting point.
The first or sulphonate method is applicable to the
preparation of all phenols, and has been used for some
years, producing on an immense scale naphthol. In
this method pure benzene, free from thiophene, is
placed with about live times its weight of strongest
commercial sulphuric acid i 07 1!.) in closed cast-iron
pots provided with stirrers and lead coolers, and capable
of being heated by a steam jacket. While the mixture is
slowly stirred, the vessel is gently heated with steam in such
a manner that the vapours of benzene which pass into the
cooler are continually returned to the kettle. After a
number of hours the reaction is finished, and the benzene not
acted on is collected as it Hows from the cooler. The crude
hcnzeuesulphouic acid, mixed with the excess of sulphuric
aeid used, is allowed to cool, and then diluted with water in
a lead-lined tank. Slaked lime is added to the hot solution
in sufficient quantity until it is faintly alkaline. This
removes the excess of acid by forming calcium sulphate,
which is then filtered off by means of a filter-press. The
clear liquor containing calcium benzencsulphonate is treated
with sufficient sodium carbonate to precipitate all the
calcium as carbonate, which is removed by filtration, and
the liquor is now evaporated to dryness, leaving the sodium
benzencsulphonate a- a white powder.
Iu a large cast-iron kettle heated by a coal tire, caustic
soda is melted, and small portions of the dry sodium salt,
prepared as above, are gradually added, and finally the
whole is kept in quiet fusion for some sime. The melt now
contains sodium carbolate and sulphite, together with the
large excess of caustic soda used —
C6H5- SdXa + -2 Xailll ( JluXa r Xa,S( ) , + H„0
It is ladled from the kettle into pans ami allowed to cool,
broken up, dissolved in water, and acidified with sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid. The phenol thus liberated separate-
from the concentrated salt solution, and can be collected
and distilled.
In melting the sodium benzencsulphonate with caustic
soda, it i- necessary in order to obtain a good yield to use
a very large excess of the latter. A greater yield is obtain) d
with caustic potash, and if as large a quantity as six parts
are used to one of the soda or potash salt a nearly theoretical
\ ield can he obtained, but as tins would greatly increase the
cost, can-tie soda i- used instead.
It has been proposed to treat the melt after dissolving in
water with carbonic acid gas, which would liberate the
phenol ■ I a- a Stronger aeid. and in addition would
form carbonate of soda or potash, which together with the
March 81. 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
265
sulphite already present could be converted into the hydrate
by treating with lime, concentrated, and used for a second
operation.
The second method is much simpler. A pure aniline oil,
preferably that grade called aniline for blue, is dissolved in
water in a lead-lined tank covered with a hood, and provided
with stirrers and leaden steam coils. The solution is
acidulated very strongly with sulphuric acid, and to the hot
liquid a solution of commercial nitrite of soda is gradually
added, phenol being at once formed.
In this reaction the sodium nitrite, in contact with the
acid solution, liberates nitrous acid, which forms diazoben-
zenesulphate with the aniline sulphate —
(C6H5NH2).,U,su4 + 2 HNO, =
(C6H5N = N)s SU4 + 4 HX>
hut as the solution is hot it at once decomposes into phenol
with evolution of nitrogen —
f('t,H,N = N)sS04 + 2H30 = 2C6H5OH + H2S04 + 4N
Neither of these synthetical methods can at the present
time compete in price with the extraction of carbolic acid
directly from the coal-tar oils.
A guild grade of crystal acid can be purchased abroad in
large quantities at this time at about il cents per pound,
ivhile the pure benzene used in the first method is worth at
the English refineries about 14 cents per pound, and aniline
oil about 20 cents, without taking into consideration the
other expensive chemicals necessary to carry out the reaction.
When the synthetical acid was first placed upon the
market it excited much interest, and purchasers were willing
to pay the high price it commanded, believing that they
were getting a much purer article than could be produced by
the ordinary methods. This interest has, however,
considerably abated since the acid has been found to redden
just as easily as the best commercial grades.
It could scarcely be expected that an acid obtained by
either of the complex reactions just described would not be
contaminated by products formed by side reactions in the
process. lu its preparation by the sulphonate method,
sulphur compounds (thiophenols, &e.) are likely to be
formed ; and its manufacture from a substance like aniline,
which so readily produces colouring matters, could scarcely
be carried out without at the same time forming bodies
which at once or later under the influence of light and air
would discolour it.
In addition, commercially pure benzene or aniline oil
always contain small quantities of, respectively, toluene or
toluidine. These bodies being submitted to the same treat-
ment as their homologues give cresol. It is true that
this body would be present only in minute quantities, but
sufficient to reduce the melting point of the resulting
phenol.
Lunge has shown that the addition of 1'3 per cent, of
cresol to pure phenol reduces the melting point 8° to
3HJ, and in the preparation of a high grade carbolic acid
a difference of a part of a degree is of great importance.
" Forty degrees acid " is ut present a commercial article
sold at excessively low prices, and if a small part of the
attention and labour which is used in producing a synthetical
acid was expended in the further purification of this 40°
acid, without doubt just as pure if not a purer article could
be produced direct from tar oils and at a very much lower
cost.
Chemical Study of the German and Turkish Otto of
Hoses. U. Eckart. Arehiv. des Pharru. 229, 355 ;
Monit. Scient. November 1891, 1145—1153.
The centre of production for this essential oil is Roumelia,
120 villages on the confines of Kesanlik possessing 2,500
stills, and furnishing from 1,900 to 2,500 kilos, per annum.
No one knows precisely the date at which this industry was
commenced, but it is believed to have been somewhere about
the 17th century. For the preparation of the essential oil,
the Rosa Damascena f. trigintipalate is principally
cultivated, a cultured red variety of Rosa gallica and of
Rosa centifolia richer in essence than the white variety.
The fresh petals are introduced into alembics of tinned
copper with an addition of twice their weight of water. The
contents of the vessel are then submitted to distillation,
which is stopped when half the water has passed over. The
product is then submitted to renewed distillation, receiving
the sixth part of the liquid, which is let stand for two days.
The supernatant essential oil is separated by means of small
funnels of tin, and preserved in jars of tinned copper
containing from 500 to 5,000 grms. each.
1,000 kilos, of fresh flowers yield about 160 to 400 grms.
of essential oil. In recent years the firm of Schimmel and
Co., of Leipsic, have cultivated the R. centifolia major, and
have obtained by the distillation of 23,000 kilos, of fresh
roses, 4 kilos. 500 grms. of essential oil. This product has
in part served for the investigation to be described, along
with another quantity of essential oil from Kesanlik which
had had separated from it its stearoptene.
77ie Crude Essence.- — The German essential oil obtained
in the harvest of 1890, possesses at the ordinary tempera-
ture the consistence of butter, has a light green colour from
chlorophyl, aud melts at 27 '. The odour is powerful, and
recalls to some extent that of mint. This essence is finer
than the Turkish product, and is composed of stearoptene
and a liquid oil. It has no action on litmus paper moistened
with alcohol, is easily soluble in ether and chloroform, but
with difficulty in alcohol and glacial acetic acid. The
Turkish essential oil solidifies at the ordinary temperatures,
and melts at 17° to 22°. The melting point varies more or
less with the extent of stearoptene, and this content is
independent of the climate. The specific gravity of this oil
oscillates between 0-87 and 0'89. The other properties
approach very closely tho*e of the German oil,
Separation of the Stearoptene. — The German essential
oil is distilled and about 5 per cent, of the product is
collected from 79° to 100°. The residue distilled in vacuo
gives a fresh portion of liquid, whilst the stearoptene does
not pass over. This process was replaced by the following,
which, however, does not yield the products distilling below
100°. The oil is dissolved in five times its weight of alcohol
at from 70° to 80°, the solution is cooled to 0°, agitating
meanwhile. The stearoptene is sepaiated by filtration, and
washed with cold alcohol. The alcoholic solution is
evaporated in vacuo, and an oil is thus obtained almost
completely free from stearoptene. Hy this treatment it is
possible to obtain : —
(1.) A product distilling below 100°, obtained by the
method first specified.
(2.) Elceoptene, remaining portion of the liquid product.
(4.) Stearoptene.
The principal part of the essence, that also which is
aromatic, is the elceoptene.
Product passing over below 100''.— This product, 5 per
cent, of the essential oil, consists of ethylic alcohol.
Properties of the Oil separated from the Stearoptene. — ■
Physical Properties. — This portion of the German essential
oil is coloured a light green and has an odour like that of mint,
a specific gravity of 0' 891 at 11 '5°, and the power of rotating
the plane of polarised light to the left. It easily dissolves
in ether, alcohol, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, benzene,
petroleum spirit, and glacial acetic acid. The Turkish oil freed
from stearoptene possesses an odour strongly resembling
that of mint, is yellowish in colour and has a specific
gravity of 0-8804 to 0-8813 at 15°. According to the
polariscope of Wild, it turns the plane of polarised light to
the left 5-4° for a length of 200 mm. As regards solubility-
it behaves like the elceoptene of the German oil.
Chemical Properties. — This oil only contains carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen. It is neutral and without action
on ferric chloride. Potash and an ammoniacal solution of
nitrate of silver are equally without action on the substance.
It does not combine with hydroxylamine. Consequently it
neither possesses the phenolic, aldehydic, or cetonic
functions.
Submitted to distillation in portions of 20 to 30 grms.,
this oil passes over from 110° to 120° under a pressure of
12 mm. (It is necessary to avoid the use of more of the
product for distillation than that mentioned, for a portion
becomes transformed into a non-volatile substance.) Analysis
gave numbers corresponding to the formula C10HlsO.
266
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
The compound C|0H,0O, which Markownikoff found in The elceoptene does not contain terpenes, and this extract
the oil of Bulgarian roses, contains 76-92 per cent. C, of the Turkish essential oil behaves like that found in the
12-82 per cent. H, whereas the author found 11 '10 to German oil. Thus they show the following physical
1 1 • Til per cent. H (this Journal, 1891, 63). constants : —
Specific Gravity.
Temperature. Boiling Point.
Index of
Refraction.
Molecular
Infraction,
Dispersion.
Rotatory
Power.
The Elceoptene of the German Essence.
o
0
(
15
21G
1177.5
49-28
12
5
2-S
.. 0-8837.... J
(.
18
1-4719
49-28
12
5
2-S
2nrl fraction, 0-87S9
oi'il fraction. 0'8782
4th fraction
The Elceoptene op Tubkish Essence.
18
18
IS
216
217
217
1-4710
1-4718
1-4725
4s- '.'7
48-9S
12-0
11-7
11-1
2-7
2-7
2-7
The author gives the substance the name of Rhndinol,
and various compounds of this body are now described. By-
heating rhodinol for three hours from 180° to 120° in a
sealed tube, with lime or an alkali, it is decomposed so as
to yield small quantities of valerianic acid, acetic acid, and
formic acid.
Stearoptene. — Rose oil contains from 20 to 68 per cent,
of this substance, which, according to Fliickiser, crystallises
in the hexagonal system, boils at 32 ■ 5° and distils at about
350°, though not without decomposition. Its formula
expresses a carbide C16H34, and on oxidation by nitric acid,
succinic and oxalic acids are produced along with other
acids. The carbide thus appears to belong to the fatty-
scries. From the stearoptene of the Turkish oil two
carbides were isolated, one of which melted at 23° and the
other at 40°, the German oil yielding under the same
conditions a carbide melting at 22° and another the melting
point of which lies between 40° and 41°.
Thus, the conclusion is arrived at that stearoptene from
rose oils is a mixture of different homologous hydrocarbons.
The author confirms the fact of the existence of two
kinds of stearoptene in the rose oils. The oils obtained in
cold countries are richer in stearoptene than those of hot
countries, but it must be added that the amount of stearop-
tene varies in the same region with the time of the year. The
melting point of the rose oil is shown to depend upon the
amount of stearoptene present, that the melting point of this
body is not always the same, and that it is generally lower
as the percentage of the stearoptene increases. The research
shows that the Turkish and German oils are composed
of three substances : Ethylic alcohol, elceoptene, and
stearoptene. The must important constituent is elceoptene,
or rhodinol C|0H3O, which belongs to the series of alcohols,
C II -2<>. It is further shown that rhodinol belongs
to the methane series. Thus rose oil can be
amongst the rare essential oils which contain bodies rich
in carbon, and in which the chain is a closed one.
Rhodinol is a primary alcohol. Its molecular refraction
and absorption for bromine point to two ethylene links in
its chain. Its optical properties indicate that it contains
an atom of assymetric carbon. The production of terpenes
points to the position in the ring of the methyl and propyl
groups. The formula thus derived explains easily the
transformation of rhodinol first into limonene and then into
dipentene —
C(C3H;) C(C3H.)
1TC f\ CH HC /\ CH
OH |
H2C I J) CH
CH(CH3)
Limonene.
CH(CH3)
Rhodinol.
The constitution of Geraniol, an isomeride which behaves
like rhodinol, is, according to Semmler —
CH3.CH2.CH:CH.C(CH3):CH.CH2OH
(this Journal, 1890, 889 and 1145). According to the
author, the difference between the two isomerides lies in the
positions of the groups of methyl and propyl, in those of
the double links, and in the nature of the assymetric carbon.
XXI.-PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PEOCESSES.
Photography in Colours. Labatat. Compt. Rend. 1891
113, 126—129.
The author has employed Lippmann's method for photo-
graphing in natural colours (this Journal, 1891, 483), to
show that when colour sensitisers are emplo ved the maxi-
mum effect of the acting light corresponds exactly to
absorption spectra of the dyes used. The colours experi-
mented with were Cyanine and Victoria green. In both
cases the maximum effect was coincident with the light
absorbed by the transparent and sensitised emulsion used,
whilst as in the previous experiments the resulting plates
after development showed complementary colours when
viewed by direct and by reflected light respectively. The
due interpretation of this result in relation to the wave theory
of light is discussed in the paper. Since the colours on the
sensitive plate, obtained when any colour sensitiser is
used indicate the portion of the light rays absorbed
by the plate, it is unnecessaiy- to examine such sensitisers
spectroscopically in order to ascertain the limits of tin ir
action. — C. A. K.
The Action of Light on Silver Chloride. A, Becbamp.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 836—840.
The recent work of Guntz in this direction (this Journal,
1892, 179) has induced the author to recapitulate some
experiments made by himself in 1853.
Pure silver chloride was exposed under water to the
action of light for four days, the water being frequently
changed. The supernatant liquid soon after the commence-
ment of the experiment gave a precipitate with silver
nitrate, and readily decolourised a solution of indigo. At
the same time no gas was apparently disengaged from the
Unroll si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
267
chloride, and the odour of the water was somewhat different
from that of chlorine. Evidently an oxygen compound of
chlorine had been formed. The blackened chloride was
afterwards collected and dried. When fused it did not
diminish appreciably in weight, proving the absence of an
oxychloride, and on cooling separated into two layers, the
one being yellow, transparent, and horny, the other black
and porous. From the loss of weight undergone by the
silver chloride during exposure to light, the amount of
silver-subehloride. Ag..('l, present (assuming it to have been
formed) was deduced and found to be equal to rather more
than one-sixth of the total chloride taken ; and the author
remarks that so far as he can remember the relative bulks
of the horny and porous layers above mentioned were in the
same ratio. Referring to Guntz's discovery, that silver
chloride which has been heated in abseuce of light becomes
reducible by the oxalate developer, the author remarks that
by an investigation of the action of solar light deprived of
its heat ravs, on silver chloride, an explanation might
possibly he found for the varying influence of light, trans-
mitted by coloured and uncoloured screens, on silver
chloride.— H. T. P.
(Quantitative Estimation of Silver and Gold by Means of
Hi/droj ///amine Hydrochloride. A. Leiner. Monatsh.
1891, 12, 689—641.
See under XXI If., page 271.
PATENT.
Improvements in or Relating to Magnesium Flash Lights.
1!. lladdan, London. From F. H. F. Engei, Hamburg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 7487, April 30, 1891.
In this improved apparatus the magnesium reservoir is
mouuted in such a manner that it can be turned on the
blowing tube and so be brought into an inverted position
over cavities, provided for receiving the magnesium powder,
along the upper part of the blowing tube ; these then become
charged and the reservoir is turned back again ; any super-
fluous powder being wiped from off the blowing tube back
iuto the reservoir by lateral strips of packing. A puff of
air into the blowing tube projects the powder into burning
gas jets placed abo\e, hut with this apparatus the cavities
can be quickly refilled by repeating the above operations.
— D. A. L.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES. MATCHES. Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Explosive Substances.
H. E. Newton, London. From A. Nobel, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 5331, April 16, 188G. (Second Edition.)
This invention describes " explosives composed of a nitrate,
chlorate, or perchlorate of the metallic bases intimately
mixed with nitroglycerol or equivalent explosive matter,
but without the addition of combustible matter." — W. M.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Gu?i-
poivder or like Explosives. J. Y. Johnson, London.
From the " Dynamite Actiengesellsehaft Nobel," Vienna,
Austria. Eng". Pat. 6128, April 9, 1891.
A smokeless powder is made by mixing 70 — 99 parts of
nitro-starch with 1 — 30 parts of di- or tri-nitroheuzene aud
compressing the powder to a suitable degree. The pressure
employed imparts a density to the grains which "gives the
lowest possible pressure of gas on combustion." — W. fil.
Improvements in and Relating to High Explosives for Use
in Mining and for Military and other Purposes.
J. M. Pollard, Washington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 20,448,
November 24, 1891.
This invention consists essentially in the manner of mixing
chlorates or nitrates and sulphur together. Sulphur is first
added to melted paraffin so that each particle becomes
coated with the hydrocarbon, then the chlorate or nitrate is
added and the incorporation continued. The mass may
now be pressed into cartridges, or if the explosive be desired
in the form of grains it is granulated while hot and allowed
to cool gradually, so that each particle may retain its coating
of paraffin and thus become waterproofed. — W. M.
Improvements in Railway Fog Signal Detonators. A.
Kuston and E. Beadle, London. Eng. Pat. 21,879,
December 15, 1891.
In this signal the base is formed with a recess in which the
clip for attaching it to the rail is secured so that the surfaces
of the base and clip lie flush on the rail. The top is also
formed with a circular recess for holding the percussion
caps in position. — W. M.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
Composition of Glass suitable for Chemical Apparatus.
E. Weber. Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1S91, 662—665.
The author, continuing the investigation he has been
engaged in for years, has examined some more specimens
of glass with the following results: —
Perceutas^ of
Ratio.
Glass.
Si02
Al203,re203
OaO(UgO) K,o
Na,,0
Si02
CaO
fK20
(. Na2(J
A
69-8(5
1-05
3-23
8-86
17-00
15-5
: 1
: 4-9
B
74'lii
0-40
5-S3
7-32
12-21
11-8
: 1
: 2-64
C
74-88
1-86
6-85
17-70
12-0
: 1
: 2-0
D
E
74-43
74-68
0-50
IV 50
7-15
6-82
6-64
7-62
11-23
10-29
0-.3
: 1
: 2-0
F
78-63
2-01
7-10
16-64
9-5
: 1
: 2-0
G
71-23
1-70
16-59
W79
4-0
1
: 0-0
II
73-J9
(V51.
14-50
a-50
9-50
4-7
: 1
: 0-8
I
73-20
1-98
9-12
1-75
13-95
7-6
: 1
: 1-1
J
73-13
1*41
11-51
5-66
W06
5-s
: 1
1-0
K
71-10
1-90
9-75
6-70 10-55
7-2
: 1
: 1-34
Glass A was a fragment of a finely graduated burette, it
had become rough both in aDd outside, glittering flakes
dropped from it when it was gently heated, and on boiling
for a short time with water it yielded a solution strongly
alkaline to ordinary indicators. Glass B was from a boiling
flask ; this flask when left filled with water for about four
weeks became coated inside with a gelatinous deposit, which
was developed again by7 a second treatment. In the two
treatments the flask, 0-8 litre capacity, lost 0- 1G2 grm. in
weight. From the analytical data it is presumed that this
glass must have been prepared from a mixture of 100 parts
of sand, 14 parts of calcspar, 14-5 parts of potash, and
28 parts of soda, a mixture which cannot yield a proper
glass. Both this and the first glass are absolutely unfit for
268
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
chemical apparatus. Glass C is a sample of similar inferior
glass examined 10 years or so ago. Glasses D and E are
from flasks about 100 cc. capacity, of Bohemian manufac-
ture. These were only slightly affected by prolonged
exposure to the air or to the fumes of hydrochloric acid,
and when water was boiled in them continuously for six
hours they lost 0-iii2 grm. in weight. Glass F is a similar
glass examined 10 years or so ago. Glass G is an example
of excellent window glass, glass H of French glass used
in the manufacture of Fresnel'a lighthouse lenses, both
characterised by their high resistance towards ordinary
deteriorating agents. Glass I is a sample of " Hohl " glass,
from which articles of great durability have been manufac-
tured. Glass J ic a similar good glass examined in 1879.
It seems that what is required is more lime and less alkali
in glasses for chemical purposes, and the author is of
opinion that much might be done in improving matters in
this direction without fear of increasing the cost of pro-
duction on account of decreased fusibility. Glass K is an
example of a glass which the author has obtained for some
years ; it resists the action of air and acid fumes well, and
loses only very slightly in weight on boiling with water or
dilate acid; thus a 100 cc. flask of this glass only lost
iiii is after boiling water in it six hours continuously. This
glass is decidedly less readily fusible, but nevertheless does
not present any special difficulty to be overcome in its
manufacture. — D. A. L.
A Mixer and Didder for Ore Samples, and small Sampling
Machine. 11. L. Bridgman. Eng. and Mining J. 1892,
275.
Tins apparatus (Fig. 1) entirely obviates the tedious and
Fig. 1.
frequently inaccurate methods — usually with oil cloth and
spatula — now in general use, for mixing and dividing the
ground samples of ore, matte, slag, and other similar
material. An experience of several months has shown a
very decided improvement in accuracy, speed, and general
convenience over the old way.
The operation is as follows : — The ground material is
introduced into the large covered funnel (mixer), the outlet
being first closed by thumb or finger, as may be most
convenient. Funnel and contents are then well shaken for
a few minutes, and then, with open outlet, passed to and
fro over the set of distributing funnels (divider) and bottles,
as shown. With very finely ground or very light material
the flow may be assisted by a slight shaking or tapping
with the hand. The little skill necessary is readily
acquired.
The mixer will also be found very useful for the prompt
and thorough mixing of crucible assay charges and all other
work of similar character.
To test the efficiency of the mixer, a lot of 6 assay tons
of litharge, 3 assay tons of soda and J assay ton of argols
was taken, well shaken, divided by weight into three lots of
3j assay tons each, and these charges fused separately in
crucibles. The resulting lead buttons weighed 53-436grms.,
53-41G grms., and 53 '398 grins, respectm h .
The ore sampling machine is shown in Fig. 2. Its
particular field of usefulness is the quick and certain cutting
down of the miscellaneous small samples (from 5 lb. to
500 lb. in weight) that are constantly being received by all
assay offices. Tt is applicable for anything from the fines
assay pulp to crushed material of one-half inch or more in
size. It is a very decided improvement over any of the
Fig. 2.
present methods of quartering, or cutting down with sample
shovel or tin sampler.
In operation, the material is fed either by hand or (with
large lots) from a suitably supported bucket into the funnel
F, the divider 1) being first set in rotation by hand, clockwork,
or any convenient power. The divider gives eight cuts to the
revolution, four being delivered to the funnel 1, and four to
the receptacle 2 : that is, with uniform flow and speed,
cutting the material in half. The divider may easily run
100 revolutions per minute, giving in that time 800 cuts, a
very much greater distribution and division than can be
secured in any other way. The rejected sample passes
down the outlet to O.,, both into suitable vessels. The
retained portion, should it be too large, may be cut again
and again until of suitable size. The operation is very
accurate and very rapid, being about as fast as the material
will flow through a 1-in. spout.
IN O N G A XI < ; CHE MIS TR Y.—
QUALITATIVE,
Volatility of Nickel in Presence of Hydrochloric Acid.
P. Schiitzenberger. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 177—179.
See under X., page 213.
Behaviour of Tricalcium Phosphate towards Carbonic
Acid and Ferric Hydroxide. G. v. Georgievics.
Monatsh. 1891, 12, 566—581.
See under XV., page 254.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
The Direct Determination of Aluminium in Iron and Steel.
T. M. Drown and A. G. McKenna. Technology Quarterly,
1891, 4, 220—227.
The unsatisfactory nature of most methods for the direct
determination of aluminium in presence of iron and phos-
phoric acid, and the sharpriess with which the two latter can
be estimated, have led chemists to rely mainly upon
processes in which the aluminium is obtained by difference.
But in examining modern alloys which ma}7 contain only a
fraction per cent, of aluminium, nothing short of its direct
determination can be satisfactory.
The authors have found that it is possible to remove iron
by electrolysis from its acid solution using a current that in
no way affects the aluminium present. The essential
condition of success is the use (as proposed for other
purposes by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs) of mercury as a cathode,
the iron forming an amalgam with the mercury as fast as it
is deposited from solution. Preliminary experiments made
to test the completeness of the deposition of iron showed
an apparent loss notwithstanding that the iron was com-
pletely removed from solution. This was found to be due
March Si 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
269
to the volatilisation of mercury on drying before weighing.
To free the mercury completely from moisture it is only
necessary to heat it for about two minutes at a temperature
of 100° C., and in this time the loss is very small. It is,
however, advisable, in cases where the process is used to
determine iron, to have a blank beaker in the circuit
containing only mercury and dilute sulphuric acid, and to
adil any loss winch may be found iu this beaker to the
amount found in others in the series. The best conditions
for the rapid precipitation of the iron are a strong current
(about 2 amperes or 20 cc. of electrolytic gas a minute), a
marly neutral solution of small bulk, a large amount of
mercury (not less than 50 times the weight of the iron to
be precipitated), and a large anode of platinum. The
mercury cathode is brought into the circuit by means of a
platinum wire enclosed and fused into one end of a glass
tube, which passes through the liquid. It is of advantage
to pour mercury into this tube to the depth of an inch, in
order to weight it and make the connexion with the mercury
cathode more stable. 10 grms. of iron can be precipitated
in 10 to 15 hours. The iron amalgam may contain as much
as 10 per ceut. of iron. After long exposure to air, the iron
separates out as a black powder, which may be removed by
agitation with water. The mercury may be purified by
filtration through chamois leather, and then passing air
through ii.
Secondly, the authors find that under the foregoing
conditions manganese in solution is partly reduced to the
metallic state (forming an alloy with the mercury) and
partly oxidised to the dioxide which coats the platinum
anode.
Thirdly, as to the influence of phosphoric acid on the
deposition of iron. Duplicate experiments made with and
without addition of phosphoric acid (hydrogen di-sodium
phosphate) showed that its presence did not affect the
deposition of the iron, and further, that the phosphoric acid
in solution could afterwards be accurately determined by
precipitation with magnesium mixture.
Fourthly, as to the separation of iron and aluminium
solutions containing known amounts of both (as sulphates)
were electrolysed, and, after the iron had been deposited and
estimated, the aluminium was precipitated by ammonia.
The results were entirety satisfactory.
Finally, the following process is recommended in the
examination of iron or steel. Dissolve 5 to 10 grms. of
the sample in sulphuric acid, evaporate until white fumes
of sulphuric anhydride begin to come off, add water and heat
until all the iron is in solution, filter off silica and carbon, and
wash with water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Make the
filtrate nearly neutral with ammonia, and add to the beaker in
which the electrolysis is to be made about 100 times as much
mercury as the weight of iron or steel taken. The bulk of
the solution should be from 300 to 500 cc. Pass a current
of about two amperes over night. Iu the morning test for
iron, and, if necessary, continue the electrolysis after adding
nearly enough ammonia to neutralise the acid set free.
Finally, remove the solution from the beaker with a pipette
while the current is still passing. When as much has been
removed as possible without breaking the current, add water,
and continue the operation until the acid has been so far
diluted that there is no danger of dissolving iron from the
mercury. Take the anode out and wash the mercury.
After filtering (to remove any flakes of Mn02) add sodium
phosphate in excess, and 10 grms. of sodium acetate. Make
nearly neutral with ammonia and boil for 40 minutes. The
precipitate of aluminium phosphate is then filtered off,
ignited, and weighed.— D. E. .T.
Oh a New Hydrate of Copper, and on the Preparation
of Pure Nitrogen. A. Le Due. Compt. Bend. 1891,
113, 71-72.
By carefully watching what happens in the preparation of
pure nitrogen by means of copper, the author has been led
to discover a new compound of copper with hydrogen. This
new compound has nothing in common with the compound
discovered by Wurtz, which is formed in the cold and
disappears entirely at about 60°. This, on the other hand,
is formed at a dull red heat by direct union of its elements,
and shows only traces of dissociation at a bright red heat.
It is, therefore, analogous to the alkaline hydrides discovered
by Troost and Hautefeuille.
In preparing pure nitrogen (in order to determine its
density), the author as usual passed pure dry air through
a tube of Bohemian glass containing copper turnings heated
to a red heat. He found it was important to earrv out this
operation at a somewhat dull red heat ; also to have near the
further end of the tube about 10 cm. of oxidised turnings.
Several experiments in which the tube was raised to
incandescence, showed that these oxidised turnings at the
end were completely reduced, and the nitrogen formed in
these experiments had (like lieguault's) too low a density.
The explanation lay iu the fact that the copper used had
first been oxidised, and then reduced in a current of
hydrogen in order to give it a clean surface. This was shown
to be the case by the following experiment.
The tube containing the copper filings was heated to a
bright red heat in the middle and to 300° towards the ends ;
a current of hydrogen was passed for two hours, and the
copper was then allowed to cool in the gas. In the parts of
the tube which had been heated to a dull red heat there
was formed a large quantity of a substance of a beautiful
hjTacinth-red colour, partly on the metal itself and partly on
the top of the tube. A current of carbonic acid was after-
wards passed through the cold tube, and the gas on leaving
was completely absorbed by potash ; the tube was then
gradually raised to incandescence. The gas now ceased to
be completely absorbed, and in a quarter of an hour over
20 cc. of gas was collected, which proved to be hydrogen
mixed with a small quantity of carbonic oxide, formed by
the reducing action of hydrogen upon carbonic acid.
The author is convinced that the hydrogen in the above
substance is really combined with the copper, and not
merely absorbed by it. — D. E. J.
New Method of Examining Chrome Yellows. M. Lachaud
and C. Lepierre. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 235—237.
The authors have shown that chromateof lead on treatment
with dilute solutions of potash become decomposed, accord-
ing to the equation — ■
2 PbCr04 + 2 KHO =
PbCrOj.PbO + KXrO., + H20 .
On this reaction the following analytical process is based.
Two grms. of the lead chromate are well shaken in a
flask with 20 cc. of binomial potash solution (112 grms. of
Kill ) per litre). The mixture is diluted with distilled water,
and the solution is decanted or filtered from the residual
basic chromate. The excess of potash in the solution is
determined by titration with sulphuric acid in presence of
phenolphthaiein, the latter part of the titration being
performed with very dilute acid iu order to observe the
transition point more exactly. From the amount of potash
neutralised by the chromic acid extracted from the original
pigment, the total amount of normal lead chromate can be
calculated. The process is recommended for simplicity and
rapidity.— G. H. B.
The Action of Light on Silver Chloride. A. Bechamn,
Bull. Soe. Chim. 1891, 6, 836—810.
See under XXL, page 2GG.
On the Colorimetric Determination of Iron by Means of
the Sulphocyanate and other Coloured Compounds of
the Metal. J. Kibau. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1821, 6, 916
—920.
A method of estimating small quantities of iron (especially
in blood) has been proposed, which is based on transforming
it into the sulphocyanate and comparing in a colorimeter
the solution thus obtained with a standard solution containing
a known quantity of the sulphocyanate. The author has
examined the accuracy of the method by means of a
Duboscq colorimeter. Iu using this instrument (and all
270
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
others of the same type) a certain assumption is made.
Calling the amounts of the colouring matter contained in
the two solutions to be compared p and p„ and the depths
of two columns of the respective solutions which appear of
me colour e and elt then it is usually assumed
that —
P = 1
p, e
Tu order to test the reliability of the method it is sufficient
to see whether experiment shows that this relation is true.
A series of solutions of ferric chloride was prepared
containing regularly decreasing amounts, p0, p1, p.:, p ,,. &c.
of iron, so that —
*-§.»■
P-\ &c.
2
To the original solution (from which the others were pre-
pared by successive dilutions with water) a large excess of
ammonium sulphocyanate was added in order to diminish
the dissociation which the dilution with water might be
expected to produce. The first solution (p0) contained
O-O0O1 grm. of iron per cc; the fifth (p4) contained
0-0000063 grm. per cc. The solutions were compared in
pairs and the depths (e0, e,, e.2, &c.) required to produce
equality of tint were uoted. The results show a wide
divergence from the values required by the relation —
P. = eJ
Pi B
(Thus, e.g., in comparing/), and p4, the ratio between e4 and
c, was found to be 14-8, whereas according to the theory it
should be = 8.) This divergence is most marked when the
solutions compared are of very unequal concentration. The
discrepancy is due to progressive dissociation of the sulpho-
cyanate by water. The method is therefore unreliable
excepting when the two solutions to be compared are of the
same composition and strength ; and in practical colorimetry
it is difficult, if not impossible, to fulfil these conditions.
The author has endeavoured to obtain better results by
transforming the iron salt into acetate (both neutral and
acid), and also into alkaline tartrate of iron, but without
success. The neutral acetate decomposes in the cold in
about 24 hours, depositing a basic acetate ; and the addition
of acetic acid scarcely mends matters. Dilute solutions of
the alkaline tartrate lose their colour spontaneously in the
light.— D. E. J.
The Composition of the Atmosphere : a New Gravimetric
Mi thod for ascertaining the Same. A. Leduc. Compt.
Bend. 1891,113, 129—132.
The method adopted for ascertaining the gravimetric com-
position of the air is a modification of that proposed by
Brunner, and consists in absorbing the oxygen contained in
a known weight of air by means of phosphorus and weighing
tlit- residual nitrogen. Full details are given of the pre-
cautions taken to avoid all possible sources of error. The
method is considered more exact than that of Dumas and
Bousingault inasmuch as any error arising from the
occlusion of hydrogen by the copper used in their method
is avoided. Two analyses made at intervals of six days
gave 23-244 and 23-208 per cent, of oxygen by weight,
whilst Dumas and Bousingault found 23 per cent, of
This corresponds to 21-02 per cent, of oxygen
by volume, a result agreeing with that obtained by the
author from a comparison of the specific gravities of
and nitrogen. — C. A, K.
Monatsh. 1891, 12,
a-Orthostannic Acid. {•. Xeumann.
515—523.
The author attempted to isolate germanium from the
mother-liquors cf commercial tin-salt, but without success ;
in the course of these experiments a cousiderable quantity
of stannic chloride was prepared, and the boilius point of
this compound was found to be 114°, under a pressure of
760 mm. When a solution of stannic chloride containing a
large quantity of ammonium sulphate is treated with a
small quantity of an aqueous solution of hydrogen sulphide,
a white precipitate is produced; this precipitate has, when
air-dried, the composition SnO.:, 2 HJ i. "i Sn ( >H)4, and is
readily soluble in hydrochloric acid, so that it must be
regarded as the hydrate of a-stannic acid. The same
compound is obtained when a solution of stannic chloride
is treated with an alkaline sulphate alone. — F. S. K.
Estimations in Alkaline Solution by aid of Hydrogen
Peroxide. P. Jannasch and 1!. Niederhofheim. Ber.
1891, 2-1, 3945—3947. (See also this Journal, 1891,
659 and 1037.)
Separation of Zinc and Manganese. — The mixture of
sulphates dissolved in 50 cc. of water in a platinum dish
had added to it 10 cc. of a 10 per cent, solution of cyanide
of potassium, and then 10 cc. of a 25 per cent, caustic
potash solution; the whole was stirred until the precipitate
was almost completely dissolved. The manganese was now
precipitated with 50 — 60 cc. of hydrogen peroxide solution.
The w-hole was heated for a quarter of an hour on the
water-bath, and then filtered. The filtrate was saturated
with hydrochloric acid on account of the nitrate of soda
contained in the hydrogen peroxide, taken to dryness in a
porcelain dish and heated to 110° — 115J ; the zinc was then
precipitated in hydrochloric acid solution of the residue so
obtained (silica being filtered off) with sodium carbonate
and determined as oxide.
Since it is extremely difficult to remove all the potash
from the manganese precipitate, it is advisable to re-dissolve
in dilute nitric acid in presence of a small quantity of
oxalic acid, and re-precipitate with hydrogen peroxide in
ammoniacal solution.
It is mentioned that copper, in slightly ammoniaoal
solutiou, containing only small quantities of ammonia salts,
is precipitated quantitatively by excess of hydrogen peroxide,
and methods for the separation of copper and zinc, and also
of copper and nickel, are in progress. — T. L. B.
The Estimation of the Inorganic Constituents of Raw
Sugars. Alberti and Hempel. Zeits. Kubenzucker Ind.
1891,27,85—91.
See page 273.
Calculation of Slag Components. G. Murray. Eng. and
'Mining J. 1892, 281.
From a given set of ores which maybe made into combina-
tions such that there may be a division into three or more
classes, in Xo. 1 metallic basic, Xo. 2 earthy basic, X'o. 3
acid, it is required to take of each such quantities as
combined will give a mixture containing its components in
desired proportion.
Let the proposed mixture be such that there shall be
a, FeO metallic bases, 6, L'aO earthy bases, and c, Si( I, acid
components, the whole — 100 lb., so that the letters "mav
expie-s pciecut.iLr. - : from this we have —
Total FeO = - Sit ) . and \ CaO
c - b
Take an ordinary example : Let the composition of
required slag be 40 per cent. FeO, 20 per cent. CaO, 40 per
cent. SiOj, in the sense above taken. X*o. (1) as above,
30 per cent. FeO, 5 per cent. Call, 20 per cent. SiOa
No. 2, 3 per cent. FeO, 50 per cent. CaO, 4 per cent. SiO.,
X*o. 3, 6 per cent. FeO, 2 per cent. CaO, 60 per cent. Si( i,
weight of charge to be 1,000 lb.
Denote quantity of XTo. 1 by r, of Xo. 2 byy, take 1001b
of Xo. 3.
Mmch8!,i892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
271
Making the first term of an equation regarding FeO
components, the second siliceous, wa have —
0-30 J.- + 6 + 0'03y = (0-501/ +0-05 x + 2) a • " = 2.
.v = 4'Soy - 10
0-30J + 6 + 0-03# = (0-20 x + 0'04y + 60) - • - = 1.
x = 540 + 0-1 y = 4-$5y - 10
4 '75 y = 550. y = 118
x + y + No. 3 ore = 770
1,000-*- 770 - 1-3
118 x 1-3 = 152; 552 x 1-3 = 717; 100 x 1-3 = 130;
total, 1,000.
Amounts of FeO, CaO, SiO.: contained iu the above are
respectively 227, 227, and 114, which relate to each other
as required. The total is partly equal to the weight of slag
in charge = 568 lb.
Were the quantities of FeO, CaO, Si02 in the generally
constant quantity of coke used in place of those in No. 3
ore, the amounts of .r, y deducted from 1,000, we should
have the difference only to obtain in x, y, and No. 3 ore.
On finding these and adding likes to likes, we have the
amounts of the components in proportion required.
In practice, the above is not used in its entirety, small
pi rcentages of some elements being discarded, and in cases
rj constant ore simple factors taking its place
altogether.
The Estimation of Oxygen Dissolved in Water.
M. A. Adams. Proc. C'hem. Soc. 105, 1 — 2.
The author describes an apparatus in which the estimation
of oxygen in water by Schiitzenberger's method may be
carried out so as entirely to avoid the loss of oxygen, or*
diffusion or its entry. The essential feature is a cylindrical
laboratory vessel about 350 ce. in capacity, 20 cm. long,
and 5 cm. in diameter, provided with four small lateral
tubulures midway from the closed ends, By means of
these it is attached to two burettes, one containing the
indigo carmine, the other hyposulphite solution, and also
to a mercury reservoir and to a Y"tuhe, one branch of
which is connected with a supply of the water to be
examined, the other serving as an outlet for the water.
The tubes are all controlled by pinchcocks. The water
and the liquids for titration are sucked into the vessel by
lowering the mercury reservoir, and are subsequently dis-
charged by raising it again ; the tubes passing into the
vessel from the burettes are provided with india-rubber
valves which prevent either reflux or diffusion taking place
into the burettes.
The author then refers to the peculiar irregular manner
in which the action is known to take place, and describes
his own observations, giving the results both of experi-
ments nude in the manner directed by Schiitzenherger and
in the indirect manner recommended by Roscoe and Lunt
(this Journal, 1889,729—732). From the results he con-
cludes that in estimating oxygen by the Schiitzenherger
process, the result obtained is liable to differ according
to the rate at which the determination is effected, it being
always higher when the titration is quickly performed.
Quantitative Estimation of Silver and Gold by Means of
Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride. A. Lainer. Monatsh.
1891,12,639—641.
Hviihoxyi.amine hydrochloride, in presence of potash, is
eminently suitable as a reagent for the quantitative deter-
mination of silver in silver nitrate, silver sodium
thiosulphate, and silver potassium cyanide, and also for the
complete reduction of chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver.
Special experiments showed that the presence of organic
acids, such as citric acid, does not prevent the precipitation
of silver by hydroxylamine hydrochloride and potash. For
separating silver from other metals, such as copper, for
example, it is first precipitated as chloride, and the washed
precipitate reduced to metal by boiling it with an aqueous
solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and potash.
Hydroxylamine hydrochloride alone precipitates gold
from a solution of auric chloride in the cold, but on warming
reduction takes place much more readily; this reaction may be
very conveniently employed for the separation of gold from
solutions of the chlorides of the alkalis and alkaline earths.
In presence of potassium cyanide, gold is not precipitated
from a solution of auric chloride on addition of hydroxyl-
amine hydrochloride and potash, but it is completely
precipitated from a solution of auric chloride containing
sodium thiosulphate.
The above methods may be suitably employed for the
recovery of silver and gold from photographic residues,
commercial " reducing salt " being used instead of pure
hydroxylamine hydrochloride. -F. S. K.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
The Qualitative Reactions of Vegetable Lubricating Oils.
Solde. Mitt, konig. techn. Versuchs. 1891,294—302.
The author has investigated various reactions for the
identification of various lubricating oils and the detection of
their commonest impurities.
(a.) Rape Oil. — The detection of rape oil in such
lubricating oils as olive oil, has been alleged to be possible
by means of the sulphur which it, in common with other
oils of the cruciferse, is said to contain. The usual method
for this purpose consists in saponifying the oil and testing
the product with a lead or silver salt. According to
Schiidler, however, cold pressed rape oil is free from sulphur,
while Benedikt states that other oils that have been extracted
by carbon disulphide, contain sulphur. Schweissinger
failed to find sulphur in a large number of samples of
genuine rape oil, a result in accordance with the author's
experience. Schneider's method for detecting as little as
2 per cent, of rape oil in olive oil, which consists in
dissolving one volume of the oil in two volumes of ether,
and shaking the solution with 20 to 30 drops of a saturated
alcoholic solution of silver nitrate, was found quite
unreliable. The method proposed by Villavechia and
Fabris, consisting in treating 10 cc. of the oil, previously
saponified, with 2 cc. with a solution of silver nitrate and
10 cc. of dilute nitric acid, also proved unreliable, as the
dark ring which is supposed to form between the two layers
into which the liquid divides, appeared as readily with olive
oil as with rape oil.
(6.) Cotton-Seed Oil. — Of the various forms of the
Bechi test, which is too well known to need description, that
devised by Milliau alone proved of value. Five per cent,
of cotton-seed oil gave a chocolate-brown colouration, while
pure rape oil and olive oil yielded only a yellow solution.
The author confirms the statement of Dieterich (Helfen-
berger Annalen, 1890, 2) that cotton-seed oil, after being
heated, may fail to give the reaction. One of the two samples
examined gave a comparatively feeble colouration after it
had been heated to 240° C, while the other yielded no
perceptible result. The process proposed by Hirschsohn,
which depends on the production of a red colouration with
gold chloride in chloroformic solution, was also tried and
condemned. The same remark applies to the use of nitric
acid of sp. gr. 1 ■ 37, which is supposed to give a coffee-
brown colouration. By shaking 1 — 2 cc. of the oil with an
equal volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-41 somewhat better
results were obtained. The colouration was red-brown in
the case of pure cotton-seed oil, and dirty yellow with pure
olive oil, becoming brownish on standing. Refined rape
oil gave a brown colouration. 20 per cent, of cotton-seed
oil could be detected in olive oil, but 10 per cent, was not
recognisable with certainty. The method has therefore a
certain utility as a preliminary test. The tests proposed by
Peters of warming equal volumes of the oil and acid
together, and observing the colour of the solidified product,
proved valueless.
2? 2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, I89ss.
(r.) Sesame Oil. — The well-known s agar test was found
to he of value. The author carries it out by shaking about
of hydrochloric aciil of sp.gr. 1-19 with a pinch of
powdered sugar, adding about double the volume of oil and
again shaking. 0-5 per cent, to 1 per cent, can be thus
,1, tected. Pure olive oil, rape oil, and hemp oil gave only a
yellowish colouration. The colouration should be observed
immediately after the separation of the acid, as a solution
of sugar in hydrochloric acid itself becomes reddish-brown
on standing. Crace Calvert's method depending on the use
of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid gave unsatisfactory
results.
(d.) Drying Oils. — The method proposed by Benedikt,
which consists in immersing a clean copper wire in a
mixture of 2 ee. of nitric acid and 5 cc. of the oil to he
tested, and stirring with a glass rod, proved ineffective
when tried with linseed oil, no pink colouration of the
wire being observed. With regard to hemp oil, 15enedikt's
method of treatment with hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1 ■ 19
or with nitric acid sp. gr. 1 • IS, which are said to give a
green colour, and the te^t with a mixture of sulphuric acid
and nitric acid mentioned by the same chemist, proved too
uncertain for useful application.
(e.) Bridle's Reaction for Seed Oils. — This reaction,
which consists in warming 10 cc. of the oil to be tested with
0-1 of the gim. of powdered albumen and 2 ce. of nitric
acid, which was stated to be of general applicability, was
also found to be useless for the detection of seed oil in
olive oil.
(/.) Fish Oils. — The reaction for the detection of fish
oils bj means of syrupy phosphoric scid has been already
found valueless by Schadler and Grittner.
<:i.) Minerals Oils. — The method already described by
the author (Mittheilungen, 1890, 22) was further te.-ted. It
was found that in the presence of only small proportions of
mineral oil (0'5 to 2 per cent.) the turbidity which first
appears on the addition of water sometimes disappears on
dilution, the mineral oil being dissolved in the soapy liquid.
(h.) Rosin Oil. — The method given in the Mittheilungen
1890, 19 (this Journal, 1890,419), for the detection of
rosin oil by means of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1 ' 624, suffices
for the examination of olive and rape oil. Morawsky's
reaction (this Journal, 1SS9, 572) is also available in the
absence of rosin. (Compare this Journal, 1891, 661.)
It appears from these results that qualitative reactions
for the detection of adulterants in oils are of very limited
utility, seeing that those tried the sugar test for sesame oil
was the only one of undoubted reliability. This is not sur-
prising when the fact that the reactions probably depend
on unessential constituents of the oils is considered. — B. B.
On some Colour Reactions of the Carbohydrates.
G. Bertrand. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 259—261.
When a glucose is gently heated with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid containing a small quantity of phloroglucol a
yellow colour is developed which passes rapidly to orange
red. Ultimately a dirty red precipitate forms and the
solution becomes partially decolourised. The reaction
proceeds in the cold, but requires several hours for
completion. Analogous reactions have been described bj
various authors, who have also employed orciuol and o-
naphthol instead of phloroglucol; but the author considers
that erroneous interpretations were given to the reactions,
and instances the fact that Wiesner considered a violet
colouration given by gum arahic with hydrochloric acid aid
orciuol to be due to the presence of a diastase. The author
finds that the red colouration is given by this reaction with
all the glucoses and substances furnishing glucose by
hydration, but it is always necessary to use tne concen-
trated acid, as dilution diminishes the numher of substances
susceptible of the reaction. Many of the phenols can be
substituted for phloroglucol, and the employment of orciuol
is the more instructive, as the colouration varies with the
molecular condensation of the sugar to he examined ; thus
the colour is violet-blue with arabinose and xylose of the
five carbon atom class and orange-red with glucoses con-
taining six carbon atoms. The author believes these
reactions are attributable to certain furfurol derivatives
which are produced under the conditions of the experi-
ment. The following colour reactions were obtained with
orciuol and hydrochloric acid : —
1. Orange-red solution : glucose (by Soxhlet's method),
glucose (from cellulose), galactose, mannose, levulose,
sorbin, saccharose, lactose, maltose, raffinose, melizitose,
strehyose, trehalose, isodulcite, glycogen, inulin, levulin,
potato starch, rice starch, dextrin, achroo-dextrin, amygda-
line, salicin, hesperidin.
2. Violet-blue solution : arabinose, xylose, cherry-tree
gum, and other natural gums. Gum arabic and gum
Senegal give a violet-red colour.
3. Xo colouration: xylite, sorbite, dulcite, mannite,
perseite, inosite, pinite, bergenite. saccharin (of Peligot).
— G. H. B.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITATIVE.
The Detection of Saccharine. 1). Vitali. L'Orosi 14, 109.
Three different methods are given. In each case the
saccharine is first isolated in the usual waj' and then tested
for by one of the methods.
1 . The substance is heated in a tube with three to four
times its volume of slaked lime. Ammonia, calcium car-
bonate, calcium sulphate, and phenol are therein" formed.
The latter, condensing in the colder parts of the tube, may
be detected by a new colour test devised by the author. A
few crystals of potassium chlorate are carefully added to a
few cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid. A drop of this
placed on a porcelain tile, and touched with a glass rod
which has been moistened with the distilled product,
produces when phenol is present a green colour, which
changes to an intense blue,
-J. When the substance is treated with concentrated sul.
phurie acid, benzoic acid is produced.
3. By heating with caustic soda, ammonia, salicylic acid,
and sulphuric acid are produced. — J. C. C.
On Graphites. W. Luzi. Ber. 1891, 24, 4085— 4095.
It has been known for a considerable time that graphite
puffs up when boiled for a lengthened period with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, then washed, dried, and ignited. The
following reagents and mixtures of reagents have been
used by various authors to produce the result, viz., concen-
trated sulphuric acid, a mixture of the same with concen-
trated nitric acid, a mixture of sulphuric acid with potassium
bichromate, and a mixture of sulphuric acid with potassium
chlorate. The present author finds concentrated nitric acid
to act perfectly well alone ; a mixture of sulphuric acid and
potassium permanganate is also recommended. A quicker
method, however, is to moisten the graphite on platinum
foil with fuming nitric acid and then to heat to redness in
the Bunsen rlarne. In this manner, by taking pieces of
graphite of the size of peas, products may be obtained on
which the structure of the formation is easily examined.
These transformed pieces of graphite float on water, alcohol,
and ether for weeks, and evacuation of the flask in which
pieces were floating on water did not produce a sinking of
the particles. A low-power microscope reveals the crystal-
line nature of the inner surfaces. This shortened method
of treating graphite has resulted in a revelation of the fact
that two classes of natural graphites exist, the members of
the one class showing the putting up with the treatment
mentioned, the members of the other class showing no
puffing up whatever.
Belonging to the first class are : —
Graphite from Ticondcroga, New York.
Ceylon graphite.
Norwegian graphite.
Graphite from Quebec.
Belonging to the second group are:—
Graphites from l'assau, Siberia, New Mexico, Saxony,
The Fichtelgehirge, and also "electric " graphite.
March si. 1899.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
273
The author, conceiving the idea that there might he a
difference in constitution between the two classes, made
analyses of members of each class, but no essential differ-
ence in composition could be detected, and it would seera
that two different modifications of carbon are here in
question. — T. L. H.
.-1 Method for the Alkalimetric Estimation of Phenol.
K. liader. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1892, 31, 58—60.
The author has found that phenol in solution in water may
be titrated with normal caustic soda, using as an indicator
an alcoholic solution of symmetrical triuitrobenzene. This
solution is made by dissolving as much triuitrobenzene
(melting point 122°) as will lie on the point of a knife in
5(1 cc. of absolute alcohol and filtering, this solution has a
slight yellow tinge and is acted upon by light, so it is best
to prepare fresh solution from time to time. Not more
tl '_' — 3 drops must be used for each titration, and excess
of alkali gives a reddish-yellow colouration. The results
from this method are from £ to | per cent, too high. The
author gives several examples. As regards the application
of the method to the titration of the homologues of phenol
with ortho- and meta-cresol,the results are somewhat unsafe,
whilst para-eresol gives at once a troublesome yellow colour
with caustic soda. The author thinks the method -would
give good results with catechol and its isomerides. — J. C. C.
The Testing of Inks. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1892, 31
116—120.
A nokjial ink is first prepared by dissolving 23 '4 grins,
of tannin and 7'7 grms. of crystallised gallic acid in water
at 50' C.| and adding to it a solution of ±0 grms. of gum
arabic, 10 grms. of hydrochloric acid containing 2 "5 grms.
of HC1, a solution of 30 grms. of sulphate of iron, and
1 grm. of carbolic acid ; the whole is diluted to 1 litre and
allowed to stand for four days and the clear solution poured
off. To this normal ink colouring matter is added to get
the required tint. The ink to be tested having stood for
three days is uncorked and 50 cc. is taken out from the
centre of the liquid and filtered through a small tine filter-
paper ; 25 cc.of the filtrate are placed in a cylindrical vessel,
the neck is closed loosely with filter-paper, and the liquid is
allowed to stand for some time in diffused light and in con-
tact with air free from ammonia and acid; if after 14 days
there is a deposit on the walls of the vessel the ink is
unsatisfactory.
In order to test the darkening qualities of the ink a sheet
of the best white writing paper is stretched on a frame
and placed at an angle of 45°, then a little of the unfiltered
ink is allowed to run down the surface from a glass tube and
iVem Method for the Determination of Phenol. L. Carre.
Compt. Rend. 1891,113, 139—141.
The method consists in converting the phenol into picric
acid, and then determining the quantity of the acid formed
coloriinetrically. The solution to be tested should be dilute;
if strong it must be diluted to 10 times its original strength.
25 cc. of the liquid are placed in a small flask containing
5 cc. of nitric acid, and the mixture heated on the water-
bath for 1 — 2 hours. The colouration at the end of the
heating is compared with that given by solutions of phenol
of known strength heated with the same quantity of nitric
acid for exactly the same length of time. The method is
rendered more accurate by adding 20 cc. of caustic soda
solution after the heating and making up the solutions,
both tests and standards, to 50 cc. In this case the
solution must be filtered if necessary. In presence of
small quantities of alcohol the heating on the water-bath
must he continued for a sufficient length of time to
volatilise the alcohol ; if larger quantities are present the
solution must be diluted first so as to prevent the formation
of nitrous ether. If the phenol is impure it must be heated
with the nitric acid until all tarry matters are destroyed.
Two results given show the accuracy of the method.
— C. A. K.
form a streak on the paper. Another streak of the first
ink is formed in the same way by the side of the second and
both are allowed to dry ; then if they compare favourably
both inks are diluted with an equal volume of water and fresh
streaks are made, allowed to dry, and compared. Further,
the paper may be cut into strips across the streaks and
treated with water, 85 per cent, alcohol and 59 per cent.
alcohol for two days, after drying they are again compared.
To test the fluidity the ink is allowed to flow from an
oval spreader and the width of the streak measured. The
tendency to blot may be observed in the first test. The
stickiness is tested by putting bits of paper on the dried
ink or by the hand. — J, C. C,
The Estimation of the Inorganic Constituents of Raw
Sugars. Alberti and Hempel. Zeits. Hiibenzucker Ind.
1891, 27, 85—91.
In practice, the ash of sugars is usually determined by the
" sulphate " process, one-tenth being deducted from the
weight of the sulphated ash, to allow for the increase due to
the conversion of carbonates, &c, into sulphates. The
authors point out that the results thus obtained are liable to
serious errors, and are not even comparable amongst them-
selves, owing to the variable composition of sugar ash, and
to the fact that mechanically introduced impurities, such as
sand, are often present. Apart from this consideration,
however, it is now becoming generally recognised that the
organic non-sugars influence to a far greater extent than the
mineral constituents of any given raw sugar, the production of
uncrystallisable molasses during refining. The non-sugars
are usually estimated by difference (100 — ash, —water,
— cane sugar) ; and the authors contend that the numbers
thus obtained are always too low, because the ash, even when
directly determined (without previous sulphation) contains
something (CIV) not present as such in the original sugar.
The following process is recommended in order to overcome
this difficulty. 6 — 7 grms. of coarsely powdered quartz-
sand are ignited in a platinum dish, and after cooling, the
whole is weighed. 5 grms. of sugar (in the case of molasses,
3 grms.) are then added and well mixed with the sand by
stirring with a platinum wire. The dish and contents are
subsequently ignited in a platinum muffle in the usual way.
By this means the carbon dioxide is completely expelled
from the ash, whilst the sulphates and chlorides originally
present are not appreciably decomposed. The weight of
ash found, therefore, accurately represents the total mineral
matter present in the sugar. A large number of duplicate
ash determinations made by the " sulphate" and "sand"
processes, as well as a series of complete analyses of sugars
are given, showing the variations in the percentages of
organic non-sugars caused by adopting either the one or the
other ash result. — H. T. P.
On the Estimation of Sugars by Osfs Copper Solution.
M. Schmoeger. Zeits. Kiibenzueker Ind. 1892, 28,
23—27.
The author, in general, confirms the advantages over
Fehling's solution claimed by Ost for his cupric potassium
carbonate solution (this Journal, 1890, 825 and 1160;
1891, 858). In the case of dextrose and invert sugar the
agreement between duplicate determinations is very good,
and the results are practically identical with those of Ost.
With milk-sugar the results are not quite so satisfactory,
1 and in this case the use of Fehling's solution is to be
preferred. Ost's solution is, however, particularly to be
recommended for the estimation of small quantities of
invert sugar in presence of much cane sugar, since the
1 latter has only a very slight reducing action on the
I reagent. The weaker solution (3-6 grms. of CuS04.5H2U
! per litre) is most suitable for the purpose. There are,
however, several drawbacks to the use of Ost's solution.
In presence of calcium salts the precipitated cuprous oxide
will contain calcium carbonate. According to the author
this difficulty may be got over by precipitating the lime
with potassium oxalate, and after filtration using the clear
2M
THE JOURNAL, OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY [March si, iraa,
filtrate for analysis. Another disadvantage is that Ost's
stronger solution when boiled with water or a sugar solution,
deposits a brown film of cupric oxide on the side of the
beaker. This film ordinarily weighs from 1 — 2 mgrms.
The weaker solution gives no such deposit even on pro-
longed boiling. As regards the keeping qualities of the
reagent, the author finds that the stronger solution after
several months (sometimes weeks) storage in closed bottles
deposits a distinct blue sediment consisting chiefly of a
copper silicate, the silicic acid being derived from the
glass which was strongly attacked. Ost's weaker solution
remains unaltered under similar conditions. — H. T. P.
The Melting Poi)ils of Mixtures of Hydrocarbons.
L. Vignon. Compt. Uend. 1S91, 131, 133— 13G.
See under III., page 235.
On the Solution of Bismuth ( 'hloride in Saturated Solutions
of Common Salt, and on Basic Salicylate of Bismuth.
li. Gausse. Compt Rend. 1891, 113, 547—549.
See under XX., page 262.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
The Flow of Water, Petroleum, and Mineral Oil through
Tubes. H. Merczyng. Cheni. Zeit. Kep. 1891, 15, 223.
When liquids flow through tubes two cases occur. If the
liquid passes through capillary tubes, the fluidity of the
body is calculated after Poirseuille's formula —
Q =
8k
a being equal to the working pressure (the difference
between the pressure at the beginning and end of tube),
r = radius, k = constant of friction. This formula only
holds good for tubes up to 1 mm. diameter, and where the
length exceeds the diameter 40 times. In practice, to
determine the fluidity of any liquid, being given the diameter
of the tube and the pressure used, the formula —
Q = 7 ^/
can be made use of where y is an experimentally-obtained
constant, which alters in a certain proportion to the rate of
outflow of the liquid.
The temperature of the liquid on flowing out is of impor-
tance, as it alters the viscosity and friction coustant,
greatly decreasing the latter as the temperature rises. In
practical work the rise of temperature due to movement of
the liquid through tubes in the case of water, petroleum,
and mineral oil may be neglected in the calculation.
Krussel's experiments gave the following results, one kilo,
of liquid flowing through the tube per second : —
Temp.
Under
Water,
a Pressure of Kilos.
Petroleum.
Spec. Grav. 0"823.
Under Pressure of Kilos.
0-70
1-40
2-11
2'81
n-711
1'40
2-11
2-S1
10°
5-25
3-75
3 '25
2-75
6-50
4\3
3-75
3-25
25°
6-1
8-75
8-0
2'6U
6'0
4-25
3-5 1 3-1
40°
5-0
35
SO
2-00
5"9
4-25
8-5 'i»
Temp.
Solar Oil.
Spec. Grav. 0-886.
Under Pressure of Kilos.
Mineral Oil.
Spec. Brav. 0-885.
Under Pressure of Kilos.
0'7n
1-40 2'11
2-S1
0-70
l-lil
2-11
2-sl
10°
12-0
7'25
5-0
4'25
1S-5
10-25
7-85
G-25
25°
8-25
5-0
3'9
3-36
ll'O
«-2S
4-50
3-75
40°
7'25
t" 75
3-75
3-0
V5
5-0
373 ; 3-25
Temp.
Lubricating Oil.
Spe ■. Grav. 0-912.
Under Pressure of Kilos.
Mineral Oil Residue.
Spec. Grav. 0-9117.
Under Pressure of Kilos.
0"70 l-lii 2-11
10°
25°
40°
IUii-5
61-0
20-25
-1
Ml
LTM
85-0
44-5
1V25
66-5
21-0
WO
43-0
1775
8-0
186-5
!lf23
72-5
36-5
22-0
11-73
65-0
20-75
8-0
45-25
17 --'5
C-25
-E. F. H.
Magnesium Nitride. V. Merz. lier. 24, 3940—3944.
Magnesium nitride, Mg,X;, ma}- be prepared in the form
of a light yellow mass, becoming darker on heating, by
passing pure dry nitrogen over magnesium powder, previously
carefully dried, and strongly heated by a compound Buusen
burner. It may, however, be obtained more readily and at
a lower temperature by substituting ammonium for nitrogen.
The gas must be dried with great thoroughness by passage
through long absorption tubes of caustic potash and lime,
and the powdered magnesium must be equally free from
moisture. Hydrogen is evolved in almost the calculated
amount, and the magnesium nitride obtained corresponds to
the formula Mg3N,,, sundry samples prepared by the author
containing nearly 27 per cent, of nitrogen as against 28 per
cent, demanded by theory. A small proportion of the
magnesium attacks the glass of the combustion tube, and
therefore absorbs no nitrogen. Only traces of hydrogen
were recognised in the author's preparation. — B. B.
A Mode of Formation of Sulphide Minerals. E. Chuard.
Compt. Kend. 1890, 113, 194—196.
The work of Daubree (Compt. Kend. 1875, 80, 461)
illustrates the manner of formation of a number of sulphide
minerals, such as galena, pyrites, tetrahedrite, by the aid of
sulphuretted waters, but such a method of formation cannot
well have been universal, and examination is here entered
into of objects of the bronze period found in the Swiss lake
districts. Bronze objects embedded actually in the mud
have been found to be coated very thinly with a substance
which proves to contain : —
Per Cent.
Sulphur 27-09
Tin .3117
Iron Sl'05
Copper 33-97
— T. L. B.
Physiological Research on Carbon Monoxide. N.Grehant.
Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 289—290.
See under XVIII.— B., page 260.
On Certain Capillary Phenomena and the Spheroidal
Stale. E. Gossart. Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 537— 540.
The author has measured by means of Le Chatelier's
pyrometer the minimum temperature at which a plate will
support a liquid in the spheroidal state. In the case of
March 81,1898.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
275
platinum, which cannot he satisfactorily polished, he has
always found that Boutigny's values are correct. Hut on
well-polished gold and silver he has found globules remain in
the spheriodal state decidedly below their point of ebullition
(e.g. water on a plate at 80).
He also tiuds that durable spheroids (in all respects like
those of Leidenfrost) can he obtained by introducing into a
liquid, lying on a polished support, drops of another liquid
of greater density aud superficial tension. Such is the ease
with mercury in water, alcohol, saline solutions, &c, on
polished gold. The gold remains unattracted for about
half au hour, and there is no electrical contact between the
plate and the drop. The mobility of the spheroid shows
that it is in a condition different from that of a drop of
mercury in free air. — D. E. J.
$.t\J3 ^oofesi.
Reactionen. Fine Auswahl in Pharrnaceutiseher Hinsicht-
wichtiger Praparate der organischen Chemie, in ihrem
Yerhalten zu der Gebrauchlichsten Keagentien. Von F.
_\. li.i i -kikes. 1892. Berlin: R. Gaertner's Yerlags-
buehhandlung, Hermann Heyfclder, Schiinebergerstrasse,
26, S.W. London : H. Grevel & Co., 33, King Street,
Covent Garden.
A sm m.l compact work on the Qualitative Determination of
the more important pharmaceutical preparations and com-
pounds of Organic Chemistry. It contains, besides the
author's Preface, a List and definition of the most commonly
employed reagents, the temperature being 15° C. The text
covers 163 pages, and at the close is an Alphabetical Index
of substances treated of. The book is bound in cloth.
Price 4s.
Besides the reactions for the vegeto-alkaloids, the newer
coal-tar medicaments are fully treated, aud we note amongst
these the following : — Antifebrin, Antipyrine, Betol. Phenol,
Quinoline, Cocain, Cumarin, Ecgonine, Exalgin, Guaiacol
(wood-tar), Isonaphthol, Iodol, Methacetin, Methyl-
acetanilide, Naphthalene, Naphthol, Phenacetin, Phenyl-
dihydroquinazoline, Phenyldimethylpyrazolone, Propyl-
metacresol, Pyridine, Resorcinol, and Saccharine, &c.
Handwoeterbuch der Pharmacie. Praktisches Hand-
bueh fur Apotheker, Arzte, Medicinalheamte und
Drogisten. Herausgegeben vox A. Brestowski. Zwei
Bande. Wien und Leipzig, Wilhelm Braumuller, K.U.K.
Hof- und Universitats-Buchhandler. 18VI2. Erscheint in
circa 24 Lieferungen zu je 5 Bogeu, Lex, 8. London :
H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent Garden.
This new Dictionary of Pharmacy, brought out under
the best auspices, is being issued in parts of large 8vo.
size, bound in paper covers. The price of each part
is 2 ■ 40 M., or about 2s. 5d. It contains 80 pages of
Subject-matter, commencing with Aachen and ending with
Aiiu/l(tlhnho!, and counts amongst contributors the names
of such men as Arnold, von Buchka, Eisner, B. Fischer,
Hellmanu, Jolles, Virehow, and Waage. The methods of
preparation of the various drugs and chemicals described
are given with great clearness and precision, space being
at the same time economised to the utmost.
The contributors whose names appear along with the
Editor's on the cover of each part, are 41 in number, and
consist of the best known pharmacists aud pharmaceutical
chemists in Germany and Austria.
Chemical Calculations, with Explanatory Notes,
Problems, and Answers. Specially adapted for use
in Colleges and Science Schools. By R. Lloyd
Whiteley, F.I.C., Lecturer on Dyeing and Assistant
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the
University College, Nottingham. London : Longmans,
Green and Co. New York: 15 East 16th Street.
1892.
Professoe Clowes writes a preface to this little work, in
which he points out that laboratory students will find a most
useful and convenient explauatiou of the methods of
calculating the results of specific gravity determinations,
analyses, and of atomic and molecular weight determina-
tions. We are further told, and wisely so, that it is not
written for candidates for any special examinations, but for
the general equipment of students of chemical science. The
little work is not confined to mere problems for calculation
with answers appended, but each division of the subject is
prefaced by definitions, explanations, aud fundamental data,
so that based on these and in view thereof the student can
then attempt the solution of the problems.
The subject is divided as follows : — Atomic Weights.
Miscellaneous Data. Metric System. Conversion of
Thermometric Scales. Density and Specific Gravity.
Calculation of the Percentage Composition of a Compound.
Calculation of Empirical FormuUe from percentage compo-
sition. Influence of Temperature aud Pressure upon the
Volume of Gases. Calculations depending upon Chemical
Equations. Combination of Gases by Volume. Calculation
of the Results of Quantitative Analysis. Atomic Weights
Determinations. Simple Calculations in Gas Analysis.
Absorption of Gases by Liquids. Determination of the
Molecular Weights of Compounds. Calorific Power and
Calorific Intensity. Answers and Appendix. The Alpha-
betical Index closes the little work, which comprises 100
pages of Subject-matter illustrated by nine woodcuts
representing apparatus. Price 2s.
The Tannins. A Monograph on the History, Preparation,
Properties, Methods of Estimation, and Uses of the
Vegetable Astringents, with an Index to the Literature of
the Subject. By Henry Teimble, Ph. M., Professor of
Analytical Chemistry in the Philadelphia College of
Pharmacy. Volume I. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company. 1892. London : H. Grevel & Co., 33, King
Street, Covent Garden.
Octavo volume, bound in green cloth and containing
Preface, Table of Contents, and Subject-matter, divided
into two parts. Part I. General, and Part II. Gallotannic
Acid. In the Preface the author states that the title of his
monograph " might well have been A Century of Tannin,
as just about one hundred years have elapsed since tannin
first became recognised as a distinct substance, or class of
substances, as we now express it." The text covers 165
pages, and is sub- divided as follows: — Part I. General
Description of the Tannins. Section I. The Discovery
of the Tannins. II. General Character. III. The Detec-
tion aud Estimation of the Tannins. Part II. Gallo-
tannic Acid. Sectiou I. Sources. II. History. III.
The Preparation and Purification of Tannic Acid. IV. The
Properties of Tannic Acid. V. The Composition and
Constitution of Tannic Acid. Then follow an Index to the
Literature of the Tannins, Index of Authors, Index of
Titles with Authors and Sources, and List of Books con-
taining notable chapters on the Tannins. In the former
Index the Journal of this Society figures prominently from
the year 1885, in connexion with the names of Bertram
Hunt, K. L. Whiteley, and especially Henry R. Procter.
Two or three well-executed woodcuts representing apparatus
for the analytical determination of tannin adorn the text.
276
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, U92,
A.Mi.ix-iiiiwAitz. Unci Seine Anwendung in Farberei
und Zeugdruck. von Dr. E. Xokltinc; uud Dr. A.
Lehne. Mit 11 Abbildungen im Text und 32 Zeugdrnck-
mustern und Ausfarbungen auf 4 Tafeln. 1892. Berlin :
Verlag von Julius Springer. Monbijouplatz 3. London :
H. Grevel & Co., 33, King Street, Covent Garden.
Large 8vo. volume, appropriately bound in black cloth,
and containing Preface, Table of Contents, text covering
10G pages, followed by an Alphabetical Index of Subject-
matter, one of names of authors, and 4 sheets of dyed and
printed specimens in illustration of matter in the text.
The text is embellished with 11 well executed wood
engravings, and comprises the following sub-divisions : —
Historical Introduction. Theory of the Formation ol Aniline
Black. The Greening of Aniline Black. Employment of
Aniline Black in Printing. I. Aniline Black in Powder.
II. Formation of Aniline Black on the Tissue. Employ-
ment of Aniline Black in Dyeing. Investigation of the
most important Kaw Materials as follow: — I. Aniline. II.
Aniline Salts. III. Chlorate of Potash. IV. Chlorate of
Soda. V. Potassium Bichromate. VI. The Testing and
Investigation of Aniline Black Dyes.
It is shown in the Preface that this work, originally
designed to demonstrate the invalidity of the Grawitz
Patents, has now become, with certain additions, an impor-
tant and useful treatise in itself, and hence whilst the
useful in it is now as much as possible made prominent the
polemical is allowed to die out. The price of the work is 8s.
Crane Import*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS REGULATIONS.
(From the Board of Trade Journal.)
New Spanish Customs Tariff.*
Statement showing the Rates of Import Duty to be levied in Spain under the New Spanish Tariff, compared with the
Rates of Duty hitherto leviable on Imports into that Country.
\ —Up to the 30th June next, when the Anglo-Spanish Convention of 1886 expires, the Conventional rates ot the Spanish Tariff will
still be levied on British produce, including those of the Franco-Spanish and German-Spanish Treaties whioh are enumerated in
Parliamentary Paper. Commercial Xo. 15 (1886). (C— 4778).
No.
Classification of Aeticles.
Rates leviable bv New
Tariff ol 1st February 1892.
General
Tariff.
Special
Tariff.
Classification of
Articles.
Rates leviable
hitherto on
Imports from
United
Kingdom.
Id
11
12
13
II
16
17
18
19
CLASS I.
Stokes, Earthy Mattbbs, Minerals, Glass, Ejkih-
e-nwake. and Productions of Pottery.
Group 1. — Stones and Earthen Productions employed
in Building, Arts, and Manufacture.
Other stones and earthenware substances employed in
building, arts, and manufactures; cement, lime, and
gypsum.
Group 2.— Coals.
Coal and coke (Note 1)
■< . p 3. — Bituminous Shale, Bitumen, and Bituminous
Products.
Pitch, tar. creosote, unrefined, mineral oils and asphalts.
bitumen, and shale (Note 8).
Naphtha, vase! be, crude petroleum, natural petroleum
oil, and other crude oils of shale (Notes 2 and 3).
Benzine, gasoline, petroleum, and other refined oils
(Notes 2 and 8).
Group 4. — Minerals.
Mineral ores.
Group 5. — Glass,
Common or ordinary hollow glassware (Noto 4) .
Crystal, or its imitations in glass (Note 5)
Flat glass and crystal
Glass and crystal quicksilver
6.— VotU ry, "Eartht nware, >ni>! Porcelain.
Ornamental clay flagstones, brick and tile for buildings,
ovens, &c. (Note 6) .
Clay flagstones, door tiles, ornamental tiles, japanned
biles.and pip ml- i Note 7 1.
Fine earthenware, One clay, and figures of gypsum
(Note 8).
Porcelain
Per 100 kilogs. Per 100 kilogs.
Pes. cts. Pes. cts.
0 40
Per
1,000 kilogs.
3 00
Per 100 kilogs,
0 60
25 00
40 00
Per
1,000 kilogs.
o 80
Per Ion kilogs
IS 00
65 00
-I 00
lul 00
0 30
Per
1,000 kilogs.
'J 50
Per Kill kilogs
li !U
25 on
li ii i
Per
1.000 kilogs.
0 25
PerlOOkilogs.
i
50 00
L'n 00
Ml 00
Per 100 kill gs. PerlOOkilogs
1 55
6 50
48 75
68 25
50
5 00
87 50
52 50
( Flint glass and glassware*)
< in imitation of it even if [
(. gilt or silvered inside. J
Window and plate glass.. .
Per 100 kilogs.
Pes. cts.
0 06
Per
1,000 kilogs.
l\-r mo kilogs.
0 41
21 00
32 00
Per
1,000 kilogs.
0 25
PerlOOkilogs.
li 50
16 oo
Pe
plOOkilog
0 06
1
50
26
68
37
50
A translation of the notes which are appended to the Spanish Tariff will appear with the concluding portion of the tariff in the April
issue of the Journal.
March si, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
277
Xkw Spanish Customs Tariff — continued.
Classification of Articles.
Rates leviable by New
Tarill of 1st February 1892.
General
Tariff.
Special
Tariff.
CLASS II.
Metals and all Manufactures into wnicn
Metal enters as a principal Element.
Group 1. — Gold, Silver, and Platinum.
Group 2, — Iron Castings [Note 12).
Group 8. — Wrought Iron, forged or in sheets, and Steel.
Group 4. — Copper am/ its Alloys.
( shell or cement
Per inn kilog?.
Pes. cts.
I
Ci ipper -! of first fusion, ami old copper
I ami brass, in bars and ingots, and old brass ....
Bronze, unmanufactured
fin sheets and nails
Copper
ami •! in tubes and large pieces, partially manufactured.
brass i such as outsides of coal pans and bottoms of
L boilers.
Copper, brass, or bronze wire
Copper and bronze gauze, not further manufactured, up to
100 threads to the inch (Note in).
Ditto, of over 100 threads to the inch (Note 19)
"Wares of copper, bronze, or brass, and all alloys of common
metals in which copper enters, polished or not (Note 20)
The same, gilt, silvered, or nickeled (Note 20)
Group o.— Tlie other Metals.
Tin, in ingots
Tin bars, lumps, or cakes
Zinc ! in sheets, nails, and wire
Lin manufactured articles, varnished or not (Note 21 )
All the other metals and alloys not enumerated in sheets,
lumps, nails, tubes, &c.
Ditto, manufactured, varnished or not (Note 21)
The same metals and zinc, in wares gilt, silvered or nickeled
(Note 21).
CLASS III.
Substances employed in Pharmacy, Perfumery,
and Chemical Industries.
Group 1. — Simple Drugs.
Cocoa-nut and palm oil, and other heavy oils (Note 22) . .
Other vegetable oils, excepting olive oil
Per Kill kilogs.
Pes. cts.
Dyewoods and tannery bark .
Seeds of rape, of flax, and other oleaginous seeds, including
copra or cocoa-nut.
Colophony, pitch, and other resinous products of a similar
kind.
Garancine, or madder, and other vegetable products, not 1
specitied under other headings. S
Products of the animal kingdom, employed in medicine . .
Group 2. — Colours, Byes, and Varnishes.
Ochres and natural earths, for painting, including alumina
Indigo and cochineal (Note 23)
Dyeing extracts
0 CO
15 00
27 00
12 00
12 00
OH 70
48 00
00 00
Per kilog
2 40
1 05
3 75
15 00
6 00
IS 00
33 S
2 00
48 75
58 50
9 60
27 60
0 30
1
20
5
40
12
00
3
60
0
12
54
00
9
40
0 60
12 50
22 50
10 00
35 00
58 00
■10 00
76 00
Per kilog.
2 00
1 25
2 50
12 50
5 00
15 00
26 00
1 60
37 50
45 00
4 50
10
00
3
00
0
10
45
00
7
80
Classification of
Articles.
Rates leviable
hitherto on
Imports from
United
Kingdom.
Not separately
mentioned.
8
00
23
00
0
25
(.Madder root
1
00
..
Per 100 kii'iL-s.
Pes. cts.
11 75
18 60
9 30
33 15
Hi 20
20 60
41 25
Per kilog.
0 41
0 87
2 17
f Other vegetable products '
I not elsewhere specified .
10
55
5
00
13
65
23
7o
1
60
10
60
45
00
1 00
23 00
0 10
18 35
0 20
10
00
8
00
0
10
10
oo
3
00
Whilst the franco-Spanish Treaty ccntinues in force 23'69 pesetas per 100 kilogs.
273
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, 1892.
New Spanish Customs Tariff— continued.
No.
98
99
100
101
102
103
lot
105
106
107
108
109
111)
111
112
113
114
115
110
117
118
119
1-20
121
122
125
121
125
126
127
128
Classification- of Articles.
Sates leviable by New
Tariff of 1st February 1892.
General
Tariff.
Special
Tariff.
Classification of
Articles.
I
Rates lei iable
, hitherto on
Imports from
United
Kingdom.
varnishes
Colours, in powder or in lump (Note 24)
Ditto, prepared, and inks
Ditto, derived from coal, and other artificial colours, and 1
garancine and its mixtures with madder (Note 25) J
Group 3, — Chemical awl Pharmaceutical Products.
Muriatic or hy drochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids
Natural mineral waters
Alkaloids and their salts
A! inn
Sulphur
Alkaline carbonates, barillas, caustic alkalis, and ammo-')
niacal salts, excepting sulphate -i
Chloride of lime
Chloride of potassium, sulphate of soda, chloride and car-
bonate and sulphate of magnesia.
Chloride of sodium (common salt)
Glues and albumen
Phosphorus
Nitrate of potash (saltpetre)
Nitrate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia
Oxides of lead
Sulphate of copper
Sulphate and acetato of iron
Pills, capsules, jujubes, and the like
Pharmaceutical products not specified (Note 26)
Chemical products not specified
Group 4. — Various.
Starch
Feeulas, for industi:il umjs, and dextrin
Common soap
Mineral and vegetable wax in lumps
Paraffin, stearine. animal wax, and spermacetis in lumps
The same, and all manufactured waxes
Perfumery and essences
Gunpowders, explosive compounds, and fuses for mines . .
Per kilog.
Pes. cts.
28 80
9 00
SO 70
PerlOOkilogs
2 60
Per hectol.
6 00
Per kilog.
36 00
Per 100 kilogs
1 80
1 50
3 10
0 60
Per kilog.
IVs cts.
24 0
7 50
La
Per kilog.
Pe3. ets.
18 00
4 80
24 ' 00
0 75
0 65
Pcrlookilogs. PerlOOkilog
2 20 ' Muriate and hydrochloric : 1 00
Per heclol.
5 00
Per kilog.
,30 00
Per 100 kilogs.
1 30
aeels.
Not separately mentioned.
3 90
2 60
0 50
3 25
('Barilla, natural, and
( ) artificial.
) Alkaline carbonates, caus-
v. tic alkalis, &c.
CLASS IV.
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
CLASS V.
Hemp, Flax, Aloe, Jute, and other Vegetable
Fibres and their Manufactures.
CLASS VI.
Wools, Bristles, Hair, and Manufactures
thereof.
It 40
Per kilos.
0 S5
Per loo kilogs.
4 50
12 00
Per kilnp.
0 7o
PerlOOkilogs
3 75
1 20
1 00
6 00
5 00
1 20
1 00
1 so
Per kilog.
2 40
1 50
Per kilog.
2 00
1 20
1 00
0 12
0 10
Per loo kilogs.
is no
PerlOOkilogs
15 00
2 in
2 Oil
22 50
18 75
30 00
25 00
24 00
20 00
60 00
Per kilog.
2 60
50 00
Per kilog.
2 00
Not separately mentioned
Per kilog.
27 50
PerlOOkilogs.
1 15
0 25
0 80
1 no
1 30
0 50
0 54
12 00
Per kilog.
0 35
I'erloukilogs.
1 50
0 25
2 00
1 50
Per kilog.
1 sj
0 90
0 10
Per 100 kilogs.
9 15
0 60
0 50
Not separately mentioned.
00
80
33 90
Per kilog,
1 73
0 47
March si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
279
New Spanish Customs Tariff — continued.
Rates leviable by New
Tariff of 1st February 1892.
No.
Classification of Articles.
(><■]., ral
Tariff.
Special
Tar i IT.
Classificatiox of
Articles.
Rates leviable
i hitherto on
Imports from
United
Kingdom.
CLASS VII.
Silk and Manufactures thereof.
CLASS VIII.
Paper and its Applications.
Group 1.
Pulp or paste for paper-making {Note 39)
Per lOOkilogs.
Pes. cts.
Group 2.— Paper fur "Printing of Writing,
Paper (endless), white or coloured, unsized, whose weight
does not exceed 35 grammes to the square metre.
Ditto, ditto, whose weight is comprised between 36 and
50 grammes to the square metre.
Ditto, ditto, whose weight to the square metre is 51 gram tnes
and upwards.
Ditto, ditto, white or coloured, of any weight ; cut, hand-
made, and pencil or ink ruled, and envelopes.
Group 3. — Paper, printed, engraved, or jiJmtngraphed.
Group 4.— Paper Hangings,
Paper, printed on natural ground
Ditto, ditto, on glazed or lustrous ground
Ditto, ditto, with gold, silver, flock, or glass
1 5(1
45 50
15 00
35 "5
63 35
35 75
Per Kin kilogs.
Pes. cts.
Group 5. — Pasteboard and various Papers.
Straw paper, common packing paper, and smoothing paper
Ditto, thin, of impure pulp, for packing fruit
Other papers not expressly" mentioned
Pasteboard and fine cardboard, glazed, and pressed in
sheets.
Other pasteboards in sheets, and boxes lined with ordi-
nary paper, and other articles of pasteboard and
" eartonpierre," not finished (Note 12).
Tin- same objects finished, and pasteboard boxes with
ornaments, or lined with fine paper or other materials.
CLASS IX.
Wood and other Vegetable Materials employed
in Manufactures, and Articles .manufactured
therefrom.
Group \.— Tin,h, r.
Group 2. — "Furniture and Wood Manufactures,
Group S.— l'arinus.
Charcoal, firewood, and other vegetable combustibles ....
Cork
Esparto, not manufactured
65 00
Per kilog.
2 60
60 00
Per kilog.
2 00
Per lOOkilogs.
14 10
Per loo kilos
10 85
86 00
20 00
62 00
in 00
36 40
2S 00
10 40
Per kilog.
1 05
1 00 i Not separately mentioned.
33 "" )Paperin the roll"Papel-)
> continuo," unsized or [-
\ half sized, for printingj
12 50
27 50
Per lOOkilogs.
Pes. cts.
27 50
Paper in the roll for writ-
ing, lithographing, or
engraving.
I Paper printed with gold,
I silver, wood, or glass.
J Ditto, of other kinds
Not separately mentioned.
Not separately mentioned.
Per kilog.
1 50
Rushes, vegetable hair, soft rushes, twigs, fine straw,
palm, and other analogous materials, unmanufactured.
The same materials, and esparto.manufaetured
1 20
Per lOOkilogs
1 15
1 30
0 30
39 30
1 00
Per 100 kilogs.
0 90
1 00
0 25
30 25
10 50*
27 50
43 75
Per 100 kilogs.
130 00
23 84
10 S5
35 00
6 93
Per kilog.
1 35
0 50
Per lOOkilogs.
0 90
0 20
0 20
30 24
Duty applied during the duration of the Commercial Treaty between Spain and Belgium 10 pesetas.
280
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March si, me.
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
The Production am> Consumption of Gas in the
PBiNcrpAi. European Cities.
Board of Trade Journal, March 1892, 263.
A volume has recently been issued from the Government
Printing Office at Washington containing the reports
received from the Consuls of the United States in different
foreign countries in answer to a circular from the Depart-
ment of State as to the gas industry in the various
countries.
The following particulars with regard to the chief
European cities are taken from the report in question : —
St. Petersburg. — The city of St. Petersburg, numbering,
according to the lau-st estimate, 1,000,000 inhabitants, has
several gas companies in active operation at the present
time. The old gas company, as it is still called, was esta-
blished in L835, and manufactures gas from bituminous coal.
These works comprise 242 retoits, with an average of
seven retorts to each furnace, one Beale exhauster, six gas-
holders, with a total capacity of 750,000 cubic feet, and
about 3,000 gasometers. The gas production is 1- ".
cubic feet. There are 20 gas motors, ranging from 4 to 10
horse-powers. The aggregate length of the mains is 28 miles,
with pipes varying from 2 to 30 inches in diameter.
The Metropolitan Gas Lighting Company of St. Peters-
burg supplies a large portion of the city with coal-gas,
using 62,450 tons of coal per year. The price for lighting
the streets for an aggregate of 3,200 hours has been 3/. 0s. id.
per lamp. For Government buildings the price has been
6s. Id., and for private consumers 7s. \d. per 1,000 cubic
feet. Recently the company has reduced these prices to
4s. 8d. for technical purposes, 5s. ad. for private con-
sumption. These works contain three groups of condensers,
six ordinary scrubbers, two "Standard" scrubbers. 32
purifiers, six gas-holders with a capacity of 2,000,000 cubic
feet, five regulators, five gas-meters, and six steam engines.
The gas production in 1887 was 637,496,200 cubic feet.
There were 7,852 street lamps, 120,524 private burners, aud
72 gas motors aggregating 319 horse-power. The total
length of the gas mains is about 165 miles.
The gas works of Vassili Ostroff, an island on the north
side of the river Neva, and forming a portion of the city of
St. Petersburg, furnish a large portion of the gas for the
inhabitants of the island. These works contain nine Biley's
exhausters, and manufacture gas from coal in the usual
manner. The returns from these works consists of 44,469
tons of coke, 2893 tons of tar, and 5,416 tons of ammoniac
water. The number of consumers is about 3,200, with an
equal number of gasometers. The aggregate length of the
main is about 27 miles.
The gas works of the Wiborg and old St. Petersburg
portion of the city of St. Petersburg belong to a limited
company and manufacture gas from Newcastle coal, the
quantity of coal used being 7,717 tons per annum. The gas
production in 1888 was 73,128,630 cubic feet. There were
1.457 street lamps and 10,500 private burners in the same
year. The gas works of the Marshall Academy belong to
the same company, and from both of these \Torks there are
obtained annually 5,152 tons of coke and 302 tons of
tar.
In addition to the cities and towns enumerated above,
employing gas for lighting and heating purposes, there are
about 40 railway stations in the Empire lighted either with
coal-gas or petroleum-gas and about 160 gas manufactories
established in separate buildings for the use of factories,
stores, banks, and other private enterprises of various
descriptions.
The laws of Russia forbid the manufacture and use of
water-gas, on the ground that the gas is injurious to health.
There is a special article in the patent laws of the country
to the effect that no mechanical device, nor any chemical
combination producing articles injurious to the health of
the people are patentable, and if patented under disguise
or ignorance of this fact the patent becomes invalid.
Many parties have n/ade repeated efforts to introduce
water-gas in Russia, but all such applications have been
rejected, invariablv meeting with the unanimous opposition
of the Imperial Society for the Preservation of Health.
Berlin. — In the city of Berlin there are two gas com-
panies: (1.) The City Gas Company, owned and operated
by the city ; (2.) The Imperial Continental Gas Association,
owned and operated by an English company.
The former company has four separate gasworks in the
eity. The latter company has three separate gasworks in
Berlin and suburbs.
It appears that privileges were granted to the English
company as far back as 1S27. By contract made with the
town of Schonberg in 1854, this company has the exclusive
right to lay pipes in that quarter of Berlin, which has since
been acquired from Schonberg. These privileges may to a
certain extent account for the difference in price between
the gas supplied by the city works and that supplied by the
English company.
During the fiscal year ended March 31st, 1889, there were
nearly 4,000,000 cubic metres less gas used in the city of
Berlin than in the preceding year. This decrease is supposed
to be due to the influence of the growth of electric lighting
and especially to the successful efforts of the lamp makers
in producing lamps with larger and better burners.
The number of electric lights in use in Berlin during the
year ended March 31st, 1889, was 66,650.
During the calendar year 1887 the city of Berlin consumed
47,299 tons of petroleum, and in the year 1888, 54,138
tons, or an increase of 15 per cent.
The quantity of gas produced by the city gas works
during the year 1889 was 90,000,200 cubic metres.
The number of jets led by the city gas works was : Public,
17.509; private, 798,631; gas works and offices, 3,309;
total, 819,449.
The quantity used by the public lights was 11,489,208
cubic metres; by the private lights, 68,608,759 cubic
metres.
The city gas works used 314,264 tons of coal from the
Silesian coal-fields, the product in gas for each ton of coal
being 287-05 cubic metres.
The length of the net work of pipes used by the city gas
works was 693,493 metres.
The value of the gas used in gas works and bureaus was
estimated at 13| pfennigs per cubic metre. The value of
the gas used for other purposes than lighting was estimated
at 12 -8 pfennigs per cubic metre. The value of the gas
used for lighting was estimated at 16 pfennigs per cubic
metre.
The total income of the city- gas works was as follows : —
During the year 1889, from gas, 11,552,591 marks; use of
gas metres, 268,323 ; cokes, tar, &c, 4,443,357 ; total,
16,264,271.
The total expense of the city gas works duriug the same
year was as follows : Cost of coal, 5,614,245 marks ; firing,
701,626; purifying material, 10,596; wages, 588,918;
interest on plant, 884,270-11; other expenses, taxes,
insurance, &C, 3,414,789; total, 11,214,444.
These figures show an excess of receipts over expenses
of 5,049,826-45 marks.
There are no official statistical data at hand respecting
the income and expenses of the English company which
supplies one-third of the gas consumed in the city of Berlin.
Paris. — The gas conijauy known under the name of
Compagnie Parisienne d'eclairage et de chauffage par le
gaz, which has the sole permission to furnish the city of
Paris with gas, was founded in the year 1855. The capital
subscribed amounted to 3,377,500/., divided into 336,000
shares at 10/. Is. each. These are worth now about
52/. Is. 8d.
The total receipts for the year 1889 amounted to
1,247,780/., of which 3,243,410/. were for gas, 677.924/.
for coke, and 1 42, 1 12/. for other by-products. The expense,
amounting to 2,645,909/., comprised 847,379/. for coal,
175,483/. for labour, 63,356/. for engineers and salaried
working staff, 42,535/. for the central administration,
12,062/. for the direction, 361,201/. for redemption of
capital, 273,046/. for municipal charge, including the tax
of Id. per cubic metre.
ttardbsi.i8»2.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
281
The net profits for the year amounted to 1,588,2292., of
which 1,01 9,28 U. go to the stockholders, and 360,614/. to
the city of Paris. The dividend for the year was 3/. 2s. 6a".
The gas is manufactured from coal by the ordinary
process and is assayed every day before delivery as regards
its lighting power and purification' by company agents, and
also by agents appointed by the city authorities.
According to contract the gas delivered for consumption
by the Parisian gas company must be perfectly purified and
its lighting power under a pressure from 2 to 3 millimetres of
water, ami an average consumption of 105 litres of gas per
hour, be equal to the light of a lamp burning -12 grammes
of pure colza oil per hour.
The report of the Paris Gas Company for 1889 showed
that the consumption in the year amounted to 312,000,000
cubic metres (11,013,000,000 English cubic feet).
The annual consumption of gas in Paris has gone up
from 21S, 813,875 cubic metres in 1879 to 297,258,070 cubic
metres in 1888.
The annual consumption of gas rose during the same
period for the whole of France from 467,500,000 cubic
metres in 1S79 to 628,000,000 cubic metres in 1888.
The number of subscribers to the Paris Gas Company
for 1889 was 224,119, an increase of 11,604 over the year
1888.
The substitution of electric lighting in a number of
theatres, public establishments, and thoroughfares has been
compensated by the increased use of gas for domestic
purposes, and the day consumption now exceeds 26 per
cent, of the total, atal equals one-third of that in the dark
hours.
The Paris Gas Company delivers the gas used for public
lighting at the rate of 3*. 5<i per 1,000 cubic feet, and
for private use at the rate of 6s. Sd. per 1,000 cubic feet.
The apparatus which permit the use of gas in kitchens
(cooking stoves, ovens, gridirons, &c), in dressing rooms,
kettles and bath heaters in private apartments (stoves),
are becoming more and more frequently used.
The fact that in Paris one-fifth of the gas supplied by
tin' gas works is consumed during the day indicates the
importance of consumption other than for lighting purposes.
The men in charge of tie Furnaces are paid 2s. *<l. per
1,000 kilos, coal; they are on duty 12 hours each day,
and their daily earnings are from 9.v. Id. to 12s. Id. Coal
carriers and cartmen are paid from 3s. id. to 4s, 2</. for a
day's work of 10 to 12 hours.
The coal used in the manufacture of gas by the Paris
company is obtained in France, Belgium, England, ami
Germany at an average price of 12s, Id. to 14s. 7d. per ton.
Brussels. — Brussels has its own gasworks, maintained
by the municipality. The suburbs are supplied by the
Company General and Imperial Continental Gas Company,
Gas is obtained by the decomposition of coal by heat.
Tin coal is heated in angular cylinders, holding about
200 lb. of broken coal. The gas is passed from the
cylinders into coolers, is then purified and ready for use.
Two hundred pounds of coal yield on an average about
25 cubic metres of gas, 8 lb. of coal tar, and 2J bushels
of coke. About one-third of the coke thus obtained is
employed in heating the cylinders, the remainder is sold
for domestic use.
The candle power is 7 J candles, or 105 quarts of gas pet-
hour. Approximate annual output of the city of Brussels,
14,226,787 francs. Number of consumers, 19,152.
The price of gas differs more or less according to
locality, varying 10 to 25 centimes per cubic metre, as
follows : —
111 the city of Brussels, day consumption, 10 centimes
per cubic metre ; night consumption, 15 centimes per
cubic metre. The suburban consumers of Ktterbeck, Forest,
St. (lilies, Ixelles, Koehelberg, Molenbeck, and Cede,
15 centimes per cubic metre. St. Jean-Ten-Noode, 18
centimes; Schaerbeck, 20 centimes; and Laeken, 25 centimes
per cubic metre.
Wages paid to workmen employed in the Brussels gas-
works vary from 3 to 5 francs per day for 11 hours' work.
In the provinces of Brabant, Hainant, and Naniur, 11 and
12 hours' labour is exacted for wages varying from 2 to
4' 50 francs per day.
Home. — The Anglo- Romano Company for the lighting of
Home have the monopoly of supplying the city both with
gas and electricity for purposes of illumination.
They have two gasworks, one on the Via dei Cherchi, and
one on the Via Flaminia. The process described is that
employed at the hirger works on the Via dei Cherchi, but it
is substantially the same at each.
The coal used is from Newcastle, mixed with 5 per cent,
of Liverpool caunel coal, and costs from 1/. 5s. 9d. to
1/. 6s. Id. delivered at the works. At this price the com-
pany has a contract which has some time to run, although
the market price has advanced to about 21. O.v. 3d. per ton.
The retorts used are of clay, and measure 21i in. wide,
14 in. high, and 9 ft. 6 in. long. They are made in Italy,
are much better than the French manufacture, and are equal
to the English, but cost less. They are placed in groups of
seven and eight around the furnaces. There are 78
furnaces that heat 562 retorts. Each retort has a capacity
of 160 kilos. (353 lb.) and is charged and drawn by hand.
All the furnaces are duplex, the invention of Mr. Walter
It. Jones, the engineer of the works, who has secured
patents on them in Europe and the United States. This
pattern of furnace has been in use since 1884, and has given
excellent results, all the regenerative furnaces having been
transformed in preference.
The number of publie gas lights in Rome in 1888 was
6,033, the public consumption of gas was 115,650,000, and
private consumption 381,550,000 cubic feet. The cost per
1,000 cubic feet for public consumption was 5s. Id., for
private 6s. 7</.
Twelve hours constitutes a day's labour, and the wages
paid are about as follows : — Head mechanics per day, 4s. ;
mechanics and machinists, 2s. lOd. ; superintendent of
firemen, 4s.; firemen's corporal, 3s. Id. ; firemen, 3s. 2d.
For good conduct a bounty is given to the firemen's
corporal of 8s. Id. A pension of 4s. 2d. per week is
paid to the widows of workmen so long as they remain
widows.
< 'onsfnntinople. — Gas has been in use in the citj' of
Constantinople for the last 30 years, but was limited to
one part of the city, namely, Pera, and is the residence
of all Europeans and foreigners in general, as well as of
all the ambassadors, ministers, consuls; &c.
There are two gas companies in Constantinople. The
first is a Turkish company, under the general management
of and belonging to the imperial Turkish Government, and
is called Imperial (las Works. The factory of this com-
pany is situated in Dolma Baghtcbei a suburb on the
Bosphorus, and furnishes gas for the use only of Pera,
the Imperial palaces on the Bosphorus, the lower end of
Pera, which is called Galata, and of one or two villages on
the Bosphorus.
The second company i* a Belgian German concern, which
obtained the necessary concession from the Turkish
Government about two years ago, and is called Soviets
Ottomane pom- VEclairage de la ville de Constantinople.
This company lias established a factory at the Seven
Towers, on the Sea of Marmora, and has the privilege of
supplying gas only to the other side of the city of ( !on-
stantinopie, properly called Stamboul, which is largely
inhabited by the Turks, including the suburb of Fyoub in
the Golden Horn.
It is impossible to ascertain the amount of money
invested in the industry by the first Government companv.
The amount invested by the second, the Belgian-German,
is 152,07h/.
Process of manufacture : The factory of the Belgian-
German company was constructed by Mr. Kloeune de
Dortmund. It has a gasometer of 12,000 cubic metres,
with furnaces and four batteries, with eight retorts each.
The other machinery is in proportion.
The machinery hall is 90 metres long by 15 metres wide;
the furnace hall is also 90 metres long by 15 metres wide.
Brilliancy of gas, 12 to 14 candles.
The approximate annual output is 1 ,0011,01111 cubic feet in
Stamboul, and 3,000,0011 cubic feet in Pera and Galata.
Number of consumers ; The Belgian-German company
has about 10,000 to 12,000 flames for the present. No
statistics can be obtained from the Government company.
a
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31,1892,
The prioe of gas per 1,000 cubic feet is Is. id., with 25
per cent, discount for public fixtures.
The use of gas stoves for heating and cooking is quite
limited.
The wages of the employes of the Belgian-German
company range as follows: Director, 1.000/. per annum;
ebief engineer, 680/.; quartermaster, 16."i/. : other em-
ployes, 10/. The hours of labour are about 12, with rests
two or three times during the day or night.
The material used is English Newcastle and Cardiff coal.
The price is 1/. 6s. 3d. to 1/. 7s. 3d. per ton.
( 'hristiania.—l hi istiania, the capital of Norway, situated
at the inner end of the Christiania Fiord, has a population of
145,oih).
The Christiania gas works belong to the community.
The amount invested by the city is reported to be
91.960Z.
The gas produced is the ordinary coal-gas. The process
done by sulphurous acid and ferric oxide.
The power of gas is equal to 16 candles.
The annual output is 1G7,000,000 cubic feet. Number of
consumers, 3 205.
Price of gas for illumination, Is. Oi/. per 1,000 cubic feet
with 5 or 10 per cent, discount for consumers, in proportion
to quantities used. Price of gas for cooking and technical
purposes, 8s. id. per 1,000 cubic feet without discount.
Number of gas stoves for heating, 20 ; cooking, 300 ; gas
motors, 13.
Wages of employee, from 2s. 3d. to 3s. 4</. for 12 hours of
labour per diem.
New Pelton coal from Newcastle. Their cost in 1889,
1 Is. English per ton.
Copenhagen. — In the year 1886 Danish gas works
manufactured 980,631,720 cubic feet of gas. Out of this
amount Copenhagen produced 594,517,000 cubic feet, or
il 60 per cent, of the whole kingdom's gas, and li times
more than all the other gas works in Denmark together.
[f tin- suburb of Frcderiksbcrg be counted as part of the
capital, ( lopenhagen consumes more than twice as much gas
a< the rest of the country.
Of gas manufactured in Denmark, 83 '8 per cent, is pro-
duced by municipal gas works, and only 16"2 percent, from
private works. \ steady increase has taken place during
the last \ears. In 1S81 the production was 705,731,600
cubic feet", and the increase has therefore been 38 -9 per
cent. The increase in the gas production at the Copenhagen
gas works was during the same period 1881 — 86, 27 per
cent., or about I1, per cent, a year. The other municipal
gas »<uks bad at the same time an increase of 63 per cent.,
while private works had about 60 per cent., equal to a yearly
increase of about 10 to 12 per cent.
Berne.— The money invested in the gas works at Berne
amounts to 1,728,569 francs.
Process of manufacture : gas is manufactured exclusively
in retort stoves. The manufacture of carbonated gas is not
known in Switzerland.
It is prescribed here that a gaslight consuming 150 litres
per bom must have at least a power of 16 Amplaeetats
lamps.
Approximate annual output : in 1889, 1,872,470 cubic
metres gas were produced at Berne.
At the end of 1889 Berne had 1,741 gas metres for lighting
purposes, 32 for machines, and 244 for gas stoves ; total
consumei s, 'J.t>27.
Price of gas for illuminating purposes, 25 centimes per
cubic metre.
The use of gas stoves is annually increasing. The price
of gas for this purpose and machines is 20 centimes per
cubic metre.
Wages: stokers receive from 3' 60 to 4 frs. for nine
hours' work ; still their presence is required for 12 hours,
of which time they have three hours idle.
For the manufacture of gas, Saar (Germany") and
St. F.tienne (France) coals are now used, with boghead of
\utiin (France), Tyne boghead (England), and pitch coal
from Bohemia to gain the prescribed light power.
l'riee of eoal at the gas works, Berne: Saar, per 100 kilo-
grammes, 3-1 t'rs. ; St. F.tienne, 3 ■ 22 frs. ; French boghead,
7'30 frs.; Tyne boghead, 6'50 frs.; Bohemian pitch
coal, 4-70 frs.
Greece. — Cities using gas: Athens, I'incus, Patras, and
Corfu. <
Names of companies: Athens, Compagnie d'Kc/airagc
pour le Gaz pour la France el VEtranger, Siege social,
Paris. Piraeus, SociSte Iiehje. Patras, the municipality is
owner of the gas works. Corfu, English company.
Amount of money invested in the industry : Athens,
2,000,000 frs.; Piraeus, 1,050,000 frs.; Patras, 800,00ofrs.
The process of manufacture is by distillation of eoal.
The candle power of gas is 5- 16 and 10 candles, counted
iu carcels.
The approximate annual output cannot be given.
Number of consumers: Athens, 1,400 j Pirajua, 350j
Patras, 300.
Price of gas per 1,000 cubic feet : Athens, 37 lepta the
cubic metre ; Piraeus, 35 ; Patras, 27.
Some gas stoves used for cooking, none for heating.
Wages, 3 frs. to 3 '50 frs. per day, Hours of labour,
9 to 10.
The material used in the manufacture of gas i>
coal— Cardiff and Newcastle ; about 35 drachmas t:
delivered in the harbours of Pilaus. Corfu, or Patras,'
Bubnt Clay Mortar.
United States Consular Reports, October 1891, 181.
In the frequent eruptions of Mount Etna in times past
great beds of clay have been covered by lava which has
burnt and converted them into a fine red gravel or powder.
This burnt clay, when mixed with a little lime and water,
forms a mortar locally considered superior to any other
cement for building purposes. Every building in Catania
is constructed of lava liberally cemented with this mortar,
giving a peculiar soft pink colour to all the unpainted
buildings. In building, small irregular stones are used just
as they happen to come, and a smooth surface is after-
wards given by a thin coating of mortar iuside and out,
which can then be divided by a trowel to imitate blocks of
stone. The harbour breakwater (which extends for three
quarters of a mile into the sea) was constructed in this way
ten years ago, and is as good to day as when first built.
-(J. H. B,
White Wax in China.
United Slat,* Consular Reports, October 1891, 201.
In Western China, not far from the Thibetan frontier,
flourishes the tree Lignstrnm lucidum, called by the
Chinese "evergreen tree," bearing thick dark green glossy
leaves with clusters of small white flowers in the summer,
which are succeeded by fruit of a dark purple colour.
Early in the spring numerous brown pea shaped scales
appear on the boughs and twigs of the tree containing the
larva1 of the wax insect whose scientific name is Coccus
pe-la. These scales are gathered by the Chinese, wrapped
in packages, and conveyed about 200 miles to filiating,
the centre of the industry. The scales are here made up
into small packets with leaves and are suspended under the
branches of a species of ash. The insects on emerging
from the packets creep up to the leaves of the tree and after-
wards descend to the twigs and branches where the wax is
deposited by the male insects. After 100 days the deposit
is complete and the branches are then cut down, the wax
scraped off, and what remains on the twigs is separated by
boiling with water, which destroys the insects and necessi-
tates a fresh supply of larvae in the next year from outside
districts. A pound of larva' scales will produce 4 or 5 lb.
of wax, a ton of which is worth about 1,000 dollars at
Shanghai. A tree from which the branches are removed is
only available again after three years. The product is a
clear white wax melting at 160° F., and is chiefly used to
cover candles made of animal and vegetable tallow. It is
also used for sizing paper and cotton goods, as a glaze for
silk, and a polish for furniture. The introduction of foreign
kerosene has had a discouraging influence on the production
ef white wax by diminishing the demand for candles.
— G. H. B.
parch SU892.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
283
The Pitch Lake of Trinidad.
United Slates Consular Reports, October 1891. 254.
The sum of 26,714/. was derived iu revenue from the
pitch lake in 1890. The extension of the concession of the
pitch lake was approved For an additional year for every
4.1IIUI/. which shall be paid by the concessionaires before
February 1st, 1909, over and above the minimum sum of
1411,0110/. payable in respect of the first term of 14 years,
and the farther sum of 28,000/. payable in order to obtain
the extension of seven years from February 1st, 1902. One
of the conditions imposed was that on February 1st, 1891,
the concessionaires should make a special payment to the
colony of 10,000/., in addition to the regular payment of
10,000/. due on that day under the terms of the concession,
both payments beiug taken as against shipments of the year
commencing on that day. Further, the Trinidad Asphalte
Company agreed that if by February 1st, 1892, the
concessionnaires had not paid to the Colonial Government
100, ooo/. in addition to the permanent deposit in London of
lo '"" ' io company should on that day give to theCrown
ge on all the land it now possesses in Trinidad
•ral security for the balance then remaining of the
140 '" ' , the payment of which to the Colonial Government
the compaDj has undertaken. — G. II. li.
Sulfhub Mining in Sicily.
United States Consular Reports, November 1891. 363.
The mining and fusing of sulphur in Sicily is still carried
on iu a primitive fashion owing to want of capital,
Machinery is very little used and hand labour is universal.
The two processes mostly used for obtaining sulphur arc
carried on in furnaces heated by the sulphur rock, and the
acid fumes given off are very destructive to vegetation.
A process recently imported from Spain gives a much
improved yield, a sulphur ore containing 15 per cent, of
sulphur giving a yield of 12'2 per cent, of sulphur, while
the ordinary process yields only 5 -6 per cent, of sulphur
from the same material. The richness of the mineral in
the mines is subject to great fluctuation, the risk of which
becomes an objection to the erection of expensive plant.
The Sinopoli furnace, which is much in use, consists of a
number of iron eases about two metres long, three metres
high, and a quarter metre wide ; they are surrounded by
walls and heated by two furnaces. When the requisite
temperature is attained the sulphur melts and runs off
through holes in the lower part of the cases, the operation
lasting about 30 hours. Nine dollars per ton is given as
a low estimate for the cost of mining and fusing of the
sulphur. The prices of the various grades of sulphur differ
by only small increments as shown in the following list of
prices per 100 kilos. : —
Description,
Price.
First grade (bost)
Second grade:—
Best
Good
Current
Third grade: —
Best
Good
Current
Lire.
10-71
10-57
10-41
10-12
9-85
9-77
8-70
-G. H. H.
The Chemical Industry of Berlin.
United States Consular lieports, November 1891. 403.
In the year 1890, taken as a whole, the chemical industry
of Berlin was in a very satisfactory condition in spite of
constantly increasing cost of production, due to increased
prices of coal, raw materials, and labour, and to the burdens
imposed by State legislative measures adopted for the good
of the working classes, but on account of increasing com-
petition, sale prices did not improve. The production did
not decrease in quantity, but, on the contrary, in some
articles increased very considerably. The price of sulphate
of ammonia averaged 26 marks, ammonium carbonate 05,
while crystallised sal-ammoniac 58 to CO, and liquor
ammoniac (sp. gr. 0-91) 33 marks per inn kilns. Quota-
tions for potassium carbonate of 96 lo 98 per cent, were
36 to 37 marks per 100 kilos. The trade in oxalic acid was
very active at cheap prices, averaging 55 marks. In
potassium chlorate there was decided over-production, and
the price fluctuated between 90 to 100 marks. The increased
cost of alkali used for sodium silicate did not lead to
increased price of the product as there was an over-
production, although the demand increased. Soda ash
and caustic soda rose steadily in prise, but soda crystals
were over-produced and prices did not continue to rise.
Sulphuric acid of 66' was equal to the demand at 7 marks
per 100 kilos. Prices for Chili saltpetre rose near the end
of the year. The quotation for nitric acid of 36° was
23 marks. The condition of the tar industry was un-
interruptedly satisfactory. Benzol rose 25 per cent, in
price and the manufacture of naphthalene was especially
lucrative. Toluene also found increased demand. Anthra-
cene found steady sales at unchanged prices. The value
of crystallised carbolic acid, previously in large demand at
enhanced prices for military purposes, fell from Hid. to
5','f/., but a rise is now to be expected Prices of coal-tar
colours weie unchanged and any hopes of renewed success
in this branch lies in patented specialities. The demand
for aniline oil and aniline salt was unusually strong and
prices rose considerably. The "prices of chemical mineral
colours advanced 15 per cent, over those of 1889. Iu Berlin
and its vicinity, where wages are high and the entire cost
of manufacture dear, only first class wans can be manu-
factured, whilst the cheap products (earth colours, &c.)
are made in provincial factories.
< >n the whole the Berlin chemical mineral colour industry
fully maintained its position in the trade of the world, except
in a few countries from whieh it is kept out by Customs
duties. Chemicals for pharmaceutical, photographic, and
technical purposes were in active demand, but profits
arising from their manufacture were not increased.
The requirements in regard to chemical purity of various
pharmaceutical preparations have considerably increased
since the publication of the third edition of the German
Pharmacopoeia, but the increased expense necessitated in
obtaining the desired qualities finds little expression in
increased prices. The price of bromine remained unchanged,
but the prices of bromine preparations fell on account of
continued competition among manufacturers. The con-
sumption of chloral hydrate decreased on account of the
increased use of other hypnotics, and the price fell 50 per
cent. The selling price of potassium cyanide was not
affected by the rise in price of its raw material, yellow
prussiate of potash. The glycerin market, on the whole,
was stagnant in 1890, aud quotations for refined or distilled
wares, owing to sharp competition, at no time during the
year showed the proper relation to the value of raw
material.— G. H. B.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Palm Oil.
J. Soc. Arts, 40, March 18, 1892, 407—408.
The total import of palm oil into Englaudis about 50,000
tons, valued at over 1,000,000/., but it is considered that this
is an exceedingly small commerce compared to what might
be the case were the enormous resources fully, or even mode-
rately, utilised. For miles along the west coast of Africa, ex-
tending between Cape Bianco and St. Paul di Loando, there
are vast forests of palms, the oleaginous fruit of which has,
for centuries, rotted unused upon the ground. The oil-palm
G 2
284-
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31, 1892.
forests at the back of the eoast-line of Cape Palmas and
Elmina are said to be practically inexhaustible ; and so also
in the neighbourhood of Fernando Po, immense tracts are
covered with the trees.
Lagos furnishes the purest oil ; for there are in com-
merce regular and irregular oils. When analysed, if the
water and impurities exceed 2 per cent., an allowance is
made ; for often these oils contain 10 to 15 per cent, of
water and impurities.
Palm oil is eaten as butter by the natives, and used for
anointing their bodies. Here it is used in the manufacture
of soap and candles, and in South Wales in the preparation
of tin plates. Its non-drying qualities render it valuable as
a preservative of the surface ot the heated iron sheet from
oxidation until the moment of dipping into the bath of
melted tin, the sheets being rapidly transferred to that from
the hot oil-bath, which consists almost entirely of palm oil.
In 1871, as well as in 1880 and 1891, the imports of
palm oil into the United Kingdom exceeded 1,000,000 cwt.
From 10,000 to 15,000 tons of palm oil are shipped direct
from Africa to the Continent. The price of the oil has
ranged from 6Ss, per cwt. in 188:( to 23s. in 1890.
Increased Consumption of Boric Ann in France.
In 1881,2 kilos, of boric acid sufficed for the whole of
the Paris hospitals, but, thanks to the progress of antiseptic
6urgery, though consumption began to increase in the year
following, by 1884 the quantity rose to 1,057 kilos., and in
1890 there was required 8,085 kilos, of the acid. There has
never been the slightest fluctuation, simply a steady increase.
— Chemist and Druggist.
Stothesising Tartaric Acid.
M.Genvresse has discovered a simple way of syntbesising
tartaric acid. He starts with glyoxalie acid (CHO.Ct »,I1 ).
the acid peculiar to gooseberries, grapes, and similar fruits ;
and, by acting upon it with nascent hydrogen liberated by
the action of acetic- acid upon zinc-dust in contact with the
glyoxalie acid, two molecules of glyoxalie acid are joined
together by two hydrogen atoms, and that union gives
tartaric acid, or rather the optically inactive form of it
known as racemic acid, there being apparently equal
molecules of the dextro- and la-vo- varieties produced. The
product was separated and examined. This new synthesis
of tartaric acid would appear I" throw some light upon the
natural formation of tartaric acid; for, remembering the
close relationship between glyoxalie and oxalic acids, which
latter is one of the most readily formed in vegetable tissues,
and the reducing agencies which appear to he connected
with chlorophyll, we have all the means at hand to account
for tin' natural synthesis of tartaric acid. — Ibid,
The Ai.kai.i Industry.
The United Alkali Company (Limited) have closed their
works at Clyde Hank, and are greatly restricting the pro-
duction at their Irvine and Eglinton establishments. They
have arranged with another linn to control the production
of hleachiug-powder. Chemical works are to be established
close to the salt works, situated some miles beyond Fleet-
wood, and the erection of buildings is expected to be com-
menced immediately. Employment will be afforded to
1,000 workmen. The Netham chemical works at St. ( teorge'S;
Bristol, have been reconstructed so as to increase their
powers of production. The North British chemical works
at Glasgow are being dismantled, ami most of the plant,
which is said to b( the best of its kind in the country, is to
be removed to one of the other works of the Alkali Union,
with which the concern has been incorporated. — Ibid.
Thd Portland Cement Industry.
Bradstreet's for the 13th February publishes the following
abstract of a paper by M. Pierre Giron, recently read before
the Engineers' < llub at Philadelphia -.—
" The present annual production of Portland cement in
Europe amounts to over 20,000,000 barrels, and its commer-
cial value to over 36,000,000 dols. The first factory was
established at Northfleet, on the Thames. The process was
SO crude thai in 1 H . j < > only lour factories were in operation.
In England there are now over 8,300,000 barrels made each
year. The process used there is about the same as it was
20 years ago. The raw materials are chalk and clay, both
very pure, and, although inferior processes are used, they
make a satisfactory cement, A few years ago the entire
product of the kilns was put on the market, but the fineness
of the continental cements led English makers to improve
their qualities, although even now English cement is not, as
a rule, as firm as Geneva or French Portland.
" The manufacture was first introduced into Germany in
1852. To-day there are 60 large works, having the same
annual production as England. The raw materials are of
exceedingly unfavourable character, but the makers have
made a serious study of the properties and uses of Portland
cement, and the producer now knows exactly what rules to
follow to regulate his operations, and the consumer can
depend on the product offered him. The Association of
Manufacturers has had much to do with the immense
development of ihe industry in Germany.
" In France the industry grew slowly, the total output in
1880 hardly exceeding 750,000 barrels a year. To-day the
output is 1,800,000 barrels. The works of the Company of
French Cements at Boulogne-sur-Mer form the largesi
Portland cement factory in the world, turning out about
800,000 barrels a year. In Kussia the first works were
established in 1857, and there are now eight Portland cement
works, making 900,000 barrels a year. In Belgium there
are four works, producing 800,000 barrels. In Italy the Port-
land cement industry does not properly exist, although a
certain kind of natural Portland is made. In Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden there are 10 factories, making about
8iMi,ooo barrels.
" Portland cement was imported into the United States
as early as 1868. In 1882 the amount imported was
:s7u,406 barrels, and last year it exceeded 3,000,000 barrels.
But little effort has been made to develop the manufacture
there. The materials for manufacture are as hard to handle
as any in Germany, and the processes are similar. These
are: — 1. Grinding the rock into fine powder; 2, moulding
it into bricks ; 3, drying the bricks ; 1, burning in an inter-
mittent kiln with alternate layers of coke ; 5, grinding the
clinkers.
" These operations require al out eight days, and require
great care to produce a uniform product. The cost of the
system is too great to make it successful in America. The
process used in the Portland Cement works at Coplay, Pa.,
has entirely revolutionised the science of cement-making.
Here the raw compound is burnt in a powdered condition
while travelling in an inclined rotary furnace in an intensely
hot petroleum Maine, and a few hours is sufficient to finish
the process. The cement is guaranteed to stand 400 lb.
in seven days, 500 lb. in a [month, ami 600 lb. in three
months, and to leave no more than 10 per cent, residue on
a No. 80 sieve."
German Chemicals in Iniua.
The development of the German steam service with the
East reveals the growing power of Germans in the Indian
market in a manner that would have been impossible if
nearly all goods were still slopped by way of this country,
as in former days. The official Indian statistics reoently
published give the following particulars of some of the
imports into British India from Germany: —
1689-90.
1890-91.
Rupees.
Chemicals (undenomiuated) is. -,117
Quinine , 6,312
Medicines | is 430
Opium 1 111
Aniline djes ' 2»s. ir,,-,
Other ilyes l.iuii
Instruments anil apparatus W.471
E&Upees.
48,31 1
24,266
70,964
1110
297,01 i
100,470
ii. i. si.1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
285
The total value gf all goods imported into India from
Germany has been: — In 1886 -87,Ks. 1,603,000; 1887 — 88,
Re. 1,944,920; 1888—89, Rs. 2,480,160 ; 1889—90, Its.
5,639,120; 1890—91, Bs. 16,916,490.— Chemist and Drug-
gist.
Tin Pbodi i iic.n in Phosphorus.
Until a few years ago the countries of Central and
Northern Europe obtained marly the whole of their phos-
I'li -from England, while France sent pari of her surplus
production to Spain and Italy. But gradually Russia has
secured a not inconsiderable share of the Central European
trade, a fact plainly shown in the German statistics
concerning the importation of phosphorus, which are as
follows : —
Imports from
I8S3.
1887.
1889.
1890.
Tons.
..
2
Tuns.
170
"
17
2
Tons.
212
2
;ts
Tuns.
Ii7
I Mihi oonnl mi .
25
Total
179
195
202
120
-Ibid.
Commercial Museum vi Constantinople.
An intimation has been received from Messrs. Richard
Shaw and Co., of Liverpool, to the effeet that a permanent
exhibition for displaying samples of produce and manufac-
tures has heen established at Constantinople.
Its object is to draw attention to and make known
throughout the Ottoman Empire, as well as in foreign
countries, the different kinds of hand and machine-made
goods, and to give a larger extension to the demand for
these goods by having permanently on show, in premises
specially adapted for the purpose, properly classified
samples, and by this means to contribute towards the
extension of the commercial relations of the country with
other States. The exhibition will be divided into two
sections.
The first will contain samples of raw material produced
in the Empire, specimens of manufactures, and other
articles of Turkish make ; while in the second section will
he classed samples of Hritish and foreign manufactures and
products of all kinds. The museum will include a special
bureau of commercial and industrial information, which
will supply all possible details as to Customs tariffs, cost of
goods at the place of production and their selling prices at
the markets of consumption, the cheapest means of con-
veyance by sea and land, the charges attending the import
and export trade with Turkey, aud how such may be
reduced to their lowest possible limits, with every other
information on commercial matters that may be required.
The directors of the museum have the option of acting as
intermediaries on behalf of manufacturers or merchants,
who, with a view to protect their wares against spurious
imitations, may be desirous of benefiting by the provisions
of the law relating to trade marks, &c, or on behalf of
inventors desirous of obtaining patents. A special book
will be kept at the store in which entries will be made of
the nature, quantity, value, place of origin, and the names
of the senders of all goods exhibited in the magazin aud
sold through the medium of the directors, as also particulars
oi any improvements effected in the different articles of
industrial produce.
The following are the rates for space in the museum :—
1/. 7 s. 3<j. per square metre per annum ; 18s. 2d. per J of a
square metre per annum; 13s. Sd. per i- of a square metre
per annum ; 9s. Id. per J of a square metre per annum, for
samples of any article or product whatsoever.— Board of
Trade Journal.
I'i i ■uiii.Ki m Production in thk United States in 1891.
Bradstreet's of the 30th January says that : —
"The petroleum production in the United States in lH'.ll
was the largest in the history of the industry. In ISS'.I the
total production was 35,163,513 barrels, of which Penn-
sylvania aud New York produced 21,487,435 barrels;
Ohio, 12,471,466 barrels; West Virginia, 544,113 barrels;
Colorado, 316,476 barrels; California, 303,220 barrels.
The remainder was produced in Indiana, Kentucky, Kansas.
Texas, and Missouri. No detailed figures have been pub-
lished for 1890, bui production was in the neighbourhood
of 46,000,000 barrels, of which about 29,000,000 were
produced in New York, Pennsylvania, and Northern West
Virginia, a tittle over 1,000,000 in the Macksburg district,
over 15,000,000 in Lima, and 1,000,000 in other districts,
making a total of 16,000,000. The production in 1891 was
approximately 50,150,000 barrels, of which Pennsylvania,
New York, and West Virginia produced about 34,500,000
barrels ; Macksburg, less than 400,000 barrels ; Lima, about
14,500,000 barrels; California, 350,000 barrels; Colorado,
32.5,000 barrels; and the rest of the country 50,000
barrels." — Ibid.
The Adulteration of Fertilisers.
The Departmental Committee which Mr. Chaplin has
appointed to inquire iuto the question of Agricultural
Fertilisers consists of the following members :— Mr. J. S.
Gathorne-Hardy, M.P., Sir Jacob Wilson, Dr. .lames Bell,
C.B., r'.li.s.. Mr. J. F. Rotton, Q.C., Mr. Channing, M.P.,
Mr. P. M'Lagan, M.P., and Mr. Albert Pell, with Mr. K. T.
Crauford as secretary. The following are the terms of
reference :—" To inquire into and report upon the repre-
sentations made by Chambers of Agriculture and other
bodies or persons with reference to the adulteration of
artifieial manures and fertilisers and feeding stuffs used in
agriculture, and to receive and report upon any evidence
which may be forthcoming on the subject, and to consider
whether special legislative provisions for the prevention
and detection of the adulteration of the commodities referred
to appear to be necessary, and if so, the nature of those
provisions." — Standard.
New Patent Law op Germant.
In a recent report to his Government, the United States
Consul-General at Berlin encloses the following translation
of an extract from the Hanover Courier concerning the
provisious of the new patent law of Germany ; —
The new patent law, which went into force on October 1st,
contains a number of provisions which differ very materially
from the former requirements of law, and a knowledge of
these new provisions is therefore of great importance both
to producers and consumers of patented articles. While
formerly the industrial use of products manufactured
according to a patented process was not under patent pro-
tection, a paragraph added to section 4 of the new law
provides that the effect of the granting of a patent for a
process extends also to articles produced directly by such
process. Accordingly, a dyer who obtains and uses in
Germany dyestuffs which are patented in Germany, but
which are produced in Switzerland without the consent of
the owner of the patent, makes himself liable for breach of
patent. This point was doubtful under the old lav,-. The
prosecution for such breach of patent is rendered easier for
the owner of the patent in so far as, in accordance with
section 35 of the new law, he is relieved of the burden of
proof that the patented article placed on the market is
produced according to this patented process ; in future, in
suits for infringement of patent, the burden lies on the
defendant to prove that the article in question was produced
by another process than the patented one. The above pro-
visions are still more sharpened by the fact that, according
to the new structure of the law, not only those can be sued
for damages who violate a patent knowingly, but also those
who do so out of gross carelessness. All of tbese new
provisions make it advisable that in interested industrial
circles, and especially among small tradesmen, in future
patented products should be handled with the greatest
possible circumspection, with careful consideration of the
23(5
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 31.1892.
new provis - of law, in order ti> protect themselves
against the disadvantages arising from a breach of patent. —
Hoard of Trade Journal.
A New Commercial Oil.
A Chicago glncose company is now turning out 1,500
barrels per day of a new commercial product, which they
call " com oil," It is (s:us the Skipping and Commercial
List) a yellow liquid much resembling linseed oil in appear-
ance, and can be used in making paint, varnish, or soap.
The oil is contained in the germinal part of the grain. In
the process of manufacture the germ is separated from the
kernel, and the oil obtained by hydraulic pressure. The
oil has heretofore been a waste product, which was lost in
the ordinary method of making starch and glucose. The
proportion of oil in whole corn is about 4 per cent. —
Chemist and Druggist.
BOARV OF TRADE RETURNS
Summary op Imports.
Month ending 29tb February
1891.
1892.
£
1,891,649
86-1,218
622,098
2,180,652
£
1,752,223
941,833
592,1153
Haw materials tor non-textile in-
dustries.
2.113,257
Total value of all imports ....
33,311,351
31,877,931
Summary of Exports.
Month ending 29th February
1891. 1892
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
2,s:.(l72l
756,000
2,539,893
£
2,629.389
7(ll .(122
2,349,355
20,470,621
19,328,753
Imports of Oils for Month ending 20th February.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1892.
... Cwt.
7,849
12.4*7
£
10,849
£
14,125
1,000
-Mis
40,084
77,717
61,562
77.l'.2(i
78,238
in i,i ii n
:i.77'.>.71 7
10,450,723
202,283
196,212
2,609
954
1,1178
1,134
58,726
22,029
24,(170
33,522
45,780
47,609
58,002
Other articles .
. Value £
of oils ...
••
••
6?,386
79,226
Total value
•■
••
522,098
692,968
Imports of Metals for Month ending 29th February.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
Copper :—
Ore Tons
Regulus „
Unwrought
Iron : —
Ore
Bolt, bar, &e. ... „
Steel, unwrought . . „
Lead, pig and sheet „
Pyrites ,
Quicksilver Lb.
Tin Cwt.
Zinc Tons
Other articles ...Value £
Total value of metals
5,262
11,113
2,35s
3117/153
4,393
S80
12,065
49,938
1,237,896
58,864
3,896
5,738
82213
2,680
886,277
■1,043
388
14,630
69,194
ii 7,: '05
68,644
3,475
Values.
1892.
£
is.lsl
.■III7.MS0
131,000
2:;:>.n5s
40,281
4,748
157,767
98,625
1 12,01(1
2(14,800
89,069
368,121
1,891.049
£
28,510
218,950
123,579
278,187
36,526
1,138
168,410
104,812
39,158
263,824
73,023
423,106
1,752,223
Imports of Raw Materials for Non-Textilb
Industries for Month ending 29th February.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian .
Cwt.
13,593
12,717
£
89,504
£
28,541
Lb.
32,010
877,065
23,069
375,206
Cwt,
22,945
31,531
Gum :—
„
3,438
6,835
10,774
20,813
8,795
8,122
Gutta-percha . . .
„
0,793
3,816
87,302
47,591
Hides, raw : —
„
32,443
31.374
80,820
80,647
Wet
„
48.S36
31,304
Ins.l'.lll
71,346
„
637
530
3(1,527
27,734
Manure : —
Tons
1,482
4,081
12,612
29,526
13,4.57
7.512
70,621
72.90S
33,707
60,128
. Cwt,
53,445
11,608
Tons
2,187
2,448
21,906
23,726
..
17,626
21,817
84.05S
117,084
Palp of wood ...
»
12,835
17,578
08,417
77,834
Cwt.
134,656
210,13!)
31,130
41,300
Tallow and stearin „
. 5,49]
101,495
71,510
133,121
Tar...
Barrels
6,840
2,338
4,662
1,691
Wood:—
Loads
88,488
126,917
1.(2,2113
214,898
>•
49,009
78,551
121,829
2(13,443
„
3,315
5,666
17,!>7(i
36,868
Tons
5,275
5,531
47,501
60,567
Other articles....
Value £
••
723,745
682,361
Total value
••
••
8,180,658
2,113,257
Besides the nbove, drugs to the value of S5,-lHf, were imported
as against 53,ti09/. in February 1891.
Mai h3i.uk] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L!S7
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 29th Febru \ry.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
5,319
2,937
£
3,241
9,389
£
2,651
16,770
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
83,494
10,766
21,745
38,078
6,655
11,105
..
..
97,759
131,951
551
256
3,175
2,080
Cutch and gunbier Tons
2,993
3,216
69,507
77,301
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
,.
24,580
16,785
••
• •
31,339
26,1 139
••
• •
1,079
258
17,672
16,450
361,851
332,317
Nitrate of soda.... „
195,455
159,872
70,55 4
75,199
Nitrate of potash . „
26,066
30,253
24,387
25,772
1,379
4,326
29,611
63,223
Other articles. . . Value £
••
••
121,998
156,383
Total value of chemicals
••
••
864,218
941 ,833
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 29th February.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
. Lb.
843,400
460,100
£
18,816
£
11,372
Military stores. .
Value £
■■
• •
67,591
62,099
1,1122,201)
1,553,200
20,710
30,043
Value £
• •
97,939
98,087
. Tons
4 4,5 1 4
39,780
88,666
76,225
Products of coal
Value £
..
..
136,402
180,805
Earthenware ..
»
..
141,932
157,824
.,
• •
9,323
14,331
Glass: —
276,427
242,951
17,086
12,800
Flint
8,469
8,249
19,181
17,611
. „
68,452
61,282
31,600
28,948
Other kinds..
. ,.
17,126
13,322
16,763
10,757
Leather : —
Uuwrought ..
13,522
11,006
116,882
100,799
Value £
..
32,777
24,904
6,435
123,900
70,980
128,121
74,816
Floorcloth
Sq. Yds.
1,480,700
1,869,400
Painters' materials Val. £
■ ■
..
126,846
123,774
70,913
83,731
125,026
142,812
3,689
4,658
29,519
33,953
36,938
43,590
43,183
48,182
••
••
2,539,893
2,349,355
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending li'Jrn February,
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
8,844
58,376
30,031
18,034
218,581
3,179
9,089
14,090
8,827
78,539
33,778
29,015
18 4,310
4,257
8,41 4
1 4.920
£
38,701
103,752
104,379
53,5:9
193, i:7
99,348
1,961,309
48,099
26,511
22,300
43,223
1 4,052
75,820
£
39,295
188,545
101,02,8
75,301
180.074
98,516
1,694,132
55,847
23,712
31,006
39,719
14,887
86,607
Copper :—
UnwrouRht
Mised metal
Plated wares . . . Value £
Telegraph wires, &c. „
Other articles . . Value £
••
■•
2,850,721
2,629,389
ExroRTs of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
29th February.
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
514,049
97,742
420.170
110,384
£
182,992
' 32,983
£
152,855
40,972
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
24,306
27,620
197,637
202,162
..
84,893
83,600
Other articles ... „
257,495
215.120
"
"
756,000
701,022
iflont&Ip patent fcfet
• The dates Riven are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent OfBce immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPAIU TUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
2908. H. Salmon. Acid condenser and smoke arrester,
the object of which is to clear the atmosphere. February 15.
3013. N. Hunting. Improvements in apparatus for dis-
tilling water in the presence of air, and for communicating
heat thereto, and for supplying water and air thereto and
delivering water therefrom. Complete Specification. Feb
ruary 16.,
288
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 8i, mi.
3042. R. Harrison. Improvements in and relating to
means for heating or vaporising. February 16.
3215. C. Pryce. Improvements in kilns. February 18.
3708. F. H. Dancbell. See Class XVI.
3834. E. G. Constantine. Improvements in or applicable
to annealing and other furnaces. February 27.
4237. F. P. Hill, A. J. E. Hill, and W. Freeman.
Adapting glass or earthenware bottles and vessel,0 of a
kindled nature for the purpose of containing hydrofluoric
acid or compounds containing hydrofluoric acid. .March 3.
4907. .1. Lee and S. Lancaster. Apparatus for producing
an atmospheric or Bunseu smokeless flame from liquid
hydrocarbons as fuel. Complete Specification. March 12.
4911. T. O. Eastoa, A. Watt, and J. Buchanan, jun.
Improvements in or appertaining to apparatus for filtering
saccharine or other liquids and method of working the same.
March 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1890.
20,16(!. F. M. Robertson. Process and apparatus for
evaporating and drying. March 16.
1891.
5342. H. L. Callendar. Electrical thermometers or pyro-
meters. March 2.
8057. W. If. Munris. — From G. Kaffenberger. Digesting
apparatus. March 9.
6587. H. Ilencke. Method and apparatus for drying and
evaporating, suitable for use in breweries, distilleries, sugar
and starch manufactories, and other industries. March 16.
7464. A. Hof. Carburating or carbonising apparatus.
March 16.
7446. W. Birch. Apparatus applicable to the cleansing
or filtration of sewage and other liquids. March 9.
1892.
154. A. T. Danks. Appliances for saturating air, oxygen,
or other gases with the vapours of ether or other volatile
fluids. February 24.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
3025. H. Axtmann. Apparatus for producing light by
the combustion of magnesium or other highly luminiferous
bodies. February 16.
3026. J. A. Dubhs. Improvement in the manufacture of
asphaltum. Complete Specification. February 16.
3053. G. A. Fuchs. Improvements in the manufacture
of coal-dust bricks from bituminous coal, charcoal, coke.
ore droBS, brown coal, trad the like. February 16.
3092. R. L. Barr, J. Macfarlane, E. J. Mills, and
S. Young. Improvements in obtaining cyanides. Feb-
ruary 17.
3305. O. Sapori. Improvements relating to the manu-
facture and utilisation of gar. and to apparatus therefor.
Complete Specification. February 19.
3326. J. Addie and J. Cuninghame. Improvements in
the treatment of spent lime and gas liquors and of blast
furnace and other gases for the recovery of cyanides
therefrom. February 20.
3355. E. W. Harding. Improvements in means or
apparatus for the manufacture into blocks or moulded
forms of carbonaceous matter for use as fuel. Complete
S) itiration. February 20.
* itoNote (*) on previous page.
3442. J. B. Butler. Improvements in the manufacture of
artificial fuel. February 22.
3619. T. Zohrab. An improved method of and appa-
ratus for the treatment of peat and the conversion of peat
into charcoal. February 24.
3959. .1. Johnson. — From H. Kennedy, United Stair-.
Improvements in coke ovens. Complete Specification.
March 1.
3981. J. Addie and J. Cuninghame. Improvements in
the treatment of blast furnace illuminating and other
gases, and of spent lime and gas liquors for the recovery of
cyanides therefrom. March 1.
3995. A. J. Boult. — From the Chicago Heat Storage Co.,
United States. Improvements in or relating to the manu-
facture of fuel-gas. Complete Specification. March 1.
4032. T. R. Osbourn. Apparatus for quenching coke.
Complete Specification. March 1.
1033. T. R. Osbourn. Apparatus for the manufacture
of coke. Complete Specification. March 1.
4041. I. S. McDougall aud J. T. McDougall. Improve-
ments in the treatment of mineral oils or spirits to facilitate
the manufacture of gas therefrom. March 1.
4241. I*. 1). Ferric and H. J. B. Thiroux. Improvements
in apparatus for enriching ordinary gas by means of
naphthalene. March 3.
4246. J. Woodward and F. W. Crossley. Improvements
in apparatus for charging aud discharging gas retorts.
March 3.
4411. J.H.Parkinson. Improvements in the separation
of oxygen, nitrogen, or other mechanically-mixed fluids,
aud obtainmeut thereof. March 5.
4440. C. Kilpatrick and The Ferric Sewage and Water
Purification Co., Lim. See (.'lass X.
4556. A. Jones and E. Shepherd. Improvements in or
connected with means or apparatus for consuming smoke
and economising fuel. March 8.
4728. J. Moeller. Improved apparatus for making gas
from oils, fatty substances, and other material. March 10.
4907. J. Lee and S. Lancaster. See Class I.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1890.
19,888. J. Love. Manufacture of gas and apparatus
therefor. March 9.
1891.
578. N. Bourgoin and H. Decorce. Apparatus for
making gas. March 16.
5960. B. J. B. Mills.— From E. L. Clarke. Machinery
for the manufacture of peat fuel. March 9.
6947. W. T. Cotton and E. F. B. Crowther. Gas retorts.
March 2.
7846. B. FIgger. Automatic apparatus for indicating the
presence in or absence from a space of gases of different
specific gravity from the ordinary gaseous contents of such
space. March 16.
21,223. W. R. Alpe. Apparatus for the manufacture of
fuel blocks. March 2.
1892.
SIS. (,. B. Field. Means for burning straw, cornstalks,
and such like fuel. February 24.
965. W. K. Vickers ami G. A. Everett. Machinery or
apparatus for effecting the complete mixture of inflammable
gas or vapour with air. March 2.
March si, 1982.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
289
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
2953. C. I). Abel. — From The Aetiengcscllsehaft fur
Aniliii Fabrikation, Germany. Manufacture of new bases
and colouring matters therefrom. February 15.
3698. I. linos. Manufacture of a new compound result-
ing from the reaction of a methylphenylhydrazine and
salicylaldehyde. February 25.
:S71S. J. V. Johnson. —From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany, [mprovements in and relating to
the manufacture and production of dyes derived from
triphern l-meihane and of leneo compounds thereof, and of
intermediate products in the >ai<l manufacture. February 25.
3791. A. -I. Bonlt. — From The Firm of W. Bruns, Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of colours specially
applicable for colouring photographs. Complete Specifica-
tion. February 2fi.
1109. A. Bang. — From G. A. Dahl, Germany. A new
black azo dye-Stuff, and the production of the same.
March 3.
I I in. A.. Bang. — From G. A. Dahl, Germany. A black
cotton dyestuff, combinations of the same, and processes
for the production thereof. March 2.
1 106. I '• tmray. — F'roin The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, und Brilning, Germany. Manufacture of
Inta-amido crolonic anilide and of bcta-iiicthylaiuido-
crotonic anilide. March 5.
4407. 0. Imray. — F'roin The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, und liri'm'u g, Germany. Process for the
production of a red colour on textile fibres. March 5.
IG77. P. Monnet. The manufacture of new colouring
matters or dyes. Complete Specification. March u.
47GG. < ). Imray. — From Messrs. Kuchler ami Huff,
Germany, Process for the production of methylendiplicnyl
di-imide and its homologues and the conversion thereof
into diamidodiphenylmethan and its homologues and into
fuchsine. March 10.
4932. F. (ieromont and H. Goldenherg. Improvements
in the manufacture of colouring matters. March 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3270. A. Fischesser. Process for producing azo colour-
ing matters. March 2.
4871. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters
derived from anthraquinone. March 16.
5984. B. Willcox. — From The F'arbenfabrikeu vormals
F. Layer and Co. Manufacture or production of azo-
c doming matters. February 24.
6370. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Lim., and A. G.
Green. Production of new bases and of azo-colouring
matters therefrom. March 16.
6972. S. Pitt. — F'rom L. Cassella and Co. Production of
amidonaphtholsulpho acids and of dyestuffs therefrom.
.March 9.
725S. .1. V. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture and production of dyes belonging
to the rhodamine series, and of new materials for use in
their preparation. March 9.
7713. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The manufacture and production
of diazo dyes, and of intermediate products in their
preparation. March 16.
7963. (). Imray. — F'roin The Farbwerke vormals Meister.
Lucius, und Brilning. Manufacture of nitro- and amido-
methyl-phenylpyrazolon and a derivative of the latter.
March 16.
7964. O. Imray. — From The F'arhwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, und Briining. Production of blue colouring matters.
March 16.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
3210. A. Rowbotham. Improvements in the treatment of
vegetable textile materials such as cotton, jute, and the like,
for the purpose of deodorising, cleaning, and restoring the
same, and in apparatus for use in connexion therewith,
which improvements are also applicable to the treatment of
sponges. February 18.
3268. R. Brown and .1. C. Allardice. An improved
composition for finishing linen and other fabrics. Feb-
ruary 19.
3369. T. Thomson. Improvements in compositions for
waterproofing paper, woven fabrics, and other materials.
February 20.
3650. J. Clegg. An improved method for carbonising or
extracting vegetable or other foreign matter from wool,
woollen, or worsted fabrics. February 25.
3979. .1. A. Wilson and 1). Nicoll. Treating vegetable
fibres either in the raw or in the manufactured state in order
to arrest or retard decay. March 1.
4692. .1. Yillicus. A process for producing fibre from
the hop plant for textile purposes or pulping. March 9.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
6698. .1. G. Smith From F. Doller. Waterproofing
textile materials. March 16.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
2939. A. Ophoven. Improved art or process or
colouring pictures or textile fabrics. Complete Specifica-
tion. F'ebruary 15.
3413. C. Owens. An improvod method of bleaching raw
cotton or other vegetable fibres. F'ebruary 22.
4278. H. Thies and E. Herzig. Improvements in
bleaching. Complete Specification. -March 4.
4823. C. J. E. de Haen. Improvements in or relating to
the bleaching of vegetable and animal fibres or other
organic substances. March 11.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
2096. W. Searle and \V. H. Elliot. Apparatus for
dying or chemically treating and drying paper, felt, or
other fabrics. March 16.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
2991. J.J. Knight. Improved treatment of chloride of
ammonium produced in the manufacture of soda by the
ammonia-soda process to obtain carbonate of ammonia and
chlorine. February 16.
3491. The Manchester Oxygen (Brin's Patent) Company,
Limited, and W. M. Jackson. Improvements in the manu-
facture of carbonic acid. February 23.
•290
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March a, W92.
3794. (l. V7. Sharp aud C.H.- Harvey. Improvements in
or- relating to converting ferrous chloride into ferric chloride,
and in apparatus therefor. February 26.
3880. E. Bijan. Improvements in the manufacture of
oxalic acid and cellulose. Complete Specification.
February 27.
4346, P. E. Singer. Improvements in the manufacture
of the hydrides of the metals of the alkalis. March 5.
4527. C. G. Collins. An improved process for the
purification of brine. Complete Specification. March 8.
4ii:")7. II. C. Bull and G. W. Sharp. Improvements in
or connected with the manufacture of ferric chloride.
March 9.
4705. II. W. Crowther. Improvements in treating
liquors containing sulphocyanides for the purpose of
separating the said sulphocyanides therefrom. March 10
4851. F. Ellershausen, Improvements in the manufacture
of soda and potash. March 11.
4903. M. N. d'Andria. Improvements in the manufacture
of sulphocyanides. March 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1311. C. F. Claus. Manufacture of the illuminates,
sulphates, and carbonates of soda and potash, and the
production or recovery of alumina and other by-products.
March 1C.
4712. J. l'edder. Using a combination of sulphuric
acid for the decomposition of chlorides, sulphides, sulphates,
and of sulphuretted hydrogen. March 16.
6509. J. W. Wilson and C. II. G. Harvey. Treating
waste liquor from galvanising works and other similar
liquors to obtain ferric chloride. February 24.
8006. E. L. C. Martin. Manufacture of caustic soda and
caustic potash. March 16.
8018. G. Lunge and J. Dewar. Process for the recovery
of sulphur, carbonate of soda, and iron oxide from double
sulphide of sodium and iron. March 2.
8844. A. F. M. L. Paillard. Manufacturing and regene-
rating salts of peroxide of iron. March 9.
17,130. F. Perez - Gutierrez. Process for moulding
common salt (chloride of sodium) by melting it previously.
February 21.
20,713. C. Kellner. Manufacture and production of
chlorine and alkaline carbonates. February 24.
1892.
212. S. C. C. Currie. Improvements in the art of
producing insoluble chlorides direct from the metals.
March 2.
2389. L. Bruuner and A. Zanuer. Process for preparing
at the same time neutral sulphate of soda and precipitated
phosphate of lime. March 16.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTEKY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
3586. C. Armstrong. Improvements in kilns or ovens
for burning and glazing sanitary ware and the like. Oom-
ph tc Specification. February 24.
:".S17. .1. Hughes and C. Billiugton, jun. Improved
construction of spurs, -stilts, and thimble-pins for use in
supporting pottery ware whilst being fired. February 27.
4525. H. I). Fitzpatrick. — From M. Schreiber and L.
Oettinger, Germany. Improvements in the method of
manufacturing glass bricks. Complete Specification.
March 8.
4545. H. II. Pitt. Improvements in the process of the
manufacture of pressed glass articles, aud in apparatus
therefor. March 8.
4585. F. Wright and C. Rawle. Improvements in the
manufacture of articles of glass, and in apparatus therefor.
March 8.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
21,997. J. K. Thompson. Fire-resisting bricks and
material for lining, facing, or coating fireplaces, fireboxes,
furnaces, ovens, and kilns of every kind. February 24.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
2957. H. Hartmann. Improvements in the manufacture
of a resistible material, chiefly designed for building pur-
poses. Complete Specification. February 15.
2970. E. Robbins. Improvements in buildings, structures,
aud decorative works, in vitreous, cementitious, aud other
materials, plant, aud machinery therefor. February 16.
3079. C. R. Coweus. Improvements in or relating to
the calcination of limestone, ironstone, or the like substances,
and in the recovery and utilisation of by-products aud
residuals for commercial purposes. February 17.
3125. J. M. Bridson. An improved brick for building
purposes. February 17.
3315. W. Thompson. Improvement in the method of
calcining limestone. February 20.
3539. H. Briluson and E. W. Gillett. Improvements
in building or paving blocks. Complete Specification.
February 23.
4131. J. T. Enowles. — From Die Actiengesellschaft
" Cimbria," Denmark. A process for the treatment of raw
materials to be used in the production of Portland cement.
March 2.
4149. \V. H. Charlesworth. Improvements in slurry-
drying structures used in the manufacture of cement.
March 2.
4295. J. W. Ardin aud J. Brown. An improvement in
the construction of blocks or bricks for street pavements.
March 4.
4408. C. J. Dobbs. Improvements iu the manufacture
of scoria or slag blocks for paving and other purposes.
March 5.
4496. J. S. Holliday. Improved artificial stones. Com-
plete Specification. March 7.
4499. J. Lyle. Improved combination of ingredients to
form asphalt compounds, specially adapted for road and
paving purposes generally. March 7.
4511. S.Turner. An improved fireproof floor. March 8.
4540. G. M. Graham. Improvements in building or
paving blocks. Complete Specification. March 8.
4553. J. W. Knights. An improvement iu burning
Portland cement. March 8.
March Si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
291
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7184. W. W. Horn.— From W. L. Mason, T. W. Blakey,
aud J. A. Wright. Artificial stone. March 2.
10,137. II. H. Lake.— From II. B. Seely. Construction
of floors. March 9.
22,198. F. II. Willis and E. Astley. Fireproof floor.
March 10.
1892.
795. E. Websky. Treating gypsum casts. February 24.
1827. W. Brown. Method of jointing concrete paving.
March 9.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
2927. H. I'idot. Improvements in the production of
aluminium. February 15.
3H24. A. G. Brookes.— From B. C. Molloy, South Africa.
Improvements in precipitating and collecting metals from
solutions containing them. February 16.
3090. A. D. Leyshou. An improvement in the process
of coating tin and terne plates, and in apparatus therefor.
February 17.
3237. It. A. Hadfield. Improvements in the manufacture
of cast steel projectiles. February 19.
3308. M.N. d'Andria. Improvements in the recovery
of hydrochloric acid aud ferric oxide from ferrous chloride.
February 19.
3422. A. E. Tucker and F. W. Harbord. Improvements
in the linings of steel converters, Siemens and other
metallurgical furnaces. February 22.
3493. K. L. Sentiuella. An improved treatment of iron
and steel for casting the same from crucibles. February 23.
3844. T. Twynam. Improvements in the separation of
tin from tin scraj). February 27.
3854. T. M. Ash and II. W. Gill. Improvements relating
to the depositing of metals. February 27.
3947. B. Talbot, sen. Improved form of furnace for
iron and steel manufacture. March 1.
4173. I'. Rossigneux. Improved method or means of
desulphurising eastings or alloys of certain metals. Date
applied for, October 28, 1891, being date of application in
France. Filed March 2.
4215. F. G. Fuller. Improvements in the extraction and
recovery of gold and silver. March 3.
4333. F. Sugden and T. Sugdeu. Treatment of cast
iron. March 4.
4334. J. Jones. Improvements iu the manufacture of
sheet iron. March 4.
4440. C. Kilpatrick aud the Ferric Sewage and Water
Purification Company, Limited. A new or improved process
for the utilisation of oxide of iron obtained as a by-product
in the smelting or extraction of copper from cupreous ores,
or from spent oxide obtained as a by-product in the
purification of gas. March 7.
4460. W. 1'. Thompson.— From W. J. Miles, jun.,
H. S. Deming, and A. Herz, United States. Improvements
in metallic alloys. Complete Specification. March 7.
4488. T. Evans and H. C. Bunkell. Improvements in
amalgamating the precious metals and their ores, and the
like, and in apparatus therefor. March 7.
4644. J. Nicholas. An improved means of extracting
precious aud other metals from their ores, March 9.
Complete Specifications Acceited.
1891.
3057. C. A. Faure. Manufacture or production of
aluminium alloys. February 24.
5851. W. Sowerby and E. Casper. Casting metals.
March 16.
6942. W. Beardmore. Manufacture of armour plates and
apparatus therefor. March 2.
8083. L. Mond. Manufacturing nickel alloys. March 9.
HI 15. A. W. Warwick. Process for extraction of
antimony from its ores, and separation of other metals
therefrom. March 16
9iil:i. A. M. Clark From The Deutsche Gold und Silber
Scheide-Anstalt, vormals Koessler, through Wirth and Co.
Process for desilverising argentiferous lead. March 9.
9757. R. Heathtield. Process for coating or cleaning
metals. February 24.
1892.
581. G. Pickhardt. Improvemeuts in connexion with the
use of aluminium and aluminium alloys. March 16.
1984. D. Dyreuforth. Manufacture or treatment of iron
or steel. March 9.
XL— ELECTKO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
2913. G. Nahnsen. Improvements in the electro-
metallurgic extraction of ziuc. Complete Specification.
February 15.
3114. C. Thompson. Improvements in electrical primary
batteries. February 17.
3120. P. H. Bertrand. Improvements relating to galvauo-
plastics or the electro-deposition of metal. February 17.
3512. G. I). Davis. Improvements in the process of
electrolysing alkaline salts. February 23.
3514. G. I). Davis. Improvements in the process of
electrolysing alkaline salts. February 23.
3523. O. Imray. — From C. Wasmuth, Germany. Im-
proved galvanic element. February 23.
3559. S. W. Kimble. .See Class XIII.
3881. K. Kahabka. Improvements in electrical accumu-
lators. Complete Specification. February 27.
4103. R.Goodwin. Electro-deposition of aluminium on
metals. March 2.
4154. E. Viarengo. Improvements in electric batteries.
March 2.
4190. I". M. A. Laurent-Cely and E. Finot. Improve-
ments in electrical batteries. March 3.
4316. E. G. Hoffmann. Improvements in electric
welding and iu apparatus therefor. March 4.
4456. R. W. James.— From G. E. Gale, United States.
A process for electro-plating. March 7.
4458. R. W. James. — From G. E. Gale, United States.
An electrode for electro-plating. March 7.
4576. J. V. Sherrin. Improvements in secondary
batteries. March 8.
4579. S. A. Rosenthal and J. V. Sherrin. Improvements
iu galvanic batteries and battery liquids. March 8.
4758. W. Boggett. Improvements in the method and
means of obtaining electricity. March 10.
4768. S. W. Maijuay. Improvements in electric batteries.
March 111
4820. L. Mercky. Improvements in primary batteries.
March 11.
292
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March Si, 1882.
COMPLETE Sl'EClIU'ATKlNS ACCEPTED.
1891.
2471. T. \V. Bush and M. Doubleday. Manufacture of
hjdrolysed 1l:i> I cells for electrical or storage batteries.
March 9.
5167. !•'. E. Elmore and A. S. Elmore. Manufacture of
tubes by electrolysis. March 2.
6243. S. M. L. l'.it/. and R. Grebner. Galvanic batteries.
February 2 I.
6247. J. V. Johnson. — From F. Gendron. Automatic
regulating apparatus employed in connexion with galvanic
batteries. February 24.'
6793. P. C. E. Champion. Tb,e application of electricity
for the production of pyrotechnic and other effects,
applicable also for signalling and advertising purposes, and
apparatus therefor. March 1 6.
7i'i!i7. ('. P. Elieson. Electrical accumulators or storage
batteries, March 9.
S227. \\\ P. Thompson.— From II. G. Tudor. Electrodes
lor electric Accumulators. March 2.
8845. R. Haddan.
batteries. March 9.
-From I. Cabanyes. Galvanic
1892.
1:191. The Loudon Metallurgical Co. ami S. O. Cowper-
Coles. Coating article- \\ itli a new metallic alloy by electro-
deposition. March ■_'.
1484. J. B. Entz ami W. A. Phillips. Secondary
batteries. March 2.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
3239. C II. Ridsdale. Improvements in lubricating with
solid lubricants. February 19.
4174. J. Porteous. Improvements in the manufacture
and preparation of soap or pieces of soap for sale or use.
March 2.
-I2."i0. R. Zurrer. Improved process for transforming the
unsaturated oleaginous fatty acids into less fusible saturated
fatty acids. Filed March :(. Date applied for August I,
1891, being date of application in France.
1117. ( )• Tillev. A new or improved cleansing composition
and process of cleaning and purifying foul casks or barrels
and the like. March 7.
4649. J. Gibson and ('. Estcourt. Improvements in the
manufacture of soap. March 9.
4883. II. Shaw. Improvement in the manufacture of
soap. March 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4454. R. Stone. Manufacture of soap and utilisation of
the residue of the substances used therein. March 9.
7251. W. X. Hartley and W. E. I!. Blenkinsop. Thicken-
ing oil. February 24.
21,438. C. L. Field Manufacture of super-fatted soap.
March 2.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
3142. H.Taylor. Improvement in the manufacture of
paints and varnishes, also in materials for use of same.
February 17.
:;:; 17. .1. C. Margetson. A method of devulcanising
vulcanised india - rubber, so as to recover raw rubber
and the materials contained in the vulcanised rubber.
February 20.
355.9. S. W. Kimble. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of compositions for insulating or other purposes.
February 23.
4169. F. C. Williams, M. E. Williams, and ('. May.
Improvements in or relating to bronze or other metallic
paints. March 2.
4252. I>. Rigole. Improvements relating to the extraction
of gutta-percha, and to apparatus therefor. Complete
Specification. March :>.
4522. W. Thompson. An improvement applicable to
blocks of laundrv blue, black lead, and similar compositions.
March 8.
4650. .1. Gibson and C. Estcourt. Improvements iu the
manufacture of washing blue. March 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5977. J. Robson. Preservative coatings for iron or other
structures. February 24.
7036. (t. Hand Smith. Treatment of gums aud the
preparation of varnishes therefrom. February 24.
8022. A.Honmanand B. Vulliez. Process and apparatus
for the manufacture of white lead. February 24.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
3105. C. Cosinerie. Improvements in the manufacture
of a light coloured albumen from blood. February 17.
4783. J. Pullman, W. R. Pullman, and A. Pullman. An
improved process for treating skins and hides. March In.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
8796. R. Wright and D. Wright. Machinery or
apparatus for staking, softening, ami perchiug leather.
March 16.
1892.
951. L. Bertram. Process and apparatus for extracting
glue or gelatin and grease out of hide and skin waste, and
of bones at comparatively low temperature. February 24.
Kirch 31,1831] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCEETT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
293
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Applications.
3029. II. II. Lake. — from the Biolytic Gypse Co.,
United States. An improved insecticide and fertiliser.
Complete Specification. February 16.
3301. I!. Willeox. — From The Farbenfahriken vorihals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. .See Class XX.
3806. E. Groc and E. Ramorid. A composition or
dressing for vines and other trees. February 2G.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
8402. A. Knorre. Manufacture of artificial manure.
March 1G.
22,192. L. Lamattina. Conversion into manure of the
refuse and foul matter from cities and towns. February 24.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
3241. A. G. Brookes. — From F. Paetow, Germany.
Improvements in refining or purifying sugar. February l'J.
37(18. F. H. Danchell. Improvements in the cleaning
and revivifying of charcoal in filters for saccharine juice,
water, and other liquids, and in and connected with the
construction of such filters. February 25.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
21,477. W. P. Thompson.— From J. Hirsch.
ture of cube, loaf, and similar sugar. March ■_'.
Manufae-
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
3010. W. P. Thompson. — From C. F. Lawton, United
States. Improvements in the process of manufacturing
beer, ale, wine, cider, or the like. Complete Specification.
February 1 6.
3011. W. P. Thompson. — From C. F. Lawton, lulled
States. Improvements in the method of and apparatus for
manufacturing beer, ale, wine, cider, or the like. Complete
Specification. February 16.
3798. W. L. Wise. — From A. Antheaume, Fiance. Im-
provements in the manufacture of beer. February 26.
3890. A. R. Waddell. A beverage. February 29.-
1682. A. .1. Boult. — From The Pfaudler Vacuum Fermen-
tationCo., United States-. Improvements in the manufacture
of beer. Complete Specification. March 9.
4688. A. J. Boult. — From The Pfaudler Vacuum Fermen-
tation Co., United Slates. Improvements in the manufacture
of beer. Complete Specification. March 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7272. W. P. Thompson. — From A. II. Jacques. Appa-
ratus for converting amylaceous substances into soluble
products. March 9.
20,649. C. Hof. — From Schneider. Production of colour
malt. March 1G.
21,698. P. A. Attout, called Tailfer. Distilling and
apparatus therefor. March 9.
1044. J. F. Henderson
wine. February 24.
1892.
Manufacture of unferiuented
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
3377. H. H. Lake. — From La Societe Mateu del Cano et
Cie., France. Improvements relating to the preservation of
meat. February 20.
3462. S. Pitt. — From J. Mariosa, Brazil. An improved
process for the preservation of meat. February 22.
3470. G. F. Redfern.— From G. H. Neuhauss, J. F. H-
Gronwald, and E. H. C. Oehlmann, Germany; Improve-
ments in or applicable to apparatus for sterilising milk and
other fluids. Complete Specification. February 22.
3592. P. McArdle. The preserving of fresh eggs. Feb-
ruary 24.
4928. G. D. Sutherland. An improved food. March 12.
C. — Disinfectants.
3933. G. Kraemer. Process for the preparation of
sulphonate salts from phenylised ethane derivatives and the
preparation of disinfectants therefrom. February 29.
3977. S. Armitage and A. Gadot. An improved com-
pound for disinfecting, deodorising, antiseptic, preservative,
and similar purpose-. March 1.
li'o.V W. Garthwaite. A new and improved method of
disinfecting infected places, called a disinfecting smoke
block. March 3.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
4177. W. 11. Watson. Means employed for the purifi-
cation and decolounsation of water, dye, ami other manu-
facturing refuse liquors, sewage, or other aqueous or saline
liquids. March 2.
746G. W. Birch. See Class I.
8271. II. Wbilcv. Improved destructor furnace for
refuse, ami apparatus connected therewith. .March 16.
22,531. W. Horsfall. Furnaces for destroying the refuse
and dealing with the sewage, sludge, and other offensive
material of town-. March 16.
22,747. J. T. Wood. A new or improved method or
prdcesS for purifying sewage or foul water. March 2.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
17,121. H. B. Thornton. Manufacture of disinfectant
tablets, blocks, or the like for use in water-closets, urinals,
drain-, and other places or articles. February 24.
-"I I
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [March 81, 1892.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
3091. J. Luke, jun. Improvements in and relating to
the manufacture of paper. February 17.
3103. F. T. Jefferson. A new or improved manufacture
of paper for the copying books of manifold writers for
making tracings and for other like purposes. February 17.
3260. .1. Luke, jun. Improvements in and relating to
the manufacture of paper. February 19.
1073. 1'- Wlnterhoff. A new process for producing water
or surface-marks in paper. March 2.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
82G. R.Brown and G. Mackay. Paper-making machines
for making the surface of the paper equal on both sides.
February 24.
3061. J. Feirabend. Process for the manufacture of
cellulose wadding. February 24.
20,224. T. Luinb. Machinery or apparatus for the
manufacture of press papers, glazed boards, and the like.
March 16.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and i:\TKACTS.
Applications.
3147. A. Hang. — From G. A. Dahl, Germany. An anti-
pyretic and anti-neuralgic chinolin derivative, and processes
for the production of the same. February 18.
3301. B. Willeox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in, or means
for tlie treatment of trees or plants for destroying caterpillars
of Liparis monacka and other insects injurious to plant life.
February 19.
3435. 1!. Willeox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Haver and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture and production of pharmaceutical compounds.
February 22.
3698. 1. lions. See Class IV.
4497. B. Willeox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of pharmaceutical compounds. March 7.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
0786. J. V. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda labrik. Manufacture of hydrazine or diamidogeu
and its salts. February 24.
7026. 11. Willeox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of iodine substitution
products of phenols and cresols. February 24.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES add
MATERIALS.
Applications.
3500. E. Ireland. A new or improved method of pro-
ducing coloured photographs. February 23.
3791. A. J. Boult. — From W. Bruus and Co., Germany.
.Sec Class IV.
4498. J. Hauff. A process for developing photographic
images. March 7.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
7312. W. W. J. Nicol. Photographic printing processes.
March 2.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
3605. A. Brock. Improvements in material for fireworks.
February 24.
:f'.t.",7. If. 1'. Merriam. Improvements in fuzes. Com-
plete Specification. March 1.
4146. A. V. Newton. — From A. Nobel, France.
Improvements in the manufacture of explosives. March 2.
4421. R. W. S. Griffith and G. H. Wadsworth.
Improvements in the treatment of explosives. March 5.
4659. A. Philip. Improvements in the manufacture of
nitroglycerin. March 9.
1660. A. Philip. Improvements in the manufacture of
nitro-glycerin. March 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
of priming caps or
1891.
7256. V. Alder. Manufacture
exploders. March 16.
12,303. K. W.Anderson. Machinery for the manufacture
(if cordite and like explosives. March 16.
I 7,319. W. E. Fidier. Detonating fog-signalling apparatus,
and detonators for use therewith for signalling on railways,
March 16.
3175. J. E
February 23.
PATENT UNCLAS8IFIABLE.
Application.
Fletcher. The carno-preservative film.
Printed and Published by Kyee and Spottisvioope, Kast Hardinpr Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
Society of Comical ^nbustty.
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 4.— Vol. XI.]
APRIL 30, 1892.
["Non-Members 30/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or bick numbers ;
L Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
€ht £»oci>tp of Cimntral Intaustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. K. Roscoe.M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 1881— 18S2.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S 1882—1883.
Walter Wcldon. F.R.S 1883— 1884.
\V. 11. Perkin, I'ii.D., F.R.S 1881r-lS85.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1836.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prot. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F,RS 1888—1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Hart., F.R.S 1889— 189U.
E. Rider Cuok 1890—1881.
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President : Pi-,'/. J. B»n rson R. [molds, W.V., D.Sc . F.II.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S. Ludwig Wood, F.R.S.
Wm. Crowder.
./>< uh S I'll ih-tlll.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S.
David Howard.
8. If. Johnson,
Dr. Hugo Mull, r, F.R S.
li. E. R. Nowlands.
J. C. Stevenson, M.l'.
A. Norman Tate.
Sir John Turney.
A. H. Allen.
Arthur Boake.
Jno. < 'aldenoood.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
11. Gnnishaw.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S,
Ordinary Members of Council :
E.K. Muspratt.
T. L. Pali, rson.
Boverton Redwood.
Jti<>, Spilli r.
T. ir. Stuart.
William Thorp, B.Sc.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer :
E. Kider Cook, East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr. F Hurt >•.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Arehbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Krunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. T. Dent.
nhas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
| F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson,
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mnnd, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Wm. Thorp.
Th< mas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assistedby the following Staff of Abstractors :
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X.
H. Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chcm.
G.H.Beckett.. V., VI., VII.
D. Bendix m.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos.Benia.vs.M.I.C.E. I.
E. J.Bovan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount. {vir^vYii
Arthur G. Bloiam XIV.. XV.
J.C. Chorley XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
\ . Cornish... Till., IX., XIII
P. Dvorkovvit.srh.il.. III.. IT.,
XII., Will.. Will
W. M. Gardner v., VI.
Oswald Hamilton 1.
I'.J.Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Client.
IVof.D.E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, ) II. and
D.Sc S Gen. Clteiu.
Chas. A. Kohn, ) ,, „,
Ph.D S Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IT.
J. Walter Leather, ) vv
Ph.D jXV-
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII.. XXI.
J. Lewkowitsch.1 Tit vo
Ph.D ; in. MI.
A. Liebmann, Ph.D. [ "xx'"
A. R. Ling IV., XTI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Maenab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H.S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
U. T. Pentcr-1 TVI -«.,,.,
mann j XVI- XUI-
G. II. Robertson XI.
F. W. Rcnaut. . . Patent Lists.
H. Schlichter.Ph.D.. V..XV
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
1). A. Sutherland ... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
In accordance with the provisions of Utile 18 of the
Bye-laws, uotice is hereby given that those Members of
Council whose names are plaeed in italics in the annexed
list will retire from their respective offices at the forth-
coming Annual General Meeting.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S., has been nominated to the office
of President; and Professor J.Emerson Key nolcls, F.R.S.,
has been nominated Vice-President under Rule 11.
Dr.F. Hurter. Or. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., Mr. John Spiller,
and Professor T. E. Thorpe, E.R.S., have been nominated
Vice-Presidents under Rule 8 ; and Mr. Thos. Tyrer has been
nominated an Ordinary Member of Council under Rule 17<
in the place of Mr. John Spiller, nominated a Vice-President.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, E.R.S., has been nominated Foreign
Secretary ; and the Treasurer has been nominated for re-
election.
B
29n
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. LApril so. !««■
Members are hereby invited to nominate fit and proper
persons to fill four vacancies among the Ordinary Members
of Council under Rule 18. Special nomination forms for
this purpose can be obtained from the General Secretary
upon application.
Extract from Rule IS: — " No such nomination shall be
valid unless it be signed by at least ten Members of the
Society who are not in arrear with their subscriptions, nor
unless it be received by the General Secretary, at the
Society's Office, at least one month before the date of the
commencement of the Annual General Meeting, to the
election to take place at which it refers. Nor shall any
such nomination be valid if the person nominated be in-
eligible for election under Rules 12 or 15. No member shall
sign more than one nomination form."
Annual General Meeting.
The Annual General Meeting will be held in London on
the 20th, 21st, and 22nd July next. An outline programme
appears iu this issue. Tickets of membership will be
issued in time for tile meeting, and will form, as hereto-
fore, vouchers for visits to works and excursions.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the -Society, or
any of its Local Sections, arc requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Sfottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 6s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 iu saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 22nd APRIL 1892.
Bradley, Fred. J., 52, Arboretum Street, Nottingham,
light leather dresser.
Hull, Johannes ('., Erith, Kent, chemical and mechanical
engineer.
Croft, Arthur, 10, Abbey Street, Old Lenton, Nottingham,
leather dresser.
Exley, Arthur, Meanwood Grove, Meauwood, near
Leeds, tanner.
Farmer, Thos. H., 35, Oliver Street, Boston. Mass.,
U.S.A., pharmaceutical chemist.
Fischesser, Alfred, Lutterbach, near Mulhouse, Alsace,
dye manufacturer.
Harvey, E. Feild, 1, Montpellier Square, Rutland Gate,
S.W., chemist.
Horrocks, Wm. A., 8, Aldred Street, Crescent, Salford,
bleacher and finisher.
Knecht, Dr. E., 239, Moss Lane East, Manchester,
analytical chemist.
Liddle, Geo. A., 37, Moorland Avenue, Leeds, student.
Lowe, Jas. S., 1, Atholl Place, Edinburgh, sugar
planter.
McElroy, Karl P., 1412, Sixteenth Street, N.W.,
Washington, O.C., U.S.A., agricultural chemist.
Morrell, Jno. B., Holdgate House, York, cocoa manufac-
turer.
Newall, John F., 8, Market Place, Manchester, mer-
chant.
Preston, Edw. 8., University College, Liverpool, civil
engineer.
Terne, Dr. Bruno, 1512, South Sixth Street, Philadelphia,
Pa., U.S.A., chemical works manager.
Torsell, Chas. T., Mclvees Rocks, Allegheny Co., Pa.,
U.S.A., chemist.
Towusend, Chas. W., Port Dundas, Glasgow, chemical
manufacturer.
Towusend, Oliver C, Port Dundas, Glasgow, chemical
manufacturer.
Whitehead, Catell, 1114, New Hampshire Avenue,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A., assayer to the U.S. Mint.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Auer, Dr. II., l/o Widnes,; 71, Island Road, Garstoti,
Liverpool.
Campbell, Colin M., l/o Glasgow ; c/o Long and Robert-
son, Haliaua, Mackay, Queensland.
Clark, R. Ingham, l/o Park Prospect ; 3, Albeit Hall
Mansions, Kensington Gore, W.
Clements, H. C, l/o Putney ; 79, Burton Road, Brixton,
S.W.
Conrad, E. C, l/o Holland ; Portland Road, Gravesend.
Crawford, 1)., l/o Alexandria; Kersal Vale Works,
Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Crumbie, W. D., l/o New York ; 146, Washington Street,
East Urange, N.J., U.S.A.
Davidson, J. E., l/o Newcastle! 40, Percy Gardens,
Tynemouth.
Freestone, J. W., l/o New Ferry ) 7, Wilton Road, Rock
Ferry, Cheshire.
Gait, H. A., l/o Philadelphia t c/o J. B. Ford Chemical
Co., Wyandotte, Mich., U.S.A.
Gamble, J. C, l/o Hardshaw Brook ; Cowley Hill, St.
Helens.
Garrett, F. C, l/o South Shields ; College of Science,
Xewcastle-on-Tyne.
Gibbs, W. P., l/o Clydebank ; Ely Paper Works, Cardiff. '
Hart, Peter, l/o FVulkuer Street ; c/o Tennants aud Co.,
Chemical Works, Clayton, Manchester.
Henderson, Prof. G. G., l/o The University; The
Technical College, George Street, Glasgow.
Jackson, A. G., l/o (i.P.O. ; Gotha Street, Valley, Bris^
bane, Queensland.
April so, 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
297
Jackson, li. Val., I/o Hillhead; c/o Scotch and Irish
( Ixvgen Co., Polmadic, Glasgow.
Josclaud, \V. H., 1 o Manchester ; Tulko, Stoke-on-
Trent.
Layeock, Dr. W. !•'., l/o Stowraarket; 2, Park Street,
Dewsbury.
Leonard, K. ; Journals to Enfield Lodge, St. John's Road,
lilaekheath, S.K.
liindeman, Dr. G., l/o Langereihe ; Wilhelniinenstrasse
I, II., St. Pauli, Hamburg.
Morris, Herb. N. ; Journals to University Laboratory,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Napier, J., l/o St. Matthew's Place; 89, London Road,
Ipswich*
Ncilson, Thos., 1 o Kilmarnock ; c,o Oregon Iron and Steel
Co., Oswego, Oregon, U.S.A.
Richmond, H. 1)., l/o Cairo ; 50, Clanricarde Gardens,
Bayswater, W.
Smith, H. Wood, l/o Manchester; c/o May atld linker,
I.iiu., Garden Wharf, Hattersea, S.W.
Speakman, Jas., l'o Cree Hill; Penhold P.O., Calgary,
Canada.
Thornton, D. H., l/o Bradford; Brookfoot Dyeworks,
Brighouse, Voiks.
Triinhle, Prof. H , l/o Marshall Street; 145, North Tenth
Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Turner, H. B. H., l/o Calcutta ; 14, Jesus Lane, Cam-
bridge.
Winsloe, H., l/o Faulkner Street ; c o 'Pennants and Co.,
Chemical Works, Clayton, Manchester.
CHANGE OP ADDRESS REQUIRED.
A. E. Davies, l/o 6, Rutnford Place, Liverpool.
MEMBERS OMITTED FROM JANUARY LIST.
J. H. M. Fallon, c,o Permian Corporation, Lima, Peru.
1). Wesson, The American Cotton Oil Co., Guttenberg,
N.J., U.S.A.
2BraU),
G. H. Makins, DanesnVld, St. Albans.
2.011I) on &.?rtion.
Chemical Society's Rooms, Buulington Uouse.
Chairman : T. Tyrer.
Vice-Chai
( '. I', Cross.
./. I>: H'O)'.
A. G. Green.
8. Il'ill.
a W. II. iton,
D. Howard.
W. Kellncr.
W. Crowder.
Committee:
W. Ramsay.
It. lledwootl.
W. S. Squire.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
IVm. Thorp.
T. E. Thorpe.
Hon. Local Seeretaru : John Heron,
SI . John's Villas, Worple Road, Wimbledon.
The Haines in italics are those of members of Committee whe
ret ire at t he end of the current -Sesiion.
The following have heen elected to fill the vacancies, and will
take olfice in July next ■.—Chairman .- Win. Thorp. Secretary:
John Heron. Committee: 6. C. Hutchinson, B. E. R. Newlands,
F. G. Adair Roberts, A. Gordon Salamon, T. Tyrer, and Frank
Wilson.
SESSION 1891-92.
1892!--
Mav 2nd : —
Professor Wm. Rams -y, F.R.S., and Mr. J. C. Chorley. " The
Distillation of Wood."
Dr. S. Rideal. " Notes on the Composition of some Indian
Gums of known Origin."
May 30Ul :—
Mr. J. A. Nettleton. " Vinegar."
Dr. S. Ridoal. " The Petroleum Jellies of Commerce."
June 18th :—
Professor V. B. Lewes "Oil Gas."
Mr Watson Smith. "The soluble Bituminous Constituents
of certain Japanese Coals." — cont.
>\ rvrv^^.^.^.y>.^
Meeting held Monday, "tlh March, 1892.
MR. THOS. TYREK, IN THE CHAIR.
ON FLUID SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINA-
TION FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES.
]1Y C. It. ALDER WRIGHT, I). St., P.lt.s.
In the practical determination of the "specific gravity "
or "relative density" of a given fluid a very moderate
degree of exactitude is often sufficient for the purpose in
view ; and in such cases various corrections and refinements
may be safely omitted, which are simply indispensable
when a higher amount of accuracy is desired. Thus when
the value is only required to a degree of accuracy of three
places of figures with a possible error of + one unit in the
third place {e.g. when a liquid is found to have the sp. gr.
0-927, implying that the value lies between 0-926 and
0-928), corrections may he ignored that must be taken into
account when 4, and a fortiori when 5, places of decimals
are required ; as when the specific gravity is said to, be
0-9268, implying that it is between 0-9267 and 0-9269 or
when it is said to be 0-92683, implying that it is between
0-92682 and 0-92684. For certain special technical pur-
poses such high accuracy is requisite ; in such cases the
author has found certain modifications of the appliances
ordinarily used, and various tables for corrections, of
considerable practical use.
B 2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April §6, it.92.
Before discussing these in detail it is us well to point out
thai in current technical literature the terms "density,"
" relative density," and "specific gravity" arc frequently
confounded together and used as though they were inter-
changeable, which strictly is by no means the case. By
"density" is meant the mass of a unit of volume, a
quantity not the same as the weight of a unit <>f volume.
The former is independent of the gravitating force at the
spot of observation ; the latter not, being a quantity less by
some ii") per cent at the equator than at the pole, cseteris
paribus. The " relative density " of a body A (as com-
pared with another, 1!) implies the numerical value- of the
ratio between the density of A ami that of I! ; if A and B
are both examined at the same place (or at places where
the force of gravity is the same) this ratio is identical with
Ihe ratio between the weight of a given volume of A and
that of the same volume of B ; but not otherwise. If B be
some substance chosen as a standard, e.g. water (or
hydrogen), when A is said to have such and such a
"specific gravity," what is meant is that this value
expresses the ratio of the density of A to that of the stan-
dard substance water (or hydrogen, &c). If both A and
II are at the same temperature, /, A is said to have the
" sp. gr. s at t " when the density of A is s times that of
B, both being examined at t°. If, on the other hand, the
temperature of A is ;,, different from that of B = t.., A is
said to have the " sp. gr. s at ' " when the density of
A at /, is * times that of B at t2.
It results from the above that if r; = 4" C. and B be
water, 1 grm. being.the weight of 1 cc. of water at 4C at the
place of observation, the value of s at j is the weight in
grammes of 1 cc. of substance examined at the temperature
(,. If, on the other hand, t., be not 4°, if d lie the weight
of 1 cc. of water at f;, the weight of 1 ee. of substance at
r, is * x d.
For various reasons it would be convenient to express
all values relating to the relative density of bodies on the
absolute scale of "weight per cc." ; but inasmuch as the
experimental data usually do not give this result without a
little calculation, it is more frequently the practice to
express the values either as " sp. gr. at I " or as " sp. gr. at
I,
'/
where / (or /;) is not 4: C. The result is that it is
possible for different observers to obtain values apparently
notably different through using different temperatures'for the
water of comparison, when really their results are identical.
I'm instance, if a sample of vegetable oil at 20 C. is found
by one observer to have the sp.gr. 0' 92475 referred to water
at 4 , by another the sp. gr. 0-92560 referred to water at
15-5°, and by the third the sp. gr. 0-92635 referred to
water at "Jo , it is impossible to say at sight whether these
figures are sharply concordant or not ; but if all three are
reduced to "weight per cc," it is obvious that they are
identical; for the values of d for I, 15-5°, and 20°
are re-pectivelv 1 '00000, 0- 99908, and 0-99827, and those
of a x '/ respectively are —
iiiil'i::, ■ 1-00000 - ii:i_>t75
0-82580 » 0-99903 - 0"92475
0-92035 « 0'99827 - 0-92475
The Pyknometer mid Corrections Applicable thereto.
A pyknometer is a vessel so constructed that fluids can
he poured therein io as to fill it to a sharply-defined level.
Being weighed empty, and then filled to the given level
with water ami weighed again, the increment in weight
represents the weight of water tilling the instrument to the
given level at the temperature obtaining — / . If again
Idled with another fluid also at I , Ihe excess of weight over
the empty vessel now represents tin- weight of the same
volume of fluid, (.'ailing the weight of water W, and that of
fluid »-, the value ol " is the " specific gravity of the fluid
at / ," as above defined.
If, however, the water he weighed at t2, and the fluid
ut / ., the ratio ''. will represent neither the sp. gr. at t
nor that at t..; but will furnish an approximation to the
value of the sp. gr. at -' , which will be closer the less the
vessel has altered in volume by- expansion or contraction
between /, and /;.
Usually the vessel is of glass, the coefficient of cubical
expansion of which may be taken as 0-000025 = M)
per 1° C. If '.; > r, the volume of fluid contained is greater
than that of the water by 7""'' part of the latter. This
41 11 11 " •
is a quantity practically negligible when t.: and f, do not
differ much, even when four places of decimals arc required ;
but if r. — r, have a considerable value, it is not negligible
even when the specific gravity value is only required to be
exact to within + one unit in the three places of decimals.
The following table indicates the correction to be sub-
tracted for the over-estimation of «- on account of the
expansion of the vessel as the temperature rises from r, to
1., (of course, to be added if l.2 <^ t{) ■ —
6 — fi
Table I.
Correction to lie subtracted.
value
0 c.
5
0-0125
pel
cent, ef
)0
0-025
„
fo
0-0375
,.
■M
1105
»
80
0'076
„
40
0-l
„
50
0-125
..
60
0-15
,.
7'i
0-175
»
80
0-2
,.
'.in
0-iio
•■
UBI
0"25
,,
Hence, if the water were weighed at l.V and the fluid at
loo . so that <2 — t, = 8o;, the correction to be subtracted
would be 0-2123 per cent, of the value; i.e., for an oil, &e.
ofapparentsp.gr. 0*9535 at the correction would be
— 0-0020, and tor a heavier fluid of apparent sp.gr. 1 -7385,
— 0*0037 j quantities obviously affecting the third decimal
place by more than one unit.
When the weights «■ and W are determined in air, the
observed values are less than the true weights by an amount
representing the weight of a quantity of air occupying a
volume equal to the difference in bulk between the water or
fluid and the counterpoising weights. These are generally
of brass, about 85 times as heavy as water. Hence, the
correction for "air buoyancy " to be applied to «■ and W is
— Va, where V is the volume of fluid in cubic centimetres
(practically, the weight in grammes of the water), and a is the
weight of 1 cc. of air; a value varying with the temperature
and pressure at the time of weighing, but for an average
temperature of l.V 5 C., and average pressure of 760 mm.,
having the value 000122:! ; whence [| a. = 0-001079.
If the pyknometer hold V cc. of fluid, the true specific
. . ., . tc , . »• + V x (i-iiiiiii70 -,..,
gravity is consequently not ^. but ^ + ,. „.„„.„.,,. >\ hen
//■ and W are nearly the same (specific gravity near unity),
this correction may be ignored, as also, in most eases, when
only three places of decimals are required ; if, however,
four are desired, the following table gives sufficiently nearly
the relations between these two fractious: —
Ap.ii.in. ism. i THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
299
Table II.
ID
Value found for ^y
Correction to he added.
0-B6
+ II-IIIIOS
o-s
+ 0-0005
irT.-
+ 0-0003
1*0
Nil.
1-25
- 0*0003
1-5
- (>• r.
1"7B
- 0-0008
•2-0
- o-oim
2-28
- o-oou
2'.-,
- o-ooio
2"75
- 0-0019
S*0
- 0-01122
When five places of figures are required, it is not sufficient
to take the mean value of a for 15-5' ('., and 760 mm. us
above ; but the appropriate value for each ease must be
taken from the following table; e.g., for 20° and 730 mm.
a = 0-001157; for lo ami 770mm, « =0-00120:!, and
so on.
Table III.
Temp.
730 mm.
740 itiin.
750 mm.
700 mm.
770 mill.
0
0-001842
0*001259
0-001276
0-O012U3
0*001310
2
0*001233
OOO1240
o-oiiliii?
0*001288
0*001300
4
0-001224
0001241)
0-001257
0-001274
o- 001290
0
0-001215
0-001232
0*001248
0-001265
1281
8
0-001206
0-001223
0-001289
0-001256
0001272
10
0-001198
0-0111214
0-001231
0-001247
0*001263
12
0-00118!)
0-001206
0*001222
0*001238
0*001255
U
0-001181
0-001197
3-001214
0-001230
0*001216
10
0-001173
0-001189
0-001205
0*001221
0-0111237
is
0-001165
0-001181
0-001197
0-001213
0*001229
20
0-001157
0-0O117S
0-001189
0*001204
0*001220
22
0-0011 n
0-001165
0-001181
0*001198
(V001212
21
o-ooi in
0-001157
0-001173
0-001188
0*001204
26
0-001134
0-001149
0*001165
0-0111180
0-001196
28
0- 001126
0001142
0*001157
0*001172
0*001188
30
0-001119
0-001131
0-0011411
0-001105
0*001180
Modified Pyknometer.
Certain forms of pyknonieter in common use (specific
gravity bottle with perforated stopper, with or without
internal thermometer, Sprengel U-tube, &c.) have the dis-
advantage that if the temperature of the balance is above
that at which the instrument is filled, expansion is apt to
take place whilst weighing, so that the liquid runs over, and
if volatile is partly lost. Moreover, with all such forms, to
make valuations at different temperatures, a fresh weighing
must be made for each temperature.
The following modifications of the ordinary long-necked
flask with a mark on the stem have been found by the
author extremely serviceable not only in obtaining values
exact to five places of figures, if requisite, but also iu
avoiding the above inconveniences aud in obtaining a series
of valuations at different temperatures with comparatively
little trouble.
Figs. 1 and 2 represent two varieties; the first is con-
veniently constructed by scaling up the lower end of an
Fig. 1.
Fig.
ordinary pipette i 10, 25, 50, or ion cc), and etching n
millimetre scale on the stem. For weighing, this is
supported by wire holder, Fig. 3, hung on to the hook of
Fig. 3.
Fig. I.
•—o
the balance. The second is a flat-bottomed flask with two
necks : one a long narrow tube with millimetre scale, as
before ; the other, a ground tubulus. into which a stopper
fits provided with a thermometer for reading off the tempe-
rature of the contents of the flask. This form is especially
convenient for cleansing and re-filling, the second neck
allowing air to enter iu a way impracticable with the first
form, especially with small-sized intruments.*
In order to standardise the instrument for all purposes,
it is requisite to know the quantity of water contained when
filled up to a given level at a given temperature, and to
have the means of thence calculating the quantity contained
when filled up to any other level at any other temperature.
This is effected by determining the quantity of water
* The construction of a ground stopper with a thermometer
passing tin gh (fused, not cemented) is a rather delicate piece of
workmanship. The instruments exhibited by the autborwere made
for him by Messrs. Jfegretti and Zambra, Hoi bore Viaduct,
300
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 3d. 1898.
contained at a given standard temperature when tilled up to
the commencement of the scale, and the further quantity of
water corresponding to eaeli millimetre of the scale. If the
first quantity be w, and the second a, the quantity of water
contained when tilled up to a level of « millimetres on the
scale, \V„, i^ given by the formula —
W„ = «■ + n n.
In oider to deduce the variations in the value of W„ with
different temperatures, a special table is employed, described
below.
To determine the constants u> and a, the empty vessel is
weighed (noting the temperature and pressure in order to
obtain data for the air-buoyancy correction), and water
poured in to a convenient level, a little above the com-
mencement of the ;cale. The instrument is then immersed
in a large pan of water provided with a stirrer and thermo-
meter, the temperature being slightly below that at which
the standardising is to be effected. When the temperature
of the bath is attained, and the level of the water in the
pvknu meter does not alter, the level and temperature are read
off. The bath is slightly raised in temperature by pouring
in a little warm water, well stirred, and the process repeated,
and so on until the series of temperature readings averages
the required standard amount ; then the average of the
level readings is the level for that temperature. The
instrument is wiped dry and weighed again, so that the
weight of water contained up to that level at the standard
temperature is known. More water is now poured in, and
the rise of level carefully noted, also the increment in
weight. This operation is repeated at different parts of the
scale, so as to obtain various valuations of a.
Thus, with a particular instrument, the following data
were ill, tallied, the scale being 30 millimetres long; mean
temperature reading, 1 ."» • ."> ( '. : mean level for tint tempe-
rature, 4 -I', millimetres; weight of water contained (weighed
in air at 15 and 758 miliums, pressure), 50 573 grms.
Further weighings on calibrating the tube : —
Rise of Level. ^W***
Water
per Millimetre.
From 1*5 to 28*1 1-203
From 1-3 to 19-8 0 836
From 15*1 to 28-9 0-627
0-0133
0-0152
ii ii -,l
0*0163
Obviously the bore of th_- tube was sensibly uniform at
both top and bottom of scale.
Water contained (in air) up to 4V. millimetres .
Subtract 1*6 ■ 0*0453
Value of to I iu nir).
50-578
0-209
50'365
The correction for air buoyancy is —
x 50-3 x 0001223 = 005-4 grin. ; whence the valu
die (corrected to vacuum) = 50-365 + 0-054 = 50419.
Hence, when tilled up to a level n millimetres with water
at the standard temperature 15 '5°, the weight of water,
\V„, contained is —
In air W„ = 50-365 + n x 0-0453
lu va-un...W„ = 50-419 + n x 00153
When high accuracy is required, several valuations of
\V„ should be thus made, and averaged.
The instrument being thus standardised, if it be required
rpo
to determine the specific gravity of a fluid at » where
/: is the temperature of standardising and T: some other
temperature, all that is necessary is to determine the weight
«'„ of fluid that tills up the pyknometer to the level «
millimetres at the temperature T ; then the value required
is approximately given by the formula-
te _ tr"
To obtain the exact value, this result must he corrected
by meant of Table I. (supra), so as to allow for the varia-
tion in capacity of the vessel between t and T°. Of course
\V„ is corrected to vacuum if mn is so corrected and not if
the air-weighing only is taken.
In order to find the value of trtl exactly the same process
is gone through as in the case of standardising the instru-
ment; the pyknometer, rilled with fluid, is placed iu a bath
of water at a temperature a little below T ; the level being
read, the temperature is slightly raised, and a new pair of
readings taken, and so on until the mean of the temperature
readings is T . When desired, a whole series of valuations
can thus be made for mean temperatures T,, T.,, T3....
only one weighing of the fluid being requisite throughout.
By using a pyknometer holding 50 or 100 cc, weighing to
half a milligramme, and using several level and temperatuie
readings for averages in each ease, and finally correcting
by means of Table 1., valuations of specific gravity at
T T T
,.'., ,.'\, *- &c. can be readily obtained with compara-
lo o' 15 5' lo 5- J l
tively little trouble, exact to within + 0- 00001, or at most
+ 0-00002 ( + ore or two units in the fifth decimal place).
For example, using the 50 cc. pyknometer above de-
scribed as illustration, the following figures were obtained
with a sample of vegetable oil : —
w„ = 48-763.
Weight in air * of contained oil
Reading on Mm Scale.
i orresponding Temperatures.
7 9
191
8-7
20-1
c,--2
20'S
Average S'ti
Average 20*0
11-9
24'5
12-2
250
12-6
255
Average 12*23
Average 25 '0
Weight in air of water tilling up to 8-6 mm. at 15' 5° :
W„ (at 15 5) = 50-365 + 86 x 00453 = 50-755
Weight in air of water filling up to 12-23 mm. at 15*5°:
W„ (at 15-5 ) =50*365 + 12-23 x 0-0453 = 50-919
20
155
l- 71
,',ii' 755
^Vrl" = 0-96075
Uncorrected sp. gr. at
Correction from Table f. : 4*5° temperature
difference represents — 0-01125 percent. = — 0-00011
Corrected sp. gr. at
r
= 0-96064
18*768
ncorrected sp. gr. at -- = _ = J?.<* = 0* 95766
Correction from Table I. : 9 5° temperature
difference represents - 0*02375 percent. = -0-00023
Corrected sp. gr. at
15*5
0-9574
* Tin soecific gravity bein« not much below unity, the correc-
tion for air buoyancy is negligible when only four places are
required, only affecting the tilth decimal place In a few units tvidt
Table II . supra).
April 30. 18930 TrIE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
301
Hence, taking values to four places only, 0-9606 and
0*9574 arc the specific gravities of the oil at — ■ and
respectively.*
Tvisi.i: IV,
T = Tmu-
perature.
D= Weight
of i co. or
Water,
T - l\ Difference
l + -~- \vx(l + ) Diflere
1 ' iniiiiu 'V ■UHHHiJ per 1
II
0*99938
0*99990
U'99978
2
0-9999?
.0*99995
0*99992
+ 0*00007
4
I'OQOOO
r 0000(1
1*00006
1 + 0*00004
0
0-99997
1*00005
1*00092
; + 0*00001
8
0*99989
1* 00010
0*99999
- 0*00002
111
0*99974
1*00016
0*99989
- 0-00003
ia
0-99056
1*00020
0*99976
- 0*00007
it
0-99930
1*( 25
0*99956
- 0*00011
16
0*99900
l'OOOSO
0*99930
- 0*00013
is
0*99866
1*40035
0*99901
- 0*00015
in
0*99827
1*00040
0*99867
- 0*00017
22
0-99783
1*00043
0*99830
- 0-00019
24
0*99738
1 -111111311
0*99783
- 0*00021
20
0*99689
1 '00055
0*99744
- 0*00022
28
0'996SS
1*00060
0-00095
- 0*001124
30
0*99379
1- III 1005
0*99644
- O-OOII20
35
0*9914
1 -III 1077
0-0951
- 0*00027
HI
0*9924
1-00090
0*9933
- 0*00036
45
0*9904
1*00102
0*9913
- 0*00040
511
IV 9881
1*00115
11-0802
- 0*00042
fill
0*983!
1111)1 10
0*9847
- OO1MH.5
711
0*9778
1*00163
0*9794
- 0*00053
80
0*9718
1- 00101 1
0-97:10
- 0-00058
!I0
0*9636
1-00215
n-007.".
- 000061
1 in 1
0*9586
1*00240
0-959:)
- 0*00076
When it is required to determine the specific gravity of a
fluid at some temperature T° different from that at which
the instrument is standardised (i.e. referred to water also at
T°), the following table enables the weight of water W „t
contained at T° up to any given level in millimetres, to
be deduced from the weight WM contained at the standard
temperature. The first column gives the temperature T ;
the second the relative density of water at that temperature
with respect to water at 4" C. as unity (or otherwise, the
weight of 1 cc. of water at T°) ; the third the capacity at
T° of a glass vessel holding 1 cc. at 4° ; and the fourth the
products of the corresponding numbers in the third and
fourth columns representing the relative weights of water
contained at the various temperatures. If a be the tabular
* From these figures the rate of eipansion of the oil between 20°
and 25° is deducible, 95743 volumes at the lower temperature
becoming 96004 volumes at the higher temperature ; whence 100
volumes at 20° expand to 100-335 at 25°, i.e. the oil expands 0-007 per
cent, in volume per 1°. Or the increment in bulk may be directly
dedueed from the readings ; thus—
Rise of fluid in stem on heating from 20° to 25° = 12*23 — 8*6, or
3*63 mm., corresponding with 3'63 x 0'045-J = O'lOl ec. Fluid
lupies about 50"7 cc. ; expansion of glass through 5° consequently
represents an increased capacity of about 50'7 x B = 0*006 ec.
41 II II III
Heme, total increment in volume is 0-164 + 0-006 = 0M70 cc. -
0034 ec. per 1°, representing "^ x O'OSl = 0'067 per cent.
expansion per 1°, as before.
The modified pyknomcter is, in fact, a form of dilatometer.
number in the fourth column corresponding with T°, and b
that corresponding with the temperature at which the
instrument is standardised, l\ then
\V„( = W„ x "
To determine the specific gravity at T°, it is simply
requisite to determine, as before, the weight W, of sub-
stance filling the pyknometer to the level n millimetres at
the temperature T's then the sp. gr S is given by the
formula —
«•« *''„ //
S :
\v.
«'„
Thus in the case of the preceding example of vegetable
oil, suppose that it is required to determine the specific
gravity at 20", and also at 25°, from the data given. The
instrument being standardised at 15-5", the value of b from
the table is 0-99936; similarly for 20°, a = 0-99867 • and
for 25°, a-=0*99766. At 20° (when the fluid stands at
8-6 millimetres) «-, = 48-763 and W„ = 50-755, whence-
specific gravity at 20° =
49*763 0-00930
= 0-96141.
specific gravity at 25° = ^ '
50-755 ' 0*99867
At 25° (when the fluid stands at 12-33 millimetres)
W. = 50-919, whence—
0*99986
50*919 009700 — *»«**»-*»•
When it is required to calculate the weight of fluid per
cubic centimetre at any given temperature, if the specific
gravity of the fluid at that temperature be known (= S)
with reference to water at any given temperature (the same
as the fluid, or different) = f°, the weight of 1 cc. is given
by the formula —
weight of 1 cc. — S x D,
where D is the value in the second column of the above
table corresponding with the temperature T°.
Thus the oil possessing the sp. gr. 095929 at 25°, and
0-96141 at 20°, will weigh—
0-95929 x 0-99711 = 0-95652 grms. per cc. at 25°
0-96141 x 0-9982T =0-95975 grms. per ce. at 20°
As above explained, this mode of expressing results
(weight per cc. at a temperature V) is far preferable to
any other method for relative density valuations.
Immersion Method and Corrections applicable thereto.
A heavy suspended body (conveniently a glass plummet)
is weighed in air and then when immersed in the fluid to be
examined at a temperature /, ; similarly it is weighed in
water at f., ; if W, be the weight in air, W2 in the fluid, and
W3 in water, the ratio of the losses of weight experienced
when weighed in the two fluids p 7 "X gives an approxi-
■nation to the relative density at »' ; from which the true
value is obtained by subtracting a correction for the
alteration in volume of the plummet between r, and t„.
When the plummet is of glass this correction is obviously
identical with that applying in the case of a glass pykno-
meter, and may accordingly be deduced from Table I.
supra.
Precisely the same correction for air buoyancy applies in
the determination of the values W, - W„ and W, - W3 as
in the case of the pyknometer : hence, when only four
places of decimals are requisite, the correction may be
deduced from Table II. ; and when five are required, by
means of Table III.
When the weight of water displaced by the plummet has
been determined for some one temperature, that displaced
at any other temperature is calculable by means of Table IV.,
precisely as in the case of the contents of a hollow glass
vessel, the tabular values taking into account both the
expansion of the glass and the diminution in density of
water with rise of temperature.
When results accurate to + one unit in the fourth or
fifth decimal place are required, it is indispensable that the
weighing should be made by means of an accurate chemical
balance ; but when oniy three places are required,
302
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April SO. 1892.
"hydrostatic balances" on the steelyard principle (e.g.
Westphal's) are sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
Such instruments as sold are often sufficiently delicate to
yield concordant figures to four places ; but the results
obtained with different instruments often show dif-
ferences considerably exceeding the limits of variation of
any one of them. With any given instrument of fairly
good construction, figures accurate to within •■ one or
two units in the fourth decimal place (.e.g. giving the value
0 9264, implying something between 0-9262 and 0-9
or between 0'92i;:t and 0-9265) may be readily obtained by
constructing a table of errors for the instrument by care-
fully comparing the results obtained therewith and with a
delicate pyknometer, using the same fluids at the same
temperature for each, ami applying the corrections from
Tallies 1. and II. when necessary. This involves a good
ileal cf trouble: but unless an instrument has been thus
checked it is never safe to rebj on ii- indications beyond
tie- third place ol decimals. \\ hen, however, only three
places are required, a hydrostatic balance is an extremely
convenient instrument, especially for observations at higher
temperatures, e.g., near 100 C.
Arceometric Method.
Areometers (hydrometers) as generally sold are instru-
ments decidedly wanting in precision, excepting when
prepared for certain special purposes, e.g alcoholometry ;
so that their indications are rarely exact within less than
+ one or two units in the third decimal place. Moreover,
the uncertainty as to the exact level of the liquid, owing
to the curvature of its surface through adhesion to the
stem, often prevents any extreme degree of delicacy being
attainable. Unless the liquid is very dark coloured the
level is best read off as with a burette, the lowest point
of the meniscus of the upper surface of the liquid being
\iew..l horizontally against the stem of the hydrometer.
With hydrometers as ordinarily sold it results from the
nature of the graduation that no means exists of accurately
checking the indications at different parts of the scale.
excepting the rather tedious process of preparing a series
of fluids of different densities, reading off the hydrometer
levels therein at a standard temperature, and determining
carefully the true specific gravities of the various fluid- :it
that temperature by means of an accurate pyknometer
carefully handled. A much simpler plan the author finds is
to construct a table for the instrument by means of a few
easily-made readings for the determination of a certain
constant, by means of which the specific gravity of a liquid
can be readily known with an accuracy of about + 0*0001
or + 0-0002 ( + 1 to 2 units in the fourth decimal plai
To effect this the ordinary hydrometer graduations are
abolished, and instead a simple divided scale (conveniently
of millimetres) etched on the stem.
The valuation of the constant /,■ to be determined for
such an instrument is arrived at as follow-: The hydro-
meter is floated in a fluid of such specific gravity 1>,
at the standard temperature that nearly the whole of
the graduations of the stem are above the surface (in
the ease of an instrument intended for specific gravitj
values less than 1*0 the fluid may be water). The reading
on the scale representing the leyel of the fluid is then cave-
fully noted as the zero point of the instrument. A suitable
weight ir is then attached to the top of the stem.* and the
level of the surface again read oft'. Let / lie the difference
between the two readings, i.e., the additional length of stem
now immersed : and let W be the weight of the hydrometer
(without the additional weight to) : then —
To determine the relative density Do of a second
lighter liquid in terms of that of the first (i.e., to
determine the value of i the hydrometer is floated in the
second liquid at the standard temperature and the level to
which it sinks noted. If the difference between tliis point
aid the zero point hi- n millimetres (i.e., il the instrument
sink so that the zero point is immersed ti millimetres helow
the surface i ; then —
D_. _ Jl_
]>, "l+ni
The following table gives the values of ' — over a con-
1
sidcrable range when the product nk is known.f
k =
WW
• It sometimes happens that attaching an extra weight al the
top outside the fluid prevents the hydrometer from floating
property upright, and so interferes with Hie sharpness of the
readings; this i- more especially :nr with the modifioa-
i i. scribed bc'ov n tin I the reading
taken by inc:o - <>' :i ring etched on flu liyi or like an
Erdmanu float. Fu such (usi ffi ittach to the lower bulb
■ it the hydrometer by means orawire.a bit ol hras I
lump uf 'class, the « wiili tin- wire, has
been previously ascertained to be w.uhm ic ■ i-sed in
the standird fluid.
nk
1
1 + H *
Diflerei
nk
1
n ' ■
o-ni
0-9901
0*0099
ii _'i
0-8284
■ I 9804
0*0097
0-22
0*8197
0-0067
0-113
0-9709
95
0-2.5
0*8130
87
iriit
0*9616
ie .;
0*24
0*8064
0-0006
ii-n.-,
0*9521
0*8000
.. 0064
n ec,
0*0090
0 7937
.ri.7
0*27
ii 7s71
0-0063
0-08
0 |
11'. s
0*7812
0* 12
0-09
'I'.'iTt
0*00S5
0-29
0*7752
.n
ii'lil
n 909]
0*0083
0*3 '
10
u- 11
0-0082
0-31
0-7684
-
n-f-J
,i -■'■'i
0*0080
0*32
ii 7676
0-0058
irl.-i
0-8850
0*0079
ii";-;
0-7S19
0-0057
0'H
0-8772
ii :il
0*7483
i 56
0-15
0*0076
0*35
0-7407
0-0050
0-16
0*8621
0*0075
0-35
0-0954
"•IT
0-85*7
ir.i'71
0-87
ii 7299
0-0054
"■is
0-8475
■
ii 7246
3
0*19
0-8403
17-'
0-30
0*0052
0-20
0-0070
e-1,1
0-7143
ii 005]
Instead of having the millimetre scale engraved on the
stem of the hydrometer, it may be etched on the jar itself,
a ring being also engraved on the belly of the hydrometer
like au Erdmann float (Fig. 4). The readings are then
taken by reading the level of the [meniscus of the fluid
surface on the millimetre scale, and also that of the ring ;
the difference between the two when the hydrometer floats
in the standard liquid at fhe standard temperature is care-
fully noted, representing a second constant for the particular
instrument = a millimetres. When the hydrometer floats
• The above formula is arrived at thus :— Let L be the "..inn i-
l.-nt length" "f the hydrometer w iih respect to the Srst liquid,
i.e., the length of a column of that liquid of section equal to that
Hi' the hydrometer stem (considered uniform) that would weigh w
at the stan lard temperature.
Then—
L : L + I : : W : W + to
Whence -
Vml
v
I
"
* =
1, " M" I
1' ,i I
1'.
I.
J-1' l' r " 1 + II x I ' * " *
April so, M9B.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
303
in the second liquid, the corresponding difference of readings
is noticed = d. Then 1/ — a — n iii the preceding formula.
The advantage of this form of instrument is that whereas
only one reading is practicable when the scale is engraved
on the hydrometer stem and the instrument floated in a
fluid, any number of different pairs of readings can be
taken and averaged for higher accuracy when the seale is
etched on the jar. When one pair of readings (meniscus
ami ring) has been taken, a few drops more liquid are
carefully added to the contents of the jar, or pipetted out of
it, thus furnishing two different level readings, and conse-
quently a second valuation of their difference.; and so on as
often as may he desired.
In making these various readings it is convenient to vary
the temperature slightly {e.g. by immersing the jar in a
large beaker of Water), SO that the average of the various
temperature readings may he that required, precisely as
with the modified pyknometer above described.
The level of the meniscus at the top of the fluid can be
read somewhat more accurately by constructing the jar of
a U shape, each limb having a millimetre seale etched upon
it. ( »ne limb is made wide enough to enable the araeometer
to ride freelj therein, the scale being sufficiently prolonged
to take iii all possible positions of the ring etched on the
hydrometer; the other may he narrower, but should be
sufficiently wide to prevent any errors through varying
capillarity with different fluids. On this limb a shorter
scale suffices, as the meniscus ot the top level only is read
thereon. Of course each seale commences at the same
horizontal level, so that the difference between the readings
(meniscus in narrower limb, ring in wider limb) represents
the depth of the ring below the surface.
The following figures illustrate the modes of standardising
and use of the millimetre jar araeometer. The same jar
was used throughout; the weighings were not corrected for
air buoyancy.
Anroiiieler A ,- intended for fluids of sp. gr. 1-000 to
0-850: —
Weight of araeometer, \Y 26 '07 7 grins.
Additional weight, w 3 548 „
Depth of ring below meniscus when in-
mersed without additional weight in
distilled water at 15' 5 (average of 8
concordant readings) —a 47' 76 mm.
Do. do. with additional weight = 6 135-76 „
Hence ! = b — a = 88 '00 mm.
and ft= "' = ,U-^J—- = 0-001546 „
\\ I -iii Hi/ xssipii "
Arteomeler B ; for liquids of sp. gr. 1-000 to 0-900 :
W --= 59-846 grins.
10 = 3-548 „
a = 109 4 mm.
b = 183-3 „
Hence —
/ = 183-3 - 109-4 = 73-9 mm.
and —
k = ^.8|;f7s.9 = 0-0008022
Am mutter C : for liquids of sp. gr. 1-850 to 1 • GI>" : —
W = 106-561 grms.
«■ = 8-088 „
Depth of ring below meniscus when im-
mersed at 15-5" without additional
weight in sulphuric acid of specific
gravity at 1 5 ■ 5°. 1 ■ 83538 (determined
by pyknometer ) = ,/ 59-02 mm.
Do. do. with additional weight w — b 151-01 ,,
Hence —
/ = 151-01 -59-02 = 9r99ium.
and —
h - m-mrwn = 0-°008251
Determination of Specific Gravity at 15-5° of Diluted
Alcohol with Areeometers A and II.
Armometer A. Depth of ring below meniscus when
immersed iu liquid at 15 5 ' (average of several readings)
— d 76-29 111111.
Ditto when immersed in water {supra) = a= 47'76 mm.
Then—
n = d - a = 76-29 - 47'76 = 28-53
and —
n k = 28-53 x 0001546 = 0-04411
From the table the corresponding value of is
1+ Ilk
0-9578, i.e., the specific gravity at 15-5 is 0-9578.
Armometer li. Mean value of d at 15-5 . . . 1C4-0 mm.
Value of a (supra).. l()9'4 ,.
Hence — ■
n = d - a = 1640 - 109-4 = 54-6 mm.
and —
11 h = 54-6 x 0-0008022 = 0-04380 mm.
From the table the corresponding value of is
0-9581.
Valuations of the same fluid with three different modified
pyknometers as above described gave the following results
at 15- 5° : —
No. 1. Pyknometer of pattern shown iu Fig. 1,
holding about 100 ee 0-95791
No. 2. Another pyknometer of pattern shown
in Fig. 1, holding about 25 cc 0-95786
No. 3. Pyknometer of pattern shown in Fig. 2,
holding about 100 cc 0-95789
0- 95789
In similar fashion, the following figures were obtained
with a sample of stronger alcohol : —
.4 in ometer A n = 83 -07 111111.
Hence —
11 k = 8307 x 0-001546 = 0-1284.
Corresponding specific gravity value from table 0 8862.
No. 3. Value found with pyknometer No. 3 supra 0-88624
No. 4. Pyknometer of pattern shown in Fig. 1,
holding about 50 cc 0-88623
Determination of Specific Gravity at 15 -5: of Slightly
Diluted Oil of Vitriol.
Ar.rometer C. Depth of ring below meniscus
at 1 5 " 5 = d 143-68
Value of a (supra ) 59 02
Hence —
n = d - a = 84-66
and —
n h =84-66 x 0-0008251 = 0-06985
The- value of corresponding to this from the table
is 0-9347; whence, siuee I), = 1-83538* the specific
gravity of the acid, IX,, at 15-5° is—
D, X , } . -- T83538 x 0-9347 = 17155
1 1 + 11 A
Value found with pyknometer Xo. 1 (supra). . 1-71568
„ „ No. 4 1-71563
Discussion.
Mr. David Howakd said that for those who really
wished to make industrial chemistry a scientific matter.
Dr. Wright's paper was of extreme value. Every chemist,
whatever his qualifications, was under the impression that
he could take a specific gravity. Hut if the determinations
made were compared with those of others, it would be seen
• The value for Dr at IB'60 was found in be
Bj pyknometer No. 1 1-83589
.V". t VI
M 1 33538
304
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, im.
that men of ability, careful manipulators and observers,
diffeied to an astonishing degree. It was the minute details
which Dr. Wright had insisted upon, which shculd be
carefully investigated. If chemists wished to keep pace
with the times, they were bound to make sure that their
observations were of real accuracy. No instrument could
he trusted until it had been tested ; and no determination
could be relied upon until the scientific values, as well as
the mere mechanical values, had been fully considered.
Mr. Arnold Philip said that he had recently had
occasion to take the specific gravity of a sample of
petroleum residne at a temperature near 100° C. This he
had done in the usual manner by means of a Sprengel's
tube, and in calculating out the results he had been inclined
to think that some correction should be applied for the
actual alteration of the internal cubical capacity of the tube,
due to the alteration of form on heating. The usual
correction for the cubical expansionof glass, which Dr. Wright
had mentioned, would, of course, hi' absolutely all that was
necessary if one were dealing with a solid mass of glass,
but if one were employing a hollow vessel, il was difficult
to imagine that no internal distortion of form occurred on
raising the temperature through from 7o° to 80° C. If such
distortion did take place, it seemed difficult to make a
correction for it. What he imagined would he the best
method, would be to weigh the vessel full of mercury (or
some other pure fluid of high boiling point, whose coefficient
ofexpansion was accurately known) at 100°C, and calculate
out the volume which the weight of mercury thus obtained
should occupy at this temperature. He would be glad if
Dr. W right would elucidate this difficulty, and point out to
the meeting the most simple method of miking such a
correction if it were necessary.
Dr. Murray Thomson insisted on the necessity for the
greatest accuracy in taking specific gravities. The author
had suggested many necessary corrections, hut there was
one point which, though not mentioned, could hardly have
been overlooked, and that was the narrowness of the vessel
used with the hydrometer. It was well known that in
using an instrument of that kind it was almost impossible
to avoid producing friction against the side of the vessel.
All tlie methods for eliminating such friction were more or
less apt to fail ; and the only way out of the difficulty was
to make a great number of determinations, and take the
mean of them. Again, in introducing the specific gravity
instrument into a liquid, one was apt to find air bubbles
adhering to the sides of the apparatus, though almost
invisible to the eye. This effect could only be avoided by
bobbing the instrument up and down in the liquid — thus
leading to anothei inaccuracy.
Mr. Oscar Gittmann said that he was much interested
in the determination of the expansion of liquids at increasing
temperatures which he might call the inverse of the specific
gravity. In a factory with which he was connected, specific
gravity calculations were made every day by the dozen.
These determinations were made with the very best instru-
ments obtainable, and as much care as possible was taken ;
yet he would like to say that he bad learned from 1 >r. Wright
a great deal in regard to the matter of taking an accurate
specific gravity. Hut he would like to know whether iu the in-
strument proposed by Dr. Wright, supposing it was adjusted
for 15° C. and a liquid was poured into it at 100° C, the glass
cylinder would not be likely to expand. As the divisions
were already spaced off on the glass cylinder, the instrument
would by the expansion of the glass (which lie thought was
very likely to happen) then, very probably, be inaccurate,
and it might be necessary to have different cylinders for
different temperatures. He had noticed the* very same
thing when determining the expansion of liquids. If a very
narrow glass tube were used, and it was filled up to a
certain level, with one liquid, say at 15°, then put into a
cylinder filled with water and this heated to a higher
temperature, a different volume would be found ; and by
the two readings it might lie possible to determine the rate
of expansion of the two liquids. He had done it at various
temperatures with different liquids, such as sulphuric acid,
ml nr mid, muriatic acid, and nilro-glyceriu. He had
found that the tables and formula; he had consulted in that
connexion did not agree with his observations, and he could
not find the proper ratio. Even taking the expansion of
water as a standard, and calculating by the usual formulae
he could never get a proper result. He had tried to take
into account a factor for the expansion of the glass, but he
was bound to say that he had never arrived at satisfactory
results, and he wquld be very glad to see the question taken
up by someone competent to deal with it.
Mr. Clayton Beadle thought that Dr. Wright had
demonstrated that the difference in the expansion of liquids
was to be accounted for by the fact that they had been
formed at varying temperatures. It seemed to him that
they could not be read at one and the same temperature,
unless it was known that the coefficients of the expansion
of the fluids and water were the same. If a fluid was taken
at 100° G. and compared with water at 100 ('., the specific
gravity could not be the same as if determinations were
made at 0° (.'., unless it were certain that the coefficients of
expansion in the waters were identical.
Dr. Samuel Ridi: u. thought that Dr. Wright's suggestion
with reference to the outer cylinder was a very good one ;
but that i* would not be applicable in the ease of dark
Liquids.
Mr. Arnold Philip thought that Mr. Guttmann's
question and his own were very much the same, namely,
how to distinguish the difference between the expansionof a
solid substance like glass, and the expansion of such a
substance in the form of a tube or a hydrometer float.
Dr. Wright, in reply, said that as regarded the remarks
that had fallen from Mr. David Howard, he cordially
agreed with that gentleman, and thanked him for his
corroboration of some points, especially the extreme de-
sirability of not trusting implicitly to instrument makers,
who were not infallible ; even with the best it was necessary
(just as iu the ease of a variety of other political and social
matters) to look carefully after and verify the products of
their industry, which were, in many respects, wonderfully
delicate. He would not like to say a word against the skill
of instrument makers, after Inning obtained from them
such excellent instruments as he had exhibited to the
meeting that evening. But when an extremely high degree
of accuracy was required, unless the instruments used had
been carefully checked, no one was warranted in placing
implicit confidence iu the numerical results obtained. Even
with such an instrument as a chemical balance, it was
absolutely imperative that each weight should be checked
against the others, so that the relative values of all the
weights should be exactly known. Unless that were done,
the results would always be affected by a certain amount of
inaccuracy, due to imperfect adjustment of the weights.
One or two speakers had referred to the expansion of glass.
questioning whether the same rate of expansion wouid
apply to a solid block of glass as to a hollow vessel. He
did not see why it should not. A tube might be regarded
as a solid block of glass, from which the inside of the block
hail been removed ; then, what would apply to the outside
would equally apply to the inside ; and any argument
which applied to the outermost layer, would also apply to
the innermost layer. For the present purpose, they might
be satisfied with the fact that all physical inquirers who
had used glass instruments for such matters as the deter-
mination of the rate of expansion of meicury, and such like
intricate physical problems, had satisfied themselves that
within the limit of observation the principle was true, that
the capacity of a hollow glass vessel increased by an incre-
ment of temperature at the same rate as the bulk of a solid
block of the same material. He thought that if that was
slated as a warrantable deduction in the present state of
knowledge, it perhaps meet the difficulties that seemed to
have occurred to the gentlemen referred to. Regarding
Mr. Guttmann's difficulty with reference to the determina-
tion of specific gravity, that the value found at one tempe-
rature is not the same as that obtained at another temperature,
that must necessarily be the ease, unless the standard
fluid and the substance compared with it expanded at
April so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
305
exactly the same rate. If an inexpansible fluid were
compared with water at 100° C, Its specific gravity at that
temperature would be something like 1 per cent, higher
than the value obtained at 15° C. j whilst if the fluid were
more expansible thau water, its speeifie gravity would
be less at the higher temperature, and vice versa ; so that,
in the one case, the specific gravity would be greater, and
in the other case, less at 100° C.than at 15 C. It was to
points of that kind that he had wished more particularly to
refer in his opening remarks in pointing out that current
technical literature was attended with a considerable degree
of uncertainty as regards the exact meaning of certain
numerical quantities, through the improper use of terms
and the incorrect application of them in defining quantities
of this description. He did not like to appear invidious,
but might mention as an example that one very well-known
author had spoken of the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of melted fat at 100; F. to the weight of the
same volume of water at the same temperature as being
the "actual density" a wholly improper expression; for
the term density involved a conception of something more
than a simple numerical ratio ; it involved the fundamental
notions of mass and volume, and the use of a phrase
of that kind implied a considerable confusion of ideas ;
apart from which the "actual density" at 100° F. as
thus defined was a value which was absolutely identical
with the " specific gravity at 100" F.," and was, therefore,
a needless expression, even if correct. Two speakers had
referred to the possibility of error on account of the
sticking of the hydrometer against the side of the vessel ;
and another possibility of error through the formation of
bubbles upon the instrument. The former difficulty was
1-iss likely to occur with hydrometers of cylindrical belly,
floating perfectly upright in a smooth surfaced jar ; the
latter source of error was a very considerable difficulty in
all cases, but it applied equally to all forms of instrument
with which he was acquainted. The two fluids (diluted
spirits of wiue, and sulphuric acid) on the table had not
liberated any bubbles during their use as examples, but it
was quite possible that others might have done so. As
regarded the bobbing up and down of the hydrometer, there
was a very simple way of getting over the error that might
occur through the adherence of a film of liquid to the upper
part of the stem ; and that was, simply to lift it up about
an iuch or so, carefully wipe the stem, aud gently let it go
so that it would quietly subside. Mr. Fulton had referred
to au instrument (see below) which he (Dr. Wright)
bad not had the pleasure of being able to examine
thoroughly ; and he confessed that he did not quite under-
stand its modus operandi: but it appeared to him that the
part which corresponded to the shank of a hydrometer was
somewhat wide; and, therefore, it could hardly be expected
to compare in delicacy with the instruments he had
exhibited. The instruments he had on the table had
equivalent lengths of 750 to 1,250 millimetres equal to some
30 to 50 inches, so that each millimetre of stem represented
about yTtjy to TT71-^ of the whole instrument ; i.e., for an
instrument standardised with water a difference in specific
gravity of 0*0001 represented about one-tenth of a millimetre.
Hut in the instrument brought before the meeting by that
gentleman, it appeared to him (Dr. Wright) that the
graduated tube was very much wider, so as to seriously
impair the sharpness of its reading. He spoke under
correction, as he had not had an opportunity of closely
inspecting the apparatus ; but that was the objection which
occurred to him at the first blush. A speaker had referred
to the expansion of the liquid, and had asked whether the
indications of a " millimetere areometer " would be exact at
a temperature higher thau that at which it was standardised.
Certainly not, unless it was known what was the rate of
expansion of the substance dealt with relatively to water so
as to make the necessary correction. If a gis'en instrument
were calibrated and set for a particular temperature, say
15° C, it could be used at that temperature with a fair
degree of accuracy ; but if it were required to work at a
widely different temperature, say 100° C., it should be cali-
brated at that temperature also. The same principles
applied as in the ease of a pyknometer ; so far as the effect
of expansion was concerned, that could be calculated in
much the same way as that described for pyknometers in
the paper ; hut there was another point to consider, viz.,
that if the temperature of the jar varied, the length of the
millimetre scale etched thereon also varied, so as to repre-
sent a lesser length thau 100 millimetres at a temperature
below the normal one for the instrument, and vice versa,
involving au additional correction. Dr. Rideal's experience
with the Westphal instrument seemed to have been more
unfortunate than his (Dr. Wright's) and worse than that
of most others who had used it. The results which he (Dr.
Wright) had obtained with it and similar instruments, had
led him to believe that, except in determinations involving
accuracy to more than three places of figures, it was suffi-
ciently accurate to be of considerable practical use. One
speaker bad stated his opinion that the use of an arrange-
ment of the kind described by him would be limited to fluids
not deeply coloured. It was perfectly true that in the ease
of a dark fluid it was difficult to read the meniscus, but in
that case the level of the top of the liquid could be easily
read ; wrhilst with a properly proportioned jar, not too
wide, the etched rim could also be easily read, there being
onlv a thin column of fluid round the bulb of the instrument.
— ». jf tf f car f «^°
SPECIFIC GRAVITY APPARATUS.
BY H. B. PULTON, F.C.S.
It seemed to me that while the little piece of apparatus
which I have now the pleasure of exhibiting is perhaps
scarcely important enough in itself to merit an independent
communication to the Society, it might, in connection with
Dr. Wright's paper " On Specific Gravities for Practical
Purposes," be not altogether devoid of interest.
In bringing this before the Society, I make no claim of
originality, having seen the principle applied some years
i ago in America, where a common test tube was employed
l for the purpose. I have, however, suggested the addition
thereto of a bulb for mercury or shot to weight the tube as
iu the case of au ordinary hydrometer.
The apparatus consists of a glass tube, having as uniform
| a diameter as possible, graduated from zero upwards — a
scale of millimetres being a convenient one — and weighted
with mercury so as to maintain a vertical position when
floated in water. The neck by which the mercury bulb is
attached is comparatively a long one, so that the centre of
gravity may be as low as possible. The lower part of the
tube may with advantage be blown so as to have a small
flattened protruding bulb to act as a fender (Fig. 1), and
' thus insure more accurate readings by preventing the tube
from clinging to the sides of the test jar; or the same result
may be accomplished by other means.
The modus operandi is as follows : —
Water is first poured into the tube to fill it at least to zero
on the scale. A little more does not matter, and there
must he sufficient to cover completely the specimen whose
specific gravity is about to be taken. Suppose it to have
been filled exactly to zero, the tube is now floated in a jar
of water, aud the level at which it floats is read off. This
may be, say 20 (as at Fig. 2). The specimen, perhaps a
piece of galena, either as a lump or in powder, is now
dropped carefully into the tube, which at once sinks, say
to 55 (as at Fig. 3), and the weight of the specimen is thus
ascertained as 55 — 20 = 35.
At the same time, however, the volume is obtained by
noting the displacement of the water inside the tube ; and
again assuming this reading to be 5, we have at once
35 „
sP-gr- = 5 = '•
Although, obviously, determinations cannot thus be made
with the same accuracy as with the balance, yet the apparatus
admits of the specific gravity of vesicular bodies, such as
slags, being taken rapidly and easily in the state of grains
or powder, with sufficient exactness for most practical
purposes. By diminishing the diameter of the tube, greater
106
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL TNDUSTRT. [April so, 1892
delicacy can of course In- attained, and 1 suggested to
Messrs. Townson and Mercer, who made the tube now
before you, that they should prepare tubes for sale, of three
different diameters, perhaps 10 mm., is nun., and 25 mm.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
Mi.-. 3.
DC
90
•
J
•
1st position.
Fulton's SpKciprc Gravity Tube.
=s^a»3Q03J»
STUDIES ON ARTIFICIAL MUSK.
ALBERT 1S.4UR, PH.D.
Soarf years ago, together with W. Kelbe, I isolated from
rosin spirit (Harzessenz), a butyltoluene, which proved to
be a meta-derivatire. (Ber. 16, 2559.)
According to my more recent investigations on this subject
1 have succeeded in proving thai by the action of nitric and
sulphuric acids on this hydrocarbon, a crystallisable com-
pound is formed which possesses in a very marked degree
the odour of musk. The production of this artificial musk
is now patented in all countries. The preparation is known
iii commerce under the name " Musk Baur." (This Journal,
1889, 1004.)
In the Compt. Rend. 1890, 111, '238, and also I hem.
Zeit. 1890, [67] (this Journal, 1890, 964), there is a
notice published by me showing that artificial musk is
a trinitro-derivative of butyltoluene of the formula
<', Hi i II ii( ,11., n M>, ;.,, I have extended this investi-
gation, and now beg to communicate the further results
obtained, (this Journal, 1891, IG24).
The hydrocarbon of rosin spirit, like the compound
synthesiscd from tertiary butylchloride and toluene, both
of which yield artificial musk, are shown to be one and the
same thing, vi/., tertiary butyltoluene.
Monomfroouty7fofoeMeC6H3(CH3)(N02)C(CB i, \\ ben
fuming nitric acid is slowly added to the solution of the
hydrocarbon in glacial acetic acid, an oil is obtained which
refuses to solidify even in a freezing mixture, and can be
volatilised with steam. On distillation under the atmo-
spheric pressure it decomposes, but in vacuo it distils
without decomposition at 160; — 162°. It is a yellowish oil
of peculiar odour, not pleasant, and unlike that of musk.
On long standing in the air it becomes brown.
lly the action of excess of nitric acid this mononitro-
compound is converted into the trinitro - compound
('• artificial musk ").
By warming the oil for some time on the water bath and
precipitating with water, a solid product was obtained
smelling of musk, and crystallising from alcohol in yellowish
white needles, melting at D6 — 97 .
Dinitrobutyltoluene, C,.II.;(C11,)(N'0;)..)C',H9)
When the hydrocarbon is allowed to drop into fuming
nitric acid of sp. i^r. 1 ■ ."», the liquid being strongly re-
frigerated, and the mixture afterwards let stand at the
ordinary temperature, a mixture of mononitro-, di-, and
trinitro derivatives is obtained. On distillation with steam
the mononitro product first passes over, and then follows fl
mixture of mono- and dinitro-compound. The trinitro-
derivative remains behind on steam distilling, and contains
a small quantity of dinitrobutyltoluene.
( In allowing the original product to stand for some time
at rest, the trinitro-derivative for the most part crystallises
out.
To obtain the dinitro-compound from the residual oil,
the latter is submitted to distillation in vacuo repeatedly.
The fraction received over at 224 — 225 is pure dinitro-
butyltoluene. It is a brown oil of very unpleasant odour,
not solidifying in a freezing mixture. When this oil is
treated with excess of the sulphuric nitric acid mixture,
trinitrobutyltoluene results.
Trinitrobutyltoluene (Artificial Musk) —
C6H(CH3)(N02)3C(CH3)3
The simplest method of preparation is from the hydro-
carbon direct. By allowing the hydrocarbon, butyltoluene,
slowly to drop into 5 times its weight of a mixture of
1 part of nitric acid of 1*5 sp. gr\, and 2 parts of fuming
sulphuric acid of 15 per cent, of anhydride and warming
the mixture on the water-bath for about 8 — 9 hours. On
pouring into water a crystalline mass is precipitated, con-
sisting of trinitrobutyltoluene, but not quite pure. To
obtain a perfectly pure article, capable of giving good
analytical figures, it is necessary to nitrate the product
once more. By crystallising the product from alcohol,
yellowish-white needles melting at 96° — 97 are obtained,
and these have an intense odour of musk. The compound
is insoluble in water, but easily soluble in alcohol, ether,
petroleum spirit, benzene, and chloroform. It is only very
slightly volatile on attempted steam distillation. By dis-
solving equal molecular weights of trinitrobutyltoluene and
naphthalene in boiling alcohol and heating the solution for
some time under inverted condenser, on cooling large yeilow
plates are obtained, melting at 89° — 90°.
With regard to the constitution of the trinitrobutrl
toluene there are four formula1 possible —
/\ No.
NOs 'x/l C4Hg
N02
CH3
NO.A
CH3
NO. /\ NO,
N< i,
C4HS
NO I J C.H,
CH3
NO, '' ' No.
<\H.
NO,
NO,
The three first have the common peculiarity that in
case one nitro-group exists in the ortho position to another
nitro-group, whilst in the fourth formula all three uitro-
groups are respectively in the meta position to each other.
Now, the investigations of Laubenheimer, Hepp, &c. have
shown that the compounds in which the nitro-groups stand
to each other in the ortho position, rery easily exchange
one of these nitro groups for an OH, NH2, or NHC6HS
group when treated with alkalis, ammonia, or aniline
April :s>:
:.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
307
respectively. In the lirst two cases the nitro-group is
eliminated as nitrite, in the third ease it converts the
aniline into diazoamidobenzene, C6H5 . X : N . NCi;H,ll.
If the nitro-groups are not in the ortho position, then
alkalis and ammonia are without action, and aniline gives
rise to addition products. No alteration with alkalis and
ammonia taking place, and an addition compound with
aniline without any formation of diazoamidobenzene being
obtained, the fourth formula is confirmed as the true one.
flomologues and tsoinerides of Artificial Musk. — A
-nics df these has been very carefully prepared and
qualitatively tested. Very many of them possess the smell
of umsk, but as far as regards technical value they are
all inferior to the trinitrobutyltoluene. For example, the
trinitro compound »/' butylmetaxylene has been prepared.
It possesses a strong odour of musk, and has the formula —
1,3 5 i. l.i;
Cc(riiA'(<',it,,t,x<>.,):,
By-products formed in the Preparation of Butyltoluene. —
Butyltoluene is by no means the only product of the action
of butylbromide upon toluene in presence of aluminium
chloride. To purify the substance, it is necessary to subject
the product of the reaction to repeated fractionation. Even
by the use of perfectly pure toluene and pure isobutyl-
bromide, besides butyltoluene, also butylbenzene, butyl-
xylene, butylethylbcnzene with dihutylbenzene, dibutyl-
toluene, and other products as yet undistinguishable, are
obtained.
The formation of butylbenzene, xylerje, and ethylbenzene
is explained by the fact that in the reaction of Friedel and
Crafts (Compt. Bend. 101, 1218) toluene splits up under
the influence of aluminium chloride partially into benzene on
the one hand, and xylene and ethylbenzene on the other,
and these naturally become butylated, like the toluene
itself.
Vmong the products distilling between J 70° and 200",
which I have specified in my patent as applicable for
nitration, all these compounds are contained, and the
corresponding trinitro-derivatives find their way into the
crude artificial musk. Later on, it was however found best,
even for technical purposes, to subject the butyltoluene to a
complete purification to begin with.
When the bromide is employed, which has been prepared
from the ordinary commercial butyl alcohol and which
always contains amyl alcohol, the crude hydrocarbon
mixture, as per patent, boiling at 170° — 200', contains
besides, butyl derivatives, also the corresponding amyl
derivatives. These also ou nitration yield substances
smelling of musk, but of a coarser description of odour, and
which arc much more difficult to crystallise. For technical
purposes, then, pure butyl bromide must be employed.
Anisol and Cresol Derivatives, and another Form of
Musk.—Ofx account of the analogies of the phenol ethers
with the hydrocarbons, it seemed to me of interest to include
them in the scope of my investigations. 1 have, to begin
with, introduced the butyl group into anisol, C6H5 . OCH3, by
means of the Friedel and Crafts' reaction, and then sub-
jected the butylauisol—
/OCH3
NC4H9
thus obtained, to nitration. The Di- and Trinitrobutyl-
anisol are crystalline bodies possessing no smell of musk.
The Trinitro-derivatives of the butylated p-cresol- and
o-cresol-ethers have, according to my researches, the
following constitution —
"I'll;,
N( »,
"\
V0 \/
CH
(J4H,,
NO,
and
NO..
OCH3
\ C1I3
C4H9
They exhibit no odoriferous properties worthy of notice
or remark.
The butyl-group in these ethers is of course also the
tertiary.
The trinitro-derivative of the butylated o-vresol ether is
a beautifully crystalline product. It forms shining yellowish-
white needles melting at Ij'j' — 70 . This ether was also
obtained from the m-butyltoluene sodium sulphonate by
fusion with potash, and by nitration and subsequent
etherification of the phenol thus obtained (Her. 16, 2S61).
The trinitro-derivative of the butylated-p-cresol ether, on
the other hand, is obtained in the crystalline form with very
great difficulty. When, however, pure m-cresol 'ether is
boiled with isobutyl bromide or pseudobutyl chloride and
aluminium chloride, a butylated m-cresol ether is obtained,
boiling at 222° — 221°, and which on treatment with the
nitro-sulphurie acid mixture yields a trinitro-derivative of
intense musk-like odour. This compound possesses the
formula —
OCH3 orO.C„H-2„ + ,
NO., /\ Ni >,
C4II0
CH3
NO„
This ether crystallises from alcohol in beautiful yellowish-
white plates. A British patent has been recently granted
for the preparation of this musk-like cresol ether.
If meta-cresol be treated with butyl alcohol and then
with chloride of zinc, and the mixture boiled under the
inverted condenser, an unsymmetrical butylcresol is
obtained, which when etherified and nitrated, yields a
product possessing an odour closely resembling the so-called
civet (" civette '').
Discussion.
The paper having been read by Mr. Watsoji Smith.
Dr. Alder Wright wished to ask him whether the author
had examined the nature of the products obtained by the
methods patented by Valentiner (Kng. Pat. 15,687 of 1890 ;
this Journal, 1891, 571), where certain benzene hydro
carbons, oil of turpentine, &c, were treated with butylic or
other homologous alcohols in presence of sulphuric acid,
whereby condensation was brought about, producing hydro-
carbons and sulphouic acids thence derived, the former of
which gave an insoluble musk on nitration, and the latter
a soluble musk. It would thence seem as if a variety of
homologous nitro-derivatives existed, all more or less
possessing the odour of musk. Were any particular mem-
bers of this group better suited than others for technical
purposes ? and if so, which 'i
Mr. Peter MacEwan said there was no doubt that the
subject before the meeting, from a commercial point of
view, was of immense interest ; hut in his opinion it was of
equal interest that the meeting should know that artificial
musks, from the point of view of the consumer, had not
been quite the success which had been anticipated. This
fact was probably due to the assumption that musk was
used per se as a perfume. It was not so ; the principal
use of musk being to develop, fix, or " round off " the
odours of other perfumes. This property did not appear to
be possessed by the artificial musks. There was another
fact in regard to artificial musk which he had noted on its
introduction, and that was, that it underwent some modifi-
cation in presence of acids, which fact had a very material
influence upon the use of such substances in confectionery,
in which trade there was undoubtedly very large quantities
of musk employed, as was also the ease in tobacco manu-
facture. It would be of immense advantage to those
industries in which musk was used if Dr. Baur would
extend his studies to the investigation of the reactions or
decompositions between artificial musk and those bodies
with which it was likely to come in contact. It was
necessary that they should have knowledge ou this point
before they could say whether artificial could take the place of
natural musk. The supply of the latter could not last for
ever, and although the extermination of the musk deer
308
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April S0.16S3.
might not be a question for the present generation, it
certainly would lie for the next, or the following one ; and
what there would he to fall back upon then it was difficult
to conjecture, unless a satisfactory artificial article could be
produced.
Mr. A. G. Green inquired whether it had not been
shown in a recent number of the Berichte of the German
Chemical Society, that the soluble musk obtained according
to Valentiner and Schwar/.'s patent, owed its smell to a
small quantity of trinitrohutyltoluene with which the com-
mercial product was contaminated, and that the pure
sulphouate was odourless. The fact that the trinitrohutyl-
toluene was insoluble in water would not disprove its
presence, as it might be dissolved in small quantity by the
sulphouate ; a priori, it was difficult to conceive of the
soilium salt of a sulphonic acid having an odour, on account
of the extreme non-volatility of such bodies.
Mr. Watson Smith, in reply, said that Ilr. Baur had
already investigated the homologues of the butyltoluene
musk, and he had stated definitely that none of them
possessed an odour comparable with that of his pure trinitro-
product for fineness and purity. With regard to the
question of the blending capacity of the artificial musk, he,
Mr. Watson Smith, had found on reference to Piesse's work
on perfumes, that it had not that property in the same
degree as natural musk. What he understood by this was
that whilst natural musk had an extraordinary power of
blending its perfume with other odours to agreeable results,
the artificial product lacked this capacity. Natural musk
resin had an entirely different composition. With reference
to soap manufactuie, in connexion with the question of any
superiority or inferiority of the water-soluble sulphonatcd
musks for scenting purposes, it appeared to him to be a
question of how much of such soluble products were required
to scent one ton of soap as compared with the musk of
M. Baur. Manufacturing practice would soon settle this
point. Otherwise he was perfectly at one with the opinion
of Mr. A. G. Green.
Mr. Mac Ewan remarked that the artificial article made
from oil of amber was used in the manufacture of certain
soaps, in which natural musk could not possibly be used
owing to its high price.
Mr. Watsoh Smith, continuing his reply, said that it was
a current opinion that the most valuable application of
artificial musk would be in the scenting of soaps.
Dr. A. Baur replied to the following effect by letter : —
Xot only he, but also Professors Graebe, Noelting, Nietzki.
and Witt had repeated the process described in the specifi-
cation No. 19,687 of October 3rd, 1890, of Valentiner. By
the reactions which take place when concentrated sulphuric
acid acts upon butyl alcohol and oil of turpentine, small
quantities of butylated aromatic hydrocarbons are formed,
which are volatile with steam, and on nitration yield impure
and ill-flavoured musks. The larger portion of the product
is non-volatile with steam, and furnishes on nitration no
musk at all. As regards the reaction with the butyl alcohol
and Mjlphuric acid, on the one hand butylxylene is formed,
which on nitration yield Baur's trinitro-derivative, whilst on
the other, butylxylene sulphonic acid —
C6H.,(CH;lV(CJH9)(S03H)
is produced. Now on nitration of this latter compound,
nitrobutylxylene sulphonic acid is produced which is, as
Mr. A. G. Green suspected, without odour; and on con-
tinued nitration, suffers decomposition with loss of the
sulpho group and formation of trinitrobutylxylene. A
complete report on this subject is given by Xoelting in the
Berichte, 1892, 789, where he states: — "The so-called
Soluble Musk of Valentiner owes its odour to small quantities
of trinitrobutylxylene." Trinitrobutylxylene, although in-
soluble in water, dissolves t" some extent in the solution of
the nitrated sulphonic ai id and it- salts. A realhj soluble
fa] musk does not exist. He (Dr. Baur) hail heard
from various perfumery experts and firms that the artificial
musk had proved itself extremely well adapted for mixing
with other perfumes, and that, like natural musk, it
possessed the power of fixing the latter as well as amal-
gamating with them.
Whilst he was working out his process, it subsequently
appeared that two other German chemists, Messrs.
Schnaufer and Hupfeld, had been working on the same
lines. Whilst later, as to date of application in Germany,
these chemist* were first in England, viz., Kng. Pat. 18,521,
December 18, 1888, whilst his patent, No. 4963, was dattd
March 21, 1889. This matter was now fully settled, both
patents being in the hands of the same firm, the Fabriqves
de produits ehimimies de Thann el dc Miilhmi.se, and the
further scientific investigation of the subject now rested
solely with himself.
NOTES ON ROSIN OIL.
BY F. H. LEEDS, F.I.C., F.C.S.
CheNEVIEB (Monit.Scient. 1890,4,685—689; this Journal,
1890, 825) has stated that rosin oil "of the first distilla-
tion" may be distinguished from that of the second by the
amount of free acid present, and gives as the limits of the
acidity from 4 to 10 per cent., the molecular weight of
the acids being assumed to be 302.
Kosin oil "of the first distillation," i.e., an oil which has
been distilled once, the spirit it contains being subsequently
removed either by steam or fire heat, varies considerably
in its composition, according to the design of the stills,
and the consequent greater or less ease with which the
rosin can volatilise unchanged during the distillation ; the
acidity of commercial samples varying from about 15 to
24 per cent. These crude oils usually have a blue fluo-
rescence, but by heating to a temperature of 150° C. for
3 — 4 hours, td'remove the last traces of spirit, they Use
from 1 to 5 per cent, by weight, and the fluorescence becomes
green. Oils containing a higher percentage of non-acid
substances are also met with, and with little trouble may
be prepared, having only about 0-4 per cent, of acids.
The figures for acidity given above are obtained by titra-
tion of the alcoholic* solution of the oil with caustic potash
and phenolphthalein ; their molecular weight being taken at
the figure given by Chenevier (r/. atile). By boiling the
oils with excess of alcoholic potash and titrating back with
acid, another — higher — figure is obtained, the difference
between the two varying from I to 9 per cent., but having,
as reference to Table I. will show, apparently no connexion
with the degree of purity of the oil.
Table I.
Acid by Acid by Difference
Titration. Saponification, Per Cent.
I ...
•J'J-71
31-07
83S
U-ol
•>i -20
7'68
0M5
9-73
li '27
l.i-11
lt'52
1-11
0-36
I'M
IMS
Sample.
A
I!
C
D
E
( if these samples E was a laboratory oil. prepared in
glass, and 1> was a mixture of about equal parts of A and
E, prepared for a special purpose.
The first three samples were exposed in evaporating
basins to the air of the laboratory for file mouths from
April to September, to see the effect of partial drying.
At the end of the time they were found not to have
increased notably in viscidity, but A was dry at the edges :
they were then well mixed up by the aid of heat anil
* In the case of the crude oils, solution is much aided by the
addition "fa few drops of toluene.
April SM892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
S09
thorough stirring and again titrated ; the results being
shown in Table 11. : —
Table II.
S.iirplc.
Acid by
Titration.
Acid by
Saponification.
I)i (Terence
Per Cent.
A
23'2a
W90
1'62
B
1 r i-
ll'.O'.l
fill
0
0'55
va
•'■ ■ <■■>"•
It is to be noticed that the figures in the first column
show hardly any change — the decrease in H being pro-
bably an experimental error. Some of the A oil after
exposure was poured on to glass plates and again exposed
till dry to the touch ; the film was then scraped off the
glass, and gave, on analysis : — by titration, 24-60 per cent.,
by saponification, 37"00 of acids.
By boiling with alcoholic potash and treating as described
in .Mien's Commercial Organic Analysis for the estimation of
saponitiable matter, figures agreeing well with those obtained
volumetrically could not be obtained ; sample B giving
sravimetrically 16 12 per cent, of acids instead of 14'52:
further experiments, which are still in progress, showing
that the molecular weight of the resins is higher than 302
(Chenevier, loc. cit.). The author hopes to give further
results in a future communication.
mbnpool Swtion.
UnIvebsity College, Bbownlow Street.
Chairman : J!. Bruuner.
Vice-Chairman : A. Norman Tate.
Committee :
E. Carey. A. H. KniKht.
V. C. Driffield. . D.McKechnie.
/•'. Gossage. E. K. Muspratt,
W. B. Herman. H uru Tate.
C. L. Biggins. A. Watt.
F.Hiuter.
Hon. Treasurer : \V P. Thompson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. Chas. A. Kohu, University College, Liverpool.
Notices ot Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to till the vacancies, and will
take oltiee in July next :— Vice Chairman : E. Carey. Committee :
J. Campbell Brown, Jos. C. Gamble, G. Schack-Sommer, and A.
Norman Tate.
Meeting held Wednesday, April 6th, 1892.
MR. A. NORMAN TATE IN THE CHAIR.
ADJOURNED DISCUSSION ON MB. A. E.
FLETCHER'S PAPER ON MODERN LEGISLA-
TION IX RESTRAINT OF THE EMISSION
OF NOXIOUS GASES FROM MANUFACTURING
OPERATIONS. (See Vol. XL, page 120.)
Mr. Eustace Carey opened the discussion, and said —
I purpose this evening to make some remarks, which
shall be few and brief, by way of introducing a discussion
upon the subject of Mr. Fletcher's interesting paper of
January last, with the intention of proposing a resolution and
of obtaining the views of this Section as to what, if any,
amendment of the Alkali Works Regulation Act should be
recommended in the interest of the public, amendments
which shall be at the same time without injury to the
manufacturer.
In making the following remarks I wish it to be under-
stood that I am giving only my own individual opinion, I
do not pretend to represent any particular manufacture,
and though, of course, I can only speak from my experience
as an alkali manufacturer, I shall endeavour without fear or
favour to speak in the interest of chemical industry
generally, and I hope with a due regard to the interest of
the public of which we form a part.
So far the alkali manufacturer has been in the eyes of
the public and of the Legislature the first and chief object
of attention, though it has all along been obvious and
admitted that there are other industries which have hitherto
received no attention whatever which deal with and of
necessity evolve into the atmosphere the very same gases as
those produced in the manufacture of alkali. The Act of
1863 was directed against alkali works alone, and though
the subsequent Acts have been concerned with some other
industries their chief object has been the regulation of
alkali works.
One reason for this is readily seen, viz., that in alkali
works the gases are evolved in such a manner that they
can be regulated and their escape controlled with compa-
rative ease. Another reason is that the foremost alkali
makers, when legislation was first proposed, happened to be
men of singularly open mind, public spirited, and sagacious
(as many of these men have passed away, I trust that I may
be permitted this tribute to their memory). They began
by frankly admitting the fact that the gases evolved from
their works had done harm to vegetation, that within
reasonable limits the escapes of these gases might be con-
trolled, and they expressed themselves willing to incur
reasonable expense in erecting plant for the more perfect
condensation of such gases. They went further; they
cordially assisted the Government in framing a working Act,
and when that Act was passed they treated the inspectors,
who had been appointed, in a thoroughly friendly way, and
gave them, so far as I know, every assistance in their power.
They were sagacious enough to see two things ; one was that
a reasonable regulation of escapes would be ultimately in
favour of the manufacturer who was possessed of capital
and skill ; secondly, that the fact of their works being so
conducted as to meet the requirements of the inspectors
would tend, and rightly tend, to protect them from vexatious
actions for damage. These views and their action have been
justified by the event, for, the Acts being framed in a
reasonable manner, manufacturers generally have found no
great difficulty in complying with the regulations, escapes
have been greatly lessened, vegetation in the neighbour-
hood of alkali works suffers less than it did 20 or 30 years
aeo, notwithstanding the fact that alkali works have largely
increased during that period, the public have been protected
and the manufacturer, to say the least, has not suffered.
So much for the past ; let me, with equal brevity, now
speak of the future.
Firstly, then, with regard to Mr. Fletcher's suggestion
that works should be no longer scheduled but that gases
should ; that is to say, instead of naming a list of the works
that are to be inspected and the operations of which are to
be controlled as to their means of preventing escapes, a list
of gases should be named, and that all works that are liable
to evolve these gases should be brought under inspection
and eventually under reasonable regulations with a view to
the prevention of escapes. With this suggestion I quite
agree, the present system of naming certain works and only
certain works results in glaring anomalies and affords another
instance of the old saying that " while one man may steal a
sheep another may not look over a hedge." Under the
present system ex. gr.,as has been often pointed out before,
the alkali maker in the manufacture of sulphate of soda is
tied down by stringent regulations ; he must catch and con-
dense all or nearly all his HO, he must catch and condense
all or nearly all his chamber SO, and SO:, ; but the glass
manufacturer on tne other hand buys sulphate of soda and
in many cases common salt and ealmty decomposes those
310
THE JOURNAL OF THE fc>OCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, 1892.
substances with Si02 and makes no attempt to catch and
condense either his S( >, or HCI. The whole of these gases
escape into the atmosphere, and as the alkali manufacturer
and the glass manufacturer are often next-door neighbours
the unfortunate alkali maker is frequently held responsible
for annoyance and damage to which perhaps he does not
contribute more than one hundredth part. The same obser-
vations hold gopd in respect to copper smelting; the smelter
by the dry process is under no inspection and under no
obligation to even try to condense his si >,, while the wet
process metal extracting works are defined to be alkali works
and therefore under regulations as stringent as those of
ordinary alkali works.
ii| course it will be argued that in the case of glass
works ami dry process copper works, there is no means — no
practicable means — of condensing these gases. That maybe
\er\ true at present and no person outside a lunatic asylum
would dream of placing the same restrictions upon them as
upon alkali work- : luit there is no reason why no attempt
should he made to grapple with the difficulty, but rather
more reason for putting judicious but not vexatious pressure
upon such manufacturers to try to make them improve
their processes and appliances in the interest of the public.
1 think also, that it will lie better to name certain gases
than to take a wider definition — the gases when enumerated
are something upon which the inspectors can definitely act.
If a wider definition is attempted such as that proposed by
Dr. Brown, viz., " any gas injurious to health or property,"
the inspectors would have an almost insuperable practical
difficulty before them ; they or the Government for them,
would have to decide from time to time, amidst conflicting
testimony, what gas is. and what gas is not harmful, and
then having decided that they would have to say what
pen entage of such gas is harmful. Is 0-2 per cent, of CO._
prejudicial to health or if I pel ct ut.? Is 0-01 gr. of HCI or
o no i of CI in a cubic foot of the air of a neighbourhood
prejudicial or otherwise ? Now these questions would lead
to endless delay in the practical working of any Act, and I
submit that our Act should be so amended as to enumerate
gases which are admitted to bs harmful, which are known to
be manufactured and which are liable to escape in sufficient
quantity to be a serious annoyance to the public.
I would suggest that the Act be so drafted that the list
of these gases can be amended by provisional order or
otherwise if and when in the opinion of the central authority
necessity arises.
The Act should provide that any works where these gases
are manufactured shall be inspected by qualified inspectors
appointed by the central authority, that when such works
are under inspection it shall he competent for the central
authority from time to time to define within what limits, if
limits are practicable, escapes may be tolerated ; in other
words, a " best practicable means clause " of elastic
construction should be provided.
By such a clause I do nut mean that inspectors should
have 'la power of saving to a manufacturer " You must
use such and such means, you must use this or that
apparatus or invention for the purpose." Such power is
obviously open to great abuse, but the inspector should have
power when authorised by the central authority to say to a
manufacturer, " It has been proved practicable to reduce
these escapes to such and such a limit, you must now
reduce them to this limit ; adopt what means you please, put
up what form of plant you like, only reduce your escapes to
what is now known to be reasonably practicable. You shall
have three mouths, six months, or whatever time is
.try to effect your alterations, but by such and such
a date your escapes musl be reduced to the required point,
Otherwise I shall he compelled to take action against you."
The "best practicable means" should he therefore under-
stood to be any means which will attain that result which is
considered by the central authority to be the best practicable
result for the time being.
Now it may he argued by those who do mil wish to sec
oi\ extension of legislation, that " British manufactures must
not be handicapped lei regulations which are not in force in
foreign countries, for if they are so handicapped the foreign
i. iinet will have an unfair advantage over us."
I reply, if the proposed regulations are such that the
British manufacturer is really at a disadvantage thereby,
such regulations tire not reasonable because they are not
politic, and being unreasonable and impolitic they tire not
likely to be suggested by any responsible authority.
This part of the question appears to me to resolve itself
into this: Can we trust the Government ?
I venture to say we can, for I believe that no Government,
be it ( 'onservative or Radical, will ever have the desire, or
even if it had the desire will ever be allowed, to hamper our
manufacturers with unreasonable and impolitic restrictions.
I think that the experience of the last 30 years shows us
that in noxious vapours legislation we have been careful
of the manufacturer : it lias been cautiously tentative, and,
if you please, illogical; Englishmen oftcu appear illogical ;
all practical men do.
Suppose for a moment that ive had been what some persons
may call strictly logical and had insisted upon having no
anomalies, we should have been forced into one of two
courses : on the one hand, we might have said, for example,
all works that evolve sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
must condense, therefore glass works shall do so as well as
alkali works ; or, on the other hand, we might have said
because glass works cannot control their escapes therefore
we won't ask all' ali works to control theirs. The former
alternative if vigorously carried out, would have injured or
might have ruined the glass trade, the latter would have
indefinitely delayed improvement in the alkali trade. Xo,
thank goodness, we have not been " logical ; " we have been
practical and haie done the easy work first ; if we hail not
so acted we should possibly never have done any work of
the kind at all, and in any case it would have been much
delayed.
1 submit the time has come when by the experience we
have gained in doing the comparatively easy task of
regulating alkali and some other manufactures, we should
put our shoulders to the wheel again and see if we cannot
take another step forward, and that next step seems to me
to be the amendment of the present Act in the direction of
scheduling certain gases and not certain works, and in the
inspection of all works that deal with those gases.
Ths Government is preparing to amend the present Act,
and will, we are informed, bring in a Bill this session with
that object.* It is, I think, for this Society, the great
representative society of the chemical manufacturers of the
T'nited Kingdom, to watch and to influence legislation in
the interest, firstly, of chemical industry, but not forgetting
that chemical industry has its duties as well as its rights.
I have no doubt that the Parliamentary Committee of the
Council are fully alive to this. But as the new Bill affects
primarily a branch of our trade, the largest centre of which
is in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, it seems highly
desirable that this Section, having special knowledge of
that part of the subject, should take action and confer with
the Parliamentary Committee. 1 have, therefore, much
pleasure in proposing the resolution, which reads as
follows : —
" That a Committee (with power to add to their number)
be appointed by this Section to confer with the Parlia-
mentary Committee of the Council of the Society, to
consider how the Alkali Works Regulation Act may be
amended in the interest of the public and without injury to
the manufacturer,"
Mr. J. C. Gamble, in seconding the resolution, said he
quite agreed with Mr. Carey that gases should be scheduled
and not processes. At the same time he had not such great
faith in the Local Government Board as to at once leave it
to them to say in all cases what were the best practicable
means. He would prefer in the case of processes widely
differing from those that have already been under inspection
that at first they should simply be put under inspection,
and when the inspectors had had sufficient time to become
thoroughly acquainted with all the conditions under which
they were carried out, they might then be put under the
"best practicable means" clause.
* A Bill has since been brought in and was read tor the first time
in the House of Commons on t'ii<l:iy, April S, 1892, and will he found
printed in $xti two on p. :|s^ of this issue.
April 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
311
Dr. Hi kter, in supporting the resolution, drew attention
to the Act as foreshadowed in Mr. Fletcher's paper.
He was sorry to find that the numerical standard limits
of escape provided by the Alkali Acts of 1863, 1874, and
1881, were to he ahandoued, and that the " best practicable
means " clause was to take their place entirely. From Mr.
Fletcher's paper he gathered that the new Act would read
as follows : Noxious Gases Act : Kvcry manufacturer mast
use what in the opinion of a judge and jury were the best
practicable means of preventing the discharge into the
atmosphere of any such gases evolved in his works, of
which 10 neighbouring householders made bond. fide com-
plaints. If the Local Government Hoard were satisfied
that the complaints were bona fide, their iuspector would
institute proceedings against the manufacturer. .Such an Act
would not work. A judge and jury would be the authorities
who decide whether the best practicable means had been used.
The noses of 10 neighbouring householders would take the
place of anemometers, aspirators, &c, and it might well be
asked, "Who is my neighbour?" Mr. F'letcher had no
doubt the best intentions, and thought that such an Act was
simple and not indefinite, but he (Dr. Hurter) was afraid
that to the counsel of a defendant company, the Act might
not read quite so definitely, and provided the means
whereby any farmer or householder might harass the
manufacturers.
He approved of the suggestion to schedule the gases
rather than the works, but pointed out that the numerical
standard limits of escape should be retained. These could
not of course be applied at once to all the works. Escapes
of sulphurous acid from glass aud copper works were most
difficult to deal with, and the question arose, supposing
they succeeded in suppressing all the gases evolved in
chemical works, would they derive any great benefit from
it as regards the purity of the atmosphere ? It was admitted
on all sides that the largest pollution of the atmosphere was
due to the combustion of fuel, the sulphur of which was
by far the greatest source of sulphurous acid. He did not
think that the loss which might be inflicted by unduly
harassing the manufacturers would be compensated by the
increase iu agricultural profits, and be thought that while
they were obliged to control the escape of these gases to
such an extent that they would not be injurious to health,
they must stop at that limit and not press for more than
would insure that, considering that our population lived
chiefly on other than agricultural pursuits.
Mr. Terry did not approve of the proposal to schedule
the gases. He thought it would cause serious inconvenience
to many industries where gases were evolved to a small
extent. He had in his mind such industries as used chloride
of sulphur for the vulcanisation of india-rubber and other
purposes. Where this substance was used on the large
scale the neighbours might have cause for complaint, but it
would be a difficult thing for those industries where the
substance was used in but small quantity and intermittently
to have to follow the larger works in putting up condensing
plant. There would be an objection if the proposed Act
was to be inoperative unless complaints were lodged, as a
business in one locality might be seriously hampered to the
advantage of a rival house where no legislative restrictions
were in force.
Mr. Rhodes thought the experience of the manure
manufacturers answered Dr. Hurter's objection with regard
to the best practicable means. No definite limit was fixed
for those manufacturers who had their condensation to do
in the best practicable manner. Had the limit been fixed
early it would have been extremely difficult to conform to
it. If it had been fixed at 0'2 grains per cubic foot total
acidity in the mixer gases, some works would have
conformed to it which were not condensing more than
60 or 70 per cent, of the gases from the mixer. Other
works might be condensing 98 or 99 per cent, and yet have an
escape with an acidity equal to 0-5 grain S03 per cubic foot.
This was owing to the different construction of the plant,
as when a fan was used to draw the gases from the mixers
large quantities of air were sent through the condensers
and diluted the gas, and went to reduce the total acidity per
cubic foot in the escaping gases. Where the chimney
only was employed, this dilution of the gases was avoided.
He (Mr. Rhodes) was also of opinion that gases should be
scheduled instead of works, aud maintained that even in
the case of small industries such, for example, as the
smelting of sulphate of lead from chamber bottoms, which
caused a great nuisance, those who worked such processes
should be compelled to condense their gases. Dwellers in
YVidnes sometimes experienced great nuisance from the
smelting of these chamber bottoms. With regard to
matters going before a judge and jury, a recent well-known
ease in which the defendants, who were supposed to have
caused a great nuisance, were acquitted, demonstrated that
under directiou of a judge and before a jury everything
would be thoroughly thrashed out.
Mr. Fletcher remarked that as a judge and jury were
the tribunal before whom cases in dispute must be brought
for their decision, the facts, however technical, must be
so marshalled and established as to be apprehended by
them, convincing them even in the face of opposing
evidence. It did not by any means follow, as had been
suggested, that the aspirator and anemometer must be put
on one side. These were required as means of bringing
forward facts to convince the jury that the accusation or
the defence was correct.
As to fixing a limit to air pollution, he would point out
that the observance of the " best practicable methods " clause
included the power of giving a definite limit. Numerical
limits would grow iu the hands of those who had to
administer this clause.
It must be conceded that the best numerical standards
that could practically be attained might vary under different
circumstances, but experience and a continued effort to
attain the best results would bring out a fixed limit clearly.
Two figures had been mentioned as having been given
provisionally, and they might still stand. They were, first,
as to the amount of chlorine in a cubic foot of air issuing
from a bleaching-powder chamber, that was given as
rive grains. Secondly, the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen
that might be allowed to escape. This was fixed at 0.
These figures came as the result of experience iu the use of
the best practical means for preventing the escape of these
gases, and in this way from time to time other numerical
standards would grow.
Prosecutions had been successfully carried through
resting on this clause. The manufacturer was however,
well sheltered from unwarranted attack. The difficulty wa3
with the inspector, he had to marshal his facts and
arguments in the face of opposition by witnesses on the
other side so as to persuade the judge and jury that the
best practical means bad not been used. The manufac-
turers had the easier side of the argument to maintain ; it
was for the inspector to prove his case, and he was not
likely to go into court unless he was quite certain of
establishing it.
Cases that had recently been tried in Manchester might
be cited as good instances of the protection afforded to
manufacturers by the Government inspection. Nuisances
were said to have arisen from certain factories which were
under partial inspection, but the prosecution withdrew their
claims against those portions which were thus under
inspection, and rested it entirely on those portions which
were not under Government inspection.
The difference between the inspection carried on under
the Alkali Act and that of the sanitary officer, was that
the Alkali Act empowered the inspector to see what was
going wrong, so that he was often able to indicate means
by which the source of complaint could be removed.
Manufacturers were immensely shielded by the appoint-
ment of skilled inspectors who could investigate strictly
into what was going on, and ascertain if the best
practicable methods were employed for the suppression of
nuisance.
As to the definition of sources of nuisance, Mr. Fletcher
put it as an alternative ; either that the gases which were
to be subject of inspection should be named, or that all
312
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892.
manufacturing processes from which any noxious gas was
liable to be discharged should come under the Act, a
suitable definition of a noxious gas being given.
Mr. Norman Tate -aid that it was undoubtedly desirable
that further legislation should take place quickly. It was
a great anomaly that one works should be debarred from
turning out a certain gas whilst another works close to it
could turn it out in quantity without interference. He was
in favour of scheduling the gases instead of the work-, and
thought that, wherever possible, limits of escape should be
distinctly- mentioned ; but he knew that it would be quite
impossible in many cases to do this, and therefore a clause
such as the " best practicable means " clause seemed
absolutely called for. He decidedly objected to legal action
being initiated by the representation of a certain number of
neighbours or householders unless their complaints were
most thoroughly sifted by competent inspection before
legal action was" taken. Any clause relating to such coni-
plaints from a number of householders or neighbours
would require to be watched most closely and carefully
framed, for it Mas very easy to get together the requisite
number of complaints and put manufacturers to much
inconvenience and expense.
Mr. Htc .-iian-ax and Dr. Campbell Brown also sup-
ported the resolution which, on being put to the meeting,
was carried unanimously, and a committee was appointed
in accordance therewith.
Exhibition ok Models, &c.
Dr. Campbell Brown exhibited several modi's of
metallurgical furnaces which bad recently been bought
for the Chemical Department of University College from
funds placed at its disposal by the City Council. These
included models of an English lead furnace, a Belgian
zinc furnace, a copper furnace, and a blast furnace, all of
them being constructed so as to well illustrate the working
of the several processes, and were of the same character as
those supplied to the Mining Academy at Freiburg.
#lanriKSitfT £>r-rtton.
Chairman: Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman .- Edw. Schunck.
Committee :
J. Angell. J- Grossmann.
G. H. Bailey. P. Hart.
R. P. Carpenter. A. Liebmann.
(;. E. Davis. Sir H. E. Eoscoe, M.r.
B /' C. Truby.
H. Grimshaw. D. Watson.
lion. Local Secretary :
3. Carter Bell,
Bank House, Tile Cliff, Higher Brougliton, Manchester.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to lill the vacancies and will
take office in July next \— Committee : I". II. Bowman, .1. M. Irvinfr,
and E. Knecht.
Notices ol Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
1/, i ling held Friday, April Bth, 1892.
MR. I. LEVINSTEIN IX THE CHAIR.
THE MANUFACTURE OF OXYGEN GAS.
1!V FERDINAND 1ANTA.
As we know, atmospheric air is composed practically of four
parts in volume of nitrogen to one part in volume of oxygen,
and from this mixture the nitrogen alone cannot be re-
moved because it has no inclination to combine directly or
easily with any s ibstance we know of, which does not also
combine with oxygen.
Although mechanical means, such as forcing the air
through porous material, india-rubber, metallic gauze. Sec.,
have been experimented with, there does not seem to be
any likelihood of such processes becoming practicable, in
consequence of the great similarity of the two gases in
respect of their physical properties, and of their density,
which may be said to be approximately the same.
I now come to the method of separating oxygen from
the atmospheric air by chemical means, and since, as 1
have just pointed out, no combination can take place with
nitrogen, it becomes necessary to avail ourselves of the
property of certain compounds of oxygen of absorbing
certain determined quantities of oxygen which will he taken
from the atmospheric air, and to again give up such oxygen
under given circumstances, whereby the original lower
oxide will remain as residue.
Two distinct processes, based on these reversible reactions,
have been brought forward, one being based on the use of
barium oxide which is due to Bunsen, the other based on
the use of manganese oxides in combination with caustic
soda, due to Tessic du Motay.
These are, so far as I know, the only two processes by
which oxygen is obtained direct from atmospheric air
without the intervention of any other chemical reaction,
such as have been suggested for using oxides of had,
plumbates, &c.
The process of utilising barium oxide has been described
at length in the Society's Journal (see L. T. Thome, 189(1,
246).
As \ on are no doubt aware, this forms the basis of the
process known as " Erin's," and is, according to my belief,
the only one which has till recently been applied on a
somewhat large scale, and I am glad to take this opportunity
of saying that some of the important applications to which
oxygen, when produced on a large scale and a low cost .
will he turned, may be to a certain extent attributed to the
enterprise of the Briu Co., who, I understand, have of late
years introduced a series of improvements, reducing, if not
entirely removing, the inconveniences inherent to the
process.
In reference to the second process, viz. ; that of Tessic
du Motay referred to above, Professor Mendeleefi
expresses himself as follows : —
" As oxygen may become of considerable technical use
from its capacity for giving high temperatures and intense
light in the combustion of substances, its preparation
directly from air by practical methods forms a problem
whose solution many investigators continue to work at up
to the present day. The most practical method is that of
Te-sie du Motay. It is based on the fact that a mass of
equal weights of manganese peroxide and caustic soda, at
an incipient red heat (about 300°) absorbs oxygen from air
with the separation of water according to the equation
MnOo+ 2KaHO + U = Na5MnO_1 + H20. If superheated steam
at a temperature of about 450° be then passed through the
mixture, the manganese peroxide and caustic soda originally
taken are regenerated, and the oxygen held by them is
evolved according to the reverse equation Na..Mii04 + H2< >
=MnO» + 2 NaHO + O. This mode of preparing oxygen
April so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
3i3
may he repeated for an indefinite number of times. The
oxygen in combining separates out water, and steam acting
<in the resultant substance, evolves oxygen. Hence all that
is required for the preparation of oxygen by this method is
fuel and the alternate cutting off the supply of air and
steam.1'
The only practical means of producing oxygen besides
the '• Brin " process are based on the Tessie du Motay
process. Various attempts have been made in this respect,
but seemingly with no effective result.
The difficulties which are met in this process, and which
will be referred to more particularly in this paper, are of a
complex nature, and it will be my endeavour not only tc
show the difficulties which have prevented the Tessie
du Motay process hitherto becoming a commercial success,
but also to indicate how these difficulties are being overcome
in the process, of which I may claim some particular
knowledge.
I now come to the different attempts to utilise the Tessie
du Motay process. One patentee has suggested that, in
order to render the material spongy and non-fusible, the
sesqnioxide of manganese should be fused, and then mixed
with an admixture of caustic soda, also in a fused state. It
was stated that the granular compound so formed would, if
dusted over with black copper oxide, supply means of con-
tinuously producing oxygen by the alternate passage of air
and -team.
Another patentee has advocated the use of permanganate
admixed with kaolin, clay, &c, for the purpose of forming
a kind of spongy brick, capable of yielding oxygen at
different temperatures and pressures.
As to the first of these patents, I should say that, from
experiments carried out with the greatest care, it is evident
that the material is not rendered non-fusible, and that the
addition of copper oxide is by no means to be commended
in a process like this, since by doing so the fusing point of
the compound is considerably lowered. From what I shall
have an opportunity of putting before 3*011 later on, it is
moreover, clear that it is a decided mistake to fuse the
excess of caustic soda in order to get rid of the water
contained therein.
As for the second patent, I may be allowed to say, whie
not doubting that oxygen may be produced by this process,
and eventually even on a large scale, that there does not
seem to be any reason why such an elaborate plant, neces-
sitating, as it does, compressing and vacuum pumps, should
be introduced for the purpose of utilising the remarkable
properties of manganese oxides.
It has been my endeavour to study the causes of the
non-success of the Tessie du Motay process (with the
earliest stages of whieh I would here remark I was con-
nected), and as a result of the researches to which I have
been led, I find that the main points to be guarded against
can fairly be said to be the following : —
It is all-important to render the material as granular as
possible, and also to prevent it from fusing at a com-
paratively high temperature.
In the preparation of this material, I came to the con-
clusion that the most rational, and, I may say now, the only
way of attaining this object, was to treat the material
exactly in the same way as it would be dealt with during
the process in the retorts. Accordingly, the material must,
before being inserted in the retorts or utilised, not only be
submitted to a temperature at least equal to that of the
furnace in which it will be ultimately placed, but also that
a sufficient quantity of moisture representing a similar
amount to that to which the material will be exposed in the
retorts, when steam is passed over it, should be introduced
in the course of the preparation of the material. This, in
other words, meant preparing the material according to a
wet instead of a dry method, as had been suggested before.
Without going into the effects of such different prepara-
tions at the present, since I shall have to refer to thein more
fully in the course of the description of the process, I would
simply say that, according to my views, manganate of soda
p:v\ iously crushed by any ordinary mechanical means should
be moistened with a small quantity of water, in which 5 — Id
per cent, of caustic soda has been dissolved, until a thick
paste is obtained, and this mixing is best done by mechanical
means, so as to ensure perfect homogeneity.
The paste is next submitted to slow heat, until complete
evaporation has taken place. When the material is with-
drawn from the shallow pan in which it has been evaporated,
it is placed in a crucible where it is submitted to white heat.
In this state the material is granular and spongy, and will
not fuse, and it will readily be understood that, even if some
amount of moisture were at any time brought into contact
with this material, a simple evaporation will rid it again of
the moisture, leaving it in its original state after preparation.
This, however, is only one of the three difficulties to be
overcome.
If air, charged as it always is, with a certain amount of
moisture at a low temperature, be brought into contact with
the heated material in the retorts, such moisture will cause
spontaneous creation of steam, which, to say the least, would
affect the oxidising power of the air by dilution and dis-
placement. I say " the least " because, in my opinion, steam
also acts as a de-oxidiser, and therefore the time requisite
for the full oxidation of the material must he considerably
increased, so much so, that after a series of reversed opera-
tions (oxidising and de-oxidising alternately) it will become
necessary to oxidise the material by a prolonged passage of
air in order to regenerate it.
It is moreover essential that the steam used in the de-
oxidising period of the process, be introduced into the
retorts in as dry a state as possible, and, if anything, at a
higher temperature than that of the material, although
repeated experiments have proved that it is sufficient to
use steam at the temperature at whieh the retorts are
being worked. This has, moreover, the advantage of
facilitating the dissociation of the elements composing
steam.
The result of the foregoing remarks is, that in order to
maintain the material in its original condition, it is
necessary to render the material non-fusible by the wet
process, and to use in connexion therewith, air previously
deprived of its moisture and heated to the temperature of
the material in the retorts, for oxidising purposes in
combination with superheated steam for de-oxidising
purposes, and in that manner condensation in the retorts,
and production of steam during the oxidising process are
avoided, whilst the de oxidation is facilitated considerably
by the dissociation of the steam, and excess of moisture
is guarded against during this second part of the
process.
The formula by which the reactions take place,
according to the Tessie du Motay process are as
follows : —
MnO., + 2NaHO + O = Na.,Mn04 + H20
Na,Mn04 + H.,0 = MuO., + 2NaHO + 6
According to the process before you these formula? would
read as follows : —
10Na.,Mn()4 + NallO + 10 H20 =
21 XallO +■ 5 Mn303 + Oi5.
21 NallO + 5 Mn.,0, + 15 (O + N4) =
10 Na..Mn04 + XaHO + 10 H20 + Nco.
You will notice that the excess of caustic soda acts
independently of the material itself, and, provided that only
that amount of moisture be at any time allowed to enter the
retorts, that can readily be absorbed, and can again be
given up by such excess of caustic soda, the material will
practically remain unaltered.
I had, perhaps, better at this stage explain the tracings
which are before you, as it will enable me to more clearly
convey to you the meaning of the series of operations
whieh take place in connexion with the latter reaction.
I intend, after having given you a brief description of the
apparatus, to enter into further details, if time permits, and
314
THE JOURNAL' OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, im.
April 80, 189a.] THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
315
also to demonstrate ou mi experimental scale by mean?, of
the model before me, the mode in which oxygen is pro-
duced, which I trust will be interesting to you,
Description,
Fig 2. is a general outline sketch diagramatic of the whole
arrangement illustrating the mode cf operation.
Figs. 5 and G are longitudinal and cross sections of one
of the dish-shaped retorts.
The same letters of reference indicate similar parts in the
different figures.
As shown in Fig. 2, I construct an apparatus mainly
composed of an outer rectangular or otherwise suitably
shaped furnace, in which I place two or more series of
retorts of suitable size and construction, but which I
preferably construct as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. These are
formed of a shallow rectangular tray or case made of cast
iron, fireclay, or other suitable material, and are provided
with a moveable cover or lid which can be hermetically
fastened to the tray by means of bolts, screws, or other
appropriate devices. The lower end of the tray is provided
with a pipe b, running along the lower ledge of the tray,
and the upper end of the tray is provided with a pipe./,
communicating with the upper edge of the tray. Inside the
trays are small wires n on which rests a perforated plate o,
and on this perforated plate the manganate (previously
rendered non-fusible) is placed. The trays being filled with
the material;), a second perforated plate o' is inserted, and
the wires n' are fastened to same before enclosing the
whole by screwing down the lid or cover m. Channels
x and y are reserved in the moulding or casting of the trays
by means of which the apertures b and//, arc made to
communicate with the free spaces left below and above the
perforated plates v and of respectively.
These retorts are placed at an incline of say 60°,
and superposed on each other, allowing the heat of the
furnace to circulate between them so as to equally aud
regularly heat the whole of the material with which they are
filled.
Each of these retorts a and a' is provided with an iniet b
at one end, and with an outlet J at its opposite end, ami the
connexions between the retorts are made in such a way
that the inlet of the second retort is kept higher than the
outlet of the firm retort, so as to allow gases or steam, as
the case may be, to ascend freely, owing to the difference
of gravity consequent upon the heating of same as they
pass through the retorts.
Fig. 2 shows two series A and B composed each of
24 such retorts, each of these series being formed of eight
sets of three retorts, each of these eight sets being worked
in parallel from one inlet collector H (and H' respectively)
and each one of such sets of eiu-ht is also provided with
an outlet collector I (and 1' respectively).
I will now proceed to give full details of set A, it being
understood that the second set B is in every way similar to
set A.
The inlet collector H may be formed as shown in Fig. 2
of a cylindrical vessel, tube, or pipe, closed at one end,
whilst at the other end (preferably the lower) it is provided
with an air valve of sufficient internal section to provide the
current of air necessary for eight retorts (in this ease). The
collector is moreover provided with eight small flanges, each
of which is connected by means of a pipe to one retort.
The eight pipes providing the necessary current of air to
retorts Xos. 1 to 8 (in supposing the 24 retorts to be
numbered in numerical order from 1 to 24, beginning with
the lowest one) establish the communication between the
collector and the lowest point of each of these retorts, whilst
the highest point of each of these is put into communication
with the lowest point of each of the next eight retorts by
parallel junction pipes, and the highest point of this second
lot of eight retorts is again put into communication with the
lowest point of the third lot of eight retorts, whilst the
highesl point of these communicates with the outlet collector
I in every way similar to the inlet collector, with the
exception that the air valve in this ease is fixed on its upper
end.
It will be understood from the above, and in referring to
Fig. 2, that eight distinct series, each composed of three
retorts, viz., 1, 9, 17 ; then 2, 10, ',8, and finally 8, 16, 24
are formed ; that these eight series are supplied simultaneously
and that the passage of air through these 24 retorts is
controlled by the two air valves K and L. The collector JI
is, moreover, provided with a small valve / for the inlet of
steam, and the outlet collector I is provided with a valve g
for the outlet of oxygen.
On the other hand the furnace contains two series of
vertical pipes E and E' composed each of a suitable number
of these, connected together at the upper end by horizontal
pipes M aud M', and at the lower end with similar connect-
ing pipes N and N'. The latter are connected with the inlet
valves K aud K', whilst the upper pipes M and M' arc-
connected together and supplied with air by means of a fan,
blower, or similar appliance.
These two sets of pipes E and E' are filled with lime,
chloride, or suitable material, for the purpose of absorbing
the moisture of the atmospheric air which is forced through
them, previous to its entering the retorts containing the
material, aud in this way such air is heated, and reaches
the inlet collectors in a dry state, aud at the same tempera-
ture, as that of the ma'erial iu the retorts. These two
points are essential to give the air its full oxidising power,
as otherwise the moisture contained in same would create a
spontaneous production of steam (thus tending to partly
de-oxidise the material) on its coming into contact with the
hot material in the retorts, and to this the unsuccessful
attempts made up to the present time with the Tessic du
Motay process may largely be ascribed.
As, however, the continuous passage of damp air over
the same lime would speedily render some inactive, owing
to its becoming saturated with moisture, each of the
entrance pipes M and M' is provided with a two-way valve
0' 0-, Fig. 2, by means of which each of the two
sets E and E' can either be put into communication with
the blower or can be thrown open allowing the moisture
absorbed by the lime, whilst the damp air was passing over
it, to evaporate, thus regenerating the lime, aud rendering
it serviceable during the next cycle.
It will be further understood that by means of these two
double-way valves, one of the eets (E for instance) is
traversed by air on its way to the valve K, such air being
thereby dried and heated, whilst the other set E' throws off
by evaporation the moisture which it had retained from
the air passed thrcugh it on its way to the valve If in a
previous operation. The action of the two-way valves will
be readily perceived, and the way they are operated upon
by the mechanical device explained hereafter, is identical
to that by which the air valves themselves are reversed.
In addition to the two sets of retorts containing the
material to be oxidated and de-oxidated alternately, aud to
the two sets of air heating aud drying pipes ; the furnace
also contains a continuous coil, serpentine, or similar scries
of pipes traversed by steam derived from any suitable
boiler, the object of such coil, &e. being to superheat the
steam necessary for the de-oxidating of the material iu the
retorts, and to thus decompose same into its constituent
elements previous to the admission thereof to the steam
valves /and/'.
The operation takes place as follows: —
The dish-shaped retorts having been filled with material
specially prepared so as to render it uon-fusible, in accord-
ance with specification named before, and the furnace
having been set to work until a regular temperature of
betweeu 400° and 450° has been attained throughout,
air is forced by means of the blower through set A, this ait-
passing through the horizontal pipe M into the series of
vertical pipes E, where it rids itself of its moisture and
becomes heated, enters the collecting pipe N, and its
temperature is still further increased in passing in the fire-
place Vintil it reaches the inlet valve K. Entering the
316
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, 1892,
inlet collector II it finds its way into the eight lower
retorts, oxidates th<- material contained therein, and passes
on I" the next eight retorts by means of communicating
pipes, and then again passes from these eight retorts to
eight more, finally reaching the outlet collector I in the
form of freed nitrogen, the oxygen having been retained by
the material.
Whilst this operation has been going on, the valves /"and
g have remained closed.
In the meantime, and simultaneously with the passage of
air through the retorts of the series A for the purpose of
oxi lath g the material therein, the following has heen
taking place in the series B, viz : —
' The double-way valve O', Fig. 2, between the blower
and the pipe N' being placed ill such a position that
communication is intercepted between the blower and the
set K' of drying and heating pipes, and consequently so
that the moisture contained in the lime of these pipes can
freely evaporate passing into the open air, and the valves
K' and L' being closed, the superheated steam has been
allowed to enter by means of the valve/'', whence it enters
the retorts 1 to 8 of the series B, de-oxidising the material
contained therein, then passing from the highest point of
these retorts to the lowest point of retorts 9 to 16, where it
de-oxidates further material, and so on until the oxygen
thus freed, in addition to that liberated from the last eight
ret.. its, enters the outlets collector I', and leaves same
through the valve g'.
It is clear from the above that the inlet and outlet air-
valves K and L of one series, and the steam inlet-valve f
and the oxygen outlet g' of the other series, will have to be
kept open ; whilst, on the contrary, the steam inlet-valve/
and oxygen outlet g of the first series, and the inlet and
outlet air-valves K' and L' will have to be kept closed,
when, as is supposed in this case, the series A is being
oxidised, the series B being simultaneously de-oxidised,
and, further, that the position of each of these valves "ill
have to be reversed when the oxidation of the series A
and the de oxidation of the series B has been completed.
The reversing of these valves would naturally have for
effect to allow the superheated steam to pass over the
material of the series A which has just been oxidised,
thus de-oxidising it again, whilst the dry-heated air passing
over the material of retort- 1!, will re-oxidise the material,
which, during the previous operation had given up its
oxygen under the influence of steam.
It would seem, at first sight, that if by any mechanical
arrangement the spindles of the eight valves (viz. four air
and tour steam oxygen valves) were to be connected, so
that K, L,/', g' are open, and K/,'1/,/, g are closed, the
reversing of one of the spindles, or of the shaft to which the
eight spindles were geared, would produce the desired effect
of alternating the flow of the fluids.
This is, however, not the case, and would, at all event-,
necessitate an interruption in the production of oxygen,
whilst it would entail a considerable loss of the gas itself, in
consequence of the de-oxidising steam entering the retorts
' before the air valves have been entirely closed; and in
I supposing even that the reversing of the valves takes place
with sufficient rapidity to avoid waste of gas, then agam the
air in the retorts would become mixed up with the oxygen,
thus considerably impairing its pureness.
What is needed, on the contrary, is that in the series
which has been traversed by air, the inlet be closed
separately, and that a certain interval be allowed for the air
or nitrogen to find its way out into the atmosphere (this
being facilitated by the difference of gravity of such air m
the retorts and the outer atmosphere, and by tile inclined
position of the retorts and communicating pipes) before the
outlet valve is closed, thus reducing the vitiating element to
a minimum, whilst retaining in the retorts the full quantity
of the oxygen which the material has been capable of
absorbing.
I On the other hand, it is essential that the \alvo per-
mitting the outlet of the oxygen be opened before the valve
Fig. 5.
Fig. e.
April 80, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
317
regulating the inlet of steam is opened, so as to facilitate
the passage of the superheated steam over the material, and
allow the same to traverse the retorts with the greatest pos-
sible rapidity, since the effect of hampering it in any way
would he to unnecessarily condense the same, consequently
moistening the material, which should he avoided.
The preceding remarks, which refer to the set which is
being de-oxidised, also apply to the second set, the re-
versing of the valves of which has for its object to allow
the oxidising air to pass over the material which has just
been de-oxidised. Here it is important to close the inlet of
steam, to allow an interval between the closing of the first
valve and the closing of the outlet of oxygen, so as to fully
exhaust the oxygen that can be freed, as otherwise the
premature openiug of the air valves, would amount to a
waste of oxygen which would be carried away with such
air ; then only open the outlet of air, when any moisture
retained in the retort will find its way out, and to finally
open the inlet of dry hot air for oxidising purposes.
This latter point is rendered all the more important by
the fact that the air introduced into the retorts for oxi-
dising purposes would, if carrying moisture with it, have a
de-oxidising power on the material instead of an oxidising
power, as it would practically act like steam itself.
It is consequently necessary that the valves should be
made to act in the following rotation: —
In series A-K closes ; L closes ; g opens, / opens ;
whilst at the same time, in series B, f closes, g' closes ;
L' opens, K' opens.
From this it will he seen that : — ■
K closes when/' closes,
L closes when g' closes,
1/ opens when g opens,
K' opens when /opens,
and, vice vera&i —
K' closes when/ closes,
L' closes when g closes,
L opens when g' open?, and
K opens when/' opens.
To obtain this object I devise a mechanical arrangement
(Fig. 'J), mainly composed of a horizontal shaft C, pro-
vided in its centre with a screwed part, the thread of which
engages in a threaded plumber block E-, and this shaft
can be acted upon either by a straight belt or by a
cross belt. When the cross belt is made to act, the shaft
revolves from left to right, and is made to travel longi-
tudinally from left to right also. On this shaft four loose
double chain wheels, kept in position by lateral supports,
are connected by means of chains with the spindles of the
valves as follows: —
One of the wheels of the double chain wheel 0 acts, when
same is thrown into gear, directly on the spindle of the
valve K, thereby closing same, whilst the second wheel of
the double chain wheel O acts on the small shaft A', the
opposite extremity of which closes at the same time the
inlet of steam/' by means of the gearing h- and A3.
The double chain wheel 9 which, as stated before, is loose
on the shaft, is brought into action in consequence of the
feather A of the shaft C becoming engaged in the key-way
oi the wheel, and acts upon this wheel until the shaft C has
travelled sufficiently to the right, when the feather becomes
disengaged, and the wheel becomes loose again. The
thickness of the wheel aDd the pitch of the screw, as well as
the respective diameters of the chain wheels, are so calcu-
lated that the valves are closed or open, as the ease may be,
when the feather has done its work. The shaft then
continuing its course, occasions the feather i to engage in
the next double chain wheel 1', which is acted upon in the
same way, closes the valve L and g', whilst the shaft still
moving from left to right, brings the chain wheel Q into
operation by means of the feather A, thereby opening the
valves 1/ and g, and finally, and m the same way, the feather /
acts on the double chain wheel V, which opens ths
valves K' and/.
The shaft C is now at the end of its course, and is made
to throw the cross belt out of gear, and is thus stopped.
When the reversing of the valves becomes necessarv, the
straight belt is made to act upon the shaft C, when same
turning in the opposite direction, viz. from right to left,
occasions the shaft to travel longitudinally in the opposite
direction, thus coming back when the feather / acts on the
double chain wheel V, then feather A on double chain
wheel P, and, finally, feather A on double chain wheel O,
thus reversing the respective valves in their proper rotation,
as will be understood ou referring to the drawing and to the
table above. When the shaft C has again come to the end
of its course on the return it throws the straight belt out of
gear, whereby it is stopped, being thus once more in its
original position.
The throwing into gear of either the cross belt or tho
straight belt is obtained by the physical state and condition
of the fluid coming from the outlet valves g and g', as
explained.
The oxygen, on leaving the valves g and g', is conveyed
to two cooling appliances, R and R' (Fig. 2), the
cooling apparatus R being connected with outlet valve <i,
and R' being connected with g' At the lower extremity
of the cooling apparatus, where the oxygen leaves same and
is carried to the washing vessel W (Fig. 2), by means of
the pipes r and »■', two branch pipes s and s' are provided
for, and these are made to communicate to the lower end of
two cylinders S and S'. Each of these cylinders is provided
with a float V, V, connected by means of a vertical guide-rod
to a balance connecting the two rods. The two ends of this
balance are, by means of a crank, chain, or otherwise, con-
nected with the shipping fork of a friction clutch, which acts
on a pulley, V,V, the boss of which is provided with a key,
engaging in a groove of the shaft C, on which they are
loose otherwise, so as to allow same to travel longitudinally.
The gas having been passed through the washer, leaves
same by means of the small pipe t, which conveys same to
the gasholder for storage purposes.
Midway of the branch pipes s and »■' are inserted two
diaphragms (G, G' Fig. 2) valves constructed as follows :— .
An outer casing 1, I (Fig. 7) is divided into two com-
partments by means of an elastic diaphragm or plate, so as
to form two chambers, The upper chamber 7 is provided
with an inlet 3, and an outlet 2. The diaphragm plate G,
forms a hermetic joint 15 with the flanges of the upper
and the lower chambers. The lower chamber has an
inlet 4, and outlet pipe 5, there being a valve seat and
valve 9, between this inlet and outlet, and this valve is
fastened to the centre of the diaphragm plate 6 bv means
of the valve spindle 10, which is counterbalanced and
regulated by means of the adjustable spring II, and the
pressure can be set by means of the screw pin 12.
These valves are placed between the steam superheaters
and the steam inlets/ and /, of the two sets A and Ii, in
the following manner : —
The steam coming from the superheater enters the
pipe 4 of the lower chamber, and passing through the
valve 9 leaves the chamber at 5 on its way to the retorts.
The spring 11 is set so that the valve is slightly open when
oxygen is evolved from the retorts.
The entrance pipe 3 of the upper chamber is connected
with the upper part of the branch pipe s, coming from the
cooler, and the outlet 2 of the same chamber 7 is connected
with the vessel S containing the float v.
When, and as long as oxygen is evolved from the retorts,
this oxygen finds its way to the washing vessel without
entering chamber 7, but as soon as steam passes through
the cooler, same becomes condensed and the water resultimr
therefrom, ou reaching the diaphragm plate, causes same to
contract, and the pressure thus acting on the valve 9, closes
same and prevents any more steam from entering the
retorts, whilst any steam which is still contained therein
distills over to the cooler, and becoming condensed in its
turn creates a vacuum in the cooler which causes the
float v to be lowered owing to the water contained in the
vessel 8 being taken up through suction pipe s, where it
remains until the next cycle comes into operation,
::is
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 3ii,1892.
I'll, two valves i and 4' are identical in construction,
and their respective connexions are similar in every
respect.
The operation of the float and gear arrangement is as
follows : —
As long as oxygen gas is liberated from one of the sets,
say A of retorts," it finds its way to the cooling apparatus K,
through the pipe r, and the washer W, into the gasholder.
As will be seen the floating arrangement has not in any
way been brought into action so far. The liquid in both
cylinders and the floats therefrom remaining at the same
level, and in this position both shipping forks T and T' arc
in the vertical position, both pulleys being consequently out
of gear, and the shaft G stationary.
When however the oxygen of the series A has been
exhausted by the passage of the requisite quantity of
steam, the fluid leaving the valve (j is no longer oxygen
only, but actual steam, which although superheated
contains all the constituents of steam, and in fact is nothing
but steam. Now, as soon as this steam enters tin- cooling
apparatus R, this cooling apparatus begins (in consequence
of the large available cooling surfaces) to act as a surface
condenser of the steam, thereby creating a vacuum owing
to the fact that the return of the gases from the gasometer
is rendered impossible ; on the one hand by means of clack
valves, whilst on the other hand the specially constructed
diaphragm valves, G, G'. shown in Figs. 7 and 2, inserted
on the pipe leading the steam from the steam superheater
to the retorts containing the material automatically regulate
or determine the entrance of steam into the retorts. This
valve is acted upon and closed as soon as the condensation
water coming from the inside of the refrigerator tubes is
brought into contact with the upper surface of the
diaphragm plate of this valve ; and since the condensation
water is led on to the diaphragm as soon as steam passes
in the refrigerator instead of oxygen, the entrance of the
steam into the retorts is stopped immediately.
In consequence, however, of the considerable difference
of temperature between the steam remaining in the retorts
and that contained in the pipes of the refrigerator, the
steam distils over to the refrigerator, where it becomes
condensed, thus creating a vacuum, which is not only an
advantage in respect of the retorts being freed of un-
necessary moisture, but this vacuum is also utilised for
acting on the floats, as it is made to draw away part of the
water contained in the vessel S by means of the pipe s, and
in this way float v is lowered, made to act on the crank ir,
and thus on the shipping fork T, which engages the
pulley V, provided with a cross belt, by means of which
arrangement the shaft G is made to travel from left to right,
reversing the position of the valves as explained before.
When the shaft is at the end of its course, the friction clutch
of the pulley v is thrown out of gear by the shaft itself,
thus stopping same, and the float is again rendered inde-
pendent.
The series 1? is thereby brought under the influence of
steam, in the stead of the series A, and as long as oxygen is
being liberated the floods remain inactive, and the shaft C
stationary. As soon, however, as the oxygen becomes
exhausted, the same action as that explained before with
reference to the float arrangement in connexion with the
cooling apparatus K takes place in the float arrangement S',
and thus operates on the shipping fork T', and on the
pulley V', which is acted upon by the straight belt, thus
makiug the shaft G come back to its original position,
reversing the valves on it* backward course.
April 30, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
319
The change of cycles is thus produced automatically, and
regulated by the nature of the hVd leaving the retorts.
The main object and result obtained thereby is not only a
saving of labour, but is principally to avoid an excessive
strain on the producing power of the retorts, and thus the
material does not become loaded by any unnecessary
moisture, whilst perfect regularity of the working of cycles
is secured.
Discussion.
l>r. Bowman said that a most important point in the
process was, that the air and steam came in contact with the
materials at the same temperature, whereas in the old
processes the air and steam were at different temperatures.
In this case, however, it might, without injury, vary in the
furnace or retort, since the pipes travelled side by side.
The reaction thus took place with greater certainty, and
the materials, instead of deteriorating, retained their
properties however long they were in use. The process
was automatic, and a temperature of about 600° which
could be obtained as waste beat, was quite sufficient to
evolve oxygen and keep the material in a fit state for the
process. When the steam had done its work it ceased to
be decomposed, and passed through the pipes towards the
cooler. The materials used were very cheap ; and when
once charged the operation went on night and day. The
gas contained about 9o per cent, of pure oxygen as it
issued from the machine.
Mr. Watsoh Smith said he had seen Mr. Fanta's model
plant at work, and was astonished at the rapidity with which
the gas was evolved. He had asked Mr. Fanta to let him
sec the experiment carried out in his own laboratory, in an
ordinary glass tube placed in a combustion furnace, so that
he might prepare the materials with his own hands according
to the prescription. The success of such an attempt, he had
found, depended to some extent on the mass of the material,
and as a glass tube continually cracked, a copper tube like
that before them was substituted. ( 'omplete success had
followed the trial. He thought it plucky of Mr. Fanta to
dare to attempt to make oxygen gas in this laboratory
model before his audience, by a reaction in which the
question of mass was certainly concerned to some extent,
and in which the process was also a reversible one.
Mr. F^anta had done this, however, at his urgent sugges-
tion, and he could vouch for the material, for he (the
speaker) had prepared it with his own hands. The part of
the process which had at first excited his incredulity, was
that in which it had been alleged that the material was
rendered more infusible, by first intimately mixing it
with some caustic soda. He had a lively recollection
of the fate of caustic soda ash in the soda-ash furnaces,
when the material contained say 13 or 14 per cent. NaOH.
He was once connected with the old Prestolee Alkali
where a very white caustic ash, which contained as
much as 16 to 17 per cent. NaOH, was skilfully made
for rag bleaching in paper works ; and he well remem-
bered the difficulty of furnacing the material owing to the
greatly increased fusibility due to such a high percentage
of caustic soda. Here then was a very unexpected physical
condition, superinduced by the addition of a substance from
which the opposite result would have been expected.
The Chairman said in his opinion the demonstration
which Mr. Fanta had brought before them was another
forcible illustration that chemical industries depended not
only on chemical knowledge, but largely on chemical
engineering. As a chemical invention there was nothing
new in the process described, and all that Mr. Fanta had
done was to resolve the mechanical difficulties which stood
in the way.
Mr. Fanta said he started with caustic soda and finished
with an excess of it. It had been suggested that the
caustic soda should be fused and then put into the retort.
If that was done, after a time the material became absolutely
unfit for use. In this process the caustic soda, added in
the solution was evaporated with the mauganate, aud then
submitted to heat. In that condition the material did not
fuse again, but would stand wdiite heat without fusing. The
theory of this was verified by the reaction which he had
put down, and this was again verified in the process itself.
There was one important point, and that was, if the
mauganate in the retorts were wholly deoxidised, the re-
oxidation did not take place freely- — in fact, in some cases
it would not take place at all. He found that the proportion
of mauganate in the retorts did not exceed 40 per cent., and
this was entirely different to what really happened in other
processes. The proportion of the materials was one of the
essential points.
Dr. Gkossmann said he had been closely connected with
the oxygen industry nearly all his life. If there were any
fault which he could find with the apparatus it was that it
was too ingenious, but, as Dr. Bowman had stated that it did
not get out of order, this was all the more creditable. He
should like to ask Dr. Bowman if the temperature he gave
were Fahrenheit or Centigrade ?
Dr. Bowman : Between 600° and 800° F. This low tem-
perature was one of the advantages of the process, because
it enabled them to use iron pipes without fear of deteriora-
tion.
ON SOME OF THK RISKS ATTENDING THE USE
OF HIGH-PRESSURE GAS IX
BY C. F. BCDENBERG, B.SC, AND W. E. HEVS.
The newspapers have made us familiar with several cases
of- explosions attended with most regrettable consequences,
which have occurred in the use of high-pressure gases. An
investigation of the causes which have led up to these
explosions reveals nothing which might not have been
predicted, but much which was not expected.
We will ignore such explosions as have their origin in
the use of defective material and workmanship, and in
insufficient strength, since these causes are purely mechani-
cal and can be avoided by ordinary prudence. But we may
remark that calculations for strengths based on the static
pressure of the gas to be employed, will be hereinafter
shown to be greatly misleading and to give far too low
values. The example of exploded apparatus on the table
will demonstrate to you the almost criminal negligence
which sometimes occurs in the manufacture of fittings for
high pressures, and the fatal folly of users who, regardless
of risks, prefer what is cheap to what is good.
In the use of high-pressure gases, they are generally
contained in steel flasks, fitted with a valve at the nozzle.
To this nozzle the service pipe is secured, which is usually
fitted with a regulator valve aud a pressure gauge. We
may usefully limit our observations to such an arrangement,
as it will teach us all that is necessary.
Our first observation is that immediately on the opening
of the valve, no matter how carefully and gradually this
may be effected, the needle of the pressure-gauge flashes
suddenly to the point on the dial indicating the pressure in
the flask. The same result occurs even if the gas is wire-
drawn by being caused to pass through the finest hole which
can possibly be drilled, say less than the tenth of a milli-
metre in diameter.
Secondly, we observe that the service pipe, pressure-
gauge, and regulator valve, enclose a rather considerable
air space to which the compressed gas has access.
From these conditions we deduce —
(a.) That oidinary time values must not be regarded,
the phenomena being instantaneous.
(6.) That owing to the enormous velocity of the issuing
gas, great friction must arise and increase the temperature
of the gas.
(e.) That the air enclosed in the fittings must be instan-
taneously compressed to at least the same pressure as the
gas in the flask.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, 1892.
(rf.) That this instantaneous compression of the air must
result in an increased temperature.
(e.) That owing to the heat of friction and of com-
pression, the mixed gas and air must, instantaneously, have
a highly exalted temperature.
(/.) That this increase of temperature is sufficient, at
less than 100 atmospheres pressure, to dissociate the
elements of hydrocarbons. We will illustrate this experi-
mentally with atmospheric air at about 80 atmospheres
pressure, which you will see is quite sufficient to reduce
chips of wood to ashes.
(^.) That in the event of the compressed gas being
oxygen, this gas will instantaneously combine explosively
with the dissociated elements, forming water and carbon
dioxide. The increase of pressure (e) by heat and (g~) by
explosion, are additive.
It will, from the foregoing, be obvious that even in the
case of an inert gas like nitrogen or CO.: the actual pressure
to be instantaneously borne by the fittings is very far
indeed in excess of the pressure in the flask.
It is very possible and easy to adopt precautions of an
elementary character which will eliminate all possible risks
of danger from explosion.
These precautions are briefly : —
(1.) Careful avoidance of even a trace of oil, or of any
hydrocarbon in any of the fittings, or anywhere whence it
ma}' leak, penetrate, or be conveyed to the fittings.
(2.) Closing the orifice through which the gas must pass
from the flask, by means of a compact porous septum, so
as to prevent any outrush of gas.
(3.) Sufficient strength of material and first class
workmanship.
(4.) The avoidance of a closed casing for any part of
the fittings, since a minute leak into the casing may induce
an explosion ; sufficient pressure and heat being accumu-
lated'before even a weak casing can give way. In the case
of a casing for a pressure-gauge, light flaps are employed,
to close suitable openings formed in it. This may be com-
bined with a second porous septum completely tilling the
inlet to the gauge.
It is very usual with some makers to test their gauges
by means of an oil pump ; such makers' gauges should be
avoided for high-pressure gases.
An additional precaution may be found in making all
the air spaces in the fittings as small as possible, since
the quantity of the air compressed is one measure of the
amount of heat developed in the act of compression.
We desire particularly to call attention to two remarkable
characteristics of explosions which have been observed as
arising from the presence of oil. These are, their intense-
ness and their limited localisation. An explosion of mixed
hydrogen and oxygen in well made fittings is comparatively
innocent, and may take place without any serious damage
at all pressures. In the case, however, of an explosion
owing to the decomposition of oil, such as we have before
spoken of, the explosion is of the most intense character
and attended bj- a temperature sufficient to fuse a consider-
able mass of steel or brass : whilst it is limited in its effects
to a very small portion of the space in which it may occur.
Thus, when the explosion has taken place in a tube with a
quarter-inch bore, the explosion has been limited to some
three or four inches in length, where the walls of the tube
have been so fused as to increase the bore to about half an
inch, and the tube itself has been completely ruptured. At
the same time a pressure-gauge attached to the tube at a
short distance has not been damaged. Probably some
members of the Society may be tempted to investigate this
part of the snbject more fully. It may be new to some of
them that ordinary oil may under such simple conditions
become an explosive of extraordinary power.
THE ANALYSIS OF SNOW FROM THE NEIGH-
BOURHOOD OF CHEMICAL WORKS AND
VARIOUS OTHER PLACES.
BT J. CARTER BELL, A.R.S.M., F.I.C. ETC.
The Corporation of Manchester, in consequence of complaints
from people in the neighbourhood of Mr. Levinstein's
works, brought an action against him at the last Manchester
Assizes for emitting noxious acid and other vaponrs from
his works, thus polluting the atmosphere. As the ground
all round the works was covered with snow, I thought it a
good opportunity to collect some, and compare it with the
snow which I collected from other places far removed from
chemical works.
Parts per Million.
Place.
Free Fixed
Ammonia. Ammonia.
Chlorine
as
Chlorides.
Sulphuric
Acid
as Sul-
phates.
1. Corporation St....
2. Exchange Station.
3. Broughton Bridge
4. Bruughton Park..
5. Sewage Works
6. Garden on Cliff...
7. Kersal Moor
8. Owens College....
9. Outside Mx.Levin-
stcin's Works.
10. Bank opposite
chimney.
0-S5
1-50
2-00
0-200
0-50
0-60
I'V.M
2-00
run
0-370
1-00
0-75
1'25
1-00
1-50
Till
0-5 <
1-00
76-0
108-0
95-0
7-0
8-0
: 0
.VM
17-0
8-0
6-0
3- 10
2-70
3-00
2 -till
4' 90
3-30
2-90
T7H
1-80
3-20
None of the samples contained any free acid, but the
chlorine in Nos. 1, 2, and 3, is excessively high. I can only
account for this by assuming salt to have been thrown upon
the streets as is the custom in Manchester. All the other
samples were collected from the upper surface of undis-
turbed snow. These analysts with other evidence actually
proved that the air in the neighbourhood of the chemical
works was purer than that found in the Manchester streets.
■=s83SS39»*ra»=-
NOTE ON THE VCT1()\ (IE FROST UPON
COTTON.
BY C. F. SEYMOUR ROTHWFIJ., P.C.S.
From the literature published on this subject one obtains
the idea that cotton is tendered by frost. Hummel, in his
" Drying of Textile Fabrics," says, "that although the
evidence on this point is quite conflicting, it is quite con-
ceivable that the crystallisation might act injuriously in a
mechanieal way, and that the atmospheric ozone might
also exercise some slight destructive influence." This
uncertainty is no doubt due to the fact that until recently
no reliable machine for testing the strength of the cloth was
available.
The following experiments were made to decide this
question : — Two pieces of " madder-bleached " cloth, one of
good quality and the other of very poor quality, were placed
in water for 10 minutes, withdrawn, and, without squeezing,
hung up, full width, the thermometer registering four degrees
below zero Centigrade. The cloth was quite stiff in three
minutes, and although the temperature never rose higher
than — 3° C, in three hours the ice had completely evapo-
rated leaving the cloth quite dry. The strength of the cloth
which had been frozen was then tested with Goodbrand's
" Dead Weight Cloth Testing Machine," against some of the
same cloth in its original condition, when the breaking
weight was found to be identical in both cases.
ipril 30,1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
321
Winn carefully used the machine is accurate to within
L per cent.
The above trials were repeated, but when the ice had
evaporated — which generally took three to four hours at
- 3 i to — 1 ('., the cloth was dipped in water and hung
out again, this being repeated four times, making the total
time the cloth was frozen about 16 hours. The strength of
botli qualities of cloth was also found in this case to be
equal to the original cloth.
From these trials it is evident that cotton is not " tendered "
by the freezing of water within it, at any rate not when in
the open width.
If the fibres were bound or held in position to a greater
or lesser extent, such as obtains in the ease of the pieces
near the bottom of a waggon-load of cloth when frozen,
probably the cloth might be weakened mechanically by the
crystallisation of the water, but, although I have only made
a few trials in this direction still they indicate that the cloth
is practically uninjured.
The prevailing opinion that cloth is weakened when it is
frozen has no doubt arisen from the fact that when the fibres
■in stiff they are easily snapped; but any stiffening
body, such as gum, &c, will have the same effect, and
this has obviously nothing whatever to do with the actual
strength of the fibre.
CCC^ff**1-^
Meeting held Friday, February 5th, 1892.
MB. IVAN LEVINSTEIN IN THE CHAIR.
ON THE ALUMINOFERRIC PROCESS OF
SEWAGE TREATMENT.
BY G. SISSON, JTUN.
Several important omissions in the papers of Messrs.
Grimshaw and Barrow, in the .January number of the
Journal, appear to have passed unnoticed. For example,
on page 4 there is the following : — " For the purpose of
comparing the action of clarine with that of other precipi-
tants and processes, I have been -able to obtain figures ready-
to hand in relation to the International, Electrical, and
Lime processes. These are the only processes which can be
said to be in the field for the purification of sewage."
This last sentence shows a remarkable oversight on the
part of the writer, as over 30 towns and villages are now
using a process not mentioned in the above, viz., the
" Aluiniuoferric," which is treating at least 20 million gallons
of sewage daily.
< >n page 5, sulphate of alumina is confused with
" aluminoferric." Although the latter contains the former
it also contains, as its name indicates, an iron salt, the
proportion being sufficient to take up any traces of sul-
phuretted hydrogen present in ordinary town sewage.
Mr. Grimshaw (page 11) claims that persalts of iron act
as carriers of oxygen to oxidise the organic matter of the
sewage, by a so-called catalytic action, that is to say, ferric
oxide (of course hydrated) becomes ferrous oxide, having
given up oxgen to the organic matters ; then it re-oxidises
to ferric oxide and so on.
No evidence whatever has been brought forward to
support this view. No experiments are cited to prove such
a reaction, and supposing the whole of the surplus oxygen
of ferric hydrate to be available, the amount is quite
insufficient to deal with the organic matter present in the
sewage. For example, in the addition of 5 grains of Fe203
per gallon of sewage only 0'5 grains of oxygen are
available for this purpose, while sewage such as that of
Salford will absorb 5 grains of oxygen per gallon, viz.,
10 times as much. Moreover, when a reagent is added to
sewage the precipitate formed is soon carried down to the
bottom of the settling tank, and is thus removed out of the
field of action.
With reference to the cost of different processes, the
statements on pages 6 and 7 of the Journal are very
confusing ; e.g., on page 6 the cost of the aluminoferric
process is stated to be 67*. per million gallons, while on
page 7 it is put. down at 75s.— apparently a mistake. The
calculations must be based on erroneous data; at all events
neither of the figures given is correct. On the same page,
l after the table of comparison, it is stated that all except the
I first and last processes propose to filter, thus including the
| " aluminoferric " as a process where filtration is required.
As a matter of fact filtration is not required, and is indeed
unnecessary.
With reference to sludge, the weights given on page 7
also appear to be incorrect. No actual measurements of
sludge were taken during the Salford trial with " alumino-
ferric," and the figures given must therefore have been
obtained by some method of calculation not stated. The lime
process, which, it is generally admitted, gives a maximum
amount of sludge, is actually credited with a less quantity
than that produced by aluminoferric, thus showing the
incorrectness of the figures.
J^etocastle dwtion*
Chairman: John Pattinson.
Vice-Chairman : T. W.Stuart.
Committee :
A. Atthusen.
P. P. Bedson.
G. T. Prance.
G. Gatheral.
C. H. Hills.
T. W. Hogg.
T. W. Lovibond.
B. S. Proctor.
W. \V. Proctor.
W. L. Prfunoldsoii.
J. E. St,, i, I.
John Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary and Treasurer:
Dr. J. T. Dunn, The School, Gateshead.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have heen elected to fill the vacancies and will
take office in July next : — Chairman: A. Allhausen. Viee'Chair.
man: John Pattinson. Committee: John Morrison, W. A. Rowell,
and T. AV. Stuart.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
Meeting held in the Durham College of Science,
Newcastle, on Thursday, April 7th, 1892.
MR. JOHN PATTINSON IN THE CHAIR.
NOTE ON THE PREPARATION OF SAMPLES OF
RICH ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD FOR ASSAY.
BY JOHN PATTINSON, P.I.C., AND H. S. PATTINSON,
PH.D., F.I.I'.
It has been found that the most satisfactory method of
obtaining an average sample of pigs of rich argentiferous
lead — containing from 100 to abaut 1,000 oz. of silver per
ton of lead — is to saw each pig through with a circular saw.
The fine particles produced by the saw, termed " sawings,"
are collected, and from them the samples are drawn to be
sent to the assayer.
Assays of rich argentiferous lead are best made upon
from 200 grains to half an ounce of lead, but such a small
quantity of the sawings as this cannot be relied upon to
j represent the whole bulk of the sample, because of the
large size of some of the particles. This difficulty, how-
I ever, is easily overcome by melting up either the whole of
I the sample or such a quantity of it as can be relied upon
| to represent the composition of the whole, and casting the
lead into small cakes or " buttons " from which portions
j weighing from 200 grains to half an ounce can then be cut
for assaying. We find that from a samples of sawings of
| the usual size a button or small bar fairly representing the
sample can be east from about 2,000 grains of the sawings.
When the sawings are melted the button of lead obtained
invariably weighs less than the weight of sawings takeu.
322
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April SO, 1SL-2.
This loss of weight is partly due to the oxidation of the
impurities contained in the lead, which separate as dross
or are volatilised during the process of melting. The
remaining lead is consequently enriched in silver by the
removal of these impurities and. the assay obtained from
this lead is higher than the true assay of the paicel of bars
from which the sawings were taken. A correction must
therefore be made upon the assay for this enrichment in
order to arrive at the true assay of the sample.
The total loss of weight on melting the sawings is, how-
ever, not wholly due to oxidation and volatilisation of
the impurities, but is partially due to the combustion of the
oil that is upon the surface of the sawings, which has been
introduced into the sample by the necessity of using oil to
lubricate the circular saw. To correct the assay of the
melted lead by an amount corresponding to the total loss
of weight on melting the sawings, would therefore be
obviously wrong, since a portion of this loss is due to oil
in the sample which was no part of the original bars of
lead. The percentage of oil in the sawings must therefore
be ascertained and deducted from the total percentage loss
on melting the sawings.
We determine the oil in the sawings by washing 1,000
grains of them with ether, filtering into a tared flask,
evaporating the ether, and weighing the oily residue
remaining in the flask.
With some classes of lead the loss of weight, due to
oxidation and volatilisation of the impurities, when the
sawings are melted alone, is very considerable. We find
that a very convenient waj' of diminishing this loss is to
add a little potassium cyanide to the sawings when they
are being melted. We use for this purpose about half an
ounce of ordinary commercial potassium cyanide to 2,i>00
grains of the sawings and the melting is made in a fireclay
crucible.
As an example of how the loss is diminished, the following
instance may be cited : —
4,000 grains of sawings melted alone lost iu weight
60 grains =■ 1 • 5 per cent.
2,000 grains of the same sawings melted with KCN lost
16 grains — 0-8 per cent.
The percentage of oil in these sawings was determined
and found to be 0'52 per cent. Deducting this amount
from each of the above total losses we find that the loss
due to oxidation and volatilisation is —
When the sawings are melted alone, 0-98 per cent.
When the sawings are melted with KCX, 0*28 per cent.
In this instance, therefore, the loss due to oxidation and
volatilisation was 31 times greater when the sawings were
melted alone than when they were melted with potassium
cyanide.
The following table gives some examples of the results
obtained with several samples of sawings when potassium
cyanide was used in melting them : —
Percentage Per£™f«e
inching Oil. 'l™ to Oil.
Percentage
Loss
exclusive of
Oil.
1 First trial
0*78 n-.v:
0'8t> 0-52
11-35 0-U
0'35 0"11
II-:," 0-82
n:i u-32
0-30 0-15
0'30 0-13
0-31 0-12
0-38 015
(1-25 0-10
0-33 II- U
0'26
0-2S
0-2-1
1
o-io
019
It will be seen, from the tests of the first three samples,
which were made in duplicate, that very concordant results
are found by this process, and also that, in all the samples,
the loss of weight due to the oil is very considerable as
compared with the loss from other causes. In some
instances this loss due to oil is about twice as much as the
loss from oxidation and volatilisation.
The amount of loss from oxidation and volatilisation in
all these samples is but small, varying from 0-15toO-28
per cent., and it may seem at first sight to be of little
importance, but, actually, the correction of the assay
correspondiug to these small losses makes a difference on
a lead containing, say, 500 oz. of silver per ton, of J oz.
of silver per ton iu the first case, and 1 oz. 8 dwt. per ton
in the latter case ; and these amounts when deducted from
the assays of the cakes of lead give the true contents of
silver in the original lead. With richer leads the correction
is, of course, proportionately greater.
It is obvious that in the above cases, if the correction for
loss on melting the sawiugs were to include also the loss
due to the oil, an error would be made which would lead to
an excessive deduction varying from i oz. to 2 oz. 12 dwt.
of silver per ton, supposing the lead to contain 500 oz, of
silver per ton by assay of the cake of melted sawings.
Discussion,
Air. Sii lw suggested that liquation and separation of
constituents might take place in the small ingot, but Mr.
Pattinson considered that it was too small and cooled too
quickly for that to occur to any measurable extent.
Air. Kknnoi.iiso.n- thought that if the oil were first
removed, its amount need not be determined ; he also
suggested the use of water as a lubricant in place of oil.
»>W»»s»—
THE VARIATION IN THE COMPOSITION OP
CAUSTIC SODA WITHIN THE SAME DRUM.
BY JOHN WATSON, F.I.I .
So far as I am aware, very few results have been published
with a view to elucidate this important question.
At the suggestion of our worthy Chairman, I have
pleasure in submitting the tests of several samples, taken
from different parts of drums which we have opened, at
various times, during the past four years.
First, it niay be interesting to consider, briefly, what has
already been published on this subject.
In the Chemical News, for 25th April 1873, a paper by
Messrs. Glendinning and Edger, of this town, is to be
found, "On the separation of caustic soda into portions of
different strengths on passing from the fused to the solid
condition."
These gentlemen state that when caustic soda, containing
water in excess of that combined as hydrate, passes from
the fused to the solid state, it separates into portions of
different strengths. In such a case, a sample taken from
the drum after cooling may, according to circumstances,
they say, differ from that taken ex pot during the packing
operation by several per cents.
A drum of caustic soda, containing 66 • 8 per cent, soda
(Na,0) and about 6 per cent, water, in excess of the water
of hydration, was cut through its centre, transversely to its
longitudinal axis, and samples were taken : — A, from the
outside, not extending more than 1 iu. towards the centre ;
B, from a part about 5 in. nearer the centre ; and C, from
April so, 18»2.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
323
the centre itself. The radius of the drum was 11 in.
The results were : —
Soda (Na,0).
Per Cent.
tin;
The outside, or A sample, invariably agrees closely with
the packing sample, according to Messrs. Gleudinniug and
Kdger. Analyses of the above samples showed that the
differences were chiefly due to water ; but in some measure
to chlorides and sulphates, these impurities occurring in
largest quantities in the centre.
The differences in strength, due to separation, will be
influenced by circumstances, say these authors, such as the
quantity of water present, the temperature at the time of
packing, and the size of the drum.
Finally, Messrs. Glendinning and Kdger explained the
higher percentage of water in the centre by a theory, of the
greater affinity for water possessed by the fluid than by the
solid caustic, which, as Dr. Lunge, has remarked ("Treatise
on Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, Vol. II., p. 622), is very
questionable.
Mr. John Morrison, according to Dr. Lunge (loc. cit.
p. 622), entirely denies the difference of quality within the
same drum ; the former never found more than 0* 2 per cent,
diffeience in testing any portion of a block.
First, I wish to make it clear that the tests I am about to
submit to you are those of caustic soda containing no water
(except that combined as sodium hydrate), whereas the
drum examined by the gentlemen first referred to contained
about 6 per cent.
With regard to the difference between samples ex pot
and those taken ex drum. For nearly three years at
Allhusen's works we took samples both ways, and found
the tests to be almost identical. Thus, in the average of
one month's work which I have by me, there was only a
difference of 0'06 per cent, between the tests of the two
sets of samples, those ex drum being the higher.
This difference during the month may be considered to
represent our experience over the three years, and now
we only take pot samples in cases where we have to make
lower strengths of caustic — 70 per cent., &c.
In taking the samples, the tests of which are given
below, the drums were laid on their sides, opened, and the
block of caustic split across lengthwise. Pieces were then
cut out as follows : —
(1.) From near the top, out of the second crust.
(2.) From the sides of the drum.
(3.) F^rom the centre.
(4.) From the bottom.
The annexed rough sketch shows the regions from which
the samples were taken.
In high-strength caustic soda, 76 or 77 per cent., a cone
of discoloured caustic is almost always found at the bottom
of the cylindrical mass.
In 70 per cent, caustic, so far as I have seen, the discolored
particles are generally to be found in a spherical, or
lenticular patch, near the centre of the drum.
77 per Cent. Caustic Soda.
Samples taken from various parts of two drums of
Allhusen's 77 per cent, caustic —
Mean cE
twoDrums
Top of drum (second crust) .
Sides of drum
Centre
Bottom (discoloured cone)..
Average of the four samples
Greatest differenC3 between two
portions.
76-85
77'ls
I'm- ( cut.
77-m
76-95
77'l'S
77-01
76'55
76-61
76'S8
7t',-'ili
76-97
76-93
76-S1
76'E6
70-88 ,
0-40
0-57
0-13
It will be seen, from the above tests, that in the first
drum, marked E 21, the highest test, 76-95 per cent., was
obtained with pieces chipped from the sides of the drum,
whereas the caustic chipped from the centre of the drum
tested lowest, viz. 76-55 per cent. The greatest difference
in this drum, therefore, was 0-40 per cent. soda. The
second drum, L 66, tested highest at the top (second crust),
viz. 77 18 per cent, soda, and again, the lowest test was
from the centre pieces, viz., 76-61 per cent, soda ; in this
case tbe greatest difference between the various portions of
the drum was 0-57 per cent. I shall refer to the tests of
this drum again, later on. Taking the mean of the tests
from both drums, it will be seen that the caustic was
strongest at the top and sides, viz., 77-01 per cent., and
weakest at the centre, viz., 76-58 per cent.
With a view to finding out the cause of the difference in
strength within the same drum, I weighed off a considerable
quantity (40 grms.), of the sample from centre of the
L 66 drum, also a similar quantity from the top of the drum ;
the two chief impurities were determined with the following
results : — ■
Centre.
Top (2nd Crust).
0-54
1*42
76-61
Per Cent.
0'S7
The difference in the percentage of sulphate, 0-55, is
equivalent to 0-40 per cent. Na.O.
70 peu Cent. Caustic Soda.
Samples taken from various parts of two drums of
Allhusen's 70 per cent, caustic soda : —
L78.
L S3.
Mean of
two Drums.
Top of drum (second crust ) . . . . 70-51
Sides ! 70-25
Centre I 70'91
Bottom 70:ss
70-05
69-63
70-23*
69-49*
70-29
69-89
70-67
69-93
Average of the four samples
Greatest difference between '
two portions
70-52 69-82
70-17
* Tn the case of these two portions the solution was slightly
milky in appearance, owing, doubtless, to a trace of lime, which was
filtered off and washed before titration.
324
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 80,
From the mean of the above results it will be seen that
the samples from the sides of the drum are the lowest in
strength, those from the centre being the highest.
In a third drum of 70 per cent, which I had opened, I
found, on testing, the some order, viz., the portions from
the sides of the drum were weakest, those from the centre
strongest, and in this case I had also taken the precaution
of filtering off a trace of lime which was present in the
sample from the centre.
The results given above show that in L 78 the centre was
the strongest sample, testing 70*91, the portions taken
from the sides were weakest, testing only 70' 25, the greatest
difference being 0-66 per cent. soda. In L 83, again, the
centre sample was the strongest, 70 '23 ; the sample from
the bottom was in this case slightly weaker than that from
the sides, testing 69-49, the greatest difference being 0-74
per cent. soda.
» Analyses of the samples from the centre and bottom of
I. 83 gave the following results : —
Centre.
Sodium chloride .
Sodium sulphate.
Available soda ...
Bottom.
Per Cent.
9-2«J
1-59
69"49
Again it will be seen that the sulphate is very much
higher in the weaker portion. The difference in the per-
centage of sulphate, 0' 94 is equal to 0- 73 soda per cent.,
whereas the difference in the soda was shown to be 0*74
per cent.
In the case of the 77 per cent, drum, marked L 66, and
that of the 70 per cent, drum, marked L 78, I tested at
least two portions from each part of the drum, and with a
view to prevent hasty conclusions or dogmatic statements,
I give the individual tests, which it will be seen show that
there may be considerable variation within the same region
of the same drum, e.g., in the centre of L 66, one portion
tested 76 '29, whereas other two portions tested 76' 71 and
76-83 per cent.; again, at the sides of L 78, the first
portion tested gave 70-50, but the second only 70-01 per
cent.
Individual tests from various parts of a 77 per cent, and
of a 70 per cent, drum : —
I. IX.
L 78.
Top (second crust) I
77 82
Per Cent.
70-56
:i
77-H
77 'IS
70-52
70'54
70-98
77-19
70 •.",()
ii
70'01
77'ns
70-25
Tf>- 71
70-86
n
76-29
70-97
hi. .,
70-33
Average
70 -fit
70-91
77-00
78'95
7<;-n7
70-44
7i r:!.'!
70-38
To sum up, in conclusion, my experience, based on the
examination of samples from various parts of seven drums,
From different batches of caustic soda, goes to show that
the variation in strength is nothing like so great as was
found in the isolated case reported by Messrs. Glendinning
and Edger ; but the different conditions as to moisture
must be borne in mind. On the other hand, the greatest
differences in strength between portions from the same
drum, are, as a rule, according to my experience, greater
than stated by our friend Mr. John Morrison. In the seven
drums which I have examined, in only one case did 1 find
the greatest difference as low as 0-20 per cent., in another
case I found it as high as 1-34 per cent. ; but the average
of the seven drums gave 0 71 per cent, difference between
the highest and the lowest tests. It is only fair to my em-
ployers to say that these seven drums of caustic included
one not made at Gateshead.
It is notable that the lower the strength of caustic, or in
other words, the greater the proportion of salt present, as a
rule, the greater is the variation of strength.
THE USE OF FULLER'S SPIRAL SLIDE-RULE
FOR CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS.
BY JOHN WATSON, F.I.C.
The use of the slide-rule to facilitate calculations has been
long known to chemists and engineers. In the transactions
of the Newcastle Chemical Society, the Society which most
of us regard as the parent of this Section, an interesting
paper, by Mr. H. R. Procter, is to be found (Vol. IV. p. 330)
on the use of the slide-rule for chemical calculations.
The ordinary slide-rule answers well enough for certain
purposes, but to give a result of even three figures, where
the third figure shall be strictly accurate, a rule is required
of such length that its working becomes unhandy.
When we are reminded that this spiral slide-rule, which
can be handled with ease, is equivalent to a straight slide-
rule 83 ft. 4 iu. long, or a circular rule 13 ft. 3 in. in
diameter, we realise the advantage of this form which has
been patented by Professor Fuller. Since 1879 this slide-
rule has been obtainable from Mr. W. F. Stanley, the well-
known instrument maker in Holborn.
In the preface to the first edition of " The Alkali Makers'
Pocket-Rook," by Drs. Lunge and Hurter, reference is made
to the fact that the latter-named gentleman, iu re-calculating
the tables for English weights and measures, used Fuller's
calculator and Thomas's arithmometer, to avoid errors of
computation as much as possible. The use of this spiral
slide-rule for chemical calculations, therefore, is not new,
as the book referred to.was published in 1884 ; but I venture
to believe that there are man}- chemists in this district who
have never seen a Fuller's calculator, and that is my excuse
for taking up a little of your time iu bringing so useful an
instrument before your notice this evening.
It is due to my old friend, Mr. Walton Brown, of the
Coal Trade Office, to say that he first showed me an instru-
ment, similar to this, which he had used for some time.
Seeing that the calculator was likely to save much time,
paper, and pencil, to say nothing of brain work, I obtained
this instrument through Mr. Winter, in Grey Street, and we
have had it in daily use for the last 18 months. During
this period it has not required any repairs or re-adjustment,
and is still as good as new. The price of an instrument
such as this, in mahogany case, is 31. A smaller rule, with
a scale 200 in. long, giving an approximation of S37nttu'
was made for some time and sold at 20s., but in November
1890 I heard from Mr. Stanley that the shorter rule was
very unsatisfactory, and he had ceased making them. A
pamphlet of 1 1 pages, giving instructions for the use of
the rule, is presented with each instrument ; it is therefore
needless for me to give more than a brief description (partly-
taken from the pamphlet) of the mode of working.
The rule consists of a cylinder or muff, d, which can be
moved up and down upon and turned round the axis g ;
the latter is held by the handle e. Upon the cylinder d a
single logarithmic scale is wound in a spiral, the numbered
April 3d, 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
325
graduations being from 100 to 1,000. Each of the primary
divisions up to 650 is divided into 10 parts, and from thence
to 1,000 iuto five parts. It follows, therefore, that each
number of four figures has either a mark upon the scale, or
m
(if above 050) is midway between two marks. Fixed to the
handle is an index or pointer F, and fixed to the innermost
cylinder ft, which telescopes into g, are two indices, the
upper J and lower K, whose distance apart is the axial
length of the complete spiral. These moveable indices may
be placed in any position relative to the muff d.
In using the slide-rule it will be found most convenient to
hold the handle in the left hand, leaving the right hand to
move the cylinder h by the top, and to note down with pen
or pencil the results obtained. On the axial cylinder g
several useful tables are printed ; among others, one giving
inches and vulgar fractions of inches as decimals of a foot,
one for pounds and quarters as fractions of a hundred-
weight, &c.
For a simple multiplication of, say, a number of four
figures by another number of three or four figures —
Bring 100 to F (by use of catch).
Set K to the higher number.
Bring the lower number to F.
Read product at J or K.
For working such a case as —
a x b x c
d x e
Professor Fuller informs me that he finds it more convenient
to do without the stops ; they can be easily removed if not
required.
In the case of division of a number of two to five figures
by a divisor of two to five figures —
Bring the divisor to F.
Set J or K to the number to be divided.
Bring 100 to F by use of the c itch.
Read quotient at J or K.
Proportion, or " rule of three," is a combination of
multiplication and division, and questions in this rule can
be easily solved by use of the calculator. The instrument
has other applications, for particulars of which I must refer
those interested to the pamphlet to be had at Mr. Stanley's
address.
As examples, I will give a few specimens of the kinds of
calculation which a chemist would find this slide - rule
useful for : —
Multiplication. — A precipitate of barium sulphate has been
found to weigh 0' 178 grm. ; the factor for sodium sulphate
is 0-6094, the product is obtained by the calculator in a
very short time, strictly accurate to the fourth decimal
figure ; indeed, where required, a very close approximation
can, in this case, be obtained of the fifth decimal figure.
Working this example by pencil and paper, in the old way,
in addition to the two factors, 14 figures would be written
down before the product could be got by addition ; but the
time and trouble of writing these 14 figures is entirely
dispensed with by using the calculator.
Dirision. — A sample lump of caustic soda weighing
5-505 grms. is dissolved in water and titrated by standard
acid (I cc. = 0-100 grm.), 42-85 cc. being required: —
428'5 -f- 5- 565 gives the percentage of soda in the sample.
The quotient, to the second decimal place, can be obtained
in a very much shorter time by the calculator than by
working out on paper, and, by use of the instrument, the
writing down of some 29 figures is obviated.
Proportion. — Numerous examples might be given ; but,
if time is saved by the use of the calculator in multiplica-
tion, and also in division, a fortiori, in the combination of
the two, time is also saved.
One case where the calculator will be found to save much
time, is in that class of analyses where the constituents have
been determined, say, in the wet state, and are to be
calculated to the dry state. In an actual case a sample
had the following constituents : — ■
In Original State.
Calculated to Dry State.
48-81
55-8(5
23'2.J
28" 90
7 ' '>')
8-114
0-77
irss
u-74
0-S5
4 10
C69
Moisture 12'60
••
99-82
99 -82
In calculating the first item in the above analysis to the
dry state, the proportion would be stated —
87-22 : 99-82 : : 48-81 : .r
We find by the calculator the quotient got by dividing
the first term into the second, viz., 1-1445, and leave the
moveable pointer K at that quotient. Now bring round
the muff or cylinder d till the third term of the proportion
is opposite the fixed pointer F. The answer is read at
the moveable pointer. To get the second item, in the dry
state, simply move the muff till the graduation, 2525, is
opposite the fixed pointer and again read the answer at the
moveable pointer ; and so on through the analysis, it being
only necessary to move the muff to bring the graduation of
each fresh number opposite the fixed pointer.
I need scarcely say the description of the method of
working takes up a much longer time than the actual
working of the instrument itself does.
Another instance, which should come under the heading
of multiplication, may be given :— Some 18 mouths ago, we
had to determine the areas of a large number of liquor
tanks and settlers ; having measured the length and width,
we found the calculator (with its table giving decimals of a
foot) very useful for working out the areas.
Some may possibly say " You are comparing the instru-
ment with old-fashioned methods of working chemical
calculations. Why not use logarithms ?" I must confess,
frankly, that I was never enamoured with the use of
logarithms ; but, as I have tried them at two or three
different periods, I am not biassed against their use.
Recently, I worked a set of calculations with this calculator,
against a chemist who regularly uses logarithms, he using
his "logs." The result of the contest was decidedly in
favour of Professor Fuller, both as to speed and accuracy.
Mr. Hugh Barclay made a verbal communication on a
process for the ready and accurate determination of the loss
of coal in coal-washing operations. He also gave a
demonstration of the process, -which depends on the separa-
tion of constituents of different densities by a liquid of
intermediate density.
326
1HE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1 April 3". 1894,
^ottinsbam £>f-rtion.
University College, Nottingham.
Cltairman : L. Arehbutt.
Committee :
F. Cli I . I W Small.
J. B. Coleman. H. J. Staples.
C.H. Field. I. Taylor.
H. Forth. Sir John Ttiruey.
E. Vn J. T. Wood.
S. J. Pentecost.
Treasurer: J. M. ('. Paton.
Hon, Local Secretary :
R. L. Whiteley, University Colics.'.", Nottingham.
The na.nes in italics arc those of members of Committee who
retire at he cud of the current Session.
The following have keen elected to fill the vacancies, and will
take office in July next :— Vice-Chairman ■ F. Clowes. Committee:
V. J. K. Catulla, F. D. Mordle, and (i. J. Ward.
SESSION 1892.
1892 :—
Hay —Mr. i . Spackman. "Notes on the Manufacture of
Portland Cement from I.iine Mud after Treatment by the
Chance Sulphur Recovery Process."
Meeting held Thursday, February \0th, 1892.
MR. L. AECHEUTT IN THE L1IA1K.
ON AX IMPROVED FORM 05 PIPECLAY
TRIANGLE.
BY .7. E. COLEMAN, A.K.C.SC., F.I.C.
In the various support? used for holding crucibles and like
vessels during heating, the following disadvantages are
present : —
1. Platinum triangles on heating to a high temperature
expand and soften, inducing " sagging." If platinum
vessels are heated, partial fusion between the wire and
vessel may occur. The expense also is considerable, and
effectually precludes its use by all but advanced students.
2. The ordinary pipeclay triangle prevents contact of the
flame, except at the three angles, particularly if the vessel
to be heated is small, such as crucibles, &c.
3. Triangles made entirely of porcelain and fireclay are
fragile and expensive.
The modification in the improved form of triangle shown
in Fig. 1 consists simply in making a flange iu the middle
Fig. 1.
portion of each of the three pieces of pipeclay forming the
triangle. In this way contact takes place in three points
only, and thus leaves ample space for the flame to play
upon the surface exposed. The result is that thorough
contact between the flame and the vessel to be heated is
secured. The effect of this improvement is to lessen the
time of heating, and also to increase the temperature
attainable from a given flame.
The following experiments show the advantages of the
triangles. The flame used in these experiments was that
from a Hunsen burner, the gas supply of which was
regulated by means of a Stott's governor.
1. A platinum crucible was used and 10 cc. of water were
gently heated to boiling, first in the improved and then on
the ordinary form of triangle ; the time required was carefully
noted. Results : —
Temp, of water, ll'3: C. Temp, of air (constant I, 18 i .
Seconds.
Improved triangle. Time require! for 10 cc. of water. . 45
Ordinary „ „ „ „ t; »
Difference iu favour of improved triangle 15
2. ui.) A platinum dish was employed, 50 cc. of water
were heated to boiling on both forms of triangle, and the
time required noted. Results : —
Seconds.
Improved triangle with 100 ce. water 65
Ordinary „ „ , So
Difference in favour of improved triangle 20
(6.) Into & porcelain dish 2f in. diameter, 103 grms. of
an alloy of lead and tin were introduced. The dish was
heated until the alloy was thoroughly melted and the time
required noted : —
Mill. Sees.
With improved triangle 2 20
„ ordinary 2 50
ur of improved triangle 80
Hence the gain in time was from 20 to 2.5 per cent.
3. Iu flat-bottomed vessels the results were not so good,
but were slightly in favour of the improved form of
triangle.
4. Experiments were also made in burning off organic
matter. In some cases the time occupied was less than
half that required when the ordinary form of triangle was
employed.
To sum up, the triangle is cheap since it can be made in
long lengths and cut up into suitable portions by means of
a tile, which are then threaded and bound together by iron
wire in the ordinary way. It is strong, since the flange is
made at the weakest point, that is, at the middle. It is
economical, since a higher temperature and more rapid
heating is obtained from a given flame.
In the experiments recorded above, ordinary pipeclay
was used. The mould was made of hard wood, a smooth
iron wire being used for the core. After the clay was
moulded into shape the wire was withdrawn, and the clay
dried in the steam oven, and finally heated for several hours
in a muffle furnace and allowed to cool slowly. For use on
a large scale polished steel moulds will be found suitable
so as to admit of a greater length of pipeclay being made at
once, which may after annealing be cut up into the required
lengths.
Discussion.
The Chairman exhibited a welded platinum triangle
which he had used for many years. He found it an
advantage to be able to alter the shape of the triangle to
suit different sized crucibles. There was always a slight
adhesion between the triangle and the crucible at a red
heat, but even after heating in the blowpipe flame no
transference of metal took place. It was, however, advisable
to allow the triangle and crucible to cool down below redness
before separating them ; a slight touch was then sufficient.
Jlr. Coleman's triangle was a great inpiovement on the
ordinary clay triangle.
Aprtlso,i8M.] THE .TOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
32?
A CONVENIENT FORM OF DISTILLATION FLASK
FOB THE ESTIMATION OF AMMONIA IN
WATERS, AND FUR OBTAINING WATER FREE
FROM ORGANIC MATTER.
BY .1. B. COLEMAN, A.R.C.SC, I'.I.C.
In' the estimation of "free "and "albuminoid" ammonia
in water considerable difficulty in freeing the apparatus
from ammonia gas is experienced. This is not so great if
a retort he used as the distillator. Rut even in this case, in
the adaptation of the neck of the retort it is necessary that
the steam conies into contact with rubber-joints, unless the
retort is small ; since, if large retorts are used, it is neces-
sary to draw ont the neck so as to fit into the inner
condenser tube, or a specially large condenser tube must
be used. The apparatus then is somewhat cumbersome.
If a corked flask be used in place of a retort, the steam
conies into direct contact with the cork, and with the
majority of corks the supply of ammonia appear exhaust-
less. Analysts well know the value of a cork which is not
a source of ammonia in the above operations.
By employing a distillation flask into the neck of which
is fused a side tube fitted with a light, hollow, glass
stopper, all the above objections are done away with. The
stopper, when wetted, is perfectly steam-proof, even if the
grinding is indifferent. The side tube passes several inches
down the inner condenser tube, which is of just sufficient
diameter to admit it, and so the rubber-joint is obviated,
perfect condensation occurring without escape of steam.
The water or reagent may be added without disturbing
the apparatus by simply taking out and replacing tne
stopper.
It will be seen that by employing large flasks, water free
from organic matter can be conveniently prepared in this
apparatus.
Meeting held Thursday, March :i\stt 1892.
-^iitecooci£*-ui— » » — ■-
A SIMPLE METHOD OF CALIBRATING A
DELIVERING PIPETTE.
BY PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.SC, F.I.O.
The following will be found to be a simple and accurate
way of estimating the capacity of a pipette, no stop cocks or
other additional apparatus being needed.
The clean and dry pipette is first provided with an
arrangement for closing the delivering end so that it may
be weighed while it contains water.
This arrangement is effected by slipping a strip of rubber
4 in. long and J in. wide over the lower end of the pipette,
then drawing up the free ends on opposite sides under
slight tension and binding them tightly with copper wire.
The rubber now forms an elastic loop, with which the
end of the pipette may be closed at pleasure. An india-
rubber ring cut across answers admirably for this strip.
In the process of calibration the rubber loop is drawn
aside and the pipette filled by suction. The pipette is
allowed to empty and drain for half a minute, and the end
being at once closed by the rubber band, is weighed at once.
Distilled water at 15' 5° C. is now introduced into the upper
end of the pipette by means of a fine wash-bottle jet, until
ttie graduation is reached. The pipette is now weighed
again. The increase in weight should be equal to the weight
of the registered number of cc. at 15-5°C. Should this not
be so, a little water may be added or taken away by means
of a piece of glass tube drawn out into a slender capillary.
Having adjusted the weight of water so as to correspond
with the registered volume, the graduation is then made in
the usual manner.
Professor Clowes also showed and described his apparatus
for testing the sensitiveness of different forms of miners'
safety-lamps when employed for detecting low percentages
of inflammable gases in the air.
OX DUMAS' METHOD OF ESTIMATING NITROGEN
IN ORGANIC BODIES.
BT .1AMES O'SCLI.IVAX, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Or the methods employed to determine the quantity of
nitrogen iti organic compounds there is not one more
favoured, and justly, than that of the absolute method of
Dumas. This process entails more labour, and takes more
time than any other, but this is compensated for by the faith
which can be placed in the results obtained by it.
Dr. Frankland (Phil. Trans, vol. cxlvii. p. 59) in his
classical researches " On the Substitution of Nitrogen for
Carbon in Organic Compounds," experienced considerable
difficulty in estimating the nitrogen in the substitution
products. He employed Simpson's modification of Dumas'
method and found it impossible to obtain the resulting gas
free from considerable quantities of nitric oxide, although
the gas was made to stream over 12 inches of copper. To
obtain the absolute volumes of nitrogen and nitric oxide, a
gas analysis apparatus had to be employed.
My experience with the absolute method proves that the
gas obtained invariably contains an appreciable quantity of
nitric oxide, and that the amount is not much influenced by
the presence of the usual copper in the combustion tube.
The estimations of nitrogen in the undermentioned
substances, except where it is otherwise stated, were not
made to prove this, but were simply parts of an analytical
process.
The combustion tube was filled as in Dumas' method ;
however, the bicarbonate of soda was dispensed with, as a
Sprengel pump was in all cases employed to obtain a
vacuum and to collect the resulting gases when the com-
bustion was completed.
The copper oxide employed was prepared from copper
wire cut in lengths of about 5 mm., and the copper was a
roll of copper gauze 3 in. long, enclosed in a piece of sheet
copper ; this was oxidised and reduced by hydrogen prior to
use.
The time taken to burn the extracts mentioned was in no
case less than three hours, and the remaining bodies
tabulated, being more difficult to burn, took about four
hours. Arsenious acid mixed with the copper oxide,
as advised by Strecker, did not have any influence in
accelerating the combustion. A gas-analysis apparatus was
employed in all cases to determine the absolute volumes of
nitrogen and nitric oxide in the resulting gas which was
collected over potash. The total volume of gas was first
determined, and after the addition of an excess of oxygen
in the presence of potash, the excess of oxygen was
removed by a few drops of pyrogallin. The residual gas,
being nitrogen, was then determined, and the difference
between this quantity and that of the original gas gave the
nitric oxide present, which was absorbed as nitric peroxide
by the potash.
In Table I. is shown the maximum, minimum, and average
percentages of nitric oxide in the resulting gas when copper
was used in the combustion tube : —
Table I.
Number
of
Percentage of Nitric
Oxide on Total Gas.
Determi-
nations.
Substance.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Aver-
age.
6
9-81
11-70
8'inl
:i'5C
4-37
■1- 73
7 '.'is
s
S'211
3
Alcoholic extract of barley
5'11
5
Alcoholic extract of malt . . .
5-7'2
•2-81
4-38
4
Insoluble residue of barley
rm
2-62
3-ik;
5
Insoluble residue of malt
(grains).
996
S-06
IV42
3-28
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so. isse.
These numbers, to which many more obtained from
similar bodies could be added, show that with all the
substances burned, even though there was copper in the
combustion tube, nitric oxide was present in the gas.
1 have had considerable experience with Dr. Fraukland's
method of determining organic carbon and nitrogen in
water residues and have never obtained a gas that did not
contain nitric oxide although copper was always used.
It occurred to me, as my experience proved the
invariable presence of nitric oxide in the gas, which had to
be estimated, in all eases, that the. copper might be
discarded and a plug of asbestos substituted. This does
away with the tedious process of preparing, by reducing with
hydrogen, the oxidised copper, and it will be seen from
Tabic II. that not much more nitric oxide is found in the
gas tints obtained.
Table II.
Number
ot
Substances.
Percentage of Nitric
Oxide on Total Gas.
De termi-
nal tons.
Maxi-
mum..
Mini-
mum.
Aver-
age.
712
W08
13*70
lftin
S-37
4-20
12-00
S'lMI
7'83
7'0ti
3-64
2-62
3-00
5-3S
8-85
S'72
5
10
4
s
Alcoholic extract of barley .
Alcoholic extract of malt. . ,
Insoluble residue of barley
(grains).
Insoluble residue of malt
(grains).
9-9.->
r.-si
3'Ofi
9-3H
In order to show that the nitric oxide was not due to the
substances being burned under a reduced pressure, as is the
case when a Sprengel pump was used, I made a few
determinations by breaking the vacuum before proceeding
with the combustion of the substance. A longer combustion
tube than usual was employed. About 0-3 grm. of cane
MtL'ar was placed at the closed end of the tube, which was
then filled with the copper oxide and the substance, after
which a much larger quantity of copper oxide was placed
than usual. When the vacuum was formed, three to four
inches of the front of the tube were heated to redness and
then the end containing the cane sugar. As soon as the
vacuum was broken by the carbonic anhydride the coinbus-
tinn was preceded with in the usual manner. Four deter-
minations of nitrogen in malt were made in this way, two
without copper in the tube, one with copper, and one with
a coil of silver foil instead of copper. The resulting gases
contained the following percentages of nitric oxide on the
total gas measured : —
Percent.
No. 1. without copper 8 ' 1 1-
No.:!. „ 9'65
No. 3, with copper 9'00
No. t, with silver 8-49
Two determinations of nitrogen in uric acid were made
without employing copper; in one the vacuum was broken
In cane sugar and the following are the numbers obtained : —
N .<>., on
Total Gas
No. 1, vacuum broken
No. -i, ,. unbroken..
PerCeut.
.v i.-.
fMI
Nitrogen. Theory.
Pert 'cut..
Found 33 S
Per Cent.
33-3
1 have observed that in the determinations of carbon and
hydrogen in bodies containing nitrogen, especially when the
substances were burned in oxygen, that the water in the
chloride of calcium tube tasted acid and bad an acid reaction
whether copper or silver was used in the combustion tube.
This shows the presence of nitric peroxide in the gas which
must be absorbed by the potash bulbs, and consequently
increases the carbon number. Dr. Frankland, iu the work
already mentioned, observed that his carbon results were
high, and ascribed this to the formation of potassic nitrite.
(Frankland's Experimental Researches, 232.)
The quantities of the substances burned are not given
here, nor the amounts of the gases obtained ; however, the
total gas measured in any case was not more than 0-04 grin,
and not less than (1-008 grm.
In conclusion, my experience of the determination ot
nitrogen by this process shows that copper can be dispensed
with, and as there is always nitric oxide in the gas the most
accurate results are obtained by measuring the quantity of
nitric oxide and nitrogen in the gas by means of a gas-
analysis apparatus.
TI1K VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION OF CAL-
CIUM PHOSPHATE BY MEAN'S OF URANIUM
S( ILUTION.
BV .!. B. COLEMAN, A.R.C.SC, P.I.C., AM) .7. D. GRANGER.
In the volumetric estimation of calcium phosphate by
means of uranium solution, it is stated by some authorities
that to obtain correct results calcium phosphate in place of
sodium phosphate must be used for standardisation.
To ascertain the relative accuracy of the two methods
the same uranium solution was standardised, firstly, by-
means of sodium hydrogen phosphate solution, and secondly
by means of calcium phosphate solution.
The method employed in all the determinations was the
following : A solution of uranium nitrate, previously mixed
with sodium acetate, was run into an acetic acid solution
of the phosphate, also previously mixed with sodium acetate.
The titration was performed at 80° C.
The end of the process was indicated when a drop of the
liquid gave a faint brown colouration with a drop of
potassium ferrocyanide.
It should be noted that an appreciable quantity of free
acetic acid retards the formation of the colour considerably,
therefore as little free acid as possible was used.
The sodium phosphate, Na„HPOv12 H.,0, used was
twice crystallised and dried between filter-paper. It was
analysed and found to contain 19 -GO per cent, of P.jO,
against 19-83 per cent, by theory, this difference being
probably due to the presence of a little moisture.
The pure calcium phosphate was prepared by the addition
of a solution of Na-,HP04 to an alkaline solution of CaCl.,
the latter being kept in excess. The precipitate was washed
and finally dried in the steam oven. It is stated that this
precipitate varies in composition. Three samples were
prepared by the above method. The P205 precipitated
with ammonium molybdate and the precipitate dissolved
in ammonia, and re-precipitated by means of magnesia
mixture and weighed as Mg.,P.,0?
The percentage of P205 in the specimens were 4(i-93,
48 ■ 8G, 49 • 59, whereas Ca^O, contains 45-82.
Since these numbers varied greatly, another sample of
calcium phosphate was prepared by adding an alkaline
solution of NasHP04 to a solution of CaCL. This sample
was analysed bj- the method mentioned above and found
to contain 45 • 18 per cent. P206.
A standard solution of calcium phosphate was next pre-
pared, containing 2 grms. of P,0., per litre, i.e. 50 cc. =
0-1 grm. P205.
April 30,1898.] THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
329
For tins purpose -211104 grins, of calcium phosphate
containing 49-59 per cent, of P»05 were dissolved in a little
nitric acid; the acid was then neutralised by ammonium
hydrate and a slight excess of acetic acid added. The
solution was then made up to 500 cc.
The standard solution of Na.,HPO,.I2 H..O was made up
by dissolving 10-203 grins, of the sodium phosphate
containing 1 9 ■ 60 per cent, of P,( > - in water and making
up to a litre ; this solution therefore contained 2 gnus.
P505 per litre, and was therefore the same strength as the
calcium phosphate solution.
A solution of uranium nitrate containing 35 grms.
per litre was prepared and run from a burette into separate
50 ec. of the above solutions, in the manner described, with
the following results: —
50 cc.of the calcium phosphate solution required 10-80cc.
of uranium solution.
50 cc. of the sodium phosphate solution required 20*85 cc.
of uranium solution.
Thus the uranium solution, if standardised by sodium
phosphate, would give too low results when used for
estimating calcium phosphates.
Thus if the calcium phosphate contained —
50 percent, of P.:( ), the error would be 2-51 per cent.
10 per cent, of P306 the error would be 0-50 per cent.
The uranium solution (standardised by means of calcium
phosphate) was then contrasted against the gravimetric
process for estimating phosphates. For this purpose
analyses were made with samples of calcium phosphate,
first by precipitating by ammonium molybdate, and finally
estimating as MgaPs07 and also by titration with uranium
solution.
The following results were obtained with two samples of
calcium phosphate : —
Percentage of iy>,
found.
Calcium
Phosphate (l).
Calcium
Phosphate (21.
47-1G
4(i-D:f
45-lfi
45- is
0*23
The above results show that to obtain correct results in
volumetric determination of calcium phosphate, by means
of uranium solution, (1) the uranium solution must be
standardised by means of calcium phosphate ; (2) the per-
centage of P205 in the calcium phosphate used for standard-
isation must be estimated gravimetrically.
Also, sodium phosphate cannot be used for standardisa-
tion as the results will be low, especially if the proportion
of calcium phosphate is considerable.
$)orksl)ire gtrtiotn
A. H. Allen.
W. BrtjJUt.
T. Fairley.
A. Hess.
U. Holliday.
J. J. Hummel.
Chairman : Sir James Kitson, Bart.
Yivf-Chninnan •' Dr. F.H.Bowman.
Committee :
J. Lewkowitscli.
( '. h'liwson.
J as. Sharp.
A. SmithelU.
G. Ward.
T. Whitah r.
Hon. Local Secretary .-
H. R. Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
The names in italics .ire those of members of Committee wlm
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to fill the vacancies and will
take office in July next:- -Committee- J. B. Cohen; F. W. Richard-
son, G. \V. Blatter, and J. B, Wilkinson.
Notices of Fapers and Communications should be addressed to
the Hon. Local Secretary.
Meeting held Monday, April 4th, 1S92.
MB. QKORUK WARD IX THE CHAIR.
XOTE ON THE TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF
GAMMER, &c— No. 2.
kv n. it. PROCTER, P.I.C.
Lecturer on Leather Industries, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
At the time of writing the Preliminary Note on the
Analysis of Gambier, which appeared in the Journal of
Aug. 1891 (G81),it was anticipated that at an early date
a report might he made recommending a method for general
adoption. This has not proved possible for various reasons,
In the first place, a communication has been received from
Director Eitner, of the Vienna Versucksstation fur Leder-
Industrie, in which he declines for the present to take part
in the establishment of any standard method, on the ground
that he is dissatisfied with all those at present in use, and
that he hopes before the close of the year to complete
investigations which will give a new basis for such estima-
tions. Having regard to the previous contributions of the
Vienna Station to the technology of leather manufacture,
and to its wide influence among leather chemists, it is clear
that it is of no use to attempt to anticipate the publication of
Director Eitner's results by any convention based on present
methods. Another reason for delay is that lack of time,
and the complications of the problems involved, has pre-
vented the writer from giving the investigation which they
demand to several points named in his previous communi-
cation. Some progress lias, however, been made, and it
seems worth while briefly to describe the methods now in
use at the Yorkshire College, not as final or perfect, but
as giving constant and reliable results without unreasonable
expenditure of time.
The question of the estimation of eatecbiu in gambier as
apait from catechutanuie acid, i.-* reserved for further in-
vestigation ; together with the equally important one whether
it must be regarded by the tanner as a valuable or injurious
constituent. It is undoubtedly the cause of a troublesome
"disease" of leather known as "the whites.'* When
gambier is dissolved hot, and added in large quantities to
cold liquors, a portion of the dissolved catechin is generally
precipitated in an amorphous form, as has been pointed out
to me by Mr. Bertram Hunt ; but under some imperfectly
understood conditions, of which gradual cooling of the
liquor in cold weather is possibly one, the supersaturated
n 2
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so. lfsa.
solution deposits crystalline catechin, either in the interior,
or on the surface of the hides, forming unsightly white
blotches, which are only removed with some difficulty by
handling in warm liquors. The nature of the defect
has been recently investigated in the Leather Industries
Laboratory of this College, and it has been found that the
appearance of the white matter is distinctly crystalline
under the microscope, and that when portions are scraped
off and dissolved in hot water, and allowed to crystallise on
a microscope slide, the crystals formed are identical in their
appearance and reactions with those obtained direct from
gambler. Some gambiers are much more apt to produce
this defect than others, probably from their higher per-
centage of catechin, and as this substance is easily con-
verted into oncrystallisable gambier-tannin by exposure to
heat, it becomes a question of importance whether garnbier
would not be improved for use in tanning by such treat-
ment. Cube-gambier, which contains the highest percentage
of catechin, and which is hence most apt to cause " whites,"
would have its catechin converted completely into tannin
by drying at a temperature of 12UC C, say on the top of a
steam boiler.
The following are the details of the method at present
employed.
Sampling. — With regard to block-gambier, it has been
found practicable to sample satisfactorily, either by cutting
slices through the blocks, or by the use of a tubular sampling
tool like a large cork borer, fitted with a wooden plug or
plunger to force out the cylinders of garnbier. It is
desirable that this tool should he long enough to pass com-
pletely through the block, or in withdrawing it, a good part
of the cylinder which is cut is apt to be expelled by the
pressure of the air, which cannot find its way down the
sides of the tool. Probably a common tin pea-shooter
might be used successfully as a makeshift. In any case,
the whole sample drawn from several blocks must be at
once thoroughly kneaded up into a single homogeneous
mass, and enclosed in a bottle or tight tin, to prevent loss
of moisture. Such samples soon become mouldy on the
outside, which might possibly be prevented by the use of a
few drops of turpentine, or some other volatile germicide in
the bottle, but the interior of the sample is only very
slowly affected. The sampling of other tanning materials
calls for no special remark, except that in preparing various
hard fruits, such as valonia and myrabolarus for grinding
in small mills, the use of a heavy short-handled hammer,
on a thick metal plate, surrounded on three sides with
raised ledges to stop flying fragments, as proposed by
Mr. A. Xeobald Palmer, is very convenient.
Quantity of Material employed. — It was mentioned in the
previous note that while at the Vienna Versuchsstation such
a quantity of tanning material was employed as to give a
solution containing 1*0 — 1"2 per cent, of dry extract.
Professor von Schroeder and Dr. Koch used solutions
containing only from 0-2 — U'5 grm. per 100 cc. ; and other
chemists solutions of intermediate strength. At the
Yorkshire College, solutions of 06 — 08 grm. of dry
extract per 100 cc. are used. This medium strength has
been chosen, not only as giving results not very divergent
from either of the extremes, but as being practically more
convenient than either, lessening, on the one hand, the
objectionable evaporation required with many materials, to
obtain the necessary concentration for the Vienna method,
and the amount of hide-powder used, and on the other, the
serious errors introduced by solubility of hide-powder, and
small inaccuracies of weighing, in working with extremely
small quantities of substance. It is argued by the advocates
of stronger infusions that only liquors of such strength as
can be practically employed in tanning should be used; the
strength of 0-6 — 0'8 per cent, can scarcely be objected
to on this ground, since in 256, 100, of the Gerber, the
organ of the Vienna Versuchsstation, the strengths of IS
Austrian handler-liquors are given which all range below
0-6 per cent., and equally weak liquors arc used for certain
purposes in this country. Conversely, it is pointed out by
Von Schroeder, that certain tanning colouring matters are
only soluble in much water, and that chemists should
endeavour to estimate the whole tanning substance present.
To this it may be replied, that with many materials no
practical amount of water will keep the whole of these
bodies in solution ; and that there is no need to estimate
more than will dissolve in liquors of practical strength, as a
large percentage is generally rather injurious than beneficial
to the tanner on account of their dark colour.
In order to obtain infusions of the strength named,
approximate quantities for the following materials are given
belcw: —
Per litre.
Cutch, cube, garnbier, and dry extracts, algarobilla,
jralls S "ruts.
Block gambier, divi-divi, valonia, myrabolams,
mimosa 10 „
Sumach, canaigre, liquid extracts, mangrove bark. 15
Aiu'ieu bark, Persea burl;. " Gambia" pods 20 „
Babool bark, quebracho wood, cork bark 30 „
Oak, hemlock, and larch Imrk -10—5(1 ,.
Preparation of Infusion. — Extracts. — The weighed
quantity is dissolved in nearly boiling water, made up to
about 1 litre, and cooled rapidly under the tap, the neck of
the flask being covered with a small beaker, as the stopper
is apt to stick. When cooled to 15° C. it is made up exactly
to the mark and at once filtered. At the suggestion of
Dr. Robert Hellon, Schleicher and Schull's pleated hardened
filters No. 588 of 18j cm. diameter are used for this purpose,
and generally give at once a clear filtrate. If not, the first
portions must be rejected. As some chemists have stated
that tannin is absorbed by paper, the first 100 cc. filtered is
used for the hide filter. Garnbier is treated in the same
way, with the exception that water of about 80° C. is
preferable to boiling, as it dissolves the tannin just as
completely, but gives an infusion which filters more readily.
The garnbier is dissolved in a beaker with successive
quantities of the water, settling and pouring off the solution
from the undissolved part till it is practically colourless.
Dr. Hellon uses a von Schroeder's extiactor, which is very
convenient if at hand, as the coarser particles cannot pass
through the muslin on the piston until dissolved or reduced
to a fine state of division, and the insoluble matters are left
behind in a state very suitable for examination. The same
end would be attained by filtration through muslin.
Solid materials such as barks, valonia, &c. are best
exhausted in the extractor devised by Dr. Koch of Leipzig, or
in the somewhat simpler modification used by the writer.
In its original form this apparatus consists of a flask fitted
with an india-rubber cork with two perforations. One of
these carry a short glass tube which does not project into
the flack, and which can be connected by means of rubber
tube, with a supply of distilled water on a shelf 4 or 5 feet
above it. Through the second hole passes a tube, long
enough to reach the bottom of the flask, and slightly-
widened at the lower end, and covered with a piece of silk
gauze such as is used for dressing flour. The upper end of
the tube is connected with a short piece of rubber tube
provided with a screw pineh-cock (the food regulators
supplied by druggists for use on babies' bottles answer very
well). In use, a layer of dry sand purified by hydrochloric
acid of j in. deep is put in the bottom of the flask, and
the material to be extracted is introduced by means of a
wide funnel ; the filter tube is passed down through it into
the sand, while at the same time water is drawn into the
flask, by immersing the short rubber tube in a beaker, and
sucking at the longer one, which is afterwards connected
with the raised water-bottle while the infusion is allowed
to drop slowly into an empty flask from the shorter tube.
The cork is secured with string or a special clamp. The
apparatus forms, in fact, a simplified Real's press, with the
advantage that it can readily be placed in the water-bath
for hot extraction. Its most serious disadvantage is that,
the. filtering area of the gauze being small, it is easily choked
by finely-powdered materials, and is extremely difficult to
clear without taking the apparatus to pieces. It is also a
little troublesome to fill.
To avoid these difficulties the following modification has
been devised by the writer, with very satisfactory results.
As no particular advantage is gained by working under
April so. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
301
pressure, an ordinary open beaker is used as the extracting
vessel, a common thistle-head funnel is bent twice at right
angels to form a syphon, and the head is covered with gauze.
This is placed on the bottom of the beaker and held in
position by an ordinary retort stand clamp. A layer of
purified sand is poured in to the depth of half an inch or
more, and then the tanning material for extraction, either
dry 01 after digesting overnight in a flask or beaker with,
say, 200 ce. of water. I purpose trying whether exhaustion
of the air under an air-pump at this stage will not assist the
water in penetrating the material. The outer arm of the
funnel is now connected with about 30 in. of small
rubber tube fitted with a pinch-cock, and the syphon is
started by sucking, and allowed to drop slowly into a flask
placed below to receive it. If it be desired to extract at
any temperature above that of the laboratory, the beaker is
placed in a water-bath which is large enough also to contain
a flask of water which is used to refill the extractor as it
becomes emptied. In case it is found that one litre of water
is not sufficient fully to exhaust the material, it is generally
best, after about 800 cc. has been passed, to change the
receiving flask, and continue the exhaustion till complete,
afterwards concentrating the later washings by boiling in a
flask with a funnel in the neck, until they can be added to
the first 800 cc. In this way only the last remnants of
tanning matter are exposed to the possible injury of
evaporation. It is sometimes of interest, especially when
the extraction is made first at a low temperature and then
at a higher, to keep the two extracts separate, and after
concentrating the last sufficiently, to make a separate
determination of its tanning matter.
It has been shown by Messrs. Seymour-Jones and A. X.
Palmer, that many if not all materials will yield a larger
amount of tannin at lower temperatures than if extracted
throughout at a boiling temperature, and the whole question
of temperature in extraction is one which will evidently pay
for investigation.
Removal of Matter absorbable by Hide. — After carefnl
comparison between the various digestion methods, and the
use of the hide-powder filter, I have come to the conclusion
that the latter is not only the most rapid and convenient,
but gives the most accurate and constant results, and the
most complete absorption of any method which has yet
been proposed. In this investigation I have been rather
prejudiced against than in favour of the filter method by
the fact that it was my own invention. In comparing it
with various methods of digestion and percolation, I have
noticed that the figures given by the filter were a limit
towards which the other processes tended the more nearly
the more completely they were carried out, but which they
never passed. In all eases which I have compared, the
hide-powder filter tends to more complete absorption, and
consequently higher results in " tanning substances." The
greatest difficulty in the use of the filter in the form given
it by the Vienna research station, is that, in spite of the
upward filtration, the infusion has a great tendency to pass
up the sides of the glass rather than through the hide-
powder, so that the inner part of the powder is practically
inoperative. This difficulty is largely overcome by the
form at present in use at the Yorkshire College, in which,
instead of a cylindrical tube about 1 in. diameter and 4 in.
long, and holding about 9 grms. hide-powder, the upper
part of an ounce bottle is employed, forming a bell-shaped
vessel about as wide as it is high, and holding only about
6 grm. of the lightly-packed hide-powder. The syphon
tube, of about il in. in the longer limb, is allowed to
project about ', in. through the cork, and is plugged with
a small tuft of cotton wool, while the powder is retained in
position by a piece of muslin held by an elastic band. The
general arrangement is very similar to that of the syphon
extractor above described, the filter being placed in a
tumbler and the liquor added gradually, allowing it to wet
the powder by capillarity. This is easily done in less than
an hour, when the syphon is started by sucking, and drops
very freely. The first 30 cc, which contain most of the
soluble matter of the hide, are rejected, and the next 50 cc.
used for evaporation to give the " soluble matter not
tanning."
Evaporation and Drying. — Portions of 50 cc. each of the
infusion before and after passing through the hide-powder
filter are evaporated to dryness on the water-bath, and air
then dried for 10 minutes in an air-bath at 110° C., cooled
in the desiccator and weighed, and again dried for 10
minutes, when the weight will usually be found constant.
Long drying is not advisable, as the residues gain in
weight through oxidisation. Three-inch porcelain basins
are generally used.
Water is determined on a separate portion of the original
material by drying at 110° C. In the case of block-gambier
and liquid extracts, the quantity used should not much
exceed 1 grm., and should be spread over the sides of the
crucible to expose as much surface as possible, or the drying
will be very slow. The temperature chosen has been found
to admit of rapid work without danger of decomposition
of the tannins. Any cateehin present loses its first molecule
of water of combination and is converted into catechutanuic
acid. This also takes place at 100° C, but with such extreme
slowness as to render any determination very tedious.
Ash. — It is generall)' advisable to determine the ash as
a check on adulteration and means of distinguishing the
character of certain extracts ; but it cannot be added into
the analysis, as it is partly present in the soluble and partly
in the insoluble residues, and its separate determination
involves an amount of trouble which is hardly justified by
the result.
< 'alculation. — The amount of extract after hide filtration
deducted from the " total soluble extract " gives the
" tanning matter absorbed by hide " (which of course
includes colouring and other matters which are not strictly
tannins'). The " total soluble extract " deducted from the
dry substance found in the water determination, gives the
" matter insoluble in cold water." The extraction and
determination of "tannin matter" are of course always
done in duplicate, and give results generally differing only
by the fraction of 1 per cent, in materials where accurate
sampling is possible. This may be illustrated by a series
of " oakwood " extracts taken as they occur in the
laboratory book without selection.
I
A.
Total soluble extract..
Scluble, not tanning ..
11 '3
in
1
l
•3
•1
3-1-9
I'M
30-1
J3o-'0
VI
30-3
35-2
JO -3
••JS ■ t
l.Vl
37 "8
iro
38-0
13-1
Tanning matters 27'2
27"2
23'3
23-8
21-U
■
D.
E.
P.
Total soluble oxtraot . .
Soluble, not tannins . .
38'1
1-s
37'2
41-0
13-11
11-5
13-1
30-9
10"!
311-2
9-4
Tanning matters
33-3
32-3
28-0 J 28-l
29 "5
29-8
332
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L April 30, l«J-J.
#lasgoto anti £>cotttsf) £>rrtton.
Chairman : K. V.
Vice-Chairman : A. Crum Brown,
J. Christu .
11../. A.DonaUl.
D. E. Dull.
C. J. Ellis.
<.'. A. Fawsitt.
Wni. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
K. A. Inglis.
Cnmmillee :
R. Irvine.
J. Falconer King.
G. McBob, rts.
T. P. Miller.
J. Pattison.
J. B. Beadman.
E. Smith.
R. R. Tatloek.
Bon. Treasurer: II'. J. Chrytl '.
Hon. Local Secretary :
.]. Stanley Muir, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to till the vacancies and will
take office in July next: Chairman: C. A. Fawsitt Fice~Chair-
B. J.' Mills. Son. & i r: J. Stanley Muir.
mittee: G. Beilby, W. J. Chrystal, J. S. Macarthur, T. L.
Patterson, E. C. C. Stanford, and G. AVatson.
Meeting held in the Societies' Bourns, 207, Bath Street,
Glasgow, on Tuesday, April 5th, 1892.
MR. K. 1 . C. STANFORD IX THE CHAIR.
THE '■ DHV HEAT" VULCANISATION OFRUBBEK,
WITH SPECIAL INFERENCE TO THE USE
OF AX IMPROVED VULCANISEK.
BY CHARLES A. FAWSITT, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
For the vulcanisation, or as it is technically termed, the
" curirig" of rubber, four processes^are iu use, namely, the
steam, dry heat, cold cute, and vapour processes.
lie "steam" process is used almost exclusively for all
goods termed " mechanicals;" and the goods to be cured
are packed, either unprotected, or wholly or partially
covered, into large iron vessels into which direct steam is
turned until the pressure corresponding to the temperature
necessary for the proper cuiing of the goods is reached,
and i< continued for a time, which varies according to
quality, thickness, &c, of the goods. The "dry heat,"
" eold cure," and " vapour " processes, are principally
used in the curing of waterproof cloth.
The "dry heat" consists in mixing the rubber with a
small percentage of sulphur and other ingredients, and
" curing " the cloth spread with such a mixture in a stove
or air chamber heated by pipes or chambers through which
steam or hot air circulates.
The "cold cure" process consists iu exposing the rubber
composition which lias been spread on the cloth to the
action of chloride of sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of
carbon or other solvent.
The "vapour" process consists in exposing the goods
which are to be cured to the action of the vapour of chloride
of sulphur alone or mixed witli nitric acid in large cham-
bers, or merely by passing the proofed side of waterproof
cloth over vessels iu which the same reagent is slowly
evaporated.
1 shall, in what remains of this paper, treat almost
exclusively of the curing of waterproof cloth, or, more
I "in Btly speaking, of the film of rubber which renders the
cloth waterproof.
At present there is a revolution taking place in the
rubber trade, so far as the vulcanisation of waterproof cloth
is concerned, in favour of the "dry heat" versus the
" eold cure " process ; and, considering the usual dis-
inclination of manufacturers to depart from old methods,
it has come with extraordinary suddenness, so much so, that
it has caused consternation amongst the manufacturers
of bisulphide of carbon and chloride of sulphur, whose
business will suffer very severely unless new outlets are
discovered for their products.
Until within the last two years the majority of rubber
manufacturers used the " eold cure " process almost
exclusively for the production of siugle and, to a consider-
able extent, in that of double texture waterproof garments,
and as it was a process which had been gradually develop-
ing aud increasing for years, its discontinuance was all the
more surprising.
In Scotland the manufacturers have all adopted the
"dry heat" process, but in England matters have not so
far advanced in this direction, as some of the leading firms
still cling to the " cold cure " as the safest and best
process, bui no doubt they will be forced to partially
adopt it, as "dry heat' goods ate now specially asked
for.
The " dry heat " process has been very largely and
successfully applied in America, and I think the Americans
are to be congratulated as the first to thoroughly work it
out. and it is mainly through their experience that manufac-
turers have been persuaded to adopt it in this country.
Perhaps, before we proceed further, it would be as well
to look at the reasons which have brought about this change
of front on the part of rubber manufacturers ; aud I think
this can best be done by stating in a few words the advan-
tages and disadvantages of each process. The advantages
of the "cold cure" process were: — 1st. The production of
what is called a " transparent " proofing, which was and
stiil is, though perhaps in a lesser degree, prized for single
texture garments. 2ndly. The speed and cheapness of the
process compared with the " dry heat." What I mean by
cheapness here has nothing to do with the composition of
the proofing, merely the cost for curing. 3rdly. The non-
efflorescence of cold-cured goods, which is of much import-
ance, and the reason of which has not been satisfactorily
explained. Digressing for a moment, I shall mention one
or two points in connexion with efflorescence which may be
of interest. How is it that in cold-cured rubber we can
have, say. 9 per cent, of sulphur present without efflorescence,
when in the " dry heat " process <? per cent, is dangerous ?
Some max say it is accounted for by the rubber never
having been heated above the melting point of sulphur, hut
I tested this idea by heating pieces of cold-cured rubber
containing more than 6 per cent, of sulphur above its
melting point, but found no efflorescence. The following
may be a possible explanation: — Some time ago a paper
was read before the British Association by Thomson
(1890, p. 785), in which he stated that when rubber was
cold-cured it contained not only sulphur, but chlorine, the
latter element being almost invariably double of the former.
Now it occurred to me that the non-efflorescence of cold-
cured might be accounted for by the sulphur and chlorine
existing together in the rubber iu combination.
Of course it might be advanced as a reason against
such a theory that the greater part of the sulphur can he
extracted with bisulphide of carbon, which fact 1 mentioned
in a paper read before this Society (Jour. Soc. Chem.
Ind. 1SS9, 368), but although such is the ease, may not
the chlorine be extracted at the same time and which
would no doubt be the case if it existed as a compound.
I am sorry at not having proved or disproved this idea,
but want of time has prevented me.
Now, as regards the disadvantages of the cold-cure
process: —
1st. The chief cause which led manufacturers to embrace
the " dry heat " process, was the loss occasioned by-
damaged goods when using the cold-cure process, and the
damage often arose from causes which, apparently, could
not be explained. The blame was usually put upon the
oil contained in cloth, but I think this was only occasionally
the real cause, and my sympathy was often on the side of
the cloth manufacturers, who usually, rather than lose
a customer, paid the claim put upon them. No doubt
lpril8o,H8a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
333
manufacturers often made mixings which were very unsuited
for this process, but naturally preferred to throw the blame
on other shoulders.
2ndlv. The injurious action of the vapour of bisulphide
of carbon on the workmen employed in attending to the
" curing " machines. In some works this is reduced to a
minimum and is not urged as an objection, but it is not the
case in the majority of manufactories.
.'trdly. It is put forward by the majority of firms that
cold-cured goods do not stand hot or cold climates so well as
could be desired, the strong light combined with the heat
and perspiration from the body, exerting a powerful decom-
posing action in hot climates. The light is, I think, the
chief agent in bringing about the mischief.
■Ithly. It is not possible to adulterate the rubber so easily
when using chloride of sulphur as the curing agent, which
in these days of low prices is of great importance.
My experience so far has been that a piece of rubber cold-
cured properly, is the most perfectly vulcanised of any
made, but the conditions which ensure say of a piece of
sheet being so cured, are perhaps not possible in the case
of proofed cloth, at any rate not easily attainable.
The advantages of the "dry heat" process are mostly
implied by the disadvantages of the cold-cure process just
mentioned, for — lstly. There is comparatively little claim
for damaged goods, and cloths can be used containing a
proportion of oil which would be inadmissible in the cold-cure
process. Now, although the damage arising from the action
of the cloth on the proofing is in the dry heat much reduced,
yet it must not be inferred that it is entirely absent, as it is
noticed with poor quality of black and brown cotton cloths
that 12 months is about sufficient to cause the decomposi-
tion of good proofing. This is due to the mordants and
dyes used. 2ndly. The use of bisulphide of carbon is
avoided. 3rdly. The proofing is said to stand extreme heat
and cold better than that made by the cold cure. 4thly. A
cheap proofing can be worked.
As regards the disadvantages of dry-heat process, we
have —
Firstly. The danger from efflorescence which has been the
chief cause of complaint against manufacturers ; and as
black paramattas are coming more into fashion, this is a
point of much importance.
Secondly. The large amount of stove space required to
turn out a large quantity of waterproof cloth.
Thirdly. The cost per yard for curing is double that of
the cold cure ; no doubt this is made up for by being able
to use a cheaper proofing, but it is a point in favour of the
older process.
Fourthly. The non-possibility of producing "trans-
parent " proofing which is distinguished from ordinary
" dry heat " proofing by its softness and elasticity as well as
its transparency.
It may be asked why not use the " steam " process for
curing waterproof cloth when it is used for other goods;
and the answer is that although it would cure the rubber
well and with less danger of efflorescence than with " dry
heat," yet it is fatal to the colours of the cloth and also
to the cloth itself. Befare the " dry heat " process came in,
it was used, but never to a large extent except for black and
white sheeting.
What is the " bon ideal " of a vulcanised process for
waterproof cloth ? This question is difficult to answer
satisfactorily, but I should say it would be fulfilled by a
process which in the shortest time and at the lowest tem-
perature, consistent with a sound vulcanisation, would
produce a proofing which would stand the hottest and
coldest climates, and not effloresce, and at the same time
could without unusual difficulties be produced at a cost
which woidd enable manufacturers to use it even for cheap
goods.
When manufacturers who had been accustomed to work
with steam and cold-cure processes began to face the " dry
beat " process, a few difficulties presented themselves, which
were not easily overcome. For instance, if you take a piece
of rubber mixed with 4 per cent, of sulphur, and heat to
250° F. in a "dry heat" stove, it becomes soft and unfit
for use, but if the same piece were steam-heated it would
cure up satisfactorily. To overcome this, quite a different
class of mixings had to be arranged to satisfy each quality
of proofing. Again, the difficulty of avoiding efflorescence
and at the same time get a satisfactory vulcanisation caused
considerable trouble, and the experience was often gained
through the loss of custom, because time is the factor which
tells most forcibly as a test on rubber goods. Again, buyers
who had been accustomed to purchase the finely-finished
transparent garments with a velvety feel, and good elasticity
did not readily take to single texture goods with dark
proofing, and not so soft to the touch and with less elasticity.
Of course, for light cloths it is not of great importance
to avoid efflorescence, but for black or dark cloths it is
necessary to avoid it completely. This efflorescence could
be avoided by using a high temperature or a long-continued
heat, but then the cloth suffered. In fact woollen cloth is
found to " tender " slightly at 240" F., hence the impor-
tance of using a low heat and short time, both being con-
sistent of course with a sound proofing. With ordinary
" dry heat " proofing we cannot look for a lower temperature
than 238° F., as sulphur melts at that heat ; aud any-
thing below this is of no use; hence the obvious necessity
of bringing up the heat of the stove as quickly as possible to
this temperature. As regards the duration of the heat, it
altogether depends on the composition of the proofing, but,
as a rule, however, for good proofing 1 — 2 hours at
240° — 245° F. reckoned from the time the temperature
reaches 240° F. is about what is required.
The management and construction of the stoves requires
considerable practical knowledge. Steam at 10 lb. pressure
would be more than sufficient to produce a temperature of
238° F., assuming that no heat was lost by radiation and
convection, but for large stoves nothing less than 60 lb. is
used, and it is more economical to work with a still higher
pressure, as the heat can be brought up more quickly to the
melting point of sulphur, and so more work can be got out
the stove in a given time.
About two years ago my firm was asked for a vulcaniser
which would be suitable for the production of transparent
proofing by the " dry heat " process, and as I thought such
a thing quite feasible I had a series of trials conducted,
which resulted in the production of a vulcaniser which
answered the purpose, and has been found to be useful, not
only for that special class of work, but also for other pur-
poses which had not been anticipated. After completing
the laboratory trials, the North British Rubber Company,
who have had the longest experience in the " dry heat "
process of any firm in Great Britain, kindly undertook the
practical trials, and under the superintendence of Mr. A.
Douglas have, during 1891, carried them to a successful
issue, in so far that they have proved it suitable for the pro-
duction of " transparent " proofing, and also have introduced
it into the manufacture of other goods, such as fishing
stockings.
Through their kindness, I am able to show you to-night
samples of some of the goods which the}' are now producing,
and the more important of which are the pair of fishing
trousers which Mr. Douglas got made for his own use last
October, and, although they have been in use since that
time, are in very good order ; also a new pair of fishing
stockings, which show very well the nature of the proofing.
The colour you will notice is odd, aud can no doubt be
improved, but what is wanted in these goods is a good
tough proofing, irrespective of appearance. I am informed,
moreover, that these stockings if damaged can bo repaired,
which is a special property. We have also two samples of
transparent proofing, which serve to show the results which
can be obtained in this direction.
I had hoped Mr. Douglas would have been present to-
night to explain the chief points of difference between these
sample goods aud those made by other processes, but as he
was prevented from coming he wrote to me, and, after giving
a list of the articles, he goes on to say, " The fishing goods
are spread with pure gum, with 4 per cent, of patent
vulcaniser. They are heated for two hours, 50 minutes of
that time being at 240° F. The rubber is exceedingly
tough, more so than it would be by any other process, and
the short and low temperature reduce the risk of tendering
the fabric very considerably.
334
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, MM.
The two " transparent " samples are spread with the same
gum as the fishing stockings. The silk one was spread
July 1S91, and vulcanised three-quarters of an hour at
240 F. ; whilst tlie union silk was spread last week,
aud heated one hour 240° F. This gum, more par-
ticularly in very light spread goods, has a very soft and
agreeable feel, and looks well, but I am afraid the high
pries of your patent vulcaniser will seriously interfere with
its adoption by manufacturers for the single texture water-
proof garment trade, which is to be regretted, as I consider
it the best form of vulcanisation at present known for these
goods."
I have here also samples of coloured sheet-rubber, kindly
prepared for me by Messrs. W. Warne & Co., which contain
only 2 per cent, of vulcaniser. The vulcanisers used in
these trials were the iodides of the heavy metals mixed with
sulphur.
In my patent I claim all iodine and bromine compounds,
but, so far, hive found those of the heavy metals to give
the best results. The addition of sulphur was found to be
necessary, as without it it was impossible to obtain good
results.
The points which were forcibly brought out during the
trials were: — 1st. The very small percentage of compound
which was necessary to ensure complete vulcanisation.
The iodide could he reduced to lj per cent., whilst the
sulphur was 2 per cent., and you can well understand that
3jj per cent, of compound would not affect, to any extent,
the transparency of the rubber. 2ndly. The low heat
required for complete vulcanisation. This seems a very
important point, as most manufacturers experience great
difficulty in getting a satisfactory " cure " at a temperature
which does not injure the cloth. The extreme sensitiveness
of the vulcaniser to heat caused a little trouble at the
commencement of the trials, as they were conducted too
much on the lines of the ordinary '" dry heat " mixings. I
remember the first trials which were made had as much as
15 per cent, of the iodide and 6 per cent, of sulphur, aud
the astonishing thing was, that these samples cured at
200°-205J F., considerably below the melting point of
sulphur, which was very unusual, and proves that whatever
action takes place it does so in a manner quite different
from the ordinary process in which no action is apparent
below 238° F., although a considerable proportion of the
" curing " agent is present. Of course when using sach it
high percentage of the vulcaniser you can naturally imagine
that a large proportion remains unexhausted, and is ready
to still further affect the rubber. This was proved by
heating a piece of such rubber to 24CT-2450 F. for but
39 minutes, when it became quite hard. The property
possessed by this vulcanizer of exerting a curative effect
considerably below 238° F., although of little practical
importance at present, may at some future time receive
useful application. 3rdly. The quickness of the cure was
rather surprising, as one half hour was sufficient when
using 3 per cent, vulcaniser and 2 per cent, sulphur, aud
when using a high percentage along with a high temperature
the " cure " was effected in a few minutes. With 15 per
cent, ten minutes at 250 F. would suffice.
.V quick cure is regarded by some rubber authorities
with suspicion, aud, 1 think, naturally, as the ordinary
method employed, aud which must force itself upon the
mind for comparison, does not cure uuder two hours at
23H' F. I found that with this new compound it was
safest to use a small percentage and lengthen the heat, but
an hour seemed sufficient for all ordinary purposes, using
say 2—3 per cent, with 2 per cent, of sulphur. Willi
these proportions the curing agent seems to he exhausted
after one hour's heating. To prove this, a piece of mixed
rubber was cut into two pieces ; one was heated for on-! hour
at 240' F., and the other for five hours, when they were
both equally cured, showing that with the extra three and a
hall hours heating no further effect was produced. The
fact of the vulcaniser curing so quickly aud at such a
low temperature is a saving, in that more work can be
got "lit of a stove in a given time, which is of con-
siderable advantage in the "dry heal," as large stoves
i;re required to put through a large quantity of cloth.
The continuous stove patented by Waddingtoa, and
worked by Messrs. Charles Macintosh & Co. and others,
through which the cloth is slowly drawn, ascending and
descending many times before it is finally wound upon a
roller on the outside, seems to be a move in the right
direction, as by this system the cloth can be tested occa-
sionally, and the speed of the rollers regulated according as
to whether the proofing is over- or under-cured ; it also
prevents the creasing and marking of the proofing, which
is a common occurrence in ordinary stoves. This system
of curing would be specially applicable when using this new
vulcaniser, seeing" it is more sensitive to heat than that used
for ordinary work.
Whilst working with this vulcaniser a difficulty presented
itself which caused some trouble, although a simple remedy
was found to obviate it. When working with woollen and
almost all kinds of union tweeds, the proofing cured up
quite satisfactorily, but when working with cotton cloths
containing black and brown dyed yarn the proofing became
tacky and refused to cure quite satisfactorily. It was very
noticeable with, say, a piece of black and white check cotton
cloth, because wherever the proofing was upon the black
squares it was soft and under-cured, hut upon the white
squares it was quite cured, and iu every respect satisfactorily.
Seeing that black woollen cloth was free from this peculiar
action, it could only be caused by the different manner in
which the dyes were fixed in the two eases. In the case of
the cotton, the mordanting material was thought either alone
or in combination with the dyestuff to cause the mischief.
It being difficult to' tell what colours were to blame iu cloths
containing many colours, I procured cotton-dyed yarn of
different colours, and got them knitted into strips, which
were then spread with rubber dough containing a proportion
of vulcaniser which was known to be more than sufficient to
cure it. After curing for two hours at 240-245 1''.,
the proofing on the white, blues, drabs, and certain shades
of brown was quite vulcanised, but on the black aud dark
browns it was under-cured.
As the black cloth had caused the most trouble, attention
was specially directed to it, to find out, if possible, the
cause of this action. In the first place the opinion of an
experienced dyer was taken as to the probable process used
in dyeing the yarn. After a critical examination he
reported that the mordant was iron liquor, the "prepared"
tanr.in, and the dye logwood. Three pieces of white cotton
cloth were next taken, and after well scouring and drying
treated as follows ; —
No. 1 soaked iu a solution of iron liquor.
,, 2 „ „ tannic acid.
„ 3 ,, „ logwood.
They were now dried and spread with rubber dough of
same composition as that previously used. After drying
they were cured two hours at about 240° F., and it was
found that in each case the proofing was sound, so
separately the reagents did not interfere with the curing.
Xext, three pieces of cloth were taken, scoured, and treated
as follows : —
Xo. 1 dipped iron liquor, afterwards tannic acid.
,, 2 ,, „ „ logwood extract.
„ 3 „ „ then tannic acid, theu logwood
extract.
After drying they were spread with rubber dough and cured
as before, when Xo. 1 cured, but not Xos. 2 aud 3, proving
apparently that it was the compound produced between
iron oxide and colouring matter of the logwood which
accounted for che mischief. Want of time prevented nic
from going further into the matter, and trying if possible
to find what the cause of this action was, i.e., how could this
dye compound so influence the iodide or the mixture of
iodide and sulphur as to retard its curative action. It almost
looked as if the dye compound so affected or combined with
the sulphur as to render it less available for the iodide, as the
addition of extra sulphur was found to be an antidote as
regards the curing, but was inadmissible when working
with black cloth, because of danger from efflorescence. It
was suggested, as a probable explanation, that the tweed
cloths which are usually sold might contain sonic of the
.M.iii 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
335
mordant unwashed out, or greasy matter, so pieces of such
cloths, containing a good admixture of black and brown
were treated as follows: —
No. 1. — Treated three times with ether, to remove grease.
No. 2. — Boiled three times in water.
No. 3.— Boiled weak acid, then water.
No. 4. — Boiled weak alkali, then water.
After diving they were spread and cured two hours
210 ¥., but the proofing was useless, which disproved the
theory of grease or mordanting material being left in the
cloth.
It has long been known that copper and certain of its
compounds exert a deleterious effect on rubber, and this
was brought forward lately by Thomson (India-rubber
Journal, 1891, 328), but in the above examples copper was
absent.
I asked Mr. Christie, of Messrs. J. ( )rr Ewing & Co., who
has had a large experience in the dyeing of cotton yarn, if
he could offer au explanation, and he thought the reason
might be the presence of peroxide of iron, and suggested
the procuring of a piece of buff cotton cloth, much used for
window-blinds, and which, he said, would be free from all
foreign matter, such as tannic acid and logwood, used in
dyeing black and brown yarn. I did this, and found that
the action of the vulcanise? was retarded, almost proving
that the iron oxide was the cause of the mischief; but if
this were proved, the next question would be, what is the
reaction which takes place? Although this action was
peculiar, and, ill the meantime, to me inexplicable, let a
simple remedy was found to allow of its being used on
cotton cloths. This consisted, in the first place, in giving
the cloth a coat of pure rubber dough, mixed with 2 per
cent, of sulphur, and which is often resorted to in ordinary
" dry heat " process to avoid " efflorescence."
The action of dyed cloth on rubber proofing is an
important question, not only for the rubber manufacturers
but also for dyers, and it seems to me that the solving of
the problem should not be left to manufacturers, but to the
dyeing schools, who, so far as I know, have given the
matter little or no attention, and some of the wealthy rubber
manufacturers could, with advantage, encourage the in-
vestigation of such questions in the technical schools.
Au important point in connexion with the use of this new
vulcaniser is, that by its means coloured rubber proofing can
be easily obtained without adding a large amount of pig-
ment to the rubber. In the ordinary " dry heat " process
it is difficult to get a good coloured " proofing," and at the
same time keep the proportion of compound so low that it
will be elastic.
With this vulcaniser, however, brown, drab, red, blue,
ami green proofings can be obtained.
I have here a few samples of coloured proofings which
Messrs. Campbell, Achnach, & Co., kindly prepared for me,
and you can judge better of their appearance and softness
to the touch by inspection.
Of course, it' wanted, the pigment can be increased, as I
have had 360 per cent, added, as per sample shown, and
still the rubber was strong and elastic.
The coloured proofings cured up in a time according to
the percentage of vulcaniser and compounding material
added, but the usual time was three-quarters of an hour at
24U°-245° F.
It mixes very well with most pigments, but there are
some which retard its action. It appears to me that proof-
ing cured with it could be finished without farina, as the
surface after curing is very dry and soft, and, if so, it
would he a point in its favour, as farina seems to exert
a deleterious action on the surface of the rubber, ino
doubt through its getting damp and fermenting; besides,
farina comes off when wet upon the cloths, and leaves
marks, which is objectionable.
Two most important questions in regard to the intro-
duction of this new vulcaniser are, as to its keeping
qualities and its cost.
Firstly. As regards its durability, it is impossible to give
an answer based on long experience; but when one takes
into account the fact that the samples which were made in
the preliminary trials 15 months ago are still in good
condition, it is surprising, as too much vulcaniser was
used, and the method of working has been much im-
proved. There can be no question, I think, that the
" transparent" dry-heat proofing will stand better than that
cold-cured in warm climates. To test their heat-resisting
properties, a piece of each of these kinds of proofing, and
also a piece of that which had been cured by ordinary
"dry -heat" process were t.-.ken and heated to 300° F. for
half an hour. The cold-cured r iece was simply rotted
away; the ordinary dry-heated p;ece had quite decom-
posed, whilst that cured by the uiw vulcaniser was but
slightly so, showing that it was not readily affected by
heat. Judging from my own experience, and the inter-
change of opinion I have had with Mr. Douglas and
others, I conclude that there is every probability that
the rubber will keep as well as the ordinary " dry heat "
rubber.
Secondly, as regards the cost. At first sight it would
appear as if the cost would be such as to preclude it from
general use, but on looking more closely into the question
it wears a different aspect. Taking the average weight of
" transparent" proofing on a coat at 2 lb., we have for this
weight 4rf. worth of vulcaniser. Now there foils to be deducted
from this the cost of curing by the ordinary method, which
is about one penny, and we must also take into account that
by the rapid curing a considerable saving is effected, so the
difference in price is certainly not prohibitive. If it is
compounded, of course the price can be reduced to that of
ordinary curing.
It may be asked, will this compound mix with rubber
substitutes, and I may say that the ordinary oil substitute
made with chloride of sulphur is quite as unsuitable as it is
for all "dry heat " work. Oil vulcanised with sulphur by
heat is suitable, but the admixture of different substanees
is one which only can be determined by the manufacturers
themselves.
The cheapening of rubber by adding different foreign
materials has become quite an art, and a necessary one, no
doubt, and something will soon be found which will serve
as au article to cheapen the mixing with the new compound
also. It has been tried for double as well as single texture
garments, and is very serviceable where a nice pliable
proofing is wanted and when a cloth is being dealt with
which is easily affected by heat.
It is principally in connexion with " dry heat " that it
has been tried, but it gives good results in the steam
heater when wrapped up to protect it partially from the
sleam. I have here a piece of sheet rubber cured 2 \ hours
at 260° F., which shows that by this process it is possible
to bring about good vulcanisation, as the rubber, you will
notice, is very strong.
My best thanks are due to Mr. Anderson, who conducted
all the experimental work involved in testing the properties
of this new vulcaniser ; and also to Mr. Douglas, Mr.
Burbridge, and Mr. Cairns, for their kindness in preparing
samples and giving valuable advice.
Discussion.
The Chairman said that he thought it would be difficult
to exaggerate the value of this paper. Mr. Fawsitt seemed
to have made a remarkable discovery in the vulcanisation
of rubber. He should like to ask what particular iodide he
used.
Mr. J. W. Biggari said that Mr. Fawsitt remarked that
light seemed to have au injurious effect upon the rubber, as
instanced in the case of the goods hanging in a shop
window. This seemed to indicate that a chemical change
took place under the influence of light, and he should like
to ask what change it was that actually did take place.
Mr. Fawsitt, in reply to the Chairman, said that the
iodide used in all the trials for the fishing stockings and
other specimens shown was iodide of antimony. They
fixed on that in preference to iodide of tin because
antimony was a cheap material and produced good
results ; iodide, of tin also gave good results ; but
seeing they had commenced with antimony, they did not
wish to alter meantime. Regarding the reaction which took
336
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 18B&
place in the vulcanisation, he had never formed a satis-
factory opinion on that point, as they had not had time to
go into the subject fully.
With reference to the question asked by Mr. Biggart as
to the effect of the rays of the sun on the proofing, he could
not give particulars of the chemical change that took
place.
ON THE COMPOSITION OE " HUNYADI JANOS "
MINERAL WATERS.
BX J. W. BIGOART.
That the mineral waters as a class occupy a very im-
portant place in Materia Medica is an acknowledged fact.
Regarding the properties of many of them there is a common
belief that to the waters as found in nature belong
qualities which art cannot reproduce by any of its pre-
parations or imitations. Many medical men hold this
opinion, and for obvious reasons it is a notion suggested
and eneouraged by all those who have a proprietary
interest in any of the wells.
While it is here granted that the artificial waters must
and will differ in properties from the natural, if any of the
various radicles in the artificial imitations be brought
together either in a different order or iu different amounts
from that which they hold in the natural water, still it is
hard to see, how, if these combinations and the gases
present in the water be exactly known and the data
deduced from them correctly followed, there can or will be
any difference between the medicinal qualities of a natural
water and its artificial imitation. In short, if the salts
present and their amounts be known then the water can
surely be prepared. It is on oue of these natural mineral
waters called " Hunyadi Janos," that this short note and
analysis have beeu prepared, and it may be of some interest
to state that it is one of the most popular aperient waters
having a sale which is reckoned by several million bottles
per annum.
Concerning this water, the writer has heard it repeatedly
stated (by medical men) that it possesses properties so
peculiarly its own that they cannot be reproduced In art,
but, discrediting «uch a theory, its analysis and examination
were undertaken.
The generally accepted opinion concerning the composi-
tion of the water is that it contains principally maguesic
and sodic sulphates and chlorine combined with sodium as
common salt.
For the most part this opinion has been verified, but in one
respect, namely, the state of combination of the chlorine,
a vital ami important difference has been observed, a- shall
be presently pointed out.
The analysis of the salts left on evaporating a portion of
tlic water gave the following percentages of the different
radicles : —
Basic.
Soda 1*09
MagllCS 0*635
Lime 0"18
Iron Trace.
Acid.
Silica Trace.
Sulphuric acid 2'42
Chlorine O'lOl
Phosphoric acid. . . Trace.
On looking over these results it is apparent that all the
lime must first be calculated to sulphate. After this it is
necessary to discover to what base or bases the chlorine is
linked. Then it only remains to calculate soda and
magnesia left to sulphates. As the condition of the chlorine
is the only point which presents any difficulty, the particular
state of its combination was arrived at in the following
manner:— A measured volume (5o ccO of the mineral
water was evaporated spontaneously in the air (this pre-
caution was adopted to ensure against any double decom-
position taking place between the salts).
After evaporation tin- salts were taken up with absolute
alcohol, which dissolved the chlorides present, but left the
sulphates as an insoluble residue. The alcoholic extract
was nex'. evaporated to dryness (also in the air) and the
residual mass taken up as before. The acids and bases
present in this solution were then estimated, and they were
found to be practically pure maguesic chloride. Proceeding
on these data, and linking the proper bases to their own
acids, calculation showed the composition of the water to be
as follows: —
Parts per 1,000.
Calcic sulphate irll
Magnesic do lti*0S
Sudic do 25-00
Magnesic chloride L'20
Silica 0-12
Water 867*22
l.lltltl-00
Discussion.
The Chairman said that the composition of these mineral
waters was extremely interesting, and the one which was
the subject of this paper was perhaps the most interesting
of all. It seemed that waters the same as this and to have
the same effect could he artificially made. It was well
known that for many years there was a German spa at
Brighton, where the waters made were an exact imitation
of many of the German natural waters. He had used
Hunyadi Janos water in his own house for many years, but
had always prepared it himself, and never could find any
difference from the natural water. He knew that the
composition of the artificial water was always the same, and
the natural water was not. He should like to ask if
Mr. Biggart found no potash salts iu this water, as he
understood that there was always small quantities of
sulphate of potash and of bicarbonate of soda present '1
Mr. T. L. Patterson did not think that Mr. Biggart's
method of analysis proved conclusively the presence of
magnesium chloride in Hunyadi Janos water, as there was
no doubt that chemical changes might take place on addition
of absolute alcohol to the mixture of salts, resulting in the
formation of easily soluble magnesium chloride.
Dr. G. G. Henderson agreed with Mr. Patterson in
thinking that Mr. Biggart's analysis left it doubtful whether
magnesium chloride was present in the natural water. He
should like to Iknow whether the dissolved gases had been
estimated. He thought there was a large field open to
manufacturers of mineral waters, for it would be quite
unnecessary in many cases to go to German spas, or to
buy the foreign mineral waters imported into this country
in such enormous quantities, if these waters could be
prepared artificially at home. There ought to be little
difficulty about this, seeing that the composition of most of
the waters was well known.
Mr. Biggart, in reply to the Chairman, said that he had
examined the residue for potash salts, but had failed to
detect them. He had not estimated the dissolved gases.
April 3u,i80i.3 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
337
3ournaI anti patent* ^Literature.
Class.
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery
1 1. — Fuel, Gas. and Light
III.— Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, 4c
I V.— Colouring Matters and Dyes
V— Textiles: Cotton, Wool, Silk, it-
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts
VIII.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements. .
X.— Metallurgy
XI.— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture
XIII.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, &c
XIV. —Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size
XV.— Man tires, &c
XV I.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c
X V 1 1.— Brewing, Wines. Spirits, 4c
XV 1 11. —Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants
X I X.— Paper, Pasteboard, &c
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts
XXI. — Photographic Materials and Processes
XX II.— Explosives, Matches, 4c
XX II I. — Analytical Chemistry
Page.
337
8S7
340
311
345
346
S49
353
355
362
362
363
370
I.-GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Methods of Heating Liquids, and
Generating mid Utilising Vapour for Motive Power and
the like Purposes, and in Apparatus and Appliances
connected therewith. W. II. Watkinson, Sheffield. Eng.
Pat. 1596, March 14, 1891.
The principal novelty involved in this patent consists in
loading steam or vapour with liquid in the form of spray or
with gaseous matter, for the purpose of diminishing the speed
of the issuing steam when acting upon motive power engines
of the rotary kind, such as steam turbines, whereby the
economical speed of the turbine can be reduced to a more
practical limit than has hitherto been attained. The
heating of the liquid for the production of steam is accom-
plished in a heater consisting of narrow cells, in which
almost every particle of the liquid is brought in direct
eoutaet with the heated walls. The rest of the specification
refers principally to the mechanical arrangements involved
in carrying out the above objects of heating and spraying
the liquid, and mixing the spray with the issuing vapour. — B.
Improvements in the Drying or Superheating of Steam,
and Apparatus therefor. T. Mudd, West Hartlepool.
Eng. Pat. 5783, April 3, 1891.
The use of superheated steam in steam engines has hitherto
failed owing to the mechanical difficulties encountered through
the destruction of the working surfaces, the superheater not
being under proper control or adjustment. The patentee
proposes to overcome this difficult}' by superheating only-
part of the steam, and mixing it with the saturated steam in
* Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
M. — the price now lixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of tin Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. London, W.C.
any desired proportion, at the moment when it enters the
valve-box of the cylinder. For this purpose steam is taken
from the boiler through a separate pipe, and carried to a
superheater fixed in the smoke-box of the boiler, or heated
in any other convenient manner, and thence taken through
another pipe to join the saturated-steam pipe, suitable valves
being inserted for the regulation of the supply. — B.
A Method and Apparatus for subjecting Liquids having
Substances suspended in them to Centrifugal Action,
whereby they are brought in Contact only with Sterilised
or with other Air, with which they are to be Saturated.
O. Inuay, London. From A. Bergh, Copenhagen, Den-
mark. Eng. Pat. 19,071, November 24, 1891.
I.\ the applicant's specification, No. 86, 1891, is described
a centrifugal apparatus applicable mainly for treating worts
and beer, and a method of so conducting the brewing
process that they may be brought into contact with sterilised
air only. It is now claimed in the above patent that this
method is of great importance in the treatment by centrifugal
action and aeration of various other fluids, water, blood,
milk, oil, yeast, wine, and spirits. The two last should, how-
ever, be first heated to render them capable of taking up
more air.
Any gas which mixes readily with the liquids treated,
and saturates them may be substituted for sterilised air.
Drawings accompany the specification. — L. de K.
II— FUEL, G-AS, AND LIG-HT.
Sulphocyanogen in Coal-Gus. J. V. Esop. Chcin. Ind.
1892, 15, 6—10.
The formation of cyanogen and its derivatives by t lie
destructive distillation of coal is attributed by dc Romilly
to the conversion of the ammonia into ammonium cyanide
at a bright red heat in the presence of carbon. The quantity
thus generated depends on the mode of carbonisation.
According to Gasch, retorts worked with heavy charges give
the largest proportion. If the products of distillation, after
leaving the retort, are kept at a sufficiently high temperature,
ammonia and cyanogen are found in the gaseous mixture in
a free state. If, however, the temperature is allowed to fall
below 80°, which is the case in the purification of coal-gas,
ammonium cyanide, ammonium thiocyanate, and ferro-
cyanides are formed. Of the aqueous liquids deposited in
the condenser during the manufacture of gas, it is here
necessary to consider only ammonia and thiocyanie acid.
German gas-liquor obtained from Saar and Ruhr coal gave
by analysis : —
— ■
ON MI
NH3
Grms.
1"22
Gnus.
18-05
1-51
19-03
2-33
36-00
In the purification of gas by chemical treatment free
sulphur, thiocyanie acid, ammonia, and potassium ferro-
cyanide are the most important constituents to which it is
necessary to direct attention in the present paper. The
following table gives the percentages of thiocyanie acid,
333
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892.
ammonia, and potassium fen-ooyanide contained in gas-
purifyiug material saturated with "these impurities: —
CXSH
>'H3
FeCNGK,.S HaO
Essen I K ru pji)
Stuttgart .
Wit Ion ...
Lcipz:g .
Freiburg...
Ulm
Mannheim .
lltilbronn .
Pforzheim .
Wiesbaden ....
Kaiserslautcrn.
Zurich
Schwetzingen. .
Andcrnach ....
Nurnberg
Mam/
0-39
0-3(1
0-32
0'85
0'94
1-09
1G2
1-in;
1'9S
rov
1-03
1-43
2-32
3-53
1-12
0-92
1 ' 13
1-27
2-32
253
3-72
o-llf
0-311
0'40
1-03
1-02
1-05
2-06
1-13
2-31
l-57
1-42
1-72
2-13
3-21
023
0-82
0-51
0-92
0-21
1-57
1-21
2"25
3-02
5-00
f62
3-51
3-42
5-42
f 42
1-03
t-51
6' 23
5-4.-!
4-S5
4-37
4;84
8-27
6-03
5-35
1'OS
3-03
1-28
4' 53
4'S8
If this material be stored in the cold protected from
atmospheric influences, and in layers of moderate dimen-
sions, it may be kept for some time without suffering
decomposition. If, however, stored in large masses the
temperature gradually rises, the green colour changes to
red, acid fumes are liberated in the course of a few days,
and finally the sulphur ignites and burns away. At this
stage the decomposition of thioeyauic acid has reached its
maximum, only about 0'5 per cent, remaining unchanged.
A portion is converted into ferrocyauide, and the remainder
is wholly decomposed. The quantity of ferrocyanide is
thereby increased from 4 • 3 to 7 -2 per cent. The extraction
of thiocyanic acid is effected by lixiviating the exhausted
purifying agent and evaporating the aqueous extract in
enamelled pans. Ammonium thiocyanate crystallises out
ami this is then decomposed by the addition of alkalis
(hydroxides) or soluble alkaline sulphides. From weak
extracts or solutions highly charged with chlorides, sul-
phates, sulphites, &C, it is preferable to precipitate the
thiocyanic acid by means of a cuprous salt and decompose
the thiocyanate thus obtained by the addition of a soluble
alkaline sulphide. The resulting cuprous sulphide is roasted,
the oxide dissolved in hot dilute acid, and the solution used
for the precipitation of a fresh portion of aqueous extract.
To obtain pure ammonium thiocyanate the crude salt is
recrystallised, having been previously treated with barium
sulphide. A chemically pure product is obtained by
carrying out thi process expressed by the equation
(CXS)2Ba + (NH4)2S04 = 2 NH4CNS + BaSO.,. Barium
thiocyanate is obtained from the ammonium salt by the
addition of barium hydroxide or preferably barium sulphide.
The decomposition is effected in a closed vessel fitted with
mechanical stirrers and heated with steam under slight
pressure (0-2 to 0'4 atmosphere) to a temperature of
80° — 90°, the ammonia being driven off as rapidly as
possible. The barium salt may be obtained also from
cuprous thiocyanate by fractional precipitation, the un-
decomposed portion being treated with an excess of barium
sulphide, and the resulting solution evaporated after the
removal of all traces of metal and barium sulphide. The
calcium salt is prepared from the ammonium salt by the
addition of calcium hydroxide, ammonia being liberated.
The solution is evaporated to 45° B. and allowed to cool
when the calcium salt crystallises out in deliquescent but
well-defined needles. The potassium salt is obtained by
the addition of potassium sulphate or carbonate to alkaline
thiocyanates or by precipitating ammonium or cuprous
thiocyanate witli potassium sulphide. The aluminium salt
is prepared by decomposing the calcium or barium salt
with alum free from iron. — 1). B.
Geological and Economical Conditions oj the Westphalian
Coal-Beds. Brookmann. J. fur Gasbeleuchtung, 1891,
34, 633-636.
After giving an account of the development and present
condition of the coal-fields of Westphalia, the author
proceeds to consider the classification and nature of various
kinds of coal, pointing out at the same time that the terms
which he employs are purely relative and only apply to
Westphalian coal.
In the following table the percentage of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen in various carbonaceous deposits, calculated on
the ash- and water-free substance, is given ; the quantity of
available hydrogen, and the yield of coke are given in the
fourth and fifth columns respectively, whilst in the sixth
column the geological period to which the coal belongs is
stated ; iu the seventh column the products of the natural
distillation of the coal are given : —
"Wood
Turf
Lignite
Forest coal
Flame coal
' i;is coal
Coke coal
Poor coal
Anthracite (coke)
Graphite
41
110
Co
73
80
95
loo
H
eo
31
2s
19
14
Available
II
Coke.
Period of
Formation.
Distillation
Product.
15
20
lo
50
00
70
SI I
£-0
95
100
esenl .
1-
Ter
( Chalk..
(.Jurassic
Tertian
f Chalk.
I larboniferous.
f-HsO
(.co.,
CH.
CH,
CH,
rcu,
I CH, + U.
I
•J CH, + H3
• II, + H,
L'H, + Hj
Silurian.
April 3iU892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
3^9
1 1 will be seen from the table that the percentage of carbon
increases, whilst that of oxygen decreases, with the age of
the deposit, whereas the percentage of hydrogen undergoes
DO material alteration. This change in composition which
takes place in the earth is similar in some ways to I hat
which occurs in gas-making; in the lirst stages of the
distillation of coal the gases evolved are highly luminous,
but as the process continues the gases lose their luminosity
and finally consist almost entirely of hydrogen.
The quality and the quantity of the coke depends to a
great extent on the chemical composition of the coal ; an
anthracite coa!, for example, gives only a loose powdery
coke, whereas ordinary gas-coal yields, as a rule, a good
cake of porous coke. The colour of the coke obtained from
various kinds of coals is very characteristic, and affords a
means of estimating the geological age of the coal when
other criteria fail.
The quality of a coal may also be judged by its appear-
ance; on examination it will be found that even in coal
from the same stratum considerable differences may be
observed. In some samples lustrous deep black lines are
seen, indicating, as a rule, a low gas-producing power and
a lo« percentage of ash ; also greyish black stripes of coal
which has a high gas-producing power, but which, at the
same time, contains a large percentage of ash. Mineral
wood-coal, a non-cokable, fibrous coal, of low gas-producing
power and rich in ash, is a very frequent constituent of
coals; stripes or layers of cannel, pseudo-cannel, shale, &c,
are also frequently met with iu one and the same sample,
the quality of which will, of course, depend on the
predomineuce of one or other of these varieties. — F. 8. K.
IVeio Researches on the Heat of Combustion of Coal, deter-
mined by Means of a Calorimetric Shell. Scheurer-
Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus. Bull. Soe. Ind. Mulhouse,
18»1, 577—589.
The authors describe some experiments which they carried
out with the object of verifying results obtained by them
with a Favre and Silbermann calorimeter. The apparatus
used was Berthelot's calorimetric bomb, which was placed
at their disposal. This consists of a metal shell lined with
platinum (to resist chemical action), in which combustion
can take place, and an ordinary calorimeter of about 2 litres
capacity in which the shell can he suspended, and by
means of which the heat developed is observed. The
substance to be experimented upon is weighed and sus-
pended within the shell in a perforated platinum capsule.
Immediately above this is placed a spiral or fine iron wire,
through which a current of electricity can be passed. The
lid of the shell, which can be screwed in its place, carries
a valve, by means of which oxygen at a pressure of 25
kilos, can be admitted to the interior. This having been
done the shell is placed in the calorimeter and the tempera-
ture of the whole is allowed to become uniform. The
temperature is then observed from minute to minute and a
current is sent through the spiral. This, as it heats, sets
the combustible on fire. Combustion is sudden and com-
plete, leaving no combustible residue. The temperature
should be observed during several minutes, but the whole
operation is over in a quarter of an hour.
The advantages of the method are (1) simplicity of
apparatus, in consequence of which a single experimenter
is sufficient, whereas at least two were required with the
older apparatus, (2) economy of time, and (3) owing to
complete combustion the corrections to be applied are of a
lower order than those necessary with the apparatus of
Favre and Silbermann. The principal drawback to the use
of the new apparatus is in the cost, both of the platinum
lining to the shell and of the reservoir for compressed
oxygen. When the substance to be experimented upon is
coal, it presents the further disadvantage that it is not
possible to weigh the ashes. These are scattered by the
violence of combustion about the walls of the shell, and,
further, it must be remembered that they are soluble in
the sulphuric and nitric acids formed during combustion.
Their amount can, however, be estimated by determining
the amount of the ashes formed in burning known weights
of the same coal. Another source of error arises from the
heat of formation of sulphuric and nitric acids, which
although negligible in approximate work, must be allowed
for if great accuracy is desired. The amount of these
boilies formed during combustion is estimated by titration
with an alkali, and the heat developed iu their formation is
calculated by Dulong's law. It is also necessary to allow
for the heat generated in the spiral by the current, which,
for the particular spiral used, was estimated at 22 calories.
( In the whole the authors are of opinion that the results
obtained by this method are more reliable than those
obtained by the older methods, as the necessary correc-
tions are of so much less relative importance.
In order to make the correction for radiation as small as
possible, the calorimeter was placed within a large double
calorimeter, the space between the walls of which was filled
with water. By this means the correction for radiation
was reduced from 0-002° to 0-001° per degree per minute.
The authors also found that when the coal was used in
pieces instead of in powder, it was possible to obtain com-
plete combustion. In the latter case it was necessary to
dilute the oxygen with air, pure oxygen giving rise to
explosions which always left a combustible residue.
In general, the results obtained by this method give a
lower value for the calorific power than those obtained by
former methods. The following table gives the results
of an experiment with a particular sample of coal : — ■
Grm.
"Weight of substance 0*913
Initial temperature 11 '735°
Temperature at end of 1st minute 14-000°
2nd „ 14-600°
„ „ 3rd , 11-650°
4th IftUir
5th , 14-830°
0th 14-620°
7th „ 14-600°
8th 11-590°
Highest temperature 14"650°
Initial „ 11-735°
Rise of temperature 2'915°
Correction -t-0'039
■J'!'.-,t
Calories.
Thermal capacity of calorimeter. 2,400
2-954° x 2,000 = 7,089
Deducting for lirat generated in spiral. . . 22
7,067
',,(.'- = 7,494 calories per unit weight ot the coal.
The mean of several determinations of the composition
of this sample showed that only 87 per cent, of it was pure
coal.
7 404
' ' x 100 gives 8,620 calories per unit weight of pure
coal. This number is 326 less than that obtained in
former experiments by the authors. The authors have also
arrived at the conclusion that it is impossible to calculate
the heat of combustion of a specimen of coal from its
composition. Appended are the observed and calculated
values for three samples of coal.
Calories.
1. Calculated by Dulong's law S.3S2
Calculated from total amounts of
carbon and hydrogen present 8.703
Observed 8;897
2. Calculated by Dulong's law 8,082
Calculated from total amounts of
carbon and hydrogen present 8,501
Observed 8,264
3. Calculated by Dulong's law 8,513
Calculated from total amounts of
carbon and hydrogen present 8,685
Observed 8,700
310
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892
The authors consider that they have proved (iu con-
formity with their earlier researches) thai sunn- kinds of
coal have a heat of combustion which is greater than that
of the carbon and hydrogen which they contain; the heat
of combustion of others is less than this, Although it is
sometimes higher than the heat calculated by Dulong/s
method.— D. E. J.
Note an the Carbon deposited from Coal-Gas Flames.
W. Foster. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [108], 46.
Thr author quotes analyses of cokes obtained by carbonising
sugar and starch : —
Cane Sugar Coke. — High temperature, carbon 95-0,
hydrogen 1 ■ 1 ; low temperature, 94- 1 carbon, 1 '2 hydrogen.
Starch Coke. — 95-0 per cent, carbon, 0-9 per cent.
hydrogen respectively.
From the similarity in composition of these cokes to
that of the soot obtainable from coal-gas flames, he is
of opinion that there is a resemblance in the general
character of the chemical processes whereby they are
formed.
The Origin of Acetylene in Flames. V, B. Lewes. I'roc.
Chem. Soc. 1892, [108], 47—48.
The author has sought to determine whether acetylene is
the. product of high temperature change or of oxidation.
The experiments described consisted in passing hydro-
carbon gases and mixtures of such gases with others
through a heated platinum tube 2 mm. in diameter, which,
judging from experiments made to test the point, would
seem to be without special action.
On passing methane alone through the tube while a
length of G in. was heated to 1100 in the flat flame of a
broad Bunsen, a product was obtained containing 3-2 per
cent! of unsaturated hydrocarbons and 1'8 per cent, of
acetylene. The effect of heating methane with other gases
is indicated by the following figures : —
S per
1 Cent.
(Ixyi-cn.
15 per
Cent.
Air.
60 per
Cent.
i iarbon
Monoxide.
Unsaturated hydro-
carbons.
Acetylene
BO i" i
Cent,
Hydrogen.
Carbon monoxide.
-•"
a-o
I'll
rt7
1-428
0-666
(|-ss7
0-473
[■1
1-0
0-490
These results appear to point to acetylene being formed
by the action of heat alone.
Ethane heated alone gave a product containing 19-47 per
cent, unsaturated hydrocarbons and 3-224 per cent, of
acetylene. The effect of heating ethane, diluted with
311 per cent, of hydrogen with air was as follows : —
IS per Cent. i» per Cent. -jr. i>er Cent.
Air. Air. Air.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons.. 7*60
Acetylene 8-39
Carbon dioxide 0-00
Carbon monoxide ' i*'>t
The effect of temperature Ou the formation of acetylene
is well shown by the following results obtained on convert-
ing Russian petroleum into oil-gas in a Patterson retort : —
PATENT.
Improvements in Machinery for the Manufacture of Peat
Fuel. B. G. B. Mills, London. From E. L. Clarke,
Montreal, Canada. Eng. Pat. 5980, April 7, 1891.
The machinery patented consists essentially of a cylindrical
mould with a flat-headed screwed revolving plunger, the peat
to be compressed into fuel being fed through a hopper on
to the screw and compressed into the mould by the head of
the plunger. The plunger is actuated by a spindle co-axial
with it, to which is communicated a revolving motion to
cause the travel of the peat by means of the screw thread,
and a longitudinal motion by means of an eccentric driven
by a shaft at right angles to that by which the revolving
motion is communicated. This arrangement is preferably
worked in duplicate, a single central shaft then sufficing to
actuate two plungers parallel with itself. The pinion upon
the central shaft is sufficiently wide in the face to allow of
the reciprocating movement caused by the action of the
eccentric to take place without the teeth becoming disen-
gaged. A wooden resistance block is inserted into the
mould at the beginning of the compressing operation, its
place being afterwards supplied by the peat itself. The
thread on the plunger is kept clear by means of a worm
wheel working at the bottom of the hopper. The apparatus
described is used in connexion with the preliminary dis
integrating and drying machine, in which the peat after
having been freed from sticks is carried through a cylinder,
throtrgh which furnace gases are caused to pass, by means
of a rotating longitudinal shaft fitted with stirrers, and
driven by the same gear as gives motion to the compressing
machinery. It is claimed that the heat generated in com-
pressing the peat aids its agglomeration by bringing " to the
surface the tarry residue inherent iu the peat particles."
— B. B.
IIL-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Paranthracene. K. Elbs. J. Prakt. Chem. 1891,44,
467—469.
In I860 Fritzsche discovered the transformation of
anthracene into paranthracene by prolonged exposure to
sunlight and recommended this reaction as a suitable means
of preparing pure anthracene. The author obtained this
hydrocarbon by exposing a saturated solution of anthracene
(90 per cent.) in benzene (at 40° to 60°) to the action of
sunlight for one week, the solution being heated ou a water-
bath from time to time for the purpose of re-dissolving any
anthracene which may crystallise out. The deposit was
filtered off, boiled out with a small quantity of benzene and
recrystallised from hot xylene or dimethylaniline. From
the former paranthracene separates in colourless lustrous
needles, whilst dimethylaniline f,'ives it in the form of
laminae. Both melt at 27a — 274 with complete conversion
into anthracene. Paranthracene possesses no fluorescent
properties, and its solution in dimethylaniline may be boiled
AiMii.m.iSM.j THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
341
without change. On prolonged boiling in naphthalene it is,
however, gradually converted into anthracene, the change
being observable by the original colourless solution assuming
a violet fluorescence. It is only sparingly soluble in most
solvents. At the temperature of its melting point glacial
acetic acid, phenol, thymol, resoreinol, quiuol, paranitro-
toluene, (1 : 2 : -1) — dinitrotoluene, a - nitronaphthalene,
acetanilide, acetoparatoluidide, salicylic acid, and diphenyl-
trichlorethane dissolve O'l per cent, or even less; a-naph-
thylphenylketone, nitropseudoeumene, and diphenyl from
0-l to 0*2 per cent., and naphthalene, acenaphthene,
azobenzene, diphenylamine, and triphenylmethane from 0*2
to 0-3 per cent. Owing to the fact that a solution of
parauthraccne in naphthalene saturated at the temperature of
its melting point was found to contain only 0*229 per cent, of
paranthracene, the depressions to be observed ate obviously
so small that in order to minimise the error as much as
possible the results should be calculated from the average
of a number of observations. The mean molecular weight
of paranthracene calculated from ten sets of experiments
comprising in all 1 1 8 separate readings was found to be
303, the lowest value observed being IMS and the highest
344. The measurements were made with an ordinary
Beckmann apparatus, each degree ot the thermometer being
divided into 50 parts. The following table gives the results
of a complete group of measurements: —
Paranthracene
in the
Solution per Cent.
Depression.
Molecular Weigh!
(Molecular
Depression for
C„,H, = 701.
Number of
Trials.
0*059
0*012
344
7
n-ios
0*023
329
7
0-132
11-027
342
t
0*1*0
0-osr
276
s
0*229
ii -o.-,:;
3113
ID
anthracene with formation of dibromanthracenetetrabromide.
A similar result was obtained with anthracene when
brominated under the same conditions. — 1). II.
For CMH10 the molecular weight is 178, and for (Ci4H10)2
356, showing that paranthracene is formed from anthracene
by the combination of 2 mols. According to Graebe and
Liebermann, bromine has no action on paranthracene.
The author, whilst confirming this observation, states that
in the presence of sunlight, bromine strongly attacks para-
l'ATKNT.
Improvements in the Distillation of Mineral Oils and
Light Bodies, and in Apparatus therefor. J. Laing,
Edinburgh. Kng. Pat. 6134, April 10, 1891.
The chief improvement patented consists in making oil
stills of such a form that the upper part only of the liquid in
them is heated, and a sort of central well is provided into
which the heavy residue can sink, and whence it can be
drawn off periodically. The shape of the body of the still
somewhat resembles the head of an ordinary still inverted,
an annular fire playing on the wider part. The depth of
the oil is maintained constant by means of a ball-cock or
similar device. It is claimed that by this arrangement the
heating is more uniform, and the distillation takes place at
a lower temperature than in the ordinary form of still,
while a smaller quantity of the oil is "cracked "and a
better product is obtained. — Ii. 1!.
IV -COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
Dyewood Extracts and their Manufacture. F. E. Marat.
Bull. Soc. Iud. Mulhouse, 1891, 361— 452— {concluded).
(This Journal, 1892, 154—155.)
The appended tables show the composition (calculated to
30° B.) of the logwood extracts manufactured at Havre let
the two methods already described (this Journal, 1892,
153—155).
Throughout the tables the weights given represent kilos.
Logwood Extracts, Havre (First System).
Brand.
Logwood extract, dry, pure
Hemateine, in powder
Logwood extract, dry, prima, superior
Logwood extract, dry, prima
Logwood extract, dry, Xo. 1
Logwood extract, dry. No. 2
Logwood extract, dry, No, 8,Sanford
Logwood extract, dry, No. 3. for cold countries
Logwood extract, dry. No. 3a , . . .
Logwood extract, dry. No. 3B
Logwood extract, 30° B.. pure
Logwood extract, 80° 15.. No. l
Logwood extract, S0° B, No. 2
Logwood extract, 30- K.. Xo. 3
Logwood extract, 30 It.. No. 4
Wood used.
Yield of
Extract at
30s B.
4.1 ll II)
1.01 III
l.llilll
1.111)0
4, 1
1,111111
(.Oihi
1.01)0
.V.IIOII
l.llilll
4,000
1,0110
1.
1,000
4,001)
1,001)
4.1 "HI
1,000
4.000
1,000
l.iliin
l.llilll
4.1100
1,111111
4,0110
l.OOil
4,000
1.000
4,01111
1,000
Molasses at
30° B.
Chestnut
Extract, at
:;ii Ii.
2r><:
236
305
530
560
SCO
660
210
280
■till
560
.-,n
Ml
200
200
300
350
500
Carbonate Powdered
of Soda. Gypsum.
10
10
20
20
20
Si
4'
51
10
10
10
10
12!
342
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1893.
Logwood Extracts, Havre (Second System).
Brand.
Wood
used.
Yield ot
Extract at
SO B.
Molasses,
at 3o IS.
I
Chestnut. Sumac. Potassium
calculated calcu'ated Ferri-
to Sir" I!. toSO0 li. cyanide.
Powdered
Gypsum.
Logwi "ii
■ Foots."
The trade names and composition of the fustic extracts as the basis that quercitron hark yields 30 per cent, of
manufactured at Havre are given in the following table. extract at 30° ; sumac leaves, 75 per cent, of extract at 30°;
The wood is reckoned as yielding 17 per cent, of extract turmeric root, 150 per cent, of extract at 30'; and divi-divi,
at 30 . The other substances added as solids are calculated 53 per cent, of extract at 30c li.
Fcstic Extracts (Havre).
Brand.
Product Alizarin-
v7ood of Bark Sumac Turmeric Divi-divi Molasses Dextrin Sulphate Orange,
used. Extract at 30° B. at 30° B. at SO B. atS0°B. at 30° B at SO B. of Soda. 20 per
at 30° B. Cent.
Fustic extract, dry. [aire 6
Fustic extract, dry. prima 6.030
Fustic extract, dry. No 2 >,C00
Fustic extract, dry. tfo.8 6,
Fustic extract, 30° B., pure 6,000 |
Fustic extract, 30 B., yellow JJ
Fustic extract, 34 B., medium yellow. O.ooO
.l\l I.
Fustic extract. 30° 1! . orange yellow, 0,000
JO II.
Fustic extract. 3o: B., orange JO III 0, I
1,020
••
••
••
1,020
54
..
PI
ISO
1,020
54
Hi
135
..
135
Oil
1,02m
u
92
135
1"5
60
..
1,020
■ ■
•'
• •
1,02 i
51
16
168
60
..
1,020
51
• •
• ■
16
252
••
60
1.020
54
10
462
15
13
1,020
51
16
630
15
15
The following table gives the trade names of the logwood and fustic extracts manufactured at R men, together with
the proportions of the materials used in their manufacture : —
Logwood and Fustic Extracts (Rouen)-
Brand.
Wind Molasses,
u^d. 1JC B.
Chestnut
Extract,
30° B. j
l.i i -'\\..i d extract, dry, orHematine
Xo. 1, guaranteed pure.
i extract, dry, or Hcmatine
Xo. 2, extra refined.
Logwood extract, dry. prima
superior.
Logwood extract, dry, prima Bl)..
Logwood extract, dry. Nil. 1 Bit. ..
Logwood extract, dry, Xo. 2
Logwood extract, dry, Su. 3
Logwood extract, dry, Sanford A ..
logwood extract, dry, Sanfi i B,
Logwood extract, 30 B. extra:
Heiiiatine. pure .
Logwood extract, 30 I!, extra ;
Hematinc, refined.
Sicilian Quercitron Turmeric Glucose,
Sumac. Bark. Powder. 30 B.
Powdered
Gypsum.
Total
Yield of
Extract.
Percentage
of Foreign
BndieS.
73
SO
-.SHU
6(10
150
8,800
720
250
2*0
720
375
240
060
500
2IU
8,800
1,340
750
24U
i 580
S75
240
8,800
1,820
1,000
2W
■-.Mil.
SJjOO
75
SO
1,465
1,556
2.o7.-,
2,426
lit
2515
60
2.S75
SO
3. Ho
120
3,700
150
4,1110
2,200
2.3S5
li
284
391
t2 ;
411
57
61
i-.t;
April so, 189a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CIIEMICAL INDUSTRY
343
LocnvooD a.m. Fustic Extracts ( Rouen)— continued.
Brand.
W I Molnssei
used. 3D B.
< ihesttml
Extract,
12° B.
Silici.-m Quercitron
Sumac. Bark.
I og wood extract, 30° B., prima
superior.
Logwood extract, 30 B., prima.
Logwood extract, 30 B„ No, i .
Logwoo l extract, 30 B., No. 2 .
Logwood extract, 30 K., No. ■"■ -
Fustic extract, dry, Cuba, prima
iupei ior.
Fustic extract, dry, Cuba, No. 2.. .
Fustic oxtract, dry, Cuba, No. "■
I'n -in' i \ i ract, 80 B., prima
superior.
Fustic extract, 30° B., No. 2
Fustic extiact,30 B„ No.3
8,800
mil
..
150
8,800
720
260
L' HI
8,800
720
375
240
8,800
080
300
210
8,800
1,340
750
240
8,800
ISO
8,800
1 0
8,800
ISO
B.800
ISil
8,800
lsil
8,800
180
Turmeric
Powder.
200
Glucose,
Powdered
Gypsum.
Total
Yield of
Extract.
900
450
675
..
3,150
3,630
3,700
P.280
5,000
40
1,515
60
1,590
SO
1,760
2,250
2,300
2,530
Percentage
of Foreign
Bodies.
■j'.i;
m
4S
66
28
35
43
26
35
41
— W. B. IC.
Studies on the Colour-Derivatives of Triphenylmethane.
E. Noelting and Polonowsky. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse,
1892, 28—40.
The following jp-amido compounds :
XH.,
NH,
NH„
I
\/
CH3
1.
(11.
CH,
CH:i
CH:1
CH,
CH3
CH,
\/
XH3
\y
CH,
4.
CH,
CH,
CH,
XH.,
'II,
5.
in addition to the p- and m-amido compounds previously
mentioned (this Journal, 1890,53,279 ; 1891, 456;, condense
with tetramethyldiamidobenzhydrol (tetramethyldiamidodi-
phenylcarbinol). When the condensation is effected by
means of sulphuric acid, leuco-compounds are obtained
which melt at (1) 158°, (2) 142°, (3) 132°, and (4) 157%
and oxidise respectively into green, blue-green, green-blue,
and blue-green dyes. Prehnidine (5) does not condense
well. The authors have been unable to decide which of the
two formulae —
(CH3)2N.C6H4]2 : CH.C6H2(CH3;.,NH..
[CH : CH3 : CH3:NH2 = 1 : 2 : 6 : 5 and 1 : 2 : 4 : 5]
represents the constitution of the compound obtained from
a-7«-xylidine, but consider the second more probable, as
symmetrical sulpho- and nitro-derivatives are obtained from
that base. With mesidine, pseudoeumidine, isoduridine, and
pfehnidine one formula in each case is alone possible.
When the condensation is effected by concentrated
hydrochloric acid, the leuco-base from m-xylidine melts at
145°; that from pseudoeumidine at 163 ■ 4°. Both oxidise
badly, in consequence probably of the combination taking
place in the o-position to their amido-groups. The above-
mentioned derivative of prehnidine also oxidises unsatis-
factorily for the same reason. Mesidine and isoduridine
yield with hydrochloric acid the same leuco-compounds as
with sulphuric acid, but less readily.
The dibenzyl-compound obtained by treatment of hexa-
methyltriamidotriphenylmethane with benzyl chloride yields
on oxidation a blue-green dye of sparing solubility. A
more soluble dye, suitable for wool and silk, is obtain, ,1 by
sulphonating the kuco-base before oxidising. As the ethyl-
derivative of the compound —
[(CH3)2X .C6H4], : CH.C,iH4.XH; (CH : XH. = 1:3)
yields on oxidation a green dye of yellower shade than the
preceding, it would seem that the methyl-group in the
o-position to the methane-carbon atom exercises a sensible
influence on the shade of the resultant dye.
An isomeric dibenzyl - compound obtained by con-
densation of dibenzyl-/)- toluidine and tetramethyldiamido-
benzhydrol with sulphuric acid, oxidises to a dye of a pure
green shade. In this ease the methane-carbon atom is
probably directly combined with the benzyl-group and not
with the benzene nucleus, since benzylamine similarly yields
the leuco-lase of a green dye when condensed with
tetramethyldiamidobenzhydrol. — E. B.
Sealed Notes deposited with the Industrial Society of
Mulhouse by E. Noelting: opened October 28, 1891.
Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1892, 40—46.
Notes deposited April 2, 1887.
Note No. 499, — Diazoamidobcnzoie acid — ■
, COOH
«,H4<
\N:X.HX.C6H,.C(>oH
when heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride, under-
goes a molecular interchange forming amido-azobenzene
carboxylic acid —
, COOH
c„h /
\N:X.CCH,X1L
The latter dyes yellow on cotton mordanted with alumina
and olive on chrome. It may be diazotised and combined
with aromatic amines, carboxylic acids, and phenols,
yielding derivatives which dye cotton mordanted with
metallic hydrates.
Note No. 500. — The hydrazine derivatives of carboxylic
acids condense with ketones and diketones forming dyes.
Thus dihydroxytartaric acid condenses with nt-phenylhy-
drazine-carboxylic acid forming a hydrazone which differs
from ordinary Tartrazine in its property of dyeing on
alumina and chrome mordants, o. and p-phenylhydrazine
carboxylic acids furnish similar condensation products.
The hydrazine carboxylic acids also condense with phenan-
thraquinone and benzil, but the orange compounds obtained
311
THE JOUaNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892.
are devoid of dyeing power. Balay, a student of Noelting's,
finds that hydrazine-sulphonic acids condense with pbenan-
thraquiuone, forming valuable orange dyes suitable for
wool.
Aote No. 502. — Nitrotoluic acid —
[COOH:CH3:NH2= 1 : 2:5] on fusion with soda, yields
a compound which dyes unmordanted cotton yellow. Re-
ducing agents convert this compound into diamidostilbenedi-
carboxylic aeid, which can be diazotised and combined with
phenols and amines, furnishing derivatives which dye un-
mordanted cotton. The author considers it probable that
all compounds which contain methyl- and nitro-groups in
the ^-position to each other, arc capable of undergoing
similar condensation and purposes further studying this
reaction. — E. B.
Changes in Chromium Pigments. Papier Zeitung, 1891,
17, 292.
See under VI., next page.
On the Manufacture of < 'hromium Pigments. CO. Weber.
Dingl.Polyt. J. 1891, 282, 138, 183, and 206.
See under XIII., pages 357 — 360.
PATENTS.
An Improved Process for Producing Azo-Colouring
Mullets. A. Fischesser, Lutterbach, Alsace, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 3270, February 23, 1891.
In place of a- or 3-naphthol used in producing insoluble
azo-eolouring matters on the fibre, it is proposed to employ
8-hydroxynaphthoic acid having a melting point of 216° C.
If dianisidine be diazotised and employed as the amine in
this process, a blue is obtained resembling indigo, which
resists soap and washing. The fibre is impregnated with
the solution of the diazo- or tetrazo-compound and passed
through an alkaline solution of the /3-hydroxynaphthoic
acid or vice versa. Passing the fibre through weak acid
after dyeing is advantageous in developing the colour. If
0-naphthylamine be employed it gives a Bordeaux, aniline
a yellowish-red, nitraniline a fiery red, and tolidine a deep
violet or reddish blue. — T. A. L.
I.
PS II i 4CII..IUI
,O.N(CH3)3lI2
PO ■' O.N(CH3)o.H3
\OH
II.
0N(CH i.dl,
OX(CH3).,H2 - CH3.0H =*
\OH
!'(),.( INCH ,11, + NH(CH3)3
PO^
Phenol and /3-naphthol react at 3003 C. with phosphane,
but only under increased pressure, diphenylamine and
9-dinaphthylamine being formed. The phospham is pre-
pared by adding a solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon
bisulphide to powdered sulphur, so as to moisten it, and
heating the residue, after evaporating off the solvent, to a
white heat with ammonium chloride. Boron nitride reacts
h>s readily than phosphane: cyanogen and cyanides only
} it I<1 traces of fatty or of aromatic amines. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Production and Separation of
Methylamines, Ethylamines, Phenylamines, and Naph-
thylamines. K. Vidal, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 3622,
February 27, 1891.
The above amines are produced by the action of the
ht droxy compounds or of the oxides of the hydrocarbon
radicles upon nitrides of the metalloids, such as nitride
of boron, cyanogen, and phosphane. An amine salt of an
acid of the non-metal and an amine result, the change,
in the case of phosphane, being represented by the
following equations : —
With phospham and methyl or ethyl alcohol the reaction
takes place at tin1 ordinary pressure in a closed vessel at
230° C.| 1 part of phospham to about I pans of the alcohol
biing employed. The resulting amine remains in solution
in the excess of alcohol and can be readily separated.
Improvements in lite Manufacture "/ a Sulpho-Acid "J
Alpha-Naphthol, and of Colouring Mailers therefrom.
Read Holliday and Suns, Limited, T. Holliday and
P. B. E. Seidler, Hiiddersfield. Eng. Pat. 5103, March
21, 1891.
If one part of a-uaphthol be heated with 2\ parts of
sulphuric acid of 66 B. at loo to 140 0. until a sample
on treatment with nitric acid gives little or no precipitate
of diuitronaphthol, a new a-naphthol sulphonic acid is
formed which can be precipitated from the melt by dilution
with water and saturating the solution with salt. After
filtration the salt of the new acid can be purified by recrys-
tallisation from water. Another method of separating it
from the mixture of a-naphthol sulphonic acids formed
simultaneously is to fractionally precipitate them as azo-
colours by the addition of diazoxylenc or other diazo-
compound. The new sulphonic acid forms the colour
known as acid yellow when treated with nitric acid, and if
a solution of the colour produced by combining diazotised
uaphthionic acid and an alkaline solution of the new
naphthol sulphonic acid be spotted on paper the colour is
unaffected by a 10 per cent, solution of sulphuric acid.
The new acid is said to differ in these reactions from
sulphonic acids of a-naphthol previously known, and is to
be used for combination with diazo- and tetrazo-compounds
for producing azo-colouring matters. — T. A. L.
] Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Ortho-
o.rydiphenyl-carhon-acid. B. Willeox, Loudon. From
F. von Heyden, Xaehfolger, Radebeul, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 5122, ".March 21, 1891.
OrtTHo-HVOROXY-iuriiENYi., when dissolved in caustic soda,
and the dry salt heated with carbon dioxide under pressure
to 100° — 220^ C., is converted into the corresponding
carboxylic acid. The product of the reaction is dissolved in
water and decomposed with hydrochloric acid when the free
aeid is precipitated, which melts at 180° C. It can be used
as an antiseptic and for the manufacture of colouring
matters and of dyestuffs. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Production of Black Colouring
Matters. O. Imray, London. From the " Farbwerke
vormals Meister, Lucius, und Bruning," Hoechst-on-the-
Maine, Germany, ring. Pat. 5904, April 6, 1891.
By fusing the naphthol trisulphonic acid or the naphtho-
sultone disulphonic acid described in Germau Patent 56,058
with caustic alkalis, a dihvdroxynaphthalene disulphonic
acid is formed, which will combine with two molecules
either of the same or of different diazo-eompounds. For
example, one molecule of dihydroxynaphthalene disul-
pbonate of soda is dissolved in water with four molecules
of caustic soda to a 15 — 20 per cent, solution, and combined
with a solution containing two molecules of diazobenzeue
chloride. After standing 12 hours the colouring matter is
salted out. The most valuable colouring matters are those
obtained by combination with diazo-compounds, one of
which is sulphonated and the other not. Much deepei
black shades can be produced by dyeing in an acid bath in
the presence of chromates ; the shade- range from a blue to
a greenish-black. — T. A. L.
April 3 1, i8M.j 'ME JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
34.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Azo-
Colouring Matters. B. Willcox, London. From the
" Farbeufabriken vormals F. Bayer and Co.," Elberfeld,
Germany. Ens- l'at. 5984, April 7, 1891.
Tins is an extension of the following: Erjg. Pat 13,605
of 1889 (this Journal, 1890, 854, cf. Ger. Pat. -10,571),
Eng. Pat. 3397 of !890, Fng. Pat. 13,443 of 1890 (this
Journal, 1891, 760), and Eng. Pat. IS, 517 of 1889 (this
Journal, 1890, 1032). All these patents refer to hydroxy-
naphthalene or naphthylamioe sulphonic aeids which have
now been recognised as containing two hydroxyl groups,
or a hydroxy] and an amido group in the 1:1' position.
Several azo-colouring matters have already been described
in the above specifications, and in addition, the following
amines can be employed after diazotisation for combination
with the sulphonic acids of 1:1' dihydroxynaphthalcne and
of 1 : 1' amidonaphthol.
1. Atnido-phenols, amido cresols, and their substitution
products which contain the amido and hydroxyl groups
in other than an ortho-position.
-. The aniiduphenol ethers, amidocresol ethers, amido-
naphthol ethers, and their sulphonic acids, with the
exception of those already described in Eng. Pat. 18,517
of 1889.
3. Xiti. online, amidoazobenzene, their homologues, and
sulphonic acids.
1. Amidonaphthols, amidodihydroxynaphthalene ethers
and their sulphonic acids.
5. Amidobenzoic acids and certain of their derivatives.
6. Phenylene, toluylene, and naphthylene diamines (sub-
stituted in one of the amido groups by alkyl, phenyl, or
benzyl) and their sulphonic acids.
7. The amidoazo compounds formed by combining with
a-naphthylamine or o-amidonaphthol ether the diazo-
derivatives of t lie amines already mentioned under 2, 4, 5,
and 6, and in addition the a- and /3-naphthylamiue tri-
sulphonie acids. The colouring matters are dyestuffs for
wool, giving mostly violet to blue shades. — T. A. L.
Production of Amidonaphtkolsulpho Acids and of Dye-
stuffs therefrom. S. Pitt, Sutton. From L. Cassella
and Co., Frankfort on-thc-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat.
6972, April 22, 1891.
Ax extension of Eng. l'at. 16,699 of 1889 (this Journal,
1890, 935), Eng. Pat. 19,330 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891,
917), and Eng. Pat. 1742 of 1891 (this Journal, 1891, 918),
which refer to the manufacture of azo dyestuffs derived
from amidonaphthol sulphonic acids. Some new amido-
naphthol sulphonic acids are described and also other
processes for producing acids already known.
1. The acid H described in Eng."Pat. 1742 of 1891 can
be obtained as follows : the naphthylamine trisulphouic
acid obtained by nitration and reduction of the naphthalene
trisulphouic acid of Eng. Pat. 15,716 of 1885 (this Journal,
1886, 662), when heated with caustic alkalis to 170° — 190°
yields after acidification an amidonaphthol disulphonic acid
identical with acid H.
2. A new naphthalene trisulphouic acid is produced by
sulphonating naphthalene )3 -disulphonic acid. This forms
a mono-nitro derivative, which, on reduction yields a new
naphthylamine trisulphouic acid of which the neutral sodium
salt is easily soluble in water with a green fluorescence. If
the acid be treated with caustic soda in an autoclave it is
converted into a new amidonaphtholdisulphonie acid, of
which the orange diazo-compound is turned blue by alkalis
and can be precipitated by salt.
3. The naphthalene /3-sulphonic acid gives a dinitro-
derivative and on reduction forms diamidonaphthalene
sulphonic acid, which is nearly insoluble in cold water.
Heated with dilute mineral acids to 120' C. under pressure,
it also is converted into a new amidonaphthol sulphonic
acicl nearly insoluble in cold water.
4. By sulphonating jS-naphthylamine, the 7-disulphonic
acid is not the only product formed. If, therefore, the
crude melt be fused with caustic alkalis instead of the pure
jB-naphthylamine-7-disnlphonic acid, the 7-amido-/3-naphthol
sulphonic acid formed is somewhat altered as well as the
colouring matters therefrom. The colouring matter from
tetrazodiphenyl (diamine black 1 becomes more violet.
5. By heating /8-naphthylamine trisulphouic acid (corre-
sponding to the known /3-naphlhol trisulphonic acid) with
caustic alkalis according to Eng. Pat. 15,175 of 1889 (this
Journal, 1890, 85 1), a 0-amidonaphthol disulphonic acid
is produced which can be used for the purposes of this
I invention. These amidonaphthol sulphonic acids are em-
( ployed for the production of colouring matters as already
mentioned in the previous patents The specification also
I describes the preparation of new dyestuffs from colouring
matters of which the aciil H is one of the components. For
instance, the colouring matter obtained from tetrazodiphenyl
anil amidonaphthol disulphonic acid H, which is a blue, can
be diazotised and when combined with resorcinol gives a
green which dyes unmordanted cotton. If a-naphthylamine
be substituted for the resorcinol, a bluish black dyestuff
results.— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of Dyes
belonging to the Rhodamine Series, and of New Materials
for Use in their Preparation. J. V. Johnson, London.
From the " Uadische Anilin und Soda Fabrik," Ludwigs-
hafen-on-the-lihine, Germany. Fug. Pat. 7258, April
27, 1891.
The dyestuffs of the rhodamine series (Eng. Pat. 15,374
of 1887 ; this Journal, 1888, 745) cannot be converted iuto
sulphonic acids by direct sulphonation. Certain benzylated
m-amidophenol derivatives can be condensed with phthalic
anhydride to yield new basic rhodamine dyestuffs, which on
sulphonation yield sulphonic acids capable of employment
as ordinary acid dyestuffs. Mono-methyl- or ethyl-m-sul-
phanilic acid is converted by the action of henzylchloride
and caustic soda in an aqueous solution into methyl- or
ethyl-benzyl-m-sulphanilic acid. This on fusion with caustic
soda yields methyl- or ethyl m-amido-phenol, which when
heated with phthalic anhydride gives dimethyl- or diethyl-
dibcnzyl-rhodamine. The sulphonation is performed with
fuming sulphuric acid, containing about 30 per cent, of sul-
phuric anhydride, and the sulphonic acid obtained dissolves
to a fluorescent solution in hot or cold water, dyeing wool
atal silk from an acid bath in red shades fast to light and
alkalis.— T. A. L.
VI.-DYEING, CALICO PEINTING, PAPER-
STAINING-, AND BLEACHING.
1 'hanges in Chromium Pigments. Papier Zeitunn-. 1891,
17, 292.
The pigments used at present in paper staining are generally
aniline-lakes obtained by precipitating the solutions of the
various aniliue dyes with solutions of sulphate of alumina
and sodium carbonate.
The chrome yellows are obtained by precipitating a
solution of lead acetate with a solution of bichromate of
potash, lied and orange chromes can be produced by
treating chrome yellow with caustic soda or potash.
Blanc fixe, which is used in the manufacture of
"enamelled" papers, is the product of the precipitation of
a solution of barium chloride with dilute sulphuric acid.
Generally speaking, the aniline lakes are very fugitive,
more particularly so in direct sunlight. In paper staining
they are mixed with hlanc Jl.re, and those lakes produced
from acid coal-tar colours give in these mixtures better
results than the lakes from basic dyes. The glue which
also forms part of these mixtures ought to be perfectly
neutral.
The chrome yellows, which were always considered
perfectly fast to light, according to the author, are quite
unworthy of this reputation, ami as a matter of fact are
even more fugitive than the aniline lakes. Chrome
E 2
[6
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30. 1892
pigments precipitated upon the vegetable fibre are fairly
fast, lnit their mixtures with aniline pigments and blanc
fixe do not stand well at all.
The changes of the chromium pigments are due to the
following causes : —
1. Insufficient agitation of the mixed pigments, causing
the heavy chrome yellows to settle on the bottom of the
vessel. 2. Mixture of yellow and basic orange chromes.
3. Too high a working temperature.
The decomposition of the glue with which the pigments
are mixed may cause evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen
which will very seriously affect the shade of the chrome
yellow mixture.
Aniline pigments in similar mixtures are uot liable to
such changes. — C. O. W.
The Composition oj Turkey-red Oil.
Soc. Uhim. 1891,6, 638
See under XII., pages 355 — 357.
P. Juillard.
656.
Bull.
PATENTS.
Improvements m Means for Use in Electrolysis. .T.Marx,
I'lankl'mt-on-Maine, Germany. Eng. Tat. 6266, April
24, 1890. (Second Edition.)
See under XI., page 353.
Improvements in and Apparatus for Electrolysing and
Bleaching. .T. Marx. Bad-Vauheim, Germany. Eng.
Pal 3738, March 2, 1891.
See under XI., page 353.
Improvements in I In' Formation of Ozone in Presence of
Air or Oxygen, and Apparatus therefor. A. Schneller
an. I W. :). Wisse, The Hague. Holland. Eng. Tat. 5222,
March 24, 1891.
See under XI., page 35 I.
A JS'eie or Improi id ( 'omposition of Ink for Reproduction
of Copies by Ike Manifold Process and the like.
\V. Sherwood, Loughborough. Eng. Pat. 5437, March
26, 1891.
The invention consists in making an ink composed of an
appropriate aniline dye dissolved, together with borax, in
water and boiled linseed oil. In a typical ease which is
quoted, Hi parts "aniline dye powder nigrosine No. 15 "
are mixed with four parts of powdered borax, lit parts
of boiling water added, the whole allowed to digest for
8 or 12 hours, and Id parts of boiled linseed oil added.
The details of the process may be varied. — B. B.
A Process and Apparatus for Increasing the Bleaching
Properties of Chlorine Gas. C, Kellner, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 22,438, December 23, 1891.
See under XI., paije 354.
Improvements in Inks for Printing, Stamping, and the
Like. <'. M. Higgins, New STork, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 93,
January 2, 1892.
See under XIII., page 362.
VII.-ACIDS. ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
/'he Solubility of Sodium Carbonate, and of Sodium
Hi* ai Inmate in Solutions o/ Sodium Chloride. K. Reich.
Monatsh. 1891, 12, 164—473.
The method adopted by the author for the determination of
the solubility of sodium carbonate in sodium chloride con-
sisted in treating an excess of the deca-hydrated carbonate
with solutions of sodium chloride of varying strengths at
15°C. in suitable flasks, the mixing being effected partly
by shaking and partly in a rotating machine worked by a
water motor. After the mixing by hand the contents of the
flasks wire allowed to stand overnight, and the final mixing
in the rotating machine given the following morning for
1 — 2 hours. Variations in the time of mixing between these
limits were found to give concordant results. The solutions
were then filtered and the filtrates titrated with decinormal
silver nitrate and with seminormal hydrochloric acid to
determine the sodium chloride and the sodium carbonate
respectively.
In the following table x and y are the number of parts of
sodium chloride and of sodium carbonate respectively dis-
solved by lOd parts of water : —
X.
"■
V-
(NaCI)
(Na 1 u,i„n.iii
Observed.
(Na 1 n;.i0H2O)
Calculated.
Difference.
O'OO
61-42
61-41
+o-oi
1-03
53-86
53-88
-0-02
8-02
Is-llll
W05
-0-05
12'02
i::-;s
43-77
+ 0-01
16'05
40-96
W91
+ 0-0.7
19-S2
39-46
39- 15
+ 0-01
2.1 "70
39-06
39-06
o-oo
27-93
39-73
39-81
-o-os
31 '66
41-44
4T37
+ 11-117
35U6
48-77
t3"78
-o-oi
r 37-19
46-22
45" 10
+ 0-12
C 37-27
15-32
l.vn;
+ 0-111
In the two last experiments a mixture of sodium chloride
and sodium carbonate was treated with a quantity of water
insufficient to dissolve either constituent, in which case it is
seen that the solubility of both salts increases somewhat as
compared with the calculated result. This calculated value
is obtained from the first 10 of the above observations by
the method of least squares for a parabolic curve of the
third order, corresponding to the equation —
y = 61-406 - 2-091077.1' + 0-055493x": - 0-000297357. r;
The results show that the solubility of sodium carbonate in
sodium chloride solutions decreases with an increase in the
quantity of sodium chloride present at first, and then
increases and therefore there must be a certain strength of
sodium chloride solution in which the solubility of sodium
carbonate is a minimum. This minimum value calculated
from the above equation is with -r(XaCI) = 23*15.
ij (Xa;( 'o:, . 1 0 H30) = 39 • 05.
Prom the above equation the solubility of anhydrous
sodium carbonate in sodium chloride can be calculated, the
resulting equation being —
t/! = 16-4082 - 0-70749.r, + 0 • 01 66143V + 0- 000 1025 S.r,3
in which x1 and y, represent the proportions of sodium
chloride and of sodium carbonate respectively contained in
April 30. 18D2.1 THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
117
l mi parts of the solution. From tliis the following numerical
values result :—
(NaCl)
(Nam,)
Observed.
(Na>C0
Calculated.
Difference.
FerCeut,
ft-00
iti-42
18-408
H 0-012
i-'.ii
n-t:
H-47i>
-0-006
6 so
12-87
1-2-833
-0-013
8'fll
11-62
iroi i
+ 0-006
11-31
10-70
10-880
. ii 020
13-71
1IVU
10'096
+0'014
15-98
9-76
9-764
-0-O04
18-28
9-62
9 -653
-0-033
20-06
0-73
9-730
o-ooo
2 \-::,
B-95
9-986
+ 0-015
22 I:.
19-12
10-000
+ 0-01)0
10- 13
I0'064
1-0-066
The minimum solubility in this case corresponds to — ■
.r, I NaCl I - 18*22
»i(NasCOs) = 9-6S
The following table gives the solubility of the anhydrous
carbonate in sodium chloride solutions of various percentage
strengths : —
NaCl
Na*< a 1 .
Nad
NajCO,
Per Cent.
0
16-408
Per Cent.
12
10-488
1
15-717
13
10-244
2
15-060
11
10-041
3
14-438
15
9-880
4
13 S51
In
9 762
5
13-2011
17
9-686
i;
12-783
18
9-055
7
12-303
19
9-667
s
11-864
■20
9-725
9
11-461
21
9-828
10
11-097
22
8-977
11
10-773
The determination of the solubility of sodium bicarbonate
in sodium chloride solutions was determined by passing
carbon dioxide into saturated solutions of sodium carbonate
in sodium chloride at 15° C. Solutions of sodium chloride
of various strengths were employed in which so much
sodium carbonate wits dissolved that a small quantity of
bicarbonate was precipitated after passing in the carbon
dioxide, the latter being passed until the solution ceased to
colour turmeric paper. The resulting solution was then
rotated as described, at 15° C, and the sodium chloride and
sodium bicarbonate determined volumetrically after filtra-
tion. No allow auce was made for the slight increase of
pressure due to the liberation of carbon dioxide in the
shaking; u-2 parts of carbonic acid were allowed for as
being taken up by every 100 parts of solution. The results
thus obtained go to show that the quautity of bicarbonate
precipitated from solutions of sodium carbonate in sodium
chloride by carbon dioxide at 15"" increases with an increase
in the strength of the original sodium chloride solution.
The following numerical values have been calculated from
the results obtained: —
PerCent. X.-i ,('<>, in NaHC03lefl ! PerCent.of
NaCl in 100 parts | in Solution Precipitated N:ii<>
tlie original ot'tliis after 'passing NaHCOa precipitated
Solution. Solution, in COj i as NaHCOa
111- 642
10-884
2 -oils
11- 252
82-62
15-804
9-782
1-869
13-834
S7-95
15-932
9-768
1-S47
13-685
88-07
21-618
9-915
1-081
1 f653
03-25
23-71
10-31
0-886
15-504
9-1-6
The last result is obtained from the curve for the solubility
of anhydrous sodium carbonate in sodium chloride solutions.
— C. A. K.
On the Decomposition of Sodium Nitrate by Sulphuric
Acid. C. W. Yolnev.' J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1891, 13
2-16-251.
When distilling nitric acid from the usual mixture of
sodium nitrate and sulphuric acid it is frequently observed
that at certain periods a \ ioleut reaction sets in, and that the
contents of the retort are carried over into the receivers.
The general supposition is that overheating is the cause of
this. Tile author here distils a mixture of 2,500 grms. of
sodium nitrate and 2,600 grms. of commercial sulphuric
acid (sp.gr. 1 837 at 67° F.) in a glass retort having a
capacity of about two gallons, and heated in a bath of
paraffin ; temperature of the bath and the temperature of
the evolved products were noted. The results obtained
show that the products of distillation pass over in three
distinct fractions, and that the frothing commences with the
beginning of each part of the reaction preceding distillation
of the various strengths of nitric acid, although the
temperature of the bath did not greatly exceed the tem-
perature of the distilling products. The first fraction
passing over showed the temperature 773 — 90 C. and
weighed 960 grms.; its specific gravity was 1*5193 at
60° F., and in colour it was almost white ; the second frac-
tion showed the temperature 94" — 109°, weighed 565 grms.,
had a sp. gr. 1 -505, and was very faintly yellow ; the third
fraction showed the temperature 117 — 122°, weighed
316 grms., had a specific gravity of 1 -42, and was of a light
yellow colour. The author considers the reactions best
explained by the existence of several hydrates of nitric
acid ; the sodium nitrate is not completely decomposed by
sulphuric acid at a low temperature, and the decomposition
takes place in stages, frothing occurring us each stage is
suddenly reached. — T. L. B.
The Nitrate Fields of Chili. C. M. Aikman. Black-
wood's Mag. March 1892, 1—9.
The chief deposits at present being worked are those lying
in the Pampa of Tamarugal, in the province of Tarapaca.
They stretch at a distance of thirty or forty miles inland,
from Pisagua southwards to somewhat beyond the town of
Iquique. This huge desert, as has been already indicated,
seems to be entirely destitute of all vegetation and animal
life. Even in the immediately adjoining country the only
kind of vegetation that seems to grow is aspjeies of acacia.
The few streams that are found in this neighbourhood are
entirely fed by tbe melting snow from the Cordilleras.
Darwin describes the appearance presented by these pampas
as resembling *' a country after snow, before the last dirty
patches are thawed."
Scattered over the pampas, at various distances from one
another, are situated the ojicinas, or nitrate manufactories,
where the raw material is refined. Seen from a distance,
their most conspicuous features are their tall black chimneys.
According to Dr. Russell, they present a general resemblance
348
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LAjiril SO, 1892.
to pas works, with the adjuncts of a coal-mine. Nearer
approach shows them to consist of aelusterof buildings,
with open boiling-pans, liquor-vats, and machinery of
different kinds. Then: is something vciy striking in the
presence of these oficinas, so indicative of life and enter-
prise in the midst of sandy deserts, and dependent for
everything on external supplies brought from a great
distance. Of these manufactories there are a considerable
number in different parts of the pampas. Many of them
are old, and not in work. Most of those in active work at
present are the property of foreigners ; and two-thirds of
the nitrate exported from Chili is said to come from oficinas
owned by English companies, Beside the oficina are the
houses of the manager and his staff, and the huts of the
native workmen. Every oficina possesses a public store, or
pulperia, where the employes obtain their provisions.
The whole group of buildings constitutes what is called a |
maquina. The extent of the property of each manufactory
naturally varies, but some of the largest estates extend over
12 square miles.
The caliche, or raw uitrate of soda, is not equally dis-
tributed over the pampas. The most abundant deposits are
situated on the slopes of the hills which probably formed
the shores of the old lagoons. An expert can tell, from the
external appearance of the ground, where the richest
deposits are likely to be found. The caliche itself is not
found on the surface of the plain, but is covered up by two
layers. The uppermost, known technically as chuca, is of
a friable nature, and consists of sand and gypsum; while
the lower — the rostra — is a rocky conglomerate of clay,
gravel, and fragments of felspar. The caliche varies in
thickness from a few inches to LO or 12 feet, and rests
on a soft Stratum of earth called cova. The mode in
which the caliche is excavated is as follows : A hole is
bored through the chuca, rostra, and caliche layers till the
coca or soft earth is reached below. It is then enlarged
until it is wide enough to admit of a small boy being let
down, who scrapes away the earth below the caliche so as
to form a little hollow cup. Into this a charge of gun-
powder is introduced, and subsequently exploded. The
caliche is then separated by means of picks from the over-
lying rostra, and carried to the refinery. Both in appear-
ance and composition it varies very much. In colour it
may be snow-white, sulphur, lemon, orange, violet, blue,
and sometimes brown, like raw sugar. The caliche found
in the Pampa de Tamarugal contains generally about 30 to
.50 per cent, pure citrate of soda; that in the province of
Atacama contains from 25 to -10 percent. The subsequent
refining processes, which consist in crushing it by means of
rollers, and then dissolving it, need not here be described.
It may be sufficient to mention that the process used is
that known as sj stematic lixiviation, and is analogous to
the method introduced by Shanks in the manufacture of
soda. The chief impurity in the raw material is common
salt : gypsum, sulphates of potassium, sodium, and mag-
nesium, along with insoluble matters, are the other im-
purities. The manufacture of iodine, which, as has been
already noticed, is found in the nitrate beds, is also carried
on at these oficinas.
Formerly the refined article had to he carried to the coast
on mules ; now, however, there i- railway communication,
which maintains a constant and ever-increasing traffic with
Iquique, Pisagua, and the other nitrate ports, t If these,
Iquique is by far the most important. In respect of its
situation and surroundings, this little town is one of the
most striking in the world. The following is Darwin's
description of it when the " Beagle " visiti d it in 1835 : —
"The town eontaius about 1,000 inhabitants, and stands
in a little plain of sand at the foot of a great wall of rock
2,000 feet high, here forming coast. The whole is utterly a
desert. -V light shower of rain falls only once in very
many years ; the ravines are consequently covered with
detritus, and the mountain sides covered with piles of white
sand, even to a height of 1,000 feet. During July a heavy-
bank of cloud stretches over th ;ean ; it seldom rises
above these walls of locks on the coast. The aspect of the
coast is most gloomy. The little port, with its. few houses,
seemed overwhelmed and out of all proportion with the rest
of the scene. The inhabitants live like persona on board
of ship. Every necessary is brought from a distance ;
water is brought in boats from Pisagua, about 40 miles by
water, and is sold at the late of 4s. 6d. an 18-gallon cask.
Very lew animals ran lie maintained in such a place. I
hired with difficulty, at the high price of 4/., two mules
and a guide to take me to the nitrate of soda works."
Since 1835, however, the appearance of the town has
changed'very much for the better. The enormous develop-
ment of the nitrate trade has effected a corresponding
development in Iquique. Its population is now between
16,000 and 20,000, very largely consisting of foreigners;
and tin- town can boast of a fairly imposing appearance.
Much of its food supplies has still to be brought from a
distance, hut the town now possesses a water supply of its
own. The example of a town of this size so dependent on
external sources is indeed unique.
The question of the extent of the nitrate of soda deposits
is naturally one of very great interest, especially from the
agricultural point of view.
Legrange, a French writer, estimated a few years ago
that they still contained about 100,000,000 tons of pure
nitrate of sola. < (pinions on this point differ very con-
siderably, and it seems wellnigh impossible to arrive at
any very accurate estimate. The number of years they
will last will depend, of course, on the amount of annual
exportation. This, at presentj falls little short of 1,000,000
tons. If this amount is maintained they should last,aceoid-
ing to experts, some twenty or thirty years at least.
Hitherto the Government of Chili has been content to
allow foreign enterprise to open up the nitrate fields, im-
posing a heavy tax on all nitrate manufactured. The
enormous source of revenue which nitrate of soda is to
the Chilian Government may he interred from the fact that
one oficina alone pays about 7 jo/, per diem, or in round
numbers 25O,OO0Z. pet annum, of export duty on the uitrate
there manufactured.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Preparation of Chlorine. G. E. Davis
and A. 11 l>a\is, Manchester. Eog. Pat. 6416, April 28,
1890. (Reprint.)
The claims embodied in the original patent (this Journal,
1891, 463) are abandoned, with the exception of the second
claim for " the utilisation of the water charged with im-
purities from the wash tower D fot preserving the normal
strength of the nitric acid employed in the operation . . . ."
— H. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Chlorine. G. E
Davis and A. B. Davis, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 6698,
May 1, 1890. (Reprint.)
The claims of the original patent (this Journal, 546, 1891)
are restricted to " the process of manufacturing chloro-
nitrous gas by acting upon an aqueous solution of
hydrochloric acid with nitrosulphuric acid in the presence
of ail in a tower packed with suitable material "
—II. A.
Treating Ores ami Residues containing Zinc In/ means of
Bisulphate of Soda for the Production of Commercial
Products. A. M. Clark, London. From F. E. Costes,
'• La Sociele anonynie de Produits ( 'himiques Etablisse-
ments Maletta," Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 1374,
January 24, 1891.
See under X., page 352.
April so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
n to
Improvements in the Treatment of Composite Ores con-
taining Zinc. P. Hart, Manchester. Eng. Tat. iOOO,
February l, 189 1 .
See under X., page 352.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Condensation of
Nitric Arid. K. Edwards, London. From O. Guttniuun
and L. Bohrmann, Krauschwitz, Germany. Ku«- Pat
in, (129, June 22, 1891.
The inventors find it important in the condensation of
nitric acid " that the nitric acid as formed should be brought
out of contact with the impurities contained in the gases
as quickly as possible." This is effected by a doable con-
nexion of the still with the receivers. A series of top-
connexiona, consisting of uptight pipes and bends, enables
the gases to pass from receiver to receiver, whilst an
inclined main connected with the bottom of each receiver
makes possible the drawing off of the condensed acid as
it is formed. To prevent the gases from the still nr the
receivers from entering Ibis main, the latter is divided into
chambers by means of partitions or diaphragms between
each receiver inlet, which (handlers communicate through
elbows luted with acid (this Journal, 1890, 863). — H. A.
X.-METALLURGY.
The Melting Points of the Gold Aluminium Series of
Alloys. VV. C. Roberts-Austen. Hoy. Soc. l'roc. 1892
50, 367— 3C8.
By means of the Le Chatelier thermo-couple the author has
found that, although a white alloy of gold and aluminium
containing 10 per cent, of the latter has a melting point
417° C. below that of gold, yet the purple alloy AuAI2 has
a melting point 32 -5° C. higher than gold. 'Alloys "con-
taining more aluminium have melting points which fall
continuously to G60: C. The author points out that the
purple alloy is the only known case of an alloy, free from
mercury, having a higher melting point than that of the
least fusible of its constituents, and that this after Is strong
evidence of its being
aluminium. — -J. C. C.
a true compound of gold and
Buli
The Molecular Changes of Iron. H. Moreillon.
Soc. Ind. de Mulhouse, 1891, 629—656.
The author has examined the effect of various thermal and
mechanical conditions upon a specimen of wrought iron
having a tensile strength of 38 kilos, per sq. mm.*" and an
elongation on 200 mm. of 26 per cent.
(1.) Effect of Temperature. — The effect of heating iron
having a fibrous structure is to give rise to a crystalline
granular condition, the result being more noticeable the
higher the temperature and the more its influence is pro-
longed. Quenching in water does not modify the granular
state produced by the heating. By auuealing at a tern
perature below that to which the iron has been subjected in
order to change its fibrous structure to a crystalline one its
original condition is to a great extent restored.
*.-•) Effects nf Mechanical Work. — The general effect
of working in the cold is to lead to the production of a
granular structure and to cause a partial separation along
the lines of welding. In extreme cases the extension
diminishes to a mere fraction of its normal amount, and
although the tensile strength is considerably raised, the
material becomes brittle and unreliable.
(•'•) Effecl "f Annealing. — l!y annealing at suitable
temperatures the fibrous character can be restored to iron
which has assumed a crystalline condition from oue or other
of the causes mentioned above.
The molecular alteration indicated by the appearance of
the fracture has a considerable influence on the mechanical
properties of the iron. The alteration from the fibrous to
the crystalline state is generally accompanied by a diminu-
tion in tensile strength, while the elastic limit is but slightly
altered and the elongation is decreased. Although a red
heat appears to be necessary to bring about the changes
recorded above, yet considerable alterations in the me-
chanical properties of iron and steel take place at lower
temperatures, as has been shown by A. le Chatelier (Genie
Civil, 147, 107 ; cf. this Journal, 1889, 710). In all cases
in his experiments the tensile strength decreased from a
temperature of 15° C. up to 8o° C. above which it rose again
and attained a maximum at 250° — 3u0" C. These results
are shown more clearly iu the diagram below.
* (To convert kilos, per sq. mm. into tons ner sq. in. multiply
I'.v 0-636*.) ' ■
Degrees
25 50 75 100 25 50 75 200 25 50 75 300 25 50 75 400 25 50 75 520 25 50
350
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 30, 1892,
\ difference is observed according to the speed with
which the test is made, the (lotted lines uniformly following
a different course from the continuous Hues which represent
the figures obtained by the slower test*. The elastic limit
appears to decrease in proportion as the temperature is
increased. The diminution is very slight at first, hut
beyond 300 C. it becomes extremely rapid and difficult to
measure. The effect upon the elongation is shown by
the diagram below.
,w°
'
1
^
-
^
\'-'
5
1
a.
n r
Vfi>
Swedis
h iron
5>\\
\l-
1^
'■ 1
. v
01
\
11 '
Dap
50 "
00 25 50 75 200 25 50 ~>5 300 25 50 75 59 75 500 25 So
(t is noticeable that if a test piece be heated to a mod. rat.'
temperature, cij., 100° <"'.. and then slightly stretched, it
will he found to give a higher tensile strength when tested
afterwards at the ordinary temperature than one which has
not been thus treated. The elastic limit is also raised and
the elongation decreased. The following table shows some
figures obtained in this way : —
Swedish Iron.
Tested 'it 15° C.
Tested at is i after being
Stretched S per Cent, at I
Tensile strength, 30'9 kilos.
per so. mm.
EloiiKation, 11 per cent
::s'u kilns, per sq, mm.
15 per oent. im ludiii* the ori-
ginal 3 per cent.
Vebi Mild Stekl (Saint Chamond).
Tested at 15° C.
Tested mi 15 C. after being
Stretched 3'5 per Cent, at -:i» t '.
Tensile strength, 86-18 kilos 10-45 kilos, per sq. mm
per sq. mm.
Elongation, 25 per cent 12-6 per cent., including the
„, .. ,. .. „. „ , ., original 3-5 per cent.
Elastic hunt, 24'ii kilos, per 39-5 kilos, per sq. mm
sq. mm.
The practical deductions from these facts as to the pro-
bable changes that may occur in iron worked at a slightly
elevated temperature are sufficiently obvious, especially
when it is considered that these temperatures are those
frequently attained by boiler plates. The phenomenon in
question is not confined to the temperature mentioned, us ;,t
the ordinary temperature repeated strains on a test pjeCe
are known to raise the elastic limit bj successive increments
without affecting the ultimate tensile strength. Thus in a
series of tests made by II. Deschamps (Revue Universelle
des Mines el de la Metallurgie, November 1890) the
following results were obtained with a steel which when
tested in the ordinary way had an elastic limit of 30-3 and
a tensile strength of 55-7 kilos, per sq. mm.
—
Kilos, per Sq. mm.
Experiment (li ...
Experiment (2) . . .
(.Tensile strength
3f3
35-3
Experiment (3i . . .
10'3
Experiment (4) ...
45-3
Expi i iment (5) ...
(~A\\ elastic limit
19 '2
Experiment (6) ...
53-2
65'5
Metal which has suffered such a change as is here
indicated, having its elastic limit approximating to its
ultimate tensile strength, is obviously a very dangerous
material.
The foregoing results refer to iron which has been <nii-
jected to physical changes only, its ultimate chemical
composition having been left unaltered. Deep - seated
alterations of structure are also brought about hy variations
in composition. For example, a specimen of " burnt " iron
with a coarse crystalline structure and extremely cold-short
taken from the hearth of a welding furnace contained 0-764
per cent, of phosphorus with 0-139 percent, of silicon and
a trace of carbon, while the original iron before "burning"
had taken place contained at most 0'2 per cent, of phos-
phorus, the increment being due to contact with the slag
from the uuburnt portion. It has been contended that the
fibrous or granular structure of iron is primarily dependent
on the manner in which fracture has been effected. This is
to a certain extent true, but does not invalidate experiments
in which the method of fracture is kept identical in all cases
where comparisons have to be made.
With regard to the influence of the impurities usually
present in iron on the grain of the metal, carbon makes the
structure closer and finer, approximating eventually to that
of steel, while silicon within ordinary limits (say up to
April 3ii, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
351
0' 15 per cent.) has but little effect ; phosphorus renders the
erain coarse and more crystalline, and sulphur- has no very
marked influence. Manganese is not commonly present in
appreciable amount in ordinary puddled irons. — 11. 1!.
On the Possibility of Extracting the Precious Metals from
Sea-Water. C. A. Mituster. (Norsk Tekuiak
Tidsskrift, Kristiania, 10th Xo]., No. 1., February 29,
1892.)
The author recounts the experiments of Malaguti, Durocher
and Sarzeand, estimating the amount of silver present in
sea-water, and the later ones of Sonstadt, proving the
presence of gold. After pointing out several possible sources
of error in the various processes adopted he describes the
method used by himself. Sea-water was taken from
Kristiania Kjord, and'100 litres were evaporated to dryness,
giving 1,830 grins, of residue. This was ground, and
divided into portions of 800 gnus., each of which was mixed
with 100 grins, of litharge. 100 gnus, of pure KXat't),, and
four gnus, of carbon from starch, and the silver and gold
determined.
The result was, — 19 mgrins. silver and 0 mgrms. gold per
ton of average sea-water.
By cheek experiment this result was modified to a final
result, tin- effect of which was that one ton of average sea-
water contains 20 mgrms. of silver and "i mgrins. of gold
per ton, worth respectively 0*03 and 0- 19 of a penny.
Considering the extremely small amounts of precious
metals present, the author considers that no method of
precipitation in tanks can possibly be successful, instancing
the failure of II. Munktell, who tried precipitation with
protosulphate of iron and milk of lime, at Bommelo, on the
west coast of Norway. He thinks that the precipitation
must be effected in the sea itself, where the water is con-
tinuously renewed by a natural current, and points out that
the copper sheathing of vessels has long been known to
precipitate silver under these circumstances, estimating that
at least one grm. is precipitated per annum on each square
metre of surface exposed.
He proposes that a channel about Go metres wide between
two small islands, well sheltered from sea or wind, where
there is a current of about 4 metres per minute, should be
selected for the experiment, such rocky islets being common
off the Norwegian coast; across this channel, 60 plates of gal-
vanised iron each 2 metres x 3 metres, should be arranged at
an angle of 30° to the stream, and an electric current be sent
through the series to precipitate the precious metals. The
power required theoretically for this purpose he calculates
at only j H.P., and thinks that to produce a current of such
trivial potential difference iu practice would only require
a few horse-power, which could cheaply be obtained from
water-power, wind, or even by the thermo-electric principle
utilising the difference of temperature between the sea and
the air. The large anodes required could be cheaply-
prepared from wood, impregnated with graphite and tar,
and carbonised, high conductive power not being required
for such a feeble current. If all the precious metals passing
these plates were precipitated, he calculates that over
300,000/. would be obtained per annum, and as the working
expenses would be most trivial, if only -r^yth or even yji-fmth
of this amount were obtained, it would still pay well ; he
therefore thinks the experiment well worth a trial. — J. H.C.
PATENTS.
Improved Method or Process for Treating Metal-bearing
Bodies, and the Recovery of Metals therefrom. W. C.
Loe, London. Eng. Pat. 5937, April 18, 1890.
Free milling matrices are pulverised to float and calcined
with one-fortieth part of potassium hydrate and one-eightieth
part of sulphur to a dull red heat for 2 — 4 hours. The
product is then washed in tanks at 200° (F. ?), and the
liquor drawn off at the top. The latter is then treated with
a saturated solution of calcium sulphide, when a black slime
is precipitated. This is roasted and tin- residue fluxed ami
refined by known means. If necessary, the potash ami
sulphur may he brought into solution by boiling with water
before being added to the ore. The sulphur may be omitted
if the ore contain sufficient of that element. Complex ores
are first mixed with a saturated solution of ferrous sulphate,
dried and roasted, and are then treated with potash and
sulphur. If the ore contain less than 2| per cent, of iron
sufficient oxide of iron must be added to make up the
deficiency. — H. K. T.
An Improved Method for Treating Cupreous Liquors for
the Purpose of utilising the same. C. Hopfner, (lie-sen,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,080, November 10, 1890.
Tins patent consists of precipitation processes for extracting
copper and other metals from crude copper solutions derived
from the roasting ami lixiviatiou of copper pyrites and from
other sources.
The copper solution is first converted into a mixture of
cuprie chloride and sodium sulphate by the addition of
either sodium chloride or copper sulphate, and the copper is
then precipitated as cuprous chloride by treating the liquor
with metallic copper, silver being precipitated as metal at
the same time. The solution now contains only sodium
sulphate together with traces of iron, nickel, &c. The latter
are precipitated by known processes, and the liquor then
treated f ir the separation of Glauber's salt. If the original
liquor is acid, it is first neutralised by the addition of cuprous
or cuprie oxide. Cuprous sulphide, oxide, or carbonate can
be used instead of metallic copper for precipitating copper
from the cuprie chloride solution. In this ease iron,
manganese, and other metals are also precipitated. The
necessary cuprous oxide is obtained by treating cuprous
chloride with caustic lime. The copper precipitate, which
may contain metallic copper, cuprous and cuprie oxides,
and cuprous chloride, is next dissolved in a neutral or
alkaline sedation of some chloride which will dissolve
cuprous chloride, such as sodium, potassium, cuprie or
magnesium chloride, when silver, bismuth, arsenic, and
antimony are left behind as metal or oxidised compound.
Metallic copper is obtained in a state of purity from the
solution by electrolysis. Other methods of extracting the
copper from the cuprous precipitate are to treat it with lime
and utilise the oxides which are produced. Or the cuprous
oxide precipitate may be heated with sulphuric acid, when
metallic copper and cuprie sulphate are obtained. Seduction
by iron can also be used. As the oxidation and chlorination
of pyrites by roasting is often incomplete, it is advisable to
separate magnetic pyrites from the roasted mass byr means
of magnets before leaching, ami to submit these pyrites to
a separate treatment. — H. K. T.
Improvements in Apparatus for and Process of Treating
Zinc Ores. \V. West, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. January 20, 1891.
Tins is a process for the reduction of ores occurring iu
America, consisting of a mixture of sulphides of zinc, lead,
iron, and copper, together with some gold and silver, and
has especial reference to the economical extraction of the
zinc. The process consists in roasting the ore so as to
obtain sulphurous anhydride, and then allowing this gas,
after ii has been cooled to a temperature below 180 F., to
act upon a moist and previously roasted portion of the ore,
thereby forming soluble sulphite of zinc. The latter is then
dissolved out with water, the zinc precipitated as hydrate
with ammonia and reduced iu the usual way. The ammonia
is recovered by distilling the liquor from the above pre-
cipitation with lime and the extracted ore is treated by the
usual methods for the remaining metals. The apparatus
used in the process consists of a roasting chamber heated
froui he'ow , a zig-zag flue which conveys the hot sulphurous
anhydride, and which is covered with iron plates to form a
floor ou which previously extracted ore can be dried ; thus
effecting at one and the same time the drying of the ore and
the cooling ot the gas, further cooling apparatus if necessary,
a blower to exhaust the gas from the roasting chamber and
force it into the leaching vessel, a pipe conveying steam
:!52
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, 189
which mixes with the gas before it enters the leaching tank
and furnishes the necessary moisture and a leaching vessel
provided with a false bottom on which the ore is supported.
The chief novelty of the process consists in the use of a
mixture of sulphurous anhydride gas aud steam instead of a
solution of the gas in water, whereby the bulk of liquid to
be Heated is greatly reduced and the production of sulphuric
acid, and consequent solution of copper and iron, avoided.
—II. K. T.
Improved Gold Extracting Reagents. J. H. Poilok,
Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 1309, January 24, 1891.
This patent is for improvements in the chemicals used in
the processes described in Eng. Pats. 17,-195 of 1887, 16,796
of 1888,and 5578 and 10,298 of 1889 (this Journal, 1890,4-14,
&c.) A small proportion of sodium sulphite is now melted
in with the nitre cake to remove any trace of nitric acid, any
increase of acid desirable being obtained by adding sulphuric
acid to the nitre cake before the audition of tin' sulphite.
Also iustead of using crystallised ferrous sulphate to
precipitate the gold, the crystal- are first broken and then
raised in a steam-heated vessel furnished with agitators to
any desired temperature. By raising the temperature from
100° C. to 150 < '. the salt is left with only one molecule of
water, aud is therefore lighter and costs less for transport.
-E. T.
Tnuting Ores and Residues containing Zinc by Means of
Bisulphate of Soda for the Production of Commercial
Products. A.M.Clark, London. From F. E. I 'ostcs,
" La Societe Anonyme de Produits Chimiques, Etabfisse-
nients Maletra," Paris, France. Eng. Fat. 1374, January
•24, 1891.
According to the preseut invention, zinc turnings, tilings,
and other scrap, scum and dross from molten zinc,
galvanisation residues, slimes from the washing of
calamines and blendes, calamines or blendes too poor
in zinc for distillation, and other waste products con-
taining zinc, are utilised by treatment with the waste
residues from the manufacture of nitric acid, known as
bisulphate of soda. The zinc waste is mixed with a variable
proportion of bisulphate of soda according to its richness in
zinc (thus zinc ashes containing 70 per cent, of zinc would
require 2^ or 3 times their weight of bisulphate), introduced
into a reverberatory furnace with refractory lining, and the
charge withdrawn immediately the mass becomes pasty and
homogeneous, and after nearly all the vapours have ceased
to disengage. The zincic frit obtained is thrown into water,
which dissolves the sulphates of zinc, sodium, and iron,
leaving the gangue aud impurities in the residue. The
solution is decanted off, and after separating the iron by
any suitable means, the sulphate of soda is crystallised out
anil prepared for the market. The zinc in the mother-
liquors is then precipitated either by lime-water, sodium
sulphide, or ammonia, and the precipitate of oxide or
sulphide of zinc calcined in a muffle furnace, the tempera-
Hue in case of the sulphide being kept below 400°— 500° C.
The product is a zinc white, which has a good colour, is
unctuous, aud covers well.
If metallic zinc is required, the oxide or sulphide should
be well washed, moulded into bricks, aud highly calcined ;
the product is an oxide containing 70 per cent, of zinc,
which on reduction distils over in one-half less time than
that required by ordinary calcined calamines.
If ammonia is used for precipitating the zinc, the sulphate
of ammonia is crystallised out from the mother-liquors,
but if lime-water or sulphide of sodium have been used, the
mother-liquors may be utilised for the manufacture of
barium sulphate or " blanc Ji.re" by adding to them a weak
solution of barium hydrate of low quality, and collecting the
precipitate. — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in the Treatment of Composite Ores con-
taining '/.inc. V. Hail, Manchester. Eng. l'at. Feb-
ruary 4, 1891.
This process is intended for poor ores of a composite
nature in which the metals exist as sulphides or partly as
sulphides and partly as oxides. The ore is fiuely powdered,
mixed with sulphuric acid of sp.gr. 1-750 aud heated to
300° to 400J V.. gases consisting chiefly of sulphurous
anhydride are given off and are conducted into a sulphuric
acid chamber and converted into sulphuric acid. The mass
is next gradually heated to redness to render iron salts
insoluble and is then lixiviated. Cupper is removed from
the solution by means of zinc and the solution of zinc
sulphate is then evaporated anil crystallised or used for any
purpose for which it is suitable. Any lead which the ore
may contain will be found as sulphate in the residue and
may be extracted by means of a strong solution of brine or
other solvent, the metal being separated from the solution
by electrolysis or other means. Or the magma of silica,
lead sulphate, &c. may he smelted in the ordinary manner.
No apparatus other than that used in the manufacture of
sodium sulphate is required. — II. lv. T.
A Process for the Extraction of Tin from 'I in Slags and
Tin Refuse by Lead or its Salts. I 'arbonaceous Matter,
Fluorspar, or other suitable Fluxes. F. H. Mason,
London. Eng. l'at. 1 0,985, June 27, 1891.
Tin slag or refuse from tin-smelting is crushed so that the
largest pieces do not exceed the size of a walnut, and mixed
with 15 per cent, of fluorspar or other suitable flux, a
quantity of lead ashes or salts of lead containing three times
as much lead as there is tin in the slags, aud sufficient
anthracite to reduce both the lead and tin compounds.
The mixture is charged into a reverberatory or low blast
furnace, aud the temperature raised until the mass melts.
The whole is then kept at a uniform heat and well rabbled
until the bubbling ceases ; a little anthracite is then thrown in,
an.l the rabbling continued until the mass is again quiet; the
metal is then run out and cast into ingots. 1 he se ingots
are next subjected to a process of liquation, th. portions
first liquating out being collected apart ; the other portions
are heated and poled, the product being an alloy of tin and
lead which may be utilised as solder. — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in Blast Furnace Linings. J. T. King,
Liverpool. From J. Gayly, Braddock, U S.A. Eng. Pat.
13,690, August 14, 1891.
The brickwork lining of the boshes aud hearths of a blast
furnace generally undergoes rapid corrosion until, owing
to certain reactions, a carbonaceous deposit is formed on
these parts, which to some extent arrests the destructive
action. This coating, however, is liable to be removed
by slags of exceptional composition. The inventor, there-
fore, proposes to line the walls of the boshes with graphitic
bricks composed preferably of 75 parts of fireclay and
25 parts of graphite set in a mortar of the same material,
and forming a layer of 18 in. or less in depth. The bricks
are tempered, moulded, and burnt in the usual manner, no
sensible deterioration being caused by the last operation ;
the proportions of the ingredients may be varied, other
forms of carbon substituted for graphite, and 20 per cent,
or less of lime or 5 per cent, or less of magnesia may be
added to render the bricks more refractory and durable.
- S. B. A. A.
Improvements in Apparatus for Leaching Ores in separating
Gold and Silver therefrom. W. I). Bohm, Chiswiek.
Eng. Pat. 14,737, September 1, 1891.
In treating certain ores by forcing a leaching solution
upwards through them and then through a filter at the
upper part of the vat, the filter is liable to become clogged
and the working impeded. According to the present
invention this is obviated by the use of a vat provided with
a filter both at the top aud bottom with corresponding
April SO, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL. OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
353
openings, the vat being arranged so us to turn on trunnions
when required, and reverse the position of the filters.
The hearings contain passages through which the liquid
is forced into and passes from the vat, and which com-
municate with the openings at the ends of the vat, the
connexions being reversed when the vat is turned. For
the mechanical details of the construction of the vat aud
attached gearing the drawings and description in the
specification must he consulted. — S. U. A. A.
Improvements in Blast Furnace Linings. J. Johnson,
Liverpool. From .1. Gayly, Braddock, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat, 19,330, November 9, 1891.
Thk inventor proposes to line the boshes and hearth of
bias, furnaces with bricks composed of coke and tar for
the purposes explained in the preceding abstract (Eng.
Pat 13,690, of 1891). The bricks are prepared as follows :
Good hard coke of graphitic appearance and low in ash is
ground in a pug mill, heated, thoroughly incorporated with
5 to 15 per cent, of hot tar according to the pressure
obtainable at the moulding machine, moulded into bricks and
fired at a low temperature in a muffle furnace. Anthracite
eoke and charcoal may be used in addition to ordinary
coke in the manufacture of the bricks. The latter are
generally arranged as a lining to the boshes and hearth, but
in iron jacketed furnaces, they may form the whole thickness
of the wall in those regions, — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in lite Treatment of Ores. A. M. Clark,
London. From C. G. Richardson, \V. D. Firstbrook,
Toronto, aud E. H. Davis, Montreal, Canada. Eng. Pat.
20,521, .November 2.'., 1S91.
ACCORDING to this invention ores containing sulphides,
arsenides, or sulpharsenides are freed from sulphur and arsenic
by treatment with steam. The ore is pulverised, placed in
a closed receptacle which is kept in a state of constant
agitation and may be heated or otherwise, and superheated
or other steam is passed in until the ore contains no more
sulphur and arsenic than is desirable. The bases remain as
oxides ; the sulphur and arsenic may be recovered by
collecting the sulphuretted arid arseniuretted hydrogen
evolved and treating these gases in any suitable manner.
-S. B. A. A.
An Improved Method of Treating Plumbiferous Copper
Mattes and Ores. C James, Swansea. Eng. Pat.
22,041, December 16, 1891.
Thk process described is an improvement on the method of
Eug. Pat. 13,739 of 1891 (this Journal, 1891, 1012), and
deals with the same classes of material. According to the
improved process the matte is crushed, completely calcined,
preferably in a revolving calciner, mixed with rate matte,
and silica or siliceous ore or other matter in such proportions
as to provide sufficient sulphur to combine with all the
copper present and sufficient silica to form a silicate of iron
ami lead ; the mixture is then melted in a reverheratory fur-
nace. If the proportion of silica be so adjusted as to be quite
neutralised by the lead anil iron present the products will be
a rich regulus or coarse copper entirely free from lead, and
a lead slag nearly free from copper. Any silver or gold
originally present in the matte is almost entirely concen-
trated in the copper regulus.
(Ires containing more than 15 per cent, of lead cannot be
completely calcined, and are best reserved for admixture
with calcined ores of lower lead content. For example,
8 parts of a thoroughly calcined matte containing 36 per
cent, of copper aud 16 per cent of lead mixed with 3 parts
of a raw matte containing 32 per cent, of copper and 24 per-
cent, of lead, yielded on fusion a coarse copper with 90 per
cent, copper free from lead aud a slag containing 19 per
cent, of lead. Deoxidation of the matte during fusion, as
in the "roaster" process, or by addition of oxidising
agents, with the simultaneous introduction of silica, is also
claimed. — S. li. A. A.
Improred Material fir making Amalgam for Filling Teeth
and Method of Manufacturing the same. G. Juterboek,
Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,211, December 19,
1891.
FOR the purpose of tilling teeth, dentists dissolve tin alloy
of silver and tin in mercury, and, if required, add a certain
proportion of gold or platinum. The alloy is supplied in
filings or chips which are contaminated with dirt and small
particles of metal from the cutting tool, and are, moreover,
liable to oxidation. This is remedied according to the
present invention by rolling the alloy into sheets, which are
electro-plated with gold ami cut into pieces. The layer of
gold protects the alloy from oxidation, but at once dissolves
in mercury, exposing the pure alloy, which is rapidly
amalgamated. — S. B. A. A.
XI.-ELECTEO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Means for Use in Electrolysis. J. Marx,
Frankfurt-on-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 6266, April 24,
1890. (Second Edition.)
The apparatus described is especially suited to the elec-
trolysis of such solutions as that of sodium chloride, where
the materials resulting from electrolysis at one electrode
must, as far as possible, be kept apart from those set free at
the other. For this purpose the liquid is always employed
in a shallow layer with pointed anodes dipping a short way
into it, while the cathodes, placed alongside, are covered by
hoods to catch the hydrogen liberated. No diaphragms are
employed. — E. T.
Improvements in Electro-depositing. W. Gibbings, Garston.
Eng. Pat. 2518, February 12, 1891.
A beau of insulating material is placed on each side
of the tank, below the surface of the electrolyte. The
plates are supported by projections at the top which
rest at each side on the beams. Current is led in aud out
by the end plates, but as all the plates are insulated from
each other, except through the electrolyte, it is as though a
number of cells had been formed, each plate acting as a
division wall and being a cathode to one cell and anode to
the next. By placing the supporting beams sufficiently low-
down, the plates may be wholly immersed and waste in that
way prevented. — E. T.
Improvements in and Apparatus for Electrolysing and
Bleaching. J. Marx, Bad-Naubeim, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 3738, March 2, 1891.
Is the electrolysis of sodium chloride by such apparatus as
that described in Eng. Pat. 6266 of 1890 (see above), it is
impossible to prevent a certain amount of recombination
between the chlorine aud the alkali liberated. The patentee
diminishes this by treating the electrolysed solution with
carbon dioxide so as to leave alkaline carbonates or
bicarbonates and hypochlorous acid. The liquor is then
again electrolysed, perhaps with the addition of more
chloride, and the acid present prevents so much of this
recombination taking place. If a bleaching solution is
desired, the recombiuation is rather favoured, and a larger
amount of carbonic dioxide used, so as to produce more
hypochlorous acid, which acts as a bleaching agent. To
absorb the carbonic acid, the liquor is allowed to flow down
an inclined plane furnished with ridgts in an atmosphere of
the gas.— E. T.
35 1
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so. 1692.
Improvements in the Electric Reduction of Aluminium and
other Metals, ami in tlie Production of Allot/* therefor.
T. I.. Willson, Brooklyn, I .S.A. Eng. Pat. 4757, March
17, 1891.
A i kucible of carbon is made the anode while a carbon
rod, introduced through a nou-couducting lid, serves as
cathode. The current consequently passes upwards through
the ore in the crucible, to the negative electrode above. To
prevent wasting of either electrode, powdered carbon or
coal, &c. are fed in. For aluminium bronzes, copper is fed
in with the ore. With iron ore and corundum au aluminium
steel can be made. — E. T.
Improvements m the Formation of Ozone in Presence of
Air or Oxygen, and Apparatus therefor. A. Schneller
and W. .1. Wisse, The Hague, Holland. Eng. Pat. 5222,
March 24, 1891.
The -ozonising chamber contains a number of electrodes
enclosed in tubes of glass or other good di-electric material.
These electrodes are alternately + and — , but as they are
joined up to a transformer or alternating current dynamo
giving a large E.M.F., their polarity is perpetually changing.
Hi awing- are also given of apparatus for freeing the air or
oxygen of dust ami moisture before passing it into the
ozonising chamber. — E. T.
Improvements in Electric Batteries. H. I. Harris, Loudon,
and W. H. Power, Anerlev. Eng. Pat. 5918, April 6,
1891.
The invention consists in the use of iron and sulphur cells
as the electrodes of a battery, and water as the exciting
fluid. The sulphur cell is insulated from the iron, and they
are closed by a water-tight lid. The water is led in at the
bottom of the outer cell, percolates under pressure through
the brimstone, and is siphoned off from the inner cell. The
supply can be regulated by a tap. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. S. Marcus, L. Patz,
and It. Grebner, Vienna, Austria, Eng. Pat. 6243, April
11, 1891.
The invention consists in making one of the electrodes of
cylindrical shape, the other being placed withiu it in the
form of a triangle, square, or other suitable prism, so that
the two electrodes come into close proximity at certain
points, whilst between these points hollow spaces are left
for the electrolyte. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Automatic Regulating Apparatus employed
in aunt. emu with Galvanic Batteries. J. Y. Johnson,
London. From F. Gendron, Bordeaux, France. Eng.
Pat. 6247, April 11, 1891.
A tDING to this invention, which is specially applicable
to two fluid cells, the several vessels containing the liquids
are arranged in a frame having three stages with insulating
rollers, on which the vessels can be readily moved. The
two upper shelves carry the battery cells, while the
tanks containing the liquids are placed on a lower one.
A small motor driven by a current from the battery works
the two circulating pumps, which may be of anj' suitable
construction, but are preferably " Sausay pumps," specially
designed Eor acid liquids. One pump is used for the
exciting liquid, and the other for the depolariser. Each
pump is connected with tie- corresponding store tanks by
branch pipe-, provided with stop-cocks and valves worked
automatically b) sliding rods, so arranged that when one
set of valves is open the other is shut. The sliding rod
is provided witli ratchet-shaped teeth, and is capable of
being moved laterally by an electro-magnet so as to bring
the lateral projections into the path of one or other of the
leg- of a forked lever, to which the motor imparls a
continuous vibrating motion. By engaging with this lever
the rod i- caused to work the valves and place the pump
in connexion with the different tanks. Similar mechanism
controls the number of cells in action at one time, and
puts them in or cut- them out as required. — ti. II. R.
Improvements in Electrical Accumulators or Storage
Batteries. C. P. Elieson, London. Eng. Pat. 7697,
.May 4, 1891.
This invention consists in building up the electrodes of a
series of corrugated envelopes of cylindrical or other
desirable shape, composed of thin lead or other suitable
metal, and preferably perforated. These envelopes are
placed one within the other, and the corrugations are so
arranged that those of one cylinder cross, or are at au
angle, to those of adjacent cylinders. Suitable means are
provided for preventing them coming into contact. — G. H. 1!.
Improvements in Electrodes for Electric Accumulators.
W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From H. 1 1. Tudor,
llosport, Luxembourg. Eng Pat. 8227, May 13, 1891.
The improvements consist in forming the electrodes of a
plate, the two surfaces of which are provided with grooves
or ridges of any suitable form or depth, instead of the
plain plate mentioned by the inventor in Eng. Pat. 11,543
of 1887; and these grooves or ridges have on each side of
them other smaller grooves, running horizontally or vertically
as previously described. — (J. II. II.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. R. Haddau, London.
From I. Cahanyes, Paris. France. Eug. Pat. 8845,
May 25, 1891.
The improved cell is constructed as follows: — the outer
ease is composed of two cases of wood placed one within
the other, the space beivsMi being filled with melted
paraffin. The carbon electrode is composed of a number
of carbon rods fixed to a copper connecting riug. A
suitable number, preferably four of these, are connected to
form one electrode. The zinc rods dip into porous jars
placed w:ithin each group of carbons, and are so arranged
that any one may be remosed and replaced while the battery
is working. The solution for the carbons iu the outer case
or jar consists of a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid
and hydrochloric acid, to which mixture is added water
acidulated with 5 per cent, of sulphuric acid. Hie
volume of water is equal to the volume of the two acids
together.— G. H. K.
A Process and Apparatus for Increasing the Bleaching
Properties of Chlorine Gas. C. Kellner, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 22~,438, December 23, 1891.
The chlorine is treated iu the same way as air when it is
desired to produce ozone. Two pieces of apparatus are
described. The first consists of two test tubes, one inside
the other, and fused together at the top. The chlorine
passes, by a tube at the bottom of the outer test tube, into
the space between the two, and passes out near the top.
The inner tube contains sulphuric acid as one electrode,
while more sulphuric acid, in which the outer tube is
immersed, serves as the other electrode. In the other
apparatus the gas passes by a zigzag course between flat
vessels, alternately + and — , containing sulphuric acid.
The polarity is rapidly changed iu the usual way. — E. T.
Improvements iu and relating to Secondary Batteries.
J. B. Entz and \V. A. Phillips, Bridgeport, Conn., U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 1484, January 26, 1892.
The object of the invention is to render the electrolytic
action more uniform over the surface of the plates during
charge ami discharge, thus securing longer life to the cell.
This is effected by heating the bottom of the cells, thus
causing the liquid to circulate. — G. H. R.
April So. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
15
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The Glycerin and Artificial Butter Industry under
United States Patents. E. Starek. School of Mines
Quarterly, 1892, 13, 131—141.
(•nk of the <;irli«'>t commercial methods for the manu-
facture "I glyceric is that of saponifying fata by means of
lime and distilling off the glycerin with superheated steam ;
it however necessitates the use of sulphuric or oxalic acid
to neutralise any free alkali and to decompose the lime
soaps For the recovery of the fatty acids. No early
American patent appears to have been issued for such a
process, but lime is used in conjunction with superheated
-team by Werk (U.S. Pat. 1858, 21,711); ami, later,
oxides i't' zinc and tin, " chloride of lime," and a mixture
of sine oxide and time is used to effect the saponification
and separation of the fatty acids from glycerin and water
l>\ Litzelman (this Journal, 1883, 4:t), Max Ams and
I.'it/.eliuan (U.S. Pat. 1SS3, 272,510), and Iiaujard (U.S.
Pat. 1883,280,894). Glycerin is, however, obtained on a
large scale by the decomposition of fats with superheated
steam, and From the sub-lye of the soap maker. Tilghman
(U.S. 1'at. 1854, 11,766) devised an apparatus whereby fat
or oil in a thud state is emulsified with water, and the
emulsion passed through a coil of iron tubing heated to
the temperature of melting lead, and then through a cooling
coil heated to 212" F., from which it escapes into the
receiving vessel. Wright and Fouche (U.S. Pat. 1859,
22,765) constructed an apparatus in which the decomposition
is effected by the continuous circulation of highly-heated
water in a finely-divided state through the fats; and since
then forms of apparatus have been devised whereby the
fats are thoroughly atomised by the steam while they are
undergoing decomposition. (See Sahfeld (U.S. Pat. 1878,
201,704), Kuehue (U.S. Pat. 1879, 215,372), Babbit (U.S.
Pat. 1883,275,976; 1885,316,104).)
Clolus (U.S. Pat. 1881, 242,272) recovers glycerin from
soap lyes by neutralising the same with hydrochloric acid ;
l!attcrshall (this Journal, 1883, 91) neutralises with sul-
phuric acid ; whilst Domeier and Hagemann (U.S. Pat.
1 SS7. 371,127) precipitate the soapy matters as insoluble
soaps, and subsequently concentrate the lye, the remaining
fatty and resinous constituents being decomposed by hydro-
chloric acid, and mechanically removed with clay or
alumina. The manufacture of resin soap simultaneously
with that of glycerin is covered by the last-mentioned
patentees (U.S. Pat. 1888, 385,105) ; whilst Mining (I'.S.
Pat. 1888, 385.3G7) precipitates the fatty and resinous
impurities by the addition of barium or strontium chloride,
and the latest attempts have been directed towards prevent-
ing the mechanical occlusion of glycerin by the salts, this
Arr u:\tvs ron the Manufacture of Glycerin.
being effected by the apparatus of Domeier aud Hagemann
(I ,S. I'at. 1890, t28,468). A i- the boiler in which the
concentration is effected, 11 the enclosing brickwork, ( ' the
fire space, I) the metal outer wall, E ami ]*' girders, G the
receptacle for the precipitated salts ; it can be separated
from A by closing the valve II. G1 is a doorthrough which
the collected matter is removed, Gr a strainer or perforated
plate. Soap lye or brine containing less glycerin than that
adhering to the mineral crystals can be admitted through
G\ the deposits remaining on the strainer Gr, whilst the
liquid escapes by G'. At the commencement of the
operation, A is tilled with soap lye, and as it is in communi-
cation with (i, the latter is also tilled ; when the boiling
liquor in A becomes more concentrated the precipitates
formed pass into (1. The apparatus is fed through G4, the
liquor contained in G being thus pushed into the boiling
portion. As soon as G is filled with deposited crystals, H is
closed, the excess of liquor removed through G4, and the
crystals washed as described, and removed. H is now
opened and the process repeated.
Some manufacturers precipitate the soap by an excess of
alkali, which is then removed by treatment with more fat
(Babbit, U.S. Pat. 1870, 107,324"), or by treatment with
carbonic acid, which converts the alkali into bicarbonate
insoluble in glycerin (Mellon, I'.S. Pat. 1890, 422,140).
Hydrate of iron is employed for the last mentioned pur-
pose by Domeier and Hagemann (U.S. Pat. 1892, 453,829).
The concluding portion of the paper deals with artificial
butter, aud mentions some 10 American patents for its
production, extending from 1873 — 1882. — A. R. L.
The Composition of Turkey- Red Oil. P. Juillard. Hull.
Soc. Chim. 1891, 6, 638—656.
It is well known that tie' product of the action of monc-
hydrated sulphuric acid on castor oil, after removal of the
excess of acid by washing with a solution of an alkaline
salt, consists essentially of two portions, one of which is
soluble, the other insoluble, in pure water. According to
Liechti and Suida (this Journal, 1883, 540) the soluble
portion has the constitution (( ',.11 .( r .( ' .II ,.( HI) S( >,.
Muller-Jacobs (this Journal, 1884, 412), on the other hand,
looks upon it as a sulphonic acid of ricinic acid ; while
Benedikt and Ulzer (this Journal, 1888.329) consider it to be
a ricinosnlphuric ester of the formula IIS( I, . ( 'i;H3.,.COOH.
The portion insoluble in water is, in the opinion of Liechti
and Suida, dihydroxyrieinic acid; in that of Muller-Jacobs,
Benedikt, and others, a mixture of rieinic acid and unaltered
rieinole'in.
The author has shown (Arch, de Geneve, 1890, 24, 134
and 1891, 25, 275 ; see also this Journal, 1891, 471) that,
in spite of its inaccuracy, the formula of Liechti and Suida
gives a molecular weight closely approaching that of the
soluble portion obtained by washing in the cold ; and that
the formula proposed by Benedikt and Ulzer represents the
actual state in the molecule of the sulphuric acid residue,
though it is much too simple to express the constitution of
the chief soluble compound produced, since, as the author
has discovered, polymerisation of the fatty acids is ac-
complished simultaneously with their estermeation by the
action of sulphuric acid.
Rieinic Acid, HO.C,7H32.COOH, contains an alcoholic
hvdroxyl group, by reason of which it is capable of readily
yielding ethers ; thus with acetic acid it yields an acid ester
of the formula C:H30L,.C1-Hi,,.COOH ! with oleic acid,'
similarly, an oleoricinic acid C1,H:i:,t)..t']rH1_,.COOH ; and
with ricinic acid, ricinoricinic or diricinic acid" —
HO.ei;HK.COO.C17H3.:.COOH
The last-named compound contains a hydroxyl group
which enables it to condense with another molecule of
ricinic acid, forming tririeinic acid, which in turn is
condensable with 1 mol. of ricinic acid, yielding tetraricinic
acid, and with two, yielding pentaricinic acid. These poly-
ricinic acids may be produced from ricinic acid by the
356
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892,
action of hydrochloric acid, their formation probably
taking place in two stages, thus —
HO.C17HE.( "i»H + HC1 = n.C17H.„.COOH + H,0
HO.C,7H3..COOH + Cl.('l;H:;:.C(t()H =
HO.C,7H32.COO.C17H3S.COOH + HC1
Willi sulphuric acid a similar series of changes takes
place —
HO.C,7H32.COOH + H;S(),
HSn1.C,-II.t,.COOH + HX>
HO.C17H3,.COOH + HS04.C17H3S.COOH
HO.Ci;H:l2.C(>O.C,7HM.COOH + H2S04
lli>.C,7II;v.. ('<)<>. C'I7H:,;.C(K>1I + H,S(),
HS04.C17H32.COO.CI7H32.COOH + H,,U
and so ou, to the formation of pentaricinic acid. In this
case, however, the intermediate compounds have been
isolated and examined.
The immediate action of sulphuric acid on castor oil is
to produce a diricinoleiusulphuric anhydride of the
formula —
,U CI7H3,.COO
SO / |
\o CJI,
I
HO.CI7H32.COO
according to the equation —
(HO.Ci7H32.COO)3 ! C:,H, + HjSOj =
(.'.,,H7„< >5.S04 + HO.C17H32.COOH + H.,()
The formation of this body being presumably preceded by
that of diriciuoleinsulphurie acid —
HS04.CI7H32.COO
H().(J.,H5
I
iio.r,7ir,.:.c<Hi
This anhydride in contact with rieinic and sulphuric
acids then slowly undergoes change into polyricinosulphuric
and polyrieinic acids.
Properties of the Polyrieinic Acids. — The portion of
Turkey-red oil which is insoluble in water and which usually
amounts to about one-third of the whole, consists of a
mixture of riciuolein (when, as is generally the case, the
oil is prepared from castor oil and not from rieinic acid),
and mono- and polyrieinic acids. Its quantity may be
increased by prolonging the duration of the washing of the
acid oil ; after several months' contact with water, the
sulphuric acid residue being completely eliminated from
the acid magma. Polyrieinic acids are further producible
by keeping the washed Turkey-red oil at a temperature of
20° — 30D for several weeks, as well as by the action of
hydrochloric acid ou ricinole'in or rieinic acid at the ordinary
temperature or more rapidly tin 2 — 3 hours) at 95" — 100°.
They were first obtained in a fairly pure state by the author
by fractional separation from commercial Turkey-red oil
which had undergone spontaneous decomposition. The
latter appeared as a viscid liquid, soluble in ether, light
petroleum, and benzene, imperfectly in acetic acid, and
sparingly so in cold, but easily so in hot alcohol; its
molecular weight, determined by Kaoult's method (phenol
being used as solvent and the lowering of solidifying point
being compared with that produced by acetonemic acid)
was 994. On the addition of alcohol to the ethereal solu-
tion of this oil a voluminous, oily precipitate was obtained
which, after being washed several times with alcohol, had a
molecular weight corresponding with that of pentaricinic
acid. The ethereal-alcoholic mother-liquor, after the
evaporation of the ether, deposited an oil which was washed
with concentrated alcohol and submitted i<> analysis, giving
numbers corresponding with those required for iriricinic
acid. The alcoholic solution from which the latter com-
pound had separated, was cooled to o and a precipitate
obtained which was purified with warm alcohol, the residue
then showing a molecular weight of 592 approaching that
of diricinic acid (578).
Penta- and letraricinic acids are viscid oils ; are com-
pletely insoluble in cold, concentrated alcohol; sparingly
soluble in acetic acid ; freely so in ether, light petroleum,
and benzene ; their alkaline salts are difficultly soluble in
dilute alcohol. Submitted to prolonged treatment with
hydrochloric acid, they do not undergo further condensa-
tion ; suspended in alcohol and treated with dry hydrochloric
acid gas, they are slowly transformed into ethyl ricinate.
In common with the other polyrieinic acids, they are uude-
composed by boiling solutions of alkaline carbonates, but
are converted by boiling solutions of caustic alkalis into
salts of monoricinic acid. Triricinic acid is soluble in ether,
ligh' petroleum, acetic acid, and excess of alcohol ; its
alkaline salts in dilute alcohol. Diricinic acid is soluble in
all proportions in light petroleum, ether, acetic acid, and
absolute alcohol ; its alkaline compouuds are insoluble in
water, but soluble in dilute alcohol ; on titration with
normal potash solution and phenolphthalein it absorbs a
smaller quantity of alkali than it theoretically should.
Properties of the Polyricinosulphuric Acids. — A mixture
of the various polyricinosulphuric acids is readily obtained
by precipitating with common salt an aqueous solution of
washed Turkey-red oil, after removal of the portion extract-
ible with ether by treatment with that menstruum. This
mixture, after the spontaneous evaporation of the ether,
which it retains in small amount, appears as a viscid, yellow
oil ; is hydrated ; soluble in all proportions in water, alcohol,
and ether ; and in aqueous solution readily dissolves rieinic
acid and ricinole'in, and less readily the polyrieinic acids.
It is decomposed by boiling water, or more rapidly by
boiling dilute acids into fatty acids, glycerin, and sulphuric
acid. This portion of the Turkey-red oil constitutes about
two-thirds of the total oil-magma, and consists chiefly
(three-fourths or so) of diricinole'insulphuric anhydride, as
is proved by its high neutralising equivalent ; thus in two
experiments 224 and 2'82 per cent, of KHlI were respec-
tively required, while diricoleinsulpliuric acid, which has
approximately the same molecular weight, requires 9 '39 per
cent. Left some time at the ordinary temperature in the
presence of a slight excess of caustic potash, the Anhydride
is converted into diricinoleinsulphuric acid. The latter
compound is very unstable ; when liberated by a mineral
acid from its alkaline salts, it decomposes almost instantly
into monoricinosulphuric acid, rieinic acid, and glycerin.
The anhydride in an aqueous solution, to which a small
quantity of mineral acid has been added, suffers a similar
change, but is quite stable in solution in excess of pure
water. In concentrated aqueous solution, however, it
gradually decomposes successively into polyricinosulphuric
and polyrieinic acids. The anhydride is further decomposed
by boiling solutions of caustic alkalis and of alkaline
carbonates in excess into monoricinosulphuric acid, rieinic
acid, glycerin, and an alkaline sulphate; if normal potash
solution be added in successive small doses to a solution
of the anhydride whilst being heated for a period of 1 8 hours,
there is required to neutralise 12 to 16 times the amount
required in the cold. Boiling alcoholic potash decomposes
the anhydride almost completely into monoricinosulphuric
acid and rieinic acid, a trace only of potassium sulphate
being produced. This greater resistance of potassium mono-
ricinosulphate towards alcoholic than towards aqueous
potash, the author considers to be probably due to the pro-
duction in the former ease of a salt containing two atoms of
potassium, which is stable in the presence of excess of
alkali.
In the author's opinion the diricincsulphuric acid described
by Seheurer-Kestner (this Journal, 1891, 471) is not a
uniform substance, but a mixture of that acid with diricino-
sulphuric anhydride, monoricinosulphuric acid, and fatty-
acids insoluble in pure water, which a single treatment with
ether is insufficient to remove from aqueous solution.
( 'ompositon of Turkey-red OU. — The Turkey-red oils of
commerce vary considerably in composition. As a general
rule, however, they consist of a mixture of diricinoleiu-
sulpliuric anhydride and of the alkaline (sodium or am-
ipriisu832.j THU JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
357
uioniuni) salts of diricinoleinsulphuric, mono- and polyrici-
nosulphuric, and of mono- and polyricinic acids, along with
unaltered rieinolcm.
Analysts of Turkey-red Oil. — In addition to the usual
estimation of the fatty acids, the glycerin and sulphuric
acid should be determined, the latter by precipitation as
barium salt, after decomposing the oil-mixture by boiling
with hydrochloric acid. In view also of the different shades
yielded in dyeing and printing by the various components of
the oil. a determination of the molecular weight of the fatty
acids present in the soluble and insoluble state, is desirable.
This may be accomplished by Kaoult's method, but care
must be taken, when decomposing the soluble portion, that
a sufficient amount of water is used to bring the whole of it
into solution, otherwise the results obtained are too high.
The author condemns the method of testing Turkey-red oil
suggested by Scheurer-Kestner (this Journal, 1891, 471) in
which the soluble and insoluble portions of the oil are
directly estimated by titration with standard ammonia,
litmus anil phcnolphthalcin being successively employed as
indicators. This method gives inaccurate results, especially
when diricinoleinsulphuric anhydride is present in the oil,
which is almost invariably the case. — E. 1>.
On the Nitrogenous Bases present in the Cotton Seed.
W. Maxwell. Amer. (.'hem. J. 1891, 13, 469—471.
Set under XXIII., ptuje 372.
PATENT.
An Improved Sheep Dip. A. Robertson, Oban. Eng.
Pat. 20,395, November 24, 1891.
See under XVIII. — C, 1'iige 365.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
I hi lln Manufacture of Chrome Pigments. C. 0. Weber.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 1891, 282, 138, 183, and 20(1.
Chrome Greens from Chrome Yellows. — [t has become
customary to apply the term of chrome green not only to
chromic hydrate (Guignet's green) and other compounds
of chromic oxides, but also to the green pigments which
represent mixtures of chrome yellow and Prussian blue.
The quality of these mixed chrome greens depends upon —
(a) the nature of the chrome yellow used,
(/>) the nature of the Prussian blue used,
(c) the process of producing the mixture of the two.
' Inly those chrome yellows possessing a pure lemon
colour will produce bright greens, but the brightness of
the green has very little to do with the brightness of the
yellow, provided the latter is only free from even the
slightest touch of orange, which always tends to produce
shades known as olive-greens or moss-greens.
Lemon shades of chrome yellow are generally obtained
by the simultaneous precipitation of lead sulphate and lead
chromate, and it might appear that the proportion of
sulphate and chromate contained in such a yellow would
be a matter of indifference so long as the proper shade of
chrome yellow was obtained, and this is certainly so as
far as only the shade of the resulting chrome greens is
concerned. But on a closer investigation of this matter we
find that the proportion of sulphate contained in a chrome
yellow stands in tin- inverse ratio i" tin- covering power
of the green obtained from it. This makes it desirable to
keep the proportion of lead sulphate in chrome yellows
intended for chrome greens as low as possible, and very
seldom we find in a chrome yellow for green the proportions
of lead sulphate and lead chromate to be more than 2 ■ 5
of the former to 5 of the latter.
The following formuhe yield chrome yellows of this
description which are well adapted for the manufacture of
chrome greens :—
1.
36 lead acetate (or 32 lead nitrate),
7*5 potassium bichromate,
"■ 5 sulphate of alumina,
5 carbonate of lime ( Paris white).
The solution of the lead salt is precipitated with the
united solutions of the bichromate and the sulphate of
alumina to which the lime carbonate has been added.
II.
26 acetate of lead,
7 5 potassium bichromate,
3 • 5 Glauber's salt crystallised,
or —
111.
36 acetate of lead,
7 -5 potassium bichromate,
7 '8 Glauber's salt, calculated,
9 soda ash.
After precipitation the yellows are washed once or twice
by decantation, and in the interest of the beauty of the
product this ought to be done in the least possible space
of time. The chrome yellows are thus obtained in the
form of a thin paste to which the Prussian blue, also in
paste, is added, the quantities of course depending entirely
upon the required shade of green. After well agitating the
mixture of yellow and blue the green is pressed and dried.
This process of manufacturing chrome greens is very old,
but it is still largely practised. The process is, however,
a very unsatisfactory one, as it is difficult to always produce
a desired shade of green and it involves also a waste of
Prussian blue, as the latter even when in a paste cannot
be brought in such a state of fine subdivision as to be
capable of producing its maximum effect. Very remarkable
is the great fugitiveness of greens prepared in this manner,
an hour of exposure to direct sunlight often being sufficient
to destroy the shade of the green, turning it a dirty-looking
yellow. This bleaching is accompanied by evolution of
considerable quantities of cyanogen and proceeds indepen-
dently of the presence of oxygen, noris it in the least retarded
by exposing the green in vacuo or in an atmosphere of pure
oxygen, ozonised oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbonic
acid. On treating such a bleached green with dilute nitric
| acid, ferric oxide and chromic oxide are found in solution,
but no lead, the latter probably being converted into
peroxide, thus : —
2 PbCrOj = 2 PbOo -; Cr303 + O
Considerably faster greens are obtained by adding the
well-diluted paste of Prussian blue to the solution of the
lead salt before precipitation, but this method is no more
economical as regards the use of Prussian blue than the
former.
The function of lead sulphate in chrome yellows has
been exhaustively treated in a former article (this Journal,
1891, 709 — 712), but attempts to produce chrome yellows
suitable for the manufacture of chrome greens free from
sulphate of lead were frequently made. The first practicable
process was originated about 12 years ago, and consists in
the precipitation of a solution of lead acetate with a
solution of bichromate of potash partially reduced by
acetic or citric acid. 20 lb. of bichromate are dissolved in
6 gallons of boiling water and 2 lb. of powdered citric acid
added. A violent reaction ensues, and eventually a dark
olive-brown solution is obtained, with which a solution of
56 lb. of lead acetate in loo gallons of water is precipitated.
The resulting chrome yellow possesses a dull, very greenish
shade, and produces with Prussian blue exceedingly bright
and strong shades of chrome green. As the result of a
358
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
"April II
careful analytical investigation of this process the reaction
between potassium bichromate and i-itric acid was found to
proceed according to the equation —
(3 K,CvJ>. y 7C6H807 =
6 K.fiO, + 3 Cr3(C6H607)2 • 6COs + 13 BaO
This equation, verified by experiment and analysis, shows
that, uol as might have been expected, the whole of the citric
arid is oxidised, but that about :>o per cent, of the total
quantity is converted into chromium citrate, so that on pre-
cipitation of the lead sail with the above chromate mixture
a small quantity of lead citrate is simultaneously precipitated;
and further experiments revealed the fact, that this small
quantity of citrate prevents the "turning" of the shade of
the "lemon chrpme" obtained. Careful observation of
the following rules will entirely prevent the turning of
rln miii, \ ellows : —
1. The yellow must be precipitated in the presence of
> 5S of lead salt.
1. Simultaneously with the chromate of lead must be
precipitated the lead salt of an acid easily oxidisable by
chromic acid. This lead salt must be insoluble in the free
arid tunning on precipitation of the chromate.
3. If such lead salts are used the free acid of which
would dissolve the lead salts of the oxidisable acids, the
precipitation must be performed by means of mono-
chromates.
That the ''turning" of the chrome yellows is due to a
decomposition of the lead chromate into a basic salt,
whereby chromic acid is set free, the slightest traces of
which have a most detrimental influence upon the beauty
of the shade, is now an established fact. The cure for
the tendency of the chrome yellows to decompose in this
manner is the presence of a small quantity of the lead salt
of an easily oxidisable organic acid, which also prevents
the rapid destruction (oxidation) of chrome greens, a
process which, as shown above, is also an oxidation
process.
Chrome Yellows for Chronu Greens. — For the manu-
facture of chrome yellows for chrome greens ferrocyan-
hydric acid or its soluble salts are very suitable, as, owing
to thi insolubility of ferrocyanide of lead in dilute nitric
acid, they allow of the production of these pigments from
nitrate of lead.
The method of manufacturing chrome greens by adding
In Prussian blue paste to the solution of the lead salt
tui. precipitation, or by adding it to the already formed
chrome yellow, lias been shown above to be uneconomical
and there is no doubt that the best and most economical
form in which the Prussian blue can be used is that of a
solution. As is well known, Prussian blue may be dissolved
in certain acids or salts, and these solutions are most
advantageously employed in the manufacture of chrome
greens. Oxalic acid has been used for this purpose by
who dissolves the Prussian blue in 10 per cent, of its
weight of oxalic acid, then adds a solution of bichromate of
potash ami subsequently precipitates with this mixture a
solution of lead acetate. The following proportions have
in in emploj ed by Vogel : —
20 Prussian blue,
L' oxalic aeid,
in potassium bichromate,
100 lead acetate.
It will be noticed that the chrome yellow contained in this
i< - a i- also tier from sulphuric acid, and the beauty and
fastness nf the green so obtained must be ascribed to the
ii in ii of a small quantity of lead oxalate. In
adding the solution of bichromate to the solution of
Prussian blue containing the oxalic aeid a very violent
reaction takes place, but there is no doubt that it proceeds
on the same line as the one between bichromate and citric
acid, ami accordingly comes to a standstill as soon as all
ree oxalic acid has disappeared, partly through oxidation,
partly through formation of chromium oxalate. In perfect
inn with this assumption is the observation that
neutral oxalates are not oxidised by solutions of bichromate,
either hot or cold.
There is a large number of oilier substances capable of
dissolving Prussian blue, but as a rule they are limit
expensive than oxalic aeid, especially so considering that
oxalic acid not only acts as a solvent for the blue, but is
also essential in producing full and fast shades of chrome
yellow.
The capability of potassium ferrocyanide to dissolve
Prussian blue is also utilised in the manufacture of
chrome greens, lint whereas oxalic acid easily dissolves
dry Prussian blue, ferrocyanide of potassium dissolves this
pigment satisfactorily only in the form of a paste. The
quantity of ferrocyanide used is best about L'n per cent of
the weight of the Prussian blue which is to be dissolved, a
few minutes" boiling being sufficient to produce a dark blue
solution which may 1« filtered without leaving any residue on
tin- filter. i'n addition of indifferent salts, such as Glauber's
salt, to such solutions, the blue is apparently precipitated as
it settles from the solutions, but on stirring it up the apparent
precipitate can be filtered through filter-paper almost as
completely as the original solution. (In addition of a
solution of bichromate to the solution of the blue, tin
former of course acts tit once with great energy on the
ferrocyanide contained in the latter, and the blue apparently
is precipitated, although the mixture Alters without any
residue. By precipitating with this mixture a solution of
lead acetate or nitrate, greens are obtained which in
beauty rival brilliant green lakes, and owing to the ideal
state of sub-division of the blue, the latter is enabled to
produce in every case its maximum effect. The following
proportion- may serve as an example: —
V.
300 Prussian blue < 4 per cent, dry),
■2 4 ferrocyanide of potash,
18 potassium bichromate,
50 lead acetate.
This corresponds to the following proportions according to
Vogel's method : —
VI.
300 Prussian blue (4 per cent, dry),
■> oxalic acid,
18 potassium bichromate,
."ill lead acetate.
These two greens, although practically identical in regard
to their chemical composition, differ very much in their
appearance, which no doubt is due to the difference in the
amount of bichromate reduced in the course of the two
processes respectively. The result obtained in working
according to the proportions VI. may be considerably
improved upon by using oxalate of ammonia instead of
oxalic aeid for the solution of the Prussian blue: —
VII.
300 Prussian blue (4 per cent, dry),
3 oxalate of ammonia,
18 potassium bichromate,
."in lead acetate.
The shade of this green is brighter than that of chrome
green VI., and at the same time very much bluer than even
that of chrome green V., and this shows that by using
oxalate of ammonia even less blue is necessary for the
production of a certain shade than by using either oxalic
acid or ferrocyanide. Moreover, green VII. is distinguished
by its truly remarkable fastness. This latter method might
be used on a large scale with considerable advantage.
A combination of the above-described oxalate and ferro-
cyanide processes has been in use for some time in this
country and in America, and the chrome greens obtained
by the combination of these two methods are remarkable
for the delicacy and purity of shades, as well as for their
great fastness to light. It is not easy to see why chrome
greens obtained by the 'combined methods should be at all
superior to those produced by either of the two methods,
t lonsidering, however, that oxalic aeid and potassium ferro-
cyanide act at boiling temperature not only upon the
Prussian blue, but also upon each other, and that ferric
oxide, which is invariably produced by the action of oxalic
April 89, 1833.J TIIE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
359
acid on Prussian blue, is eventually re-converted into blue
through the ferrocyanide present, the rationale of this
method is explained to a considerable degree. The follow-
ing formuhe are types of this method : — ■
a.
b.
dead acetate
Litharge
Potassium bichromate .
Prussian blue (dry)
Oxalic acid
Potassium ferrooyanide.
loo
50
50
25
4
5'5
101)
30
50
50
7
10
101)
50
50
Inn
15
13
The lead acetate and litharge are together converted into
basic acetate in the manner described in a former paper
(this Journal, 1891, 70'J). This lead solution is run into a
large tub filled with water to about one-third. Oxalic acid
and ferrocyanide are then dissolved in about 60 gallons of
water, and to the boiling solution is added the finely-
powdered Prussian blue. After half an hour's boiling the
bichromate is added to the solution, and the lead salt is then
precipitated with these united solutions. The precipitated
green is washed in the usual manner ; it is the finest and
fastest chrome green which is known at present.
If desired, neutral lead acetate or lead nitrate may be used
instead of the basic acetate, but it is worth mentioning that
different lead salts produce also greens more or less differing
in appearance. This is rather difficult to explain, but it is
nevertheless a well-known fact, and very probable in some
relation to the often-made observation that yellows made
from nitrate of lead give very bad results in calico printing,
only yellows from lead acetate being available for this
purpose.
Like the chrome yellows, the chrome greens are generally
" filled " with some indifferent mineral " base," not only in
order to produce lower grades, but also to give them such
physical properties as are required to make them suitable
for various applications, properties which the pure greens
either do not possess at all or in an insufficient degree.
It is not only of importance which "bases" have been
added to a green, much depending also on the manner in
which the two have been combined. The most important of
these bases are barium sulphate, mineral white (gypsum),
china clay, alumina hydrate.
Barium sulphate and mineral white are principally used
for the manufacture of low grades of green, and it is
advisable to use for moderate " reductions " exclusively
mineral white ; for high " reductions," mineral white and
barium sulphate are preferable, generally the barium sul-
phate constituting the larger portion of the mixture of the
two " bases." For purposes where such substantial bases as
the two before mentioned are not desired, as in the case of
paper-staining, alumina hydrate and china clay are used.
The alumina hydrate is now always prepared from alumi-
nium sulphate by precipitation with sodium carbonate, but
great care must be taken to have the alumina salt free from
iron, 0'008 per cent, of which will give the otherwise
brilliant white aluminium hydrate a peculiar dead and dirty-
looking shade, the effect of which on the shade of a chrome
green is greater than might be anticipated. "With regard to
the china clay employed as a " base," that which in com-
position'comes nearest to the formula, (Al203)2(Si02)3, 3H20,
will be found the best.
It used to be customary at one time to add the whole of
the " base," which was intended to be incorporated in a
chrome yellow or chrome green, to the solution of the lead
salt before precipitation, the idea evidently being to precipi-
tate the chrome pigment upon the base, and so to obtain as
close a union as possible between pigment and base. This
method is now practically abandoned as it has been found
more advantageous to either add the base to the solution
of the lead salt at the same rate as the precipitation of
the pigment is proceeding, i.e., simultaneous with the latter,
or to add the base to the pigment after precipitation. In
each of the two cases the " base " or mixture oi " bases " is
suspended in a sufficient quantity of water and run, either
during or after the precipitation of the pigment, into
the precipitation tub through a moderately fine sieve (Xo.
40). These remarks refer particularly to the use of barium
sulphate and mineral white.
If aluminium hydrate is employed as " base," a special
method has to he followed in order to ensure a perfect
union between aluminium hydrate and the chrome pigment,
the specific gravities of which are so very different. To
the precipitated pigment is added a solution of sulphate of
alumina, about 15 per cent, of the whole quantity which it
is intended to precipitate, and subsequently an equivalent
quantity of soda carbonate is slowly and carefully run into
this mixture in order to precipitate aluminium hydrate. In
this way a most intimate mixture of the chrome pigment
and a small quantity of aluminium hydrate is obtained.
The evolution of carbonic acid which accompanies the
precipitation of the aluminium hydrate, assists very
materially in producing the compound pigment in a very
voluminous form, in which it can readily be mixed with
almost any desired quantity of ready-formed aluminium
hydrate. Where chrome pigments are intended to be filled
not only with aluminium hydrate but also with sulphate of
barium, mineral white, or china clay, it is advisable to add
these, during or after the precipitation, before the incor-
poration of any of the aluminium hydrate, which is then
proceeded with as above described.
A matter of very great importance in the manufacture of
chrome greens is the quality of the Prussian blue employed
for this process, an unsuitable blue producing very poor
results even with the best yellows. Practically pure Paris
blue is manufactured in a great variety of shades, ranging
from a bright ultramarine to a very deep blue-violet.
The lighter shades of Prussian blue are especially useful
for the manufacture of zinc greens, the dark shades are the
the most suitable for chrome greens. In this manner
particularly three shades of pure Paris blue are used, viz.,
Paris blue ultramarine shade (milori blue, steel blue, Chinese
blue), Paris blue indigo shade, and Paris blue-violet or
" red " shade.
The principle of the manufacture of these three blues is
the same in every case, namely, the oxidation of the
" white paste " obtained on the precipitation of potassium
or sodium ferrocyanide with a ferrous salt. The shade of
the blue is greatly influenced \>y the conditions under
which it is produced, the most important of which are (1)
the proportions of ferrocyanide and ferrous salt used in the
precipitation of the white paste, (2) the particular ferrous
salt employed, (3) the oxidising agent and the acid in the
presence of which the oxidation is performed.
I. Prussian blue ultramarine shade: 100 lb. of ferro-
cyanide are dissolved in 450 galls, of water, the solution is
heated to boiling, 25 lb. of hydrochloric acid 28'* Tw.= 1 ■ 14,
are added, and the boiling continued for half an hour. Into
this boiling solution is then run a solution 65 lb. of ferrous
chloride (FeCU) in 50 galls, of boiling water ; or the two solu-
tions are run simultaneously into a large tub partly filled with
boiling water. After precipitation, the contents of the tub
must be well agitated and the boiling continued for at least
half an hour. The tub is then filled up with cold water
and the precipitate left to settle for three days, when the
supernatant liquor is siphoned off, the precipitate boiled
up with steam and subsequently oxidised by adding to
the boiling mass in turns 25 lb. of hydrochloric acid
and 12 lb. of chlorate of potash or soda. The oxidation
being complete, the tub is again filled up with cold water
and the acid completely washed out of it by decantation.
The water used for the washing is of great importance,
and ought to contain no lime, especially not in the form of
carbonate, very small quantities of which suffice to destroy
the " bloom " of these pigments. If, however, a hard water
must be used, acidifying with acetic acid will almost
entirely prevent its harmful influence.
II. Prussian blue indigo shade : 100 lb. of ferrocyanide
and 90 lb. of ferrous sulphate are dissolved in separate tubs,
and to the solution of the ferrous salt 25 lb. of sulphuric
acid 168° Tw. = 1'84, and l\ lb. of stannous chloride are
added. The two solutions arc run simultaneously into the
360
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892.
precipitating tank, which is partly tilled with boiling water ;
the boiling is to be continued during and for about 30 minutes
after the precipitation. The white paste is again left to
settle for some days and then oxidised either by means of
nitric acid or by means of bichromate.
In oxidising with nitric acid the white paste is run into a
rectangular lead-lined vat, with a barrel-shaped bottom and
a hood on the top which has an opening on one of the
narrow sides only, allowing an agitator to be inserted in
order to mix the paste during the process of the oxidation.
( (pposite to that opening a spacious clay pipe is fitted in
the hood, through which the noxious vapours developed
during the oxidation may be drawn in a chimney or furnace.
A lead pipe carrying a funnel penetrating the side of the
vat and terminating on the bottom of it is arranged.
Through it 50 lb. of sulphuric acid 168° Tw.,and subsequently
32 lb. of nitric acid 78D Tw. are added to the white paste,
which is well mixed all the time. After the development
of nitrous acid from the mixture has ceased, the blue is
transferred to the washing tubs to be freed from acid. If
bichromate is used for the oxidation of the white paste, the
oxidation may be performed in the precipitation tub after
having run off the supernatant wash-water. 50 lb. of
sulphuric acid are added to the white paste, and the
oxidation is effected at the boiling temperature, by adding
gradually a solution of 28"5 1b. of bichromate in 28 galls.
of boiling water. The chromium sulphate clings to the
blue very obstinately, and great care must be employed to
wash it out completely.
III. Prussian blue red shade : The precipitation of the
white paste for this blue is performed in exactly the same
manner as above described, using 100 lb. of ferrocyanide
and 90 lb. of ferrous sulphate. The oxidising agent used
is ferric sulphate, which produces blues of an excellent dark
shade very suitable for the ordinary chrome greens. Before
oxidising the supernatant water is run off the white paste,
to which 25 lb. of sulphuric acid 168° Tw. are added and
the mixture heated to boil. 150 lb. of ferric sulphate
I ferric liquor) prepared as below are then added, the
boiling being continued for half an hour. The filtrate from
a sample of the oxidised blue must distinctly show the
presence of an excess of ferric salt. The oxidised blue is
purified by washing in the usual way.
Although the ferric liquor is a commercial product, it is
advisable to prepare it especially for this process, the com-
mercial article containing frequently a large proportion of
ferrous salt. It is best prepared in a number of large
Woulffs bottles (tourils) which are connected amongst
themselves, with the usual clay pipes and with a chimney
or absorption tower to draw away the large quantities of
nitrous acid evolved. The bottles are charged with 10 galls,
of water, 64 lb. of nitric acid 78°Tw.,and GO lb. of sulphuric
acid 168° Tw. To this hot mixture 300 lb. of finely-
crystallised or ground ferrous sulphate are slowly added.
The oxidation proceeds very rapidly but quietly. It is
advisable to keep the bottles warm during the operation,
for which purpose they are placed in a steam-heated
wooden box from which only the tops of the bottles and the
bottom taps for drawing off the liquor project. — C. < >. W.
Changes in Chromium Pigments. Papier Zeitung, 1891,
17, 2:12.
See under VI., page 3 15.
Excrescent Resins. M, Bamberger. Monatsh. 1891, 12,
111—403.
See under XX., page 365.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Paints
or Paint-Stocks. G. W. Scollay, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 2382, February 10, 1891 .
The inventor combines the preparation of paint or paint-
stock with the refining of vegetable oils in the following
ways : —
1 . By mixing with commercial yellow cotton-seed oil a
suitable quantity of ochre or other pigment, which com-
bining with the impurities of the oil forms a paint or paint-
stock, at the same time refining the oil. When ochre is
used all uncombined water must first be expelled. Umbers
must be heated until they assume a deep brown colour ;
siennas until they show a light red colour. Overheating,
causing all constitutional water to be expelled ought to be
guarded against, as it renders the pigments inert. From
four to twelve parts of the grease are mixed with one part
of above pigments, and after about 40 minutes the oil is
separated from the insoluble sediment by any convenient
means. In this way a superior quality of oil and a
merchantable paint or paint-stock are obtained.
2. A barrel of oil is mixed with from two and one-half to
four pounds of caustic soda, agitated for about 40 minutes,
then left to settle. The refined oil is drawn off, the residue
is soap or soap-stock, which may be converted into paint or
paint-stock by means of chloride of calcium and similar
salts.
3. The oil is first partially refined by treating it with a
small quantity of caustic alkali, and the refining is subse-
quently completed by treating with ochre.
4. The oil may be treated with any metallic salt and
caustic alkali simultaneously, or by any combination of the
above described reagents.
Paints or paint-stocks of the above description are con-
verted into paints of greater variety and brilliancy in colour
in the following manner : —
To make yellow paint, soap stock is converted into lead
plaster by means of acetate of lead, this lead-soap is then
acted upon with bichromate or chromate of soda.
Blue paint is obtained by treating the soap-stock with
iron salts first and then with ferroe.yanides.
Green paint is produced by boiling the soap-stock with
arsenious acid, on addition of copper sulphate a vivid green
is obtained.
The paints may be washed with water and dried at a
moderate heat.
The paint or paint-stock obtained as above described is
used for treating or tilling pigments in order to make them
less absorbing. The pigments are mixed with those paints
or paint-stocks and 10 per cent, of naphtha. On heating the
paint or paint-stock is dissolved and penetrates into the
pigment, the naphtha is volatilised. Pigments treated in this
manner can be converted into paints with much less oil
than the untreated pigments, and the paints so obtained are
of excellent drying power. — C. O. W.
A Aew or Improved Composition of Ink fir Reproduction
of Copies In/ the Manifold Process and the like.
W. Sherwood, Loughborough. Eng. Pat. 5437, March
20, 1891.
See under VI., page 346.
Improvements in the Production of White Lead or Basic
Carbonate of Lead from Galena or Sulphide of Lead
Ore, or from suitable Residual Products or Substances
containing Sulphide of Lead. Watson Smith anil W.
Elmore, London. Eug. Pat. 5501, March 28, 1891.
Tins is essentially a combination of known methods for
the production of oxide of lead from galena, sulphide of
lead ore, or from other substances containing sulphide of
lead, with Maclvor's method (Eng. Pat. 10,426, lSSS^ and
Maclvor and Smith's process (Eug. Pat. 16,093, 1890) for
the production of white lend by the action of acetate of
ammonia and carbonic acid, with various modifications,
upon oxide of lead.
April 30,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
361
Improvements in or appertaining to Preservative Coatings
for Iron or oilier Structures. J. Robson, Southsea.
Eng. Pat. 5977, April 7, 1891.
Tiik invention refers to a mixture of rosin pitch, residues
from the distillation of mineral oil or ozokerite, American
asphaltum, melted with sufficient paraffin wax to give
fluidity and freedom from stickiness when hot. — C. 0. W.
Improvements in the Treatment of Gums and the Prepara-
tion of Varnishes therefrom. G. H. Smith, Loudon. Eng.
Pat. 7036, April 23, 1891.
The patentee claims the utilisation of the property observed
by him, to be possessed by soft readily soluble gums, of aiding
the solution of harder and more refractory gums, in an appro-
priate solvent, such as linseed or other oil. He gives as an
example the treatment of kauri gum for making a varnisli
therefrom. About one pound of a soft gum, such as gum
dammar, is dissolved in linseed oil and added to 16 lb.
of kauri gum, and heated to a temperature of from 400 —
500; F. whereby solution is said to be effected. In place of
gum dammar " a small quantitj- of the liquid products of
distillation of these gums and resins, such as is given off
upon the treatment by fusion of gums in ordinary processes
of varnish making as now practised, and which liquid
products of distillation are now practically wasted " may be
used.— B. B.
Solutions of acetate of lead or tribasic acetate of lead
prepared in the manner described in the above-mentioned
patents contain copper if the galenas or other sulphides of
lead used for the preparation of the oxide of lead were
contaminated in this manner. From the above solutions
the copper is removed, after all, or practically all, lead has I
been precipitated, by slightly acidulating the solutions with
acetic acid, and either treating it with zinc, preferably in
the form of "gossamer zinc," or with an electric current,
employing carbon electrodes, the copper being deposited
upon the cathode.
Tlie inventors describe in detail the process of carbonating
the ammoniacal solutions of lead acetate by a fractionating
method in order to obtain white lead of uniform and high
basicity and at the same time free from copper, which latter
may cause yellow discolouration of the pigment.
The galena or other sulphide of lead may be at once
smelted for reduction to metal, the eliminated sulphur being
converted into sulphuric acid, or sulphites, or bisulphites
respectively. The rough metallic lead is melted on a bone-
.isli or i h\ bed anil exposed to a current or blast of air to
form litharge, which is removed by means of suitably-
arranged oveflows or mechanical means. The tirst portions
of litharge formed are contaminated with iron, and are
smelted with a fresh lot of ore or sulphide. Those fractions
containing only most minute traces of iron are used for
solution in acetate of ammonia.
Any silver contained in the original ore or sulphide of
had is left on the bone-ash or other bed, and may be
recovered by smelting with a suitable flux. — C. O. W.
Improved Manufacture of Size Paint. A. J. Boult,
London. Eng. Pat. 7695, May 4, 1891.
One lb. wheat flour is boiled to form a paste, and a solution
of 1 oz. of alum is added. — C. O. W.
Improvements in Pigments having a Lead Basis. C. A.
Bmghardt, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 5681, April 2, 1891.
Tins is a process devised to utilise the plumbic hydrate
obtained in accordance with the inventor's process of
manufacturing nitrate of ammonia (Eng. Pat. 5442, 18901.
The pigments are prepared by adding to the plumbic
hydrate solutions of suitable aniline colours. In some
cases the operation is aided by heating the mixtures.
— C. O. W.
Improvements in the Process of and Apparatus for tlie
Manufacture of White Lead. A. Honman and V. Vullier,
Williamstowu, Victoria. Eng. Pat. 8022, May 9, 1891.
The invention consists mainly in preserving the basic acetate
of lead at a uniform temperature of about 120° F., and in
the conversion into white lead of the sulphate of lead,
produced in the roasting of sulphide of lead ore and dissolved
in caustic soda, caustic potash or ammonium acetate, by
precipitation with a solution of carbonate or bicarbonate of
soda, potash or ammonium. In carrying out the process
ordinary galena is roasted in a reverberatory furnace of
special construction at a low red heat for a sufficient time
to drive off the greater part of its sulphur. When this is
accomplished the roasted ore is placed in one of a series of
tinned copper cylinders where it is treated with a hot
solution of lead acetate at 15° B. and steam. The solution
so obtained is run into settling tanks, and from these the
clear solutions are conveyed into vats in which the liquor is
kept at an even temperature of 120° F., when it is sub-
sequently treated with a current of carbonic acid, the supply
of which is cut off as soon as the specific gravity of the
solution has decreased to 15° B. The precipitated white
lead is drawn off then from the botton of the tanks which
are at once refilled with a fresh quantity of basic acetate of
lead until the original density of 18° B. is again reached,
when the carbonatiug operation is at once repeated. The
lead liquor drawn off with the carbonate of lead is separated
from the latter and pumped back to the above-mentioned
extraction cylinders, and when the oxide of lead therein has
been entirely dissolved the sulphate of lead which forms
portion of the residue is dissolved by a solution of caustic
soda or potash. The solution thus made is conveyed to a
tinned copper pan wherein the white lead is precipitated by
means of a solution of carbonate of soda or potash or
ammonia.
The construction of the special plant devised for the
carrying out of these processes by the inventors cannot be
understood without the drawings accompanying the
specification. — CO. W.
Improved Rust- and Acid-Proqf Paint. R. Lender, Berlin.
Eng. Pat. 20,274, November 21, 1891.
This invention relates to a rust- and acid-proof paint for
metals and other materials. Natural iron silicate is the
chief ingredient, which is reduced to a fine powder and
ground into a paint with a suitable quantity of ozonised or
otherwise oxidised linseed oil or varnish. — C. O. W.
Improvement* in the Manufacture of Venetian-red.
W. J. Wigg, Frodsham, Cheshire. Eng. Pat. 21,279,
December 5, 1891.
This invention consists in an improved method of uniting
and combining Venetian-red with indifferent white bodies,
such as powdered barytes, gypsum, or the like. Residual
copper liquors containing about 10 per cent, of chloride of
iron and 16 per cent, of sulphate of soda is treated with a
large excess of milk of lime or other similar oxide, and
after precipitation the mass is oxidised with a current of
steam and air. Afterwards the precipitate is washed and
filter-pressed. The specification is accompanied by a set
of drawings. — C. O. W.
362
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1892
Improvements in Inks for Printing, Stamping, and Ike
like. C. M. Higgins, New York, U.S.A Eng. Pat. 93,
January 2, 1892.
Thk patentee states that castor oil, oil of cassia and carbolic
acid, " and its substitute creosote," have no action on india-
rubber, and are well suited for forming a non-drying ink for
stamps, type writer ribbons, and the like. Aniline dyes
are readily soluble in the mixture. As an example of a
stamp ink there is quoted the following recipe : four fluid
ounces of castor oil are mixed with one fluid ounce each of
carbolic acid and oil of cassia, and one ounce of ethyl violet
or other aniline dye dissolved therein. The solution takes
place cold, but may be aided by stirring and heating. The
proportions may be varied according to the purpose in view.
— B. B.
XV.-MANURES, Etc.
The " Bordeaux Mixture" a Remedy for \ ine Mildew
and Potato Disease. M. Ferret. " Standard " Agricul-
tural Reports.
See under XVIII. — C, pages 364 — 365.
PATENT.
Improvements relating to the Conversion into Manure of
the Re/use and Foul Matters from Cities and Towns.
L. Lamattina, Rome, Italy. Eng. Pat. 22,192, Decem-
ber 18, 1891.
.Sec under XVIII.— B., page 364.
XVI.-SUGAR, STARCH, GUM. Etc.
A Crystalline Magma of Invert-Sugar. P. U. Wiechniauu.
' School of Mines Quarterly, 1892, 13, 149-154.
A sample of granulated sugar polarising 99' 9 — 100 was
inverted with hydrochloric acid (sp.gr. 1*2) using 0-0265
per cent, on the weight of sugar ; the product was a colour-
less syrup, having a density of about 80° Brix, (43- ll3
Beaume) and contained 84-8 percent, of invert-sugar; it
had a slishtly acid reaction. The syrup was placed in a
well-corked flask, and was exposed to diffused and direct
sunlight at a temperature of 24° C, and after three months,
it had become a white crystalline magma.
An aqueous solution of the magma having a sp. gr. 1 • 1427
at 15D ( = 32-7; Prix) was prepared; .'J'." = 3-058; hence
3 '058 grins, of the solution contained 1 grm. of dry
substance.
(I.) 39*827 grms. of this solution (=13-024 grms. on
the dry substance) were made up to 100 cc. ; of which 50 cc.
were further diluted to 1 litre, and 35 cc. of the latter solu-
tion ( = 0-2279 grms. of dry substance) were added to 50 cc.
of boiling Fehling's solution (Soxhlet's formula) together
with 1 5 cc. of water, the boiling being maintained for two
minutes. As the mean of three experiments 0-394 grm. of
metallic copper was obtained ; according to Meissl (Zeits. d.
Vcr. f. Hiibenz. lnd. 1879, 1034), 0-2278 grm. of pure
invert-sugar reduces 0-404 grm. Cu, so that the amount
of copper obtained corresponds to 0-2212 grm. of invert-
sugar, and the sample contained 97-06 per cent, of invert-
sugar and 2"8 per cent, of sucrose on the dry substance.
(11.) 30-58 grms. of the above-mentioned solution (32-7°
Brix), corresponding to 10 grms. of dry substance were
dissolved in water, diluted to 100 cc. at 17-5° C. and
polarised at 20 ; this solution gave [a]D20 = —18-16,
whereas Gubbe's value for a 10 per cent, solution of pure
invert-sugar is [a]D-,i) =— 20-018; assuming that the 2-8
per cent, of sucrose preserves its usual optical properties,
the value corrected for the latter is [«■],, 20 = —20-02.
26-048 grms. of the magma were dissolved in water,
made up to 100 cc, and the solution polarised at 203 in a
200 mm. tube. The reading immediately after preparation
was 7-9, and this gradually increased to —23-3 at the end
of 23 hours. 50 cc. of the solution were heated with 5 cc.
of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1 2) at 67° C. for five minutes,
when it was cooled, made up to 100 cc. and polarised, the
readings being — 26'2 to —26-6, which remained constant
after 20 hours.
A solution of the magma corresponding to 10 grms. of
the dry substance in 100 cc. had a sp. gr. 1-03853 at
1 7 • J ( '., whilst the specific gravity of a solution of pure
invert-sugar of this concentration is, according to Herzfeld,
1-03901.
Five grms. of the magma were placed in a test tube
together with a thermometer, and slowly heated in a
water-bath. It commenced to liquefy at 50J, and liquefac-
tion was complete in 29 minutes, the temperature then
being 60- 5 t'. After 12 days it commenced to resolidify,
and crystallisation progressed slowly.
Two grms. of the magma placed in a vacuum over con*
centrated sulphuric acid lost 9-7 per cent, in 645 hours.
The author considers it probable that the transformation
of the 2-8 per cent, of sucrose is only a question of time ;
the specimen is being exposed to full daylight, and should
complete inversion be effected, a careful determination of
the relative amounts of dextrose and levulose present will
be made, and the question as to whether it consists of
pure invert-sugar in the crystalline form elucidated.
(Compare Wohl and Kollrepp, this Journal, 1890, 957.)
—A. K. L.
Pine-Tree Sugar. II. W. Wiley. J. Amur. Cliem. Soc.
1891, 13, 228—2:::.
Beutiielot examined a sugar from Pinus lambertiana
(Ann. de Chim. 1856 [3], 46, 76), and found it to have
the empirical formula CeH1=03, a specific rotatory power
[a] , 58 "6, aud to form a compound, C6H1205, 2 Pb<>, when
treated with ammoniacal lead acetate ; also that the rotatory
power was unaltered when the sugar was treated with
concentrated hydrochloric acid at 100° for 10 minutes.
The author commenced the study of pine-tree sugar from
Pinus lambertiana (California), but a paper by Maquenne
on the same subject (this Journal, 1890, 311) anticipated
his work to a large degree, JIaqueuue's sugar, which he
named jS-pinite, was obtained from Pinus lambertiana
(Nebraska), but as this tree does uot grow in Nebraska,
Maquenne must have been mistaken as to the origin of the
sugar. The author concludes from a comparison of Ber-
thelot's and Maquenne's work that the compounds obtained
by both these chemists arc one and the same, and that
Berthelot's specific rotatory power is too low. In the
present research the following method of isolating the sugar
is adopted. The crude sugar is boiled with successive
portions of 95 per cent, alcohol to remove some of the
colouring matter, the dried residue dissolved in water, and
the solution filtered while hot through animal charcoal ;
the filtrate is treated with basic lead acetate, and the lead
precipitated from this filtrate by sulphuretted hydrogen, the
filtered solution being concentrated and once more filtered
through animal charcoal. The clear solution is evaporated
to the crystallising point, agitated, aud allowed to remain,
when crystals separate in 2 — 4 days; the concentrated
syrup may also be placed in a jar surrounded by ice and
three times its volume of absolute alcohol stirred in, when
the whole of the sugar separates in 10 — 15 hours ; in either
case the crystals are washed successively with alcohol and
ether, dried at 50°, and finally placed over concentrated
sulphuric acid until of constant weight. The specific
rotation appears to be independent of the concentration,
and was found to be [a],, = 65-01, thus confirming
Maquenne's value (loc. or.). When the sugar is distilled
with sulphuric acid a trace of furfuramide is produced;
April so, 1892.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
363
whilst on oxidation with nitric acid large quantities of
rhodozonic acid are obtained, and a small quantity of a
yellowish substance, which is, perhaps, picric or croconic
acid. It does not yield an osozone with phenylhydrazine,
but when treated witli calcium, barium, or strontium
hydroxides, precipitates are produced which become
crystalline on remaining.
In conclusion, the author refers to the formation of
/8-inosite (Maqnenne, loc oil.), and also to Combes' work
(this Journal, 1890, 311), according to whom Maquenne's
0-pinite is identical with matezite, and 6-inosite with
matezodambose. — A. R. L.
The Specific Rotatory and Cupric Reducing Power of
Invert Sugar and of Dextrose obtained from Cane
Sugar by means of Invertase. J. O'Sullivan. 1'roc.
i ihem. Soo. 1892 [109], 50.
See under XXIII., page 372.
XVII.-BREWINC-, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Cash Plant. A.
Hartley. Trans
85—111.
The first portion of the paper treats of coopers' work, and
includes a detailed account of the different varieties of oak
used in making brewers' casks, the sorting of the staves,
and the different ways of sawing them, the judging of the
workmanship of a cask, branding, numbering, &c. In
dealing with cask capacity, it is pointed out that the
amount of wood surface exposed to the beer is very much
larger in small casks than in large ones.
A few words on repairing are followed by a list of coopers'
prices current in London and Burton.
The seasoning of casks is usually accomplished by soaking
them for 1 — 2 days in a solution containing about 1 lb. salt
anil \ lb. soda to the barrel. After emptying the casks are
filled with cold water for an hour or so and then scalded
out and steamed.
The same treatment may he used with advantage for
curing acid casks, the solution being made double the
strength, and followed by treatment with sulphurous acid.
With reference to the cure of mouldy or stinking casks,
a great deal depends on the extent of the evil ; if only slight
the casks should be scrubbed and treated with sulphurous
acid, if more pronounced, they should be filled with warm
water containing about 1 lb. to the barrel of chloride of
lime and a pint of strong sulphurous acid ; if the casks
are very bad, the staves must be shaved or the casks
broken up. Occasionally lengthened exposure of the
unheaded casks to the weather will cure stinkers. Another
method of curing them is by the use of enamel, but this is
not recommended.
The best way of storing empty casks is to stack them
with their heads out and the bunghole downwards ; or the
casks as they are received back containing the hops and
bottoms may be placed in the store until required ; this is,
however, rather risky in warm weather, or the casks may be
cleaned as soon as received, and then stopped down with a
little sulphurous acid.
With regard to the general preparation of casks for filling,
the author does not consider unheading necessary, but if
in good condition recommends rinsiug with hot water
followed by treatment with sulphurous acid and testing
with steam.
Great stress is laid on the " passing-in " of casks ; none
should be passed which, have the slightest taint about them.
—A. L. S.
Inst. Brewing, 1892, 5,
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
{A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
The Glycerin and Artificial Butter Industry under United
states Patents. F. Starek. School of Mines Quarterly,
1892,13,131—1-11. "
See under XII., page 355.
Zinc in Preserved Foods. J. E. Alen. Chem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1714.
It is well-known that copper often occurs in preserved
foods, and is in fact wilfully added to improve the colour
of the articles, but addition of zinc seems to serve no
useful purpose.
The author has, nevertheless, tested samples of preserved
peas, which, although free from copper, contained a large
proportion of zinc. They had a pleasant green colour.
— L. de K.
On the Occurrence of Tin in Canned Food. H. A. Weber.
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe. 1891, 13, 200 — £07.
The following method was employed :— The contents of
each can were emptied into a large porcelain dish, and the
condition of the inner portion of the can noted ; after
thoroughly mixing the contents, 50 grms. were weighed off
and incinerated in a porcelain dish. The residue was
treated with an excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid
evaporated to dryness, and the residue extracted with
dilute hydrochloric acid, filtered and washed, the insoluble
residue being again incinerated and treated as above. The
solution thus obtained was treated with hydrogen sulphide,
the precipitate collected after 12 hours, and the tin
weighed as stannic oxide. The following table shows the
amounts of stannic oxide obtained in the various samples
tested : —
Sample.
SnO.
Remarks.
Canned pumpkin .
Hubbard squash. .
Canned tomatoes .
Canned peas
Canned mushrooms
Canned blackberries
Canned blueberries
Canned salmon
Canned pears
Canned peaches
( banned blackberries
Canned cherries
Canned pumpkins
Canned baked sweet potatoes
Canned peas
Canned beans
Canned salmon
I Grains
per Lb.
r'.n
3-11
0-33
] '-.'i
o-st
0-98
o-ts
i • Hi
n-so
2-10
0-M
(Pol
2-58
no
2-89
1-29
0-92
0-30
1-08
0-30
Canned condensed milk.
Can corroded.
Can badly corroded.
Inner coating corroded.
Can corroded.
No visible corrosion.
Inner coating discoloured.
Inner coating corroded.
Can badly corroded.
Inner coating corroded.
Can corroded.
Can badly corroded.
Can corroded.
Can slightly corroded.
Can corroded.
Can slightly corroded.
O'OO No visible corrosion.
Canned pineapples O'CS Can corroded.
, 1-11
364.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, lssa
Sample No. 7, "Canned Pens," contained an amount of
copper equivalent to 3-95 grains per pound of copper
sulphate, and this was in addition to the above-mentioned
tin. It will thus be seen that all the samples examined,
except the condensed milk, contained an amount of tin
salts likely to be injurious to health.— A. E. L.
(G.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
Further Observations on the Efficacy of Sand- Filters as
employed in the Waterworks at Zurich. J. f. Gas-
beleuehtung, 1891, 34, 704—709.
Ni mi Kins bacteriological examinations, during a number
of years, of the Zurich water supply, before and after
filtration through sand, have led to certain conclusions
which may be summarised as follows : —
Friinkel and Piefke's assertion that sand-filters offer no
absolute protection against pathogenic organisms is disputed,
as being not applicable to all sand-filters ; and their state-
ment that the number of bacteria present in the filtered
water i' simply proportionate to the rate of filtration and
to the number of organisms existing in the water originally,
is shown to be erroneous. On the contrary, the author
finds that under the conditions obtaining at Zurich, the
number of developable spores in the filtered water is small
and fairly constant, and quite independent of the degree of
original pollution or the rapidity of filtration (3 to 12 metres
per day). It is of importance, however, that the filters be
allowed time to acquire their " normal" working condition,
and that the rate of filtration be uniform. In the case of
new filters, or after cleaning, &c, the action is for some
time abnormal, and the water during filtration may even
take up organisms from the sand. This fact may possibly
explain the bad results obtained during the trial of sand-
filters at the Stralau waterworks in Berlin (this Journal,
1890, 642—643).
It may be mentioned that the bulk of the Zurich water-
supply is drawn from the lake, and after filtration it is very
constant in composition, both chemically and bacterio-
logicaliv (see also this Journal, 1889, 998).— H. T. P.
PATENTS.
earth, &c. over the filter-bed, are driven by means of
belts or chain gearing from the shaft of the water-wheel.
The apparatus is provided with reversing gear, operated
automatically, as may lie desired. The filter-bed is preferably
constructed of concrete, and is covered with a layer of earth,
&c, spread out between walls of rushes and perforated tiles.
The polluted water, falling on the filtering medium, soaks
through it laterally, and passing through the perforation in
the tiles, finds its wav into channels on each side of the bed.
— H. T. P.
Improved Apparatus applicable to the Cleansing or
Filtration of Seivage and other Liquids. W. Birch,
Manchester. EDg. Pat. 7466, April 30, 1891.
This apparatus is more particularly intended for removing
the suspended matter from sewage, &c. It consists of a
series of tanks arranged on the same level, or of a long
sluice divided into separate compartments by means of
transverse partitions, the upper edges of which are below
the level of the edges of the sluice. The first of these
partitions is preferably made somewhat higher than the
rest. The sewage or other liquid is discharged into the
first tank, which it fills. It then overflows into the second,
and so on until all the compartments are filled, after which
the liquid flows in a level stream over the tops of the
partitions. The bulk of the liquid in the tanks being com-
paratively stagnant, the particles in suspension settle, and,
passing through a flat or conical (perforated false bottom,
fall on the floor of the tank. Each compartment is
provided with a flushing pipe below the false bottom, by
means of which the deposit of sludge may be periodically
removed. — II. T. P.
Improvements in the Means employed for the Purification
and Decolorisation of Water, Dye, and other Manu-
facturing Refuse-liquors, Seieage, or other Aqueous or
'Saline Liquids. W. H. Watson, Bolton. Eng. Pat.
4177, March 9, 1891.
Tin inventor employs for the above purpose a filter-bed
composed of some kind of iron slag, such as " tap cinders,"
"mill-cinders," "mill-scrap," blast-furnace slag, basic or
phosphatic slag, &c, either alone or in conjunction with
sand (preferably refuse moulding sand), gravel, cobbles,
charcoal. &C.-H. T. P.
Improved Means for Delivering and Distributing Polluted
Water upon and over a Filter-Bed. J. D. Garrett,
Southwold. Eng. Pat. 4677, March 16, 1891.
The apparatus employed consists of an over-shot water-
wheel mounted in bearings on a travelling carriage which is
arranged to pass automatically on rails over a long filter-
bed. A comparatively short trough is attached to the
frame of the carriage and moves with it. The forward end
of this trough overhangs the water-wheel, whilst the other
end is supported on rollers which run on rails extending
the whole length of the filter-bed. Over and parallel to the
moving trough is a fixed trough equal in length to the filter-
bed, and provided at suitable intervals with valves for the
exit of the water that is discharged into it from a drain
pipe. These valves are raised and lowered one after another
as the carriage travels along by means of a projecting rib
attached to the moving trough. The sewage which flows
from the fixed into the moving trough passes to tin- water-
wheel, causing it to revolve, and subsequently falls on the
filter-bed. 'I'll.' carriage, ami the hopper for distributing
Improvements relating to the Conversion into Manure of
the Refuse and Foul Matters from Cities and Towns.
I,. I.amattina, Rome, Italy. Eng. Pat. 22,192, December
18, 1891.
Accobding to this process, town refuse is converted into
manure by subjecting it to ammoniacal fermentation. By
this means putrefactive fermentation and the possible
development of pathogenic organisms are arrested, and all
danger to public health is avoided. The inventor proceeds
as follows : — Upon an impermeable basis of clay or cement,
heaps, 3 — 6 metres high, are constructed of farm dung, town
refuse, and earth in alternate layers, each set of layers
being slightly moistened with water. At regular intervals
iron rods are built into the mass in such a manner that when
withdrawn, holes are left for the insertion of a thermometer.
The heaps are preferably arranged in pairs, the two beds
being placed end to end and sloping in opposite directions.
A pit is dug in the ground between the two heaps, and
suitable gutters are provided so that the drainings from the
manure ma}" run into it. During fermentation the drainings
are continually pumped back on to the heaps, and the
ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen formed are absorbed
by scattering over every alternate set of layers of the heap
a layer of ground ferrous sulphate. When the temperature
of fermentation has fallen to 30° C. an extra layer of earth
is spread on the heaps and the}* are left for three months,
the edges of the beds being watered once or twice weekly
during the first month. After this time the heaps will have
diminished in bulk by about one-third, and the manure will
be fit for use. The manure thus obtained is said to be
greatly superior to ordinary farm dung. — II. T. P.
(C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
The " Bordeaux Mixture," a Remedy fir Vine Mildew and
Potato Disease. M. Ferret. " Standard " Agricultural
Reports.
An important communication was made by M. Michel
Perret at the recent meeting of the National Agricultural
Society of France in relation to the preparation of the
famous Bordeaux mixture in a form at once innocuous to
foliage, more speedily active than the ordinary mixture, and
April so, L89i.j THE JOUKN&L OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
365
less liable to be washed away by rain. It has been found
that the copper in the mixture is so slowly soluble that the
solution does not keep pace with the progress of vine mildew
or potato disease in the case of a virulent attack. More-
over, when sulphate of copper is simply mixed with water,
the acid salt, in drying, is concentrated, and iojures the
foliage to which the mixture has been applied. It has been
suggested that ammonia should be used to neutralise the
sulphate of copper, but the sulphate of ammonia thus
produced is nearly as injurious to the foliage as the sulphate
of copper is. Therefore it was desirable to find a harmless
dissolvent of the copper, and sugar, on account of its affinity
for the bases, suggested itself to SI. Perret. Accordingly
he set himself to obtain the solution of copper by forming
saccharate of lime, which he added to the sulphate of
copper, thus producing a double decomposition by the
reaction of the sulphuric acid on the lime, and by that of
the sugar on the copper, forming sulphate of lime and
soluble saccharate of copper. Now it is indispensable to
maintain an excess of lime in order that the mixture may
remain alkaline, and it is difficult to determine the limit of
saturation in making the ordinary Bordeaux mixture. But
where sugar is added a simple phenomenon gives certitude
on this point. The formation of saccharate of copper takes
place only in the presence of an excess of lime, and the
complete saturation of the copper is verified at the moment
when the mixture shows a blue tinge, the unsugared Bordeaux
mixture being colourless. Thus M. Perret has been able to
determine the correct proportions of the ingredients, and his
prescriptions, converted into Knglish quantities, will be
valuable to those who intend to make experiments during
the present season. Twenty pounds of quicklime are dis-
solved in 80 gallons of water, and to this solution 20 lb. of
molasses dissolved in 10 gallons of water are added, while
stirring briskly. Lastly, 20 lb. of sulphate of copper,
preciously dissolved in 10 gallons of water, are also added.
'Ihus, 100 gallons of a mixture are obtained which deposits
slowly, does not encumber the distributing machine, and yet
sticks well to the foliage, in spite of a moderate washing by
rain. The use of molasses instead of sugar causes the
mixture to assume a greenish hue.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Ortho-
oxydiphenyl-carbon Arid. ]'.. Willcox, Loudon. From
I" von Heytlen, Nachfolger, Badcbcul, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 5122. March 21, 1891.
See under IV., page 344.
Improvements in or Relating In the Manufacture of Disin-
fectant Tablets or Blocks, >r the like for Use in Water-
Closets, Urinals, Drains, and other Places or Articles.
H. B. Thornton, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 17,421, October 13,
1891.
The disinfectant blocks are prepared by mixing together
permanganate of potash, or other disinfectant, paraffin wax,
sulphate of calcium or any other suitable cement, and some
absorbent material such as asbestos, cotton yarn, pumice
stone, cinders, &c. The mixture is made into a paste with
sodium hydrate solution, and subsequently moulded into
blocks, tablets, or lozenges, &c. Sodium carbonate and
salt may be added to the mass at this stage in order to
increase the efficiency of the disinfectant. Afterwards the
blocks may be coated with paraffin wax or other material,
only a small portion of the surface being left bare to allow
the liquid in which the blocks are placed to get at the
internal substance. In use the blocks may be placed in the
tank or other receptacle itself, when the discharge is regular
and frequent, but when the discharge is irregular, as in the
case of water-closets, the tablet is preferably so arranged
that it conies into contact with the water only at each
emptying and filling of the cistern. — II. T. 1'.
An Improved Sheep Dip. A. Robertson, Oban. Eng.
Pat. 20,395, November 24, 1891.
The sheep dip in question forms a paste which is said to
be freely soluble in four times its bulk of water. From
the solution a "dip" maybe prepared combining all the
advantages of the simple " arsenical " and " carbolic " dips.
The paste is made from the following materials : —
l'arts.
" Arscnious acid 2
( larbocresylic oil 6>V
Carbolioacid 2
Rosin ami grease mixture ;{'
Soda lye li "
The rosin and grease mixture, previously heated nearly
to the boiling point, is boiled with a portion of the soda-
lye. The arseuious acid dissolved in the remaining lye is
then added and the whole thoroughly boiled. Finally the
earbocresylic oil and carbolic acid are added and well mixed
with the other ingredients by stirring. — II. T. P.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS.
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Excrescent Resins. M.Bamberger. Monatsh. 1891,12
441 — 463.
The author has previously examined a number of balsams
and resins with a view of determining the number of
"methoxyl" groups present (this Journal, 1889, 925, and
1890, 659), and in the present paper deals with the nature
of the constituents of the resins of the black fir, Pinus
Laricio, and of the pine, Picea vulgaris. Full details of
the physical nature of the two resins are given.
1. Resin of Pinus Laricio. — This resin is readily soluble
in alcohol and ether, almost insoluble in petroleum ether,
melts at about 100° C. and turns red on exposure to air.
It gives the reaction for phloroglueiuol. When it is dis-
solved in alcohol and the alcoholic solution treated with
steam until the alcohol has been distilled off, a portion of
the dissolved resin is precipitated whilst a portion goes into
solution which separates out in crystalline crusts on
standing. This extract, after careful purification, was found
to consist essentially of eaffeeic acid —
C6H3(OH = C!H.CO.OH)(OH)(OH) [1:3:4]
which fact was confirmed by converting the acid into its
diacetyl and dihydro-derivatives. Smaller quantities of
ferulie acid —
C6H"3(CH = CH.CO.OH)(OCH3)(OH) [1:3:4]
and of vanillin —
C6H3(COH)COCH3)(OH) [1:3: 4]
were also found in the above aqueous extract. When fused
with caustic potash the resin yields catechol and proto-
catcchuic acid, the latter resulting from the decomposition
of the ferulie acid.
2. Resin of Picea Vulgaris. — This melts at about 100° C.
and when treated with steam in alcoholic solution by the
above method, yields a solution from which a crystalline
residue results upon evaporation. This residue contains
para-cumaric acid —
C6H.,(CII=CH.CO.OH)(OH) [1:4]
and vanillin. The presence of ferulie acid could not be
ascertained with certainty, and in neither of the resins was
abietic acid found. On fusion with caustic potash catechol
together with a mixture of protocatechuic acid and para-
hydroxybeuzoie acid, appear to result. — C. A. K.
366
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 30, 1892.
The Substances contained in the Petals of Gentiana verna.
<;. Goldschmiedt and B. Jahoda. Monatsh. 1891, 12,
479—485.
The petals of Gentiana verna, when extracted with 80 per
cent, alcohol, yield a reddish violet solution, from which a
dark red sticky mass results on evaporating off the alcohol.
This residue is partially dissolved by water, the colouring
matter of the solution being precipitated on the addition of
lead acetate ; the filtrate from the colouring matter, which
itself could not be examined owing to the readiness with
which it decomposes, appears to contain a mixture of sugars
-- probably glucose and levulose. The portion of the
extract insoluble in water consists of a mixture of three
compounds — one of which preponderates considerably, and
which can be separated by fractional crystallisation from
alcohol. To this chief constituent the name of Gentiol is
given. It is a white amorphous powder, melting at 215° —
219D C, and which, according to analysis and a molecular
freight determination by the cryoscopic method in phenol
solution, has the formula C30HJSO;1. It forms a tri-aeetyl
compound, and is therefore to be regarded as a trihydroxy-
compound, ( ;ilII,,(OH)3. On oxidation it yields an acid,
melting at 127D C, the composition of which was not ascer-
tained owing to lack of material. When distilled over zinc-
dust in an atmosphere of hydrogen a greenish oil having a
tarry smell is formed, which boiled at 210J C. under a
pressure of 22 mm. The second body occurring in the
above residue forms white crystalline plates, melting at
215'— 217° C. to which the formula C3sHw03 is assigned
from analysis, and a determination of the molecular weight.
A third substance consisting of a yellow amorphous powder,
melting at 240° C, was also isolated from the mixture, but
in too small quantity for further examination. — C. A. K.
Contributions to the Knowledge of the Aconite Alkaloids.
Part II. The Alkaloids of True Aconitum napellus.
W. II. Dunstan and J. C. Umney. Proc. Chem. Soc. 192
[108], 42—44.
The authors have examined the alkaloids of true Aconitum
napellus plants grown by E. M. Holmes at the instance
of the British Pharmaceutical Conference. The alkaloids
were extracted from the roots by the following process,
which precludes the possibility of the occurrence of hydro-
lysis, &c. : — The solution obtained by percolating with cold
rectified fusel oil (boiling point 100° — 132°) was agitated
with water acidified with 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and
the resin having been removed by extracting the acid
solution so obtained with chloroform, the liquid was made
just alkaline with dilute ammonia and extracted with ether,
which dissolved out a considerable quantity of alkaloid, but
kit in solution a further and smaller quantity, which was
subsequently extracted by agitation with chloroform. The
alkaloid soluble in ether was obtained as a gum-like mass
iucapable of crystallisation. By conversion into bromhydride
it was separated into a crystallisable and an uncrystallisable
salt.
The crystalline product was identified as the salt of
aconitine, the crystalline and highly toxic alkaloid already
described by one of the authors and Dr. W. H. Ince
(( '. S. Trans. 1891). The alkaloid separated from the pure
bromhydride melted at 188-5° (corr.), and afforded on
combustion numbers agreeing with the formula C'33H.l5N012.
The specific rotation of the bromhydride in aqueous solution
was ascertained to be [a] D — 29 • 65, a value which agrees
with that previously recorded. As some doubt exists as to
the solubility of aconitine in water, a determination was
carefully made with this pure specimen. The mean of two
determinations gave 1 grin, in 4,431 grms. of water as the
solubility at 22° ; Jiirgens had previously recorded the far
greater solubility of 1 in 745 at the same temperature.
The non-crystalline bromhydride furnished a gummy
alkaloid soluble in ether and alcohol, but only sparingly
soluble iu water, the aqueous solution being alkaline to
litmus, and very bitter, but not giving rise to the tingling
sensation so characteristic of aconitine. Not only the
alkaloid, but also the chlorhydride, sulphate, nitrate, and
aurichloride prepared from it could not be crystallised.
This alkaloid is not identical either with aconine or with the
picraconitine of Wright and Luff. The authors propose to
assign to it the name napelline, which was first given to the
alkaloid now known as pseudaconitine, and afterwards by
Hubschmann to a substance which the work of Wright and
Luff showed to be a mixture chiefly composed of aconine.
The napelline obtained in the manner described is probably
associated with another amorphous alkaloid.
The alkaloid soluble in chloroform was proved to be
aconine, the compound which is obtained together with
benzoic acid on hydrolysing aconitine.
The roots of true Aconitum napellus, therefore, must lie
held to contain three alkaloids, one of which is crystalline,
viz., aconitine, two being amorphous, viz., napelline and
aconine. Indications have been obtained of the presence of
a fourth alkaloid, which is amorphous and closely resembles
napelline.
The authors find that the juice expressed from the roots
contains a large proportion of amorphous bases, but very
little aconitine, the greater part of this latter remaining in
the root, from which it may be extracted, together with the
remainder of the amorphous alkaloids, by exhausting with
ainyl alcohol. The total quantity of amorphous alkaloid
obtained amounted to more than twice that of aconitine.
The physiological results so far obtained point to the
conclusion that crystalline aconitine is by far the most toxic
of the alkaloids contained in Aconitum napellus.
Contributions to our Knowledge of the Aconite Alkaloids.
Part III. The Formation and Properties of Aconine
and its Conversion into Aconitine. W. K. Dunstan and
V. W. Passmore. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [108], 44—46.
( »\vi\(; to the uncertainty wdiich exists with reference to the
product of the hydrolysis of aconitine, the authors have re-
investigated the subject, using a pure alkaloid. Wright and
Lutt' have stated that when aconitine is hydrolysed the sole
products are aconine and benzoic acid. More recently,
however, Dragendorff and Jiirgens have asserted that the
hydrolysis occurs iu two stages, their contention being that
benzoic acid and an alkaloid identical with the picraconitine
isolated by Wright and Luff from the roots of supposed
Aconitum napellus are formed in the first stage, while in the
second stage the picraconitine is hydrolysed into benzoic
acid, methyl alcohol, and aconine, which last is the final
product of hydrolysis.
The authors have carefully hydrolysed pure aconitine by
heating it with water iu closed tubes at 150', and the
alkaloid extracted from the solution by ether was proved to
be a mixture of aconine with unaltered aconitine. Using
pure aconitine, action occurs precisely in accordance with
the equation C^H^NO,., + HaO = C:6H4lX()n + C7H6Oa,
leaving little doubt that aconitine is benzoylaconine.
Anhydroaeonitine was obtained by the interaction of
aconine and ethylic benzoate at 130°; as the anhydro-
compound is convertible into aconitine, the partial synthesis
of the alkaloid thus effected leaves no doubt that it is
benzoylaconine.
LTp to the present time neither aconine nor its salts have
been obtained in a crystalline state. The authors have
hitherto been unsuccessful iu all their attempts to crystallise
aconine, but they have succeeded in crystallising several of
its salts, viz., the chlorhydride, bromhydride, sulphate, and
nitrate. All these salts are very soluble in water, the
chlorhydride being least soluble and the easiest to
crystallise ; it is best prepared by crystallisation from a
mixture of alcohol and ether ; when dried at 100° it melts
at 175'5° (corr.). The crystals deposited from alcohol
have the composition C;GHuNOu, HC1, 2 H3( >. When dried
at 100J they still retain one molecular proportion of water,
which is, however, lost at 120°. The aqueous solution is
kevorotatory : [a]„ = — 7'71°. It combines with uurie
chloride forming an aurichioride considerably more soluble
than the corresponding aconitine salt.
Aconine was prepared from the pure chlorhydride by
adding silver sulphate and subsequent treatment of the
aconine sulphate with exactly sufficient baryta water. The
solution on evaporation furnished a hygroscopic, brittle gum
April s», 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
367
which refused to crystallise; this melted at 132° (corr.),
and on analysis it afforded numbers agreeing with the
formula C^.H^NO,,, which is that proposed by Dunstan
and luce from the results of their study of pure aconitine.
Aconine is very soluble in water ; the aqueous solution is
alkaline. Its aqueous solution is slightly bitter and gives
rise to a burning sensation in the mouth, but does not
produce the tingling which is characteristic of aconitine.
Iu respect of its action on polarised light aconine exhibits
the same peculiarity as aconitine. Its salts are lasvo-
rotatory, whilst a solution of the alkaloid is dextrorotator}',
[a]„ + 23°. When heated with alkalis aconine slowly
resinities.
The examination of various agents on aconine has so far
not led to any important results. Nitrous acid fails to
attack it. The principal product of its oxidation by
alkaline permanganate is oxalic oxide.
By the action of methyl iodide on aconitine a crystalline
aconitine methiodide (C^H^NO^.CHjl) was obtained,
which melts at 219° (corr.). The aconitine methydroxide
prepared from the compound (C,,H4-X( )|L,.C'H,OH) is
amorphous, and the salts which it yields do not appear to
crystallise,
A Study of the Conditions which determine Combination
between the Cyanides of Zinc and Mercury : and of the
Composition and Properties of the Resulting Uonble
Salt. W. E. Dunstan. Proc' Chem. Soc. 1892 [109],
51—53.
\\'ni:x a solution of zinc sulphate is added to a solution of
mercuric potassium cyanide [HgK2(CN)4], or when
mercuric chloride is added to a solution of zinc potassium
cyanide [ZnK.,(CN).,], a white precipitate is formed which
lias been stated, on the authority of Gmelin, to consist of a
double cyanide of zinc and mercury of the formula
ZuHg(CN)4. This, the author has shown, is not the case
(1'harm. J. 3, 20, 653; J. Chem. Soc. Abstr. 1890, 855). The
precipitate loses a large quantity of mercuric cyanide when
it is washed with cold water, some, however, remaining
attached to the cyanide of zinc. Previous experiments
seemed to point to the conclusion that the mercuric cyanide
thus retained is not combined, but in some manner mechani-
cally entangled by the zinc cyanide. This view is, however,
disposed of by further experiments, of which an account is
now given.
The precipitate is in many respects a remarkable sub-
stance. The amount of mercuric cyanide "retained" is
dependent on the amount of water present during precipita-
tion, as well as on the proportion in which the salts
interact; the maximum quantity retained is 38'5 per cent.
Zinc cyanide having this percentage of mercuric cyanide
attached to it in such a form that it canuot be removed by
ordinary washing with cold water is precipitated when cold
saturated solutions of the two salts are mixed in equi-
molecular proportions. The washed precipitate is amor-
phous. Prolonged contact with cold water leads to the
gradual removal of mercuric cyanide. lioiling water
dissolves the mercuric salt more rapidly. A cold solution
of potassium iodide readily dissolves the mercuric cyanide
with the formation of the soluble double salt Hg(CN)2.2 KI.
A series of experiments in which the masses of the inter-
acting salts were varied proved that a compound of the two
cyanides is formed, and suffers decomposition to a greater
or less extent, depending on the relative amount of water
present. An examination of the curves plotted from these
results leads to the inference that the composition of the
double salt is expressed by the formula Zn4Hg(CN)10, that
is to say, the two cyanides are present in it in the propor-
tion Zn(CN);, | Hg(CN)». Such a salt contains 40-G per
cent, of mercuric cyanide. It canuot be obtained pure,
since it is decomposed by water, and it can only be produced
by precipitation of aqueous solutions. Under the most
favourable circumstances, when the quantity of water
present is reduced to a minimum, a substance containing
98 per cent, of the double cyanide is obtained ; the
remaining 2 per cent, consists of zinc cyanide, resulting
from the decomposition of some of the double salt by water,
the mercuric cyanide being dissolved, whilst the insoluble
zinc cyanide remains mixed with the double salt. All
attempts to prepare the double cyanide by other methods
than that of precipitation have failed. Fundamental
molecules of zinc cyanide and mercuric cyanide must
apparently be present, in order that combination may occur.
The aggregates of fundamental molecules [Zn(CN)3]n and
[Hg(CN)o].,, which constitute the solid salts, show no
tendency to combine. No evidence is forthcoming of the
existence of any other compound of the two cyanides than
that now described. No similar compound of zinc cyanide
with other metallic cyanides than that of mercury could be
obtained.
This tetrazincic monomercurideeacyanide, mixed with
more or less zinc cyanide, has been found by Sir Joseph
Lister to be an admirable surgical antiseptic, and it is at his
suggestion that the inquiry was undertaken.
A full account of the best method of preparing the salt
is given in the author's previous paper (J. Chem. Soc.
Abstr. 1890, 855).
In the discussion following, Sir Joseph Lister said that
the great value of the salt arose from the circumstance
that while equally effective as an antiseptic, it had none of
the irritant qualities of mercuric cyanide ; and its slight
solubility was an advantage. When mercuric chloride was
used, it was liable, on the one hand, to be washed awa\ by
the discharges, and, on the other, to accumulate until a
solution was formed which was so concentrated that it
caused great irritation.
^-Pyridine and Piperidine Bases. C. Stoehr. J. Prakt.
Chem. 1892, 45, 20—47.
By heating a mixture of glycerol and ammonium phosphate,
/3-methyl pyridine results, as has been shown by the
experiments of P. Schwarz (Per. 1891, 24, 1676) and of
L. Storch (Per. 1886, 19, 2456). The reaction is a
complex one, and a number of basic products result in
addition to the j8-inethyl pyridine, including ,8-ethyl aud
perhaps /3-propyl pyridine ; also a considerable quantity
of pyridine itself is formed and bases containing 2 atoms
of nitrogen, which are to be regarded as homologues of
the diazine C4H4N... Only traces of a-pyridine bases
result, which is of interest since the bases obtained from
animal oils, the formation of which is to be traced to the
glycerol of the fats in the animal residues, consist essentially
of these a-bases. The mixture of bases obtained by the
distillation of glycerol and ammonium phosphate boil
between 120° C. and 250° C. The most volatile portion of
the oil (up to 120° C.) contains the pyridine, that from
120^ — -140° C. a mixture of pyridine and /3-methyl pyridine
together with a small quantity of a-methyl pyridine, and
that from 1403— 150° C. the bulk of the /3-methyl pyridine,
which was isolated by means of its mercuric double chloride.
The free base boils at 143° — 143-2' C, and has the
sp. gr. 0-9748 at 0° C. It is soluble in water in all propor-
tions on gentle warming, combines with methyl iodide to a
crystalline ammonium iodide, which is readdy soluble in
water and is carbonised when heated with bromine. The
base obtained by the distillation of strychnine and of brucine
with lime is identical with the above in every respect.
The platinum double chloride of /3-methyl pyridine —
(C6H;N . HC1)2 . Pt . Cl4 . H30
forms mouocliuic crystals, which lose their water of
crystallisation over sulphuric acid and melt with decom-
position at 201°— 202° C. When gently heated, the salt
gives up hydrochloric acid to form the platino-salt,
(( ,1 L7 X ).2l*t014, a pale yellow crystalline precipitate, almost
insoluble in water. The mercuric chloride double salt,
CH7.X.HCl.HgCl2, crystallises in needles from solutions
containing 2 — 3 per cent, of free hydrochloric acid, and
melts at 146° C. The zinc chloride and silver nitrate
double salts, 2 (C6H-.N)ZnClo and 3 (C6H;N') . AgN03, are
also characteristic. y8-methyl pyridine does not condense
with aldehydes, differing in this from the isomeric a- and
7-hases.
On reduction with sodium amalgam in alcoholic solution,
/3-methyl piperidine, CCHI2NH, is formed. This is a
:J'38
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 30; 1892
colourless oil, boiling at 1253 — 126° C, and having a specific
gravity of 0-8635 at 0° C. Its salts with mineral acids are
characterised by being readily soluble in water, whilst the
double salts are also considerably more soluble than those
of the corresponding pyridine base.
fi-etlujl Pyridine, CsH4(C2Hb)N') is contained in the
portion of the mixture got Dy the distillation of glycerol
and ammonium phosphate, boiling at 160° — 166c C., and is
best isolated by means of its mercuric double salt, which
closely resembles the corresponding fl-methyl pyridine salt,
and which melts without decomposition at 131" — 132° C.
The free base boils at 165 C, and has the sp.gr. 0-9585
at 0°. It is a colourless, highly refractive liquid, con-
siderably less soluble in water than the methyl base, and
readily volatile with steam. Its salts with mineral acids
are very hygroscopic, but the base forms well-defined
double salts with mercuric chloride, platinie chloride, auric
chloride, silver nitrate, and with picric acid. On oxidation
with potassium permanganate, nieotiuic acid results. The
base obtained by distilling brucine with lime, together with
/3-methyl pyridine, is y8-ethyl pyridine, which is identical
with the product from glycerol in every respect. /3-ethyl
pyridine forms a crystalline ammonium iodide, the cadmium
iodide double salt of which is characteristic. On reduction
/3-ethvl piperidine, C5Ha(C2H5)NH, is formed, which boils
at 154 — 155" and has a sp". gr. 0-8711 at 0° C. the hydro-
chloride of which is readily soluble both in water and in
alcohol. Other salts of the base are described. The
physiological action of /3-methyl- and ethyl piperidine was
tried on white mice by subcutaneous injection, the bases
being employed in the form of their hydrochlorides. They
both act similarly to conine. The breathing is gradually
slowed after being first stimulated, and this action is then
followed b_v flowing of saliva and clonic spasms, finally
producing death. The fatal dose is greater in the case of
the methyl base, the relative intensity of the action as
compared with that of conine being 7" 1 to 1 in the case of
fl-methyl pyridine and G'2 to 1 in that of /3-ethvl pyridine.
— C. A. K.
Synthesis of Oxygenated Pyrazolc Derivatives. L.
Lederer. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45, 83—94.
The synthetical methods emplo3'ed for the preparation of
antipyrine have led the author to study the action of phenyl-
hydrazine in j8-halogen substituted fatty acids. Condensa-
tion takes place between tin/ amidohydrogen of the phenyl-
hydrazine and the halogen atom of the substituted acid,
an assymmetric derivative of the fatty acid with phenyl-
hydrazine being first formed, which readily condenses to
a pyrazolone from which an isomer of antipyrine can be
prepared.
fl-brombutyric acid in the form of its potassium salt was
employed as the starting point, and this when treated with
phenylhydrazine yields assymmetric phenylhydrazine butyric
acid.
This acid forms glittering plates when crystallised from
alcohol, which melt at 111 C. and when heated with
concentrated sulphuric acid to 100° O. yielded phenyl-
niethyl-isobydro-pyrazolone which can be extracted with
chloroform after neutralising the product of the reaction
with ammonia.
It forms colourless crystals which melt at 127° O when
crystallised from alcohol ; from benzene solution it some-
times separates in an unstable form consisting of colourless
crystals which readily change into a stable pale red-coloured
modification. With silver nitrate a blue colour resembling
Pyrazole blue is formed. When methylated a readily soluble
product results, which tastes something like antipyrine.
This substance is under investigation. A mono-acetyl
derivative melting at 79 is easily obtained in the normal
way- When oxidised with a dilute aqueous solution of ferric
chloride, phenyl-methyl-isopyrazolone is formed, which is
best extracted with chloroform. It is readily soluble in
benzene, chloroform, and alcohol, and like the hydro-base
exists iu two modifications, the unstable form melting at
1.J7 O, the stable form at 167° C. When heated in methyl
alcohol solution iu a sealed tube to 100° with an excess of
methyl iodide phenyl-dimethyl-iso-pyrazolone the isomer of
antipj'rice is formed, which is also extracted from alkaline
solution by chloroform. Iso-antipyrine is readily soluble
in water and in alcohol, soluble in chloroform and in hot
benzene, difficultly soluble in ether. From the last it
separates in tables which melt at 113"'. It is a strong base
closely resembling antipyrine in its behaviour with reagents.
The platinum double chloride is more soluble in water than
that of antipyrine, but both melt at the same temperature —
192° C. The picvate is, like that of antipyrine, with difficulty
soluble in water ; it forms pale yellow needles which melt
at 1 68 J C. ; antipyrine picrate melts at 187 C. Potassium
ferroeyanide gives a white crystalline precipitate in slightly
acid solution of the base, ferric chloride gives a dark
red colouration and bromine is absorbed by a glacial
acetic acid solution of iso-autipyrme, a crystalline product
separating on standing.
Iu all these reactions the base behaves just like antipyrine.
The salicylate, of iso-antipyrine is difficultly soluble in water
and does not crystallise as readily as the corresponding salt
of antipyrine. The dilute slightly acid solution is coloured
emerald green by sodium nitrite, and in more concentrated
solution a precipitate of the nitroso-body is formed which,
when pure, consists of moss-green needles which decompose
at 155° C. Like nitroso-antipyiine, this body gives Lieber-
manu's nitroso reaction. Iso-antipyrine is less stable towards
nitric acid than antipyrine ; the nitro-compound formed
melts at 210° C. Both antipyrine and iso-antipyrine melt
at 113° and resemble one another exactly in their solubilities.
They are both separated from their aqueous solutions on
the addition of caustic soda as oils which are readily taken
up by ether. Iso-antipyrine is also a powerful antipyretic.
The constitutional formula' for the two bases are : —
CH3N
OC
C6H5
I
N
/\
CSHS
C.CH3
ICH
Iso-antipyrini .
(Phenyl-diuietliyl-isopyrazolone.)
Antipyrine.
(Phenyl-dimethyl-pyrazolone.)
The reactions involved in this preparation have been
patented in Germany, 1). 1!. P. .r>3,8:U, October 1889.
— C. A. K.
Dextro-rotatory Terpene from the Leaves of the Siberian
Cedar (Pinvs cembra). F. Hawitskv. .1. Prakt.
Chem. 1892,45, 115—123.
The complete analogy in the properties and reactions of
the dextro- and laevo-rotatory terpenes from both Russian
and French turpentine oil render it highly probable that the
rotatory powers of these two modifications of terpenes are
equal and opposite although the laevo-rotatory terpene from
French oil has a specific rotatory power [a]D = — 43-3G .
and the dextro-rotatory terpene from Russian oil a rotatory
power of only + 32"00°. The method of isolation of the
terpenes from the two oils may explain this difference, but
even when the latter was purified by distillation with steam
and subsequent fractionation its specific rotatory power was
only brought up to + 37- 8°. The author has, therefore,
examined the oil of the Siberian cedar with the view of
obtaining a purer dextro-rotatory terpene. The purified
terpene boils at 156° under 753 mm. pressure (eorr.), and
has a specific rotatory power [a]„ = + 45 '04. It yields a
crystalline hydrochloride Ci0H16HCI, which melts at 125
and a bromide, ('1((Iflt;Pr,, which could not be obtained in a
solid form. With alcoholic sulphuric acid a hydrate,
CHIHlr,Il„0, boiling at 210° C. and [possessing all the
properties of the hydrate of dextro-rotatory terpene, results.
The chemical and optical properties of the above
substances together with measurements of the latter are
fully detailed in the paper, together with the method of
isolation and purification of the oil. — C. A. K.
Ajwil 80, 1892.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
369
The Terpenes of the Oil from the Resin of the Pine
(Pinus-atoes). B. Kuriloff. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45,
12:; — 133.
The oil obtained from the resin of Pinus abies consists
of an optically inactive terpene and a dextro-rotatory
isoterpene. The former hoils or 1 573 (corr.) under 76U mm.
pressure and forms a hydrochloride, C10H16.HC1, melting at
126"5° C. The isoterpene, which forms about 2 per cent, of
the oil. boils at 176-7" (corr.) under 772 mm. pressure and
has a specific rotatory power [o]„ = — 47-5°. Its hydro-
chloride, C10H162HC1, crystallised from alcohol, melts at
48j°(_'. The paper contains full details of the properties,
densities and refractive powers of the two substances.
— C. A. K.
PATENTS.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture or Production of
certain Phosphorus Compounds. P. G. W. Typke, New
Maiden. Eng. Pat. 2,252, February 7, 1891.
Tin. phosphoretted hydrogen given off in the manufacture
of the hypophosphites is recovered and converted into
phosphorus according to the following process. The gases
and steam evolved in the manufacture are tirst cooled and
the greater portion of the steam thus condensed. The
cooled gases are then led through tubes or retorts made of
tircr lay or of iron filled with pumice stone, coke, or other
suitable material which will stand a high temperature and
which will not combine either with phosphoretted hydrogen
or with its decomposition products. The hydride of
phosphorus is thus completely dissociated ; the vapours of
phosphorus are condensed in suitable receivers whilst the
hydrogen is allowed to escape. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Production and Separation of Methyl-
amines, Kthylamines, Phenylamines, and Naphthyl-
amines. R. Vidal, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 3622,
February 27, 1891.
■See under lY.,page 344.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Orlho-
oxydipkenyl-carbon Acid. B. Willcox, London. From
F. von Heyden, Nachfolger, Kadebeul, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 5122, March 21, 1891.
.See under IV., page 344.
Processfor the Production of Mono- Bromo- and Di-bromo-
para-o.vy-benzoic Acid, suitable for Conversion into
Protocatechuic Acid, Pyrocatechin, and the like. J. Y.
Johnson, London. From F. von Heyden, Nachfolger,
Radebeul, Germany. Eng. Pat. 5184, March 23, 1891.
Mcj.no-bromparahydroxybenzoic acid is prepared by
treating the free acid or its alky] ester with one molecular
proportion of bromine, in glacial acetic acid solution. The
dibromo substitution product is obtained by the action of
the calculated quantity of bromine on the alkyl esters of
the acid dissolved in caustic soda. The free acid, vhen
thus treated, yields tribromopheuol. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Formation of Ozone in presence of
Air or Oxygen, and Apparatus therefor. A. Schneller
and YV. F.W'isse, The Hague, Holland. Eng. Pat. 5222,
March 24, 1891.
See under XI., page 354.
Improvements in the Production of Salicylic-Acid Derivatives
containing Chlorine and Sulphur. J. Y. Johnson,
London. From F. von Heyden, Nachfolger, Radebeul,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 5263, March 24, 1891.
DiTHKi-sAi.ti Yur acid results when two molecular pro-
portions of salicylic acid are treated with one molecular
portion of chloride of sulphur (S; CI.) by the method
described in a previous patent (Eng Pat. 14,443 of
1888). If double the above proportion of chloride of
sulphur be employed, and the mixture heated to 100° —
150° C. a mixture of derivatives of salicylic acid result
more highly sulphurised than the dithio-salicylie acid, ami
which also contain a portion of the hydrogen substituted
by chlorine. When not less than four molecular proportions
of the chloride of sulphur to two of salicylic acid are used,
a simple body results which from analysis appears to be a
a tetrathio-dichloro salicylic acid, having the following
formula : —
HO.OCC1.HC,
/
S
'\
C5H.Cl.CO.OH
The free acid forms a clear yellow amorphous mass,
insoluble in cold water, readily soluble in ether, alcohol, &c.
The alkali salts and the magnesium salt are readily soluble
in water, whilst the salts with the heavy metals and with
the alkaline earths are yellow to grey-coloured precipitates.
— C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Aromatic Glycocol
Derivatives. W. Majert, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat
5269, March 24, 1891.
Two products have been shown to be formed by the action
of ammonia on chloro- or bromo-acetanilide, viz. :— Glycocol
anilide and di-glycocol anilide. These same bodies are
formed when the esters of glycocol or glycocol amide are
treated with a primary aromatic amine, according to the
following equations : —
NH2.CH2.CO.OCH3 + CCH5.NH2 =
C6H5.NH.CO.CH2.NH, + CH3.OH
or —
NH2.CH2.CO.NH2 + CCH5.NH2 =
C6H5.NH.CO.CH2.NH2 + NH3
The resulting products are readily soluble in water and
alcohol, less soluble in ether, benzene or petroleum ether ;
the derivatives obtained from the di-alkylated primary
amines are insoluble in water. They are all strong bases,
which absorb carbonic acid readily from the air and
combine with acids to form stable salts. The salts are
decomposed by ammonia in the cold, but hot solutions of
ammonium salts are decomposed by the free bases.
The di-glycocol derivatives are very weak bases and
their salts dissociate in aqueous solution.
The products are best prepared by the action of alcoholic
ammonia on bromacetanilide and its homologues, or by
treating the methyl or ethyl ester or the amide of glycocol
with the amine. In this way the following bodies have
been obtained, the physical properties of which are
described in the patent : — Glycocolanilide, dimethyl
glycocolanilide, glycocol-toluide (ortho, meta, and para),
glycocolanisidine (ortho, meta, and para), glycocol-
phenetidine (ortho, meta, and para), and glycocol-
diphenylamine.— C. A. K.
Production of Basic Gallate of Bismuth. (J. Imrav,
London. From the " Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briining," Hoechst-am-Maine, Germany
Eng. Pat. 6234, April 11, 1891.
Neutral bismuth nitrate in nitric acid solution is treated
with gallic acid dissolved in 70 per cent, alcohol and caustic
alkali or alkali carbonate added to the resulting mixture
until the whole remains but slightly acid. On the addition
of sodium acetate or on dilution with water a yellow
precipitate of basic bismuth gallate is formed, having the
composition Bi(OH)2CO.()Cr,H2(OH):l. It is insoluble in
water and in dilute acids. Neutral soluble salts of gallic
acid may be substituted for the free acid in the preparation.
— C. A. K.
370
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 30, iS92.
Improvement in and Relating to the Production of a Solu-
tion of Myrrhie Resin. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool.
From A. Fliigge, Frankfort-on-Maine, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 6306, April 13, 1891.
Myers is a gum resin containing about 30 — 35 per cent, of
resin, 3 per cent, of ethereal oil, and 63 per cent, of gum.
Hitherto strong alcohol has been the only known solvent for
the resin, but the patentee finds that a solution of four parts
of castor oil to one part of alcohol dissolves the resin
completely when digested with it in a closed vessel for eight
days. The solution obtained is perfectly clear, of a light
brown colour and of an agreeable aromatic smell. A similar
solution can be got by treating the alcoholic extract of the
resin with castor oil and then evaporating off the former
solvent. The solution can be diluted with other oils or
fats, and can be employed for embalming and preserving
purposes, which is not the case with alcoholic solutions of
the resin, the resin being separated from the latter
ininiediatelv on contact with water. — ('. A. K.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of
Hydrazine or Diumidogen and its Salts. .1. Y. Johnson,
London. From the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik,
Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 6786, April 20,
1891. (Second Edition.)
The preparation of hydrazine, NH3— NHj, starts from
guanidine either in the form of thiocyanate or of carbonate
■which is converted into a nitro-compound by the action of
nitric acid preferably in presence of sulphuric acid.
The product of the reaction is poured into water,
when the nitro-guinidine separates and may be purified
by recrvstallisation from water. Other salts of guanidine
can be substituted for the above and nitrates can
be employed in place of nitric acid. The nitro-com-
pound is then reduced to the corresponding amido-guauidine,
zinc-dust or iron filings in presence of dilute acid or else
sodium amalgam being used. The solution of the resulting
salt of amido-guauidine is then concentrated, and may be
purified by converting it into the sulphate, which is
difficultly soluble. By tbe action of alkalis, the hydrates
of the alkaline earths, mineral acids or water under pressure,
tbe amido-guauidine is decomposed with the liberation of
ammonia and of carbon dioxide and the formation of
hydrazine. This decomposition is effected in a vessel
attached to an upright condenser. The hydrazine can be
precipitated as sulphate by means of sulphuric acid, or it
can be purified by other known means such as distillation
and subsequent conversion into any desired salt.
Hydrazine is capable of use in the production of_ various
chemical and pharmaceutical compounds. — C. A. K.
iodine in heating, are insoluble in water, but dissolve
readily in olive oil, ether, and chloroform, somewhat less
readily in alcohol, benzene and petroleum ether. Like the
iodine derivatives previously described, these new products
are used for medioal purposes.^**, A- K
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
An Exact and Convenient Method for the Determination
of Vapour Densities. C. Schall. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892,
45, 131—144.
The method, which applies also to the determination of
vapour densities under greatly reduced pressure, depends
upon the measurement of the depression of a column of
mercury placed in manometer produced by the vapour of
the substance, this pressure being compared with that
produced by the decomposition of a known weight of pure
sodium carbonate when decomposed by dilute sulphuric
acid. The apparatus consists of a three-bulbed vessel
heated in a suitable bath and connected by a T-piece on
the one hand to the manometer, and on the other hand to a
tube leading to a pump. The substance is clamped
between the two ends of a tube above the bulbed vessel
previously to introducing it into the latter. The vessel for
decomposing the sodium carbonate is attached to the
tube leading to the manometer by a second T-piece. The
whole apparatus is first exhausted, then the carbonate
decomposed, and finally the substance introduced, measure-
ments of the pressure exerted by the carbon dioxide in the
first case, and by the vapour of the substance in the other
being taken. The vapour density is then calculated
according to the formula—
-,, _ u * '< IOC - 1/528
Where g' = weight of substance.
( . weight of carbonate.
h - pressure due to carbon dioxide.
h' — pressure due to substance.
1 • 32S = specific gravity of CO., compared with air.
44 = molecular weight of CO».
106 = molecular weight of Na3C03.
Full details of the method, together ~ith a sketch of the
apparatus, are given in the paper. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Iodine Substitution
Products of Phenols and Cresols. B. Willcox, London.
From the " Farbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer & Co.,"
Elberfeld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7026, April 23, 1891.
By acting with iodine in presence of alkali on certain
phenols the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl group is replaced
by iodine as already described in previous patents. (Eng.
Pat. 5079, March 23, 1889. and Eng. Pat. 18,021, November
8, 1890 ; this Journal, 1890, 412.) The phenols previously
employed were phenol, cresol, thymol, para-isobutylphenol,
para-isobutylorthocresol, and para-isobutylmetacrcsol. The
present specification covers the preparation of similar pro-
ducts from ethyl, propyl, and amyl phenol, methyl, ethyl
and amyl cresols and propyl cresols, isomeric with thymol
and carvacrol. Amyl phenol is obtained by heating phenol
auivl alcohol with zinc chloride and the other substituted
phenols are similarly prepared by heating the phenol with
the alcohol in presence of zinc chloride. The resulting
phenol is separated by the addition of alkali and purified by-
fractional distillation after the addition of acid. The iodine
derivatives are obtained by treating a solution of the phenol
iu alkali with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide, in the
form of yellow amorphous precipitates. They give off
INORGANIC < 1IKMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
The Solubility of Sodium Carbonate and of Sodium
Bicarbonate in Solutions of Sodium Chloride. K. Keich.
Monatsh. 1891, 12, 464— 4-, 3.
See under VII. , pages 346 — 317.
The Quantitative Determination of Arsenic by the Ber-
zelivs-Marsh process, especially as applied to the
Analysis of Wall Papers and Fabrics. C. A. Sanger.
Amer. Chem. J. 1891, 13, 431—453.
The object of the author was to obtain some method by
which a very small amount of arsenic might be estimated
without resorting to the usual quantitative methods which
require too much time for ordinary use.
The author's method of obtaining an approximate esti-
mate of the amount of arsenic present was suggested by
H. B. Hill, and consists, briefly, in the comparison of the
April 30, 18920 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Stt
minor obtained from an aliquot part of the solution with a
series of standard mirrors obtained from known weights of
arsenious oxide.
A known quantity of the paper is taken, the quantity
depending upon the probable quantity of arsenic present,
and upon the character of the paper (i.e., whether a plain
colour, a small or large pattern). The paper is measured by
means of thin glass plates cut to the required dimensions.
The author has used the following sizes : — 25 sq. cm.
(5x5); 50 sq. cm. (5 x 10,4 x 12 '5, 2 x 25); 100 sq.
cm. (10 x 10, 5 x 20, 4 x 25, 3 x 12-5, 2 x 50).
The paper is cut into small pieces and treated in a glazed
porcelain dish with strong sulphuric acid (1 to 5 cc), to which
has been added about one-thirtieth of its volume of strong
nitric acid. When the paper lias absorbed the acid, the
dish is heated over a low flame until the paper is thoroughly
charred, the mixture being continuously stirred with a
thick glass rod. In order to get rid of every trace of
nitric acid it is best on cooling to add a few cc. of water,
and heat again until sulphuric acid fumes appear. On
again cooling the "char" is moistened with about 5 cc.
of water, well triturated with the glass rod until all lumps
are thoroughly broken up, heated to boiling to expel
sulphur dioxide, and filtered hot, which is best done by
means of a filter-pump. After filtering the " char " is
washed with hot water, and after cooling the extract is
ready for weighing and introduction into the apparatus.
Any form of hydrogen generator may be used, but the
author prefers to use a modification of Hloxam's electro-
lytic method, in order to ensure a eontant supply. To
the delivery-tube is attached a two-way or a three-way
distributing tube according to the number of reduction
flasks to be used. The reduction flask is a wide-mouthed
bottle of about 75 cc. capacity, fitted with an india-rubber
cork pierced with three holes. Through one hole passes
a right-angled tube reaching to the bottom of the flask,
the other end being connected to the distribution tube
of tiie generator. Through the second hole is inserted the
right-angled delivery tube, reaching just below the cork,
and the third hole serves for the introduction of acid and
extract. A straight bulb drying-tube containing calcium
chloride is attached to the delivery, tube of the reduction-
flask, and to this drying-tube is attached the reduction-tube
of hard Bohemian glass. At the place where the arsenic
mirror is formed this tube is drawn out till the bore is from
1 ■ 5 mm. to 2 mm. This finely drawn part is bent slightly
upward and sealed.
The reagents and materials employed must be strictly
free from arsenic and the acid should be one part strong
acid in eight parts of water. In the reduction-flask are
placed not more than three grms. of zinc and about 20 cc.
of acid. The hydrogen is now turned on from the generator,
and lighted, the flame being not more than 1 to 2 mm. in
height, the evolution of hydrogen being kept at this rate
during the reduction. If the flask becomes heated it may
be placed in a basin through which a current of cold water
circulates. liefore adding the extract the author allows
the hydrogen to run for about 15 or 20 minutes to test for
arsenic, a lamp being held under the heating place. If the
apparatus is found free from arsenic a known portion of
the extract is added. If no mirror appears in three or
four minutes a further quantity is added, and the whole
may be introduced if no mirror appears in another five
minutes. When the size of the mirror formed in the first
15 minutes is not larger than that corresponding to
0-05 mgrm. of arsenious oxide, 25 minutes is sufficient for
the deposition of all the arsenic.
To make the standard mirrors the author takes 1 grm.
of pure arsenious oxide dissolved in water by means of
sodium bicarbonate and acidulated with sulphuric acid.
This is then made up to a litre and contains 1 mgrm. of
As203 to 1 cc. Ten cc. of this solution are then made up
to a litre forming a second solution containing 0-01 mgrm.
to 1 cc. Of this, 1 cc., 2 cc, 3 cc, &c. are carefully
measured into the reduction flask, giving mirrors corre-
sponding to the same number of hundredth-milligrammes.
Mirrors corresponding to lialf-hundredths may be made in
order to get a complete set.
For the purpose of comparison the author uses a tin
box shaped like a stereoscopic camera and painted black
inside. The standard mirrors are mounted, in order, on a
suitable slide, so that any pair of mirrors can be brought
under the eye-holes. The mirrors to be compared are also
mounted on a slide which can be inserted in the box above
the first, thus allowing each mirror to be brought between
a pair of the standard mirrors for comparison. J'he
calculation of the amount of arsenic in the area taken
follows from the determination of the amount in the aliquot
part of the solution. From this can be found the number
of milligrammes per square metre or of grains per square
yard.
The following table shows a comparison of the results
obtained by this method with those obtained by the
volumetric method : —
Mgrm. As.d,, per Squat
c Metre.
Number of Paper.
Berz. -Marsh. Volumetric.
:,■■::
8-8
!il
350
■J I'll
20-5
392
i ;-s
4ll-."i
39
6fJ
G7-.->
40:1
Tli'S
74-9
m
1111 -4
108"7
393
193-0
210-4
42
478-8
421-8
Hit
8 1-2-0
832-7
ljj
1527-1
1478-5
This table shows that the method not only gives an
approximation to the actual amount, but may be made with
care to give results comparable with those of other
quantitative methods.
The author thinks the process likely to be of great use in
toxieolo^ical work, being the only means of rapidly esti-
mating the amount of arsenic present when this is minute,
the arsenic being extracted by distillation. The limit of
arsenic that he has been able to detect by this method is
0-001 mgrm. As203 or 0-0007 As.— D. E. J.
The Volumetric Estimation of Mercury. Chapman Jones.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [108], 46—47.
The author has found the cyanide method of estimating
mercury suggested by Hannay (J. Chem. Soc. 1873, 565)
and modified by Tuson and Neison (J. Chem. Soc. 1877,
32, 673) to be unsatisfactory, the presence of carbon
dioxide interfering with the titration. If, however, instead
of adding the potassium cyanide solution until the turbidity
produced by ammonia disappears, the titration be finished
by adding, with certain precautions, a standard mercury
solution until a definite and permanent turbidity is pro-
duced, concordant results are readily obtained. The method
of working described is, if necessary, to separate the
mercury as sulphide, and dissolve the washed precipitate in
cold aqua regia, and to dilute and filter the solution. For
the titration, litmus extract is added and neutralisation
effected with solid potassium carbonate and hydrogen
chloride, and finally with dilute ammonia. Excess of the
cyanide solution is added, then a slight excess of ammonia,
and, lastly, a standard solution of mercuric chloride, until a
permanent turbidity is obtained, equal to that produced by
0 1 cc. of the mercury solution in water containing about
the same amounts of litmus and ammonia as the solution
which is being titrated.
372
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so, 1893.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITATIVE.
Snlphocyanogen in Coal-Gas. J. V. Esoo. Ohem. led.
1892, 15, 6-10.
See under II., pages 337 — 338.
The Composition of Turkey-red Oil. P. Juillard. Bull.
Soc. Chiin. 1891, 6, 638-656.
See under XII., pages 355 — 3.J7.
Report Pharmaceutical Conference, Halle. Chem. Zeit.
1891, 15, 1371—1376.
Among several papers read by Soltsien the following will
no doubt he found very interesting: —
1. Detection of Unsaponifiable Fats. — The process
recommended consists in treating with sulphuric acid and
shaking out with petroleum spirit.
2. Detection of Nitric Acid in Vinegar. — The tests
with brucine or diphecvlamine should always be applied
before giving an opinion.
3. Cinnamon Powder. — The author calls attention to the
enormous dilution with sugar.
4. Mace. — This is still adulterated wholesale with the
inferior Bombay article, and to improve it again a little
of a small proportion of nutmeg is added. It is a pity that
there exists as yet no reliable chemical test, so the expert
must rely on the microscope.
5. Cocoa. — This is mixed to such a large extent with
shells aud starch that it is often undeserving of the name.
— L. de K.
On the Nitrogenous Bases present in the Cotton Seed.
W. Maxwell. Amer. Chem. J. 1891, 13, 4G9-471.
Owing to the known poisonous character of choline the
author has endeavoured to find out whether choline and
betaine are present in the cotton seed from which various
cattle foods are prepared, both these alkaloidal principles
having been shown to be present iu the foods. 0-3 grm.
of choline is sufficient to paralyse a strong cat and 0*5 grm.
will produce immediate death. Betaine is generally
believed to be non-poisonous, but is usually found admixed
with choline. It is, therefore, very desirable to estimate the
quantities of these bodies present in cotton seed.
About 5 lb of fineby-grouml cotton-seed cakes are ex-
tracted with 70 per cent, alcohol, the extract distilled and
the residue taken up in water. On adding lead acetate to
this solution, a lead precipitate is thrown down which is
separated by filtration, and the filtrate is evaporated to a
syrup after the excess of lead has been removed from it.
The alkaloidal bodies are then taken up from this syrup in
a mixture of 70 per cent, alcohol aud 1 per cent, hydro-
chloric acid. This extract is treated with an alcoholic
solution of mercuric chloride, and immediately an almost
pure white double salt of the nitrogenous bases begins to
separate out. After standing for 10 days the crystals are
separated from the liquid, from which more crystals can be
obtained after some weeks. After recrystallisatiou from
water the salt is decomposed by means of hydrogen
sulphide, the mercury sulphide being removed by filtration.
The filtrate containing the hydrochlorides of the bases is
slowly evaporated to a small volume, and then placed iu a
desiccator over sulphuric acid until crystallisation of the
salts is complete. The crystals are free from colour and
well-developed. After drying they are saturated with
absolute alcohol in which the choline salt dissolves along
with a small proportion of the betaine salt. 7-248 grms.
of the crystals were treated with alcohol, aud the extract
evaporated to dryness and re-extracted three times to
obtain the choline salt free from betaine. The following
were the results : —
Choline hydrochloride = 1' 08 gnus.
Betaine „ 6 '168 grms.
Choline and betaine appeared to be present in the sample
of cattle food used by the author in the relative proportions
of 17 '5 per cent, choline to 82-5 per cent, betaine.
The alcoholic solution of the choline salt was treated
with platinum chloride, and a platinum double salt of
choline obtained. From this an aqueous solution of choline
hydrochlorate was obtained by treatment with hydrogen
sulphide, and the separation of the resulting sulphide by
filtration. This aqueous solution gave the following
reactions : —
With (1.) Phospho-tungstic acid, white precipitate.
(2.) Phospho-molybdic acid, yellow precipitate.
(3.) Bismuth-potassium iodide, red precipitate.
(4.) Cadmium-potassium iodide, grey precipitate.
(5.) Iodine, brown precipitate.
(6.) Platinum chloride, yellow precipitate soluble
iu water.
An aqueous solution of the betaine salt was treated with
phospho-tungstic acid and a phospho-tungstate of the base
obtained. This was broken up with calcium hydroxide aud
the resulting lime salt filtered off. The residue was extracted
with strong alcohol from which free betaine was crystallised
out.— D. K. J.
An Error in the Determination of Albuminoid Nitrogen
bif K/eldahl's Method. H. Synder. J. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 1891,13, 212—214.
In the determination of nitrogen by Kieldahl's method, all
the mercury should be precipitated by potassium sulphide
in order to prevent the formation of mercurammonium
compounds which resist the subsequent action of soda.
The " official " modification of this process requires,
however, for the determination of albuminoid nitrogen the
use of 7 — 8 grms. of copper hydroxide, which is also preci-
pitatble by potassium sulphide; as the quantity of sulphide
employed is never sufficient to precipitate the whole of the
copper and mercury, a large and variable portion of the
latter metal is left in the solution, and all the conditions
are favourable for the formation of mercurammonium com-
pounds. This was confirmed by experiment, lower results
being obtained when au amount of potassium sulphide
insufficient to precipitate the total copper and mercury was
used, than when an excess was employed. The author
recommends the following modification of the " official
method " : — 7 grms. of the substance, a quantity of copper
hydroxide and glycerin solution equivalent to 0'5 — 0'6
grins, of the hydroxide, and finally 30 cc. of potassium
sulphide solution are used. In determining nitrates by the
" official method " 2 grms. of zinc-dust arc used, but to
insure uniform results, the previous addition of 2 grms. of
salicylic acid, to convert the zinc into au insoluble and
crystalline form at the close of the digestion, is necessary.
—A. R. L.
The Specific Rotatory and ( hepric Reducing Power of
Invert Sugar and of Dextrose obtained from Cane
Sugar by Means of Invertase. J. O'Sullivan. Proc.
Chem. Soc. 1892 [109], 56.
After referring to the various values assigned to the
rotatory power of levulose and to the doubt thrown on
Dubrunfaut's value by the statements of Herzfeld, Bomstein,
aud Winter, the author minutely describes experiments in
which hydrolysis of cane sugar was effected by invertase
instead of by means of acid. The conclusion finally arrived
at is that, as the specific rotatory power of invert sugar
obtained by means of invertase, which has no actiou on
levulose, is [a]; = — 24-5°, and that of the dextrose
prepared from such invert sugar is [a]j = 57°, the apparent
specific rotatory power of levulose calculated from these
numbers must be — 24 '5 x 2 + 57° = [a], — 106 or
[a]„ — 93 • 8, a value agreeing with that generally
accepted.
April 8*1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
373
^eto £oofe$.
A Treatise on Chemistry. By Sir II. Roscoe, F.R.S.
and C. Sohoiu.emmer, F.R.S. Vol. III. The Chemistry
of the Hydrocarbons ami their Derivatives, or Organic
Chemistry. Part VI. London and New York: Mac-
millan & Cc. 1892.
This part of Roscoe and Sehorlemmer's well known and
classical Treatise on Organic Chemistry, contains a descrip-
tion of the derivatives of naphthalene and the allied
hydrocarbons, as well as of the compounds consisting of
two or more benzene nuclei directly connected. It forms a
volume of 8vo. size, bound in cloth, containing Preface,
List of Contractions, Table of Contents, and 561 pages of
subject-matter. The Alphabetical Index, a most complete
oue, occupies 18 pages. The text throughout is profusely
annotated with references to original sources of information.
The groups treated of are the following : — Indene Group,
Naphthalene Group; Methylnaphthalene Group ; Dimethyl-
uapbthalene Group ; Ethylnaphthaleue Group ; Naphtha-
lene Derivatives containing more than 12 carbon atoms;
Xaphthindole derivatives; Aeenaphtheue Group: Pyrene
Group ; Dipheuyl Group ; Methyldiphenyl Group ; Di-
methyldiphenyl Group : Ethyldiphenyl Group ; Derivatives
of Diphenvl containing more than 14 carbon atoms ; Azc
Dyes of the Diphenyl Group ; Fluorene Group ; Phen
anthrene Group; Retene Group; Fluoranthane Group;
Phenyluaphthaleue Group ; Chrysene Group ; Dinaphthy:
Gioup ; Diphenylbenzene Group ; Triphenylbenzene Group.
Special attention is throughout the work given to the
organic colouring matters and dj'estuft's and their effects in
dyeing and printing ; also to those organic substances which
may be classed as " Fine Chemicals." With regard to
the technological application of organic substances in the
tinctorial arts and pharmacy, &c, this work on Organic
Chemistry throughout holds a perfectly unique position
amongst treatises on this branch of science.
The price of the volume is 21s.
Lessons in Elementary Chemistry, Inorganic inh
( Irganic. By Sir Henry E. Roscoe, LL.D., F.R.S.
Late Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria LTniversity,
The Owens College, Manchester. London and New
York : Macmillan and Co. 1892.
Tins well-known little work in this its latest edition, is
considerably improved and enlarged. Especially in the
seetion dealing with Organic Chemistry are the extensions
noticeable. The last edition was published in 1886. In
the Inorganic Chemistry Section, as an example of the stage
to which this branch of the elementary literature has been
brought, may be mentioned the record of the striking
discoveries of nickel carbon monoxide and iron carbon
monoxide made by Mond, Langer, and Quincke, and Mond
and Quincke, respectively. In the Organic Cbemistty
Section it is noticeable that on the subject of Indigo, the
chemistry of which has been deeply studied in so many
phases for the main purpose of commercial application, the
literature is naturally expanded, though notice of the
technical application so far as replacement of the natural
product is concerned, is in this edition cut down to the
remark that " none (of the synthetical methods) have yet
been so successful as to compete to any extent with the
natural product."
Among the alkaloids, a short description of Cocaine and
its uses, and of Antipyrine, with the constitution of the latter,
is noted as an additional feature. Moreover a chapter is
added (Lesson XLIII.) on the " Synthetical Production of
Organic Compounds," in which the outlines of the more
typical cases of Organic Chemical Synthesis are given.
The present edition thus contains 43 chapters, whilst that
of 1886 contained 41. The other additional chapter was
obtained by splitting up Chapter XL. of the 1886 edition,
on Turpentine, Camphor, and the Alkaloids, into two
chapters for this the 1892 edition, so that here we have
Chapter XL. devoted to Turpentine, Camphor, and the
Glucosides, whilst in Chapter XLI. the Alkaloids are
separately dealt with. In the edition for 18S6 there are
439 pages; in this the 1892 edition 486 pages of subject-
matter. The work is illustrated with 78 well-executed wood
engravings, and a beautiful chromolithograph chart of the
spectra of the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths. The
price of the book is is. 6d.
Anleitung zur Chemischen Analyse Organischer
Stopfe. Von Dr. G. Vortmann, Privatdocent an der
Technischen Hoebschule in Aachen. Leipsic and
Vienna : Franz Deuticke. London : H. Grevel and Co.,
33, King Street, Covent Garden. 1891.
In his preface the author points out that hitherto the term
" Organic Analysis " has been made almost exclusively and
with few exceptions to refer to certain restricted methods
of elementary quantitative analysis, and that the behaviour
of organic substances to reagents, and especially of chemi-
cally allied substances to oue and the same reagent, has
received but scanty attention of a systcmatised kind. But
the means at disposal through lack of systematised matter,
and by reason of many vacuities as to known reactions, were
inadequate, and much special experimental investigation was
necessary before the vacuities could be tilled up and a
definite system constructed. This work now contains a
system of qualitative reactions. The author states that he
has not given much prominence to the treatment of the
alkaloids, as this subject is already so well handled in the
text-books of analytical chemistry.
The present volume is of 8vo. size, with paper cover, and
containing Title page, Preface, Table of Contents, subject-
matter covering 403 pages, and an Alphabetical Index. Lastly
follows a series of 18 elaborate tables of numerical data of
which the principal comprise " Vapour Tensions of Potash
Solution of 1'258 Specific Gravity ;" "Melting and Boiling
Points of the Hydrocarbons; " "Tables for Determining
the Percentage Amounts of Alcohol in Spirituous Liquors ;"
" For Determining the Amounts of Alcohol by the Drop
Test (Traube);" and "For the Specific Gravity and Index
of Refraction of Aqueous Glycerol Solutions ;" " Tables of
Absorption Spectra ;" " Specific Gravity of Mixtures of
Ether and Alcohol (Squibb) ;" " Specific Gravity, Melting
Points and Solidifying Points of Fats and Oils ;" " Melting
Points and Solidifying Points of Free Fatty Acids," &c, &c.
The text is illustrated by 27 wood-cuts representing
apparatus necessary in the experiments.
The following excerpt of contents will sufficiently indicate
the nature and scope of the work : —
I. Detection, Discrimination and Quantitative Estima-
tion of the Elements. — -A. Qualitative Analysis. Carbon.
Hydrogen. Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine. Oxygen.
Sulphur. Nitrogen. Phosphorus. Metals. B. Quantitative
Analysis. Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen. Estimation
of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine; of Oxygen; of Sulphur;
of Nitrogen ; of Phosphorus ; of Metals. Methods for
simultaneous Estimation of several Elements. Calculation
of Analyses.
II. Discrimination and Quantitative Estimation of
Atomic Groups. — Hydroxyl-, Methoxyl-, Ethoxyl-, Sulph-
hydryl , Sulphmethyl- and Ethyl , Amido- Imido-, Metbyl-
amido- or Ethylamido-, Hydrazine-, Diazo-, Nitro-, Nitroso-,
Carbiuol-, Aldehyde-, Carbonyl- (Ketone-), Carboxyl-, and
Nitrile- Groups. Also Radicals of Hydroxy Acids.
III. Discrimination and Quantitative Estimation of
Compounds. — Hydrocarbons. Halogen Substitution Pro-
ducts of the Hydrocarbons. Alcohols. Phenols. Ethers
and Esters. Aldehydes. Ketones. Carbohydrates. Quinones.
Glucosides. Acids. Sulphur Compounds. Primary Amines.
Secondary Amine-*. Tertiary Amines. Acid Amides. Pyri-
dine- and Quinoline- Bases. Alkaloids. Nitriles. Nitro
Compounds. Albuminoids. The price of work is 10s.
37-i
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April SO, 1892.
Handworterbuch dee Pharmacie. Praktisches Hand-
bach fur Apotheker, Arzte, Medieinalheamte und
Drogisten. Herausgegeben von A. Brestowski. Wien
und Leipzig; Wilhelm Braumuller. K. U. K. Hof-und
I'niversitats-Buehhandler. London: H. Grevel and Co.,
33, King Street, Covent Garden. 1K92.
This, the second number of the new Dictionary of Pharma-
cology, edited and published by Brestowski, has just
appeared. (See this Journal, 1892, 27.",, col. 1.) The
price of each number issued is 2s. ~>d. The Editor is
assisted by 41 contributors of eminence. The first volume
of the two which furnish the complete work will comprise
about 24 numbers or parts.
Whilst due attention is given to the chemical relations
and properties of the individual substances treated of in the
text, the physiological aud toxicological relations are
specially dealt with, as also the best methods of preparation
from the pharmaceutical point of view. Attention is also
fully devoted to tests for purity and discrimination. The
present number commences with Amylacetate and ends
with Aseptol (Ortkophenolsulphonic acid).
Ciiemisch-Technischeb Repertorilm. Uebersichtlich
georduete Mittheilungen der neuesten Erfindungen,
Fortschritte und Verbesserungeu, auf dem Gebiete der
Technischen und Industriellen Chemie mit Hinweis auf
Maschinen, Apparate und Literatur. Herausgegeben von
Dr. Emil Jai/obsen. Erstes Balbjahr. Erste Halfte.
Berlin : B. Gaertner's Yerlagsbuchhaiidlung. Hermann
Heyfelder, S.W., Schonebergerstr, 26. London ;
II. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent Garden.
1892.
This, the first issue of Jacobsen's Bepertorium for 1891,
and representing the first half of the opening half year,
appears in a volume, the pages of which run from 1 to 152.
The text is illustrated with 27 woodcuts. The subjects
treated of are as follows : — Building Materials, Cements,
Artificial Stone, Colouring Matters, Dyes and Calico
Printing. Fats, Oils, Illuminating and Heating Materials.
Fermented Liquors. Tanning, Leather, and Glue Manu-
facture. Textiles, (Mass, and Earthenware. Wood and
Horn. India-rubber. Cements, Gums, Pastes, and Adhesives.
Lake-, Varnishes, and Paints. Metals.
A Dictionary op the Coal-Tar Coloirs. Compiled by
George H. Hirst, F.C.S. (member of the Society of
Chemical Industry). London: Heywood and Co-, Lim.,
68, Fleet Street. 1892.
Large 8vo. volume, handsomely bound in blue cloth and
gilt. It contains Preface, a Plan of the Work, Introduction,
aud Text, covering 106 pages. The matter is arranged
alphabetically according to the technical or trade names of
the colours. After each colour or dye is given in brackets
the name of the manufacturer or inventor. The English
patents are also given, number and year being specified.
Modes of application of the colours, specialities, and tests
are also included. Where several names are applied to
a colour, these names are indicated. The method of treat-
ment of each colouring matter described in this Dictionary
may be gleaned from the following plan followed in each
is marly as possible. " No systematic account of the
process of manufacture or chemical relationships of the
colours is given, but as far as possible to obtain the infor-
mation, the chemical composition, formula, method of
preparation, date of introduction, literature relating to it,
and the discoverer are given, whilst the properties and uses
of the colours have hail special attention paid to them."
The price of the work is 10s. G(/.
Silk Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing. By George H.
Hirst, F.C.S., Lecturer on Technology of Painters'
Colours, ( his, and Varnishes at the Manchester Technical
School, &c. London : George Bell and Sons, York
Street, Covent Garden ; also New York. 1892.
Small 8vo. volume, bound in cloth. It contains Title
Page, Preface, Table of Contents, List of Coloured Patterns,
and 220 pages of subject-matter. The work terminates
with an Alphabetical Index. The text is illustrated with
21 woodcuts and 11 plates of dyed and printed silk
specimens. The subject-matter is divided into chapters, as
follows: — I. Origin; structure, composition, and properties
of Mori, Tussah, and other wild Silks. II. Boiling off aud
bleaching of Silks. III. Dyeing Blacks on Silk, Logwood
blacks, and Tannin blacks, Aniline aud other Coal-Tar
blacks. IY. Dyeing of Fancy Colours on Silk. Weighing
of Silks. Beds, Oranges, Yellows, Blues, Greens, Browns,
Violets, &c, on Silk. Y. Dyeing mixed Silk Fabric-. VI.
Silk Printing. VII. Silk Dyeing and Finishing Machinery,
Yarn Dyeing, Piece Dyeing, Silk Finishing Machinery, Silk
Finishing. VIII. Examination and Assaying of Baw aud
Dyed Silks.
Appendix of 170 recipes for Dyeing and Printing Silks
and 66 patterns.
The price of the book is 7s. 6d.
This book foirus one of the Technological Handbooks,
edited by Sir H. Trueman Wood, Secretary of the Society of
Arts.
Xni isi nun i for Anorganische Chemie. Unter Mitwir-
kung von Berthelot, Blomstraud, Brauner, Clarke,
Classen, . live, Cooke, Cossa, Crookes, Ditte, Friedheim,
Gibbs, Hempel, Joergensen, Kraut, Lunge, Mallet,
Mauro, Mendelejeff, Meyer, Mond, Nilson, Piccini,
Boscoe, Seubert, Spring, Thorpe, Wiukler, und andere
Fachgenossen. Herausgegeben vou Gerhard Krcss.
Band I. Heft. 1, 1S92. Hamburg and Leipsic : Verlag
von Leopold Yoss. London: H. Grevel & Co., 33, King
Street, Covent Garden.
Tins new and important work on Inorganic Chemistry is to
appear as a periodical, the parts of which can ultimately be
bound to form volumes of 30 sheets each. A volume would
be priced at 12s. As the above eminent names indicate,
the contributors to this work are of various nationalities and
of representative character.
The present, aud opening number, is a pamphlet of 8vo.
size, containing 82 pages of subject-matter. The articles con-
tributed to this the first issue are as follows : On Phosphorus
Oxysulphide (Thorpe and Tutton). The Double Acids of
the Heptatomic Iodine (Blomstraud). Action of Hydrogen
Peroxide on some Fluorides and Oxyfluorides (Piccini).
Some Ammoniacal Platinum Compounds (Carlgren and
Cleve). Preparation of Tungstates free from Molybdenum
(Friedheim and Meyer). A Lecture Experiment (Winkler).
April so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
375
Crane lUport.
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS REGULATIONS.
{From the Board of Trade Journal.")
Xnw Spanish Customs Tariff — Concluded.
Statement showing the Rates of Import Duty to he levied in Spain under the New Spanish Tariff, eompared with the
Rates of Duty hitherto leviable on Imports into that Country.
Wote.—Vp to the 30lli June next, when the Anglo-Spanish Convention of 1880 expires, the Conventional rates of the Spanish Tariff will
still be levied mi British produce, including those of the Franco-Spanish and German-Spanish Treaties which are enumerated in
Parliamentary Paper, Commercial No. 18 (1880). (C— 4779) .
No.
Classification of Articles.
Rates leviable by New
Tarill of 1st February 1S92
General
Tariff.
Special
Tarill.
Classification of
Articles.
Rates leviable
hitherto on
Imports from
United
Kingdom.
238
239
2111
313
317
318
352
303
35 1
355
356
889
CLASS X.
Animals and Animal Products emplotbd is
industry.
Group 1. — Animals.
Gro'tp'2. -Hides, Skins, and Leather Worms.
Skins and hides untanned (Note 45)
Varnished leather, calf skins, tanned and dressed
Other hides, tanned or dressed, including sole leather. . .
Group 3. — Fea thers.
Group I.— Animal Products.
250 Animal fats
251 Guano and other natural manures
252 I Other artificial manures
253 Gut
254 ' Other animal products not specified, unmanufactured
CLASS XI.
Instruments. Machinery, and Apparatus employed
in Agriculture. Industry, and Locomotion.
CLASS XIII.
Various.
Horn, whalebone, meerschaum, hone, and paste, in
imitation of the substances last above spaciliod, manu-
factured.
Cartridges without projectile or ball, for fire-arms, not
prohibited.
Ditto, with projectile or ball, for fire-arms, not prohibited
Pes. cts.
Pernio kilogs
7 2ii
Pc- kilng.
3 25
1 00
1 39
0 05
0 30
25 35
ii 85
Pes. cts.
Per 1«0 kilogs.
i; no
Per kilocr.
2 5il
Priming or percussion caps for ditto
India-rubber and gutta-percha, unmanufactured .
Ditto, in sheets, threads, and t ubes
Ditto, manufactured in objects of any form
Oilcloths and tarpaulins for flooring or packing. . .
Ditto, of other kinds
India-rubber elastic tissues with mixture of other
materials (Note 70).
3 25
Per 100 kilogs
tin oo
72 00
Per kilog.
2 ID
Per loo kilogs.
60 00
Per kilog.
0 no
2 60
Per 10 ,1 kilogs.
30 mi
Perkilosr.
1 30
3 00
1 00
0 05
0 25
19 50
0 50
2 50
Per 100 kilogs.
75 00
60 00
Per kilog.
1 75
Per 100 kilogs.
5 10
Per kilog.
0 75
2 00
Per 109 kilogs.
:a 5u
Per ki'uL'.
1 mi
3 00
Pes. cts.
Pernio kilogs.
6 00
Per kilog.
.1 25*
1 85+
1 00
0 01
0 01
21 90
0 59
fiudia-rubber, in sheets
tubes.
Ditto, in thread
I Ditto, manufactured
L any form.
2 50
Per 100 kilogs.
45 85
22 90
Per kilog.
146 05
Per 100 kilegs.
3 00
Per kilog.
0 75
0 50
1 50
Per 100 kilogs.
21 65
Per kilog.
0 65
2 75
* Duty whilst the Commercial Treaties between Spain and Belgium and Spain and France remain ii. force, 2*59 pesetas per kilog.
t .. .. ,. ■• .. 1-25
376
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 3o, 1892.
Kxi-ort Tariff.
Rates
leviable by
New Tariff of
1st Feb. 1892.
( ri . in lumps or sheets
Linen, cotton, or hemp rags, and used wares of same materials.
Galena ores (Notel)
Argentiferous lead ores (Notes 1 and 2)
Irgi ntiferous litharge (Notes 1 and 2)
All other articles
Per 1" i kilogs.
Pes. els.
', III)
4 00
1 25
1 00
1 SO
Five.
ARTICLES.
Rairs leviable
hitherto
under the
Special Tariff.
Pei I"" kilojrs.
Pes. cts.
4 90
4 00
1 25*
0 OS*
1 1.1*
Free.
Free of duty whilst the Commercial Treaty between Spain and France remained in force.
Special Tariff, No. 4.
The following Articles, when imported into Spain or
the Balearic Isles, proceeding from or loaded at European
ports, shall, in addition to the duty payable under this
tariff, be subjected to the following surcharge : —
No.
1
2
3
4
5
0
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Articles.
Per
111 I Kll-i:S.
Petroleum, crude or refined.
Cocoa and palm oil
Indigc
Raw c itton
Abaca, aloe, and jute, raw...
Skins and hides, untanned..
Co?oa
Coffee
Ceylon cinnamon
CI inese cinnamon
Cloves
Pepper
Tea
Pes. el 3.
ii 50
1 50
20 00
2 60
1 00
3 00
4 00
4 50
8 00
2 00
3 50
3 50
4 00
Notes.
(1.) Coal and coke shall be cleared in conformity with the
•weight of the quantity received on board, stated in a
certificate to be given to the captain of the vessel by the
Spanish Consul at the port of loading, in accordance with
the cargo note and bills of lading, which the said Consul
shall demand to see for the purpose. In doubtful eases the
Custom houses may verify the weight of the coal or
coke.
(2.) Crude shale oils shall be understood to be those
d by a first distillation, and distinguished by their
yellow colour and their density of Cr'JOO to 0-920, or G6 to
57| "f the centesimal areometer, equal to 21 69 to 21-48
( artier.
Crude natural mineral oils shall be recognised by the
following qualities : —
1. That when gradually and continuously distilled in a
glass vessel at a temperature of 300° C, they shall leave a
residue of more than 20 per cent, of the original weight.
2. That this residue shall afterwards leave a minimum of
1 per cent, of coke of the total weight of the mineral oils
assayed.
3. That when assayed in the Granier apparatus they
shall be inflammable at a temperature of less than 16 I '.
All mineral oils which have not the above properties shall
be considered refined oils.
The duties imposed on mineral oils, whether crude or
refined, are appraised on the net weight of the liquid.
Bottles ("envases") containing the said oils shall pay
separately ; barrels as casks ; tin boxes as tin worked up ;
and wooden boxes in which the latter are inclosed as common
wood worked up.
In all cases where doubts arise regarding the application
of Nos. 1, 8, and 9, the Custom houses shall consult the
Central Custom House (Direccion General de Contribuciones
Indireetas).
As regards crude mineral oils, it shall be indispensable in
all cases to take samples in the following form : — ■
In all clearing of crude mineral oil, a sample of 200 cubic
centimetres shall be taken from every 50 cases, and a like
quantity from every 10 barrels of the total quantity declared,
provided the quality is the same.
These samples shall be mixed together in a large bottle,
and when the clearance of the whole cargo has been effected,
two litres shall be taken of the samples filling two bottles,
and when these bottles have been closed with sealing wax
and stamped, the labels shall be signed by the Customs
officers and the owner of the goods, and the samples shall
be sent on to the Director-General of Customs to be assayed.
The declaration shall be proceeded with at once in
accordance with No. 8, and the owner of the goods shall
be bound by the result of the analysis, and the clearance
shall not be deemed definitive until that result be known.
The samples shall be assayed within the space of one
month, no extension of this period being permissible. The
owners of the goods shall have the right to see the samples
opened and assayed, and to appeal to the Ministry of
Finance from the decision of the Custom house.
When the owners of the goods request in their appeals
that fresh assays he made, they shall be liable for the
expenses thereof, should no change be required to be made
in the clearance dues decided on by the Custom house.
Should the contrary be the case the expenses shall be borne
by the Administration.
In order to secure their right to be present at the
clearance, owners of goods must demand this in writing
when signing the labels of the samples.
3. See Tariff Xo. 4 respecting arrivals from non-European
ports.
4. Under this number shall be comprised bottles, demi-
johns, and flasks for holding oils, wines, drugs, perfumery,
and chemical products, provided they be not cut ; also thick
unpolished glass of more than 12 millimetres, for skylights
and pavements.
5. Under this number shall be comprised bottles, tumblers,
glasses, and other articles for table service or liwhtinf
purposes, whether of crystal or glass, plain or stained.
6. Only rough bricks, flagstones, and tiles of baked earth
or clay, employed in the construction of walls, furnaces, &c,
are to be included in this category.
April 30, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
:;77
7. Xo. 1" includes small bricks for flooring and for mosaic
■work, and also the objects comprised under No. 16, employed
for building, when glazed, painted, enamelled, and made of
washed and sifted earths.
8. The articles of fine earthenware included in this
category are dinner services and kitchen utensils.
19. The number of threads comprised in the inch for the
application of this duty are only those of the warp of the
stuff.
2ii and 21, To test gilt articles, they shall be rubbed with
hot alcohol, and then touched with a drop of nitric acid.
If they are varnished only, the varnish will come off with
the alcohol and the nitric acid will act ; if they are gilt the
alcohol will cause no corrosion and the nitric acid will not
have any effect upon them.
Silvered articles shall be filed uutil the superficial coating
of silver gives way, and the colour of the metal of which
they are principally composed becomes visible. Moreover,
if a portion of the plated metal be dissolved in nitric acid,
the silver (if there be any") will be precipitated with chloric
acid, thus forming chloride of silver soluble in ammonia
and possessing the characteristics of this substance.
In the ease of nickeled objects, the superficial part of the
nickel which overlays them shall be filed so as to leave
uncovered the brass or other metal which forms their chief
component.
22 and 23. See Tariff Xo. 4 on arrivals from non -European
countries.
24. The colours comprised in this number are compounds
having a metallic basis, and are used mixed, with oil or
turpentine, generally insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether,
rarely crystallised, and almost always in powder or lumps.
Among these are white lead, yellow chromate, vermilion,
Prussian blue, Theuardtite, English green and parrot green
("papagayo").
25. The colours comprised in this number are called
artificial colours or organic products in which metallic
substances are rarely found. They are generally crystal-
lised, soluble in water, alcohol or ether, and are used more
for dyeing and stamping than in painting, with or without
goldsize (" mordiente "). Among these are picric acid,
aldehyde green, English violet, rose aniline, and salts of the
same colours of naphthaline, artificial alizarine, &c.
26. The products or substances comprised in Nos. IIS
and 1 19 shall be examined by pharmaceutical inspectors,
who shall sign the certificates in conjunction with the
Customs officials in the following form : —
The products cleared are correctly stated in the declara-
tion and are or are not — passed as
imports, the formula thereof having been published
(state where); and the composition thereof having
been ascertained by means of an assay made by A. 15.
f!9. In order to have the benefit of this number the pulp
or paste must be perforated so that it cannot be used for
any purpose except paper making. When the paste or
pulp is presented for clearance without being perforated,
the Customs officers shall, at the expense of the owner of
the goods, break up the sheets in a manner that may
render the stuff useless for any other purpose than paper
making. Paste or pulp not perforated shall pay duty as if
it were common pasteboard.
42. Boxes of pasteboard lined with paper more or less
common, that may be used as packing for handkerchiefs,
shirt fronts, buttons, pieces of tissues, or other similar
articles, shall pay duty in accordance with this number.
45. See Tariff Xo. 4 on arrivals from non-European
countries.
70. Under this number are comprissed all tissues, whether
they have one or two coatings of rubber, and likewise those
which are rubbered only between the two surfaces.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Notks and Hints on the Vegetable Products of
Tropical Africa.
./. R. Jackson, Journ. Soc. of Arts 1891, 49, 110—111,
and 122—123.
Bubber. — The various known kinds of African rubber
come from climbing plants of the orders Apocynacew ami
Orticaccre, mostly from the former. All plants of these
orders should be examined for rubber. Liberian rubber
from a tree named " Abba " has a considerable export
capable of great development if systematic planting were
undertaken.
Attention should be given to juices from any species of
Euphorbia as they yield milky juices solidifying on exposure
to air which may be useful for mixing with rubber and
gutta-percha.
Gutta-percha plants of the order Sapotace.v should be
examined for the milky juices of their trunks and for the
fats and oils which the seeds contain. The " butter-tree "
is of this order, the seeds of which yields gutta-shea the
product most nearly resembling true gutta-percha. It is at
present used in making hard soaps.
Food products. — The cassava {Manihot utillissima) is
cultivated in West Africa for the sake of its roots, from
which tapioca is made. It is worth extended cultivation.
Drugs. — A large field is open in this department and any
plants used by the natives for medicinal purposes should be
>eut to England for experiment or trial. Plants of the
order Rubiacex should be tested for bitter tonic principles,
the mallow family for demulcent properties, the Euphor-
biacese for cathartic properties. The ordeal bean of ( >ld
Calabar is used in ophthalmic and other cases and might be
worth cultivation. The downdake (Sarcocephalus Escu-
lentus) has attracted attention on account of its properties
as a tonic and febrifuge. Strophantus (or Konibe) has
valuable cordial properties. Several species are probably
comprised under this name. The fruits and follicles should
not be gathered till they are ripe, as the immature seeds
shrivel in drying and lose some of their active principle.
I anilla, which has never been cultivated to any great extent
in British possessions, would no doubt flourish in Western
Africa.
Oils a nil Fats. — A large number of new oil seeds have
come into the English market from the West Coast of
Africa during the last few years. The seeds of any un
known plant should be examined for oil, and if found
specimens of the plant should be sent home for the deter-
mination of their botanical affinities. The following plants,
the characters and value of which are at present not com-
pletely known, furnish seeds, the oil from which has found
its way into the market in larger or smaller quantities :
mutugo (from the Telfaria occidentalism, maluku, (from the
Polygala rarifolia), meni (from the Lophira alat), owala
(from the pentaclethra macrophylla'), and the M'paga nut
from a species not yet identified.
Gums Any species of acacia may be expected to
furnish a soluble gum.
Resins, or semi-fossil gums, commercially kuowu as
copal, are found buried at various depths in the neighbour-
hood of gum-yielding trees, or on the site of extinct forests.
Amine found in Zanzibar is the most valuable variety. In
hambane copal discovered in 1SS3 has fetched 80/. to 100?.
a ton. Ogea gum was introduced from the Gold Coast in
the same year.
Dyes. — The Yoruba indigo, though used by the natives,
has not found its way to England. Downdake, and the
yellow dye plant of the Soudan (('ochlospermum tinctnriu)
are worth more attention than they have received.
Fibres. — There is a wide field for the utilisation of
fibrous substances. The leaf stalks of the bamboo palm of
West Africa seem likely to become important for brush
making. The liolobolo fibre brought to notice in 1889
seems likely to command a considerable price.
Perfumes. — In collecting specimens of fragrant plants
for transmission to England for examination, care should
be taken to dry the fragrant part of the plant thoroughly.
— \ . C
178
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LA|inl 3d, 1892.
April so, 18U2.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
379
The Results or Improved Coke Ovens.
At the meeting of the Society of German Ironmasters,
held on January 31st, in Diisseldorf, Herr F. W. Liirmann,
of Osnabiirck, read a paper on " Coke Oven Progress, with
special regard to obtaining by-products," of which the
following is an abstract : For obtaining by-products in coke
oven working, which began some 35 years ago, and at first
met with little acceptance, the Hoffmann-Otto oven takes
first rank, there being at present in Germany 1,205 of these
ovens. The installation of a group of 60 ovens costs
300,000 marks (the mark is equivalent to 23 '8 cents.), and
the necessary condensation apparatus 120,000 marks. Such
a group treats in the course of a year from 57,000 to 70,000
tons of coal, with an average result of from 65 per cent to
77 per cent, of coke, 2-5 per cent, to 4-5 per cent, of tar,
and 0-8 to 1-25 per cent, of sulphate of ammonia. The
Semet-Solvay oven, the construction of which permits of a
stronger formation of the covering masonry, attains a very
high temperature, and good coke can be obtained with an
addition of from 23 per cent, to 27 per cent, of thin coal.
From the same cause the yield is greater than, for example,
that of the Coppee oven, which, however, is also a satis-
factory oven, 1,000 being in use in Great Britain. For some
three years benzine has been obtained direct from the
coking-gases ; the necessary apparatus, invented by Herr
Franz Brunek, is a secret ; it costs 5.000 marks per oven.
From 3 to 7 kilos, of benzine are obtained from 1 ton of
coal. The value of the by-products amounts, for a Hoffmann-
Otto oven, irrespective of benzine, to from 3,100 to 5,000
marks, the average being 1,600 marks ; for all the ovens
of this system in Germany 5,600,000 marks. The old idea
that in obtaining by-products the quality of the coke is
prejudiced no longer appears to hold good. In the
discussion which followed, Herr Uusseuer mentioned that
a certain water-contents, according to the quality of the
coal fioiu 10 per cent, to 17 per cent., is advantageous in
coking, and that coal poor in gas are not suitable for
obtaining by-products; the limit is about 80 per cent, to
82 per cent, coke-yield in the crucible. — Engineering and
Mining Journal*
Commercial, &c, Progress of Russia.
Taking the mining products of the country, wc hnd first
that the production of gold amounted in quantity to 720 cwt,
and in value to 5,051,000/. in 1881, and in 18S9 to 733 cwt.
and 5,117,000/. The principal centre for this production
is Eastern Siberia, where the auriferous sand of the Djulon
river has lately increased the amount produced. In isss
the production of Russian gold represented a proportion of
21-6 per cent, of that of the whole world, 30*7 per cent,
falling to the United States, and 25 • 3 per cent, to Australia.
Of platinum, 53 cwt. were produced in 1888, and the
working of the metal is concentrated exclusively in the
Ural, in the Government of Perm, at the mines of Nijni-
liiguil and Govoblagodat. There are two large establishments
at St. Petersburg engaged in the purification of the metal.
Of silver, 144 cwt. were exported in 1883 and 297 cwt. in
1888. This metal is obtained chieHy from the mines of
Altai and from the mines of the Kirghese steppes.
Lead is only produced in Russia as a secondary product
of the treatment of argentiferous ores, and the production
of this article falls very much below the requirements of
the country, which imported 391,000 cwt. in 1889 and
423,000 cwt. in 1890.
There are 21 copper foundries which treated 2,224,000
cwt. of ore and produced 90,000 cwt. of bar copper in 1888.
The principal centres of this production are the Ural and
the Caucasus. There are 1 1 6 copper mines at present in
working. The zinc industry is almost exclusively concen-
trated in Poland, the number of mines being 12, from which
900,000 cwt. of ore have been extracted. The product of
the country has only furnished 74 per cent, of the quantity
required for home consumption, the remainder being supplied
by importation. Of tin almost the entire quantity comes
from abroad. Mercury is worked at one place only, uamely,
Nikitooke, and 3,200 cwt. of pure mercury were produced
in 1888 and 6,000 cwt. in 1890. Russia is now commencing
to export mercury.
The iron industry is very important, 522 mines in the
Ural supplying 1.3,750,000 cwt. in 1888,20 mines in the
South, 4,500,000 cwt., 63 mines in Poland, 3,857,000 cwt.
The total product exceeds 27,960,000 cwt. The number of
establishments producing iron was, according to the latest
returns, 132, with 200 blast furnaces, which worked up
over 26,357,000 cwt. of ore, and produced about 13,178,000
cwt. of iron, of which three-fourths were obtained by the
charcoal blast furnace, and one- fifth by the coke furnace.
The Ural holds the first place in the production of iron, and
the establishments which show the largest out-turn are
those of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle Russie, the Com-
pagnie Huta Baukowa, and lhe Compagnie de Briansk.
In those districts in which the blast furnaces work with
charcoal, the metallurgical industries can only increase their
production to a limited extent, by reason of the difficulty of
obtaining an increased quantity of combustibles ; in those
in which coal is used (Southern Russia and Poland) the
development is much more rapid. In 10 years the total
product has increased 50 per cent. ; in the provinces of the
South and South-west it has quadrupled, and in Poland it
lias trebled. The proportion which the Russian production
bore to the national consumption was established for 1888
in the following ratios : pig iron, 90 per cent. ; finished
iron, S5 per cent. ; and steel, 96 per cent.
Kuring the same year the number of coal mines working
was 330, and they produced 5,078,550 tons of coal ; of this
quantity 2,346,400 tons were supplied by Poland, 1,700,000
tons by the Donetz basin, 257,140 tons by Moscow, and
192,850 tons by the Ural. The principal mines in the
kingdom of Poland belong to M. de Kramtsa, the Societe
Franco-Italienne, and the Societe de la Nouvelle Russie.
It is principally England and Germany which supply Russia
with the greater part of the combustibles for which she is
obliged to have recourse to foreign countries. In 1890
England supplied 1,354,800 tons, Germany 139,800 tons,
and Austria 11,250 tons. The use of Russian coal on the
various railways has increased by' 50 per cent, during the
last 10 years, and the consumption of foreign coal has
decreased in the same proportions.
The production of naphtha is almost exclusively confined
to the Caucasus in the peninsula of Ape-heron and principally
in the neighbourhood of Baku. Petroleum is also worked
in the Crimea and in the Transcaspian districts. After the
annexation of Baku to Russia this industry was the object
of a monopoly which from 1821 to 1S72 yielded to the
Treasury an annual revenue of about 89,000 roubles. In
the Caucasus the production of naphthas amounted to
3,325,130 tons in 1889, and to 3,815,000 tons in 1890.
The principal workings are those belonging to the following
companies: Nobel, Baku, Caspienne, Caspienne et Mer
Noire, Denibo et Cohan, Schibaiew, &c. The Nobel Com-
pany has 50 wells at work, and the factory belonging to
the company is the most important one. It contains a
refinery for petroleum and benzine, a factory for lubricating
oils, and works for sulphuric acid and carbonate of soda.
In this establishment, 707,140 tons of naphtha were treated
in 1889, and from this quantity 257,140 tons of refined
petroleum were obtained. The vessels belonging to this
company are said to represent a value of six millions of -
roubles ; its tank waggons, three millions of roubles.
In 1890 the quantity of petroleum, raw and refined,
shipped from Baku, amounted to 2,839,520 tons, of which
765,000 tons were for foreign countries. About 74 per
cent, of the product goes into the interior, 26 per cent, to
foreign countries, principally to England, Turkey, Austria,
' iermany, Belgium, and Italy. — Board of Trade Journal.
The New Fbench Customs Tariff.
The French Tariff Law of the 11th January 1892 has
now been printed and issued to the public, and two trans-
lations of the law into English have also been published.
The first of these is issued by the International Customs
Tariffs Bureau, in Brussels, and forms No. 22 of the
International Customs Journal. The second is issued by
the Trade and Treaties Committee, and is attached to their
Seventh Report which has been presented to Parliament
(C— 6611).
II 2
880
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBT. [April 30, 1892.
This hitter return gives the duties now leviable under the
new French general and minimum tariffs of 1892 in a com-
parative form with those levied under the Conventional
Tariff of 1882. It is scarcely necessary to say that the
duties generally speaking have in the new tariff been raised
all round. This, if any one glances at the comparative
statement referred to, is at once evident. But another fact
will also, at the same time, strike the most casual observer,
'his is, that so many articles now specially mentioned in
the new tariff did uot occur, or were not separately distin-
guished in the tariff of 1882, as not being at that time of
sufficient importance, as articles of commerce to be so
distinguished; further, that a large proportion of the articles
now, for the first time, separately distinguished, are con-
nected with recent inventions of art or science, or have
come into demand in the last decade through being used in
some recent invention.
It is now proposed shortly to give in review a list of such
articles, together with the amount of import duty allotted to
each article, and this may be premised by the statement
that the duties on such articles are high in the majority of
eases. It may also be here stated that the order of the
articles according to the French tariff number has been
strictly adhered to. and that the duties affixed are those of
the minimum tariff as being those levied on articles of
British manufacture. The first of these articles to which
reference should be made is margarine, oleomargarine, and
all other fatty substances to be used as food (No. 31 of the
French tariff), such articles will pay Gs. per cwt., over ',</.
perlb. The next is wood pavement (No. 1 29), which will
pay very close on Scl. per cwt. Pates de cellulose (No. 158)
wood pulped, will pay, if treated by mechanical pressure,
dry, j(/., or if moist, 2J</. per cwt., the same article, if
treated chemically, will pay lOrf. Amongst builders'
materials, tiles, machine-made (No. 181c) will pay id. per
cwt., and squares of compressed cement (No. 186) will
pay duties varying from 5rf. to Is. 8rf. per cwt., according
to state.
Mineral wax or ozokerite (No. 194) will pay when
crude 4s. per cwt., and when refined 16s. Paraffin and
vaseline (No. 199) will pay respectively 12s. and lis. 2d. per
cwt. Fther (No. 2GGa) will also pay 12s. per cwt., and
chloroform (No. 2666), 30*. per cwt., collodion (No. 26Gc)
being also taxed 12s. per cwt. Pyrolignite (No. 271a) of
lead will pay Is. 2]d. per cwt., while pyrolignite of lime
will pay 9|a\ Sulphate and other salts of quinine will pay
30/. per cwt., or 5s. id. per lb. Chemical manures, being
chemical products to be used in agriculture (No. 281o), are
to be imported free. Celluloid in lumps, cakes, or sheets
(No. 2814) will pay 11. 10s. per cwt. Charcoal specially
prepared for electric lights (No. 302) will pay \l. per cwt.
Transparent soaps containing alcohol or sugar (No. 311)
will pay 16s. per cwt. Dextrin and other products derived
from feeula and starches (No. 3196) will pay 5s. 2d. per
cwt. Electric incandescent lamps (No. 361), will pay, if
with their mountings, 71., and 14/. per cwt. if without* the
mountings.
Under tissues of silk there is also a fresh category, tissues
of artificial silk of all sorts (No. 459) ; these, if unmixed
with other tissues, will pay duty as chemical products which
contain alcohol, while, if mixed with other material, the
article will pay the duty on the most highly taxed material
of which composed.
Turning to paper, there are also several new categories
which attract attention ; these are paper hangings (No. 4Gto)
which will pay 4s. per cwt. Paper sulphurised (No. 4616)
paying 8s. per cwt. Photographer's paper, albuminised
(No. 461c), which will pay 2?. per cwt. when not sensitised,
and double that duty when sensitised. Also blacked paper
(tracing paper) so called " papier au charbon " will pay 1/.
per cwt.
There are new categories under the head of cardboard
made from cellulose or wood pulped (No. 4G5) ; these
articles when moulded, compressed, or hardened will pay
6s. 4|rf. per cwt. The same articles when lacquered or
covered with a uniform varnish, 20s. per cwt., and when
decorated with paintings or incrustations, 41. per cwt.
Turning to leather we find a new category for imitation
leather (cuir factice) (No, 177), which wil'l pay 10s, per
cwt. — Ibid.
Nitrate Revenue in Chili.
The Chilian Times for February 3rd says that since Chili
came into possession of Tarapaca and the other nitrate-
producing territories she had received in duties on nitrate
and iodine up to the end of 1889 the enormous sum of
110,127,783 dols., as under :—
1880, 1,336,881 dols. ; 1881, 5,829,633; 1882,8,317,712;
1883, 10,176,336; 1884, 10,855,330; 1885, 10,510,182;
1886, 10,599,419; 1887, 13,098,'747 : 1888, 17,917,858;
1889, 21,485,685 dols.
If to the above there be added the duties received in
1890 and 1891, we shall have a total not far short of
150 millions.
Paper-Making and River Pollution.
At a meeting of the Joint Rivers Committee dealing with
the watershed of the Kibble, Mr. W. Naylor, chief inspector
for the watershed, submitted his report for the month,
which stated — ■
During the past month the examination of the river
liibble has been continued, and the western section, ex-
tending from the Calder confluence to the estuary, inclusive
of the Darwen and its affluents, completed. This area
collects the drainage of 200 square miles, and bears a
population of 311,500. Visits have been paid to, and
entries made concerning 14 paper mills, one paper-staining
mill, one chemical works, two dye works, one tar distillery,
and numerous cotton factories.
Most of this month's work has been on the Darwen,
where the paper trade is largely represented. One instance
only was noted where dry solids were thrown into the
Harwen from a paper mill, but the solids suspended, and
very distinctly visible, in paper mill refuse, are serious. A
large quantity of soda still finds its way into the river from
paper mills, although it is a fact, known widely outside the
paper trade, that it can easily be recovered, and, further,
at each of the mills where evaporating plant has been
erected, 1 am informed that it is a source of profit. The
evaporation of soda has very important secondary effects in
lessening pollution. (a) Soaps formed in the boilers from
fatty matters on the raw material are burnt in the incinerator
or cremator eventually ; and (6) in washing the boiled raw
material or half stuff for any soda retained in the interstices
of the fibre, an amount of diit and organic matter is always
washed out, which also goes right along to the incinerator
and is burnt. The annual consumption of soda ash on the
Darwen is 3,300 tons. Evaporating plant is installed at
the works having an aggregate consumption of 1,720 tons.
Assuming half the remainder is used in the process of
boiling, there is a residue of about 800 tons thrown into
the river annually. But, granting that the whole of the
soda lias been eliminated from the paper mill refuse, there
remains a thick coloured waste liquor from the washers,
beating engines, and paper machines, bearing the dirt
from the rags, Surat bagging, Sec, according to the nature
of the mill. From returns kindly supplied by paper-making
firms on the Darwen, it is estimated that in this river alone
the consumption of raw material is annually 10,300 tons
rags; 12,400 tons straw and esparto; 4,700 tons ropes,
Surat bagging, canvas, &c. ; 3,000 tons waste paper, peat,
&e. ; giving a total of 30,400 tons to he washed. There
are used in addition about 18,000 tons mechanical wood
pulp, 950 tons chemical wood pulp, which, while requiring
no washing, will lose some proportion as waste during
manipulation. The filthy condition of some of this raw
material is worthy of note, too, the albuminoid ammonia,
being as high in an average of six representative samples
of paper waste as in the average urban sewage, namely,
0-4 parts per 100,000. But the point calling for earliest
attention is the quantity of solids in suspension, as these
could be lessened to a great extent without plant or appa-
ratus, coupled with maintaining cost, ignoring their
importance as polluting agencies. The average suspended
solids in white paper mills is 85' 1 ; brown paper mills, 98' 1 ;
ditto dissolved solids, white paper mills, 80' 1 ; ditto brown
paper mills, 170-9: Quantity of water turned into river
by white paper mills, 2| millions galls, per day; ditto
brown paper mills, j million galls, per day ; total 3 millions
galls, daily. A deduction, however, should here be made
April 3.US92.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
381
for the brown paper mills, as they use, in most instances,
river water directly, already contaminated by the white
paper mills ; but, allowing them the benefit of creating no
more pollution than the white paper mills, we get a uniform
waste bearing in suspension 85 grains per gallon, and
holding in solution 80 grains per gallon, or 5,090 tons
per annum of suspended solids, and 4,700 tons per
annum of dissolved solids, at six days per week, and this
amount, large as it appears (only 20 per cent, of the
raw material used), is rather under than over the mark,
allowing the river an initial burden of 20 grains per
gallon dissolved solids. It was found upon experiment
that a mixture of white mill refuse lost 98 per cent,
of suspended solids by subsidence only, and a mixture of
brown mill refuse lost 85 per cent, by subsidence only. If,
therefore, this refuse could be turned into a receptacle
allowing a subsidence before entering the river, ranch good
would be done. But such receptacles must admit of absolute
quiescence ; continuous tanks are useless, as the fibre is
extremely light and finely divided. The continuous tanks
at Spring Vale paper mill, of 27,000gallons capacity, brought
about a reduction of 2 per cent, only in suspended solids,
and the effect at Primrose Lodge, Clitheroe, is about the
same, but at both places there is additional treatment. The
great desiderata at paper mills are evaporating plant and
receptacles in duplicate to hold six hours' refuse at Ihe least,
ami the sooner steps are taken in this direction the better
it will be for the river Darwen. In the discussion of these
matters with gentlemen in the paper trade, inspectors are
treated with every courtesy, and I am strongly of opinion
that, on the whole, they are willing to meet the reasonable
demands of this committee. Considerable expense would
be incurred in providing plant for evaporation, and it
depended entirely on the value of soda ash whether the
outlay was remunerative or not. Speaking generally, how-
ever, he thought the inspector had received correct informa-
tion when he said the provision of such plant would
remunerate manufacturers in the end. He thought he
might say, as far as the paper trade was concerned, they
were prepared to carry out any reasonable requirement.
In answer "to Mr. Smith, the Chairman said the cost of
providing the evaporating plant for a moderate-sized mill
would be from 1,000/. to 3,000/., and he believed the income
would pay interest on the capital outlay Chemical Trade
Journal.
Drug Imports into the United States,
The full official statistics of the foreign trade of the 1 'nitcd
States for 1891 are now to hand. They give the following
results, so far as concerns the imports of some of the
principal drugs : —
Duty-free.
Dutiahlr.
1891.
Alizarine
Cinchona
Gum arable
Camphor (crude)
Shellac
Liquorice root. ..
Bleaching powder
Opium
Potash, chlorate .
„ muriate..
Quinine
Sulphur
Vanilla
Nutmegs
Pepper, all kinds.
Lb.
4,123,032
2,861,423
826,248
1,982,083
7,485,450
82,589.923
108,880,381
434,120
3,134,464
78,144,810
Oz.
2,527,009
Tons
116,071
Lb.
228,435
1,382,900
12,675,006
Lb.
2,667,109
3,274,117
935,841
1,400,483
5,837,208
45,360,615
105,600,016
Dutiable
03,773,038
Oz.
37011,297
Tons
131,090
Lb.
179,046
1,289,312
15,923,819
Glycerin
Dyewood extracts.
( Ipium (crude) .. .
(smoking).
-Soda, bicarbonate.
„ caustic
„ sal
Whale oil
Olive oil
Salt
Linseed
s tap, toilet
Spices, ground —
Lb.
14,710,119
63,189
1,500,663
68,154,226
347,822,902
Galls.
359,215
613,497
LI).
163,455,263
758,756
733,987
2,253,137
Lb.
1 1,290,709
3,066,952
334,564
77.07S
916,355
88,845,462
360.621.6o6
Gulls.
805,710
755,667
LI).
527.S35.772
2,576,284
752,256
1,189,146
— Chemist and Druggist.
The French Drug Trade.
The following figures show the imports into and exports
from France of some of the most important drugs and
chemicals (in kilos.) during the year 1891 :
In, ports.
Exports.
Gums (from Europe)
Gums (exotic)
Turpentine
Shellac
Copal and damar
Benzoin
Copaiba
Camphor (raw)
Camphor (refined)
Aloes
4 ipiuni
Rhubarl
SarsapariUa
Jalap
Cinchona
Senna
Medic, llowers
Iodine
Iodide pot
Phosphorus, white
Phosphorus, red
Acid, citric
C< mcentr., juice
Acid, tartaric
Soda, bicarb
Borax
Chlorate pel
Glycerin
Snip, copper
Quinine
Cream of tartar
48,378
5,821,386
18,066
182,022
1,245,395
158,837
35,320
346,106
152,677
83,1111
128,207
7,029
112,41 i
11,807
787,290
06,622
561,937
21,9111
1,320
10,360
557,268
140,175
027,288
95,(157
1,976,333
15,123,134
7,038
25,974
45,993
2,354,666
178,097
84,535
399,121
100,020
03,205
21,151
1,461
78,318
8,130
162,081
17,790
317,150
16,779
17.105
311,330
28,608
lis. 777
80,190
702,840
385,246
7,230,405
805,518
11.852
15,759,521
— Ibid.
182
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April so,u»2.
The Price of 1'hiintm.
Platinum has fallen considerably in value lately, and now
costs only about one-half of its price in September 1890,
when it attained the highest quotation known. The following
figures (in marks per kilog.) represent the fluctuations of the
metal during the last five years : —
1"7
f July
I 925
Sept.
gSO
••
■•
( Feb.
• 1,000
May
970
Aug.
950
Nov.
1JKK)
1880
> Jan.
:
March
1,100
Yu-_'.
Oct.
1,000
Nov.
1,075
Dec.
1,21 'i
f Jan.
( 1,500
June
1,900
Sept.
2
Oct
2,200
Nov.
2,100
••
1891
f Jan.
i 1,750
July
1,550
Sept.
MOO
Oct
1.300
Dec.
1,275
< Feb.
1 1,250
March
1,200
— Ibid.
The Supply of Tungsten.
The use of tungsten in the manufacture of tungsten steel
has created a very considerable demand for wolfram, the
principal ore of that metal and the supply being limited its
market price has risen to a higher figure than has been
obtained for many years. It would appear from recent
experiments, of which we have been informed, that the
advantages of tungsten steel will prove so important that
this alloy will come into quite general use, perhaps taking
the place of nickel steel. In view of the high value of
tungsten at the present time it is worth the while of
prospectors to look for its ores. — Engineering and Mining
Journal.
Alkali. &e. WORKS.
V Bill to amend the Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act,
1881.
Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by
and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows ;
1 . The works specified in the schedule hereto shall be
added to those specified in the schedule to the Alkali, &c.
Works Regulation Act, 1SS1, and shall be scheduled works
for the purposes of that Act.
Provided that if the process used in any work specified
in Part I. of the schedule hereto shall he such that no
sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved therein, the work shall
not he deemed to be included in the schedule.
2. Works in which salt is produced by refining rock-
salt, other than those where the rock-salt is dissolved at the
place of deposit, shall not be within the provisions of the
Alkali, &e. Works regulation Act, 1881, in regard to
works in which the extraction of salt from brine is carried
on, or of any order made or to he made under section ten
of that Act.
3. This Act shall come into operation on the first day of
April in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-
three, but certificates of registration may be applied for
and issued at any time after the first day of January in
that year.
4. This Act may be cited as the Alkali, &c. Works
Regulation Act, 1892.
Sc HEDUI.E.
Part I.
(1.) Alkali waste works, that is to say, works for the
recovery of sulphur from alkali waste or for utilising the
sulphur or any other constituent of such waste.
(2.) Barium works, that is to say, works for the manu-
facture of barium compounds from barium sulphide.
(3.) Strontium works, that is to say, works for the manu-
facture of strontium compounds from strontium sulphide.
(4.) Antimony sulphide works, that is to say, works for
the manufacture of antimony sulphide.
(5.) Bisulphide of carbon works, that is to say, works
for the manufacture of bisulphide of carbon.
Part II.
(6.) Venetian red works, that is to say, works for the
manufacture of Venetian red, crocus, or polishing powder
by heating sulphate or some other salt of iron.
(.7.) Lead deposit works, that is to say, works where the
sulphate of lead deposit from sulphuric acid chambers is
smelted.
(8.) Arsenic works, that is so say, works for the pre-
paration of arsenious acid, or where nitric acid or a nitrate
is used in the manufacture of arsenic acid or an arseniate.
(9.) Nitrate and chloride of iron works, that is to say,
works in which nitric acid or a nitrate is used in the
manufacture of nitrate or chloride of iron.
(10.) Muriatic acid works, that is to say, works, not
being alkali works as defined in the Alkali, Sc. Works
Regulation Act, 1881, where muriatic acid is made.
(11.) Fibre separation works, that is to say, works
where muriatic acid gas is used for the separation of silk
or woollen fibre from vegetable fibre.
(12.) Tar works, that is to say, works where gas tar is
distilled or is heated in any manufacturing prove--.
(13.) Zinc works or works in which zinc is extracted
from the ere.
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS,
Summary of Imposts.
Metala
Chemicals and dyestuffs
Oils
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports . . . .
Month ending 31st March
1891.
1892.
£
1,S31,153
£
1,850,188
706,735
764,052
534.674
537.SLM
2,691,726
2,593,041
35,253,059
36,704,177
Summary of Exports.
Mouth ending 31st March
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
:;,7S0,663
B46378
2,954,560
£
2,S42,9S6
839411
2,616,475
Total value of all exports
21,663,878
19,665,382
April 30,1892.] THE JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
383
Imposts of Metals for Month ending 31st March.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Coiiper : —
Un wrought ,
Iron :—
6,228
6,373
3,160
257,884
3,426
553
10,536
51,811
822.556
65,483
4,921
6,516
10,664
2,378
407,920
3,625
181
15,722
16,948
815,315
57,290
3,365
£
57,673
19S.286
170,125
230,232
33,079
6,757
133,767
98,766
92,305
296,572
114,768
398.S23
£
48,937
276.050
114,014
297,733
29,077
5,010
172,754
82,534
77,374
255,127
73,557
416,212
Bolt, bar, &e ,
Steel, unwrought.. „
Load, pig and sheet „
Other articles . . .Value £
Total value of metals
"
j 1,831,153
1,880,188
Imtorts of Raw Materials for
Industries for Month ending 31
Non-Textile
st March.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891. 1892.
Bark, Peruvian . . Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum : —
Arabic „
Lac, Ac
Gutta-percha .
Hides, raw: —
Dry
Wet
Ivory
Manure : —
Guano Tons
BoneB „
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
Esparto
Pulp of wood .... „
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin „
Tar Barrels
Wood:—
Hewn Loads
Sawn
Staves ,
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . .Value £
Total value .
16,320
275,796
22,245
5,506
13,870
6,831
47,697
38,231
1,057
1,871
7,903
54,651
2,656
19,388
10,044
137,343
135,260
2,027
138,927
92,837
3,724
3,837
0.S50
£
88,771
2211,305
43,265
27,184
286,843
3,863
15,568
11,789
54,889
2,828
83,429
48,805
110,033
30,990
83,268
1,164
53,262
3,026
10,492
8,226
47,602
51,387
76,743
2,864
24,783
22,096
95,806
13,690
59,565
93,985
30,596
94,548
172,633
2,118
1,099
138,627
227,834
107,916
216.455
7,387
22,276
(.065
37,709
••
789,807
••
2,501.726
£
20,328
31,189
296,9011
12,006
45,088
33,788
113,487
67,990
56,051
34,294
37,495
86,568
28,658
104,531
64,808
19,612
122.028
1,208
264,489
254.50S
47,073
42,934
S16.408
Imports of Oils for Month ending 31st March.
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 78,0182, were imported
m against 86,093?. in March 1891.
Artioles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1802.
1,985
1,529
50,055
10,093,410
2,694
735
15,047
1,470
1,831
96,823
0,650,528
1,838
1,532
5,204
£
2,859
62,089
59,352
280,854
66,160
15,658
21,334
76,368
£
1,002
71,026
113,824
102,126
49,868
29,551
5,748
70,600
Other articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
334,674
537,820
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 31st March.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
6,736
31,160
38,754
266
1,373
7,499
231,036
32,351
1,513
3,663
20.728
27,751
211
2,375
9,016
219,885
25,666
4,756
£
3,818
9,549
11,517
110,716
1,502
83,378
22,317
32,780
1,196
160,622
06,501
2S.S58
31,617
163,271
£
Bark (tanners, 4c.) „
Cutch and gambier Tons
Dyes:—
11,801
8,069
118,317
1,275
.-6.501
16,485
30,661
1,088
173,344
99,504
22,374
Nitrate of soda. ... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Other articles. . . Value £
160,236
Total value of chemicals
706,735
761,052
Exports of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
31st March.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
527,859
114,505
£
2(16.126
38,446
£
195,629
46.S91
Bleaching materials „
114,552
Chemical manures. Tons
35,136
35,517
252,771
249,970
..
..
90,070
100,448
Other articles
••
238,860
246.773
••
••
346,273
38 A
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April 30, 1892.
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending 31st Mabch.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
8,748
9,623
£
40,077
£
12,095
Copper :—
34,265
80,877
240,023
193,190
Wrought „
2t,13fi
34,337
104,329
Mixed metal
25,853
25,413
72,121
64,935
..
..
215,793
197,178
••
••
110,597
115,287
256,439
218,980
2,400,729
1360,382
Lead
3,517'
5,680
51,873
72,960
Plated wares . . . Value £
..
..
26,834
26.S08
Telegraph wires, &c. „
• •
• •
392,552
18,827
8,812
10,317
38,913
47,820
12,969
17,676
13,743
16,489
Other articles . . Value £
••
••
96,908
82,586
..
3,7S0,6C3
2,813,986
Exports oe Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 3 1st March.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
766300
713,800
£
17,016
£
IS, -SI
Military stores..
Value £
• •
• •
09,027
93361
Value £
1,42-1,800
1,871,500
88,132
103,446
36,249
1":;,-;,;,
65,644
41,194
1! 1,245
79,275
Products of coal
Value £
..
..
174,218
1 13,612
Earthenware . .
,,
■ •
..
105,343
104,942
„
..
.•
18,002
L5328
Glass: —
267.032
8,435
1 17,029
9,556
17,730
20,167
8,776
21,0110
67,184
71,714
31,514
33,900
Other kinds..
■
19,489
17,041
16,713
1 l.iv.l
Leather : —
Unwrought . .
• »»
14,306
11,3ns
12:' 139
107,454
Value £
..
32,:>79
27,270
7,968
7,7»3
167,969
162,243
Floorcloth
Sq. Yds.
1,731,700
1,525,200
70,479
65,712
Painters' materials Val. £
..
..
130.330
137,769
B9.284
B5.817
154,973
145,183
3,751
5,351
25,703
30,558
49,160
51.742
55,338
••
2,954,560
2,616,475
i«ontt)Ip patent itet.
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
5108. R. Fish and YV. Smith. Improvements in apparatus
for regulating liquid seals in gas washers and the like.
Match 15.
5125. F. H. Rowlett. See Class II.
5214. A. Desgoffe. Improvements in machinery for
manufacturing fuel blocks and other articles from plastic
material. March 16.
5238. J. A. Yea. ion and W. Adgie. See Class III.
5239. J. A. Yeadou ami W. Adgie. Improvements in
apparatus for revivifying gas, lime (sulphide of calcium),
and other analogous materials. March 16.
52S1. C. Fery. See Class Will.
5325. H. H. Lake.— From T. Craney, United States.
Improvements in evaporating apparatus. March 17.
5377. S. IT. Johnson and C. C. Hutchinson. Improve-
ments in apparatus for mixing liquids with liquids and
solids. Complete Specification. March 18.
5538. 0. W. Ketchum. Improvements in gas generating
furnaces or gas producers. March 21.
5558. P. Lucas. Improvements in and relating to the
fireplaces of brewers' pans, salt pans, iron and steel furnaces,
and other like furnaces. March 22.
5619. J. A. Fisher. Improvements in the construction
of non-conducting coverings to prevent the radiation of
heat. Complete Specification. March 22.
5659. I!. L. Newman. Improvements in evaporators for
the distillation of liquids. March 22.
6134. 1>. Stewart. An improved vacuum pan. March 30.
6354. T. Thornley. Improvements in kilns or furnaces
applicable for the drying and incineration of spent soda
solutions. April 1.
G478. F. W. Scott, E. G. Scott, and F. W. Scott, jun.
Improvements in evaporating apparatus. April 4.
6535. \\". Birch. Improved means and apparatus for
separating solid or semi-solid substances from sludge or
other fluid or semi-fluid matters. April 5.
6700. C. 1). Abel.— From E. Theisen, Germany. Im-
provements in Mii lace condensing and refrigerating apparatus.
April 7.
CS9H. 1.'. S. Brownlow. Improvements in apparatus for
heating feed-water, applicable also for evaporating and for
cooling or condensing. April 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
6887. J. Peake. Kilns for various purposes. March 23.
8177. F. Smith and YV. Travis. Apparatus for drawing
off liquids. March 23.
8546. J. C. Mewburu. — From The Maschinenfabrik
Grevenbroich. See Class XVI.
9181. J. Dawson and .1. W. IHampson. An improved
construction of refrigerator or cooling pan for chemical and
other purposes. April 6.
9310. A. J. Boult.— From A. Klonne and F. Bredel.
Setting and heating retorts. April 6.
April S0.1S98.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
385
1892.
1210. 1!. Zeitschel. Apparatus for rapidly heating
liquids. April 6.
2117. C. F. lietting. Assay or chemical balances.
March 23.
3013. N. Hunting. Apparatus for distilling water in the
presence of air, and for communicating heat thereto, and
for supplying water and air thereto and delivering water
therefrom. March 23.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
4982. G. Angel. Improvements in the manufacture of
peat fuel. March 14.
■1991. C. Heath. Improvements in apparatus or means
for utilising small or waste coal or other fuel for steam boiler
and other tires and furnaces. March 14.
5031. R. E. P. Craven. An improved apparatus for
washing smoke and separating carbon and other matters
therefrom. March 15.
5125. F. H. Rowlett. Improvements in the construction
of " saturators " used in the manufacture of gas, applicable
also for dye-vats and other purposes. March 15.
5173. M. Lauchlan. Carbon diamond fire - lighters.
March 16.
5198. J. Laycock and S. li. Clapham. Improvements in
apparatus for use in the purification of coal-gas. March 16.
5575. T. O. Dixon. Improvements in the manufacture of
perforated fuel. March 22.
5620. F, A. Tagliaferro, A. A. Moore, and R. Campion.
Improvements in the manufacture of tire - lighters and
artificial fuel. March 22.
5698. J. Tattersall. Fire-lighters. March 23.
5755. A. Mortimer. An improved fire-lighter. March -24.
5994. J. Rudd. Improved apparatus and means for in-
creasing the illuminating power of gas. Complete Specifica-
tion. March 28.
6000. C. Hunt. Improvements in gas. washing apparatus.
March 28.
6020. C. Herzog. An improved method of and means for
the regulation of the quality of an artificial gas. March 29.
6062. W. Helton, G. E. Davis, and A. R. Davis. Im-
provements in the purification of coal-gas. March 29.
6362. C. Bougourd de Lamarre. A new process of and
apparatus for the manufacture of illuminating gas. Complete
Specification. April 1.
6697. J. Morle3'. The treatment of ingredients and the
manufacture of compound block for use as fire-lighters
Complete Specification. April 7.
6733. D. Rylands. An improved means of utilising gas
for wanning or heating purposes. April 8.
6819. W. D. Scott - Moncreiff. Improvements in or
relating to the treatment of fuel. April 9.
6908. H. Collet and M. Merichenski. Improved mixture
intended for use in carburettiug air or enriching combustible
gas. April 11.
6909. H. Collet and M. Merichenski. Improvements in
carburettors. April 11.
7079. C. R. Collins. Improvements in gas-making appa-
ratus. Complete Specification. April 12.
7202. J. N. Morath and F. S. de Straznicki. Improve-
ments in the manufacture of artificial fuel. Complete
Specification. April 14.
7243. C. Fink. Improvements in method of and appa-
ratus for purifying smoke and [jrecipitatiug the products of
combustion thereof. Complete Specification. April 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7092. A. A. Lister. Apparatus for extracting tar and
ammonia from gas. March 23.
7648. 10. Stauber. Process and appliances for producing
peat-coke cakes. March 23.
8479. .1. Ruseoe. Apparatus for charging and drawing
gas retorts. April 6.
9180. P. H. Thwaite. Methods of storing inflammable
spirits or highly volatile hydrocarbons. April 6.
9366. P. Gibbons and W. P. Gibbons. Apparatus for
charging inclined gas retorts. April 13.
9398. P. van Gelder. Separating smoke or soot from
air or other gases and utilising the air or gases so purified.
April 13.
9457. .1. H. Parkinson. Apparatus for obtaining or
separating oxygen from atmospheric air. April 13.
lii,918. J. C. Chandler. Apparatus for washing or
scrubbing gas. April 6.
11,416. J. Promilow. Gas producers, April 13.
1892.
2367. L. Sepulchre. Gas generator for the distillation of
mineral oils and the combustion at a distance of a part or
the whole of the products of the distillation, applicable to
apparatus for lighting and heating. March 23.
3026. J. A. Dubbsf. Manufacture of asphalt urn
March 23.
3355. E. W. Harding. Apparatus for the manufacture
into blocks or moulded forms of carbonaceous matter for
use as fuel. March 30.
3959. J. Johnson. — From H. Kennedy. Coke ovens.
April 6.
3995. A. J. Boult.— From The Chicago Heat Storage Co.
Manufacture of fuel-gas. April 6.
4032. T. R. Osbourn. Apparatus for quenching coke.
April 6.
4033. T R. Osbourn. Apparatus for the manufacture of
coke. April 6.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Applications.
5238. J. A. ■ Yeadon and W. Adgie. Improvements in
apparatus for distilling mineral or other tars, hydrocarbons,
or other analogous liquids. March 16.
5539. B. Willcox.— From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in purifying
anthracene and anthraquinone. March 21.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9052. W. P. Thompson.— From I'. Kuntze. Manufac-
ture of ammonia and tar from nitrogenous organic
substances, and apparatus relating thereto. March 23.
2367. L. Sepulchre.
1892.
See Class II.
I V.- COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
5112. B. Willcox.— From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture of new
colouring matters. March 15.
5540. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Analin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of the red basic naphthalene colouring matter which yields
azocarmine on sulphonation. March 21.
386
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April ausoa
5761. The Clayton Aniline Co., Limited, .1. Hall, and
P. Moore. Improvements in the manufacture and prepara-
tion of a yellow colouring matter. March 24.
5811. C. 1). Abel.— From C. F. Boehringer and Sonne
and Co., Germany. Manufacture of derivatives of amido-
crotonic acid. March 24.
5815. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
!•'. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the pro-
duction of fast colours on the fibre for printing and dyeing
purposes. March 24,
6252. K. Holliday and Sons, Limited, and L. G. Paul.
Improvements in treating nitroso compounds for use in
dyeing animal fibres. March 31.
6630. C. 1). Abel. — From The Aetien Gesellschaft fur
Anilin 1'abrikation, Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture of colouring matters. April 6.
7120. W. Marekwald and J. F". Holtz. Manufacture or
production of aromatic disulpho-ethvlenediamides, aromatic
disulphopiperazides, and piperazine. April 13.
7298. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of dyestuffs. April 16.
7337. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of colouring matters and new materials therefor.
April 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
81i)7. S. Pitt. — From L. Cassella and Co. Production of
blue dyestuffs. March 30.
8702. li. Willcox. — F'rom The Farbenfabriken vormals
K. Haver and Co. Manufacture and production of colour-
ing matters derived from authraquinone and alizarine blue.
March 30.
9943. O. Imray. — F'rom The F'arbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briining. Production of blue colouring matter.
April 20.
10,619. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin and
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture and production of new basic
dyestuffs. April 20.
11,298. E. Schweich and E. Bucher. Colouring matter or
ilye and methods of extracting and utilising the same.
April 6.
1892.
960. A. Bang. — From G. A. Dahl. The production of
fast yellow mordant dyeing azo-dyestuffs. March 23.
1231. H. H. Lake. — F'rom Wirth and Co., Agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters.
April 6.
2718. S. Pitt. — From L. Cassella and Co. Production of
black dyes suitable for dyeing wool. April 20.
1677. P. Monnet. Manufacture of new colouring matters
or dyes. April 20.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
5297. P. Temming. A new fabric suitable as a substitute
for cotton waste for cleaning parts of machinery, and
process for making the same. Complete Specification.
March 17.
5462. E. Knowles. Manufacture of mixed silk and
cotton yarn. March 19.
6550. B. J. B. Mills. — F'rom G. Bergier, France. Im-
provements in the spinning and treatment of silk in the
manufacture of various classes of silk thread. Complete
Specification. April 5.
7321. C. D. Abel. — From The Aetien Gesellschaft fur
Anilin Fabrikatiou, Germany. Process for the preservation
of textile fabrics and fibres. April 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3960. W. H. Hughes. Cleaning, restoring, and bleaching
damaged cotton, or other products from cotton seed, sponges,
and all textile material. April 13.
10,556. A. M. Clark. — F'rom La Socicte La Ramen.
Process of ungumming and decorticating textile materials.
April 13.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
4984. K. Zillessen, sen. An improved process for dyeing
piece-goods. March 14.
5197. R. H. Pickles. Improvement in the composition
of compounds of aluminium, iron, and chromium, to be used
as mordants. March 16.
5204. W. Crippin and B. Burrell. Improvements in the
process of dyeing with indigo cotton, and other fibrous
materials, in the raw or manufactured, or partly manufac-
tured state. March 16.
5408. G. Jagenbarg. Process for dyeing loose cotton,
cotton thread, and woven fabrics. March 18.
6162. E. Hermite, E. J. Paterson, and C. F. Cooper.
An improvement in the bleaching of textile and pulping
materials in vacuo. March 30.
6304. T. Hoyle and Sons, Limited, and W. X. Neild
Improvements in dyeing cotton and other textile fabrics
April 1.
7339. B. Willcox. — F'rom The Farbenfabriken vormals
]•'. 1 layer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the pro-
duction of fast colours on fibres. April 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4928. G. Young and W. Crippin. Apparatus for dyeing
and bleaching and otherwise treating cotton, wool, silk, and
other fibrous materials in the raw and manufactured or
partly manufactured state. March 23.
19,113. W.Ward. Colouring cork used in the manufac-
ture of floor coverings, and apparatus used in colouring
the same. March 30.
1892.
2939. A. Ophoven. Art or process for colouriug pictures
or textile fabrics. March 23.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
5127. J. E. Campbell. Improvements in the utilisation
of galvanisers' waste pickle and the like, and in apparatus
therefor. March 15.
5195. A. G. Haddock. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of carbonate of soda with recovery of sulphur.
March 16.
5225. A. Allbusen, G. E. Edgell, and W. Russell. Im-
provements in the recovery of sulphur from the waste gases
from Clans kilns or similar gases, and apparatus therefor.
March 16.
5296. C. J. Bayer. Improvements in the treatment of
bauxite or similar minerals for the purpose of obtaining
alkali-aluminates or alumina hydrate. March 17.
5388. H. C. Bull. An improved method or process of
and means for concentrating and purifying sulphuric acid.
March 18.
April :in, 1S02.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
387
5425. J. C. Ody. Method for making caustic soda (sodium
hydrate). Complete Specification. March 19.
6139. J. C. Ody. New method for manufacturing car-
bonate of soda. March 30.
6288. H. C. Bull. See Class XI.
G931. H. H. Lake— From J. H. C. liehnke and the
hemische Fabrik in Billwarder vorm. Hell and Staamer,
Germany. Improvements relating to the production of
pure carbonic acid from the products of combustion of
furnaces, kilns, and the like, and to apparatus therefor.
April 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5354, J. J. Hood and A. G. Salamon. Manufacture of
cyanogen compounds, and the treatment of substances used
therein. March 30.
5801. M. Royon. Apparatus to produce sulphuretted
hydrogen. March 23.
9332. Comte T. S. de I). Brochocki. Manufacture or
production of chlorine compounds for bleaching. April 6.
9575. D. Rylands. Process or arrangements for the
manufacture of carbonic acid gas. April 13.
1892.
lu:!2. 1'. H. de Lambilly. Method or process for the
production of alkaline cyanides. April 13.
J.'i27. ( '. (!. Collins. Process for the purification of
brine. April 13.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
5249. J. Slater. Improvements in treating vitreous sub-
stances for joining the same or for attaching metals thereto.
March 17.
5527. O. Imray. — From The Actiengesellschaft fur
Glasindustrie vormals F. Siemens, Germany. Manufacture
of blown hollow glass with metal insertions. March 21.
7024. ]{. Crcsswell. The treatment of ingredients for the
manufacture of compounds specially adapted for coating
glass for reflective purposes ; also in means for increasing
the reflective power of glass so treated. April 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7040. W. A. Kerr. See Class IX.
7547. J. Morton. Kilns for burning retorts, pipes,
quarries, and other refractory substances. March 23.
7988. T. C. J. Thomas. Manufacture of glass. April 13.
9960. D. Rylands. Furnaces for glass melting and for
similar purposes. April 20.
18,281. C. D. d'Enghein, A. 1). d'Enghien, and S. 1).
d'Eughien. Kilns or ovens for tiring terra-cotta and other
like materials. March 30.
1892.
Process of marking glass by acids.
1974. W. Lend
March 23.
3586. C. Armstrong. Kilns or ovens for burning
glaring sanitary ware and the like. March 30.
4525. H. D. Fitzpatrick. From M. Schreiber
L. Oettinger. Manufacturing glass bricks. April 13.
and
and
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
5683. T. I). Harries. An improved artificial stone.
March 23.
5746. A. T. Morse. An improved distemper for walls,
ceilings, and the like. Complete Specification. March 23.
6608. T. Potter. Improvements in the construction of
rtre-proof floors. April 6.
6745. V. F. L. Smidth. Improvements in the manufacture
of hydraulic cement for building purposes. Complete
Specification. April 8.
7034. F. H. Willis and R. Astley. An improved form
and method of constructing and fixing fire-proof floors.
April 12.
7270. R. Huppertsberg. Improvements in the manu-
facture of artificial bituminous stone. April 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5709. O. Clausen. Manufacture of fire-clay and magnesian
bricks, and kilns for firing same. April 13.
6532. J. Jackson. Manufacture or production of decora-
tive material, more especially intended for application to
walls, ceilings, or like surfaces. March 30.
7040. W. A. Kerr. Composition designed to serve as a
substitute for wood, and also applicable for the manufacture
fo bricks and crucibles, retorts, and other articles of
earthenware. April 13.
8567. 0. Imray. — From W. Schlening. Manufacture of
arttficial stone. March 23.
9319. W. P. Thompson. — From J. P. von Balgooy. See
Class XIII.
20,743. J. T. Abell. Paving. March 23.
1892.
2957. H. Hartmann. Manufacture of a resistible
material, chiefly designed for building purposes. April 13.
3539. H. Brunsou and E. W. Gillett. Building or paving
blocks. March 30.
4496. J. S. Holiday. Artificial stones. April 13.
4540. G.M.Graham. Building or pairing blocks. April 13.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
4997. J. de Coppet. Improvements in the treatment of
minerals, mattes, speiss, and other substances containing
nickel for the separation of copper, nickel, and cobalt.
March 14.
5026. T. H. Mallaband.
furnaces. March 15.
Improvements in melting
5255. J. G. H. Batehelor and C. T. Batchelor. Improved
means for the recovery of tin and iron from tin plate scrap
or other waste material from tinned goods. March 17.
5258. R. Henderson. Improvements in machinery or
apparatus for separating and concentrating auriferous and
argentiferous ores and extracting gold and silver therefrom
by amalgamation. March 17.
5560. R. Heaton. A solder for aluminium. March 22.
5651. H. H. Lake. — From H. F. Brown, United States.
Improvements in ore-roasting furnaces. March 22.
6038. G. Wegner. Improved solder for joining together
aluminium pieces or pieces of aluminium with other metals.
Complete Specification. March 29.
38S
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTET. [April so, im
623.'). W. H. I). Cleminson. Improvements in easting or
founding. March 31.
1399. J. C. Bull. Improvements in the treatment or
refining of copper and other metals. April 2.
6454. F. Kyland. An improvement or improvements in
tinning cast-iron hollow-ware. April 4.
6567. II. I!. Lewis and C. Gelstharp. Improvements
relating to the treatment of ores and other compounds
containing metals and sulphur, and to apparatus therefor.
April .">.
6612. T. Twynam. Improvements in the manufacture of
iron and steel. April 6.
6704. S. H. Brown. Improvements in a compound for
carburising metals. Complete Specification. April 7.
6S14. W. I). Parr and E. H. Crapptr. An improved
process of surface hardening and annealing steel and iron
plates. April 9.
C927. A. Gentzsch. Improved process for winning gold
without using mercury. April 11.
7027. C. Raleigh. A combination of matter adapted fur
use in the process of chlorination and means for producing
the same. April 12.
7064. C. T. .1. Vautin. An improved process for the
separation of lead from ores containing galena and blende.
April 12.
7067. A. E. Butler, B. F. Butler, and H. M. Butler.
Improvements in furnaces for heating and melting metals.
April 12.
7069. G. .1. Atkins. Improvements in means and
apparatus for separating gold, silver, and other metals from
their ores. Complete Specification. April 12.
7151. J. E. Duke and F. Bedman. Improvements in
separating or recovering tin from tin plate, and apparatus
for the purpose. April 13.
7152. J. F. Duke and F. Bedman. Improvements in
producing metal or other eastings. April 13.
7159. J. B. Chamberlain. An improved alloy. April 13.
7160. J. B. Chamberlain and A. Gutensohn. An
improved process for coating metal with a vitrifying
material for the removal of scale. April 13.
7302. A. Turner and M. B. Baird. Improvements in the
manufacture of iron and steel. April 16.
7332. G. Ketterer. Improvements in galvanising iron,
and apparatus therefor, April 1 6.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
213. D. Edwards. Apparatus used in the manufacture
of tin, terne, and other coated metal plates. April 13.
214. D. Edwards. Apparatus used in the manufacture
of tin, terne, and other coated metal plates. April 13.
215. D. Edwards. Apparatus used in the manufacture
of tin, terne, and other coated metal plates. April 13.
795. J. E. Bott. Manufacture of ferro-bronze and other
alloys. April 20.
6479. W. T. Rickard. Mechanical and ehemico-metal-
lurgieal treatment of copper, the precious, and other
metallic ores. March 30.
7625. A. Tropenas. Manufacture of steel, steel castings,
or ingot iron, and apparatus and appliances employed
therein. April 6.
8122. B. Krantz and II. Zeissler. Decorating metal
articles with other metals deposited thereon. April 13.
8137. S. Pearson and J. II. Pratt. Metallic alloys.
March 23.
8529. D. ('. Bateman. Apparatus for hardening and
tempering steel wire. March 23.
10,144. P. II. Bertram!. Method of forming magnetic
oxide (Fe,0,) upon the surface of wrought or east iron.
April 20.
15,444. T. H. J. Eskuchen and H. A. Haarmann. Burn-
ing of pressed blocks of purple ore, and apparatus or
kilns therefor. April 20.
1892.
1565. H. H. Lake. — From J. Gould, jun. Coating of
metal plates, and apparatus therefor. March 23.
XI.-
-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
4949. A. F. YVilluian. The generation of el"ctricity for
electric lighting and other purposes. March 14.
5245. J. Pedder. Improvements in the production of
caustic soda and carbonate of soda by electrolysis, and in
apparatus therefor. March 17.
5311. J. C. Richardson. Improvements relating to the
construction of electrodes for electrolytic purposes.
March 17.
5409. G. E. B. Pritchett and T. W. Pritchett. Im-
provements in secondary batteries. March lis.
5442. J. F. Bennett and F. A. Colley. Improvements in
galvanic batteries. March 19.
5546. J. W. Swan. Improvements in or connected with
the electrolytic deposition of copper or other metals.
March 21.
5645. L. Pyke and E. S. Harris. Improvements in or
connected with electric batteries. March 22.
6006. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. Improvements in
the treatment of electro deposits of metals. March 28.
6007. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. Improvements in
or connected with cells for electrolysing chloride solutions.
March 28.
6058. W. F. Taylor. Improvements in machinery for
the purpose of hardening and tempering metals by
electricity. March 29.
6112. II. H. Lake.— From W. Sleicher, jun., and G. A.
Mosher, United States. Improvements in and relating to
secondary batteries or accumulators. Complete Specifica-
tion. March 29.
6288. II. C. Hull. Improvements in or connected with
the manufacture of alkalis, chlorine, and hydrogen by
electrolysis. April 1.
6289. J. C. Graham. Improvements in the deposition of
metals by electrolysis, and in apparatus therefor. April 1.
6405. D. Urquhart and J. M. Small. An improvement
in secondary voltaic batteries. April 2.
6428. E. Hancock and A. J. Macquand. Improvements
in the manufacture of elements for electric or secondary
batteries. April 2.
6465. G. E. Ileyl. Improvements in electrical secondary
or storage batteries. April 4.
6467. E. Hermite and A. Dubosc. Manufacture of the
alkaline carbonates or bicarbonates by the electrolytic
decomposition of alkaline chlorides in the presence of
gelatinous alumina or chloride or other salt of aluminium.
April 4.
6637. G. E. Heyl. Improvements in electrodes for
storage batteries. April 6.
6722. W. W. Donaldson and R. Macrae. Improvements
in battery plates or secondary batteries. Complete Specifi-
cation. April 7.
6949. J. Marx. Improvements in and apparatus for the
electrolysis of solutions of salts or compounds of the
alkalis, more especially intended for the manufacture or
production of alkalis and chlorine and for bleaching.
April 11.
7088. A. W. Wcthcrclt. An improved dry battery.
April 13.
April so, 189-2. j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
389
7144. G. H. Cutting. Improvements in secondary
batteries. April 13.
7170: T. E. Weatherall. An improvement in primary
batteries. April 14.
7220. F. B. Stone. An improved primary battery.
April 14.
7226. C. H. A. Hobo and E. A. ('. Lagrange. Improve-
ments in or relating to the electric treatment of metal or
Other bodies. April 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7960. R. D. Sanders. Apparatus for use in the manu-
facture of metal tube cylinders, or other articles by electro-
deposition. April 13.
8126. G. J. Philpott. Compound dynamo-electric
generators. March 30.
9079. C. Hoepfner. Electrolytic extraction of metals and
the electrolysis of other substances. March 30.
9628. D. G. Fitzgerald. Negative elements (positive
electrodes in charging secondary cells) of voltaic batteries.
April 13.
9629. 1). G. Fitzgerald. Negative elements (positive
electrodes in charging secondary cells) of voltaic batteries.
April 13.
96S9. V. Jeanty. Apparatus for supplying depolarising
Or Other liquids to a series of electric batteries. April 13.
9734. W. Aldreil. Dynamo-electric machines. April 2o.
9803. W. J. Engledue. Galvanic batteries. April 13.
10,082. P. Jablochkoff. Voltaic batteries. April 20.
10,090. L. Grabau. Process for the electrolytic produc-
tion of aluminium. April 13.
13,460. The London Metallurgical Company, Limited,
and S. O. Cowper-Coles. Coating articles with a new
metallic alloy by electro-deposition. April 20.
1 6,270. W. P. Thompson. — From E. Correns. Accumu-
lators for the storage of electric currents. March 30.
17,655. G. D. Burton, A. H. Eddy, and G. T. Briggs.
Heating metals by electricity and machines therefor.
March 30.
1892.
222.".. G. Nahnsen. Method of purifying electrolytes
containing zinc, relating to or connected with the electro-
inetallurgie production of zinc. April 6.
2329. O. Inn-ay. — From T. J. Montgomery. Process
and apparatus for bleaching by electrolysis. March 23.
2913. G. Nahnsen. Electro-metallurgic extraction of
/inc. March 23.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
5794, G, 11. llikin
March 24.
Applications.
Improved washing compounds.
.r)938. R. Bell and G. H. Barber. Improvements in the
manufacture of soap. March 2G.
6955. E. .1. J. B. lienoit and J. S. y Vila. Improvements
in the method of extracting stearine and oleine from tallow,
and in apparatus therefor. Complete Specification. April 11.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
94:11. 11. H. Lake. — From La Societe Anonyme dcs Par-
funis Naturels de Cannes. Purification of fatty substances.
March 30.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
5120. H. W. Picton and S. E. Linder. Improved manu-
facture of vermilion. March 15.
5287. J. W. H. .Tames. Improvements in the manu-
facture of white lead, and in apparatus therefor. Complete
Specification. F'iled March 17. Date applied for October
1, 1891, being date of application in France.
5862. J. B. Carruthers. Improvements in colour cakes,
blocks, or sticks for marking or colouring purposes.
March 25.
6009. S. Z. de Ferranti and J. H. Noad. Improvements
in the production of white lead and chrome pigments.
March 28.
6516. G. W". Scollay. Improvements in the manufacture
of pigments. Complete Specification. April 5.
6542. J. S. Fairfax.— From F. Crane, United States.
Improvements in the manufacture of. pyroxyline solutions
and compounds for varnishes and coatings. April 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
3832. J. II. Noad. Manufacture of white lead. April 6.
6683. It. J. White. Manufacture of white lead. April 20.
8296. A. MacLean, jun. Transparent coloured materials
for decorative purposes. March 23.
9193. R. Jacks. — From G. Sharp. Composition for
coating ships' plates and the like. March 30.
9267. W. B. Lawson and H. Schofield. Manufacture of
black-lead blocks. April 6.
9319. W. 1'. Thompson.— From .1. P. von Balgooy. Pro-
cess and compositions for coating walls and similar surfaces
to prevent the penetration of damp. March 30.
1892.
2253. C. H. Bigland. Paints or protective coverings for
ships' bottoms and other structures. March 23.
3142. H. Taylor. Manufacture of paints and varnishes,
and in the treatment of materials in connexion therewith
April 13.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
5689. F. Riegert. A process for waterproofing all kinds
of skins and rendering them more durable. Complete
Specification. March 23.
5704. J. T. Hardy. An improved method or process of
furnishing moroccos, goat skins, and other leathers.
March 23.
5828. C. K. Falkenstein and K. K. Falkenstein. An
improved method of rapid tanning with the aid of electricity.
March 25.
6104. C. W. Luther. The production of a cement or
glue for joining wood. March 29.
6416. W. P. Thompson.— From F. A.Wolff, Germany.
Improvements in and in apparatus for the treatment of
liquid gelatin or glue for the ultimate production of plates
or sheets of such. Complete Specification. April 2.
7150. C. J. Sanders. A process for treating the entrails
or intestines of animals to render them waterproof and
useful for industrial purposes. April 13.
390
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[April so, I89i.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7106. A. Huillard. Process of decolourising and clarifying
tunning liquors or tannic extracts. April 6.
9624. W. Crowther and J. Crowther. Preserving a
solution of tannin and keeping it from fermenting or changing
into gallic acid. April 13.
10,871. B. Whiteley. Manufacture of mats, rags, and
and similar articles from the skins of animals such as sheep
and the like. March 30.
18,003. F. J. Bugg. Manufacture of an improved com-
position leather fabric. March 30.
19,397. I. Goldschmidt. Process of dyeing, tanning, and
mordanting leather, teasled fabrics, or other porous materials,
and apparatus employed therefor. April 6.
1892.
2429. H. E. Howe. Method of rendering leather used
for the outer soles of boots and shoes flexible or pliable.
March 23.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
5411. F. W. Saatmann. Improvements in the manufacture
of superphosphates. .March is.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
.Vi.'iT. II. II. Lake. — From A. Briart and P. Jacquemin.
Method for enriching calcareous phosphates, and for
manufacturing superphosphates and various by-products.
.March 30.
1SU2.
3029. II. IT. Lake.— From The Biolytic Gypse Co.
Insecticide and fertiliser. March 23.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
5719. T. Drost. Improvements in and relating to the
manufacture of relined sugar from raw sugar. March 23.
6160. 1!. Broekhoff. Improvements in apparatus for
manufacturing sugar. Complete Specification. March 30.
7254. (i. F. Delory. Improvements in the treatment of
fecula and other amylaceous matters, and in apparatus
therefor. April 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
The Maschinenfaluik
saccharine and other
1891.
8545. J. C Mewburn. From
Grevenbroich. Crystallisation of
solutions. March 23.
8546. .1. C. Mewburn. From The Maschinenfabrik
Grevenbroich. Treatment of solutions which have been
boiled to the granular state. March 23.
21,370. L. Kern. Production of adhesive substances
soluble in water, from the gum exuded from almond, cherry,
peach, and other trees. April 6.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
5059. G. Sobotka and A. Kliemetschek. Method of and
apparatus for producing clear wort. Complete Specification.
March 15.
.")227. R. Rozeubaum. A process for the treatment of
wine. March 16.
6075. 1 1. Sobotka. Method of and apparatus for separating
yeast. Complete Specification. March 29.
6286. W. (J. Davidson. Davidson's precipitating and
hot blast process for treating and cooling distillers' dreg.
April 1.
6531. .1. F. Wittemann. An improved process of
finishing beer. Complete Specification. April 5.
6555. C M. Johnson and E. do Cock. Improved method
of or means for treating beer for improving its qualities
and colour. Complete Specification. April 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9763. W. P. Thompson. — From J. F. Theurer. Process
and apparatus for effecting the extraction of bops, with
the simultaneous production of a fine extract. April 13.
10,135. P. M. Justice.— From A. W. Billings,
and means for manufacturing beer and ale.
18,511. A. Umbeck. BrewiDg. March 23.
Method
Process
the like.
1892.
3010. W. P. Thompson.— From C. F. Lawton.
of manufacturing beer, ale, wine, cider, or
March 23.
3011. W.P.Thompson. — From C F. Lawton. Method
and apparatus for manufacturing beer, ale, wine, cider, or
the like. March 23.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A,
United states.
March 14.
■Chemistry of Foods.
4948. H. J. Allison.— From J. Miner,
Process of making food compounds.
5589. S. L. West. Improvements in apparatus for
purifying, sterilising, and filtering water, and rendering the
same fit for potable purposes. Complete Specification.
March 22.
5725. J. Falcimagne. Improvements in or relating to
the preservation of meat and fatty matters. Complete
Specification. March 23.
6570. G. J. Epstein. Improvements in the manufacture
of a substitute for egg. April 5.
6808. G. Tall. The manufacture of an improved
substitute for butter. April 8.
6841. W. Crawford. An improvement in the manufac-
ture of malt bread, biscuits, confectionery, and other articles
of diet. Complete Specification. April 9.
7043. C. Saville. A new or improved food product, and
process of producing the same. Complete Specification.
April 12.
April so, una.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
391
B. — Sanitary Chemistry,
5077. 1). Hanvood. Improved means for preventing the
pollution of the atmosphere in large cities and towns.
March 15.
6211. J. Price. Improvements in the treatment of
sewage. March 31.
6396. P. W. Lacey. Improvements in apparatus for the
treatment of noxious gases. April 2.
G731. H. Grimshaw. A new and improved method for
the purification of sewage and waste water from manufac-
turing processes. April 8.
6882. H. C. W. Baldwin. Improvements in the
construction and arrangements of purifying and disinfecting
apparatus. April 9.
C — Disinfectants.
5036. .). B. Dewhurst. An improved compound for
disinfecting and other purposes. March 15.
5979. 1'. W. A. llille. Improvements in disinfectants.
March 28.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A.— Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
7345. ];. Kick and O. Dahm. Manufacture of artificial
" human milk" and other easily digestible foods.
March 23.
1892.
3470. G. F. Redfern.— From G. II. Xeuhauss, J. F. II.
Gronwald, and F. 11. ( '. < •ehlmann. Apparatus for sterilising
milk and other fluids. April 20.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
8827. K. Armstrong. Manufacture of detergent powder.
March 30.
9491. T. H. Williams. Manufacture of disinfecting
powder. April 13.
9492. T. II. Williams. Manufacture of disinfecting
powder. April 13.
XIX.— PAPFR, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Application.
5981. J. F. Hollidge. A treatment of paper or other
material wherehy writings hecome unalterable by the action
of time or exposure. March 28.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
20,225. C. Kellner. Treatment of short fibres, particu-
larly paper pulp, forming therefrom rovings and other goods.
March 2::.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
5745. J. Pfleger and W. Krauth. An improved process
for the production of oxygenated pyrrazol derivatives.
March 23.
7269. W. P. Thompson. — From W. C. Tiffany, United
States. Improvements in extracts and distillates of ruinex,
hymenosepalum, torr, and their by-products, and the
processes of producing the same. April 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
8584. L. F. Riedel. Manufacture of an iodine derivative
of phenacetin. March 23.
9431. H. H. Lake. — From La Societe Anonyme des
Parfums Naturels de Cannes. See Class XII.
9450. J. Y. Johnson. — From F. von Heyden. Manufac-
ture of iso-eugenol and poly-iso-eugenol. March 30.
9763. W. P. Thompson. — From J. F. Theurer. See Class
XVII.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
5597. J. W. McDonough. Improvements in the art of
producing coloured photographs. Complete Specification.
March 22.
6342. V. Mathieu. Process for producing coloured
photographs. Complete Specification. April 1.
6543. J. S. Fairfax.— From F. Crane, United State.-.
Improvements in the manufacture of pyroxyline solutions
and compounds for photographic or other films or coatings,
and for solid or massive articles. April 5.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
7785. B. Krantz and H. Zcissler. Method and apparatus
for reproducing'photographs. April 13.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
5499. E. Davies. Improvements connected with explosive
and non-explosive projectiles, and in an explosive compound
to be used with the explosive projectile. March 21.
6258. O. Imray. — From MM. Rotten and Co., Germany.
Improved manufacture of explosives. March 31.
6448. C. O. Lundholm and J. Saj'ers. Improvements in
the manufacture of explosives. April 4.
6470. R. H. Courtenay. Improvements in and means
for discharging highly explosive substances or fluids for
war and mining and other purposes. April 4.
G548. D. Morrison and J. Somerville. Improvements in
and relating to matches for lighting purposes. April 5.
7238. J. K. von Falkenstein and A. M. Bohm. New
or improved manufacture of smokeless powder and high
explosives. April 14.
392
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [April 80, 1892.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
189).
9503. H. T. Ashton. Percussion fuses. April 20.
10,747. J. Selwig and B. Lange. Apparatus for nitrating distillation. March 16.
XXIII.— ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Applications.
5211. E. E. Dulier. An improvement in fractional
cotton, cellulose, straw, &c. April 20.
12,474. ,1. Heath and W. Frost. A safety fuse lighter.
April 20.
5281. C. Eery. A new instrument for the measurement
of the refractive index of light in liquids. March 17.
Printed and Published by IOyre and Spottiswoode, East Hnrding Street,. London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry,
THE JOURNAL
OP THE
Society of Cfyemtcal 3noustry:
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. :>.— Vol. XI]
MAY 31, 1892.
No.n-Members SO/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of eitra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
CI)e £>orietp of Clmm'cal finori&trp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P.. LL.I)., V.P.R.S 1881—1882.
Sir Frederick Abel. K.C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S 1S82— 1883.
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1883—1884.
W. H. l'erkin, Ph.D., F.R.S 18S4— 1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885— 18S6.
David Howard 1888—1887.
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 1888—1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 18S9— 1S90.
E. Rider Cook 1S90— 1891.
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds. .11.1)., D.Sc , F.li.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Wm. Crowder.
Janus Duncan.
Sir John Ecuns.K.C. B.,F.R.S.,£c
David Howard.
S. II. Jul, 11.1,111.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
Dr. Hugo Miller, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
A. Norman Tate.
Sir Juhn Turney.
Ordinary Members of Council:
A. H. Allen. I E. K. Muspratt.
Arthur Boake. T. L. Patterson.
Ju'i. ,'uhh rwtnul. Boverton Redwood.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus. Jno. Spiller.
H. Grimshaw. T. 71". Stuart.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. William Thorp, B.Sc.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
1J. Rider Cookt East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr. F Hurter.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc. Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
Ohas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee:
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors :
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
G. H. Beckett . . V., VI., VII.
D. Beudii HI.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos.Bernays.M.I.C.E. I.
E. J. Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount . (x?^ '\ni
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV., XV.
J. C. Chorley XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII
P. Dvorkowitseh.il., III., IV.,
XII., XVIIL, XXIII.
W. M. Gardner V., VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
1'. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones', B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, I II. and
D.Sc $ Gen.Chem.
' j Gen. Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIIL, XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
Chas. A. Kohn
Ph.D. . .
J. Walter Leather, f Yir
Ph.D jxv-
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII., XXI.
J. I.eukowitsch,') T.T ,..,
Ph.D J 111., XII.
A. Liebmann, Ph.D. ( "xj1"
A. R.Ling IV..XVI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N. H. J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H.S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
U. T. PenterO xyT xyn
mann j -v,1-> -a-m.
G.H.Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut. . . Patent Lists.
H. Schlichter. Ph.D.. V., XV
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen.Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV.,XIII.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
In accordance with the provisions of Rule 18 of the
Rye-laws, notice is hereby given that those Members of
Council whose names are placed in italics in the annexed
list will retire from their respective offices at the forth-
coming Annual General Meeting.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., has been nominated to the
office of President; and Professor J. Emerson Reynolds,
F.R.S., has been nominated Vice-President under Rule 11.
Dr. F. Hurter, Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., Mr. John Spiller,
and Professor T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., have been nominated
Vice-Presidents under Rule 8 ; and Mr. Thos. Tyrer has been
nominated an Ordinary Member of Council under Rule 17,
in the place of Mr. John Spiller, nominated a Vice-President.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., has been nominated Foreign
Secretary ; and the Treasurer has been nominated for re-
election.
B
394
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [M«ysi.i«*
Members are hereby invited to nominate tit and proper
persons to till four vacancies among the Ordinary Members
of Council under Rule 18. Special nomination forms for
this purpose can be obtained from the General Secretary
upon application.
Extract from Hule 18 -.— " No such nomination shall be
valid unless it be signed by at least ten Members of the
Society who are not in arrear with their subscriptions, nor
unless it be received by the General Secretary, at the
Society's Office, at least one month before the date of the
commencement of the Annual General Meeting, to the
election to take place at which it refers. Nor shall any
such nomination be valid if the person nominated be in-
eligible For election under Rules 12 or 15. No member shall
silhi nunc than one nomination form."
Anm -al General Meeting.
The Annual General Meeting will be held in London on
the 20th, 21st, and 22nd July next. A detailed programme
appears in this issue. Books of Coupon Tickets will be
provided upon application to the Hon. Local Secretary, and
will be wanted as vouchers for visits to works and excursions.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to he
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Clarke, Chas., Macloutsie, Bechuanaland, South Africa,
analyst and assayer.
Dodd, Archelaus, 135, Coleman Street, Whitrnorereans,
Wolverhampton, electro chemist.
Gilmour, Jas. D., 138, Aitkenhead Road, Glasgow,
chemist.
Hamilton, Robt., Leeds Steel Works, Limited, Leeds,
analytical chemist.
Moore, Dr. G. Dunning, 25, Catharine Street, Worcester,
Mass., C.S.A., professor of chemistry.
Paine, Augustus G., The New York and Pennsylvania
Company, Times Building, New York City, U.S.A., paper
manufacturer.
Pope, Wm. J., 43, Hartismere Road. Walham Green, SAY.,
chemist.
Seutter, Dr. Erhard von, Via Trere 4, Giirz, Austria,
works manager.
Smithson, Saml., Ravensthorpe, near Dewsbury, Yorks,
dyer and drysalter.
Taylor, Ernest II., Teinturie " Le Phoenix," Borgerhout,
Antwerp, chemist.
Thorp, G. H., Clowes Villa, Lower Broughton, Man-
chester, engineer.
Wing, Jno. D„ Box 59, New York City, U.S.A.,
merchant.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. EYRF.and Sfottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer as. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED. 23rd MAY 1892.
Allen, Walter W., c/o the Pueblo Smelting and Refining
Co., Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A., manager.
Bower, W. Ackroyd, Carnbroe Chemical Works, Coat-
bridge, N.B., chemical engineer.
Brooke, Wilton, Ashvillc, Stairfoot, Barnsley, Yorks,
manufacturing chemist.
Archbold, Dr. G., 1 o Washington ; 121—123, Front Street,
New York City, U.S.A.
Barrett, A. A., 1 o Liverpool ; Isola Perroui, Piazza del
Collegio Militare, Messina, Sicily.
Barrow, Jos., l/o Failsworth ; 65, Bromboro' Road, Lower
Bebington, Birkenhead.
Bartlett, F. C, Journals to c/o American Zinc Lead Co.,
Canon City, Colorado, U.S.A.
Beckett, G. H. I/o London ; c/o Alfred Nobel, San Remo,
Italy.
Benjamin, Dr. M., 1 o West 121st Street; 77, West 50th
Street, New York City, U.S.A.
Beringer, J. J., 1 o Treon Road; Basset Road, Camborne,
Cornwall.
Boothby, Chas., l/o Westminster; The Hollies, Mile End,
Stockport.
Cargey, W. E., l/o Newcastle; dalla Signora Poccardi,
51, Via alia l'onte Mosca, Torino, Italy.
Colwell, W. E., l/o London; e/o B. P. Clapp Ammonia
Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
Conroy, Jas. T., l/o Montpellier Crescent; Hunstanton,
Hamilton Road, New Brighton, Cheshire.
Crichton, D. G., l/o Broken Hill ; Nundle, via Tain worth.
New South Wales. (Journals.)
Davis, Chas., I/o Oakfield Road ; 3, Leitrim Terrace, High
Street, East Ham, E.
Fleck, Hermann, l/o Philadelphia; I'hland Strasse 14,
Tubingen, Germany.
Fletcher, R. J., 1 o London ; 50, Maitland Street, Halifax,
Nova Scotia.
Gowlaud, Wm., 1 o London ; Buena Vista, Frodsham,
Cheshire.
Gray, John, l/o Johnstone ; Pentland Oilworks, Loan-
head, N.B.
Gregory, Wm., l/o Ashford ; Steam Brewery, Dartford,
Kent.
Haller, G., Journals to 86a, Leadenhall Street, E.C.
Hamilton, Oswald, l/o London ; c/o The Northfleet White
Lead Co., Northfleet, Kent.
Heron, John, l/o Worple Road ; Ellerdale, Cottenham
Park, Wimbledon.
May .si, 1812.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
395
Holloman, F. E., l/o Rawcliffe Bridge ; 3, Laxton Terrace,
Sedgwick Road, Ley ton, E.
Johnstone, h., l/o Newcastle; 1, Leadenhall Street, E.C.
Longshaw, Jas., l/o Manchester ; 3, Church Road, Sea-
forth, near Liverpool.
Lowe, Jas. S., Journals to c/o Oriental Hank Estates < '»..
Lil., Port Louis, Mauritius.
Lowinan, Dr. Oscar, l/o Jefferson Avenue ; 424, lirush
Street, Detroit, Mich., U.S.A.
Mallnlieu, T. C, l/o Manchester ; Anlage 24 C, Heidel-
berg, liaden.
Mond, V., Journals to 20, Avenue Road, Regent's Park,
N.W.
Moult, John, l/o Gladstone Terrace ; I'nderhill, Low Fell,
Gateshead.
Panton, J. A., l/o Abbots Langley ;
Bayswater, W.
l'embridge Villas,
Preston, E. S., Journals to 30, Percy Street, Liverpool.
Richardson, C. T., Journals to 3a, Portman Mansions,
Baker Street, W.
Kiddell, Kobt., l/o Leicester ; c/o S. Allsopp and Sons,
Limited, The Brewery, Hurton-on-Trent.
Scott, Ernest, l/o Hampstead ; 67, Lord Street, Liver-
pool.
Scudder, F., l/o Claphum Common ; 146, Earl's Court Road,
South Kensington, S.W.
Sewell, Parker, l/o Alice Street; 194, South Eldon Street,
South Shields.
Smith, A. J., l/o Fir Vale ; 103, Rock Street, Pitsmoor,
Sheffield.
Weldon, Ernest, l/o Noel Street; 300, Radford Road,
New Basford, Nottingham.
Westmoreland, J. W., l/o Leeds ; 2, City Road, Finsbury
Square, E.C.
White, H., l/o Rotherham ; 80, London Road, Carlisle.
Wigg, G. L., l/o Runcorn ; Bro.w Head, Windermere.
Williams, R. Greville, l/o Heywood ; Greenfield House,
Hopwood, near Manchester.
Williamson, Robt., l/o Middlesbrough; c/o Jos. William-
son, Camp Terrace, North Shields.
Wilson, J. Millar, l/o Ridley Park ; Eddystone, Delaware
Co., Pa., U.S.A.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REQUIRED.
Graham, J. A., l/o Dunmow, Essex.
Deeming, T. H., l/o Burneston House, Plaistow, E.
Lees, Asa, l/o 76, Duucombe Road, Upper Holloway, N.
Milne, G. A., l/o Norton, Malton, Vorks.
Reay, T. B., l/o Herrington Street, Sunderland.
Whelan, E. J., l/o Star Chemical Co., Wandsworth Bridge
Road, Fulham, S.W.
MEMBER OMITTED FROM JANUARY LIST.
Lee, J. W. Richmond; 70, St. Helen's Gardens, North
Kensington, W.
3Beat&&
Hofmann, Prof. A. W., F.R.S., 10, Doratheen Strasse,
Berlin.
Shaw, D., Clayton, near Manchester.
Pontoon Section.
Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House.
C. F. Cross.
J. Detvar.
A. G. Green.
S. Mall.
C. W. Beaton.
D. Howard.
W. Kellner.
Chairman : T. Tyrer.
Vice-Chairman : W. Crowder.
Committee:
W. Ramsay.
B. liedwood.
II'. .v. Squire.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Nanier Sutton.
Win. Tlun-,,.
T. E. Thorpe.
Ron. Local Secretary : John Heron,
Ellerdale. Cottenham Park, Wimbledon.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee whe
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to fill the vacancies, and will
take office in July next ; — Chairman : Wm, Thorp. Secretary:
John Heron. Committee: C. C. Hutchinson. B. E. R. Newlands,
F. G. Adair Roberts, A. Gordon Salamon, T. Tyrer. and Frank
Wilson.
SESSION 1891-92.
'(hi some Aluminium
1S92 :—
Mav 30th :—
Dr. C. R. Alder Wright, F.R.S.
Alloys."
Mr. J. A. Nettleton. " Vinegar."
June 13th :—
Professor V. B. Lewes. " Oil Gas."
Mr. Watson Smith. "The soluble Bituminous Constituents
of certain Japanese Coals." — cunt.
Meeting held Monday, 2nd May 1892.
US, THUS. TYRER IN THE CHAIR.
ON THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF
WOOD.
BY JOHN C. CHORLEY AND WILLIAM RAMSAY, PH. It., F.R.S.
The destructive distillation of wood has been the subject of
numerous researches. Some investigators have carried out
experiments on a large scale, using different kinds of wood,
and in a rough way, different temperatures ; others have
investigated more particularly the nature of the distillate
and the composition of the gases evolved.
It may not be out of place here to give a brief summary
of the previous investigations on the subject, before pro-
ceeding to describe our own experiments in detail ; but we
shall confine our remarks to those woods generally used in
practice, viz. : oak, beech, and alder, as it is with these that
our experiments have been carried out.
E. Fischer (Dingl. Polyt. J. 238, 55) gives the results of
experiments on beech on the manufacturing scale. Beech
yielded, per cent. : —
Vinegar. . .45, equivalent to t per cent. C^HjO. and l'l per cent.
CH.O.
Charcoal.. .23
Gas 28(CO2,20; CO, 7 ; CH„(P6; H, 005).
M. Seuff (Ber. 18, 60) distilled in an iron retort
from four to six kilos, of wood; slow distillation (a) was
achieved by packing the retort with air-dried wood and
heating by means of a small fire ; quick distillation (ft) by
heating the retort to bright redness, introducing the wood
into the red-hot retort, closing, and continuing the process
E 2
396
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May31,lS92.
at as high a temperature as possible. He experimented
with a number of woods, but to quote his results for oak
will serve our purpose.
Total
Distillate.
Tar. Vinegar.
<«.) iv 1.'.
■to-3i
:;-7
32
41-48
4-2-04
C2H,0.. | Charcoal. Gas.
4-03
:; II
:ifi;s 17 17
•27 '73 27-03
His conclusions are that quick distillation causes the
formation of more gas, with less distillate and less carbon;
that the vinegar is poorer in acid, and that the charcoal is
more hygroscopic. He remarks incidentally that the yield
of methyl alcohol follows that of acetic acid, being high or
low, according as the yield of arid is high or low.
Similar experiments are recorded by C. A. Fawsitt (this
Journal, 4, 319). He gives as the most suitable tempera-
ture, 350 —400 ; and for oak his numbers are : —
\ in. gar, 17 • r, per cent, containing o-4 per cent. C.-li40.. ;
and charcoal, 2-1 ■ 9 per cent.
Lastly, \V. Rudners (Dingl, 1'olyt. J. 264, 88 and 128)
distilled small amounts of wood (20 — 47 grains) in the
state of sawdust from glass retorts, using a bath of Wood's
alloy as a source of heat. The temperature was made to
rise slowly from 150° to 300°, and above. Oak yielded
7-92 and 8-21 per cent. C;,H402, and birch, 9-52 per cent.
Comparisons are also given of the yield from other woods,
and from cellulose prepared from birch.
A comparative table of yields is also quoted in " Chemistry
as applied to Arts and Manufactures " (Mackenzie), but
without particulars as to temperature.
.The main products of the distillation of wood are water,
acetic acid, methyl alcohol, aromatic oils, and charcoal.
Hut the following subsidiary products have been detected :—
formic, propionic, butyric, crotonic, iso-crotonic, and angelic
acids (Grodski and Kramer, Ber. 11, 1356) ; acetone,
methyl acetate, allyl alcohol, mesityl oxide, phorone {ibid.,
7, 1492) : aldehyde, methyl formate (C. F. Mabery, Amer.
( lie-in. .1. 5, 256) : methyl ethyl ketone, and two bodies of
tli.- formulae <',H|_< > and CluH160, supposed to result from
the mutual action of acetone on aldehyde, and of acetone on
ethyl methyl ketone, and yielding on further dehydration
xylene an 1 cymene ; methylal (Fawsitt, loc. cit.) ; and at a
low temperature, furfural (Heill, Ber. 10, 936). The tar
contains guiacol and creosol, together with numerous allied
bodies ; and the pitch, retene in considerable amount.
Analyses of the gas evolved at different stages of the
distillation are also given by Fischer (loc. cit."). It consists
mainly of carbon dioxide (55-6 to 64-7) and monoxide
(30-1 to 35-1) together with methane (first three hours,
3-94; 8th hour, 4-67; 11th hour, 5-12; 12th hour,
2-43) ; traces of ethylene (0-05 to 0-69) and from 1-2 to
4 percent, of hydrogen.
There appeared to be still room for a careful investigation
of the operation of wood-distillation, regard being paid to
temperature of the air-bath used to heat the still : to the
temperature of the contents of the still ; to the yield of acid
and wood-spirit at different stages of the distillation ; and to
the composition of the gas evolved. Much still remains to
be done ; but the experiments carried out form a contribution
to our knowledge of the whole subject.
Description of Apparatus.
The distillations were conducted in glass ; the tempera-
ture of the still was raised by means of an air-bath with
triple walls, an admirable device for securing constant known
temperatures ; such air-baths arc made by L. Buhler, of
Tubingen, from a design by Prof. Lothar Meyer. The
products of distillation passed through a Liebig's condenser
into a receiver ; the gases escaping were washed with strong
sulphuric acid, for the purpose of retaining methyl alcohol,
the vapour pressure of which is so considerable at ordinary-
temperatures (54 ■ 2 mm. at 10 ) as to cause considerable loss,
provided no means had been taken to arrest its progress.
Assuming the escaping gas to have heen saturated with
methyl alcohol at 15°, the amouut retained by 4' 5 litres of
gas —an average yield — would have been 0-45 grm. It is
not certain that no alcohol passed the scrubber of sulphuric
acid, but the loss of wood-spirit must have thus been greatly
lessened. After passing the scrubber the gases were made
to bubble through two large sets of Liebig's buibs full of
potash, to retain carbon dioxide ; they then entered a gas-
holder of glass, roughly graduated, so that their volume was
measured.
The accompanying woodcut shows the arrangement of the
apparatus : —
Thermometers.
It. Fla.sk containing the
wood,
c. Condenser.
d. Recei vt-r.
e. Sulphuric acid washer.
/,/,. Potash bulbs.
a. Gauge.
A. Oas-holder.
*. Pipe to water-pump.
To ensure at least partial absence of air in the gases, the
still and appurtenances were exhausted by a good water-
pump before commencing distillation. The vacuum produced
was about 740 mm. at an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm.,
hence the amount of air remaining in the whole apparatus
and ultimately reaching the gas-holder did not exceed as a
rule 100 cubic centimetres. To have made a perfect vacuum
would have scarcely been possible, because it was necessary
to employ an ordinary cork for the distilling-ftask, owing to
the high temperature of the issuing vapours.
The temperature of the air-bath and the temperature of
the wood were read frequently during each distillation.
They are illustrated by curves. Thermometers containing
nitrogen were employed ; in some cases, however, the
temperature was too high to be thus registered, and the
readings are therefore omitted.
The wood (oak, beech, or alder) was cut into small chips
and placed in the tlask, a thermometer being inserted so that
its bulb occupied the centre of the space, and served to show
the progress of the distillation. The temperature of the
May 31 IB98.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY,
397
bath was thcu raised, the whole apparatus having been
tendered vacuous. As soon as the gas from the still raised
the internal pressure, the entrance to the gas-holder was
opened, and the gas passed. Distillation was continued
until gas ceased to he evolved. Hut this must he taken only
as a general description of the method of conducting
experiments, for in many cases it was altered more or less
in order to obtain special information.
After the distillation was over the weights of the charcoal,
the distillate, and the carbon dioxide bulbs were ascertained,
and the total volume of the gas was read. The distillate
was redistilled, and the insoluble oils were weighed. The
second distillate, containing chiefly acetic acid and methyl
alcohol, was titrated for total acid ; and the methyl alcohol
was distilled off, after neutralisation of the acid. It was
united with the distillate from the sulphuric acid scrubber,
diluted with much water. The total carbon dioxide,
produced by oxidising the methyl alcohol, &c. with chromic
acid was ascertained, and it was assumed for the sake of
comparison to be all due to methyl alcohol. This is
obviously an incorrect assumption, for the distillate is
known to contain a considerable percentage of acetone,
which also yields carbon dioxide as one of its oxidation
products, besides other substances in smaller amount, many
of which would also be oxidised to carbon dioxide ; the total
amount, however, of all these products was so small that it
was thought better to submit them as a whole to some such
rough test, rather than attempt a separation which would
have been difficult, and which would in all probability have
involved considerable loss.
To gain an idea of the possibility of thus estimating
methyl alcohol the following experiments were performed : —
Pure methyl alcohol in about 7 per cent, solution was
boiled with a solution of chromic anhydride, and the carbon
dioxide evolved was led through a second flask containing
a boiling solution of the same oxidising agent. The vapours
escaping were caused to return to the second flask by means
of an inverted condenser. To the open end of the con-
denser was attached a flask containing a known volume of
a solution of barium hydroxide, ^ith normal. The resulting
barium carbonate was removed by liltration, and the
residual alkalinity determined by titration.
Two experiments conducted on pure methyl alcohol gave
94-8 and 9.V6 per cent.; but in estimating the amount of
methyl alcohol in the crude products of distillation, no
correction was introduced for the deficiency, for the method
was regarded as merely a comparative one. The yieM o£
methyl alcohol in the distillate from wood must therefore
be understood to be calculated on the basis of C03, obtained
when it was treated in the manner described above.
It will be best to exhibit the general results in a tabular
form first, showing the results at high and at low tempera-
tures. The methods of securing these temperatures wdl be
afterwards described, together with the thermal changes
which occur in the woods during distillation.
Table I.
Oak.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
No. 1.
No. 5.
No. 6.
X" 7 No. 8.
AVeight of wood taken in grins
158-0
Per vent, of charcoal 32 '9
Per cent, of distillate 55'7
]'ir cent . of C( >a absorbed 6'43
Percent, of gas to make up 100 by difference 4 • i»7
-
Volume of pis after absorbing the O >_■ 4,010
fCO 61-35
I O
Per cent, by volume of the above gas ! ii'-Al,
I CH N
I > 20-ir,
LN by difference )
Per cent, of pitch from dial illate on i he wood 7"~2
Percent, of acetic acid distillate on the wood 5*6
Per cent, of meth.vl alcohol on the wood 2 '02
Maximum temperature about ,'H5
160-0 160-0
160-0
181-5
so-o
29-60
31-25
30-58
33-7
25-00
58-1
60-56
58-75
59-87
56*35
59-41
3-9?'
6-73
7-i0
6'5II
o- to
B'05
8-0!
3-00
2 '.-,e
3-05
3-49
7-51
6,000
76-2
1-5
8-1S
.", ' D5
IT,
1,350
S3 -03
2-91
0-67
13-30
7-03
5 ■ 58
1-78
4,650
81-79
1-72
2-61
13-88
360
356-5
s-ia
5-5S
1- 1
334
4,300
91-82
1-73
6-25
8-09
5-5S
1-22
345°
1,110(1
02 '25
7,-500
71-01
• 17-41
:■. II'
500
167-0
21'55
58-69
9-58
7-1S
1-89
1T55
7 -09
WOO
5-58
5-76
1-32
0-86
7,000
7ir77
f l'"
C. 14-90
13-32
9-58
I'-IS
1-8S
500°
' CO, not all absorbed by the bulbs.
Confining our attention first to Table I., in which the
results with oak-wood are stated, the chief feature to be
noticed is that the percentage of charcoal obtained with a
maximum temperature of 334c — 360° varies from 2° -69 to
33-7 per cent. The air-bath in these experiments was
slowly raised till distillation commenced ; and the whole
distillation from beginning to end took from 2 to 3 hours.
For high temperatures the air-bath was on one occasion
raised to the highest temperature obtainable with the
burner we possessed, and when the temperature had
attained its maximum, the distilling flask was introduced.
This made no appreciable difference. The whole distilla-
tion in No. 7 lasted only three-i'uarters of an hour; and in
No. 8 about the same time. The table shows the effect of
such rapid distillation very clearly. The charcoal, instead
ot amounting to 31 per cent, of the wood, drops to 25 per
cent. The total weight of distillate is not greatly changed ;
hut the carbon dioxide has increased, and the total amount
of gas is more than doubled.* Analysis of the gas shows that
a considerable amount of methane has been formed chiefly,
apparently at the expense of the water, and perhaps to some
extent of the methyl alcohol, for the acetic acid shows a
yield a little above the average. It may he conjectured that
the carbon and water react giving carbon dioxide and
* It is curious to note that Priestley in 1772 records the observa-
tion that a much larger amount of inflammable -fas is liberated
from wood by rapid distillation.
398
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May si, mm.
niethaue for the most part. It must be remembered that
the water of the distillate is cot all due to mechauical
retention in the wood, which was in all cases seasoned and
air-dried ; but that we have here the action of nascent
carbon on water, partly present as such, partly in course
of formation. It is easy to construct an equation which
shall represent such an action, it is —
a C + 2 HjO = CH4 + co2
It is true that such an action does not take place between
ordinary charcoal and water-gas ; but it presents a certain
analogy to the action of carbon disulphide on hydrogen
sulphide, in presence of copper, when nascent carbon is
liberated from the disulphide. We notice also the produc-
tion or a small quantity of oletines, due, no doubt, to the
decomposition of the methane, for some carbon was deposited
on the walls of the flask.
Table It.
Beech.
Xo. 1. No. 2.
Xo. 3. Xo. t.
Weight of wood in gruis.
187 180 is" ISO
Per cent, of charcoal 84 '22
Per cent, of distillate 53'47
Per cent, of CO, absorbed ''40
Per cent, of gas to make 100 per cent. l'S2
Vol, of gas after absorbing CO. 5,000
33'33 27'77
5S'33 50H
6-66
1-68
8-SS
1,5 1,000 7
26'66
59 '33
9-23
4'7s
Per cent, by vol. of
the above gas.
CO 87-36 ss-ss 79-13 JS 14
O I'll 121 "18 1-02
■! CjH, Xone .. Vi9
CH, 1-1.3 3-39 10-93 18-71
l_N by difference 7'38 6-49 9'51 564
Per cent, of pitch from distillate on 7'49 7'22 .. ll'll
wood.
Per cent, of acetic acid from distillate 6-02 5*3! 6"05 6-54
on wood.
Per cent, of methyl alcohol from j'.'ii .V42 5-6 6'08
distillate on wood. I I
about about
Maximum temperature 380° 33i>= 5003 500°
slow. fast.
An analysis of gas produced during distillation of oak on
the manufacturing scale by the late Professor Dittmar,
kindly furnished to us by Messrs. Turnbull, of Camlachie,
gave the numbers : —
C02 33-3per cent. of total gas.
The residue consisted of : —
CO sji-,
i II, 13-83
CjH 75
X 3-25
The total weight of gas per 100 parts of wood on the
large scale amounted to 16 to 18. It will be noticed that
the total percentage at 500° found by us was 15 to 16 per
cent.: but at lower temperatures 9 to 10 percent. The
percentage of pitch also increases at high temperatures
from 8 to about 10 per cent. This probably arises from
the formation of acetylene groupings between carbon and
hydrogen, and the condensation to aromatic products, ths
chief of which are known to be creosol and guaiacol. The
formation of such aromatic compounds which contain
methyl groups does not appear to influence the percentage
of methyl alcohol to any great extent.
If we survey the results of distilling beech-wood the
same general features appear: but contrasting columns 1
and 2 with 4 and 5, it is to be noticed that the percentage
of charcoal falls from 33 — 34 per cent, to 26 — 28 per cent.,
•. ith rise of maximum temperature from 350° — 3S0D to 500°.
There is again a rise, although a smaller one, in the per-
centage of carbon dioxide, and again an increase in the total
gas. Ethylene and marsh-gas again appear, the former in
quantity ; and the yield of tar is increased. Yet the yield of
acetic acid and of methyl alcohol do not appear to suffer.
And Table III. giving the results of distilling alder-wood
shows the same general features.
Table III.
Alder.
Xo. 1. Xo. •-'. Xo. 3. Xo. 1.
Weight of wood in grins 150
150
150
131
Per cent, of charcoal 34-C6 I 34-66 25'33 25-37
Per cent, of distillate 54-66 5*- W00 59-70
Per cent, of CO. absorbed 7'33 i 8'00 W66 9-70
Percent, of gas to make 100 per cent. S-35 3-34 4-01 5'23
Vol. of gas after absorbing COj 4,500
4,000
rco.
o..
Per cent, by vol. of , p o
the above gas.
77-35 84-61
i's7 1-66
None
CH\ 4-77
LN by difference 15-01
4 32
9-43
Percent, of pitch from distillate on 12'CC 11-33
Wood.
Per cent, of acetic acid from distillate 5'71 5*78
on wood.
Per cent, of methyl alcohol from 11'13
distillate on wood.
Maximum temperature .
3o7'
10-75
7,500 . 6,000
04-01
2-15
s-72
25-12
7-; (7
1-52
1-59
2irll
4-31
13-33
0-29
W19
:;r.\
-
15-67
5-90
11-17
51 *>'■
Comparing next the three woods with each other, it is to
be remarked (see Table IV., where typical cases are selected
for high and for low temperatures) that the total yield of
charcoal, both at high and low temperatures, the total
distillate and the total carbon dioxide do not appreciably
differ for the different woods. The composition and amount
of the other gases are also fairly comparable. But alder
gives a higher yield of tar than the other woods, and,
although the acetic acid is nearly the same for all, the
percentage yield of methyl alcohol differs enormously.
It is least with oak, very much increased with beech, and
greatly higher with alder. In fact about five times as much
methyl alcohol (or to be guarded, light spirit yielding C02
on oxidation) is produced from alder as from oak. And
here also we can see that the influence of a high tempera-
ture is not to decrease the yield of methyl alcohol.
Attention will be drawn to this fact later.
We come next to consider the temperature of the wood
during distillation. It will be remembered that a thermo-
meter was placed so that its bulb occupied the centre of
the still containing the wood ; hence the temperature of the
wood could be compared directly with that of the air-bath.
It is not too much to say that the results obtained are
very remarkable. The conclusion may be shortly stated.
The change of wood into products of distillation is an
exothermic change ; wood is of the nature of an explosive.
The diagrams of temperature-curves insetted in this paper
will amply prove this statement.
t )f these three have been selected, which are fair average
samples. The ordinates are time in minutes the abscissae
temperatures of the thermometers outside and inside the
still. While the temperature outside shows a gradual rise,
fast at first, and slow afterwards, when the radiation from
the air-bath begins to affect the rate of rise of temperature
due to the source of heat, and gradually becoming horizontal,
when radiation and supply of heal balance, the opposite is
noticeable with the inside temperature-curve. There the
form of the curve shows that as soon as water has distilled
Mwsi.iwa] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
30lt
Tablk IV.
Oak.
Beech.
Alder.
Oak.
Boccli.
Alder,
Weight of wood taken in grins
107
ISO
134
1S1
187
151)
•-'1-55
58"69
9-58
-■is
7,000 cr.
70-77
1-11
L4-S0
13-32
26-66
59'3'i
9-23
4'7S
7.200 00.
7:; ■ 1 1
1-02
i ■ to
18-71
.Vi;i
25-37
69-70
11' 7D
5-23
6,000 cc.
73-47
1-52
1-59
20-11
4-31
33-7
56-35
G-40
3-40
34-22
58- 17
7-m
4-82
S4"66
Per oenfc. of distillafa
Per cent of COa abst
Difference to make u
Percent, of distillat
Per cent, of CO*abs
Difference to make
rbed by Koil..
• Hhi per cent. .
orbed by K\ HI.
ip inn per cent.
S'llll
:;'.;i
Volume of gas after j
bsorbing 1 < >.■ . .
rCO
Volume of gas after absorbing CO.. . .
4,1)1111 CC.
•J2-2.J
2-96
4'89
6,000 cc.
87-36
1-11
415
J-38
l.ll'lll cc.
'CO
8V61
Percent.
composition of
this gas.
O
Olefioes
cil,
composition of
CI,
4-32
X by difference
v.\ by difference
9' 12
Per cent-, of pitch IV
the wood.
Per cent, of acetic ac
Per cent, of methj I a
•in distillate on
9-58
G-13
1-36
11-11
liTil
6-08
15-67
5'90
11-17
Percent. of pitch from distillate
Per cent, of acetic acid
7-09
5 ■.",■(
1-32
7-49
6-02
A '31
11-33
5*76
10-73
acli rase a
bout 5011°.
Maximum temporal
341°
380° |
313°
over, the reaction is exothermic, and as temperature rises,
the evolution of heat is more and more marked. Indeed, in
all eases it will be noticed that the temperature inside rises
considerably higher than the outside temperature ; with
oak, 30", with beech, 55', and with alder 40°.
350
OAK.
N»6.
300
GO
cc f
r-
r]
1
2 SO
Ojg
dj_-^
SOct
/2X\\
3 litres
res gas
4l,tns
ZOO J
y
150/
40
CC f\
lj»
20cc
30CC
1
V^
/lilt
r»cjas
/ 10
50
ce.eJistillate 1
\^
HI
350
BF.EC
H.N?
.
30<j
250
a>(S /
ISO
/
IOO'
SO
i
o J
: i
3
2
D 3
0 4
3 5
) 3
I i
0 2
0
350
1
ALDER. N°
.
^~-
—\
300
/
— —- — — ,
^
/
250
/
200/
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 50 HI 10 20 30 40
It is now possible to suggest a reason for the constancy
of the yield of acetic acid and methyl alcohol, even when
the temperature of the still is greatly raised. It is because
the acetic acid and alcohol are the products of the exothermic
reaction. A supply of heat from without is necessary to
start the reaction, as it is in setting fire to gunpowder ; the
exothermal change continues the distillation independently
of any external source of heat.
And yet when we contrast cellulose with acetic acid,
methyl alcohol, carbon monoxide, dioxide, and water, we
cannot be surprised, for these are among the compounds
formed with the greatest evolution of heat from their
elements. And it is indeed to he expected that such bodies
should be formed from cellulose with considerable evolution
of heat.
Next, as regards the progress of the distillations.
Oak. — No. I. The inside temperature was not determined.
Fifty cubic centimetres of distillate were collected before
any considerable amount of gas was evolved. There was
then a sudden rush of gas, and in 25 minutes the distillation
was over.
No. 2. After 45 minutes the inside temperature had risen
to 100°, the outside temperature being 275° ; about 30
cubic centimetres of distillate had come over, and about 1
400
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Mwsi.ihh
litre of gas was collected. Thirty-five minutes later gas was
coming off quickly, and the inside temperature had risen to
310°. The outside temperature was kept constant. The
inside temperature quickly rose to 360°, and then fell
to the temperature of the air-bath.
Nit. :;. This experiment was conducted as before. The
air-bath was slowly heated up. When it had a temperature
of 254°, the inside temperature was 90°, and 30 cc. of
distillate were collected. Ten minutes later the outside
temperature was 27n , the inside temperature 143°, and
40 cc. of liquid had condensed. Gas came off suddenly as
before.
No. 4. Both temperatures slowly rose. After 90 minutes
the outside temperature was 271', the inside temperature
261°, and 40 cc. distillate had condensed. Gas then came
off quickly. In 20 minutes other 10 ce. had condensed,
the outside temperature was 308", and the inside temperature
299°, while 2 litres of gas were collected. Within the next
1 ." minutes, the amount of gas had risen to 4 litres, but little
more distillate was formed.
Xo. 5. In this experiment the air-bath was heated up to
:ilj before introducing the flask, but this does not appear
to have affected the results.
No. G. Tbe temperature of the air-bath was kept as low
as possible. The results are shown in the curve, and it is
evident that This accounts for the high percentage of charcoal
and low percentage of distillate.
X'o. 7. The air-bath was at 500° ; the flask was introduced
and its temperature rapidly rose to ll.V, when the thermo-
meter bad to be removed. X'o. 8 was treated in the same
way.
Beech. — Xo. 1. The distillation occupied two hours.
After lj hours the external temperature was 318°, the
internal temperature 250 ; and a little over two litres of
gas had been evolved. In rive minutes more the inside
temperature had risen to 318°, and three litres of gas
were collected. Five minutes later the outside temperature
was -:ill only 320'5°, but the inside temperature had
reached 368°, and over four litres of gas had passed, and
after other five minutes, the gas bad reached live litres,
but was stopping ; the outside temperature was 325°, but
the inside temperature had risen to 380-5°. The rise of
temperature due to the exothermic decomposition of the
wood accounts for the slight rise of external temperature.
T he temperature of both bath and bulk sank, till the
distillation had stopped with outside temperature 315° and
inside temperature 332', and rapidly falling.
X'o. 2. Practically a repetition of the same phenomena.
Xos. 3 and 4 were distilled at about 500°, or somewhat
over, with the same result as with oak.
Alder. — No. 1. The same general behaviour as oak and
beech at low temperatures. After one hour the outside
temperature was 326", the inside temperature 250°. Ten
minutes later the outside temperature was still 326', but the
iuside temperature had risen to 350°. The rise continued,
the highest temperature attained being 367'.
No. 2 showed nearly the same results, and Xos. 3 and 4
the same as the beech and oak at high temperatures.
Special experiments were made with beech and with oak
in order to ascertain the rate at which acetic acid and
methyl alcohol were evolved. The temperature of the air-
bath was raised very slowly, and the distillate collected in
lo fractions. The outside temperatures and the percentages
of methyl alcohol, calculated on the original weight of wood,
are given in the following table : —
Per Cent. MeOH.
No.l. Below 185° nn7
No.2. 135 I : im7
No. S. 165 215" n-22
No. 1. 215°— 275° ir.-.T
No. 5. 275 —285° O'liO
No.6. 285" 295 0-57
N". 7 296 30J 11-55
N . B. 305 -.l-.'n ■> - 1 1
N". 9, 320° 325 0
No. 10. 325 and above o-is
The total amounts to 3'57 per cent., but the exposure of
the distillates doubtless caused lass. The numbers may be
taken as comparative, and it would appear that the ale.. hoi
conies over chieflv above 165°, and continues to be formed
up to 325°.
Experiments with oak to ascertain the rate of yield of
acetic acid at different temperatures were made with 183
grms. of oak. The gases were neglected, and the tempera-
ture was raised slowly as in the experiments Xos. 1 to 6 of
Table I. The distillates were re-distilled when necessary,
and were titrated with sodium hydroxide solution. The
following table reproduces the results ; —
No.
Yield.
Containing
Acetic A '-i.i .
1
Uptoiao
ce.
2'i
(Jrtnv.
■i
120 ISO
10
II- 1751',
3
180° -2U>°
111
Q-7320
4
2l0°-260
10
lllJlN
5
260°— 300'
111
1-4610
6
300"— 310
10
1-5872
7
310 "si
1"
1-0980
S
322° -350°
15
2-3424
'.1
35uc-r."
About to
roioi
Total
:'-:'stt
Equal to 5 -44 per cent, of acetic acid. There was doubt-
less some loss on redistilling; but the results may be taken
as comparative, and they show that the acetic acid rises in
amount up to 3.50', and then falls slightly. Comparing
theseresultswiththo.se for methyl alcohol, it would seem
that the alcohol is the first product of decomposition, when
the exothermic reaction sets in, and that the acetic group
is next separated from the wood. The chief evolution
of heat appears to be due to the last separation. But it
must be noted that the initial form of the temperature curve
may be due not perhaps entirely to the commencement of
an exothermic reaction, but possibly to some extent to the
better conducting power of the dried and partially charred
wood. As we do not know the relative conductivities for
heat of wet and dry wood, we are of course unable to
apportion the relative amounts. Still it is well to bear this
in mind. If this be neglected, it would appear that the
evolution of methyl alcohol is itself accompanied by evolu-
tion of heat, and that the formation of acetic acid causes a
still larger evolution. A similar distillation was carried out
with alder.
It was deemed of interest in this experiment to obtain
some idea of the amount of furfural produced. That furfural
is formed during the distillation of wood at low temperatures
was noticed by Heill (toe. cit.). The actual yield, so far as
we know, has never been made the subject of experiment.
Furfural is easily estimated by means of phenylhydrazine.
A solution of that substance was standardised against a
1 per cent, solution of pure furfural in dilute methyl
alcohol, using as indicator aniline hydrochloride, which gives
a crimson colour with furfural. The reaction is a neat one.
and permits of an accurate quantitative examination.
A quantity of alder, amounting to 148 grms., was distilled
very -lowly ; in two hours the temperature of the bath was
steady. The distillate was collected in portions. Gas began
to come off slowly at 280', and increased in rate up to 340'.
The external temperature was then 321°, the inside tempe-
rature overtaking the outside temperature at about 300 .
At 500° (for the temperature of the bath was subsequently
raised) about 5 cc. of an almost colourless distillate «;i-
obtained.
May 31, LS92.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
•Ml
The ri-siilt> arc given in
the followii
g table : —
No.
Tempera-
ture.
Time.
Quantity of
Distillnto.
Furfural.
Acetic Acid.
l
200c
Hours.
Loss than
l ce.
(inns.
Il'0."i
1 trms.
nil
a
200 ' -'in
2
r:'
li'llli
L-28
3
i
230 —250
250° 270°
1
Mill.
6-0
I':,
0-096
li'iij
1 ■!'.-,
0-88
5
270°— 290°
2:>
i'S
O'OOl
0-83
ti
:>90°— 311)'
u
3'5
O'oso
0-80
7
310°— 320°
1(1
5"0
0"148
0'79
8
520 330
JO
5'll
0"170
0'78
;i
330 840
IS
f5
0-237
0-87
Tot ills
0-HSo
8-18
It is again evident that the yield of acetic acid increases
towards the end of the distillation, hearing out the remarks
which were made before.
Contrary to expectation, the furfural appears to be pro-
duced in larger quantity at the end than at the beginning
of the distillation, and it amounts to the not inconsiderable
quantity of u-62 percent, of the weight of the wood. The
acetic acid forms 5-45 per cent, of the weight of the wood.
Tbis furfural does not appear in operations on the large
scale, because it is destroyed in "liming" the methyl
alcohol. When heated with an alkali, it is converted into
pyromucate of the alkali metal, and furfuryl alcohol, a non-
volatile syrup. Hence it remains in the residues as a tarry
mass. It is however possible to obtain furfural in quantity
by allowing the weak alcohol to deposit it as an oil, before
rectifying over lime. In the course of some days a kiver
settles, which can be drawn off. Of course much still
remains dissolved, which must be removed by "liming."
A matter of some interest is the amount of water con-
tained in the wood. This water cannot be estimated by
drying at 100°, for at that temperature the wood is partially
lOgrms.
Oa
k aceti£_
,/Alder
^acetic
a
-MeOH
6
,— Furfural
4-
Z
0 50 100' 150' 200' 250" 300" 350"
decomposed, and the escaping vapours do not consist
wholly of water. Experiments were therefore made of
drying the wood over sulphuric acid in vacuo for a month.
The results are as follows : — ■
Per Cent.
Oak 13-58 H,.f>
Beech 11-60 „
Alder H'6t „
Alder, when bought, is usually very wet, and dries very
rapidly after it is s.acked. It is interesting to note that
alter such drying it contains nearly the same percentage of
hygroscopic water as oak or beech.
Such are the results of the first part of this research. To
summarise them briefly : —
1. The distillation of oak, beech, and alder is accompanied
by an exothermic reaction, having for its products charcoal,
carbon monoxide and dioxide, and methane, acetic acid,
methyl alcohol, acetone, and furfural, together with certain
methoxy-ben/.ene compounds.
2. These substances appear to be formed from beginning
to end of the distillation ; their appearance at first is doubt-
less due to the rise of temperature at the exterior of the
wood; hut they are formed in largest quantity when the
exothermic reaction sets in.
3. The proportions of charcoal and gas relative to the
other products depends on the temperature of distillation ;
but a high temperature does not appear to diminish the
proportion of acetic acid and methyl alcohol.
4. Different woods, while nearly constant in their yield of
acetic acid, differ greatly in their yield of methyl alcohol,
or at least of some product which yields carbon dioxide on
oxidation with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid.
The direction of further investigation is obvious. It is
known that wood which has been stored for long, and has
rotted more or less completely, gives much poorer yields of
acid and spirit than seasoned dry wood ; and we are now
proceeding with the study of cellulose (cotton-wool) and of
jute in order to ascertain the effects of such changes.
Discussion,
Mr. Rerteam Ilr.oiiNT asked whether it was customary,
when working on a large scale, to carry out the distillation
in vacuo. It appeared from the sketch illustrating the
apparatus that the author of the paper had made his
experiments in vacuo ; and it seemed to him that the results
would be considerably influenced by the absence of pressure,
lie would also like to know why Professor Kamsay classified
wood as an explosive. Wood might be a substance which,
on distillation, gave an exothermic reaction, but he did not
think that it could legitimately be called an explosive on
that account.
Mr. Oswald Hamilton said the authors' experiments
indicated considerable differences between the amounts
of methane produced at high and low temperatures respec-
tively. He thought that the differences, observed by the
authors between the amount of charcoal produced at high
and low temperatures, were more apparent than real, for the
charcoal produced at low temperatures probably contained
some pitch. This was boruc out by the authors' tables, where
the sums of the charcoal and pitch, at high and low tempera-
tures respectively, were practically the same. With regard
to the sudden rise of temperature about 300° C. a similar
phenomenon was observed in the distillation of coal-tar,
during which process the mercury in the thermometer
suddenly rose from 300° O. to over 360° ('. Whether this
was due to an exothermic reaction or not, he could not say.
Mr. C. F. Cross thought that in describing wood as an
" explosive " substance, Professor Kamsay had given
particular point to a most important result. This property-
was a fair inference from the general plvysiological con-
sideration of substances composing living tissues. In recent
chemical literature the correlative term " chemical tension "
had been much used, and the conception expressed by it had
been identified as a necessary condition of substances which
had to adapt themselves to a long series of intrinsic changes.
The light which had now been thrown on the subject from
an altogether unexpected source gave the question new
emphasis ; and with the term explosive the authors of the
paper had given definite expression to a phenomenon which
he (Mr. Cross) and others had recognised rather on a priori
grounds. He would venture to quote from a review written
by himself some years ago.
" The study of the chemistry of bonification and of the
fate of moribund vegetable matter therefore proves the
possession of a high degree of intrinsic energy by plant
substances, and the tendency to retain this energy in the
form of derived compounds in which the carbon is pro-
portionately accumulated (Nature, 1885, p. 606)."
He would not refer at length to what Professor Kamsay had
promised later on, namely, the further consideration of the
results he had brought before the meeting ; but he would
emphasise one point. The authors had obtained no acetic
402
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 189-2.
acid in the dry distillation of the jute fibre ; whereas this
acid was easily obtained by the action of hydrolytic agents.
It appeared to be formed, together with furfural, from the
cellulose 0 of the fibre— a " penta "-cellulose. It was pre-
mature to attempt to explain this negative result ; but the
hypothesis that lignification was a continuous process of
conversion of the wood cellulose into this cellulose /3 and
semi-aromatic products, might be taken into account by the
authors in the prosecution of their investigations.
Mr. David Howard would like to say a word in praise
of the strong language used by Professor Ramsay. .From
a manufacturer's point of view, wherever there was a
possibility of a spontaneous rise in temperature, a practical
expression for an exothermic reaction, there was a danger
of explosion. He had no personal experience in the
distillation of wood, but certainly if he had to carry out
the process described by the authors, he would look very
carefully to his outlets before he began.
Mr, William Foster referred to some notes of his own
experiments on the destructive distillation of the carbo-
hydrates, -electing those referring to dry sawdust from the
wood of the conifene. The temperatures used in his
obsi i rations were much higher than those employed by the
authors, and were similar to those found in coal and shale
distilling industries. One point had been made pretty clear,
namely, that the amount of carbonaceous residue (coke)
was practically constant when a substance was destructively
distilled at temperatures called " high" and "low" by gas
engineers. Great variations, however, occurred in the
amounts of condensibles (tar and water) and gas. The
quantity of gas both as to volume and weight was increased
l.\ augmented temperature, the quantity of tar and water
being proportionately diminished. The quantities of char-
coal (coke) from oak at high and low temperatures given
in the authors' tables as 24 per cent and 33 per cent, respec-
tively, showed differences greater than he had observed in
destructive distillation proper. The following figures were
obtained in three independent experiments with sawdust
(dried) : —
21-97
:S2-2H
«-si
21-17
31-69
46"M
'21-115
Tar and Mater
Gas
27-52
50-93
98-07
99'SO
99-60
Gas obtained per pound')
(measured at 62° F., and >
B'44
6-89
7-83
Each of the gases, marsh-gas and hydrogen, was present
to the extent of about 18 per cent. ; and the carbonic oxide
and anhydride jointly measured more than 50 per cent.
The free nitrogen was in no case more than 3 per cent.
These figures were obtained after some considerable
experience with an apparatus which had been devised for
the purpose of accurately ascertaining the amount of each
factor when the raw material operated on weighed 2 lb. or
even more.
Furfural was abundantly produced in the distillation of
the carbohydrates at high temperatures, the tar from such
bodies being probably as convenient a source of supply as
any given in the text books. Acrolein and allyl alcohol
were also, he believed, to be found under such circum-
stances, although he had not separated them from the other
products as he had done in the case of furfural.
Mr. Watson [smith had listened with much interest to
the paper, although he had had the privilege of seeing the
experiments made in University College. He would like
to add his word of support in favour of the word " explosion,"
as signifying an exothermic development, and he would like
also to point out the very considerable difference between
thai action and the so-called "break " in coal-tar distilla-
tion. No exothermic phenomenon was concerned in that
" break," for when the distillate reached a certain degree of
temperature there was a cessation of the distilling process
until the temperature of about 1 10° C, at which the break
commenced, had been increased by extra firing to about
180° C, when distillation recommenced. In 1871 he had the
management of both a coal-tar and a wood distillery, so
that he could look upon himself, to some extent, as an old
wood distiller. In that year he communicated a paper to
the Chemical Society on the subject of the distillation
of wood (J. Chem. Soc. 1871, 1101—1108.) He had
demonstrated, by the testing of samples taken at different
stages of the process, that the amount of acetic acid
gradually increased in a 12 hours' distillation, up to the
seventh hour after the commencement, and that thereafter
a gradual fall took place. During the first six hours, the
specific gravity gradually increased from 1-01 to 1-017,
and then in one hour rose to 1-03. At this point the
specific gravity remained constant during the remainder of
the distillation. After reaching the stage at which the
specific gravity had increased to 1'03 the amount of tar
distilling over was found to have reached the highest pro-
portion so far attained. After the eighth hour the
proportion of tar increased steadily. Professor Ramsay
and Mr. Choi'ley had also found tlui: the proportion of tar
became increased if the temperature of distillation was
raised. Towards the end of the distillation the temperature
would naturally be higher, and for that reason he would
expect, a priori that the quantity of tar furnished at the
latter stage would be higher. In working wood retorts on
a large scale, he had never noticed sudden rises in tempera-
ture. There was no outward manifestation such as would
strike a workman ; and he did not think that it was
considered necessary to draw the fires, or to open the fire-
doors. This was his experience, and he had since learnt it
was the experience during 40 years of his friends .Messrs.
Robt. Ruinney and Co., of Manchester. But it was only
fair to add that in these cases oak crop wood and timber in
fairly large pieces were carbonised, whereas the authors
used their w-ood cut up very small, and, moreover, it
seemed well dried. In the first ease there would be small
surface and slow action, in the latter, large surface and
rapid developments. He did, according to his own ex-
perience, recollect that a few hours after commencing,
at the period, probably, at which most of the water as
moisture in the wood was driven off, there was a much
larger flow of gas than had previously been the case.
With regard to wood charcoal, he believed that it was
never absolutely charred. The charcoal, when transferred
from the ovens to the cooling vaults, generally had a
quantity of water thrown in after it in order to choke out
any possible combustion. Being saturated in this way
with aqueous vapour and moisture, and having cooled, the
vault doors were opened, and the charcoal conveyed in iron
wheel-barrows to the shed. This charcoal was exceedingly
liable to burst spontaneously into ignition in the shed, and
for this reason great caution had to be exercised. In this
connexion he would remind the meeting that in a recent
communication to the Society of Arts Journal with regard
to coal, Professor Vivian Lewes had stated that it was
found that coal caught fire spontaneously even in the
absence of pressure, when, for example, a quantity of coal
powder in a biscuit tin was maintained at a temperature of
100 C. for some little time. These were simple cases of
exothermic action, or " explosion," and doubtless that of
the charcoal described was quite analogous to that of the
wood at a less advanced stage of decomposition, as described
by the authors. It was, for the most part at least, the
" explosion " breaking out anew, albeit under slightly
modified conditions.
As to the utilisation of wood creosote, an American
member, Dr. Franklin S. Clark, distilled forest-wood very
largely in Wilmington, N.C., principally to obtain wood-
creosote for the -antiseptic treatment of wood for railway
sleepers, and for especially resisting the attack of the sea-
worm (teredo navalis). (This Journal, 18110, 1005).
He would like to point out that the late Mr. E. T.
Chapman fouud hydrogen in wood-gas (Chemical News,
1871. 105. See also ibid, pages 91—93).
Muy si, is(l. I THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
403
Mr, A. G. Green inquired whether Professor Ramsay's
numbers for the methyl alcohol were obtained by oxidation
of the total alcoholic mixture or whether this was submitted
to a preliminary fractionation. He thought if this was done
the acetone might be determined by conversion into iodo-
form, and the difference would give the methyl alcohol.
Be gathered that the authors had not as vet determined the
acetone.
Mr, Ii. Biggs remarked that in this country, chiefly South
Wales and .Scotland, an important quantity of wood spirit
was turned out ; but the great difficulty in England was
that manufacturers were hampered by the Government
from treating the products of wood distillation in the way
in which the Germans dealt with them. If methyl alcohol
were made in England, the duty upon it would be 17s. or
IS.v a gallon, and with that burden placed upon its manu-
facture, it was impossible to make it a paying industry, ot-
to compete with German manufacturers in producing the
colour for which it was employed. He had endeavoured to
get the authorities to amend that state of affairs, but he
was sorry to say that he had not been successful. The
question of wood distillation was a very interesting one, but
he was afraid that in this country, till some change was
brought about, it must be considered as a dying industry.
Professor Ramsay, in reply, said that there had beeu
some misunderstanding, perhaps, because he had not made
himself quite clear. The apparatus explained itself. After
the air had been pumped out of the apparatus, the distilla-
tion commenced, and the gases produced soon raised the
pressure again. When pressure had become normal, the
gases « ere allowed to enter the gas-holder. Mr. Hamilton
was quite right in his remarks about charcoal. The authors
of the paper had found, after further research, that un-
doubtedly the resulting charcoal contained a large quantity
of gas. Distillation on the large scale usually lasted about
12 hours, ami on the small scale from 2^ to 3 hours, so
that six hours on the large scale would correspond to three
on the small. It had been uoticed on the large scale that
there was au exothermic reaction. One manufacturer he
knew of had been in the habit of burning the gas, but this
course was not of much use, because the gas came at the
wrong time, and it was not wanted at the end. With
reference to the question of creosote, he would like to ask
Mr. Watson Smith whether it was utilised in this country.
Mr. Watson Smith replied that it was only utilised in
the United States.
Professor Ramsay, continuing, said that he would like to
add one point, namely, with regard to the temperature
of distillation on the large scale. It was a mere matter of
guesswork. It was somewhere between 400° and 500°,
probably about 425°. A fairly accurate conclusion could be
arrived at by comparing the yields of charcoal and gas on
the large with those on the low scale.
NOTES ON SOME INDIAN GUM SAMPLES OF
KNOWN ORIGIN.
BY DR. s. ItlliKAI..
During au investigation by Mr. Youle and myself on the
relative value, for commercial purposes, of some modern sub-
stitutes for gum arabic (this Journal, 1891, 610) ourattentiou
was naturally drawn to the characteristic properties of those
Indian gums which are brought to the London market.
The favourable results obtained from the samples which
were then examined for a variety of purposes led us to
devote considerable attention to this class of gum, and we
found that, as a rule, a good mucilage could be reasonably
expected from them, as seldom did the insoluble portions
reach a very high percentage.
We advocated the use of Ghatti gum for pharmaceutical
purposes at the British Pharmaceutical Conference at
Cardiff during the autumn of last year (Year Book of
Pharmacy, 1892, 405, et seq.) and have since found that
many manufacturers have been induced to give these gums
a further trial. Quite recently the Bombay correspondent
of the "Chemist and Druggist" (March 19th issue) has
again drawn the attention of English consumers to this
article : he says, in speaking of Ghatti gum (finest sort),
" This gum is exclusively used in India by pharmacists.
The English druggist has apparently not yet found out the
value of this drug, which can be had in all qualities, and
is (in the best grades) double the strength of Turkish gum
acacia." These remarks, whilst confirming the favourable
opinion already formed, naturally lead one to imagine that
in India we have gums which are very suitable for many
classes of work in this country. Unfortunately the
gathering of gum in India is not yet carried out with any
system and little is known as to which gums would yield
the best price in England. That which is at present
exported is named " ghatti," " amrad," &c. from inspec-
tion, and sorting the gums when once they are mixed is a
laborious and expensive operation. We thought that it
would be interesting if gums of known origin from India
could be sent in small quantities to this country for the
purpose of examination, and that by so doing light would
be thrown on the best localities for the finest sorts of gum.
Through the kindness of Professor Pedler, of Calcutta,
1 have had placed at my disposal a series of gums which
have been collected by the Government department, from
trees of known botanical origin, and in most cases from
known localities, and it is the purpose of this uote to
briefly describe the physical and chemical properties of
these gums. Amongst these the most important is the — ■
Acacia Arabiea Gum. — In India the tree is known as the
Babul tree and abounds all over Northern India, where it
is prized more for its wood, which is used for fuel and
timber, and its bark, which is of value for tanning purposes,
than for its gum. The yield of gum too, is very small as
compared with the yield from the same tree in other parts
of the world, e.g., in Arabia aud Egypt. This small yield
is probably due to the climatic difference of India, as the
production of gum requires a dry atmosphere like that
which abounds in the deserts of Arabia and Africa, the
true home of the gum arabic.
Where such a climate exists as in Kajputana and Sind,
the tree yields quantities of gum, but not sufficiently large
to form an important item in the export trade. The
indigenous product is merely used for home consumption
in the interior of the country. The requirements of the
seaport districts being met by the imported gum, very little
of it finds its way to the seaport for export. The gum
exported from Bombay to Europe is chiefly obtained from
the Red Sea ports, and it is more or less adulterated with
the Indian product. The Indian gum is inferior in quality
to that obtained from Arabia aud Africa. The colour is
usually dark and it is frequently mixed with gums of
other trees, and often these admixtures contain fragments
of gums which are insoluble in water. In India, acacia
gum is used for medicinal purposes as well as in the
preparation of sweetmeats. The true Indian gum sells at
15 to 25 rupees per hundredweight, according to quality.
It is reported that barren trees can be made to yield gum
by inoculating it with gum from another tree, but, as far as
I have been able to ascertain, no systematic experiments in
this direction have as yet been tried. The samples of gum
acacia sent from India consists of very hard, light, brown,
irregular masses, without any marked taste or smell. They
swell up in water to a pale-brown jelly and finally are
completely soluble. They give a mucilage which is fairly
adhesive, and with most reagents give characteristic
reactions, while Ghatti gums gave negative results.
On analysis the sample gave 16';i8 per cent, moisture aud
a fairly high ash (4 -46). Its solution was very viscous,
and it contained the smallest quantity of nitrogen of any of
the samples examined. O'Sullivan, in a recent paper, has
drawn attention to the presence of some nitrogenous
substance in samples of Gedda gum, but apparently it exists
in too small a quantity for isolation. On the other hand,
404
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892
it may be that the gum acid is itself sometimes partially
converted into an amido compound. The quantity of
nitrogen present in all these Indian samples is recorded in
the table, but it is difficult to draw any conclusions from the
numbers obtained.
Acacia Catechu. — From this tree the catechu of commerce
is obtained. It yields a gum of a pale yellow colour, and
like the enm obtained from the Babul tree, is usually
completely soluble in -water. Some of the specimens are
almost white, and apparently in India the gum from these
trees is usually of better quality than that obtained from
the tree Acacia Arabica when grown in the same place.
It is, however, not procurable in large quantities. In point
of fact, none of the Indian gums at present can be obtained
pure in such quantities as to form a trade article by itself ;
hence Indian gums imported to this country are usually of
the mixed character already referred to. The sample of a
case of catechu examined came from Surat, Bombay, and
occurred in light brown translucent angular masses. It
left a slight residue insoluble iu water. The specimens at
my disposal were slightly musty, so that the mucilage
obtained from it had not a very good adhesive value. Its
viscosity was also small, and it had a fairly low ash. The
complete figures of this and the other gums are given in
the table at the end of these notes.
Acacia Farnesiana. — This tree yields a large quantity of
cum, and is also found in the mixed gums imported to
this country. The tree grows very freely in Sicd. The
sample examined was furnished by the Forest Department
of the Xorth-West Provinces, and had a pale red colour.
Mr. Baden Powell has described the gum as occurring in
" dark conchoidal masses translucent and transparent at the
edoes. Some of the pieces are much whiter." ( )ur samples
came from Bahraich and Oudh, and were mixed with bark.
It dissolved completely in water, forming a deep brown
mucilage which had very poor adhesive property. It did
not darken on warming with normal soda, gave a slight
brown precipitate with ferric chloride, and threw down a
copious precipitate with alcohol. It contained 1J-4.J per
cent, of moisture ; ash, 2-08 per cent., and nitrogen, 0-061
per cent.
Acacia Ferrugina. — This gum occurs in brown irregular
masses very similar to the former sample (,4. Farnesiana').
It is entirely soluble in water and is fairly adhesive. It
differed from A. Farnesiana, in darkening with normal
soda, but in other respects was very similar in character.
Its moisture was high. 17'09, its ash 3-22, and it contained
the highest quantity of nitrogen, 0-082, of any of the
samples. Our sample came from Pauchmahals, Bombay.
.-loam Leucophlaa. — This tree is generady found in
Central and South India. It yields a gum which is usually
as white as the true gum arabic. It was exhibited at the
Colonial and Indian Exhibition and was described by
Dr. Ire as "gum bassora." The sample examined came
from Sahara, Bombay. It consisted of light brown irregular
masses with a slight marked taste and a peculiar aromatic
odour. It dissolved entirely in water to a light brown
liquid, and gave a fairly adhesive mucilage. In this respect
therefore our sample differed from the sample deseribi d bj
Dr. Ure, but it contained a certain amount of metarabin
arabin, as it gave a gelatinous precipitate with ferric
chloride. Normal soda darkened the solution faintly.
It yielded a white ash, gave a very viscous solution, and
contained 14-65 per cent, of moisture.
Acacia Modesto.. —This tree yields beautifLil, char,
transparent lumps of reddish gum. I learn that it is largely
used by calico printers in India. The sample examined
came from the Punjab. It had an aromatic odour,
dissolved completely to a pale yellow liquid, and gave a
fairly adhesive mucilage. It turned yellow with normal
soda", became solid on the addition of ferric chloride, and
gave a thick white precipitate on the addition of alcohol.
Basic acetate of lead also gave a thick white precipitate
with the mucilage, and the contents of the tube became a
solid mass. The sample had a fairly low ash, 2-91, con-
tained 1670 of moisture, and yielded a solution of medium
viscosity. These were the only true acacias of which
samples were sent, but in addition there are other gum-
yielding trees, of which several samples were submitted, of
which the following is a short account : — ■
Albizzia Amara. — This tree is found in South India and
yields a red coloured gum very much like the best kind
of Indian acacia gums. The sample examined came from
Cornbatorea, Xorth Madras. It had a fragrant smell, was
entirely soluble in water yielding a yellowish brown liquid.
and was a very good adhesive gum. The liquid became
thick on standing with ferric chloride, turns bright yellow-
when warmed with normal soda, and gave a slight precipitate
with stannous chloride. The viscosity of the solution was
high, being 19 -2S times that of water. It contained 11-22
per cent, of moisture, 3-20 per cent, of ash, and had a very
small percentage of nitrogen.
Anogeissus latifolia. — This tree is found all over India,
and yields very large quantities of gum, which is also
extensively used in calico printing. It is whiter than most
acacia gums, but seems tn possess far less adhesive power.
The samples examined came from Seeunderabad, near
Hydrabad, and occurred in large spherical nodules. These
lamps swell up to a great amount on the addition of water,
consisting almost entirely of metarabin, very little liquid
being strained off. It is useless as an adhesive gum.
Mercuric chloride gave a white precipitate: with borax the
solution became thicker. Ferric chloride darkened tin-
liquid, showing the presence of tannin. Jt turned yellow
with normal soda, and gave a thick white precipitate with
alcohol. The gum yielded a very small ash, 128. The
solution was very feebly viscous, viscosity '/. equal to 320.
It was certainly tin- \ rest of any of tin- gums examined.
Banhinia retusa. — This gum is obtained from the Xorth-
West Provinces and Oudh. It resembles Indian gum
acacia in colour and is soluble in water to a light-brown
liquid. The sample sent was in too small a quantity for
many experiments. It yielded 3-2S per cent, ash and
10- 49 per cent, moisture.
Banhinia variegata. — This gum resembles the former,
hut the sample examined from Garhwall seemed to be a
mixture, as amongst the dark brown masses were lighter
coloured particles. It dissolved, however, entirely in water,
forming a reddish-brown liquid. It had a slight aromatic
smell, turned brown with the addition of normal soda, gave
a thick flesh-colour precipitate with basic lead acetate, and
turned solid on the addition of ferric chloride. Alcohol also
threw down a thick flesh-colour precipitate. It yielded a
solution which was of very poor viscosity, and is useless as
an adhesive gum. It had a low ash, 2-.51 per cent., and
contained 13'63 per cent, of moisture.
Buckanania latifolia. — This is described as a clear
resinous gum, but it resembles the true gum acacia iu
appearance, being nodular and covered over with fissures.
It dissolves readily in water, forming a pale yellow liquid,
hut this solution is only \ cry slightly adhesive. It has a
sweet taste, a faint aromatic smell, and gives, with ferric
chloride, a dark brown jelly immediately : basic lead acetate
gives a thick white precipitate; mercurial chloride converts
it into a jelly, and it turns bright yeliow on warming with
normal soda. It yielded 4-65 per cent, ash, which contained
a trace of iron, contained not less than 20-73 percent,
moisture, and hail a viscosity value '/. equal to 0-694. The
sample came from Betut, Central Provinces.
Odina Wadier. — This tree yields a large quantity of
gum during the rainy season. This js white when it hangs
on the tree, but becomes dark when it falls on the ground.
The gum is not much valued in ludia, hut is sometimes
used in calico printing. A sample from Seeunderabad, neat-
Hyderabad, was examined. It occurred in dark brown
lumps, had undergone slight fermentation, having a sour
taste and smell. It partly- dissolved iu water, the remainder
swelling up. With ferric chloride it gelatinised at once. It
turned very dark on warming with normal soda : gave a
thick white precipitate with basic lead acetate, ami borax
thickened the mucilage. It contained 18-09 moisture, and
.", ■ 52 ash. The solution was of very feeble viscosity.
Terminalia Tomentosa. — t >ur sample of gum of this tree
also came from Seeunderabad. The tree is stated to yield
gum only in small quantities. The specimen examined was
May SI, 1892."
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
■405
very pale yellow in colour, the lumps being very glossy and
transparent. Although in appearance so good, it only partly
dissolved in wafer. The soluble portion formed a fairly
adhesive mucilage, but it gelatinised ami darkened in
colour mi the addition of ferric chloride. It was thickened
with borax, and turned pale yellow on warming with
normal soda. This gum was further characterised by an
exceptionally low ash, 0*60 percent. Its solution was of
very feeble viscosity, and the solid had a high specific
gravity 1'904.
Table I.
Viscosity.
Specific Gravity.
Moisture.
Ash.
10 per Cent.
Solution.
Nitrogen.
Of Solid.
Acacia leucophluea
Acacia catechu
Acacia ferrugina
Vcacia farnesiana
Acacia modesta
Acacia arabica
Albizzia amara
Anogeissus Latifolia.. .
Banhinia retusa
Banhinia variegata
< >Jinia ivadier
Terminalia tomentosn
Buchanania latifolia . .
ik;
13
■21
17
oa
15
15
](i
7u
1G
38
11
22
li
in
in
I.I
13-63
18
H'.i
17
50
20-73
*■»
0-1371
211
HUI2I
S-22
0-1132
2'08
0'1325
2-1)1
ii 09006
in:
11-11470
1-88
11-3030
3-2(1
H-2307
1"23
0 0197
3-28
2-51
0-00917
3T,2
niilllj
0"66
0'06510
4-65
0'0800
T.<
I!LK II.
3,106
312
913
1,071
720
1,167
2,151
1,928
320
560
350
525
69.1
1-020
1-017
1-1117
1-001
1-017
1-017
1-002
1 1115
1-019
i in.;
1-017
1-018
1-599
1-713
1-622
1-623
l'lill
1-623
1-GJfi
1-794
1-696
1-750
1-696
1-901
l'O+ll
0-051
O'OOo
6-082
0-061
0'053
II-H31
0-IJ35
11-1136
0-039
0-038
0055
0-054
0-069
0-069
< iiun.
Colour.
Taste.
Smell.
Solubility.
Adhesiveness.
Light brown, irregular
Marked
Peculiar odour
Entirely soluble to light
brown liquid.
Acacia catechu
Light brown, translucent,
angular.
Slightly sum-
Sour
Partly soluble to colourless
liquid.
Very slight.
Acacia ferrugina
Brown, granular, con-
taining bark.
Nil
Faintly sour
Entirely soluble to brown
liquid.
Fair.
Brown, irregular, not all
the same colour.
Slightly sweel
Nil
Entirely soluble to brown
liquid.
Very slight.
Light brown, irregular
Nil
Peculiar odour
Dissolves completely to
yellow liquid.
Fair.
Acacia arabica
Very hard light brown,
irregular.
Nil
Slight mouldy
smell.
Swells up t<> pale brown
jelly.
....
Brown, irregular
Nil
Very faint
odour.
Tartly soluble to light
brown liquid.
Slight.
Albizzia amara
Light brown
Nil
Sweet odour
Entirely soluble to
yellowish brown liquid.
Very good.
\ nogeissus latifolia
Light brown, partly
spherical.
Nil
Nil
Swells up to prey muss.
Little liquid strained off.
Useless.
Dark brown, containing
lighter particles.
Nil
Very faint
Entirely dissolves
to reddish-brown liquid.
....
Yellowish brown ; bark
adhering to it.
Sweet
Faint
Entirely soluble to pale
yellow liquid.
Slight.
Dark brown
Translucent yellow
Sour
Nil
Sour
Smell like
leather.
Partly dissolves.
Partly dissolves; soluble
portion pale yellow.
Fair.
The more important physical and chemical properties of
the gums examined are tahulated above, but, in addition,
the following summary of the behaviour of a 10 per cent,
solution of the gums towards the following reagents may
be of interest : —
I, When warmed with an equal bulk of normal soda,
A. farnesiana and A. arabica did not darken in colour;
A. modesta, Albizzia amara, Anogeissus latifolia, Buch-
anania variegata, and Terminalia tomentosa turned yellow ;
whilst the other gums darkened considerably.
2. A saturated solution of borax only appreciably
thickened the mucilages from Anogeissus latifolia, Such'
anania latifolia, Odinia wadier, Terminalia tomentosa.
406
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May si, isms
:s. Mercuric chloride gelatinised the mucilage from
Buchanania latifolia, and gave precipitates with Anogeissus
latifolia and Terminalia tomentosa.
i. Stannous chloride gave no reaction with the solutions
of Acacia leucophlaa, A. ferrugina, A. farnesiana,
Buchanania latifolia, and Odinia wadier.
Ammonium oxalate, basic lead acetate, and alcohol gave
precipitates more or less copious with all the samples
examined, and, as already mentioned, ferric chloride
gelatinised many of the acacia gums as well as those
obtained from other trees.
Traces of phosphoric acid were found in the ashes of all
the samples with the exception of Acacia catechu, A
leucophlwa, A. modesta, and Banliinia cariegata, and,
although material was insufficient for an estimation, it was
apparently present in fair quantity in the ashes of Acacia
ferruginea, Banhinia retusa, and Terminalia tomentosa.
It will further be noticed that nitrogen was found in all
the gums examined, varying in amount from 0'031 to
0-082 per cent.
From this investigation it will be seen that the Indian
gums vary very considerably in character, and as this
examination is by no means exhaustive, I hope that further
attention will be directed to the subject. Statistics are
wanted as to the best localities for the growth of these
different trees, and also the climatic conditions which occur
in those districts. No doubt the geological structure of the
country also materially influences the quality of the gum
yielded by the tree ; and if this paper will lead to the work
being carried on in India, there can be no doubt that we
shall eventually obtain from that country gums of known
value and suitable for many industrial purposes.
Discussion.
Mr. Peter MacEwan said that the mistake made by those
who had taken up the question of gum arabic and its sub-
stitutes was that they had not persevered with the subject.
He was pleased to notice that Dr. Rideal persevered, and
there was need for that as the various gums known as gum
arabic differed very much, and not only did the gums from
different countries differ, but those from one country varied
considerably according to the nature of the season. He
trusted, therefore, that I)r. Rideal would still continue his
research.
Mr. W ltson Smith said that he had examined the waste
liquors of the sulphite cellulose process for preparing wood
pulp, and had found a considerable amount of gums of very
adhesive nature. On evaporating these liquors, the same
sickly and disagreeable odour was developed that was
characteristic of the vapours proceeding from the works
when the contents of the digesters were discharged. So
long as water remained and the gum existed in solution, the
smell remained. On evaporating to dryness the gum
possessed no smell, but on re-dissolving in water the
solution smelt as disagreeably as ever. So far, any method
he had found efficacious in destroj'ing the odour also
seriously interfered with the gums.
Dr. Rideal, replying to Mr. Watson Smith, said that he
would be \ery glad if he would send him a sample of the
substance referred to. He agreed with Mr. MacEwan's
remarks.
£tbapool Section.
University College, Brownlow Street.
Chairman : H. Brunner.
Vice-Chair man: A. Norman Tate.
Committee :
E. Carev.
V. C. Driffield.
F. Gossage.
W. D. Herman.
C. L. Higgins.
F, Huiter.
A. H. Knight.
D. McKeehnie.
E. K. Muspratt.
H, itru Tate.
A. Watt.
lion. Treasurer: W P. Thompson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. Chas. A. Kohn, University College, Liverpool.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to fill the vacancies, and will
take office in July next :— Vice-Chairman : K.Carey. Committee :
J. Campbell Brown, Jos. C. Gamble, G. Sehack-Sommer, and A.
Norman Tate.
Meeting held Wednesday, 2nd March, 1892.
MR. A. NORMAN TATE IN THE CHAIB.
ON AGRICULTURAL FERTILISERS AND FEEDING
STUFFS AND THE BILL NOW REFORM
PARLIAMENT TO AMEND THE LAW WITH
RESPECT TO THEIR SALE.
BY DR. GU8TAF SOHACK-SOMMER.
On previous occasions I have had the honour of appearing
before you as an advocate of the cultivation of beetroot in
England and Ireland for the purpose of sugar manufacture,
as that industry is conducted on the Continent, and more
especially in Germany and France. The subject which I
wish to bring before you to-night may be regarded as some-
what remotely connected with that of beetroot cultivation,
it relates to fertilisers aud animal food stuffs. You are no
doubt aware that a Bill was introduced by Mr. Chaplin into
the House of Commons last July in his new office as
Minister of Agriculture, to regulate the trade in these
articles. The Bill runs much upon the same lines as the
Food and Drugs Act, and, as it is virtually an extension of
this Act which relates to the adulteration of food, and is an
attempt to prevent the adulteration of fertilisers aud feeding
stuffs prepared upon chemical principles, I think the
subject should have a strong claim upon the attention of
societies such as this. Manufacturers (smd more especially
those whose business is conducted on scientific principles)
should be afforded an opportunity not only of criticising the
proposals of the Legislature, but when advisable, of bringing
pressure to bear with a view to their amendment. Under
these circumstances it is clearly our duty, in the best
interests of the community, to make our weight as a society
felt, by offering such suggestions as those I have the honour
of submitting to-night, and which I hope may be speedily
supplemented by others coming from those who possess
more extensive scientific knowledge and larger practical
experience.
Before proceeding further it may be well to recite the
provisions of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Bill, and
of course 1 shall not trouble you with its legal phraseology
but merely with a brief resume of its clauses.
>uy si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
407
Taking these in their order we find a penalty of 20/. is
imposed for the first offence and 50/. for each subsequent
offence, when a conviction is obtained for selling adulterated
fertilisers and food stuffs for cattle ; but that the seller shall
not be liable if the article purchased was not used for the
purpose for which it was sold : yet that it shall be no
defence to allege that the purchaser, having bought only for
analysis, was not prejudiced by the sale; that an invoice
must be given to each purchaser specifying the nature and
quality of the article sold, and in the case of a compound
article its material ingredients with the percentage or
approximate percentage of each ; that any material
inaccuracy in the description in the invoice shall render the
vendor liable to the before-mentioned penalties ; that a
seller shall not be liable if he can prove that he sold the
article as lie received it ; that a seller who can prove this,
but who is convicted, shall be able to recover the fine with all
costs and damages either from the manufacturer or from the
dealer from whom the article was purchased in the first
instance; and, that the Hoard of Agriculture may appoint a
chief analyst.
In this Hill I may remark that I do not find any provision
for punishing a dealer who sells feeding stuffs which, through
decomposition or because of their composition, or for any
othei reason, may be unfit for the purpose for which they
H tic sold. The Bill, too, should be so amended as not to
unnecessarily harass manufacturers in the business, or place
obstacles in the way of honest dealing in such articles.
Take, as an example, the case of a manufacturer who, having
discovered a by-product which contains one or more of the
four principal fertilisers, mixes this by-product with other
substances containing the other necessary fertilisers. Why
should he be compelled to divulge the secret of his manu-
facture by describing it on an invoice as proposed in the
liill ? In my opinion all that is necessary is a guarantee
that the article sold contains certain proportions of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, potassium and lime. In the case of feeding
stuffs a very large trade is done in mixtures, and as long as
those are guaranteed to contain stated proportions of good,
sound, digestible food, including protein, fat, sugar, and
non-nitrogenous extractable matter, theie is clearly no
necessity to require the secrets of manufacture to be
published in an invoice for the benefit of trade rivals.
What is of great importance is, that farmers should be
taught clearly the elementary chemical principles underlying
the successful preparation both of manures and feeding
stuffs, so that they may be able to select the best goods for
their purpose. This, of course, means technical education
for farmers, and when it is achieved there will be less
necessity for special legislation for their protection.
Glancing at other countries we find that while Fiance and
Iielgium have special laws affecting this subject, a different
state of things prevails in Germany and Austria. The
Governments of the latter countries, after going fully into
I lu- question, have arrived at the conclusion that by private
arrangement between manufacturers, dealers, and purchasers,
thej are able to protect one another, and this has resulted
in the establishment of a set of rules which have to be adhered
to by the members of such an association, consisting of the
manufacturers, dealers, and buyers of feeding stuffs and
fertilisers. These rules all aim at one object, and that is the
protection of the small buyer. Buyers on a large scale are
astute enough not to begrudge the small fee for testing the
goods they buy, and so assuring themselves that they get full
value for their money. The small buyer on the other hand
has to be protected partly from want of technical instruction,
for it may be presumed lie rarely knows of agricultural
testing stations and laboratories, or if he does he distrusts
them, and partly perhaps from finding that however small
the fee, it increases the price of his purchase, and for this
purpose the following rules were established. They state
that the article must be sold in its original bag or package
with the following information written or printed legibly
upon it: —
1st. The maker's name or that of the factory.
2nd. The article it contains, and whether in powder,
granular, or in lumps.
3rd. What ingredients are guaranteed.
A dealer vrho had bought a one hundredweight bag could
not repack it into two half-hundredweight bags, but in the
case of a demand for the latter would have to get the
smaller size from the manufacturer. The advantages of
these rules are so obvious that I must apologise for dwell-
ing on them. Any honest manufacturer or dealer will court
being checked by an agricultural chemist, and will most
likely contribute to laboratories which not only guard the
purchaser, but at the same time the interest and reputation
of the manufacturer.
As far as this country is concerned I think it is safe to
assume that if adulteration takes place it will arise through
a system of fraudulent repacking by greedy middlemen, a
species of cheating, which the rules I have mentioned make
impossible on the Continent. In such a case, should a
dishonest dealer imitate the bag or package of a manufac-
turer, or re-pack and adulterate the contents, he would run
the risk of being found out, and of course, on conviction,
could be punished by the law as it now stands. What we
want, in fact, is not an alteration of the English law but the
introduction of the German and Austrian rules of sale.
The weak point in the situation, as far a* the chance of the
adulterating middleman being found out is concerned, lies
iu the absence of testing stations and laboratories in con-
nexion with the various agricultural societies, as well as of
travelling teachers to give the farmers the technical instruc-
tion which they stand so much in need of. An ideal
system, if I may mention such a thing en passant, to a
practical society, would be for the agricultural societies of
each district to form themselves into co-operative associa-
tions for the purpose of buying feeding stuffs and fertilisers
in large quantities, and distributing them amongst their
members, and retaining a chemist well versed in botany,
and employing teachers to travel in the district to impart
instruction. I have been told that such a combination has
just been formed in Yorkshire, and the Agricultural and
Horticultural Association, Limited, in London, generally
called the " One and All," have done much useful work in
that direction for some time past.
Even on the Continent, with their rules of sale, and their
chemical testiqg stations and laboratories, they have not by
any means attained perfection, for Professor Maercker and
others have expressed an opinion that the agricultural
laboratories in organisation and methods of analysis are
not yet sufficiently advanced, especially in the matter of
determining the purity of articles. That being the ease on
the Continent, matters are of necessity very much worse in
this country, where, to the best of my knowledge there are
only two agricultural testing stations and laboratories, viz.,
one at Rothampstead and one at Aberdeen ; perhaps this
may seem a small matter to those who believe that it is easy
for the purchaser of food stuffs to ascertain that they
contain a guaranteed amount of fat, or nitrogenous sub-
stance, and in the case of fertilisers to obtain satisfactory
guarantees of the presence of a certain preparation of
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash. The difficulty is,
however, for the purchaser to protect himself against such
articles as contain injurious matters in addition to other
innocuous materials which ma3' have been purposely added,
or occur accidentally through careless manufacture, or by
using unsuitable or inferior raw material.
With the help of such trade rules as I have already told
you are in force in Germany and Austria, there would be
little necessity for legislation of any sort to prevent adultera-
tion. Agricultural societies and their journals should
constantly bring such regulations under the notice of
farmers, and warn them against buying fertilisers which
were not delivered in accordance with such regulations.
What these regulations are you will perhaps allow me to
describe a little more in detail, and I hope in doing so as
briefly as possible I shall not try your patience. The bags
containing the fertiliser must be branded with —
1. The name of the factory where the fertiliser was made.
2. The commercial name of the article ; and
3. The percentage of each important constituent.
The bags should contain even weights, say 56 lb., 1 cwt.,
or 2 cwt.
I have prepared a table showing what constituents should
be guaranteed in fertilisers. Phosphoric Acid soluble in
-
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31. 1892.
wnler in superphosphates, Thomas slag ; precipitates, bone
ash; Baker guano.
N'.B. — If these manures are valued and paid for accord-
ing to their contents of soluble and insoluble phosphoric
acid, then, of course, the percentage of both will have to
be given.
Phosphoric acid soluble in water and all the nitrogen
(X) should be stated in bone meal, fish guano, flesh meal,
Peruvian guano, and ammoniacal and nitrogenous super-
phosphates, horns and other residue of tanneries.
Nilrogen (N~) in blood meal, germ meal, nitrate, &c.
Potash (KM) in kaiuite and other potassium salt.-.
When samples are drawn they must be taken by the
buyer or his representative, if possible in the presence of
the seller or sender, or his representative, on the quay, or
at the station, within two days of arrival at destination.
It would be very desirable if we could formulate on
similar Hues conditions for the sale of feeding stuffs, but
unfortunately it is not so easy as in the case of fertilisers,
for there are many more factors to reckon with. In feeding
stuffs we could not remain content with a declaration that
they contained a certain proportion of protein, fat, sugar,
and extractable non-nitrogenous matter, for it is essential
to know how much of the protein is digestible. What is
also important to learn is not only whether it is unadulterated
in the general sense of the term, but whether the food is
clean and wholesome. The introduction of an obligatorv'
guarantee as to contents and quality is of the highest
importance both to agriculturists and manufacturers. A
certain reasonable minimum figure should be fixed for the
percentage of fat separately for the various feeding stuffs
and the same for protein. In a letter which I received from
Professor Dr. Maercker this morning, he communicates the
fact to me that at a recent meeting in Berlin the represen-
tatives of the German Agricultural Hoards and of the
experimental stations have come to an agreement with the
dealers in feeding stuffs to give a separate guarantee for
both" Jot" and "proteitie" in future. And noDe below
this percentage ought to be allowed to be sold. Oilcake,
for instance, varies from 10 to 20 per cent, in fatty matter,
according to the amount of pressure used in the manu-
facture, and as the fat is not only valuable itself but further
aids the animal in digesting the other ingredients, it is
really the most important element to be taken into account
when estimating the value of a feeding stuff. A higher
percentage of fat therefore might be paid for on a sliding
scale, on the system which has proved so successful in the
sugar industry. Let me here point out that the agricultural
experimental stations and laboratories in Germany and
Austria allow a latitude of one and a half per cent, for
protein tests, and of one half per cent, for fat tests, as a
margin for errors in testing. It would be difficult to
formulate the exact extent to which a guarantee could be
given as to the good and healthy condition of a feeding
stuff and its freedom from foreign, injurious, valueless, or
indifferent ingredients, but each invoice should include the
guarantee upon which the article was sold. These
guarantees, however, are not all-sufficient. The farmer
should have such technical knowledge as would enable him
to choose the best feeding stuffs and fertilisers for his
particular purpose ; yet how many farmers possess this
ary knowledge ? It may therefore possibly be useful
if, with your permission, I submit a few observations with
regard to the most important cattle fodders, and the
nature of the most frequent adulterations.
Artificial feeding stuffs include bran, feeding meals and
cakes, by-products from distilleries and breweries, and last
but not least those also of beetroot sugar factories.
Bran is very nutritious in consequence of being inseparable
from the harder outer part of the real grain which contains
much gluten. Its feeding properties are protein, of which
wh.eat bran may contain up to 14 per cent., and fat,
4'9 per cent. The woody fibre, which is the valueless
portion, is in the best kind of wheat bran only about
5-5 per cent., whereas in buckwheat bran, with 10 per
cent, protein and 2 per cent, fat, the woody fibre is 38-2
per cent., and peaskin bran with s per cent, protein and
25 per cent, fat, the woody fibre is 13*7 per cent. If the
bran has not been properly stored it gets mouldy, and this
can be detected by the microscope which shows the fungi,
as well as by the disagreeable odour. In that condition,
of course, it is unfit for feeding purposes, but this is more
easily guarded against than the danger arising from the
addition of such weed seeds as are absolutely and actively
injurious. Among these are ergot (silerotium davits), corn
cockle (agrostemma githago), darnel or bearded ryegrass
(folium teimtlentitm). Moreover sand, slate, gypsum, husks
of oats, rice and other grains, and sometimes as much as
10 per cent, of water is added to increase the weight.
Of feeding meals the best known perhaps is rice meal,
which ought to contain about 11 '5 per cent, fat, and 46*1
per cent, soluble non-nitrogenous contents. This is often
adulterated with its own or other husks, as for instance
peaskins which are absolutely without any nutritious value ;
also with chalk up to 22 per cent., with sand and gypsum
up to 20 per cent., and from 15 per cent, to 20 per cent, of
sulphate of barium. Linseed, cotton-seed, and other meals
are simply ground cakes afterjthe oil has been extracted from
the respective seeds. Linseed meal is often adulterated with
the seeds of gold of pleasure, cabbage, rye meal, and ground-
nut meal, clover seed, clover-seed chaff, coffee kernels, mus-
tard seeds, and sand and soil up to a total of 48 per cent. It
is also adulterated with the seed of plantain, dodder, garlic,
mustard, and castor, any of which give the cattle colic, with
the result that not infrequently they die. Meat feeding
meal is a good and nourishing feeding stuff, containing
1 1 • 14 per cent, of fat, and is mostly made in Fray Bentos
by Liebig's Extract of Meat Company. It has happened
before now that stuff sold as this, or as a similar article,
contained no meat substance whatever, but turned out to be
a mixture of rubbish from tanneries such as glove and calf
leather, with bran and about 5 per cent, of alum. Oilcakes
are of the highest feeding value, and contain a large amount
of protein, in the groundnut cakes as much a9 42 S per
cent., and a varying quantity of fat according to the greater
or less pressure used in extracting the oils. These oilcakes
are sometimes mixed with sand, stones, and other rubbish
to make weight, but this does not happen so often as does
adulteration with less valuable and sometimes really harmful
products. For instance, so-called German rape cake is very
often made almost entirely of the unwholesome garlic
mustard seed, which for that purpose is specially imported
from Russia. Groundnut cake is adulterated with castor-
oil seed, castor-oil seed chaff, and castor oil, and at other
times with poppy-seed cake, which has not half the value
of groundnut cake. Some Fast Indian rape cakes are full
of myronates, which when brought in contact with water
turn into mustard oil, which may do the cattle harm, and
therefore it is obviously necessary to know where the cake
comes from. Groundnut cake, when adulterated with poppy-
>C'li1 rake, has a tendency to go musty, and the opium in
the latter is very bad and dangerous for the cattle, while
the milk of cows fed with this stuff cannot fail to be
injurious to young children. Cakes which have been badly
stored sometimes get heated, and this causes the protein to
decompose, with the alarming result that the food mav not
only make the cattle ill, but actually kill them. These
cakes have frequently been ground up and mixed with good
meal, and then soid for feeding purposes. Such a case of
fraud, the consequences of which cannot be estimated or
foreseen, is one of the worst that has come to my know-
ledge, and is, as you will see, a very difficult one to detect
and punish. Oilcakes of all kinds are often adulterated
with the husks of cereals, which are themselves absolutely
without feeding value, and merely load the stomachs of the
animals unnecessarily. Then, again, dried grains from
breweries and distilleries, malt-sprouts and molasses, and
dried beetroot slices, which should, according to Dr.
Maercker's table, contain protein from 6 per cent, to 33 per
cent, and fat up to 23 per cent., are, however, often adul-
terated to increase their weight with sand, talc, lime, oxide
of iron, and manganese. The weed seeds gathered in the
cockle machine, which cleans the grain before it is ground
into flour, are sold for the purpose of adulterating feeding
stuffs, and these are distinctly injurious and poisonous.
They are henbane, spurge, crow's-foot, yellow rattle, ergot,
&c, comprising altogether about 72 different varieties.
MaySLMW-J THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
409
Kind of the Feeding Stuff.
R.apeseed cake
Groundnut cake
i Sol ton-seed meal
Poppy-seed cake
Palm kernels cake
Coooanut cake.
Sesame cake
Rice feeding meal
Malt-sprouts
Pried brewers' grains
Wheat bran
Ryo lirun
Dried distillers' grains, I
Dried distillers' grains, It
Dried beetroot slices from which the sugar was
extracted.
Molasses
Non-
nitrogenous
Extract
Compounds.
Total of
Feeding
Value Units.
The necessity for microscopical aud bacteriological
examination of feeding stuffs is of the very greatest impor-
tance. As a rule one may form an opinion of the purity or
otherwise of a feeding stuff from the appearance of the
textures or elements of textures, and it is therefore almost
indispensable that chemists should make themselves suffi-
ciently acquainted with the use of the microscope so as to
be able to examine and judge the feeding stuffs from a
botanical point of view. There are three distinct micro-
scopical methods in use, namely — (1) Witmack's paste
method, (2) Bencke's flour proof method, and (3) Dr. Von
Weinzierl's mechanical microscopical examination. Special
directions as to how to proceed cannot be laid down, but
every one must be left to choose his own way. Every
sample, however, should first be examined on the outside
for animal or vegetable parasites, or foreign admixtures, and
if any are detected the sample ought to be put aside to be
in due time further examined.
This brings us to the question as to when a feeding stuff
may be considered to fall into one of three categories,
namely — (1) impure, (2) adulterated, and (3) injurious. By
the last-named, of course, I mean injurious to the animals,
or to those who use the products, such as milk and butter.
Under the first and second heads I would include adu itera-
tions which cannot be proved to be injurious, but which
have a less nutritious value and are added to make the
article cheaper, or for fraudulent reasons. It certainly
should be punishable by law to offer as feeding stuffs articles
which contain from 3D to 40 per cent, of materials which
are not only absolutely valueless for nutrition, but over-
charge the stomachs of the animals, and which, through
continual use, would counteract the effect of or destroy
altogether the gastric juice, and harden the organs of
digestion. But before pursuing this question further,
permit me to repeat that I fail to see what good would be
done by revealing to the purchaser the secret of the
manufacturer who combines valuable by - products, or
material, either in the composition of fertilisers or feeding
stuffs. What would the manufacturers of Pears' soap, who
have kept their secret for more than a century, according to
their advertisement, say ; or what would the more modern
" Sunlight" makers of a similar article, be likely to say to
a proposal that every package should have legibly printed
upon it every detail of the chemical and other ingredients ?
You see at once, of course, that such a suggestion is
repugnant to common sense, and that the suggestion could
28 40
143-00
25-10
180*00
20-7(1
183 "00
20-20
114-00
Sfl-40
102-00
87-40
122-00
22-40
luroo
W10
104-00
42-30
117-00
40-40
114-00
57-20
104'00
58-70
112-00
44-00
138-00
22-00
li'.yon
56'70
76-40
Ofi-00
81-00
Price.
Per Cwt.
Cost per
Feeding Unit.
8. (I.
0 0
7 0
7 0
5 a
5 i)
7 3
6 6
5 6
5 0
5 6
0 6
7 0
6 0
7 0
3 0
2 6
0-55
0--J7
0-47
0-4.'
0-07
0-71
0-4S
0-68
0-51
0-57
0-75
0-80
0-52
0-50
0-47
0-36
not be entertained for a moment as in the remotest degree
approaching practicability. This does not apply, of course,
to compounds containing simple elements, the proportions
of which can and ought to be guaranteed to the purchaser.
It only applies in the case of a manufacturer who has made
his feeding stuff a specialty by careful and laborious research,
and who certainly ought not to be called upon to proclaim
the results from the housetops for the benefit of less indus-
trious rivals. In my opinion — which, of course, I give
merely for what it is worth— it ought to be quite sufficient
if, in the case of fertilisers, the percentage of nitrogen,
potassium, lime, and phosphoric acid was published, and in
the case of feeding stuffs that of protein and fat. This
would enable the manufacturer who had his wits about him
to mix such products as come, for instance from East India
and Africa, where, for want of good machinery, the oil is
not properly squeezed out of the seeds, or other raw material
with their own oilcake and so make a mixture that would
be of a better value to the farmer than it would be without
this addition. That such mixtures are legitimate has lately
been demonstrated in a very able and interesting paper by
Professor Maercker, in which he specially dilates on the
scientific way of putting such mixtures together so as to
secure as much nutriment as is contained in bran, while,
taking into account the high price of the latter at the
present moment, they would not cost more than about half
the price. I will give you here the gist of his calculations.
The average figures of the nutritious contents have been
taken from the analysis of the fodders during many years
at the experimental agricultural station in Halle. To
estimate the nuitritious value, he adopted the figures of
value of Professor Kciuig of Munster, who laid it down that
the feeding value unit of non-nitrogenous compounds may
be taken as one ; ttat of fat as double, say two ; and that
of protein half as much again as fat, or say three; here,
however, I must inform you that Professor Maercker writes
me: —
"The relative value of protein to fat aud nou-nitrogenous
substances is calculated by the united agricultural trial
stations in Germany, according to the method of the
smallest squares from the prices of the most important
feeding stuffs, and this calculation is checked every year by
the variations in prices." The last calculation made by
Professor Konig gave the proportion as 3:2:1, but since
then the nitrogenous fat-containing feeding stuffs have
risen in cost so considerably that this proportion is no
410
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May 31,1892.
longer correct — as Professor Maercker knows privately from
Professor Kiinig— and in the next calculation, which will
soon be published, the proportion will most likely be 3:3: 1,
so that as a matter of fact fat and protein have become of
equal feeding cost. This would, of course, he altered as
soon as the feeding stuffs which contain much fat fall in
price. On the question of what part in the digestion is
done by fat, Dr. Maercker says that for the preservation of
heat, fat acts equal to its equivalent of heat, that is, 2 ■ 5 of
the carbohydrates ; but that as a nuitritious substance in
place of albumen it is only equal to 1 • 8 to 2 of the carbo-
hydrates. The actual part which fat takes in the digestion
has not been proved with certainty, but it is generally
assumed that the action is both mechanical and dietetic,
that is to say that the intestines work better when they are,
as it were, lubricated or oiled. I doubt this, says the
Professor, and believe that the feeding stuffs which are rich
in fat are so highly valued because they always at the same
time contain much protein. As far as the actual nutritious
value is concerned the fat can be easily replaced by the
equivalents of carbohydrates, though an exception ought of
course to he made with fats that have a specially favourable
influence on the fat of the milk, like that of the palm
kernels.
Taking wheat bran at 6s. Gd. per cwt., he says that it
contains 13 *7 per cent, raw protein, which in the proportion
of three to the whole makes 41 • 1 units, 2*9 per cent, of fat.
which at two makes 5 • 8 units, and 57 '2 per cent, of non-
nitrogenous substance which at one makes 57 *2 units.
Total 104, feeding value units, for which 6.v. C</. has been paid,
and therefore one unit costs in wheat bran 'fd. per feeding
value unit. It is after this principle that the table (see pre-
ceding page) of the most important feeding stuffs has been
put together by 1 >r. Morgan, and withthe help of this table it
is easy to rind which feeding stuffs are, according to the
prices of the day, the cheapest, and which it is best to
select in order to make up not only the cheapest, but the
most nutritious class of feeding stuff. A glance at the last
column shows that wheat and rye bran are the most expen-
sive among the fodders named. The question, therefore, of
how to replace them by cheaper mixtures is obviously of the
greatest importance.
From this table the actual money value of each unit of
the feeding value, according to chemical analysis, can be
easily seen. Another important point is, however, how
much of the feeding value unit of protein is digestible.
Sometimes two feeding stuffs of the same chemical compo-
sition will vary greatly in their nutritious value, as the total
of the feeding value units in the one is more easily and
more thoroughly digestible than in the other.
The following table will give a few figures as to the
digestibility of the different kinds in the feeding stuffs, and
these figures ought to be taken as the basis for calculating
the rations of equal value : —
Kind of the Feeding Stuffs.
Molasses
Dried beetroot slices out of which sugar has been
extracted.
Cotton-seed meal
Groundnut cake
Popp.y-seed cake
Sesame cake
Dried distillers' grains, II. (60 per sent.)
Dried distillers' grains, I. (35 percent.)
Rapeseed cake
Malt-sprouts
Hay at 3s. Gd. per cwt
Clover hay at 4s. per cwt
Rice feeding Hour
Dried brewers' grain
Palm kernel cakes
Cocoanut cake
Wheat bran
Rye bran
Total of
Digestible
Feeding Value
Quits.
The Cost of
One Digestible
Feeding Value
Unit is
Per Cent
. Digestible Compounds.
Protein.
Non-
F'at. nitrogenous
.Soluble Matter.
84*00
a.
0'3«
CO
66*0
73 'SO
0'4S
5*0
..
87*0
168*30
0*49
12*fl
11*4
ltr 7
170-70
0*49
14*5
6'3
iff,
129*90
0*68
31*9
8*0
18-2
144*40
0*54
35 '7
11*7
14'1
152*40
0*55
30*4
20'7
19*8
126*00
0'57
24*0
7*2
39-0
ii ran
O'l'.l
28*4
7'3
21'7
100 *su
0*59
20*8
1*0
30*4
64*10
0*65
7*6
41*6
70 • Oil
0*69
10*0
40'0
g6*S0
0*08
lo-o
10*1
41', -1
91*40
0'72
18*1
5*0
27-1
89-20
077
13*2
7"7
34*2
111*70
0'7S
19-2
11 9 30*3
80*50
0*96
10*1
2-2 45*8
92*70
0-97
13-5
2*6
47-0
From this table you will see that the brans are by far the
most expensive feeding stuffs of all, for in the cotton-seed
and groundnut meal a feeding value unit will only cost
0*49d., whereas in wheat and rye bran just twice as much
has to be paid for it, that is, 0-96d. and 0*97<f. respectively.
Molasses and dried beetroot slices, the by products of the
beetroot-sugar manufactory, also are much cheaper. This
is one more reason — though I must plead guilty to having
mentioned it in previous lectures here — to recommend the
introduction of the beetroot-sugar industry in England, as
it would enable the farmers to get their feeding stuffs in the
form of molasses and beetroot slices so much cheaper. A
feeding stuff having a nutritious value, both on account of
its nitrogenous elements, as well as of those that are free from
nitrogen, that is to say, a replacement of one nutritious element
by another of equal value, can, of course, only take place
if the different nutritious contents, or compound elements,
are in the same proportion to one another. This, however,
is very seldom the case, and this is the reason why it is
necessary to mix different stuffs, as, for instance, to mix a
feeding stuff very rich in nitrogenous matter with a poorer
one, and use that in place of a medium nitrogenous fodder.
As an illustration 1 may say that it would not do to replace
bran by cotton-seed or groundnut meal, as in these, to
every one part of digestible nitrogenous, nutritious sub-
stance, there would be only 1 * 15 non-nitrogenous — that is
fat — whereas in wheat bran the proportion is 1 to 1 * 508.
It is, however, possible to make up for this, if to the
mixture is added a substance that has a large proportion of
non-nitrogenous nutritious matter in comparison with the
May 31,1893.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
411
nitrogenous contents, as, tor instance, rice meal (lil'i),
dried beetroot slices (1:10-2), and molasses (1:11-0).
The two latter, which can be obtained in abundance in all
beetroot-growing countries, arc really some of the most
useful and cheapest feeding stuffs, and cannot be too highly
recommended to farmers for this purpose.
As to the dietetic influence of bran as one of the most
esteemed fodders, I may say that a great many mixtures
made tip according to the principles already shown have
been used with the very best results for years by the
greatest cattle rearers on the Continent. Feeding with bran
has only been adhered to in the rearing of young animals
and with milch cows which are kept for young children.
May I venture to suggest in conclusion that it is evident
that the question of feeding stuffs is to the liritish farmer
of the greatest importance, for, in spite of the decrease in
agricultural pursuits in this country, cattle and other
domestic animals have increased in numbers as the following
figures show : —
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
1890
1,432,680
1,488,403
6,508,632
6:853,821
27,373.489
38,732,568
3,773,609
3,888,773
Increase in 1891.
53,783
314,189
1,460,099
115,164
Now, if the rearing of cattle is one of the main sources
of income for the farmer, nothing should be left undone
that will tend to make that industry a thriving one. More-
over, domestic animals are dependent for their comfort and
well-being on man, and it is the duty of all stock rearers to
feed their beasts with good sound food, and treat them
generally in the enlightened manner which science teaches
and common sense dictates as being best for both man and
beast. The Government, too, must do its duty and recognise
the necessity for regulating the trade in feeding stuffs and
fertilisers, and stamping out deleterious compounds and the
fraudulent manufacturer of them. The Hill which Mr.
Chaplin is going to submit for investigation to a depart-
mental committee will not, I fear, do this. It will harass
the makers of feeding stuffs and the manufacturer of
manures without benefiting Die farmer.
First and foremost, efficient agricultural trial stations and
laboratories should be established, scientific farming and
feeding should be encouraged by every known means.
Farmers should lie shown the kinds of food which should
be given. They should be taught how to mix the different
feeding stuffs so as to provide each animal with the
substances best suited to its special requirements of
befitting its special work, while the supervision of the
feeding should be his constant care.
Finally, if the farmer is to do his duty, he must learn
first and foremost the rudiments and principles of scientific
feeding, gain an intelligent appreciation of the valne of the
different feeding stuffs and of what special use the principal
well-defined chemical substances are, and then he will be
soon able to invest his money for fodder to the very best
advantage, and by that time he will require no cumbrous
law to protect him from being swindled in his purchases of
feeding stuffs and fertilisers.
Discussion.
Mr. Tate said that legislation was required, as there was
no doubt that at the present time a great deal of rubbish was
sold both for manure and cattle food purposes.
The Bill as it at present stood required very considerable
amendment, its provisions being very loose and indefinite.
He thought it was unnecessary and undesirable to state
definitely of what any particular manure was made up, but
the nature and percentage of the constituents considered of
special manurial value should be distinctly mentioned. A
similar course could be followed with cattle foods, although
with these it was desirable to state more definitely the
substances from which they were produced, as a feeding
cake for example, made from one kind of seed or substance
might have a very different value to another on account of
relative conditions for assimilation, although the actual
proportions of fat, nitrogenous constituents, &c. were the
same. As Dr. Schack-Sommer had well pointed out, not
only was it desirable to note the chemical constituents of
foods, but also other characteristics, as for instance, their
texture, which might be sufficiently coarse or rough and
indigestible to do mischief by mechanical irritation in the
intestines of animals.
Microscopical examination certainly should supplement
the chemical in nearly all cases of cattle food, so as to obtain
a clearer insight into the nature of the constituents present.
One point Dr. Schack-Somnier had alluded to was of the
highest importance, viz., that there should be a stipulation
that no element of an injurious character should be present
either in manure or food, especially in the latter, and here
the provisions for the appointment of analysts in different
centres would be useful. The appointment of trained
analysts for special agricultural purposes would prove of
great service to agriculture generally, providing farmers and
others made use of their services. It was quite possible to
so amend the present Bill as to make it a really useful
measure ; and Dr. Schack-Sommer had done good service in
calling attention to it so that those interested could think
over in what direction amendment might be possible.
Dr. Leather said he did not think that the majority of
manufacturers practised adulteration, and certainly the
larger portion of the materials sold as manures were not
adulterated ; but he did think at the same time that there
were a number of smaller dealers who did habitually
adulterate to a large extent. There was an admitted
necessity for legislation, but in what way were they to
legislate ? One of the knottiest questions in the discussion
of that measure would be as to the way the materials should
be branded, if at all ; whether the percentages of ingredients
should be branded, or whether a statement should be given
that the bags contained merely such and such materials.
At first sight it did seem best that the bags should be
branded, showing that they contained certain percentages of
phosphoric acid, nitrogen, &c. It was not, however, so
simple as that, because these ingredients — phosphoric acid,
nitrogen, potash, &c. might be derived from different
materials in which they were present in forms of varying
assimilability. It was not sufficient to say that a manure
contained, for instance, so much nitrogen ; they must indicate
also in what form that nitrogen was present, in order that
the farmer might know what its worth was.
With compound manures, the only thing would be for
manufacturers to brand percentages if the}' had to name
them at all. Personally, he thought the best plan would be
to use simple materials, and not buy compound manures.
The quality of the materials of which food stuffs were made
was of greater importance than the actual percentage of
ingredients contained in them. Mr. Tate had pointed out
the absolute necessity for those materials which were offered
as food for stock being made of thoroughly sound substances,
and he (Dr. Leather) objected there again to recommending
farmers to use compound materials. It would be better if
the farmer used simple materials and mixed them himself ;
most farmers possessed machines for crushing, &c.
The only way to make the Bill work at all would be to
appoint, not merely chemists, but inspectors also, and that
manures and food stuffs should be analysed and sampled
by the county authorities whenever they thought fit, making
it on a par with the Food and Drags Act of to-day. If the
Bill were passed in its present form and it were left to the
farmer's own initiative to employ the chemist, he was
persuaded that the provisions of the Bill would be practically
inoperative.
Mr. Smetham said that Dr. Schack-Sommer had brought
a severe indictment against manufacturers generally, and
shown that all sorts of things were adulterated to a great
extent. It was doubtless true that such adulteration did
exist, but not to the extent that the lecturer would have
them believe. As the result of considerable experience in
analysing both feeding stuffs and manures, he maintained
that so far as the large manufacturers were concerned, the
412
'i'liE JOUKftAL OF '.THE SOCIETY Of CHEMICAL INDUSTliY. [MaySLisaS
substances sent out were usually what they were represented
to be, and of good quality, the adulteration and the mis-
representation being done chiefly by the smaller dealers,
who bought a thing in one name and sold it as another,
transacting their business usually with the more ignorant
farmers over a pint of beer in the public-house. The Bill
in its present form was quite unworkable. Manufacturers
would never allow such a Bill to pass ; manufacturers of
food stuffs, such as calf meals, would never state in detail
the whole of the constituents. To do so would do away
with all enterprise, and many of the best men would leave
business — that is if they were compelled to tell their
secrets to every rival. Another difficulty in the Bill, which
had already been pointed out, was that the working of the
Act depended entirely on the voluntary sending of samples
by the purchasers. Farmers generally would not take the
trouble and pay for the analysis, and manufacturers would
object to the district analyst and go to the chief analyst,
ami by so doing would place obstacles in the way of the
successful working of the Act. The Bill in its present form
was practically dead, and was to be referred to a Committee,
when all points would be thoroughly thrashed out.
Mr, Davies pointed out that with regard to the general
question, so far as food stuffs were concerned, it would not
do for the manufactuier to be obliged to specify all the
materials he employed, though it seemed quite practicable
that the amount of fats, proteins, &c. should be stated, and
that the manufacturers should give a guarantee that no
injurious substances were used. Regarding manures, in
his experience, manufacturers did supply the article that
they claimed to do when analyses were given.
Dr. Schack-Sommer, in reply, said that in his paper he
had laid stress on the fact that large consumers would not
object to send samples for analysis, bnt that the small
farmers, if they knew of the existence of such a being as
an analytical chemist, would shirk the expense of sending
samples of their purchases to him, as even the smallest fee
would increase the cost of the manures or feeding stuffs.
He therefore thought that the advice of consulting chemists
paid by Government or county councils should be at the
disposal of the small farmers free of charge, as was done
with regard to the Food and Drugs Act. Money expended
in that way would repay itself a thousnadfold. All through
his paper he thought he had made it clear that he was
particularly anxious to protect the small and generally less
educated farmer, the man who really did not know what he
ought to buy when he made his purchases of manures and
feeding stuffs. He cited a case lately reported in the
newspapers, where some unscrupulous person had sold to
various farmers in the South at bl. per ton refuse from
tanneries for which the tanners hitherto had paid 10*. per
load for getting rid of, and which had no fertilising value
whatever. It should be made compulsory to send samples
of all purchases for analysis.
Dr. Leather's point was, that it was more important that
manures should have the names of the principal ingredients
printed on the bags than the percentage of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, lime, and potassium. In nitrate of soda
and sulphate of ammonia the nitrogen was undoubtedly at
once available for absorption by the plants when put in the
ground ; whereas in leather and shoddy, with their small
percentage of nitrogen, this was not the case, and he would
therefore suggest that only soluble nitrogen should be the
basis of the purchase. There should be no possibility that
those who desired to buy a certain article, say for instance
sulphate of ammonia, should get something else mixed with
sulphate of ammonia.
i¥lanrfKsstn- Section.
Chairman : Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman : Edw. Schunck.
Committee :
J. Angell.
G. H. Bailey.
R. F. Carpenter.
G. E. Davis.
Harold B. Dixon.
H. Grimshaw.
J. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
A. Liebmann.
Sir It. E. Roscoe.M.P.
C. Truby.
D. Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to till the vacancies and will
take office in July next :— Committee : V. 11. Bowman, J. M. Irving,
and £. Knecht.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
Meeting held Friday, 6th May 1892.
MB. I, LEVINSTEIN IN TH1C CIlAlIi.
TESTING THE ILLUMINATING POWER OF
COAL-GAS.
BY GEORGE E. DAVIS, F.I.C., ETC.
A TitiAJ. of the illuminating power of coal-gas is not in any
sense a chemical operation : it is a physical measurement of
the result of the combustion of coal-gas in ordinary air
measured against sperm candles burning at a specified rate.
It will be known to most of you that a Select Committee
is now sitting, having for its object an inquiry into the
subject of a standard for photometric purposes, the sperm
candle for a long period not having been considered satis-
factory. It will therefore be obvious to you that I could
not enter into a discussion upon the matter of a standard
light, but there are many other points open to consideration,
contrasting the basis upon which physical tests are made
with that upon which chemical examinations ate founded.
It may be taken for granted that if coal-gas -was always of
one and the same quality, there wouWl be no need for a
trial to be made of its illuminating power. But coal-gas is
not a simple gas, it consists ::n a great measure of non-
illuminating hydrogen and feebly illuminating marsh-gas
made luminous by partial saturation with the vapours of
benzol, toluol, crotonylene, arid other hydrocarbons, the
excess of which vapours arc found in the tar which is
condensed from the crude gas. The gases further do not
come off from the coal in regular and even proportions, the
composition of the gases given off during the first half of
the period of carbonisation yielding greater luminosity than
those given off during the latter half. In fact, towards the
end of the charge, little else than pure hydrogen is given
off, having very little, if any, luminosity when burned.
I am fully aware that the gas leaving the hydraulic main
in a well-regulated gasworks is olf fairly constant composition
— its illuminating power will1 vary in different works,
according to the length of time (and temperature) the gas
is allowed to remain in contajct with the tar, and this is
brought about by the regulajr and alternate system of
charging the retorts; but it is possible that a variation of
quality from this source may hrfve to be considered in the
future, as it would be quite easy to arrange the charging so that
that of 20-candle power could be collected from the anterior
portion of the charge, and 10-ea-ndle gas from the posterior,
May 31,1392.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
413
I do not suggest, however, that any irregularity occurs
through charging the retorts, except in small and terribly
mismanaged works.
The quantity of gas yielded by the ton of coal does,
however, affect the illuminating power, as you may learn by
studying the paper read before the London Section of this
Society in 1884 by Mr. Lewis T. Wright, who was then
manager of the gasworks at Nottingham. My own
experience in this matter is not a small one. In the gas-
works I was instrumental in establishing near Sheffield, it
was my aim to secure a large quantity of illuminants, and
as the result of many experiments, working the same quality
of best fresh-wrought gas-coal, I obtained 9,060 cub. ft. of
18-candle gas to the ton, 10,100 ft. of 16-candle gas and
11,400 cub. ft. of 14 caudle gas to the ton of 20 cut. In
the first case the coke was too soft for sale, in the last case
it was hard and saleable. The tendency is nowadays to
run the production up to the highest possible limit, and
without more benzol is volatilised from the tar than formerly,
the result will be a debased gas.
There is another reason why coal-gas should have trials
made of its illuminating properties. A process was intro-
duced some years ago, better known perhaps as Hawkins'
pr< S8, fur introducing earburetted air into the gas before
its entry into the oxide purifiers, in order to prevent the
necessity of so frequently changing the contents. The
oxygen of the air introduced acts upon the sulphuretted
hydrogen in the presence of oxide of iron, forming water
and free sulphur, while the nitrogen remains in the gas,
diluting its illuminating power. Now the testing of the
illuminating power of coal-gas is not such a simple process
as the testing of butter for margarine or of milk for added
water. Parliament in its wisdom has seen tit to prescribe
that certain forms of apparatus shall be used for trying the
illuminating power of coal-gas. I take it that the Legis-
lature has only sought to ensure that reliable methods and
apparatus should be used, so as to guarantee that the
consumer gets what he pays for, for it is pretty obvious
that the producers may as a rule he left to take uare of
themselves.
Part I. of the schedule of the Gas Works Clauses Act of
1871 specified that " the apparatus for testing the illuminating
power of the gas shall consist of the improved form of
liunsen photometer known as Letheby's open GO-inch
photometer or Evans' enclosed 100-inch photometer, together
with a proper meter, minute clock, governor, pressure
gauge, and balauce." " The burner to be used for testing
the gas shall be such as shall be prescribed." " The candles
used for testing the gas shall be sperm candles of six to the
pound, and two candles shall be used together."
Such are the regulations in respect of testing apparatus,
but strange to say, though the Gas Acts are so stringent
with respect to the testing of meters, there are at present no
compulsory powers for the public testing of photometers,
A photometer may be perfectly accurate when first pur-
chased, but a disarrangement or displacement of the scale,
the candle balance, or the standard burner, is quite enough
to give the most fallacious results, and there is no compulsory
provision for verifying these instruments.
The President of the Eastern Counties Gas Managers'
Association, in an address delivered at Sleaford in March
last, said : " I maintain that gas men have no business to
bother about these developments of the illuminating power
of gas. The people who buy and not the people who sell
the gas should take this trouble." This is all very well,
hut as the cost of either of the instruments, duly fitted,
prescribed by the Act of 1881, is about one hundred and
twenty pounds sterling, it is not likely that many gas
consumers will incur the expense.
It will thus be seen, as I have already stated, that the
testing of coal-gas is placed on quite a different footing to
such substances as butter, milk, &c. In the testing of
these substances the Legislature does not step in and say
what size filter shall be used, how the alcoholic potash
shall be made, or the particular kind of gas-burner employed
for heating the flask, and in the many prosecutions which
take place on this matterjno counsel ever thinks of questioning
the apparatus or methods employed by the expert whose
testimony is to convict or acquit the defendant.
This is not the case with coal-gas, the suppliers can
legally object to the use of any other apparatus than that
specified, but this of course makes no difference whatever
in the accuracy of the results. In fact, various details of
photometry have been greatly perfected since 1871, and I
doubt very much, if a Gas Works Clauses Amendment Act
were passed to-morrow, whether the apparatus and methods
would be the same as specified in the Act of 1871.
My own photometer was designed not only for the
examination of ordinary coal-gas, but for the purpose of
all-round uses, one of which was a thorough examination
of the illuminating power yielded by the vapours of different
hydrocarbons, and of which I hope to speak to you at some
future time.
My photometer may be called a GO-inch enclosed " Evans,"
but it differs from the " Evans " in that the scale is divided
into inches and tenths instead of being graduated for
" caudles." This makes a calculation necessary for each
experiment, but as we have calculated a table for each
possible position of the screen index, a simple inspection
of it gives the candle-power direct. The apparatus is fitted
with an experimental meter reading to the one-hundredth
of a cubic foot ; it is also fitted to burn either the prescribed
pair of sperm caudles, or a ten-candle Methven light pre-
pared with great care for me by the well-known firm of
W. Sugg and Co., the gas to be tested is burned in one
of Sugg's London argauds as prescribed.
We have now made nearly 1,000 tests with this apparatus,
and I have thought that a summary of the results may he
interesting to you. As the apparatus was fitted in our
laboratory we had to be satisfied with the Salford gas
supply, a photometer of this kind not being a very portable
instrument. The reason a ten-candle standard was adopted
was, first, because it is a very convenient standard having
regard to the experiments iu which I was engaged, and
secondly, because the screen is thus brought nearer the
centre of the graduated bar, thus ensuring greater accuracy
than wThen a two-candle standard is employed, and thirdly,
there will only be the same absolute error in adjusting a
ten-candle standard as in making a two-candle standard, in
which latter case the error, if any, is five times greater than
with the ten-candle standard. This ten-candie standard
was presumably made and standardised with London gas.
When tested with Salford gas against sperm candles burning
120 grains of sperm per hour, it yielded a light of 9 • 94
candles ; 30 separate tests were made to establish this,
according to the directions given for testing gas by the Gas
Referees. Of these 30 tests, five were rejected owing to the
abnormal rate of consumption (being below 144 grains or
over 126), while if the 10 nearest tests to 120 grains be
taken the illuminating power comes out exactly ten candles.
When the testing was first established I was surprised
at the low results, and having satisfied myself that the
ten-candle standard was correct, absolutely, I carefully
examined every point in detail without finding any error.
The testing was continued iu this manner for about three
months, the average value coining out about 15 '7 candles.
The apparatus was then altered by the substitution of a
pair of sperm candles for the ten-candle Methven standard
and tests were made twice a day for upwards of three
mouths. The average in this case came out 15 '4 candles.
The nuisance of using candles in place of the Methven
standard was so obvious iu the foregoing experiments that
candles were abandoned, aud in continuing the experiments
the Methven standard was alone employed, and further
experience has shown me that it is far more reliable than
the sperm candle, aud much more convenient to use.
A few words as to the consumption of sperm in nearly
a thousand tests may not be out of place, the consumption
was most irregular, varying from 108 grs. on the one hand
to 137 grs. on the other. The Gas Referees having pre-
scribed that all tests in which less than 114 grs., or more
than 126 grains are consumed should be discarded, and this
has been done in all our tests ; the proportion discarded has
been 15 per cent. The tests retained, in which less than
118, or more than 122 grains were burnt, amounted to 55
per cent., while the test burning from 118—122 amounted
to the remainder of 30 per cent. This is the boasted parlia-
mentary standard, and to do it as much justice as possible,
414
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1882.
I may say that the candles were from a recognised leadiug
maker. It would be invidious to mention his name. My
experience in photometry leads me to say most emphatically
that the parliamentary " candle " is by no means a standard
that analytical chemists would be satisfied with, it might suit
gas engineers, but not a chemist with any idea of accuracy.
And this leads me to another point. Coal-gas is usually
tested at the gasworks, which in my opinion is a most
unjust provision of the law. Consumers do not burn the
gas at the gasworks, and sometimes there is a ■ great
difference between tests made in the gasworks and tests
made half a mile away. My own tests are cases in point.
Taking the Salford supply to our laboratory, on July 2 last
year by my photometer the gas tested (day supply) 13- 4
candles; on November 16, 13-2 candles; December 5,
13-6 candles; December 22, 13-1 candles; December 23,
12-3 candles ; and December 24, 12 ■ 5 candles. The two last
tests were made during the very foggy Christmas week when
gas was being burned all day long, and when the consumers
were complaining to each other very generally that " the
gas was very bad." A summary of the whole of my tests
of our gas supply from July 1, 1891, to February 27, 1892,
is as follows : —
Month.
Illuminating
Power.
Grains of
Carbonic Acid
July 1891
1 f70
lfi-Sl
II -v.
Augusl 1S91 ....
14-31
14-00
1-22
Bepfc mber 1891 .
HMO
17-12
I'M
October ism
15-20
20-01
1-1.1
November 1891..
15-1C
21 -.<2
1-05
December 1891..
14-72
21-88
0-98
January 1802 . . .
15-09
19-07
1-12
February 1892 ..
14T5
19-80
1-07
Xow, the results of these examinations do not agree
with the tests made at the gasworks, whj* I do not pretend
to explain, but I have convinced mj-self that the readings
of my photometer are accurate ; each point has been checked
in every possible way, and there is practically no difference
in the results obtained with either candles or the Methven
standard, provided that all tests he rejected in which an
abnormal combustion of sperm has taken place. Again, a
10-candle standard made in London tests exactly 10
candles upon my photometer though used with a different
gas. Hut the Salford gas committee say that the tests
made bj- them (in the works) averaged for 1891, 18-86
candles at one works, and 18-71 candles at another station.
This is very poor consolation for those who have to burn
the gas a mile away from the works, and I am of opinion
that the subject is important enough for the city council
to investigate over the heads of the gas committee.
The foregoing remarks bear upon gas-testing generally all
over the country, and if this paper falls into the hands of
our legislators I hope they will consider whether the time
has not arrived when the testing station should be removed
from the precincts of the producing works to some public
office at a distance. Salford is a good instance : there are
the town halls at Salford, Broughton, and Pendleton, each
served by the Salford works, why should not a photometer
be fitted up in each place, and the borough analyst deputed
to make regular tests on each apparatus ? Such a process
would undoubtedly be more assuring to the consumer than
the present system ; if the results should turn out identical
with those obtained at the works, those in charge of the
works would not complain, while if the results differed the
sooner the cause of it was discovered and remedied the
better for all concerned.
One thing has struck me during these experiments, and
that is the ease with which a special standard for each gas
supply might be made and verified. It is simple, though
somewhat tedious, to make a large number of tests with
sperm candles, rejecting, say, all under 118 grains ami all
over 122 grains consumption. A Methven screen could
thus be cut with very great accuracy, and this could be
made of the minimum power the works were allowed to
supply. Such a standard should not be put into use before
verification by the Standard Department of the Board of
Trade, and reverification should be made compulsory every
six or 12 months under heavy penalties for disobedience.
At present I am not aware that the verification of
photometers is compulsory. I have already pointed out
that serious differences have appeared between the results
obtained with my photometer and that of the Salford gas-
works ; may they not be due to the employment of an
unverified photometer at the gasworks.
The Gas Act is faulty in many respects, and now that I
have given the results of my experience I hope the matter
will be taken up, and the testing of coal-gas for its
illuminating power be put on a proper basis.
Discission.
Mr. Carter Bell said he had made some experiments
with Mr. Davis' photometer, and was bound to admit that
the 10-candle standard as used by him and his method of
graduation of the beam was an immense improvement on
the ordinary method of testing coal-gas, and he believed far
more accurate than the photometer mentioned in the Act of
Parliament.
Dr. Grossman said that the difference in the illuminating
power of gas, as shown by the photometer at the gasworks
and by the time it reached the consumers, might be
accounted for b) the hydrocarbons deposited in the mains ;
but, in his opinion, the consumers had nothing to do with
this, as gas companies and corporations should be compelled
by their Act of Parliament to supply gas of a certain
standard to all their consumers however far they might be
situated from the works.
I >r. Dreyfub thought that, as gas contained certain hydro-
carbons which produced the illuminating power, it was a
question whether it could not be more accurately tested by
chemical analysis than by the ordinary means of photometry.
Dr. Carl Weber said he was afraid that the relation
between the hydrocarbons and their illuminating powers was
so complicated and exceedingly difficult of interpretation
that the photometric test was the best test of the illuminat-
ing power of gas, and that chemical analysis was not
admissible.
Mr. Stenhouse (of Rochdale) wished to know if
.Mr. Davis had noticed any considerable difference between
tests made in the daytime and those made at night ? It was
quite possible that they had not been so particular in the
daytime wheu the gas was not used for illuminating purposes.
It was generally acknowledged that the best time for making
a test was at night time, when the largest consumption was
taking place, hut Mr. Davis' experiments seem to have been
made during the day.
Dr. Bowman said it was usually considered that a
greater condensation took place iu the daytime than at
night, when the gas was more agitated by the increased
consumption going on. He had found as much as five-caudle
power difference ; between noon and night. He was quite
convinced from experiments which he had made that the
mechanical means of testing was much better than any
chemical method could ever hope to be.
Mr. Wilson said that wheu, in consequence of complaints
which had been made by consumers at Bury, the gas
committee established a photometer some distance from the
gasworks. Serious differences were found between the
quality of the gas at the gasworks and the testing station,
and this difference was at the time attributed to conden-
sation.
Dr. Bailey wished to call attention to a fact which might
have been overlooked, and that was that very frequently
low results were obtained simply through air having got
into the pipes, and the gas not being allowed to burn before
the test was made.
Jiav si, 1802.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
415
Mr. Geokgb E. Davis, in reply, said, referring to the
remarks of Dr. Grossman, he did not consider that conden-
sation in the mains was a serious matter. He had been
served with gas some miles away from the gasworks, and it
was practically delivered to him at the same degree of
illuminating power as it left the works, there not being more
than half a candle difference. Besides, if condensation kept
taking place in the mains, this condensed liquid should
appear in the street syphons, where it is well known that
nothing but foul water usually appeared. A deposit of
hydrocarbon from the gas could only take place if such gas
were saturated with hydrocarbon vapours. He had never
yet met with a sample of gas thoroughly saturated, and he
quite agreed with Dr. Grossman that gas companies should
supply all their consumers with gas of the standard illumi-
nating power. It was not sufficient to test at the works,
which he thought had been sufficiently proved. If gas were
tested outside the works in some public building from the
ordinary mains, he felt quite sure the complaints of bad
gas would be reduced to a minimum. In reference to
Dr. Dreyfus' remarks, be was of opinion that the physical
test of photometry was far more reliable than it was
possible to make any chemical test, For instance, there
was a great difference in the illuminating power of the
vapour of benzene (CfiH6) and hexyl hydride (C^H^), while
the chemical difference, so far as regarded percentage of
hydrogen and carbon, was very small. Dr. Frankland and
others had attempted to value the illuminating power of
coal-gas by means of its chemical composition, but it was
his opinion that all such endeavours must end in failure.
In reply to Mr. Stenhouse, the tests of the gas were made
in the Manchester technical laboratory at 10 o'clock in the
morning and between 3 and 4 in the afternoon, and he
did not attribute the difference between the tests made at
the gasworks and his own tests to anything more than the
presence of nitrogen and air. It was impossible to have
gas of a high quality when it contained as much carbonic
acid, nitrogen, and oxygen as the gas did in the daytime,
and this bore upon the question put by Dr. Bailey. Every
precaution was taken to sweep out all the old gas from the
pipes before a test of any kind was made, as at 9 o'clock in
the laboratory a large gas sand bath was always lighted
and kept burning for an hour before a test commenced ;
aud further, the instructions of the Gas Referees as to the
testing of gas were always implicitly followed. If the
argument were a valid one, that hydrocarbons were deposited
in the mains during a slow flow of gas and taken tip again
in the equal rush by night, the candles lost in the daytime
should increase the luminosity of the gas in the evening,
but he had never found such an increase, although there
was a difference between the day quality and the night
quality j but this difference was mainly due to the greater
percentage of nitrogen in the daytime than at night.
■=M8»9»sc-
THK ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN IX COAL-GAS.
BY c. n. NEW.
Amongst the numerous methods which have been suggested
for the estimation of nitrogen, there are, to the best of my
belief, none which are not based either upon the conversion
of the nitrogen into ammonia, or measuring the volume of
gas obtained after the removal of all other gases, by
absorption or other suitable means.
Owing to the presence of appreciable quantities of
cyanogen and basic compounds, the former method is not
capable of being readily applied to the estimation of the
nitrogen in coal-gas, and therefore it is upon the latter
method, namely, that of ascertaining the volume of the
residual gas, that the method which I shall shortly describe
is based.
The circumstances which created the need for a speedy
and accurate method for the estimation of nitrogen gas,
arose in connection with some experiments which were
being conducted by my esteemed principal Mr. G. E. Davis,
in the Manchester Technical Laboratory, upon the amount
of air which it is advisable to introduce for the purpose of
purifying coal-gas.
In order to accomplish this end, Hawkins suggested the
use of carburetted air, but during recent years the practice
of introducing air pure and simple into coal-gas (previous
to its passage through the purifiers) so as to oxidise the
sulphur compounds and assist the purifiers to maintain
their activity, has rapidly grown in favour amongst gas
managers.
Under these conditions it is without doubt advisable to
ascertain that air is not introduced in unduly excessive
proportions. It is with this object therefore that the
following method has been adopted, since by ascertaining
the amount of nitrogen present prior to, and subsequent to,
the introduction of air, a very 'close approximation of the
amount of air introduced can be made.
The outline of the method consists in first removing the
majority of the bases, and certain hydrocarbons such as
benzene, xylene, &c., by passing the gas through strong
sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1-85) and then converting the
whole of the remaining hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide
and water, by passing the gas over red-hot copper oxide.
The gases which result from this treatment consist of
carbon dioxide and nitrogen, so that the former may be
absorbed by caustic soda and the volume of the remaining
nitrogen ascertained.
The apparatus employed is not of a very elaborate
nature, the idea being that the manipulation should be as
simple as is compatible with accuracy. It may be divided
into five puts.
(I.) An apparatus for generating CO..
(.2.) A burette graduated to hold 100 cc. of gas, fitted at
the top with a three-way tap, and connected at its lower
extremity with an aspirator.
(3.) A combustion furnace containing a combustion tube
about 80 cm. long, projecting some 10 — 12 cm. beyond
the furnace, and packed with coarse copper oxide to within
7 cm. of the ends of the tube which are fitted with india-
rubber bungs. Through each bung a piece of small-bore
glass tubing passes, one of these being connected with a
small bottle of about 30 cc. capacity containing strong
sulphuric acid.
(4.) A receptacle in which to collect the C02 and nirogen
resulting from the combustion of the coal-gas, capable
of holding 200 cc, and graduated with a containing mark
at 150 cc, and at 201 1 cc.
(5.) A Hempel's gas apparatus.
For the generation of the C02, HC1 and marble are used.
The familiar arrangement of two aspirating bottles as
generally employed for the preparation of hydrogen
sulphide gas is preferable to a Kipp's apparatus, as the
gas can then be generated under pressure.
It is advisable to about one-third fill the generating flask
with broken glass before introducing the marble.
As it is essential that the COy employed should be
completely absorbed by caustic soda, HC1 and marble have
been selected for the generation of this gas, upon the
authority of Hufsehmidt (Ber. 18, 1441) who states that
these reagents are preferable to sodium carbonate and
sulphuric acid, three litres of the C02 obtained from
marble and HOI containing on an average 0-2 cc. of gas
unabsorbed by caustic soda.
The gas burette may conveniently be made from an
ordinary 100 cc. tube fitted at the top with a good india-
rubber bung, through which passes, flush with the bottom
of the bung, a well-greased three-way tap. (In a case of
emergency a plain tap connected with a T-tube may be
substituted.) The bottom of the burette which is con-
tracted, is connected by thick walled india-rubber tubing
with a small aspirator, the burette being firmly held in a
strictly perpendicular position by means of a screw clamp
attached to a retort stand weighted with lead.
Of the combustion tube, &c. there is no need to speak,
the usual precautions in packing the tube being observed.
The receiver which is reoommended is shown in the
accompanying illustration. It is an Orsat's absorption tube,
such as is used for absorbing O by Cu gauze and AmHO,
416
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May si, ihw.
which is easily adapted for this purpose, all that is necessary
being to insert a piece of glass tubing of narrow bore into
the wide-mouthed tubulure by means of a collar of india-
rubber, and to tit the the smaller tubulure at the bottom
with a tap in the same way. The side furnished at the top
with a capillary tube is then graduated at the 150 ee. and
200 cc. containing mark, and fitted with a piece of india-
rubber tube and a pinch cock.
The Ilempel gas apparatus required is similar to that
usually employed, two absorption pipettes being requisite,
one charged with caustic soda of about (1 -30 sp. gi\), and
the other with alkaline pyrogallate.
With regard to the fluid over which the gases maybe
collected both before and after the combustion, mercurj of
course is to be preferred, but owing to the cost entailed by
the loss of this material through careless handling, any
other suitable fluid may be employed, as for instance air-
free water, or heavy petroleum oil.
The former of the two latter is obtained by boiling
distilled water briskly for about 30 minutes after it has
attained a temperature of 100° C, and allowing the same
to cool in an atmosphere of coal-gas, and will be found
perhaps the most desirable substitute for mercury.
The process itself which I am now about to describe,
although possibly appearing rather involved when detailed
at length, is in practice by no means so, since the whole
operation from the passing of the CO_, to the final reading
of the nitrogen may be accomplished in a period of
30 minutes duration.
Assuming therefore that the combustion tube and the
copper oxide contained therein have been raised to a full
red heat, during which operation a current of air has been
aspirated through the tube by means of a Uunsen pump, so
as to carry away any aqueous vapour which may be given
off, and to ensure that none of the copper remains unoxidised,
the air pump is stopped and the C02 generating apparatus
connected through the three-way tap with the combustion
apparatus.
A brisk current of COs is then passed through the
sulphuric acid absorber and combustion tube, thus
sweeping out all traces of air. After this has gone on for
about three minutes the tube connecting the three-way tap
with the absorbing bottle is closed by a pinch cock, and the
gas receiver having been completely tilled with mercury
is connected with the other end of the combustion tube
taking care to avoid the entrance of any air. The pinch
cock intervening between the C()2 generator and the three-
way tap is also closed.
The india-rubber tube connecting the absorption bottle with
the three-way cock is then temporarily removed, and after
displacing all air in the burette with mercury, coal-gas is
admitted by connecting with the gas supply and lowering
the aspirator bottle, the gas being adjusted to the 100 cc.
mark by levelling the height of the mercury.
The absorption bottle is now again connected with the
three-way tap, and the pinch cocks both here and at the
top of the receiver opened. The gas is then slowly chased
oyer from the burette through the absorption bottle and
the combustion tube, the rate at which the gas is passing
being ascertained by observing the bubbles in the absorber.
The displacement of the 100 cc. of coal-gas should occupy
about 1.5 minutes.
When this is done the connexion with the burette is
closed and the tap once more connected with the COa
generator, from which a current of C02 gas is slowly
passed through the whole apparatus, displacing the coal-gas
in the absorber, and carrying over all the nitrogen in the
combustion tube into the receiver.
The mercury in the receiver is brought during the ex-
periment nearly to a level maintaining the gas, however,
under a slight pressure, and adjusting the same by means
of the small tap at the bottom, so that when the gas reaches
the 150 cc. mark, and the pinch cock at the top and the tap
at the bottom are simultaneously closed, the levels of the
two "columns of mercury are coincident with each other.
The receiver is then disconnected, and the combustion tube
having been opened to the air the pump is again started to
reoxidise the copper oxide.
The wide-mouthed limb of the receiver is then filled with
mercury and 100 ce. of the gas passed into the Hempel
burette. The COs being absorbed with caustic soda in the
usual way. It has also been found necessary to remove
traces of oxygen from the gas before taking the final reading
as nitrogen.
The average amount of oxygen in coal-gas as taken from
19 experiments upon the gas of towns in all parts of the
United Kingdom, is, according to Frankland, about 0-3 per
cent., and a varying amount of this oxygen passes over the
nitrogen and carbon dioxide, though it would be supposed
that a considerable portion would be retained in order to
reoxidise the reduced copper. Having, therefore, removed
all oxygen the volume of remaining gas is noted, calculated
on to 150 cc, and after correction for temperature ami
pressure gives the per cent, per volume direct.
In summarising the foregoing there arc five precautions
which it is advisable to observe, viz., (1) to work the
apparatus under a slight pressure ; (2) to make sure that
all air is displaced from the apparatus before commencing
the experiment ; (3) also to ascertain that the CO™ used is
wholly absorbed by caustic soda; (4) to thoroughly re-
oxidise the CuO so as to avoid the presence of any metallic
copper in the tube ; (5) and, lastly, to pass the coal-gas at
a rate that will ensure complete oxidation.
The figures which are given below indicate the amount
of nitrogen found in the Salford gas as supplied to the
Manchester Technical Laboratory, being a series of tests
made at different times during a period of several weeks.
Kay 31, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
417
Table I. — Salford Gas.
No. of Experiment.
Nitrogen per Cent, per Volume.
1
14*1
2
13-5
3
13-8
4
5
8'7
7-4
Day.
1!
6-4
7
in-'.i
S
11-7.
!)
10-3~|
10
n-3
11
70
12
7-3
■Night.
[8
7-0
U
7'8
IS
4-0,
In the early days of the gas industry it was considered
highly detrimental to the quality of the gas to admit the
slightest quantity of air. This belief existed as late as
1878, when in a report made by the manager of the Salford
(ias Works it is stated, " To pump air into gas would not
simply dilute it but the gas would be
absolutely destroyed as regards fitness for lighting purposes,
as may be seeu by consulting the following table " : —
Percentage of Air added.
Illuminating Power in Candles.
Original gas ,
25 mii
22-25
18-75
It is therefore safe to assume that the amount of nitrogen
found in Manchester gas, as given in Roscoe's translation
of Bunsen's Gasometry, may be taken as representing the
amount of nitrogen existing in the coal gas itself, and not
due to the introduction of air, the amount there stated to
be present being 2 • -16 per cent. Subjoined are two analyses
which apparently aie drawn from the same source. No. 1
is to be found as au analysis of Manchester gas due to
Bunsen, and is taken from Humphrey's " Chemistry of
Illuminating Gas." No. 2 is the original as it occurs in
Bunsen's Gasometry. No. 2, being in all probability the
correct one, is recommended as the more suitable of the two
for the purposes of comparison.
Table II. — Analyses of Manchester Gas.
No. 1.
No. 2.
Hydrogen
Marsh-gas
(Klayl.
s*i
Illumiiiaut.. ,
(.Ditetryl.
Carbonic oxide
as
Nitrogen
Carbonic acid
Oxygen
45 '58
3f!lll
t',-40
6 "64
3-67
It is noticeable that the amount of nitrogen occurring in
coal-gas was in many cases much greater in 1883 and 1884
when the use of air was increasing, as is shown in the
following analyses made by Frankland about that time : —
Per Cent. N
Liverpool c • 1 n
Birmingham 10' 10
Bristol 5'H
London Chartered Co 5 -95
Newcasttc-under-Lyrie 6*23
Ipswich 10'Slr
Preston 4-79
There is also another point of interest, which is shown in
the following table, which gives the percentage of nitrogen
found on different days at varying times.
Table III.
Time P.M.
12.30
1.0
1.30
4.20
4.30
7.30
Per cent per. vol . N . .
11-7
14.1
10-0
13-8
8-7
10-3
Time P.M.
8.0
8.20 8.50
9.20 | 9.40
Per cent, per vol. N"..
4-0
7.H
..
7-0
7-3
7-S
It will be seen that the amount of nitrogen occurring in
the gas is much larger in the daytime than at night^ an
occurrence of such significance that it needs no explanation.
Discussion.
The Chairman asked whether he fully understood the
author to say that there was more air in the daytime than
in the evening, and how did the air get into the pipes ? If
it were pumped in, how did he know there was more in the
house than at the station ? Ho understood it was due to
the distance.
Mr. Stp.nhouse thought that the results obtained by
Mr. New were most extraordinary, inasmuch as 14 per cent,
of nitrogen meant a great quantity of air, which must have
been purposely forced into the gas ; and not only would
there have to be a large quantity of air pumped in, but
there would have to be a corresponding proportion of
oxygen. Probably the oxygen would be reduced 1 per cent,
assuming the coal-gas to contain 1,000 grains to the 100 cubic
feet of sulphuretted hydrogen. There would be sufficient
oxygen to oxidise the sulphuretted hydrogen and deposit all
the sulphur. Therefore a quantity of air would go forward.
Was it quite certain that all the compounds that should be
absorbed by the sulphuric acid were absorbed by simple
bubbling? Surely the gas had to be agitated with the
different reageDts before the compounds were absorbed.
Dr. Grossman asked if the author had made an analysis
of the air, and if so, what figures he had obtained for
nitrogen ? The apparatus seemed to require to be handled
very carefully, or the results would not be reliable to 1 or 2
per cent.
Mr. Stenhouse stated that, according to a recently
published analysis of the London gas, the average was 0- 15
per cent, by volume of oxygen and less than 1 per cent, of
nitrogen, and this was greatly different from the results
shown.
418
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
In reply to Mr. Stenhouse, Mr. New said that Frankland
found on more than one occasion 10 per cent, of nitrogen,
and he had himself found oxygen in the coal-gas to an
extent which would correspond to the excess left after that
required for reducing the sulphuretted hydrogen had been
used up. In regard to the complete removal of the com-
pound absorbed by sulphuric acid, sulphuric acid was only
used in a bubbling bottle in order to ascertain the rate at
which the coal-gas was passing. As a result some of the
hydrocarbons were absorbed, but it was immaterial whether
they were or not, since they would all be decomposed duriug
their passage over the red-hot cupper oxide.
c^a>ffff(fa —
A VISCOMETER FOB TESTING THE VISCOSITY
OF OILS.
BY GEORGE II. HURST, F.C.S.
1 bring before you this evening a new form of viscometer
or viscosimeter for testing the viscosity of oils. No new
principle is involved in the construction of this instrument,
as you see. It follows the lines on which most of those now
in use, and which have been found to give the most satis-
factory results are constructed, viz., the determination of
the speed of flow of a measured quantity of oil. The
instrument differs from those hitherto made in that it
requires a smaller quantity of oil, in the oil flowing through
a tube of small bore, and in the mode of heating. As you
see, it consists of an outer vessel which holds the water
required to heat the inner oil chamber. This water is heated
by a separate boiler working on the circulatory system
placed at one side of the apparatus. I may say in passing
that I have found this mode of heating very satisfactory,
and in passing I may remark that it would be worth while
adopting it in all cases where it is required to heat and keep
at a high temperature water - baths and water - jackets,
especially where it is not possible to apply a Bunsen burner
direct to the water-jacket.
The inner vessel is the oil vessel. From the bottom of
this passes a short tube with a narrow bore, the entrance to
which is closed by a valve. By raising or lowering of this
valve the oil may be allowed to run or be stopped as may be
required. A gauge pin to regulate the amount of oil placed
in the oil chamber, with arrangements to support thermo-
meters in the oil and the water-jacket, complete the
apparatus.
The instrument is not put forward as a standard instru-
ment, but readings of several such apparatus have been
found to give concordant results, so that it might fairly be
quoted as a standard. At all events, any instruments sent
nut will be so made as give concordant readings.
The apparatus is an inexpensive one, and possesses many
advantages over the viscometers which are in general use by
oil dealers.
The following table embodies some readings made with the
new instrument, which will serve to show its range and
capacity : —
Table of Viscosities oe Oils.
Temperature— Fahrenheit.
Castor oil
Thickened rape nil
Sperm oil
Colza oil
Whale oil
Tallow oil
Cotton oil
American 8-35 oil
American 905 oil
American 915 oil
Scotch 865 oil
Scotoh 88a oil
Scotch 890 oil
Russian 900 oil
Russian Jill nil
Rosin oil, dark
Rosin oil, pale
Cylinder oil, medium...
Cylinder oil, pale.
Cylinder oil, dark
1,248
1,37(1
68-5
131
128-7
105
100
68
113
lto
32 '5
58-5
71-5
202-5
462
152-5
130 Ti
4S7-5
331-5
36-4
50
61
63
55
35
44
47
22
20
39
97-5
143
97-6
49-4
385
105
890
201-5
279-5
26
44
H
45
in
23
32-5
30
18
22
20
56
91
38
25
253
265
91
156
19-5
32-5
28-5
30
25
15
19'5
21
1.V5
18
19-5
30
82-5
22
18
170
120
230
Chairman: Sir James Kitson, Bart.
Vice-Chairman: Dr. F. II. Bowman.
Committee:
A. H. Allen.
J. Lewkowitsch
W. Breffiit.
C. Rawsoii.
T. Fairley.
Jas. Sharp.
A. Hess.
A. SmUhells.
R. Holliday.
G. Ward.
J. J. Hummel.
T. Whilaker.
Hml
Local Secretary :
H. R.
Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds
48
78-5
17
28
28
21 1
20
It
18
19-5
13
15-5
17
22
26
18
17
70
00
100
©orfcsfotn £>erttoit.
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to fill the vacancies and will
take office in July next:- CUmiviittec: J.K.Cohen, F.W.Richard-
son, G. W. Slatter, and J. B. Wilkinson.
Notices of Papers and Communications should be addressed to
the Hon. Local Secretary.
Hay si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
419
Meetiny held Afimdni/, 4th April 1892.
Ml(. QKOBGE WVRDIX THE CHAIR.
ON THE IMPURITIES IX COAL-GAS.
t T. FAIRLEY," F.R.S.F., F.I.C,
Bl
In 1886 (this Journal, 283 — 6) I read a short paper before
the Manchester Section on this subject, and I now, at the
request of the secretary, bring before you this short note
reporting further experience of the method for analysis of
coal-gas proposed in that paper.
The chief impurities in coal-gas, itself a complex mixture,
are those substances which give unwholesome combustion
products, or which interfere with the development of the
light-giving properties of the gas when the latter is burnt
in an ordinary gas-burner. The sulphur compounds,
hydrogen sulphide, carbon disulphide, and other more
complex compounds such as thiophen, are among the first,
and carbon dioxide, ammonia, air, and nitrogen are among
the second.
Of the sulphur compounds, hydrogen sulphide is scarcely
ever present in the gas from any ordinary well-conducted
works. The processes for its removal are so effective that
there is no excuse for the presence of this imparity. Some-
times, in spite of efficient purification, this substance is
found in the gas in certain parts of the area supplied, and
in two cases within my own experience the source of the
impurity was traced to leakage from crude gas-liquor mains.
or storage tanks.
Sulphide of carbon and other compounds of a more or
less acid nature are generally found in coal-gas supplied to
consumers. Their partial removal is effected by means of
alkaline earth sulphides, such as calcium sulphide or
sulphydrate. Xo sulphur compounds of a basic character
have as yet been detected in coal-gas.
In my former paper I gave a resume of the methods
hitherto used for the estimation of the sulphur in coal-gas
as supplied to consumers, and I have before you the
Referees' apparatus, now generally used for this purpose
(this Journal, 1886, 283).
Iu place of the solid ammonium carbonate round the
burner in the Referees' apparatus, I proposed the use of a
dilute solution of hydrogen dioxide, run iu through a
capillary tube at the rate of about 3 cc. per hour at the
top of the condenser. The sulphur dioxide is completely
oxidised into sulphuric acid, and may be determined by
titration with standard alkali. If a solution of sodium
hydrate used contain 025 grain XaHO or 0-0162 grm.
XaHO per cubic centimetre, then the number of cubic
centimetres of standard sodium hydrate give without
calculation the number of grains of sulphur per 100 cubic feet
of gas, when ten cubic feet of gas are burnt. There should
always be a slight excess of hydrogen dioxide in the con-
densed liquid, so as to secure complete oxidation of the
sulphur. I do not advise the use of standard ammonia in
this titration, as higher results are obtained when this alkali
is used, the dioxide apparently tending to assume the part
of an acid. If such an excess of dioxide is present as to
interfere with the use of litmus or other indicator, then the
liquid may be evaporated to dryness in a small hulk with
an excess of standard soda, and the excess of alkali
titrated with standard acid.
The dioxide must be carefully tested for impurities,
especially sulphuric acid or barium salts.
The gas before burning should be as completely freed as
possible from ammonia, by passing through a saturator con-
taining a large excess of sulphuric acid. Minute quantities
of nitric acid are sometimes found in the condensed liquid,
probably formed by the oxidation of ammonia or other
nitrogen compound left in the gas. I have not found this
circumstance to practically interfere with the use of the
process.
As compared with the ammonium carbonate process, the use
of hydrogen dioxide has two other advantages. The reagent
is supplied at a uniform rate throughout the experiment,
Ammonium Carbonate
by precipitation witb BaCl2.
whereas with ammonium carbonate there is a large excess
of ammonia at the beginning of an experiment, followed by
a possible deficiency before the twenty hours (required for a
ten cubic feet combustion) have expired. There are no
solid products, such as ammonium sulphate, formed iu the
chimney or condenser. The apparatus may therefore be
used continually for days together, and a true average of
the sulphur contaiued in the gas supplied at all times
obtained by simply analysing a fractional part of the con-
densed liquid, without washing out the apparatus. This is
specially valuable iu a gasworks, where it is desired to
constantly test the gas as it is made. Under ordinary
circumstances a continuous test of the gas as supplied to
consumers woidd give an undue preponderance to the
gas supplied during the day, as the sampling would be
taken from a smaller consumption.
The numbers obtained by the use of hydrogen dioxide
generally give from one to two grains of sulphur per 100
cubic feet of gas more than is obtained by the use of
ammonium carbonate. Out of a large number of tests, the
following may be quoted : —
Hydrogen Dioxide
by precipitation with BaCIa or
by titration as above.
j'15'73 by precipitation.
115 "42 by titration.
15'43 by titration.
li'li by precipitation.
14*00 by precipitation.
U'31 by precipitation.
I have also devised an apparatus for the continuous
testing of gas for carbon dioxide and ammonia, which I
have before you. The results obtained by the use of this
apparatus I hope to bring to the notice of the Section
on a future occasion.
My best thanks are due to my friend and assistant
M. B. A. Burrell, F.I.C, a member of our Society, for
carrying out many of the tests mentioned in this paper.
Discussion.
The Chairman inquired whether he rightly understood
Mr. Fairley that the " Referees' process " for estimating
sulphur in coal-gas only estimated half the sulphur present ?
Also whether Mr. Fairley had ascertained in his process
any of the atmospheric nitrogen was oxidised into nitric
or nitrous acids by the hydrogen peroxide employed. It
would be very convenient if the sulphuric acid produced
could be estimated by the specific gravity of the solution.
Mr. F. W. Richardson wished to know whether the
equation, SO;, + H._,02= H„SOj was really the result of
observation, or whether it was not more likely that the hydric
peroxide acted simply as an oxidising aged, parting with
its oxygen, and being reduced to water. He also inquired
whether it was better in Pettenkofer's process to employ
standard oxalic or hydrochloric acid.
Dr. Lewkowitsch said that in some experiments he
had occasion to make on crude German petroleum, the bad
qualities of which were ascribed to sulphur, he first used a
process in which the petroleum was burned, and the sulphur
was oxidised in the wet way by a solution of bromine in
hydrochloric acid, but afterwards adopted a method pro-
posed by Victor Meyer for the determination of sulphur in
thiophen ; as Mr. Fairley wanted to put a convenient method
in the hands of gas managers, was it perhaps possible so to
regulate the combustion of the sulphur that the whole might
be burnt into sulphur dioxide, and estimated by its action
on iodine solution ?
420
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
Prof. Tilden said it was interesting to see how faithfully
Mr. Fairley stuck to his favourite reagent, hydrogen per-
oxide. There was a very great advantage in being able to
use titration in place of the usual gravimetric method. As
regarded the possibility of so burning sulphur that
sulphur dioxide only should be produced, a proportion
of sulphuric acid always resulted when sulphur was burnt
in presence of water vapour. Its production was shown in
a very striking way by the drops of oil of vitriol, which
often condensed on glass bells suspended over gas burners.
In evaporating water in a basin covered with filter-paper
over an ordinary Bunsen burner, it was often found that
the surface of the paper was charred, not with the heat, but
by the action of the sulphuric acid evolved.
Air. Archbutt suggested the use of phenolphthalein in
titration of the C02 absorbed by sodie hydrate.
Mr. S. C. Lottos had made a few experiments iu the early
days of the " Referees' process " under the direction of
Mr. Harcourt, with the object of obtaining a more simple
method. Attempts to oxidise the sulphur in the gas in
the wet way by passing it through a hot acid solution of
potassium dichromate or chlorate coutained iu a lirodie's
tube, failed from the liability of the liquid to project from
the tube.
The converse method of reduction proposed by Mr. Hai-
court (B. A. Reports, 1875) promised much better results.
If gas free from hydrogen sulphide be passed through a
red-hot tube packed with broken porcelain, a fairly regular
proportion, though possibly not the whole of the sulphur,
is converted into hydrogen sulphide. This may be absorbed
by an alkaline solution of lead nearly saturated with sugar,
which retards the formation of a precipitate, and estimated
colorimetrically.
Mr. II. R. Procter inquired if Mr Archbutt fouud phenol-
phthalein a satisfactory indicator for carbonic acid. In his
experience the bicarbonate and not the normal carbonate
of soda was neutral to it, and the end reaction was not
extremely sharp. He alluded to the injurious action of the
sulphuric acid produced by the combustion of gas upon
leather, and mentioned a case in which he actually found
upwards of 1 i per cent of free sulphuric acid iu leather,
which had been destroyed in this way.
Mr. Archbctt replied that it was correct that the acid
carbonate and not the normal was neutral to phenolphthalein,
but that he found the estimation of carbonic acid iu water
was very satisfactorily accomplished by the use of a standard
solution of sodie carbonate with this indicator, the reaction
being exact though not very rapid.
Mr. Fairley in reply, said, that the sulphur converted
into sulphuric acid by the combustion of sulphur in an
ordinary or Bunsen gas-burner varied from one-half to one-
tenth of the total, but the product was always a mixture of
sulphurous and sulphuric acids.
Specific gravity could not be used in place of titration, to
determine the amount of sulphuric acid produced, since the
variation due to the acid was small compared with that
caused by changes of temperature. The temperature of the
air had also some influence ou the amount of water con-
densed with the acid.
Oxides of nitrogen were found in the products of com-
bustion of the gas, but might be due to the presence of
traces of ammonia, which purification had failed to remove.
(tEHutuarp.
PROFESSOR AUGUST WILHELM HOFMANN,
PH.D., F.R.S., &c.
Member of ttie Society op Chemical Industry.
It will remain a disputed question whether in the fields
of chemical investigation and research, or iu the capacity
of teacher of his science and lecturer, Hofmann held
most potent sway. But whether considered as thinker,
investigator, or teacher, the world has indeed lost a
master-mind, aud of this fact, England, mindful of his
devoted services and brilliant career from 1848 to 1864
at the Royal College of Chemistry, Loudon, will cordially
join with Germany, also mindful of a like career at Bonn
and Berlin, from 1865 to the date of his decease, iu
bearing honourable aud grateful testimony.
Some of the most eminent English chemists were
trained under Hofmann in the Royal College of Chemistry,
and one and all retain a grateful recollection alike of the
patience and perseverance characteristic of him as a
teacher, as of his kindly interest in their progress.
Judging from the subsequent careers of so many of his
old pupils, it is probably safe to venture the deduction
that Hofmann had a clear and accurate estimate of the
true position and value of chemical technology as a
composite branch of science iu itself. The correctness
of this deduction receives immediate support when we
remember Hofmann's celebrated Report of the Advance
and Position of Applied Chemistry at the period of the
Gieat Exhibition of 1851, a report without which, for
many years, no chemical library was thought complete,
a report stiil sought after and prized. It is with pleasure,
moreover, that the writer records the fact that from the
very foundation of the Society of Chemical Industry, the
name of A. \V. Hofmann has been recorded in our list of
members, indeed the very first name of a chemist of
distinction mentioned in the very first paragraph of the
" Report of Council," which opens this Journal, as that of
a distinguished foreigner " who had already expressed a
desire to be enrolled upon the register," was the name of
Professor Hofmann.
Hofmann was born at Giessen on April 8, 1818,
and after first studying modern languages devoted
himself to chemistry, under Liebig, at, the university of
his native town. After graduating, he acted as Liebig's
assistant until 1845, and during that time began to devote
special attention to the investigation of the coal-tar bases.
From 1845 to 1848 Hofmann acted as Privat-docent in
Bonn, whence he removed to London, where he had been
appointed superintendent at the Royal College of
Chemistry in Oxford Street, now the chemical department
of the School of Mines, at Liebig's recommendation, and
at the nomination of H.R.H. the late Prince Albert.
Among those who attended Hofmann's lectutes in
Germany were Prince William of Prussia, afterwards
William L, German Emperor, aud his son, the late
Emperor Frederick. Until close upon his death the old
Emperor William was kept constantly informed of the
progress of chemical science by Professor Hofmann, and
one of the first acts of the late Emperor Frederick upon
ascending the throne was to confer a patent of nobility
upon his former teacher, with whom he was upon terms
of close personal friendship. Professor Hofmann re-
mained in London until 1863. The Prussian Government
asked Hofmann to undertake the reorganisation of the
chemical laboratory at Bonn University, and iu 1863
he was appointed Professor of Chemistry in Berlin, a
position which he has held ever since ; indeed, his last
lecture was given on the morning of his death. Hofmann
was a great friend of Italy ; his vacations were mostly
spent in that country, and he was on terms of close
friendship with many prominent Italian statesmen,
authors, and scientists. Hofmann's doctor-jubilee was
celebrated with great pomp last year in German
University and chemical industrial circles. To him was
due the discovery of the composition of rosaniline, and
his researches on this and allied compounds proved sub-
sequently of great technical importance in the Coal-tar
May31. 18D2.J
THE JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTliY.
4J1
colour iudustry. His studies were principally in the
domain of the organic bases, and he did a huge amount
of work on this subject. One of the earlier and once
greatly admired aniline dyes, " Hofmann Violet," was
named after him. In 1868, Hofmann founded the
German Chemical Society, of which he was the first
president. He was also its president at the time of his
death. He was one of the foremost scientific advisers
of the German Government.
In 1851 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,
and in 1854 received the Royal Medal in especial con-
sideration of his " Researches on the Molecular Consti-
tution of the Organic Bases." In 1875 Hofmann further
received the Copley Medal — the highest distinction that
science in this country can confer. He has been
President of the Chemical Society of London, and was
up to the period of his death one of its vice-presidents.
The immediate cause of death, which took place on the
5th instant, was paralysis of the lungs. He has gone to
his grave laden with distinctions, honour, goodwill, and
high esteem. — W. S.
GEORGE HOGARTH MAKINS.
Member of the Society of Chemical Industry.
Georce Hogarth Makins was born in 1815. He
was educated for the medical profession, and passed the
usual qualifying examinations, but he never practised.
His tastes were from the first strongly directed towards
chemistry, which he had the advantage of studying under
Professor Daniell, of King's College. After qualifying
as a medical practitioner he was successively lecturer on
chemistry at the Aldersgate and at the Middlesex
Schools of Medicine. For a few years, 1849 — 52, he
carried on the manufacture of pure chemicals at Surbi-
ton, and during this time prepared, by a process of his
own, a considerable amount of spongy gold for the use
of dentists. At the recommendation of Mr. Field,
assayer to the Mint, he then came to London, and
after a preliminary study in the Mint laboratory, opened
an assay office in Coleman Street. This work proved a
great success ; he was soon appointed assayer to the
Bank of England and afterwards made their referee.
Mr. Makins introduced a number of improvements into
the process of assaying. He designed a new balancer,
which was described at the Chemical Society in 1852 ; he
gave up the use of " trial plates " and substituted for
them pure gold and silver; he improved the apparatus
employed for " acid parting ;" he abolished the charcoal
furnace and substituted anthracite as the fuel. In 1863
Mr. Makins was obliged by ill-health to retire from the
assay laboratory. He continued to deliver a short
annual course of lectures on metallurgy at the Dental
Hospital in Leicester' Square from 1860 to 1880. These
lectures were enlarged and published as a " Manual of
Metallurgy " in 1862 ; a second edition, much increased
in size, was brought out in 1873. Mr. Makins was
elected a Fellow of the Chemical Society in 1845, and
served repeatedly on the Council. He was an original
Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry, and was a member
of the Council at the time of his death. He was also an
original member of the Society of Chemical Industry.
Chemistry, however, by no means absorbed the whole
of Mr. Makins' energy ; he was an amateur architect of
considerable experience, and a thorough musician. He
was devoted to the organ, and constructed himself three
organs in the course of his life. In his later years a
new sphere of activity was opened to him. In 1880 he
was elected on to the Court of Assistants of the Society
of Apothecaries, and for 12 years was most assiduous
in his endeavours to promote the welfare of the Society.
He became Master of the Society in 1889. Mr. Makins
retained his activity till a few mouths before his death,
which took place on 12th April 1892. Mr. Makins was
much esteemed by those who knew him. He was
methodical and paiustaking in his work, and of a very
kindly disposition.
3mirnal an) pattnt* iUteraturt,
Class. Pane.
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 421
1 1.— Fuel, Gas, and Light 423
III. — Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 424
IV. — Colouring Matters and Dyes 425
V.— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &e 426
VI. — Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, anil
Bleaching 428
VII— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 432
VIII.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 4.11
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements. . 435
X. -Metallurgy 437
XI. — Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 444
XII. — Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 145
XII I. — Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber. &c 4ti'.
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, ana Size 447
XV.— Manures, &c 4ts
XVI— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 448
XVII. — Brewing, Wines, Spirits, Ac 4t9
XVIII.— Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 449
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, 4c 452
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 453
XXI.--Photographic Materials and Processes 455
XXII.— Explosives, Matches, &c 450
XXI1L— Analytical Chemistry 457
I.-GENEKAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
PATENTS.
A Process for Treating Chemically Softened Water, So (is
to prevent the Formation of an Adherent Deposit in
the Feed Apparatus oj Steam Boilers. L. Archbutt
and R. M. Deeley, Derby. Eng. Pat. 3051, February
19, 1891.
In order to convert any carbonates which may be present
in water already softened by the addition of lime, sodium
carbonate, &c, into bicarbonate, the gases from the
chimney or other source which contain considerable
quantities of carbonic anhydride, are brought into contact
with the softened water in the softening tank, and before the
water enters the injectors or pumps. In one arrangement
the water passes from the storage tank by means of a siphon,
which rises several feet above the water level. At the top
of the bend of the siphon a small pipe is attached, and
through this the gas containing the carbonic anhydride is
allowed to pass, and is thus brought into intimate contact
with the water. In another arrangement suitable for a
large plant, the gases from a coke stove are pumped into
the water by a special cylinder. A slight excess of carbonic
anhydride over and above that required to convert the
carbonate into bicarbonate is recommended, the following
test being made : 10 cc. of the uncarbonated softened water
are treated with the carbonated softened water, until phenol-
phthalein is decolourised, and from 90 to 100 cc. should be
required. — J. W. L.
Improvements in Filters. R. W. Barker, London. From
H. Goodacre, Lexington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4817, March
18, 1891.
The improved filter consists of an upright cylinder, with
double walls, packed with a non-conducting substance. It is
provided with a cover fitting air tight, provided with a
threaded nipple to which may be connected the pipe from
the source of supply. The draw-off cock is at the lower
end, and above it is a box carrying a removeable ice-drawer.
* Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
stf.— the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
422
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 81, 1892.
The Piter comprises an upper and lower circular disc, both
of which have a central hole. The upper disc is provided
with several concentric series of curved slots, and with
curved depending flanges on the under surface. The lower
disc is similarly provided with curved slots, but with the
Manges on the upper side. Between the two discs is placed
;i set ies of porous filtering cylinders, graduated to fit one
within the other, and dividing the filter into a series of
annular filtering compartments, a bolt keeping the discs
and cylinders in position. The unfiltered water passes
through the slots in the upper disc at the upper end of each
alternate compartment, through the filtering cylinders to the
slots and compartments of the lower disc, and the filtered
water is thoroughly cooled before being drawn off, by flowing
round the ice-box. — E. S.
Improvements in Digesting Apparatus. W. H. Munus,
London. From G. Kaffenberger, Cleveland, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 6057, April 8, 1891.
The object of the present invention is to produce a digesting
apparatus, in which the process may be carried on in a
continuous manner. The invention comprises a conduit,
which has a receiving and a discharge end. Two
valves are arranged near the discharge end forming a
chamber in the conduit between the valves. A similar
arrangement is provided at the receiving end. Suitable
horizontal cylinders, with piston and valves, open at one end
into each of the above-mentioned chambers. The digester
thus consists of three chambers. For details of the mode
of working, which here specially refers to the digestion of
straw for paper - making, the specification should be
consulted. — E. S.
A Neiv or Improved Filter Pump. F. C. Nordtmeyer,
Breslau, Germany. Fng. Pat. 7155, Apiil 25, 1891.
The patentee provides a filter in the shape of a pump,
which he calls a " filter pump," in which the piston or ram
is composed of filtering material through which the water
passes in a filtered state as the ram is pressed home ;
the unfiltered water enters the pump through a suction-
valve. The accompanying cut shows one of the two
modifications illustrated in the drawings.
a is the pump cylinder, b the suction-valve casing, with
the opening c, the ball-valve i, and the strainer d. To the
rainy* is secured, in a central position, the filtering material
A, through which the water passes reaching the spout and
handle It through the stem g. An outlet valve is stated to
be unnecessary, owing to the resistance offered to the water
by the filtering substance on the return stroke.
This pump is intended to replace the ordinary portable
pocket filter. It raises the water to a convenient height for
drinking and can be readily taken to pieces for cleaning
purposes. — B.
Improved Filtee Pump.
Improvements in Apparatus for Ejecting or Withdrawing
Vapours and Gates from Pipes and Chambers. E.
Edwards, London. From L. Kohrmann, Krauscliwitz,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 7579, May 1, 1891.
This patent refers to details of manufacture of a porcelain
or clay tube provided with an annular opening at one end
through which steam is to he ejected for the purpose of
withdrawing gases of a corrosive nature from pipes or
receptacles. For further particulars the specifications
should be consulted. — B.
Improvements in and Relating to Evaporators and Feed-
Water Heaters. L. Burnet, Govau. Eng. Pat. 22,863,
December 31, 1891.
The improvements described relate to evaporating vessels
specially suitable for supplying auxiliary feed- water to steam
boilers, is best shown in connexion with one of the illus-
trations accompanying the specification, which i9 heie
reproduced.
The outer shell 1 is fitted with a cover 2 and bottom 3,
secured by angle-iron rings 4 and 5. The heating surface
is formed by vertical tubes 6 fitted into plates 7 and 8, and a
return pipe 9 for facilitating circulation is fitted to the outside
of the shell. The feed inlet valve may be fitted to this pipe
at the point 10, 11 is the inlet for the steam, 12 the air
outlet, and 13 that for condensed water. The baffie plate
14 is to prevent priming from the surface of the evaporating
liquid, and the resulting vapour is carried away through 15,
16, and 17, a safety-valve being represented at 18. The
specification refers to several variations, including some with
immoveable tubes. If the apparatus is arranged for use in
" multiple effect " the last evaporator is fitted with a feed-
water heater or economiser, which is constructed on the
injector principle and may, if necessary, be supplied with
fresh steam in addition to the vapour issuing from the last
evaporator. — 1!.
May 31,1898,] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
<m
II.-FUEL, OAS, AND LIGHT.
The Origin of Petroleum. Sickenberger. Cheiu. Zeit.
1891, 15, 1582—1583.
In support of the animal origin of petroleum, the author
gives in detail an account of his observations with regard to
the connexion he believes he has traced between the excessive
animal life, and consequent animal remains in the Red Sea,
and the tarry and bituminous matter found in the chalk on
the coast. — A. R. L,
Fuel Gas ; its Production and -Distribution. A. Kitson.
Jour. Franklin Inst. 1891, 132, 424—448.
Tiik author discusses at some length the comparative value
of producer-gas, water-gas, and semi-water-gas, and strongly
advocates the employment of the last-named as being the
cheapest gas, provided it is supplied within a reasonable
distance from the place of production ; he believes that,
allowing for all contingencies, it is possible to obtain from
2,240 pounds of anthracite from 150,000 to 160,000 cubic
feet of semi-water-gas, averaging 165 heat units to the cubic
foot, which will contain 25 million units of potential heat,
or about 83 per cent, of the heat energy of the coal itself.
The cost cf production of semi-water-gas is trifling, and
the labour attached to its manufacture very slight ; with
coal at 3 dollars per ton its cost should not exceed 2 s cents
per 1,000 cubic feet, that is to say, one million heat units at
a cost of 15 cents.
The objections that are urged against the use of semi-
water-gas are (1) that the presence of such a large propor-
tion of non-combustible gases (nitrogen and carbon dioxide)
necessitates the use of large pipes ; and (2) that combus-
tion is maintained with difficulty. The first objection only
applies where it is absolutely necessary to use pipes already
existing, as, in laying a new service, it would not matter
much whether a 9-inch pipe had to be laid instead of a
6-inch pipe, for example ; the second objection is confined
almost entirely to producer-gas, because the combustion of
semi-water-gas is readily maintained, especially wheu it is
heated prior to ignition.
Not the least of the advantages which semi-water-gas,
or " steam-jet " producer-gas, as it is sometimes called,
possesses over water- or coal-gas, is the ease and simplicity
of its production. It can be made in a furnace not much
larger than some that are in use for heating dwellings, it
requires no storage, is automatic in its production, and can
be made in quantities varying from 500 cubic feet, to an
indefinite quantity, per hour.
The apparatus designed by the author for the production
of semi-water-gas, and which has been in use for some time
driving a Korting gas-engine, is described (see this Journal,
1890, 48).
The Kitson gas generator occupies about 10 sq. ft. of
floor space, and stands 8 ft. from the floor to the top of the
feed hopper; it will give 1,500 cubic feet of gas per hour.
It consists of a cylindrical shell of boiler iron, liued with
brickwork, the internal diameter of the brickwork being
21 in., and the height from the grate to the top of the
furnace 3 ft. 6 in. ; the grate is connected on one side with
a steam and air injector, on the other with the gas supply
pipe, and is surrounded by a cast-iron box, which forms the
ashpit, and which is securely fastened to the cylindrical
shell ; the whole apparatus is supported on four east-iron
legs. The ash box terminates in a mouth piece, which is
opened and closed with a valve worked by a lever from the
outside, and serves to dump the ashes whenever necessary
without interfering with the process of gas making. The
top of the furnace is closed by an iron plate on which is
fastened the hopper, openings in the plate being provided
for a pipe leading to the chimney, and for a connexion
leading to a gas supply pipe, both pipes being provided
with valves. A small reservoir, forming the boiler, is
placed on one side ; it communicates with two coils con-
tained in the brickwork, the lower of which generates steam,
whilst the upper one acts as a superheater. An injector is
provided at the top of the furnace, and air channels are
arranged spirally in the brickwork tltrough which air is
drawn by the injectors. The walls of the furnace are
inclined inwardly towards the top so that the entire weight
of the fuel is thrown on the grate ; the grate is provided
with mechanism for giving it a rotary and an up-and-down
motion, the effect of which is to break up an}' clinker, to
keep the coal in a compact mass, and to throw the dust and
ash into the ash pit.
The author claims that this form of generator is cheap in
construction and economical in working; it can be made
small enough to produce 500 cubic feet of gas per hour,
which means a consumption of only six or seven pounds of
coal. It is also easily set up, taken down, and removed ; there
is no danger from fire or explosion, and it requires but
ordinary care, as in the case of a common coal furnace.
— F. S. K.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and connected with Apparatus for
Burning Hydrocarbon or other Oils for Heating anil
Lighting Purposes. G. Rose, Glasgow. Kng. Pat. 829,
January 16, 1891.
This specification proposes improvements in apparatus
described in patent No. 18,101, 1889 (this Journal, 1890,
1025) in which hydrocarbon ores are burned by aid of
steam generated from water supplied to a coil pipe heated
by the flame.
A single tank divided into two compartments or two
separate tanks may be used, a pipe leads from the reservoir
containing oil to the burner, and another pipe leads water
from the other tank or division to the steam generating coil.
The steam is led from the coil to the burner to spray the
oil.
A sheet of drawings accompanies the specification and
illustrates the details of the application of this invention to
rivet heating, cupola, and other furnaces or boilers.
— D. A. S.
Improvements in the Treatment and Desiccation of Peat.
W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From J. M. A. Gerard,
Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 5036, March .20, 1891.
Iris proposed to produce from peat, rapidly and economically,
a dense agglomerated fuel which may be used in every
kind of furnace. The blocks of peat from the turf pit are
immersed in water and are subsequently raised by an
elevator to a horizontal pug-mill where the peat is thoroughly
disintegrated. The peat, in the form of a fluid paste, is
led into purifiers where impurities, such as sand and clay,
are separated by gravity. The paste is then spread on an
endless metal gauze band travelling on cylinders arranged
in a horizontal frame, and by means of a cam shaft receives
a series of shocks to assist the drainage. On leaving this
frame a second endless wire gauze band is led over as a
cover and continues to circulate throughout the subsequent
operations, thus carrying the peat enclosed.
The bands pass through rolls and other suitable arrange-
ments to press out as much water as possible, and travel
subsequently through a drying stove maintained at a
temperature high enough to drivo off the gas and volatile
matter and partially carbonise the peat, the tar is, however,
retained to aid in the agglomeration and combustion.
On leaving the fnrnace the bands separate, the peat
being removed by means of revolving brushes, is led to
a mill, where after being mixed with agglomerating sub-
stances it is finally moulded into briquettes. The process
is continuous, but may be varied according to the quality
of peat used. A drawing of the apparatus is attached to
the specification. — 1). A. S.
Improvements in ami connected with Gas Retorts. W. T.
Cotton, London, and E. F. B. Crowther, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 6947, April 22, 1891.
This invention relates to certain improvements in gas
retorts by which it is rendered possible to take the gaseous
products from the top of the retort to the hydraulic main,
124
THE JOURNAL. OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
and also to charge the retort directly from an overhead tram
or railing by a very simple apparatus.
The retort is built in the stack in an inclined position,
and its lower end is closed by a suitable lid. The upper
extremity is provided with two lateral openings close to the
end of the retort ; one of these openings is connected with a
vertical pipe leading to the hydraulic main. The other
opening is closed with a suitable lid, directly over which can
be brought a hopper or vessel containing the charge, and
suspended on an overhead tram or railway. When the lid
and the hopper valve are opened the coal falls directly into
the retort. At the top end of the retort there is a third
opening, through which, when the cover is removed, a rod
may be thrust in order to clear away any coke or carbon
deposit. The retort is inclined at such an angle that when
the door at the bottom is opened the coke will fall out of
the retort. — F. S. K.
Improvements relating to the manufacture of Gas from
Hydrocarbon Oils, and to Apparatus therefor. H. H.
Lake, London. From C. H. Wilder, Boston, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 18,498, October 27, 1891.
The object of this inventiou is to provide a process for
feeding oil or any other hydrocarbon liquid to a vaporising
retort in such a way that sediment and other foreign matter
present in the oil may be deposited before the oil is passed
into the retort.
This is effected by heating the oil in a tank which is
partially filled with water, and then forcing it by hydrostatic
pressure, together with a suitable proportion of air, into the
vaporising retort ; in this way not only is the oil fed
uniformly into the retort, but it is also purified by direct
contact with the hot water, the sediment being drawn off by
a pipe at the bottom of the vessel. The vaporising retorts
are coated inside with a pasty mixture of plumbago and
molasses, which on heating forms a protecting covering of
fixed, practically indestructible carbon. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Gas and in Appa-
ratus to he used therein. T. G. SDringer, Chicago,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 19,011, November 12, 1891.
I.\ the manufacture of a fixed illuminating gas from water-
gas and oil or liquid hydrocarbon it is evident that oils of
high specific gravity will require a higher temperature for
their complete vaporisation than those of low specific gravity.
According to this invention the vaporisation of the oil is
effected by providing a vaporiser quite independent of the
water or steam gasifier, so that the temperature may be
regulated according to the specific gravity of the oil.
The vaporiser described consists of a retort, heated
directly by a furnace of its own ; the oil is delivered directly
from a ring pipe into the top of the retort, the sides of
which are inclined inwards and downwards, so that the oil
is caused to flow in a thin film down the heated walls, the
impurities being at the same time directed towards the
bottom, whence they can be readily removed. The fixing
chamber may advantageously contain trays filled with lime,
which removes some of the carbonic acid present ; on re-
heating, the carbonic acid is driven off and the lime is
rendered capable of again acting as a purifier. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Manufacture of Gas. <;. M. S. Wilson,
Toronto, Canada. Eng. Pat. 535, January 11, 1892.
The improved apparatus consists of a series of retorts
arranged in such a way that a mixture of air, steam, and oil
is exposed for as long a time as possible to a uniform heat ;
the result of this treatment is that practically the whole of
the hydrocarbon vapour is fixed, and the gas obtained is
exceptionally clean and free from readilv-coudensible
vapours.
There are five retorts, three of which are placed close
together and occupy the whole width of the inside of the
furnace ; the upper surfaces of these retorts form the bed
for a fire which not only serves to heat the retorts but also
to heat the steam boiler. Below the retorts just mentioned
are placed two others, heated by a fire underneath. The
oil, steam, and air are introduced through pipes and jets
into the ends of the two outer top retorts; the mixtuie
passes the whole length of these retorts and is then con-
ducted by elbows to the two lower retorts ; after traversing
the whole length of the latter the two streams are united
and passed first into the centre top retort, and finally
through a smaller tubular retort supported centrally in
the larger one ; the fixed gas then flows into the discharge
pipe. Each retort is provided at its end with a removable
plug so that it can be easily cleaned out should any
accumulation of carbon take place. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus for Effecting
the Complete Mixture of Inflammable Gas or Vapour
with Air. W. E. Vickers, Surbiton, and G. A. Everett,
London. Eng. Pat. 965, January 18, 1892.
The machinery or apparatus described in this patent
consists essentially of a number of force pumps by means
of which air and an inflammable gas or vapour are first
forced together through a single pipe into the lower end of
a chamber A ; the mixture then passes through a large
number of small holes or jets in the walls of the chamber
A and impinges on the inner walls of a somewhat larger
chamber B, which surrounds the perforated chamber A.
The mixture, which is in this way rendered very intimate
and permanent, finally passes out of the chamber B
through a delivery pipe. The pist ins of the force pumps
are driven by adjustable eccentrics, so that the quantity of
air and of inflammable gas or vapour can be conveniently
and accuratelv regulated. — F. S. K.
III.-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS. Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Means and Apparatus for 'Refining
Paraffin. J. and \V. Baxter, Addiewell. Eng. Pat.
4321, March 11, 1891. „
The improved process described relates to the refining of
paraffin wax, and consists in placing the cakes of paraffin
on their edge inside a wire cloth case which may be lined
with canvas ; the cases are secured (a space being left
between each) to carriages running on wheels with rails
or guides on each side, top and bottom. The carriage; are
connected together by an endless pitch chain, and after
being charged are run by means of the pitch chair, at the
desire of the operator. The sweating chamber is heated
with steam pipes suitably placed. It is claimed that by
sweating in this perpendicular manner, the heat being aided
by the pressure of the paiaffin itself, the impure matter
flows more freely from both sides of the cake and a better
result than hitherto cau be obtained.
After the sweating is completed the carriages are run on
and passing under arc inverted and so discharge their
contents mechanically into a finished product tank.
In the accompanying drawings Fig. 1 is a side elevation,
and Fig. 2 the end elevation, n1 and a- show the carriages,
g the pitch chain passing round notched wheels e e, fixed
to shafts f f, mounted on bearings on a frame mounted on
pillars i : k is the tank for receiving the discharged finished
product, il d the rails, j a saucer beneath the carriages to
carry off the impure matter, 1 1 steam pipes, the inlet being
May 81, 189a:
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
425
Fig. 1.
Improved Apparatus fob Refining Paraffin.
at g and outlet at o after passing through the tank k. The
operator can cause the carriages to revolve at will by setting
the chain in motion. The whole of the apparatus is erected
on and embedded in brickwork shown at h. — D. A. S.
PATENT.
Improvements in Cauldrons for Melting Pitch and Fatty
Substances, B. D. Henley, Bambcr Bridge. Eng. Pat.
321, January 7, 1892.
See under XII. page 4-10.
H -COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
On the Constitution of the Ortho-hydroxyaxo Compounds.
S. (Janelin and St. v. Kostaneeki. ' Ber. 1831, 24, 3976.
In many cases it is difficult to decide whither an ortho-
oxyazo compound contains a hydroxyl group, or whether
its constitution is that of a hydrazone. Monohydroxylated
colouring matters containing the hydroxyl group in the
ortho position to certain atomic groups arc capable of dyeing
mordanted fibre. By substituting in such colouring matters
the cpiiuone oxygen atom for the hydroxyl group the resulting
compounds lose their affinity for dye mordants, so that
probably the azo colouring matters containing respectively
the above two isomeric groups will show the same difference
in the dyeing test, and the latter would therefore be a very
simple method to determine the constitution of a given
ortho-oxyazo compound. Noelting and Trautmann (Ber.
1890, 23, 3660) and Kostaneeki (Ber. 1891, 24, 150; this
Journal, 1891, 356) found ortho-oxyquinoline to dye mor-
danted cotton, while ana-nitroso-ortho-oxyquiuoliue —
NOH
\y\/
O N
had lost this property. The same difference is likely to
exist between the two corresponding orthoazo derivatives
of ortho-oxyquinoline, viz. : —
CfiHsN2
and
Cr,H5N„H
OH N
O N
Anaphenylazo-ortho-oxyquinoline being a para-azo deriva-
tive is sure to contain a hydroxyl group, and this compound
the authors found to dye yellow upon an alumina mordant,
brown on an iron mordant. In order to obtain an ortho-
azo compound of ortho-oxyquinoline the authors used
Noelting and Trautmann' s ortho-hydroxyanamethylquino-
line — ■
CH3
OH N
Metaphenylazo-ortho-hydroxyanamethyguinoline —
CrftNA^lCHONCOIl)
This azo compound was obtained by adding to a solution
of diazobenzene chloride a corresponding quantity of ortho-
hydroxyanamcthylqninone dissolved in hydrochloric acid.
On addition of alkali the colouring matter is precipitated and
recrystallised from glacial acetic acid, when it is obtained
in the form of carmine-coloured needles, melting at 120° C,
insoluble in cold water, very little soluble in hot water.
Alkalis dissolve only very small quantities, concentrated
sulphuric acid dissolves the substance, forming a yellowish-
red solution. This compound dyes a yellowish-red on
alumina mordant and a dark brown on iron mordant, which
goes to prove that it is an azo compound and not a hydrazone.
426
I'lIK JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L May 31,1802.
Mr ta-amido-ortho-hydroxyanamethylquinoline —
( '.1II)\(Cirl-)(OH)(NHj)
On treating the above described azo compound with tin
and hydrochloric acid the hydrochloride of this compound
is obtained, crystallising from hot water in large prisms.
Carbonate of soila precipitates the free base, which
crystallises from benzene in tliick broad needles, melting at
139 C.
According to the theory of the authors the a/.o compounds
of such hydroxyquinolines as do not contain a hydroxyl
group in the ortho position to the nitrogen of the pyridine
ring should be incapable of dyeing on mordants. On
testing Matkeus' phenylpara-bydroxyquinoline, in accord-
ant- with this theory, it was found unable to dye mordanted
cotton.
This shows that the colouring matters of the quinoline
series and also the hydroxyazo compounds of the quinoline
series are in perfect accordance with the theory advanced
for all other mordant dyeing colouring matters. — 0. < >. W.
On Acelyl-Indigo While and Acetyl-Indigo. C. Lieher-
mann and F. Dickhutt. Ber.*1891, 24, 4130.
Treating indigo with a mixture of zinc dust, sodium
acetate, and acetic anhydride (Her. 21, 442 (foot note) ;
this Journal, 188S, 20."j), di-acetyl-indigo white —
Clf,H10(C,H3O)3N ,< >,
is obtained, whereas Baeyer's indigo-white formula —
C(OH) C(01i)
C,B4Ac-C< ^C6H4
Nil NH
would lead us to expect the formation of the tetracetyl
compound. This latter, however, the authors failed to
obtain under the above-mentioned conditions.
On heating a solution of di-acetyl-indigo white in acetic
anhydride with a drop of nitric acid (1-20 sp. gr), the
mass assumes a beautifully red colour. The same reaction
is obtained by using, instead of nitric acid, bromine, chlorine,
or chromic acid. This reaction therefore is evidently due
to an oxidation, resulting in the formation of di-acetyl-
indigo —
CO CO
C.H,
Ac-
N(C,H30) N(C2H30)
-f'/ ( il
This substance is best obtained by suspending di-acetyl-
indigo white in To times its weight of acetic anhydride, and
passing through the mixture a current of nitrous acid. The
reaction may be accelerated by gently war/ning, and is
completed as soon as the mass shows a bright red colour.
After nitration, the di-acetyl-indigo soon crystallises out in
the form of fine carmine coloured flitters.
The substance is insoluble in water, and with great
difficulty soluble inmost of the ordinary solvents; it is best
recrystallised from benzene. On heating with dilute alkalis
the substance is easily and quantitatively converted into
indigo. Di-acetyl-indigo dissolves in concentrated sulphuric
blue, acid with a green colour which, on heating, changes into
through formation of indigo-sulphonic acid. These reactions
leave no doubt as to the constitution of di-acetyl-indigo
white and di-acetyl-indigo.
Di-acetyl-indigo may be obtained direct by treating a
boiling mixture of indigo and acetic anhydride with acetyl
chloride. In place of the latter, hydrochloric acid may be
employed, but in this ease the reaction proceeds much
more slowly.
In the above described di-acetyl-indigo white the acetyl
groups are attached to the nitrogen atoms, and accordingly,
that compound ought to contain two unaltered hydroxyl
groups, which would render it soluble in alkali;. Hut this
di-acetyl compound, being insoluble in cold alkalis, belongs
probably to the class of tautomeric forms of indigo com-
pounds (Bayer's ^-forms) — ■
C.H
CO
0Cfl—
N(CaH30) N(CjH30)
CO
-CH /
'Ml,
in whicli the hydrogen is attached to the two central carbon
atoms instead of to the carboxyl groups.
Tetra-acetgl-indigo whit,; C^H^CM/))^./),. This
compound was obtained by treating di-acetyl indigo with a
mixture of zinc dust, acetic, anhydride, and sodium acetate.
It is a colourless substance, which crystallises from its
solution in boiling acetic anhydride in the form of a sandy
powder. On boiling the substance with dilute alkali,
indigo is obtained. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves
it with a green colour, which on heating turns blue.
Tautomeric ($-) di-acetyl-indigo white —
el6H10(CsH3O)2tfA
was obtained by carefully heating a mixture of acetyl
indigo (17 parts), phenylhydrazine (11 parts), and a small
quantity of benzene. Evolution of gaseous nitrogen takes
place, and at the same time a white, crystalline substance
begins to separate out, which is the above-named com-
pound. It differs from the first described di-acetyl-indigo
white which is crystalline, by its indifference to nitrous acid
which does not convert it into acetyl indigo, and its
capability of dissolving in cold alkalis, thereby forming an
indigo vat. This /3-di-acetyl-indigo white is therefore —
.".<>
C(OH) C(OH)
c— c
O
t'tii)
N(C3H30) N(CJI30)
This formula is confirmed by the fact that on treat men I
of this compound with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate
tin- identical tetra-acetyl-indigo white i; obtained, which
has already been described above, and the formula of which
must be accordingly —
rC(OCoH3OV .C(OC2H30)x
\ N(C2H30) / \ >T(C2HaO) /
— c. o. w.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK. Etc.
On Fibres made from the Leaves of Fir Trees. F. v. llohuel.
Centr. Org. f. Waarenkunde u. Techn. 1891, 1, 144 ; and
Chcm. Zeit. Rep. 1801, 15, 218.
An. experiments to obtain good textile fibres from the
leaves of European firs, especially Pimis .lilrestris, have
been more or less unsatisfactory, as the product obtained
called " pine-wool " (laine vegetale, Waldwclle) consists of
coarse, short, brownish fibres of little elasticity, which are
not easily spun ami bleached. If the leaves of Pinus
silvestris are examined microscopically, they show an
epidermis which is almost twice as thick as the hypodermal
layers, and most of the leaves have a length of only
4 to 7 cm. Hence the fibres of Pinus silvestris are unfit
for spinning. But some American species of firs, especially
the so-called yellow pitch or broome pine (Pinus australis)
and the Loblolly pine (Pinus Taeda) seem to yield much
more suitable fibres. Their leaves are 16 to 35 cm. long,
and a microscopical examination shows that the epidermis
is much less developed, being only one-half or one-third the
thickness of the hypodermal layers. Moreover the latter
Maysi.isw.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
427
ure mostly separated from the epidermis by a layer of cells
with thinner walls, and the fibres are longer and stronger.
The consequence is that this American pine-wool is often
free from epidermis, and therefore much better adapted for
textile fabrics. The coarse American pine-wool is used for
upholstering and similar purposes. The finer kinds un-
bleached are light brown, bleached, of a yellow colour, and
may be used for coarse yarns in the manufacture of common
carpets, sacking, &c. — II. S.
Properties of Amnion iacal Copper Hydrate. Prud'hotume.
Monit. Scient. 1891, 5, 681.
Ammoniac ai. copper hydrate is »n oxidising agent. This is
proved by its bleaching action on cotton dyed a medium
shade of indigo blue. Such cottou, when immersed in a
solution of the reagent which has been sufficiently diluted
to prevent its attacking the fibre, is decolourised in 24 hours ;
at 60° C. the decolourisatiou is complete in a few minutes.
In this instance the oxidising effect of the ammoniacal copper
solution is greater than that of hydrogen dioxide, which has
little action on indigo. Again, when cotton is treated for a
short time with a concentrated solution of ammoniacal
copper, then well rinsed and treated with dilute acid (to
remove copper hydrate) it possesses a strong attraction for
-Methylene blue, showing its conversion into oxycellulose.
Ammoniacal copper attacks and dissolves mercerised
cotton more rapidly than it does ordinal}' cotton (this Journal,
1891, 835). As prepared by agitating copper turnings with
ammonia solution, ammoniacal copper hydrate contains
ammonium nitrite, as lierthelot and Pean de Saint-Gilles
have pointed out. At the commencement of the operation,
however, the blue solution obtained is free from nitrite, the
latter being formed gradually in contact with air. Its forma-
tion may be observed by taking successive portions of the
solution, faintly acidifying with hydrochloric acid, and
adding aniline hydrochloride and an alkaline solution of
a-naphthol, an orange colour being produced. Metallic
copper acts in the cold upon a solution of ammonium
nitrite, liberating nitrogen dioxide (red fumes) and after-
wards ammonia —
2 NH4NO., + Cu = CuO + 2 NO + 2 NH3 + H.;0
In the presence of ammonia, nitrogen is evolved —
2 NtI.,N02 + 3 Cu = 3 CuO + Ns + 2 NH3 + H.,0
In both ca>es the liquid rapidly takes a blue colour. Ou
the: addition of a sufficient quantity of water to this solution,
or to the ordinary solution of ammoniacal copper, eupric
hydrate is precipitated. The blue solution in contact with
copper in a closed vessel becomes colourless, and then
contains cuprous oxide, since, on the addition of sulphuric
acid, copper sulphate is produced along with a precipitate of
metallic copper. The final composition of an ammoniacal
copper solution evidently depends upon the extent to which
the above actions take place. — K. B.
Action of Nitric Acid on Silk. L. Vignon and P. Sisley.
Compt. Rend. 1891,113, 701—704.
See under VI., page 430.
The Rotatory Tower of Silk. L. Vignon. Compt. Rend.
1891,113, 802—804.
ACCORDING to its chemical constitution silk ought to be
classed amongst the albuminoids. Heated with dilute
sulphuric acid, leucine and tyrosine are found amongst the
decomposition products. Leucine is (optically) inactive,
but by the action of Penicillium glaucum is changed into an
active modification. Tyrosine is active and lano-rotatory.
The author's intention was to determine whether silk
itself had any action on polarised light, and at first great
difficulty was experienced from lack of a suitable solvent.
This has been surmounted and the optical behaviour of the
seriein and fibroin, separately studied.
/. Seriein. — After removing the natural colouring matter
of the silk by means of alcohol containing a little hydro-
chloric acid the seriein was dissolved off with sodium
hydrate (3 per cent, solution). This did not sensibly attack
the fibroin.
(a.) After filtration, the slightly yellowish solution of
seriein was immediately examined by a Laurent polari-
meter, using the yellow monochromatic sodium light. A
ver3' clear deviation to the left was noticed, five observations
giving an average —
_ l°-43'= - 1°-71
from which is deduced—
(6.) 10 cc. HC1 32" Tw. were added to 20 cc. of the
seriein solution, giving a clear strongly acid liquid
deviating —
- 1J-16
whence —
, v -r-16 x 150 „„ ...
(■'), — « , = — 39 -5.
*■ " 2 x 2"2CJ
(c.) 10 cc. of distilled water added to 20 cc. of the
original solution, gave — 1 ■ 15 to the left, corresponding
to—
(t\. -lt"18*150_ _ „<v .„
W' 2x2-20 " iJ -
The rotatory power is slightly augmented by dilution, but
the acid or alkaline character of the solution appears to
exert no influence.
//. Fibroin. — To ensure the complete removal of the
seriein (silk glue) the silk was " boiled off " twice with soap,
and then thoroughly washed with water, acid, and aleohol.
After drying it was dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric
acid, the solution taking place very rapidly, forming a
viscous homogeneous liquid. After diluting with water and
filtering, this solution was examined by the polarimeter.
(a.) The acid liquid gave an average deviation of — 3 '17
corresponding to —
CO, = "
.'! '17 xjioo
2 x 7-93
39° -96.
(6.) When diluted with an equal volume of distilled water
the solution is not precipitated. Its deviation then becomes
— l°-64, from which —
, - - 10,64 x 200 ,,;,,,„
(*)/= ixrM = --11 ^0.
(c.) The original liquid diluted with its own volume of
ammonia gave a limpid solution, the deviation of which is
- 1 • 73°, from which wc deduce as before —
CO, -
1 73 200
2 x 7-93
- 42 -80.
Therefore dilution again slightly increases the rotation,
but the values are found little different in acid or alkaline
solution. It will be noticed that the numbers given by the
fibroin solution are very near those of the seriein, and also
approximate to those of other albuminoids.
The solution of fibroin in hydrochloric acid becomes yellow
on adding nitrous nitric acid like otheralbuminous substances.
By neutralisation a substance is deposited which appears
identical with the original silk, but possesses the additional
property of being easily and completely soluble in ammonia.
In conclusion, the author summarises his results, stating
that the solutions of the two principal constituents of silk
from Bombyx mori, i.e., seriein and fibroin, both exert a
considerable action ou polarised light ; the action of both
being hcvo-gyrate, ami the rotatory power in each case
being very near, — 40 . — \V. M. G.
428
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Maysi.usi
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER-
STAINING. AND BLEACHING.
On the Methods of Increasing the Tinctorial Properties of
Dye-Wood Extracts. V. H.Soxhlet. Cliem. Zeit. 1891,
15, 1490—1491.
Tmk treatment of logwood-extract with ammonia and
subsequent neutralisation with sulphuric acid (MeFariane
and Clarkson) heightens the shade imparted to woollen
fibres, lint does not alter that imparted to vegetable
fibres; even in the former case the increase in brightness
is not permanent. This method is of no value to the
extract manufacturer, as the extract mast be treated at a
density of 0-5 B., and on concentrating in vacuo de-
composition occurs. The American process, which consists
in the oxidation of hematoxylin to hematein give- fair
results, but it is not likely to find favour with the extract
manufacturer. The use of potassium permanganate with
the extract has been abandoned because the product is
not available for dyeing wool. After numerous experiments
with different salt-, the author found that all those extracts
which are oxidised during the extraction, possess less
intense tinctorial powers than when such oxidation is
avoided. Chalk, borax, soda, &c. should not be present
during the extraction, but may be subsequently added to
the vacuum evaporation apparatus which is conveniently
heated by a glycerol-bath.
When logwood is extracted in the presence of 0*05 per
cent, of potassium nitrate and rock-salt, and 0'O13 per cent.
of a "bisulphite solution" of 40° 1!. (the percentages
calculated on the logwood), and extracted at a pressure of
I'.", atmospheres, the shades produced are -.veaker than
those obtained by extracting the logwood per se. On the
other hand, when an oxidising agent is added to the dye-
bath, cotton mordanted with iron, and wool boiled with
bichromate and sulphuric acid, are dyed much brighter, the
most intense shades being obtained by adding potassium
nitrate and bisulphite to the bath. Borax, ammonia, water-
glass, and soda give good results ; the first, however, is not
easily miscible with the extract, and the others by protracted
action decompose it. By employing sodium chlorate in
cotton-printing a shade of 10 per cent, mote intensity is
edj whilst bj the addition of potassium ferricyanidc,
wool mordanted with bichromate gives a bluish black 15
per cent, more intense than without it. i.e., 15 per cent.
more of tin pure extract must be used to produce an equal
depth of colour. The logwood i- cut into transversi
avoiding the production of too much dust, and the author
employs a battery of five copper extractors, four of which
are filled with logwood, and arc extracted five limes under
a pressure of 1*5 atmospheres for 15 minutes, whilst the
remaining extractor is tilled with boiling water and kept at a
certain pressure ; it serves to supplj the others with water.
The extractor is now recharged with logwood and the boding
extract having a density of 0"5 1>., and boiling water
together with one oE the previously mentioned salts added :
it is then allowed to settle in a tank, evaporated to a density
of 30 li. iu a vacuum apparatus, and mixed with the
requisite quantity of potassium ferricyanide. The same
method gives equally good results with Brazil-wood, fustic,
and quercitron bark as with logwood.
tt-blue is obtained as a paste of a golden lustre by
precipitating a logwood extract with aluminium acetate and
mating the precipitate with hydrochloric acid. — A. II. L.
author is inclined to think that this is due to an oxidation
of the wool fibre by the permanganate. A series of experi-
ments in which wool was treated with potassium permanganate
of 7 per cent, strength, to which 1 per cent, of magnesium
chloride was added, and afterwards dyed with different
colouring matters (e.g., Amaranth, Ponceau, Victoria-blue,
&c), showed, however, that in most cases the treatment
with the permanganate is of little advantage. Also
for printing on wool the application of permanganate
proved unsatisfactory -, but the author discovered that if
sodium chlorate (6 '67 per cent.) and vanadium dichloride
(0*2 per cent.) are added to the dyes, darker shades are
obtained by printing on unprepared wool than if wool pre-
pared with chlorine be treated with colouring matters
without these additions. 1'nfast dyes, e.g., Amaranth, arc
an exception, as printing with them gives more intense
shades on prepared wool. This new treatment has the
advantage that the wool remains soft and white. If the
dyes are allowed to stand for more than 10 or 14 days, with
the above specified additions decomposition sets in ; they
should therefore be mixed shortly before use. By a further
addition of acetate of tin (4 percent, of 5i I!.) still more
intense shade- may lie obtained. — 11. S.
On t/i. 0 of Hod/ Fibres and a If etc Treatment
,./' Unprepared Wool in Wool-Printing. Ohem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1674—1675.
It is a well-known fact that wool fibre may reduce sub-
stances which readily give off oxygen. This property is of
importance for the application of colouring matters. Some
time ago, V. II. Soxhlet found that if woollen yarns arc
treated with a potassium permanganate solution of 7 per
cent, strength, and then dyed in the indigo vat, the shade
is much darker than by the ordinary treatment, and the
Indigo and its Application in Dyeing and Printing.
A. Woscher. Zeits. f. angew. Che'm. 1891, 731—738. '
INDIGO is obtained from several species of leguminous
plants indigenous to the tropics, the most valuable being
indigofera tinctoria, disperma, anil, and argeutea. Where its
manufacture is carried on by natives, as it in the main still is,
the yield and quality of indigo obtained are generally
unsatisfactory. The factories directed by Europeans
obtain a better yield and superior product. In India
three crops of plants are obtained during the year. The
land is sown in March and the plant-stalks cut down for the
first time early in June, a second crap being collected in
September, and a third in January. To separate the
indigo, the plants arc steeped in lime-water, wheu a fermen-
tation takes place with the formation of leuco-indigotine.
The solution of the latter is run into a tank situated at a
lower level than the extraction tank and well agitated to
oxidise the leuco-compound, the indigo formed being after-
wards separated by subsidence and dried. The first crop
of plants gives the greatest yield of indigo, the third the
least. In regard to quality, however, this order is reversed,
the indigo obtained from the third crop being the best.
Usually the plants are extracted immediately after cutting ;
sometimes, however, they arc first dried in the sun. In the
latter case they must be extracted along with freshly-cut
plants, as a ferment which causes the formation during
extraction of leuco-indigotine is contained in the living plant
and is destroyed by drying.
The author points out that definite proof is lacking that
indigotine is present in the plant in the form of glucoside
(indicau), as it is usually assumed to be, indican having been
isolated from woad (isatis tinctoria of the order Crucifera')
alone. If such u glucoside be contained in the indigo
plant, indigo could be readily manufactured by decomposi
tion of the aqueous extract with dilute acid.
The various qualities of indigo sent into the market are
distinguished by the names of their places of manufacture.
This, however, is an unsatisfactory method of classification,
since the quality of the product varies according to the
season of manufacture, and in one and the same district,
according to the greater or less care exercised in its manu-
facture. I if the various sorts, that from Java is the most
esteemed, as it contains a high percentage of colouring
matter — a sample tested by the author showing 74 per
cent. — with little or no organic impurity. This quality is
chiefly employed for the manufacture of indigo-carmine.
Bengal indigo is very variable : the best qualities are not
inferior to Javanese, the worst are very hard and of little
value. Bengal indigofrequently contains a considerable pro-
portion of red and brown colouring matters which give it an
additional value for dyeing dark bronzy shades. An average
sample of it contains about 60 per cent, of colouring
May SI, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
429
matter. Madras sorts, on the whole, are inferior to those
of Bengal manufacture. Guatemala indigo is unreliable,
consisting, as it usually does, of good and bad qualities
mixed together. A sample tested showed 34 per cent, of
indigotine. Chinese indigo, as a rule, is of good quality ; it
is exported in the form of rounded cakes, sometimes in a
wet state. African and Egyptian indigos are of moderately
good quality.
The total annual production of indigo amounts to about
10 million kilos., representing a value of about 90 million
marks.
Testing of Indigo, — The following modification of the
permanganate test gives satisfactory results in eases where
the indigo contains little organic matter other than indigotine
and indirubin, and in all cases is very suitable for testing
indigo which is intended for the manufacture of indigo-
carmine: — 1 gnu. of a finely-powdered sample of the indigo
is placed in a beaker of 50 cc. capacity, and mixed with
s cc. "I' fuming sulphuric acid containing 10 per cent, of
anhydride. The mixture is heated on a sand-bath to 50" —
CO and well agitated. At tl ml of two or three hours,
the solution obtained is rinsed into a litre-flask, and the
latter tilled to the mark. 100 cc. of this solution are then
taken, mixed with 100 ee. of water and 50 of dilute (1:10)
sulphuric acid, and titrated with deeinormal permanganate
solution until the blue colour has entirely disappeared. The
result is calculated on the basis of 1 cc. of the pertnacgauate
solution oxidising 7'415 ragrms. of indigotine.
Syntheses of Indigo. — The methods of manufacture
i discovered by liaeyer (this Journal, 1882, 17, 21 and 146)
and Heumann (this Journal, 1890, 1121, and 1891, 41) are
I too costly to be industrially successful. Heymann's
synthesis of indigo-carmine (this Journal, 1891, 758 and
827) is more practicable, both on account of its offering
fewer difficulties in carrying out on the large scale, and
on aecount of the greater yield, amounting to GO per cent,
of the weight of phenylglycocine, obtained.
Indigo Dyeing. — The application of indigo in dyeing
is based on its conversion by the action of alkaline
reducing-niixtures into leuco-indigotine, which dissolves in
the alkali present. For this purpose there are variously
used : lime, caustic soda, ammonia, and alkaline carbonates,
along with ferrous sulphate, zinc powder, iron filings,
sodium hyposulphite, stannous chloride, sodium xanthate,
thiourea, arsenious oxide, and glucose. For wool-dyeing,
vats are also prepared by the action of certain ferments.
The composition of such fermentation vats is shown in the
following table : —
Niuii' nl Vat.
luiliu'
Woad.
m h Bran- 1 ssssjk
Quick-
lime:
Potash.
Soda
Crystals
Woad
Indian ,....,
German
Combination
Bcnoist and Collin'
Peptin
Kilns.
12— 15
8-10
e-s
8—10
5
Kilos.
150- '200
Kilns.
5—10
0—4
8—10
Kilns.
5—6
50—80
20—25
Kilos.
Kilos.
4— 6
2—4
Kilns.
10
•■
4-5
ti— 8
200—300
••
Caustic
Soda
Flour
or
Starch.
Glu-
cose.
Mag-
nesia.
Water.
Kilos.
Kilos.
Kilos.
Kil'iS.
Kilos.
12—15
••
••
••
••
1-6
5 '4
6-S
lii
8
1
Litres.
s in,
t- r,.0(io
1- 5,000
ti- 7,
S,000
5,000
Most ot these vats have been in use a long time, and
although recently the theory of the action taking place in
them has been better understood, no improvement of
moment has been made in them. According to recent
investigations, hydrogen is liberated by the action of the
ferment-bacteria, the carbohydrates present being converted
first into lactic acid and then iuto butyric acid, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen. This action takes place best in
the presence of a moderate excess of alkali. Too much
alkali hinders it, too little encourages a rapid and destructive
fermentation.
The fermentation vats are being gradually replaced for
wool-dyeing by the hyposulphite vat. In practice the
turbid acid mixture resulting from the action of zinc on a
solution of sodium bisulphite is directly used for reducing
the indigo. Sometimes, however, a clear and more stable
solution of sodium hyposulphite is prepared by adding
milk of lime to this crude hyposulphite solution and allowing
it to settle, when zinc hydrate and calcium sulphate are
precipitated along with the excess of lime. With the
hyposulphite, a concentrated indigo solution or vat is pre-
pared and added to the dye-vat in the required amount.
The alkali thus introduced into the vat is not absorbed
by the material which is dyed, and tends to gradually
accumulate. As an excess of it renders the vat inoperative
besides injuring the wool, its increase must be checked
from time to time by addition of hydrochloric acid or of
the crude acid hyposulphite solution mentioned above.
The hyposulphite vat is less used for cotton-dyeing than
those prepared with copperas and zinc dust. Zinc dust has
the advantage of giving a much clearer vat than copperas,
and so enables the dyer to employ shallower or smaller
vats.
Substitutes for Indigo. — Indigo shades are closely
imitated on linen and cotton with Paraphenylene blue,
Indoine, Metaphenylene blue, Ben/.oazuriu, and other dyes.
Although not so fast as indigo, they have the advantage
over the latter of being fast to rubbing. The fulness of
colour, characteristic of dark shades of indigo, cannot,
however, be obtained with these dyes when employed alone,
but is frequently obtained by first dyeing with them and
then with a small quantity of indigo. For dyeing wool dark
blue Alizarin-blue is very extensively employed, but is
inferior to indigo in its resistance to light.
Substitutes for Indigo-carmine.- — Indigo-carmine is exten •
sively employed in the dyeing of woollen goods, as it
possesses the property of dyeing along with other acid dyes
and is useful for the production of compound shades.
Recently two coal-tar dyes, Thiocarmiue and Patent Blue,
have entered into serious competition with it.
Application of Indigo in Printing. — Patterns in indigo
are produced on calico either by printing reserves and dyeing,
or by dyeing and then discharging the blue colour from
certain parts, or again by directly printing with indigo. In
the first method the entry of the leuco-indigotine into the fibre
is prevented by such substances as kaolin, copper sulphate,
copper acetate, tartaric acid, and alum. The last two
compounds cause a superficial precipitation on the cloth of
leuco-indigotine, which then acts as a mechanical resist.
Discharge-patterns are produced by printing on the dyed
cloth a thickened solution of sodium chromate, along with
albumen and a pigment for colour-effects, and passing
through a bath of sulphuric and oxalic acids. As pigments
chrome yellow, orange, and green, vermilion, Prussian
blue, and iron-oxide buff are used, with other pigments,
which are capable of withstanding the action of chromic
acid. White discharge-patterns are also produced by print-
ing potassium ferricyanide and passing through caustic soda
solution, as well as by printing a thickened mixture of a
chlorate, potassium ferricyanide, and stannic oxalate and
steaming for an hour. Beautiful effects are obtained by
the chromic acid method, but the colours so printed are not
satisfactorily fast as they are only superficially deposited
and fixed with albumen, and again the fibre in the printed
130
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May SI, 1892.
part becomes more or less tendered through the formation
of oxycellulose.
( If the numerous attempts made to print indigo directly,
none has been so successful as the glucose process (this
Journal, 1884, 52— 62). An important extension of this
process is its combination with the printing of chrome
yellow ami a mixture of indigo and chrome yellow in a
Turkey-red discharge style. The Turkey-red cloth is padded
w ith glucose, dried, and printed with a "thickened mixture of
indigo and caustic soda for blue, with caustic soda and lead
oxide for yellow, and with indigo, lead oxide, and caustic
soda for green patterns. It is then dried, steamed, washed,
passed through dilute acid, again washed, anil chromed.
Substitute? for Indigo in Printing. — Several very fast
blues, giving shades resembling those of indigo, are
employed in calico printing, but can scarcely be said to
compete with indigo. Aeetiu blue and the so-called
Printing blue (a spirit-soluble induline) are amongst the
newest of these dyes. — E. 1!.
Action of Nitric Acid on Silk. h. Vignon and P. Sisley,
Compt. Kend. 1891, 113, 701—704.
Iris a well known fact that nitric acid imparts a yellow
colour to albuminoids ; and the authors, in specially study-
ing the phenomenon in the ease of silk, have made the
following observations : —
I. The yellow colour is best produced by immersing the
silk for about a minute in nitric acid diluted to 1 ■ 133 sp. gr.
(26-6° Tw.) at 45' C. A characteristic deep yellow colour
is immediately developed, which is retained on thoroughly
washing with water. The colour is not readily affected by
exposure to air and light, and is greatly iutensified by-
steeping the silk in alkali, but restored to the original tint
by acids. This yellow colour has been practically utilised
in Lyons under the names " Mandani " and " Nitric acid "
yellow.
II. Nitric acid free from nitrous acid does not produce
any* colouration under the above conditions.
III. Pure nitric acid with addition of a small amount of
sodium nitrite gives a strong yellow colouration, which is
intensified by increasing the amount of NaN02, the concen-
tration of the solution, and the temperature, but cannot be
carried beyond a certain point without destroying the fibre.
IV. The colour obtained with the mixture of nitric and
nitrous acids is also rendered darker by alkalis ; a portion of
the latter being permanently absorbed since a notable
quantity may be. detected in the ash left on incinerating the
silk.
The shade of yellow obtained varies with the alkali em-
ployed, ammonia giving the lightest, and baryta water the
reddest shade.
On the other hand the causticising of the alkali has no
effect, NaOH and Na ,i 03, bull and K2C03 giving respec-
tively the same shade.
The above experiments show that the presence of nitrous
acid in the nitric acid is essential to the production of the
yellow colour on silk. A second series of experiments
was made with the object of studying the action more
thoroughly.
I. Silk treated with nitrous acid (XaN02 + HC'l) acquires
a pah: yellow colour which is not at all fast ; the shade
rapidly changing to pale brown on exposure to air or light.
Boiling water or alcohol also changes the shade to brown
without liberation of nitrogen. Alkalis develop a red-
brow d colouration.
II. A permanent yellow colour is readily produced from
the unstable pale yellow obtained as above, by treating with
pure nitric acid, the same effect being obtained upon silk
previously treated with nitrogen dioxide (NO), or tetroxide
(NO/,), in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.
III. Permanganic acid ( l\2Mn208 4- HOI) develops a
stable yellow colour on silk treated with nitrous acid,
identical with that produced by pure nitric acid ; the latter,
therefore, acts simply as an oxidising agent.
The reaction ichich produces the characteristic stable
yellow colouration upon silk requires the presence of
NO, NO., or HNO., >n conjunction with HNOs as an
oxidising agent.
IV. Silk treated with nitrous nitric acid is slowly,
decolourised by a concentrated hot solution of stannous
chloride or chromous chloride. Alkaline reducing agents
have not the same effect.
V. Two examples of bleached Canton silk were submitted
to elementary analysis after undergoing a preliminary
purification byT being " boiled off " with soap, washed with
distilled water, dilute IIC1, again with water, and finally
with alcohol. After this treatment the ash only amounted
to 0-023 per cent.
One hank was treated with nitrous nitric acid under the
specified conditions, its weight thereby being increased
about 2 per cent.
The numbers obtained on analysing the two samples
were : —
Purified Silk.
Alter Treatment with
HNOj, HN03.
C
II
>'
() (by difference) .
PerCent.
48'3
19-2
260
PerCent.
46-8
6-5
25-1
It will be noticed that after treatment the silk is richer in
N, but contains less C and O, as would be expected from
the above-mentioned increase in weight of 2 per cent.
The conditions of the treatment, and a consideration of
analogous reactions, indicate that the nitrogen which has
entered into combination was first fixed in the form of NO
and afterwards changed by oxidation into NO>. It is im-
probable that the NCI replaces hydrogen, the result of
the analyses indicating that CO groups are eliminated, with
formation of carbonic or oxalic acid.
The authors further state that wool acts in an exactly-
similar manner to silk when treated with nitrous nitric
acid, and that their results differ materially from those
obtained by Mulder when preparing his xanthoproteic acid.
Nitrated silk does not deflagrate when burnt, but the
combustion is quicker than with ordinary silk. It also
smells like burnt feathers.
Towards solvents the nitrated silk behaves generally- in
the same way as ordinary silk, but when treated with con-
centrated sulphuric acid it swells up and gives a viscous
mass similar to albumen. — W. M. G.
The Rotatory Power of Silk. L. Vignon. Compt. Rend.
1891, 113, 802—804.
See under V ., page 427.
PATENTS.
Improvemetits in the Manufacture of Copying Ink.
E. Coen, Turin. Eng. Pat. 3247, February 23, 1891.
See under XIII., page 446.
A Nero or Improved Method of Manufacture of certain
Compounds of Chromium used in Dyeing and Calico
Printing. W. Watson and E. Bentz, Manchester. Eng.
Pat. 3385, February 24, 1891.
0hro.mii m acetate, basic acetate, and sulphite, or mixtures
of these salts, either alone or with chromium sulphate or
basic sulphate, are prepared by reducing chromic acid in the
form of sodium chromate or bichromate, with sodium
sulphite or sulphurous anhydride in the presence of a
suitable acid, such as acetic acid.
Kay 31,1882.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
431
Chromium acetate is prepared by dissolving 112 lb. of
commercial sodium bichromate in 550 lb. of 25 per cent,
acetic acid, to which is then added gradually -100 lb. of 30
per cent, solution of sodium bisulphite, the temperature
being kept down. The mixture is allowed to cool to allow
the greater portion of the sodium sulphate to crystallise out,
a further quantity of sodium sulphate being separated by
the additiou of 20 lb. of sodium earbonate or its equivalent
of sodium hydrate.
Chromium basic acetate is prepared by employing one-
halt' the above amount of acetic acid, the amounts of the
other materials remaining the same.
Chromium sulphite is prepared by dissolving 112 1b. of
sodium bichromate in 400 lb. of water, adding 39 lb. of 95
percent, sulphuric acid, and then gradually 800 lb. of a
30 per cent, solution of sodium bisulphite, after which
the mixture is allowed to cool until the sodium sulphate has
crystallised out as far as possible. Instead of using sodium
bisulphite, sulphurous anhydride may be employed in such
quantity as is necessary to produce the salt of chromium
which is required.
A mixture of chromium acetate and sulphate. is obtained
bj acidifying the solution of sodium bichromate with a
mixture of acetic and sulphuric acids, the amount of water
used depending on the strength of these acids.
A mixture of chrominm acetate and basic sulphate is
prepared by the use of the same materials as in the pre-
paration of a mixture of the acetate and sulphate, hut the
quantities of acetic and sulphuric acid are reduced, or the
addition of sulphuric acid may be omitted, sufficient being
formed from ihe sulphurous acid.
A mixture of chromium sulphite and sulphate is prepared
by dissolving 112 lb .of sodium bichromate in 400 1b. of
water, adding 60 lb. of 95 per cent, sulphuric acid, and then
gradually 667 lb. of 30 per cent, solution of sodium
bisulphite, after which the sodium sulphate is allowed to
crystallise out.
A mixture of chromium sulphite and basic sulphate is
prepared in a similar manner, but only 30 lti. of sulphuric
acid is employed.
A mixture of chromium sulphite and acetate is prepared
by dissolving 112 lb. of sodium bichromate in 100 lb. of
water, and 367 lb. of 25 per cent, acetic acid, and then
gradually 534 lb. of 30 per cent, sodium bisulphite solution,
after which the sodium sulphate is allowed to crystallise
out.
The mixture of chromium acetate, sulphite, and sulphate
is prepared by replacing part of the acetic acid employed in
the last recipe by an equivalent of sulphuric acid, and a
mixture of chromium basic sulphate, acetate, and sulphite is
prepared by reducing the amount of acetic acid which is
employed in the preparation of the mixture of sulphate,
sulphite, and acetate. — -J. W. L.
Improvements in Ihe Method of and Apparatus for Manu-
facturing Inlaid Linoleums or Floor Cloths. W. G.
Thomson, Halifax, and J. S. Powell, Loudon. Eng. Pat.
42 40, March 10, 1891.
A pattern block, constructed with one or more chambers
of the various shapes required for the pattern, and of any
convenient size, is surmounted by a plate carrying cores
corresponding in size and shape with those of the chambers
in the block. The block is filled with the " ingredients in
the various colours required," and placed on the eaovas to
be printed, and the cores forced down ; the block is then
raised a little in order to leave a sufficient thickness " of
material " on the canvas, a band-knife being passed under
it to detach the protruding colour-mixture. After thus
printing, the block is mechanically raised and moved
laterally to print a further portion of the canvas, which
remains stationary, until all of it on the machine-frame
has been printed. The mechanical details of the apparatus
employed and several modifications of the above method of
printing are described in the original specification, which is
illustrated with three sheets of drawings. — E. B.
An Improvement in Dyeing Mais, Carpets, or other
Fabrics of Fibre, Wool, Yarn, Silk, or any other
Material. J. Daw, juu., North Dulwich. Eng. Pat.
6294, April 13, 1891. '
The object of this invention is to produce ornamental
designs or colours on mats or other similar articles without
the use of differently coloured materials in the weaving
process. For this purpose the mat is placed under a metal
stencil plate, and pressure being applied, the colour solution
in the form of spray is brought into intimate contact with
the material at a considerable temperature anil pressure by
means of a jet of steam. — W. M. G.
Improvements in Ihe Manufacture of ( 'oloured {lubber
Goods or Rubber-coated Goods and a Material or
Preparation to be used in the said Manufacture.
('. Dreyfus, Clayton. Eng. Pat. 17,566, October 14,
1891.
See under XIII., page 447.
Improvements in and Means for Dyeing, Mordanting, or
Bleaching Textile Fibres. V. Hughes, London. From
A. Tebugheiu, (laud, Belgium. Eng. Pat. 20,866,
November 30, 1891.
The principal application of the invention consists in an
improvement of the ordinary " jigger " machine for cloth
dyemg. The latter is constructed either with or without
squeezing rollers, both systems having certain defects.
If the cloth is not submitted to a squeezing a good deal
of liquor is carried over from one bath to another (say from
mordant-bath to dye-bath), and there is consequently a
great waste of mordant in the liquor carried forward, and
of dyestuff through precipitation by the mordant ; there is
also a superficial deposition of unfixed dyestuff, which after-
wards causes the defect of " rubbing off."
On the other hand, when squeezing rollers are employed
in the ordinary way, the dyeing is apt to be irregular from
the fact that the cloth is drawn through the liquor at an
increasing speed as the diameter of the winding roller
gradually increases by the rolling up of the material upon
it. In some machines this defect is overcome by driving
the winding roller by surface contact with the drawing off
roller, but this arrangement is open to the objection that
the pressure becomes greater as the weight of the cloth
upon the winding roller increases. Thus, in ordinary
jigger either the speed at which the cloth travels or the
pressure to which it is subjected, is variable.
The inventor claims to have overcome these difficulties in
a very simple manner. The improvement consisting solely
iu so fixing the top squeezing roller that it is easily raised
out of contact with the bottom roller, and thus the improved
jigger can either be used as an ordinary machine or with
the squeezing rollers. The squeezing action depending
entirely upon the dead weight of the top roller, is also of
necessity constant. An equal speed of travel of the cloth is
ensured by driving the winding roller by surface contact
with the bottom squeezing roller.— W. M. G.
An Improved Process and Apparatus for Bleaching Paper
Pulp and other similar Vegetable Substances. C. Kell-
ner, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 22,4:17, December 23, 1891.
The inventor has devised a novel apparatus for the con-
tinuous bleaching of paper pulp by means of chlorine gas,
the material passing slowly in one direction and the
bleaching agent continuously traversing the apparatus iu
the opposite direction.
The diagram clearly illustrates the construction of the
apparatus, the tower A being built up of a series of (pre-
ferably) earthenware troughs which divide the structure
into a number of compartments. Each trough is provided
with one radial opening or slit, and the troughs are so
arranged with respect to each other that the slots form an
ascending or descending spiral, as shown in Fig. 2. The
upper edge of each trough is provided with a gutter, into
which the lower edge of the succeeding one is fitted and
made gas-tight by a water seal as indicated in Fig. 3,
132
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31,18112.
Passing through a central hole in each trough is a
perpendicular rotating shaft fitted with radial arms, one in
each compartment (a, Fig. 11.
The paper pulp is fed into the apparatus through the
hopper k and falls to the bottom of the first compartment ;
it is there pushed round by the radial arm until it reaches
the slit through which it falls on to the next trough, pro-
ceeding in this manner until it reaches the bottom of the
apparatus. Chlorine gas is meanwhile passing in the
opposite direction, entering by the pipe It and finding exit
at I. The height of the tower and the rate of supply of
chlorine must be such that the pulp is thoroughly bleached,
but no excess of chlorine escapes at i.
Fig. 1.
rig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Improved Bleai him. Apparatus.
The hydrochloric acid produced in the bleaching opera-
tion is recovered and again used for the production of
chlorine by the electrolytic method. — W. M. G.
VII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS. AND SALTS.
Variations in the Specific Gravity of Nitric Acid produced
by Nitrogen Peroxide. G. Lunge and L. Marchlewski.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892, 10—12.
Puke nitric acid of commerce, sp. gr. 1-4960 at '3' was
mixed with different quantities of pure nitrogen peroxide,
prepared by heating lead nitrate. The specific gravities were
taken with* a hydrometer at 15 , 17 . 19°, aud 21 , with the
following mean results : —
Percentage of
Nitrogen
Peroxide.
Nitric Acid
I Total
\ dity).
c.,„„;fi„ Variation.
Specific in Speciflc
Gravity at V1 Gravity for
inVnpnn each Degree of
m vacuo. Temperature.
■
lOI
93*25
1-4986
±0-00136
a
2 ••.'.".
9:1 -37
1*6074
0-00141
.•i
5-83
94*65
1*5199
0-00142
i
7-32
95-09
1-5261
0-001H
5
12*70
:-777
I Ml.".
0- 00143
To estimate the nitrogen peroxide the acid is charged
into an accurately calibrated narrow burette, divided into
^jCc, and which can be read to -pi^ re, and allowed to
assume the temperature of the room. It is then run
gradually into a known volume of semi-normal permanganate
heated to 40°, until the colour is discharged, the quantity of
nitrogen peroxide being then readily calculated. The total
acid was ascertained by running 10 ec. of the acid from the
above burette (thus avoiding the inconveniences attached to
weighing such material) into ice-cold water, making up to
100 and titrating, whilst warming an aliquot part. Litmus
was used as an indicator. I!y considering the above numbers
in various ways the following data are obtained, which show
A.
B.
C.
Specific
Specific
Nitric
Acid
Actual
Actual
Variation
of Specific
Gravity
for cacii
1 per Cent.
of X,0,
—
corre-
Nitric
Nitric
Gravity
Gravity
sponding
to the
Acid less
that due
Acid n ith
half that
of Acid B. of Acid C.
Nitric
10 Nitric
due to the
Peroxide
Peroxide.
Peroxide.
present.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
1
1-42
91-S3
92-54
1-4954
1-4969
11-011317
0
4-02
89-55
91-50
1-4899
1-4950
0-00599
:;
7 ".17
1-4810
1 ' 1924
"■ 158
4
lo-sa
- n
1-4760
1-4909
0
17- Hi
80-37
89-07
1 -4618
T48S6
0-00654
the relationship of the specific gravity to the amount of
nitric peroxide present, aud as this is not regular the authors
noted down all results obtained, and struck a mean curve
from which they have constructed the following table, to show
the variations of specific gravity of the strongest acid of
commerce under the influence of the presence of nitric
peroxide. The experiments with weaker acids have not
given satisfactory numbers.
Variations in the Specific Ghavity of Nitric Ann,
Sp. Gr. 1-4960 at 15 4° in Vacuo by the Admixture
of Xitric PeROXIM .
N 1 1,
Corre-
sponding
Variation
5
Gravity,
NjO«
Corre-
sponding
Variatiou
a Spi
Gravity.
N,0,
Corre-
sponding
Variation
in Specific
Gravity.
Percent.
0-25
Per Cent.
4-75
0-03050
Per Cent.
9-25
o-otnoo
0-50
0*< 75
5-00
0*03226
9-50
0-06325
0-75
0-00150
5-25
0*03365
9*76
0 -1)65110
1-00
0-00300
5'50
0-03600
10-00
0*06600
1-25
0*00476
5*75
003775
10-26
0-06815
1-50
0-00675
6-00
11-03950
10-50
0*06975
1-75
0-00775
6*23
0-04175
10*75
0-07135
2-1 mi
0-01050
0-50
0-04300
11-00
0 07.1O0
2-25
' iO
6-75
0*04475
11-25
0*07450
2-50
0-01425
7-00
0*04660
11-50
0- 07600
2-75
9*01625
7*26
0*04720
11*76
0-07750
3*00
n-oisoo
7*60
0-05000
12*00
0-07850
3-25
0-01985
7-75
0*06166
12-25
0*08050
8-50
0*02165
s-00
n-05325
12*60
0-DS200
3-75
0-02350
S-25
0-05500
12-75
0*08360
4-00
0*02525
8*60
0*05660
4 -J.'.
0-02690
8-75
0*05825
4-50
0-02875
9*00
0*06000
May 81,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
433
The nitric peroxide is regarded as all inactive in the above
table, inasmuch as the authors consider that the reaction,
N .( 1 1 + H20 = HN03 + HXOj, may be disregarded when
using such strong acid, but if it is to be taken into con-
sideration, a smaller number than those above given would
have tn be deducted from the numbers given in Lunge and
Bey's tables (this Journal, 1891, 541 — 546), in order to
ascertain the actual amount of active nitric acid and a special
table would have to be constructed. — 1). A. L.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Soda Waste. F. Eller-
hausen, I lebburn-on-Tyne. Eng. Pat. 20,012, Decem-
ber X, 1S90.
Wash:, consisting principally of sulphide of iron and sodium
is treated either in the wet condition in a closed vessel with
carbonic anhydride or in the dry state in a muffle furnace.
If the treatment takes place in the wet state hydrogen
sulphide is expelled, whilst in the furnace the sulphur passes
off as sulphurous anhydride. In any ease the resulting
mixture of sodium carbonate and ferric oxide is heated until
sodium ferrate is formed. — .1. W. 1..
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Salt
from Brine. E. O. Lambert, London. From S. Pick,
Szczakowa, Galicia. Kng. Pat. 1453, January 27, 1891.
The invention has for its object the precipitation of salt
from brine by treatment of the brine with solution of sub-
stances having a strong affinity for water, such as the
chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The quantity and
quality of salt precipitated from brine depends upon the
strength and quality of the precipitating solution employed.
By adding two volumes of chloride of calcium solution,
having a specific gravity of 80° Tw. to one volume of brine,
aboul 98 per cent, of the salt maybe separated from the
brine in the form of flour salt. By mixing one volume
of chloride of calcium solution with 2 volumes of brine,
only 25 per cent, of salt are precipitated again in the state
of flour salt. In the latter case the remaining 75 per cent,
may be obtained either as ordinary fine salt (table salt) or
as coarse salt. In the first case the liquor is concentrated
to a point at which salt begins to precipitate. On cooling,
the salt crystallises out, it being more soluble in hot than in
cold solutions of chloride of calcium. The mother-liquor
may be repeatedly concentrated and cooled until it consists
practically of chloride of calcium only. By varying the
quantity of calcium chloride liquor employed in the first
instance, and also the subsequent treatment of the mother-
liquors, the different grades of salt may be obtained in any
required proportion. In all cases the salt obtained is
washed by brine in filters or other suitable vessels, and salt
is produced from such water in the same way as described.
Detailed drawings of an apparatus suitable for the produc-
tion of salt in the above manner accompany the specification
(this Journal, 1888, 426; 1890, 616; 1891, 624 and 749).
— K. E. M.
A New or Improved Method of Manufacture of certain
Compounds of Chromium used in Dyeing and Calico
Printing. W. Watson and E. Bentz, Manchester. Eng.
Pat. 3385, February 24, 1891.
See under VI., page 430.
Improvements in the Production of Chlorine. F. M. Lyte,
London. Eng. Pat. 4068, March 6, 1891.
Plumbic chloride is first formed from either native or waste
chlorides, such as sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid,
calcium chloride, magnesium chloride. From these chlorides
hydrochloric acid is first formed, either by the Le Blanc,
or Lyte and Stciuhart's processes, and it is then treated with
plumbic oxide, acetate, or nitrate.
Ammonium chloride may be boiled with plumbic oxide.
The plumbic chloride thus obtained is melted in a trough or
crucible of either earthenware or enamelled iron, and a
current of electricity of low tension, about 5 volts, is passed
through it, the poles being either of carbons, or carbons form
one pole, the anode, and molten lead, previously added,
forms the cathode, the connection with the latter being made
by means of a tinned iron bar passed through the bottom of
the vessel.
The molten lead is allowed to pass away, as it is formed,
through a syphon which maintains a constant level in the
trough — J. W. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Alkali and Apparatus
therefor. W. Mills, London. Eng. Pat. 4601, March 16
1891.
The invention refers to the treatment of fused sodium
chloride with a mixture of about equal volumes of hydrogen
and carbonic oxide, such as water-gas, in shallow iron pans,
Bessemer converters, or reverberatory furnaces. The gas
is passed into the fined mass by means of perforated pipes.
As a result of the reaction, " hydrochloric acid is given off,
aud a mixture of sodie oxide and carbon remains behind."
This residue is available for the production of caustic soda,
by lixiviating, filtering off the carbon, and evaporating the
solution. The carbon may be otherwise eliminated bv
passing a blast of air through the melted mass, when " sodic
oxide" will remain behind " in a pure state." — H. A.
Improvements in o> Appertaining to the Manufacture of
Alkali. A. G. Haddock, Ditton, and J. Leith, St. Helens.
Eng. Pat. 5844, April 4, 1891.
In a previously patented process (this Journal, 1891, 641)
residues of alkali waste and of gypsum are obtained, both
containing a certain proportion of sulph-hydrates. It is
proposed to eliminate these by washing with water, decanting,
and treating the remaining thick cream with carbonic acid,
which is afterwards passed into the carbonators.
It is important for many processes in using carbonic acid
to obtain the same free from oxygen. This end may be
attained by adding to it water-gas, hydrogen, or hydro-
carbons, either in the lime kilns or in other externally
heated apparatus, — the oxygen being consumed in the
combustion of these compounds. — H. A.
Improvements in Treating Waste Liquor from Galvanising
Works aud other Similar Liquors to obtain Ferric
< 'Idoride. J. W. Wilson, Manchester, and C. H. G.
Harvey, London. Eng. Pat. 6509, April 16, 1891.
The waste liquor is fed in from a suitable reverberatory
furnace, which is provided with flues for carrying away
the acid fumes evolved in the operation. The furnace is
heated by means of fuel free from sulphur, in conjunction
with an air blast. The liquor evaporating, gradually forms
an impervious crust on the furnace bed, and when the
crust is of sufficient thickness, the running in of liquor is
stopped and the temperature of the residue on the furnace
bed raised to a bright red heat. As ferrous chloride is
converted into ferric chloride the latter is volatilised, and
the vapours are condensed in tanks containing hydrochloric
acid. The residue of ferric chloride and ferric oxide is
introduced while hot into the same hydrochloric acid tanks,
the contents of which may be heated to the boiling point.
The whole of the iron is thus converted into a supersaturated
solution of ferric chloride. The gaseous hydrochloric acid
given off in the process, is condensed in suitable apparatus
and may be used over again. — H. A.
A Process for Recovery of Sulphur, Carbonate of Soda,
and Iron Oxide from Double Sulphide of Sodium and
Iron. G. Lunge, Zurich, Switzerland, and J. Dewar,
London. Eng. Pat. 8018, May 9, 1891.
In a process for the production of caustic soda (this
Journal, 1891,543 aud 547) a residue is left "consisting
mostly of a double sulphide of sodium and iron, or it may
be of several such double sulphides, the composition of
m
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBY.
[.May 31, 1892.
which is not exactly known." The moist residue, when
exposed at ordinary temperatures to the action of a mixture
of, Bay, one vol. of carbonic acid to about four vols, of air,
decomposes with formation of sodium carbonate and of
certain quantities of sodium hyposulphite, both of which
may be extracted by lixiviation. The insoluble matter
consists of hydrated sesquioxide of iron, sulphur, and n
quantity of " special double sulphide or of sulphides of
sodium and iron ; " the amount of these latter depends on
the length of time for which the process has been carried
on. The sulphur may be melted out, burnt out, or extracted
by means of carbon bisulphide, and the residue may be
used over again for the manufacture of sodium ferrite,
whilst the soluble sodium Baltsare utilisedfor the production
of ash, caustic, or sodium ferrite. — H. A.
.1 Method of Manufacturing and Regenerating Salts of
Peroxide of Iron. A. E. M. L. Paillard, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 8844, May 25, 1891.
Wilts reduced to ferrous salt in some technical oxidising
process, it is proposed to regenerate the persalts for further
useful oxidising action, by treatment of the ferrous salt in
solution with the necessary amount of sulphuric acid and a
small quantity of nitric acid, for conversion into sesquisul-
phate. The mixture is then blown by means of an injector
into a receiver, where the separation of the liquid ami the
gases takes place. The latter are returned with an ad
mixture of air to an absorbing chamber connected with
tlie suction of the injector lor the regeneration, to a certain
extent, of the nitric acid. — H. A.
Improvements in and Apparatus for the Concentration
of Sulphuric Acid. J. L. Kessler, Clermont-Ferrand,
France. Eng. Pat. 19,215, November G, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a series of shallow evaporating
pans made of siliceous materials covered with lead, ami the
figure represents a vertical section of one form of it. The
heat is derived from a large open fire of slow draught, and
after putting on fresh fuel the draught must be cut off
from the apparatus in order to prevent the acid from
becoming contaminated with dust. The hot air is prefer-
ably drawn through the apparatus by means of an exhaust
at the outlet. The temperature of the acid need not rise
above 200 .
The apparatus consists of the trough S into which the
hot gases pass from the furnace. They circulate first through
the passages q q (q- q- are partitions) from which it passes
to the passages iy' </>, and the acid is readily concentrated
! 1 I
i
APPARATUS FOR CONCENTRATING SULPHURIC AciD.
to 66° B. in this trough. The gases passes upwards over
each succeeding trough of acid, whilst from the upper
troughs the acid flows downwards, finally reaching the
bottom trough S. The weak acid to be concentrated is
run into the upmost trough and becomes gradually con-
centrated as it passes to the lower ones. — .1. \V. I,.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Sodium Borates.
C. Bigot and J. Schreiter, Hamburg, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 19,38'2, November 9, 1891.
Calcium borates may be converted into calcium tetra-
borate by treatiug them with sulphuric acid or sodium
hydrogen sulphate, and the calcium tetraborate may be
readily converted into sodium tetraborate by heating with
sodium sulphate. The quantities recommended are : 100
parts of calcium borate, 200 parts of water boiled with
37 parts of sulphuric acid and 140 parts of sodium
sulphate, or with 91 parts of sodium bisulphate and
85 parts of sodium sulphate. The mixture may be boiled
under a pressure of 2\ atmospheres or in an open pan
titled with an agitator. The gypsum is then filtered off,
and sodium biborate, borax, obtained from the solution
of sodium tetraborate by the addition of lime or soda.
-J. W. L.
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EAETHENWARE.
PATENTS.
Improvements relating to Ovens, Kilns, or Furnaces for
Firing Pottery or Earthenware, and for other Purposes.
F. Plant, Stoke-on-Trent. Eng. Pat. 4610, March 14,
1891.
Ix order to retard the passage of heat through the flues,
" obstructors " made of fireclay or other refractory material
having perforations or openings for the passage of the
products of combustion are placed in or upon the outlets of
the tines of the ovens. They are preferably circular or
arch-shaped to prevent them collapsing owing to the high
leat to which they are exposed.
In a pottery oven they may be placed on the top of the
" hags " and also at one or more points in the well hole.
Along with these " obstructers " perforated laps or covers
may be used, the combination forming chambers through
which the heat and smoke pass to assist in the combus-
tion. Steam or air is in some cases introduced into the
chambers.
A dome-shaped cover is also described which may be
placed on top of the oven and be raised when required by
a lever or other suitable means.
There are two sheets of drawings showing ovens lilted
with obstructers and covers. — D. A. S.
Improvements in, and in the Preparation or Manufacture
of Enamelled Iron and Steel Plates and other Enamelled
Iron and Steel Ware, having Letters, Figures, or
Designs appearing at or in the Surface thereof.
C. F. Clark, Wolverhampton. Fng. Pat. 4853, March 18,
1891.
Hitherto letters, designs, &c. have been produced on iron
and steel plates by first coating the whole surface with a
coloured opaque enamel, and then forming the letters or
designs of another enamel on the surface of the first
enamel. Another method was to form the letters in
opaque enamel on the surface of the metal plate and then
to coat the general surface nearly or quite to the level of
the raised letters.
In this invention letters or designs sunk in the metal
plate are filled with opaque enamel, and after burning or
baking a transparent or semi-transparent enamel is spread
over the surface of the plate, and also over the opaque
enamel. — Y. C.
Haj 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
435
Improvements in Kilns for Use in the Manufacture of
Pottery, Porcelain, and Earthenware and other similar
Goods. F. Query, Montgesoye, France. Fng. Pat.
5068, March 21, 1891.
Each of these kilns consists of three portions, the kiln proper,
a regenerator situated below the kiln, and a drying stove for
dryiDg the articles to he afterwards tired in the kiln.
When intended for nse in making enamelled or glazed
ware a supplementary laboratory or kiln body is used.
The waste gases from the kiln after parsing through the
regenerator are used for heating the drying stove. The
air for combustion is admitted through the regenerator and
so heated. A special feature of the furnace is its' con-
struction, enabling short bars of refractory material to be
used, thus dispensing with grate-liars of east metal, which
effects considerable economy in the firing of glazed
stoneware.
The inventor claims by the use of this kiln to effect
saving in cost of fuel, tire-bars, ami drying, while securing
increased production from a number of kilns, as also great
regularity in heating and cooling.
Uy means of such a kiln a charge of wares mav lie
charged, fired, and discharged " in 72 hours at the most."
The specification is illustrated with drawings.— D. A. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Terra Cotta Ware.
\V. !S. Edwards, Ruabon, and .1. W. Edwards, Wrexham.
Kug. Pat. 17,381. October 13, 1891.
During evaporation of the mixture a "scum" or light-
coloured substance is apt to form on the surface of terra
cotta. The processes in use for removing this blemish
(e.g., by scrubbing) are injurious, because they leave the
surface rougher.
This invention aims at preventing the formation of a
" scum " by coating the surface of the terra cotta with hot
tar. Those surfaces which will not be exposed to view
are left uueoated, and through them only evaporation takes
place. — V. C.
Improvements relating to the Enamelling of Iron Plate.
H. Clans, Thale in the Ilarz, Germany. Eng. Pat.
22,705, December 29, 1891.
Ix order to enamel iron-plate utensils in imitation of granite
or in mottled or variegated colours, and with a rough
surface, the articles undergo three treatments.
They are coated first with an enamelled ground and then
washed with a solution of magnesium and ammonium
sulphates, which serve to decompose the next enamel
coating. This second enamel is very coarsely ground to
produce roughness. A thin paste of transparent enamel
as finely ground as possible is finally applied. — 1). A. S.
Improvements in the Production of Enamelled Iron Ware.
H. Glaus, Thale in the Harz, Germany. Eng. Pat.
22,732, December 29, 1891.
In order to obtain mottled enamelled iron ware in grey,
blue, or white marbling or other tints one of two processes
may be used, either the iron receives a single thick coatinn-
or two or more thin coatings. For the former process the
enamels are such that the metallic ground work may he
partially oxidised and speckles produced in the enamel.
The alkaline ingredients are reduced so as to obtain a
completely glazed hard mass after melting down. In the
second process the ground enamel is of elastic soft com-
position, and may he mixed with nickel or cobalt oxide ;
it should be applied in a very thin layer. The covering
material consists of finely powdered felspar, granite, sand,
cryolite, borax, saltpetre, kaolin, and tin oxide ; when these
are ground to a mass some nickel sulphate and cobalt
sulphate are added. The mixture is then applied in thin
layer, and while still moist is powdered over with some
ammonia soda (sic) dried and fired as usual. The glaze is
alleged to be beautifully tinted.
The inventor explains the reaction as due to the forma-
tion of NiCo3 and CoC03 on addition of the soda ; these
substances tending to draw out and absorb the dissolved
NiSI I, and CoSG4 to form basic salts, 2 CoC03 + 3 Co(OH).,
or 2 N1CQ3 + 3 Ni(OH)2, thus the colouring matter is con-
centrated at central points. On the addition of the soda,
sodium sulphate is formed, this quickly takes up water of
crystallisation causing currents in the enamel and producing
beautiful designs.
These enamels are of great durability and resist acid.
For the resistance of strong chemical reagents a thin
covering of felspar, fluorspar, quartz, borax, and saltpetre is
applied.
Salts of copper, chromium, iron and manganese may lie
used.— D. A. S.
IX.-BTJILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
Hydraulic Mortars from S/aij. M. .Midler. Zeits. f.
angew. Cheru. 189l\ ]'JG— 110.
It is well known that the basic slag resulting in the manu-
facture of grey pig iron has the property of hardening
under water when mixed with calcium hydrate. Mixtures
of such slag and calcium hydrate are extensively produced
and used as Puzzolana cement ; the proportion in which the
ingredients are mixed being 3 parts of 6lag meal and 1 part
of calcium hydrate, which latter may be substituted by
Roman cement. The ironmasters themselves do not
manufacture the cement, but they occasionally prepare
stones from the slag, thus deriving sometimes larger profits
from the by-product than from the pig made. " For this
purpose the slag, in the form of a coarse powder, is mixed
with calcium hydrate in the proportion of -1 : 1, the ma*s
shaped into stones and allowed to remain in the open air in
a moist state until they have attained the required hardness.
The great weight of these stones naturally localises such a
trade.
• Inly those slags are suitable for the manufacture of the
Puzzolana cement which result from grey pig made in
blast furnaces, the slags from white iron, spiegcl, &c. being
completely unsuitable for this purpose. Put this property
of the slag to form a hydraulic cement does not depend
solely on its chemical composition ; only on the condition
that the molten slag, just as it is flowing from the tap hole
of the blast-furnace, is suddenly chilled by being run in
a thin stream into water, will it be found suitable for the
manufacture of Puzzolana cement. Through this operation
the slag is disintegrated at the same time to a great extent,
and can, after drying, be easily reduced to the finest meal
l>\ being ground between crushers.
If the slag be not chilled, but allowed to cool slowly, the
powdered slag will not harden under water when mixed
with lime, although the chemical composition is exactly the
same.
The strongly basic slags have the property of swelling
out in contact with air, and thus becoming disintegrated
into a very fine powder ; but this slag cannot give a
hydraulic cement either.
The different behaviour of chilled and naturally disinte-
grated slag is therefore not caused by a change in its
chemical composition, but by an alteration in its chemical
constitution. In the chilling process, the chemical com-
pounds, as they exist in the molten slag, are, so to speak,
fixed, while, on slowly cooling, a change in the grouping
of the atoms must take place. It is, therefore, evident
that the molecules of the slag are under a certain tension,
and thus enabled to easily form new compounds when
mixed with other substances. The author had tried, some
years ago, to define the chemical difference, but did not
arrive at any tangible result, wherefore he did not publish
his work. A communication, however, of A. Busch (this
4M
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May 31,1898.
Journal, 1 892, 1 65) induces the author to communicate the
results of his researches. Busch concludes from the action
of bromine water on the slag which has crumbled to pieces
on contact with air, thai sucli slag contains large quantities
of free, dead-burnt lime, and that the chilled slag also
occludes some such lime, wherefore these cements do not
harden in contact with sea-water. The residue left from
the action of bromine water on the slag is considered by
Busch to have the formula AL< > i Si( U !aO )._.. The author
attacks these conclusions of Busch as not consistent with
the facts.
The material for a comparative examination of chilled
slai: and -lag disintegrated h\ contact with air, not being
easy to obtain, the author proceeded to prepare the
latter from a chilled slag in the laboratory by heating the
chilled slag in a muffle to a bright red heat, and allowing
it to cdoI slowly. In consequence of this heating, the
chilled slag loses altogether the property of yielding a
hydraulic cement, whilst its chemical composition has
undergone only slight alteration, the calcium sulphide
contained in the chilled -lag becomes oxidised through the
heating in the muffle to calcium sulphate. The specific
gravity, however, is considerably lowered owing to the
increase in volume. The analyses of the original chilled
and of the heated slag gave the following results : —
Chilled Slag.
Heated Slag.
Per Cent.
26-63
18-81
50-82
3-1.5
2-710
PerCent,
25- H
18-64
50' 82
3-05
2-413
The action of bromine water on both slags was deter-
mined by allowing the finely-powdered slags to stand for a
fortnight in a well-stoppered bottle with an exec-- of
bromine water, and examining the filtrate from the
undissolved portion. The analysis yielded the following
values : —
Dissolved in Bromine Water
in 11 Days.
Chilled Slag. Heated Slag.
Per Cent.
0-93
Per Cent.
SiO 0-43
AU03( + Fe:03) 0-2 0-19
CaO 1S"5 83-60
Mg< i i ^"ot determined.
When the bromine water is allowed to act for a longer
period, the chilled slag loses considerably more lime, whilst
the heated slag undergoes very little further change, as t lie-
author proved in another specimen of slag.
From these experiments the author concludes that the
lime of disintegrated furnace slag is more loosely combined
than in the chilled slag, but it would be premature to
conclude, as Bosch does, that this lime is dead-burnt lime,
which, in contact with sea-water, forms calcium sulphate
and magnesium hydrate, thus causing the uselessness of
the Puzzolana cement for building purposes under sea- water.
If Busch's opinion be correct, Portland cement, which
withstands the action of sea -water well, ought not to
contain free lime, and consequently not yield any lime to
bromine water. The author examined, therefore, a good
Portland cement (Stettin Star brand) containing 64 44 per
cent, (ad, and found that bromine water dissolved from it
during a fortnight the greatest part of the CaO ; in fact
89-7 percent, of the lime present in the Portland cement
was found in the solution. As no one would contend that
such a large percentage of free lime exists in Portland
cement, it will be considered more likely that there is
present in it a chemical compound containing large
quantities of CaO, which hardens easily by combining with
water, but is easily decomposed by bromine water.
Experiments of the author to extract free lime from -both
the chilled and the heated slags by means of a 20 per cent.
sugar solution showed that only very small quantities of
CaO were dissolved.
It is generally assumed that the slag only hardens on
addition of lime. The author concludes from his experi-
ments that the slag meal itself takes up water slowly,
thereby becoming hardened.
Chilled slag and heated slag were kept in test tubes
under water for a period of five weeks, when the chilled
slag was found to have become quite hard, whilst the
heated slag could easily be crushed with the finger. The
author determined the amount of water taken up by
drying the samples in a desiccator and weighing the water
given off on subsequent heating. He found, for the chilled
slag, 7*15 per cent, water, and for the heated slag 3*55 per
cent. Another experiment, extending over a period of
three mouths, gave for the chilled slag 10-71 per cent., and
for the heated slag 5*11 per cent, water.— J. L.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and in the Preparation or Manufacture
oj Enamelled Iron and Steel Plates and other Enamelled
Iron and Steel Ware having Letters, Figures, or
Designs appearing at or in the Surface thereof. C. F.
Clark, Wolverhampton. Eng. Pat. 4853, March 18,
1891.
.See tinder VIII., page 434.
Improvements in Clay Presses for making Tiles and Ihe
like. C. Huelser, London. From E. FrOhlich, Schweriu,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 5772, April 3, 1891.
A device for quickly forming tiles, &c, by means of clay
presses.
The mould box B is secured to the mouthpiece of the
Ax Improvement in Clay Presses.
clay press, the box being provided with core pieces D, a
stencil C which can be taken out, and slits i for allowing the
air to escape. When the clay begins to come out through
these slits the lever nut k is loosened and a wire is passed
along the rear of the mould box b, whereby the tile 0 is
formed. — V. C.
An Improved Artificial Stone. W. W. Horn, London.
From W. L. Mason, T. W. Blakey, and J. A. Wright,
Keene, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 7184, April 25, 1891.
The material is made from the following ingredients :
granite 40 parts, flint 15, felspar 5, fireclay 4. The granite
is calcined and afterwards pulverised and sifted. The other
materials in the proportions above stated are thoroughly
mixed with the granulated granite and water. The mixture
May 81,189*.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
437
is then moulded, set aside to dry, placed in saggers, and
heated to about 4,000° F. The material obtained resembles
granite but is stronger, is fireproof, and is practically
impervious to water. — V. C.
Improved Fire-Resisting Sticks and Materials for Lining,
Facing, or Coating Fire-places, Pire-boxes, Ovens, and
Kilns of every kind. J. K. Thompson, Leeds. Eng.
Pat. 21,997, December 1G, 1891.
The material consists of a mixture of 7 parts of ground
fireclay, 1 part of graphite, 1 part of plumbago, 1 part of
cement and the necessary water. When bricks are to be
made the materials are moulded and subjected to hydraulic
pressure, after which they are fired in the usual way.
The same mixture, but made more fluid by an additional
quantity of water, can be used as a wash or coating for
ordinary fire-bricks or other articles. — V. ( '.
Improvements relating to tlie Enamelling of Iron Plate.
H. Clans, Thale, in the Hart/., Germany. Eng. l'at.
22,705, December 29, 1891.
Improvements in the Production of Enamelled Iron Ware.
If. Clans, Thale, in the Hartz, Germany. Eng. Pat.
22,7:12, December 29, 1891.
See under VIII., page 435.
Improvements in Gypsum Casts. E. Websky. Tannhausen,
Germany. Kng. Pat. 795, January 14, 1892.
The inventor's object of rendering gypsum casts capable of
withstanding exposure to the atmosphere, of improving their
artistical appearance, and allowing their being easily cleaned,
is attained by immersing the dried casts, previously heated to
a temperature of 170° — 200° F., into a drying oil having the
same temperature. After 8 or 10 hours the gypsum casts
are taken out and allowed to stand 12 hours in a place free
from dust. The same process is repeated once more for a
shorter period of time, the adhering oil is carefully removed
and the casts again allowed to dry.
The gypsum casts are thus rendered translucent to a
certain depth and acquire a stone-like appearance.
The oil used is bleached linseed oil- (or red poppy oil.
hemp oil, nut oil, castor oil) with or without an addition of
lo — 20 per cent, of Dammara resin. It is not advisable to
accelerate the drying of the oil by adding a dryer. — J. 1,.
X.-METALLURGY.
Quantitative Analysis of Sulphides. P. Jannasch and V.
Wasowicz. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45, 94—102. (See also
this Journal, 1890, 769.)
The Determination of Sulphur in Lead Glance and in
Minerals containing Lead. P. Jannasch and K. Aschoff.
J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45, 103—109.
Wet Methods of Analysis of Lead Glance. P. Jannasch
and h\ Aschoff. J. prakt. Chem. 1892, 110—111, and
J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45 111—113.
Drij Method of Analysis of Lead Glance. P. Jannasch
and T. Bickes. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45, 113—114.
See under XXIII., page 4,*>7.
A Quick and Reliable Method for the Decomposition and
Analysis of Ferrocltrome. II. N.Warren, them. News,
65, 186.
See under XXIII., page 460.
Canadian Nickel. Board of Trade Journal.
In* an article on Canadiau nickel production, the Monetary
Times of Toronto says that the nickel deposits at Sudbury,
Ontario, form one of the two great sources of the world's
supply of this metal, the other being the mines of New
Caledonia, a colony of France situated in the Pacific Ocean,
some hundreds of miles east of Australia.
The great deposits in New Caledonia are of garnierite, a
hydrous silicate of nickel and magnesia, while the Sudbury
ores are of nickeliferous pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The
quantity of nickel mined in the United States in the last
16 years, according to a paper on nickel by Mr. W. B.
Ingalls, M.E., has averaged only 121,000 lb. per annum.
The principal source of the metal in that country is the
Lancaster Gap, Pennsylvania mine, but its output is
lessening, and in fact it shows signs of exhaustion. There
are other deposits of the nickel in Nevada, Arkansas,
Oregon, North Carolina, and Connecticut, as well as in the
Black Hills of South Dakota, but none of these mines, we
understand, have yet become regular producers. The
deposits vary in character from a cobalt and nickel sulphide,
as at Churchill, Nevada, to the nickel silicate found at
Riddles, Oregon. Exports of nickel from the New Caledonia
mines reached 885,000 lb. in 1890, nine-tentbs or more in
the form of nickel ore averaging 8 per cent, of the metal.
Norway produced in 1889 some 149,000 lb. Says Mr.
Ingalls : —
" The nickeliferous chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite of Sudbury
are first roasted and then .smelted in cupola furnaces to
nickel-copper matte, containing about 20 per cent, nickel.
These mattes are very refractory, and it is only within the
past year that they have been successfully handled. Of the
arge output in the Sudbury district in 1890 but a com-
paratively small portion was shipped. About 15 months
ago the Orford Copper Company devised a successful
method for refining these mattes, and since then the bulk of
the output of the Canadian mines has been brought to this
country, the Orford Copper Company now being the largest
nickel refiner in the world. Early in the year the United
States Government purchased a large amount of matte of
the Canadian companies, practically cleaning out their
accumulated stocks, and all of this has been refined by the
Orford Company. By the process used by the latter, which
is a secret one, the copper and nickel in the matte are
separated and the nickel converted into uickel oxide, which
is said to be more suitable for the manufacture of nickel
steel than metallic metal. A small part of the Sudbury
mattes is sent to Swansea to be refined."
Of the three uickel smelting works in the United States,
the American works at Camden, N.J., run on Pennsylvania,
Missouri, and Canadian ores ; the Orford works, opposite
Staten Island in New York harbour, on Canadian mattes
only ; while the Canadian Copper Company's works at
Cleveland, Ohio, are to run, when completed, upon mattes
from that company's mines at Sudbury. La Societe du
Nickel, which owns the New Caledonia mines, has four
refineries in operation ; one near Havre, in France ; one at
Kiserlohn, in Germany ; one at Glasgow, Scotland; one at
lrdlington, near Birmingham, England.
Matters in the Canadian uickel belt in northern Ontario,
about Sudbury, are by no means stationary. We hear that
the Drury Nickel Company, whose lands are in the town-
ship of Drury, have not only built a smelter which is about
ready for work, but have constructed a line of railway to
connect their property with the Canadian Pacific Railway.
A late paragraph mentions the formation at Havre of a
company for the manufacture of nickel, which shall use the
mineral from Canadian mines. This points to competition
with La Societe du Nickel, which controls the New Caledonia
mines. At any rate this new company is erecting a factory
on the Tanearville canal at Havre, and is said to have con-
cluded an important contract with the Government of
France for nickel-plating parts of the Lebel rifles.
i.;s
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31,1892.
On the Oxidation of Nickel Carbonyl. Berthelot. Compt.
Bend. 1801, 113, 079—680.
The author has already described several new properties
of nickel carbonyl, and showed that it behaves as a true
organic radicle, the products of its spontaneous oxidation
not consisting simply of oxide of nickel and carbonic acid.
New details are now given.
Nickel carbonyl maybe preserved without alteration in a
flask under a layer of water, so long as air is absolutely
excluded. If the air penetrates into the flask the compound
is slowly oxidised, forming at the bottom a stratum of apple-
green hydrated oxide of nickel (free from carbon in the
author's experiments). At the same time some of the
nickel carbonyl escapes and is oxidised by the air, forming
fumes which deposit as a whitish film upon all objects in the
same cupboard.
In order to collect this product of slow oxidation the
flask was placed in a double tin jacket, and in this way
several decigrammes of a complex oxide were collected. This
body, which is whitish in film but greenish in bulk, is a
hydrated oxide of an organic radicle compound of nickel.
Its analysis by oxide of copper gave numbers approxi-
mately corresponding to the formula C5Os.Ni.(. 10 H20.
It is the oxide of a complex radicle analogous to
eroconic or rhodizonic acid, and a part of the nickel may
be combined or mixed with it as a simple oxide. In this
case the complex oxide would be some such substance as
C.,ONi, and would be derived from ethylene (C2H4) or a
more condensed type of the same series.
The equation representing its formation would then be —
C,i)4M + 0 = 2 CO. + GjONi.
Further studv of nickel carbonvl is necessary to prove
this.— W.M. <;'.
Formation and Behaviour of ISasic Calcium Phosphates,
unci their Relationship to Thomas Slag. 0. Foerster.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892, 13- 22.
See under XXIII., page 460.
The Condition of Gold in Pyrites. Eng. and Mining J.
1892,' 451.
Treatises on ore deposits frequently refer to the occurrence
of gold in the form of a natural sulphide as possible and
probable. There is really foundation for the belief that
gold often does occur in a state which resists amalgamation,
even with the best mechanical appliances.
While the theory of the existence of a gold sulphide
meets with no objections, and is assumed as a convenient
working hypothesis, to establish it by positive proof is
another and by no means an easy matter. A sulphide ore
(pyrites, arsenopy rites, chalcopyrites, marcasite, blende,
galena, &c , a mixture of two or more of these, or of silver
sulphides, perhaps in connexion with arsenides, antimouides
or tellurides) which carries lOoz. to 20 oz. gold per ton,
would be of exceptionally high grade. The bulk of the
auriferous sulphuret concentrates does not run higher than
one or two ounces per ton. And since of this gold a Urge
part, nearly all, or the whole, may be in the metallic state.
laboratory experiments become very difficult and their
results uncertain, owing to the small percentage of gold
(whether native or as sulphide) available to work upon.
The same difficulty was met with in determining gold
tellurides. If an auriferous pyrites ore is crushed and,
without roasting, is panned or horned, a portion of the gold
contents (as determined by lire assay) may be recovered,
the gold being in various degrees of comminution down to
a fineness which may escape the most careful panning.
Such a pyrites, examined under the microscope, sometimes
shows minute films and flakes of gold lying along the
cleavage planes as though squeezed out in the process of
crystallising, or in particles in the mass of crystals. Most
of" the gold-bearing pyrites does not occur in large blocky
crystals, hut finely disseminated through the quartz, spar,
or other gangue, and hence does not lend itself readily to
observation.
Some sixteen years ago Mr. W. C. Wynkoop detected
what he belie ted to be a natural sulphide of gold in copper
pyrites from the Stoughton mine, Ward district, Boulder
county, Colo. This ore was not amalgamable raw, showed
no gold nor any signs of an unknown mineral under the
microscope, hut on treating with ammonium sulphide gave
a filtrate containing gold. Kecenlly certain investigations
have been described by Mr. T. W. T. Atherton, of the
Xambucca Heads Gold Mining Company, of Deep Creek.
New South Wales, which seem to be conclusive, if any
doubt remains. Mr. Atherton proves that during his
investigations on the ores of the Deep Creek mines he has
found in them the long-sought gold sulphide.
If natural gold sulphide exists and is not amalgamable, it
cannot be reduced by any simple process of grinding, which,
however, may liberate some other forms of refractory gold.
Roasting would probably drive off the sulphur more easily
than from other sulphides, as the gold sulphide, it is to be
presumed, is a less stable compound. Hut roasting would
leave the freed gold in such a minute state of subdivision
as to make it an awkward material to handle by any amal-
gamating appliances, since it would be likely to escape in
the slimes. Concentration, roasting, chlorinating, and
leaching ought to save it, or, perhaps, even a raw lixiviation
process may be practicable. At present concentration and
smelting after roasting (or raw, if in small proportion in the
smelting mixture), in connexion with silver-lead smelting,
seems to be the simplest and surest mode of treatment.
But fine crushing before concentration would tend to slime
the gold sulphide, which most probably exists as an intimate
mixture scattered through the base sulphides, as a distinct
mineral, perhaps, yet uudistinguishable to the eye and not
mechanically separable from the other sulphides.
These questions are pertinent : Does much of this gold
sulphide really exist, and is its occurrence more frequent
than is supposed ? If so, will it prove to be of sufficient
importance to modify metallurgical methods?
The )Yorl<i's Store of Tin. E. \V. Claypole. Iron, 39,
362—363 j Engineering Mag. January 1892.
t iSSITERlTE is almost always found associated with primitive
rocks, chiefly granite. It never occurs, as does iron, in
seams, or in narrow solid veins, as do galena and some other
ores, hut disseminated in detached, and often very minute,
crystals in the vein-stone. The veins may vary from a few
inches to many feet in width, and through this mass the ore
is dispersed with great irregularity, large parts heiug
absolutely barren, while through others the cassiterite is
diffused ill shreds, streak-, and patches. This scanty
diffusion in the granite or other matrix, and the small extent
of workable tin country yet known in the world, are together
the causes of the scarcity and high price of the metal in the
market. The only countries in which we have any real
knowledge of the geology of cassiterite are Spain, Saxony,
Britain, and, to a smaller degree, South Dakota. In all the
other regions from which tin is obtained, the ore is for the
most part picked up on the surface, and not mined below it.
Iu Cornwall the granite occurs as a number of bosses
projecting through the slates which formerly overlay them,
hut have been removed by erosion. Dartmoor, in Devon, is
the largest of these, and they continue in a south-westerly
direction through Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, but not all
of them are equally stanniferous. The cassiterite in Cornwall
occurs in lodes that traverse alike the granite and the slates,
and are consequently of later date than both. These lodes
run in a direction from west-north-west to east-south-east,
and are cut by a scries of cross courses running nearly north
and south, and often carrying lead, silver, or manganese,
but rarely tin. The country is thus cut up into a number of
rudely-rectangular blocks, and the points of greatest pro-
ductiveness, or pockets, are at the intersections of the lodes
with the cross courses.
The Cornish tin-stone is not geologically ancient. That
tin ore has, however, been formed in other cases at a later
date than that above assigned to the lodes is proved by the
discovery of deer-horns so thoroughly impregnated with
cassiterite that they were as rich in tin as the average ore of
Ma.\ :il, 18X'.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
439
the county. The lodes of tin ore not (infrequently split up
into fine thread-like veins which so penetrate the slate that
both must be worked together.
The story of the Dakota tin is very different. There the
cassiterite is confined strictly to the granite. Hut the granite
is not u vast erupted mass as is that of Cornwall. It is
probably a result of aqueo-thermal action. There is a
wonderful similarity between I lie ores of the two places,
indicating similar condition of formation. The tin-bearing
lodes are for the most part on the western side of the Black
Hills, among the older schists, and are of very different
degrees of value. Some of them are of enormous thickness,
exceeding 100 ft., but the cassiterite is not equally distributed
in them. It is found in strings and patches and sheets, and
many of the veins and large parts of others contain none.
The granite veins are very numerous, and a large proportion
of them are more or less stanniferous. But the percentage,
as elsewhere, is very low, about equalling the average yield
of the Cornish mines at present in operation. It is not easy
to give figures, but a sanguine estimate might put both at
2 per cent., and probably in order to attain this some of the
poorer mineral must be excluded.
The tin works of the Er/.geberge Mountains, between
Saxony and Bohemia, are of little importance, but deserve
notice because the cassiterite does not occur in distinct
lodes, but forms a network of small veins traversing the
stanniferous rock. A mine in rock of this kind is called a
" stockwork." Cassiterite so diffused is more costly to work
than the kinds already mentioned, and were it not that the
mines have been operated for many years, and that labour
is very cheap and appliances simple, the Saxon and
Bohemian tin mines could not remain open. In the stock-
works of Altenberg the rock is said to contain 0'33 to 0'50
per cent, of cassiterite. Their yield is constantly decreasing,
and from some has already ceased.
But all other deposits of tin fade into insignificance with
those of the south- eastern regions of the Eastern hemisphere.
The wealth of Malacca has been known tor centuries, but
only of late years have its enormous stores of tin been
brought into the market. The long granite axis of the
Malayan Peninsula and its continuation in the Island of
Mania is traverstd by quartz veins containing tin-stone of ten
so pure that it is of a light brown colour or even translucent.
From these veins large quantities of cassiterite have been
washed down into the valleys, where it is now gathered.
The lodes resemble those of Cornwall, but, if we may judge
from appearances, must be vastly richer. No attempts have
mi been made to work them. All the tin-stone exported is
picked up or washed out in the watercourses, as was formerly
done in Cornwall. This is the " stream-tin " of the miner,
and its collection is called " streaming." It is in Malacca
remarkably free from arsenic, sulphur, and wolfram, but
whether or not this same high quality will be maintained in
the lodes remains to be saen.
Equal in richness and in value to these are the recently-
revealed tin deposits of Queensland and New South Wales.
The granitic range of the eastern coast of Australia is the
matrix from which the tin-stone has been derived, and all
that has yet been done is to mine and wash the stream-tin
that ages of erosion have accumulated on the surface and in
the watercourses. The workings on Vegetable Creek, in
New South Wales, have proved wonderfully productive.
Ninety .feet of basalt cover the sands and gravels of an
ancient buried river bed in which the tin ore was found.
Below this and under a bed of pipeclay occur the stannife-
rous sands and gravels 15 ft. thick above water-level. How
far they reach below is not known, as the workings at
present cease when the water is reached. Bater still the
developments in Rose Valley have even surpassed these.
From this mine, which closely resembles the other, and lies
near it, more ore was taken in 1881 than is produced by any
of the Cornish mines, with the exception of some half dozen.
These Australian tin lodes reappear in Tasmania on a some-
what smaller scale, and considerable ore is now coming from
Hobart, more than 3,000 tons having been shipped in 1881.
The following table includes all the regions that now
contribute any appreciable amount to the world's stock of
tin, or in which the ore possesses any geological interest : —
Tons of Metal.
Cornwall (1882) '.»,i«»i
Saxony (1S80) 170
Italy (1880) 16
Russia (1870) 2
Japan (1875) 7
Fenang and Singapore (lss2) 15,913
Penang and Singapore (1887) 18,515
Fenang anil Singapore (lsss) 25,594
Banca and Billiton (1882) 8,550
Victoria (1880) 103
New Sout h Wales (1882) (!,500
Queensland (1881) i;:t,o00
Queensland (iss-i) ni.:iso
Tuns of Cassiterite.
Tasmania (18S1) 3,500
The Lechcsne Nickel Steel Process.' Iron, 39, 1892, 3G0.
The Sociele du F'erro Nickel, of France, lias succeeded
in obtaining nickel iron and steel containing a large
percentage of nickel, and participating in the remarkable
properties of tins metal (non-oxidisability, brightness, &c.)
and susceptible of being substituted for it in a large
number of uses from which it has hitherto been excluded
by the high price of pure nickel. In continuing the series
of ferro-nickels, the lowering the percentage of nickel
below 25 per cent, forms a category of metals the new
properties of which constitute a special class of altogether
peculiar interest. We have here no longer alloys of a
somewhat high price, capable, on account of their richness
in nickel, of replacing the pure metal, but metals com-
parable to iron and steel, and in which the intervention
of even a small proportion of nickel modifies the con-
stitution of the metal without (in low percentages)
materially increasing its cost, and gives to the iron and
steel employed an improvement of quality which is very
remarkable.
The process consists in the simultaneous employment of
manganese and aluminium with or without the addition of
carbon, under the form of charcoal, or metallic or ferro-
eyauides. In the case of manganese, either pure manganese
is used or oxides mixed with a reducer, or ferro-mauganese.
In like manner for aluminium, either the pure aluminium
is used or a mixture of iron and aluminium. The nickel
itself is introduced either in the form of pure metal or in
the form of malleabilised metal, or crude metal more or less
rich in nickel, proceeding either from the treatment of
nickel ore up to the point of elimination of the iron or from
previous fusions of cast iron, wrought iron or steel with
nickel. It is preferable to take the pure nickel or mixed
with iron at the outset of the operation. The manganese,
under whatever form it is employed, mixed or not with the
chosen carbouiser, is added in one or two increments in the
course of fusion. The quantity of aluminium necessary is
projected at the close of the operation in the bath of metal
or in the casting ladle. The best results are obtained, with
proportions of aluminium varying from a ten-thousandth to
about one-thousandth, and of manganese varying from
one-thousandth to about two hundredths per kilogramme of
alloy to be produced according to the quantity of nickel
and the quality of the metal to be attained.
From the point of view of the carbonising agents, it has
been ascertained that according as it is wished to obtain
metal soft or hard, carburetted or not, with the same
percentage of nickel, carbon or cyanide must be used in
variable proportions. In this way it is possible, by the
employment of ferro-cyanide with manganese aluminium,
without even the addition of nickel, to transform the iron
into a tempered steel naturally susceptible of furnishing
turning tools without tempering and by direct forging.
We shall give, for instance, the best quantities for obtaining
on the hearth a ferro-nickel with 5 per cent, of nickel,
starting with a nickeliferous pig. The work is proceeded
with as for the manufacture of steel, and after partial or
complete decarbonisation, according to the quality of the
metal to be obtained, metallic manganese ot ferro-cyanide
440
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May SI, 1892,
of manganese is ad<leil, and at the moment of tapping the
aluminium is added either in the furnace or in the easting
ladle. Fjr 500 kilogrammes of alloy the proportions are as
follows : —
Kilos.
Pig with -.'< per cent, nickel 100
s.,ft iron or steel WO
Ferro-manganese with 7a per cent, of manganese . 3
Aluminium 0*25
Total 503-25
The character of the various alloys is as follows : —
These metals possess a much more perfect homogeneity
than that of iron or steel obtained by the usual processes,
and consequently they have the qualities of malleability,
ductility, tenacity, elasticity, &c, to an altogether superior
degree. The coagulation of the ingots is very rapid, and
bubbles are avoided. Ferro-nickel, with 25 per cent, of
nickel, whatever the quantity of carbon, does not take
tempering, but according as the proportion of nickel
diminishes, the property of being tempered reappears, and
goes on asserting itself until with proportions of 7, 5, and
3 per cent, and below, we obtain alloys capable of being
tempered according to laws analogous to those which
govern the tempering of ordinary kinds of steel. The
proportion of carbon, the distribution and special forms of
the carbon in the cement ami the metallic core (modifica-
tion due to the presence of the nickel), the fall of
temperature between the heating and the cooling, and the
rapidity of the cooling, combine to produce various degrees
of hardness, as could be predicted by the complete analysis
made according to the very exact methods recently
discovered, and by the remarkable investigations into the
constitution of steel which have appeared of recent years.
The influence of the agents of malleabilisation in the
application of these processes is demonstrated by the fact
that, when these agents are employed without the inter-
vention of nickel, the products obtained present much
superior qualities to those of iron and steel treated by the
ordinary processes.
The Specific Heat of Aluminium. J. W. Richards. Journ.
Franklin Inst. 1891, 133, 121-121.
I:, 1855 Begnault calculated the specific heat of pure alu-
minium from observations on the crude metal to be 02181
between 25° and 97°, and later on as 0' 2143 between 11
and 97". In 1882 Mallet determined the mean specific heat
of chemically pure aluminium between 0° and 100° as
0-2253. Recently Naccari obtained the following values: —
18°
inn
These values show an increase in flu- specific heat of
O"009.'i per Ion and lead to the formula' —
S 0-2116 * 0-000095 /
Sin = 0-2116 + 0-OQOO475 </, i- /.,)
in which 0-2116 is the true specific beat at 0°. The mean
value between 0 and 100° would be 0-2164, agreeing well
witli Regnault's results, but much lower than Mallet's
The author has determined the specific heat of some
aluminium made by the Hall process which consisted of — ■
Pel-Cent.
Aluminium 99*93
Silicon il'li;
Iron Trace.
Three methods of procedure were used. First, a large
weight of aluminium (100—200 grms.) was put into an
empty calorimeter, the water equivalent of which had been
accurately determined by experiment, and allowed to stand
scleral hours. When the temperature was nearly constant.
a known weight of water at a higher temperature was
run in, and the total loss of heat calculated from the
observations. This method gave mean specific heats between
about 16° and 22".
Secondly, the aluminium was suspended in steam and
dropped into the water in a calorimeter. This gave values
from 20° to 100°. Thirdly, two exactly similar calorimeters
were used. The aluminium and a platinum ball weighing
52 grms. were placed on a platinum support, and heated
together either in an air-bath to 120", or in a small furnace
up to 100°, 500°, and 600°. The platinum ball was dropped
into one calorimeter and the lump of aluminium into
another. From the heat given out by the platinum its
temperature was calculated, and the aluminium was assumed
to have been at the same temperature.
The third method gave the most concordant results. The
first method was used for such a small range of tem-
perature that the experimental errors were large ; the second
method was defective in default of suitable apparatus to
secure the instant transfer of the metal from the steam into
the calorimeter. The third method had the advantage that
since the platinum and aluminium were taken out of the
furnace together and were dropped almost simultaneously
into the calorimeters, it could fairly be assumed that they
would cool to about the same extent in the two or three
seconds during which they were exposed to the air. The
author made two experiments by the first method, five by
the second, and 1 6 by the third. By selecting the most
satisfactory experiments and combining the results by the
method of least squares the following formula' were
arrived at —
S = 0-2220 + 0-0001 t
Sm = 0-2220 + 0-00005 (7, + r,)
in which 0-222o is the true specific heat at 0° C.
' From these formula' the following data were calculated : —
Temperature.
True
Specific Heat.
Range of
Temperature.
.Mean
Specific Heat.
0
20
tun
620
(melting point)
0-2220^
0-2240 j
0-2320-}
ii-'Jstjj
11-025
ii- 2270
tr'J.Vtf
Total caloric capacity to")
the melting point i
The author's results thus confirm Mallet's determinations
of the true specific heats and Naccari's figures for the rate
of its increase with the temperature. — S. B. A. A.
Bearing-Metal Alloys. <'. 1!. Dudley. Journ. Franklin
hist. 1892, 133, 81— 93 and 161— 172.
In this paper an account is given of analyses and experi-
ments carried out in the laboratories of the Pennsylvania
Railway Company during the last 15 years with the object
of determining the most advantageous alloy for use in the
construction of bearings for axles, crank-pins, See. for
locomotives anil other rolling stock.
Heatings made of alloys have the following advantages
over those made of cast iron or of the metal of which the
journal is composed: — (1.) The friction between the
bearing and journal is in general less. (2.) The alloys
melt at a lower temperature, and can he more easily shaped.
(3.) Tlie alloys take up the wear and thus save the more
valuable journals. A good bearing metal should have the
following characteristics : — (1.) It should be strong enough
lo hold up the load, which in railroad practice is often
350 — 400 Hi. per square inch, without distortion, and it
should be aide to resist the breaking strain to which the
bearings are subjected when tlu\ are fitted on worn
journals. (2.) It should not heat readily. (3.) It should
Mny 81. 18920 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
441
be susceptible of treatment in the foundry on the large
scale ami yield sound castings without requiring great care
to prevent oxidation. The addition of 1 to 2 per cent, of
zinc or of a small amount of phosphorus in the form of
phosphor-tin or other alloy generally leads to this result.
(4.) Under given conditions of lubrication, &c. the friction
should be comparatively small. (5.) The wear of the
bearing with reference to the mileage run should be small.
The average bearing loses 1 lb. in weight for every 25,001)
miles it has been in use. The common metals from which
Hoys are made for bearings are copper, tin, lead, zinc,
antimony, iron, and aluminium. Sometimes manganese,
silicon, bismuth, mercury, cadmium, nickel, cobalt, sulphur,
arsenic, and phosphorus, occur either as essential or
accidental constituents. The following analyses represent
samples of various bearing metals submitted to the Penn-
sylvania Railway Company during the last 15 years : —
Cameha Metal.
Copper 70-20
Tin 4*25
Lead If 75
Zinc 10'20
Iron 0*55
Anti friction Metal.
Tin 98*18
Copper 1'60
Iron Trace.
White Metal.
bead S7"!'2
Antimony (liy dill.) 12-08
Mktal for Lining Car-brasses.
bead 84-87
Antimony 15*10
Tin Trace.
Salgee Anti-friction Mktal.
Zinc S.V57
Tin 9*91
Copper liil
Lead 1-].-,
Graphite Bearing Mktal.
Lend 07-73
Tin 1P38
Anli i iy 1(1- 73
Iron Not determined.
Graphite None.
Antimoniat. Lead.
Lead 80-69
Antimony (by diff.) IS'83
Carbon Bronze.
Cupper 75*47
Tin 9-72
Lead 14*57
Carbon Possible trace.
Cornish Bronze.
Copper 77*88
Tin 9*60
Lead 12-40
Zinc Trace.
Iron Trace.
Phosphorus Trace.
Delta Metal.
Copper 02-39
Tin 2-37
Lead 5'10
Iron 0-07
Magnolia Metal.
Lead 83*55
Antimony (by dill.) tO'45
and traces of iron, copper, zinc and possibly bismuth.
American Anti-friction Metal.
Lead 78'44
Antimony 10'ttO
Zinc 0-98
Iron 0-(!5
Tobin Bronze.
Copper 59*00
Zinc 38-40
Tin 2*16
Iron 0-11
Lead 0*81
Ghaney Bronze.
Copper 75'80
Lead 1500
Tin 9-20
Damascus Bronze.
Copper 76*41
Tin 10*00
Lead 12*52
Manganese Bronze.
Copper 90*32
Tin 9*58
Manganese None.
A.iax Mktal.
Copper SI ' 24
Tin 10-98
Lead 7 27
Phosphorus or arsenic 0*87
Anti-friction Metal.
Lead Wit
Antimony 11*93
Harrington Bronze.
Copper 55-73
Zinc 42*67
Tin ir 07
Iron 068
Car Box Mktal.
Lead S4'33
Antimony 14*38
Iron n- in
Zinc Trace.
Hvrii Lead.
Lend 04*40
Antimony 6*03
Phosphor-Bronze.
Copper 79*17
Tin 10-22
Lead 9'01
Phosphorus 0*94
Ex. B. Metal.
Copper 76'80
Tin 8-00
Lead 15*00
Phosphorus 0*20
Metallic lead and many of the white metal alloys arc
disadvantageous on account of their inability to resist the
breaking strain caused by journals of smaller diameter than
the bearings (i.e. worn journals) and generally on account
of their want of strength.
E
U2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 81, 1882.
In copper-zinc alloys the wonderful influence of the
addition of a small amount of iron is well seen in the
so-called Harrington bronze, the analysis of which is given
above. After rolling it had a tensile strength of 75, 000 lb.
per square inch, and an elongation of 20 per cent, in a two-
inch section. The method adopted in testing the wear of
the different alloys was to have a certain number of bearings
made of a standard alloy, and the same number made of the
experimental metal placed on the same axles either on
locomotive tenders or on cars, one half of the standard and
experimental bearings being on one side of the car and the
other half on the other side, so that in all cases a standard
and an experimental bearing were on opposite ends of the
same axle. The bearings were all carefully weighed before
going into service, and after a sufficient lapse of time taken
ouc and reweighed. In this way a sufficiently constant ratio
could be obtained between the loss of metal in the experi-
mental alloy and that in the standard, whereas attempts
made to determine the wear of an alloy absolutely in terms
of the mileage gave unsatisfactory results on account of the
variations in the load and state of lubrication of each axie.
The Phosphor-Bronze Smelting Company's " S bearing
metal," containing approximately 79 ■ 7 per cent, of copper,
10 per cent, of tin, 9-50 per cent, of lead, and O-80 per
cent, of phosphorus was used as a standard, and 1G bearings
of each kind were, in the first instance, attached to loco-
motive tenders as a preliminary experiment, and if the
metal proved favourable, 50 or 100 bearings of each kind
were put in service. In the first test the old copper-tin
alloy was compared with the standard with the following
result : —
Copper-Tin v. Phosphor-Bronze.
Composition
Copper-Tin Alloy.
Composition
Phosphor-Bronze.
Copper 87*50
Tin 12-50
Lead None
Phosphorus None
Wear. — First experiment, copper-tin wore 48 per cent,
faster than phosphor-bronze ; second experiment, copper-
tin wore 53 per cent, faster than phosphor-bronze ; third
experiment, copper-tin wore 47 per cent, faster than
phosphor-bronze.
It was also found [hat a much larger percentage of the
copper-tin bearings heated than of the phosphor-bronze.
The value of the copper-tin alloy is thus seen to be far
inferior to th.it of the phosphor-bronze. It was then observed
thai arsenic may practically take the place of phosphorus
in a copper -tin alloy.
The following experiments were accordingly made with
arsenic-bronze : —
Arsenic -Bronze u. Phospiiok-Bkonzk.
(First Experiment.)
t !ompo*ition
Arsenic-Bronze.
Coiiipusitinii
Phosphor-Bronze.
Copper
Tin
Lead
Phosphorus
Arsenic
89-20
10-00
V ' i it ■
None
0-80
79-/0
WOO
9 -50
0-80
Nmie
Wear. — Arsenic-bronze wore 12 per cent, faster than
phosphor-bronze.
(Second Experiment.)
Composition Composition
Arsenic- Bronze (?). Phosphor-Bronze.
Copper
Tin
Lead
Phosphorus
Arsenic
79'20
10-00
7-00
None
(I'M.
79-70
io-oo
9-M
o-so
None
Wear. — Arsenic-bronze wore 15 per cent, faster than
phosphor-bronze.
(Third Experiment.)
Copper
Tin
Lead
Phosphorus
Arsenic
Composition
Arsenic-Bronze.
Composition
Phosphor-Bronze.
79'70
io-oo
9-00
None
0-80
79-70
10-00
9-50
0-80
None
Wear. — Arsenic-bronze wore 1 per cent, faster than
phosphor-bronze.
It will be observed that the first experiment was practically
on a copper-tin alloy containing some arsenic, and that
this wore nearly as fast as the ordinary alloy (seven of
copper to one of tin), and it may be inferred that the utility
of arsenic (and phosphorus) is principally confined to the
foundry. In the second experiment the introduction of lead
effects a marked diminution of the rate of wear ; whilst in
the third experiment, in the presence of an equal amount of
lead in the two alloys the wear is almost the same, the
substitution of arsenic for phosphorus having little influence
on the rate of wear or on the heating of the bearings.
Accordingly an alloy containing more lead than the standard
was prepared and tested with the following results : —
' It "-Bronze v. Phosphor-Bbcnzk.
Composition
" K "-Bronze .
Composition
Phosphor-bronze.
Copper
Tin
Lead
Phosphorus.
79-711
io-oo
9-50
0-80
Wear. — First experiment, " It "-bronze wore 8 per cent.
slower than phosphor-bronze; second experiment, "It"-
bronze wore 7 '30 per cent, slower than phosphor-bronze,
" It "-bronze behaves like phosphor-brenze with respect to
beating, &c, the only difference being in the rate of wear.
During the progress of the experiments it became apparent
that there was a law governing the composition of bearing
metal alloys which may be stated as follows : — " The alloy
which can endure the greatest amount of distortion without
rupture will give the best results in wear." Experiments
were accordingly made, first with copper and tin to ascertain
what proportions of these metals an alloy capable of
enduring a maximum amount of distortion should contain,
and then to find how much lead could with advantage be
ai'.ded to this alloy. The proportions selected were 9| parts
May 31, 1S92.J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
443
of copper to 1 of tin, but it is now doubtful whether 12 or
IS parts of copper to 1 of tin would not have been prefer-
able, It was then observed that the addition of lead has
ranch the same influence on a copper-tin alloy that a dimi-
nution of the tin would have, but that as the amount of tin is
diminished and the amount of lead increased the tendency
of the metal to yield more readily under pressure increases.
As a result of several trials, an alloy " li " was made, which
give the following tests : —
Alloy "B'
Phosphor-Bronze.
Composition
Alloy " B."
Composition,
Phosphor-bronze.
Copper '
Tin
Lead
Phosphorus '
TT'iiu
vim
15-00
None
79' TO
10 00
9'60
0'80
Physical Properties.
Alloy "B."
Phosphor-bronze.
Tensile strength, pounds
per square inch.
24,000
11
30,000
6
Wear. — Alloy "B" wore 13'50 per cent, slower than
phosphor-bronze.
This alloy is now, with a slight modification, the standard
bearing metal of the Pennsylvania Railway Company, but
it is probable tha' a still further diminution in the amount
of tin and increase of the lead would give even better
results ; a certain amount of tin is, however, necessary to
bold the lead alloyed with the copper. In order to utilise
phosphor-bronze scrap and to obtain sound castings, the
formula actually in use by the Company is the following : —
Lb.
Copper 105
Phosphor-bronze, new or scrap 60
Tin 9J
Lead 25J
The product is the Ex. B. metal of which the analysis
has been given. By using ordinary care in the foundry,
keeping the metal fairly well covered with charcoal during
the melting, it is quite possible to get perfectly successful
castings in car-bearings with the above formula. The whole
of the copper and phosphor-bronze can be charged into the
pot before placing in the melting-hole; the tin aud lead
are added after the pot is removed fix in the fire.
In conclusion, the author points out that besides a high
elongation and tensile strength which are required in an
alloy to impede the removal of particles by attrition, there
is a third hitherto unconsidered factor which affects the
wear, namely, the granular structure of the alloy or the
size of the particles which maybe torn off. This is pro-
bably the most important factor, but there are no data on
this point, beyond certain observations, that case-hardened
iron wears better than either the wrought iron from which
it is made or ordinary hammered steel of approximately the
same carbon. Theoretical considerations, however, indicate
that a finely granular structure is desirable in a bearing
metal. — S. li. A. A.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method of Extracting Copper from Ores
or Compounds containing the same. T. 1). Nicholls,
C. James, Swansea, and the Cape Copper Company,
Limited. Eng. Pat. 18,898, November 21, 1890.
Tin: process depends on the reduction of oxides of copper
by means of cupric sulphide in a reducing furnace.
One portion of copper matte, preferrably containing
76 — 78 per cent, of copper, is roasted in a current of air
until the copper is converted into either cupric oxide or
cuprous oxide or a mixture of the two, but preferably
into cuprous oxide which is more economical, and this is
then mixed with an equivalent quantity of raw copper
matte, previously ground so us to pass through a ^-th screen.
The mixture of sulphide and oxides of copper is then
heated in a close furnace, when the sulphur unites with the
oxygen, sulphurous anhydride passing away, and the copper
thus obtained is run into ingots direct.
It is claimed that the process may be worked at about
one-half the cost of the usual one, that the volatile im-
purities contained in the matte are expelled more readily
during the evolution of the sulphurous anhydride, than is
usually the case, and that by employing a flux, the non-
volatile impurities are readily separated. Moreover less
copper remains in the slags and in the furnace bottoms than
is found in the usual process. Although rich ores are pre-
ferred, good results are also obtained when working poor
ores containing but 30 per cent, of copper. — J. W. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Refractory Materials
or Articles. J. B. Alzugaray, London. Eng. Pat.
21,212, December 30, 1890.
It is recommended to make the inner wall or lining of
crucibles of a layer of finely ground coke, plumbago,
graphite or other form of earbou, whilst for the outer coat,
mixtures of different infusible materials are recommended.
The different mixtures named are made up of several of
the following materials : finely pulverised emery, asbestos,
chalk, limestone, graphite, retort-coke, bauxite, quartz,
magnetic oxide of iron, kaolin, fire-clay, magnesite. The
materials are all finely ground and mixed with about 10 per
cent, of their weight of tar or oil, or other carbonaceous
material. If desired, on account of economy, to insert
between the outer coat and the inner lining a third layer of
some cheaper material, this may be done, for which purpose
any infusible material that is without action on the other
materials may be used. — J. W. L.
Improvements in the Process of Coating or Cleaning
Metals. R. Heathfield, Darlaston. Eng. Pat. 500,
January 10, 1891.
In order to avoid the use of acids in cleaning the surface
of metals before galvanising, the objects to be cleaned
are immersed in a solution of ferrous sulphate or chloride,
aud connected with the positive pole of a dynamo, whilst
another set of objects are connected with the negetativc
pole. Metal is dissolved off the surfaces of the objects
acting as the anode, and a corresponding quantity deposited
on those of the objects which constitute the cathode, a great
saving of expense being thus effected. — J. W. L.
Improvements in Treating Waste Liquor from Galvanising
Works and other similar Liquors to obtain Ferric
Chloride. J. W. Wilson, Manchester, nd C. II. G.
Harvey, London. Eng. Pat. 6509, April 16, 1891.
See under VII., page 133.
A Process of Using Galvanisers' Waste.*. I!. J. Brice,
London. Eng. Pat. 15.2SS, September 9, 1891.
Tin: two products which constitute galvanisers' waste, are
"sal-ammoniac skimmings" and " zinc-ashes." In order
that the skimmings may be economically worked, they should
be preserved in casks until required.
The sal-ammoniac skimmings are fused, preferably in an
iron pot, the metallic zinc melts and is drawn off at the
E 2
Hi
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31. 1892.
bottom, the " waste " is then transferred to boiling water,
when it becomes reduced to a tine state of subdivision.
Milk of lime is now added to the water containing the waste,
in quantity equal to about 20 parts of quicklime to 100
pails of skimmings operated upon. Calcium chloride and
zinc ozychloride are thus formed. The solution containing
the former is separated, and any ammonia it may contain is
separated by the addition of a little more milk of lime and
then distilling.
The precipitated zinc oxychloride may be pressed from
the liquid, and used as a pigment by itself, or it may be
mixed with zinc ashes in quantity equal to the weight of
skimmings operated upon, when the pasty mass is dried and
calcined, when it becomes much lighter coloured, and forms
paint of more than ordinary body and durability. Before
mixing the zinc ashes with the precipitated zinc oxychloride,
the\ are screened from the rough particles of metallic zinc.
—J. W. L.
XI.-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis. F. Kiidorff.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892,3—7.
See under XXIII., pape 459.
Hoepfner's Electrolytic Copper Process. Kng. and
Mining .1. April 30, 1892, 171.
Tins process differs very materially from that of Siemens,
in that the copper is precipitated from a cuprous chloride
solution, wherein is a great advantage, for the same current
will deposit copper from a cuprous chloride solution just
twice as fast as from a sulphate solution.
While copper sulphate solution is used in the Siemens
and Halske process for the electrolytic separation of copper,
Dr. Hoepfuer, of Giessen, uses in his process a cuprous chloride
solution which deposits 2-36 grms. of copper per ampere
hour. The liquid, which is a solution of cuprous chloride
in strong brine, or in a concentrated solution of chloride of
lime, and which contains 120 gnus, of copper per litre,
Hows through an electrolytic bath with vertical electrodes,
in which the anodes and cathodes are separated by dia-
phragms, but in such a way that there is nevertheless a
constant circulation of the solution along both electrodes.
At the cathodes metallic copper is deposited from the
solution.
If the sepatate cathodes of such a bath have each a
surface of one square metre and the current be 50 amperes
per square metre, then there will be deposited on that sur-
face, according to theory, 2-76 kilos, of copper per 24 hours,
and HoepFner asserts that with careful work he can obtain
90 per cent, of the quantity. The loss of 10 per cent.
is line to diffusion of the cupric chloride from the anodes
through the diaphragm to the cathodes.
Tin- solution flows continuously from the cathode cells
after having pissed a large number of them and after
having deposited its copper. That portion of the cuprous
chloride solution which has been flowing during the same
time continuously through the anode cells retains its copper
entirely, but, owing to atomic changes, free chlorine is
generated at the carbon anodes naturally proportionate in
quantity to the amount of copper deposited at the cathodes.
The nascent chlorine, of course, attacks the cuprous
chloride, changing it to cupric chloride, and thereby deve-
loping positive electromotive force ; that is, electromotive
force tending to precipitate more copper at the cathodes, so
that the electrolysis will take place even if there be more
than 0-6 to 0-8 volt for each bath, while double that
potential would be not necessary if there were no such
chlorine depolarisation.
The cupric chloride at the end is mixed with the cathode
solution now freed of its copper, and this mixed solution
then should contain, according to the theory of the process,
only one-half as much copper as before electrolysis, or
about CO grms. of copper per litre.
The copper is now, however, no longer in the form of
cuprous chloride, but is present as cupric chloride. It is
well known that this latter chloride, heated as a dry
powder, will lose half its chlorine, which goes off as free
chlorine gas. In solution this salt is well adapted, notably
when heated, to dissolve sulphides, especially that of copper
from its ores, precipitating free sulphur. On the sulphides
of silver it acts in the same way, and of this dissolving
power Hoepfuer makes practical use.
The copper ores, which may also contain silver, are
ground very fine in a Gruson mill, either crude or after
having been roasted. They are then raised by an elevator
to a platform above the leaching barrels, to which they are
afterwards transferred as needed.
The leaching barrels are of wood, of a capacity of 10,000
litres each, and rotate on fixed iron wheels, the rotary
motion being obtained by sprocket wheel and chain. There
must be three or four such barrels. Each of them is filled
with 8,000 litres of the heated solution and a corresponding
amount of the ore to be treated, and is then set in motion.
The time necessary for the leaching varies of course with
the character of the ore. It takes from two to six hours to
reduce the cupric chloride solution to the cuprous chloride.
In practice the so-called" Methodical Leaching " is resorted
to, that is, every portion of ore is leached out twice, first by
a solution containing a smaller amount of the cupric
chloride, and then by another very rich in that salt, which
latter solution takes out the remainder of the copper com-
pletely.
When the solution has been sufficiently regenerated, the
rotation of the barrel is stopped, the particles of ore fall to
the bottom, and the clear solution is drawn off. The solu-
tion is then cleaned both mechanically and chemically in
special apparatus.
Besides holding copper, the solution contains silver, and
certain small quantities of such impurities as lead, iron,
arsenic, &c. These are first removed, so as to obtain in
the electrolysis afterwards a perfectly pure copper. The
silver can be precipitated either chemically or electrolyti-
cally. An analysis of the copper deposited by the process
of Dr. Hoepfuer from very impure ores showed only very
small quantities of impurities, which were not sufficient to
influence in any way the quality of the product.
The advantages of this product are, according to the
inventor : 1. The process yields per unit of current just twice
as much copper as a sulphate process. 2. The silver in
the ore, which often is of great value, will also be obtained.
3. The conductivities of the solutions arc very good and
their dissolving power is great.
After having been cleaned the solution goes to the baths
for electrolysis, passes through them, and comes out again
as a cupric chloride solution, which is again used as a
solvent. It is therefore a continuous process, in which
the solution circulates constantly, dissolving and precipi-
tating copper in its various stages.
The ore is forced from the barrel in the form of a thick
mush, which is washed in a filter-press. It is due to this
latter circumstance, i.e., the use of the Ifilter-press, and to
the compactness of the plant, that the process requires
very little room.
The electrolytic plant for a daily production of 2,000
kilos, of copper needs only 800 square metres, while the
entire plant, including machinery and all, would require uot
more than twice that area.
Since the foregoing article was written, many improve-
ments hove been made, one of the most important of which
is the abandoning of the carbon anodes. These being so
expensive, Hoepfner tried to replace them by another
substance, and was finally successful last summer in finding
a very cheap anode, and which, like the carbon anodes, does
May 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
4-15
not dissolve. The analysis of the copper obtained from
very' impure ores, which is referred to near the end of the
article, was made in Presenilis' laboratory in Wiesbaden.
Tlic results were as follows :— Sulphur, 0-0004 percent.;
iron, trace; arsenic, trace; antimony, trace; lead, trace;
nickel and cobalt, 0-0012 percent.; molybdenum, 0-0023
per cent. In other words, this copper was as pure as the
best copper.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Cells for the Electrical or Storage
/latteries, and the Manufacture of Lead for the same.
T. YV. Bush, Broseley, and it. DouWeday, Nottingham.
Eng. Pat. 2471, February 11, 1891.
Tiif: process consists in pouring molten lead into water, or
acid, or alkali diluted with water. The material so obtained,
named " hydrolised lead," may be placed in vessels
separated by porous partitions, each compartment forming
a plate. Grids may be placed in the liquid, and then the
material is reduced by pressure into uniform thickness ; or
the grids may be replaced by cocoa-nut matting. This
material is also used for separators after being impregnated
with plaster of Paris. The plates are held together by-
wood or vulcanite screw-bolts, thus avoiding the use of
binding frames. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Voltaic Cells. H. H. Lake, London.
Prom E. Weston, New Jersey, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 22,482,
December 23, 1891.
The object af this invention is to provide a standard cell
whose electromotive force shall be practically independent
of temperature. This may be accomplished in one of three
ways : firstly, by using as an electrolyte a saturated solution
of cadmium salt with electrodes of other material ; secondly,
by using an electrode containing cadmium opposed to
mercury in a solution of some salt other than cadmium ;
thirdly, and this is best for a permanent standard cell,
cadmium amalgam in a saturated solution of cadmium
sulphate opposed to mere iry in mercurous sulphate.
— G. H. B.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The Solid Fatty Acids of Palm Oil. H. Ndrdlinger.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892, 110—111.
Statements of text-books point to the possibility of easily
obtaining pure palmitic acid by crystallising the palm oil
acids from alcohol. The author did not succeed by
proceeding in this way, and undertook, therefore, the
examination of a specimen of pure Lagos oil, melting at
38 ('., and containing 50-8 per cent, free fatty acids
(calculated for oleic acid). The oil was saponified and the
fatty acids separated by means of sulphuric acid and
washed repeatedly with water. The fatty acids were
divided into two parts. (Although the author speaks only
of the solid fatty acids of the palm oil, he does not state
whether and how he separated the solid fatty acids from
the liquid acids of the palm oil.)
The author claims the existence of a heptadecylic acid
in palm oil, which may be identical with Gerard's daturic
acid (this Journal, 1889, 1137), melting point 55 ( '.
The solid fatty acids of palm oil consist, according to the
author, of 98 per cent, palmitic acid, 1 per cent, stearic
acid, and 1 percent, heptadecylic acid. — J. L.
PATENTS.
Manufacture of Fatty Matter from Wool-Fat. P. C.
Glaser, Berlin. Prom O. Braun and ( ). Liebreich, Berlin,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 4992, October 20, 1882. (Second
Edition.)
A description of this process has already appeared in this
Journal, 1883, 182; (Braun and Liebreich, U.S. Pat.
271,192). The inventors obtain from the wash-waters of
wool-scouring works or from impure commercial wool-fat by
means of a hydro-extractor a purified wool-fat, which has
the property of combining with water, thus forming a white
inodorous, neutral unguent. This purified wool-fat has
been termed by the inventors " Lanolin." — J. L.
Improvements in Lubricants for Heavy Machinery. C. H.
Ridsdale, Guisborough, and A. Jones, .Middlesbrough.
Eng. Pat. 3782, March 3, 1891.
In order to avoid the waste attending the usual method of
applying the lubricant to heavy machinery, such as necks of
rollers in iron or steel rolling mills, the patentees prepare
the lubricant in solid form as blocks, bars, slabs, &c. They
use ordinary soap, or an alkali or alkaline earth, or a mixture
of both, and add to this mixture saponifiable oils or fats in
quantities suitable to produce the hardness required for the
special purposes, if the soaps are mixed with mineral oils or
mineral lubricants, such as black lead, sulphur, mica, &c.
Two recipes will illustrate the composition of these lubri-
cants ; —
Per Cent.
Hard Lubricant: —
Lime or magnesia 3
Ordinary soap n
Rendered suet 75
Fine black lead it;
Soft Lubricant :—
Lime or magnesia 2
Etei dered suet 45
Sulphur (line) It
Black lead 19
Heavy petroleumoil 30
—J. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Snap, and in the
Utilisation of the Residue of the Substances used therein.
R. Stone, London. Eng. Pat. 4454, March 12, 1891.
The novelty of this invention consists in the use of a
combination of fruits or of vegetables. The inventor soaks
these materials iu 10 per cent, of glycerin or almond oil or
palm oil, and mixes the juice expressed from these sub-
stances "of a nutritious and skin-healing nature" with
soap. For such a soap the property is claimed of being
"especially soothing and healing to the skin."
The residues obtained from the soaked material are baked
or dried and ground up. This material is to be used as a
substitute for coffee, being alleged to be " far more nutritious
for the human system than ordinary coffee." — J. L.
Improvements in the Thickening o] Oil. W. X. Hartley,
Dublin, and W. ]•'.. Blenkinsop, Wandsworth Common.
Eng. Pat. 7251, April 27, 1891.
Linseed oil may be thickened and thereby converted into
a suitable material for manufacturing oil-skin, oil-silk,
oil-cloth, floor-cloth, linoleum, lincrusta, &c, by adding a
solution of one part of manganese soap or manganese
linoleate — as prepared in the manner described in Eng. Pat.
11,629, 1891 (this Journal, 1891, 263)— in two parts of
turpentine to the oil to be thickened. Two or five volumes
of this soap solution are used for 100 volumes of the oil to
be treated. Insoluble matters are allowed to settle out and
are removed. The mixture is raised to a temperature of
116
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
fMay 31,189 2
212° F. (in an apparatus described in Eng. Pat. 11,629) and
a current of air or oxygen passed through the oil until it
ncc|uires any desired degree of thickness. Thus, e.g., from
a linseed oil, sp. gr. 0-937, a clear transparent oil of a pale
amber colour, sp. gr. 0-997 (at 70° F.), has been obtained.
Cotton-socd oil may be thickened iu the same manner ;
the patentees use for this oil one volume of linoleate solution
to 400 volumes of cotton oil. — 1. L.
A New or Improved Method of Treating Oils used for
Lubricating and Tempering Purposes, t<> render the
same Incomhtstibl <>r Fireproof. It. 1!. Graf, Baltimore,
U.S.A., Eng. l'at. 20,512, November 25, 1891.
I'm object of the "inventor" is to render lubricating oils
incombustible and fireproof, and lie proposes to do this by
triturating 32 parts of sodium tungstate, 32 parts of sul-
phate of ammonia, 18 parts of phosphate of ammonia, 12 parts
of sal-ammoniac, and 24 parts of sodium monocarbonate in a
mortar with sufficient linseed oil to obtain a paste of even
consistency, and finally mixing this paste with 520 parts of
any suitable heavy oil. It is claimed that this mixture has
all' the good properties of a lubricant, " the oil being in all
respects just as good as before treatment," and can be
applied not only to fast-running machinery, as dynamos
and electric motors, but also be used with great advantage
in tempering steel tools. — .1. L.
Improvements in Cages for Oil Presses. A. Estrayer,
.Marseilles, France. Eng. Pat. 2264, Fehruary 5, 1832.
The improvement consists in building up the interior of the
cage of eight sections which are made to open and close by
means of a vertically moving outer cylinder. For details
the sheet of drawing should be consulted. — J. L.
An Improved Manufacture of Superfatted Snap. C. L.
Field. London. Eng. l'at. 21,438, December 8, 1891.
Tins improvement in tin manufacture of superfatted soaps
consists ni adding to snap, made by the cold process, milk,
cream, or butter iu such quantities that any alkali in excess
is saturated and an excess of cream is left. — J. L.
Improvement.- in Candles or Tapers for Fumigating or
Perfuming or Evaporating Purposes. J. Eyder, Man-
chester. From E. A. Weidemann, Liebenburg, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 22,742, December 30, 1891.
( 'an-pi.es or tapers for fumigating purposes are manufactured
iu such a way that the substances, the vapours of which are
to perfume or disinfect the air of a room, are closely
enveloped by the ordinary material of the candles or tapers.
This is effected by either incorporating the perfuming sub-
Stanccs with the material of the caudles or filling them into
tubes which are embedded iu the candle material. — 1. L.
Improvements in Cauldrons far Melting Pitch and Fatty
Substances. B. I). Healey, Bamber Bridge. Eng. Pat.
32 I. January 7. 1892.
The invention relates to a mechanical improvement of an
apparatus previously patented by the same inventor (Eng.
l'at. 11,443 of 1891), and consists essentially in an
improved method for drawing off gas and air from the
cauldrons and for making the bogie or swivel box for the
front wheels of the cauldrons. For details the drawings
accompanying the specification must he consulted. — J. L.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
PATENTS.
An Improved Waterproofing and Rust-Preventing Compo-
sition, applicable also in the Manufacture of Ink.
F. L. Leech, Middleton Junction, and A. Ilorrobin,
Hollinwood. Eng. Pat. 1616, January 29, 1891.
This invention has for its object the providing of a solution
by which paper, leather, &c., can be waterproofed. The
liquid is also applicable as a coating for walls, as a rust-
preventer for machinery, and, mixed with colour, as an
indestructible ink. The ingredients used are turpentine,
asphaltum, resin, alum, and bees'-wax. — E. G. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Copying Ink.
E. Coin, Turin. Eng. Pat. 3247, February 23, 1891.
The following are the ingredients of tiiis ink: — Ordinary
ink, (190 parts ; candied or twice refined sugar, 225 parts ;
and pure glycerin, 85 parts. — E. G. C.
Improvements in or relating to Sulphuretted Solutions and
Compounds used for the Production of Films or
Coatings. J. S. Fairfax, London. From F. Crane,
New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 3345, February 24, 1891.
The object of this invention is to produce a substance or
compound which is not injuriously affected by exposure to
the air, and is waterproof. Such a substance has many
applications, as a coating for paper, leather, textile fabrics,
or as a substitute for india-rubber in some of its applica-
tions. For the purpose, a combination of soluble pyroxydin
with sulphuretted oil is employed by the inventor ; and
good results are stated to have been yielded by the following
formula : — Butyl acetate, 7 gals.; petroleum naphtha,
3 gals.: pyroxylin, 15 lb.; sulphuretted oil, 30 — 4U lb.;
and any desired pigment, 1 — 2 lb. — E. G. G.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for Manu-
facturing Inlaid linoleums or Floor Cloths. \V . (1.
Thomson, Halifax, and J. S. Powell, London. Eng. Pat.
4210, March 10, 1891.
See under VI., page 431.
Improvements in Process and Apparatus for Extruding
Glue <>r Gelatin antl Crease out of Hide and Shin
Waste and of Bones id comparatively Low Temperature.
L. Bertram, Berlin, Germany. Eng. l'at. 961, January 18,
1892.
See under XIV. — page 447.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Coloured Rubber
Goods or Rubber-Coated Goods, and a Material or
Preparation to be used in the said Manufacture.
C. Dreyfus, Clayton. Eng. Pat. 17,566, October 11,
1891.
The inventor states that hitherto colours produced on
rubber-coated fabrics have been mechanically mixed with
the rubber solution, or with the "swelled" rubber, prepared
in the usual way with so-called solvent naphtha. The
May 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
147
novelty claimed is the use of a coloured solvent for the
rubber, the lakes produced by treating an aqueous solution
of resin soap with metallic salts, or salts of an alkaline
earth, and a basic coal-tar dye, being dissolved in the
" dissolving naphtha " of commerce, or in benzene. The
rubber is then added. — K. O. C.
Improvements in Mucilages, Sizes, and Adhesive Com-
pounds. C. M. Higgins, Brooklyn, TJ. S. A. Eng. Pat.
22,679, December 29, 1891.
Dextrin, 7 — 9 lb., is dissolved in water, 1 gal., at a tem-
perature of 60° — 100° F., and after the solution is cool, half
a pint to one pint of IS vol. hydrogen peroxide solution is
added. The patentee claims the production of an " adhesive
compound " and the application of hvdrogen peroxide as
above. The effect of the last-mentioned ingredient is to
increase the solubility of the dextrin and to prevent the
separation of "dense grayish sediment " which usually
takes place when it is not used. " Yellow dextrins act
better than white dextrins, but either may be used."
—A. K. L.
Improvements in Mucilages, Sizes, and Adhesive Com-
pounds. ('. M. Higgins, Brooklyn, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
22,682, December 29, 1891.
The patentee claims the production of an adhesive com-
pound by heating a solution of dextrin and borax in water,
and the thickening of the same with an alkali. His
invention differs from that specified in U.S. Pat. 244,200
of 1881, in that a larger quantity of borax relatively
to that of dextrin, viz., T'ff — } the weight of the latter,
is used, and the mixture is heated or boiled to effect
chemical combination. For an ordinary " strong muci-
lage," the following proportions a^e used : — Dextrin
(preferably white dextrin) is dissolved in an equal weight
of water (at 60° — 150° F.), together with \ its weight of
tV — Va its volume of ammonia
borax ; to the cool solution
(20° B.1 or caustic soda lye (.40° B.) is stirred in,
when the solution suddenly thickens, accompanied by a
rise in temperature of about 6 F.. and the adhesive qualities
of the mixture become considerabhy enhanced ; the order
in which the ingredients are mixed cannot be varied.
When a saturated solution of alum is added to the solution
of borax and dextrin, and subsequently an alkali, the
mucilage becomes extremely viscous and adhesive. The
mucilage may be dried into a solid granular gum, which
is dissolved in water as required. In certain cases dextrin
and borax may be mixed together in powder, and when
this mixture is dissolved in hot water it yields a very
adhesive mucilage on addition of ammonia or other alkali.
" The improved compound may be used for sizing paper
or textile fabrics, also for size in kalsomine or other washes
or paints." — A. B. L.
Improvements in Mucilages, Sizes, and Adhesive Com-
pounds. C. M. Higgins, Brooklyn, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
22,685, December 29, 1891.
The patentee describes the production of an " adhesive
compound " formed by dissolving dextrin and borax in
water, as specified in the last abstract, and stirring into the
cool solution T's — J- of its volume of 15 vols, hydrogen
peroxide which clarifies it. After a few days or weeks, the
clear supernatant liquid is drawn off and bottled, or in
some cases -^ — ^ its volume of ammonia (20° B.) or
of soda lye (40" B.) — a mixture of alum and sodium
carbonate may also be used — is added to thicken it. He
claims that the mucilage thus obtained is equal or superior
to that produced from natural gums, at the same time being
much less costly. The " improved compound " may be
used for the same purposes as that described in the
preceding abstract, and " for any similar uses where a size,
fixative, stiffening, or adhesive substance is required.
Sometimes a second addition of hydrogen peroxide is made,
which has the effect of rendering the mucilage still clearer
and purer. — A. R. L.
XIV.-TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
Analysis of "Eggio." C. S. Boyer. Journ. Franklin Inst.
1891, 133, 205—206.
" Eggio" is a preparation of the yolk of eggs, and is used
for the dressing of fine leathers. Only the ingredients
valuable for this purpose, namely, water, ash, and fatty acids,
were determined. '1 he results were as follows : —
II.
III.
IV.
Wate
Ash
Frilly acids . .
f 56-91
( 66-81 f 53 '75
5-64 \ ; 56-45 )■ 5*-20 i
(. 56-utl (. 53-62
I, 56-79 J
11-73
( 11-73 ") , 9-46 ~)
] [ 19-25 [ 13
(. 11-80 ) (. 9-17 )
67 10-35
16-00 I 15-23
The water was determined by mixing with ignited sand
and drying for 2 — 4 hours at 110° O. ; the ash left on
igniting the residue was light grey to white in colour and
free from lime.
From a comparison of the analyses with values obtained
from pure egg yolk it appears that commercial " eggio "
contains from 2 to 5 per cent, more water, and from 3| to
6 per cent, less fatty acids. The high ash is due to sodium
salts added to prevent putrefaction. — S. B. A. A.
PATENT.
Improvements in Process anil Apparatus far Extracting
Glue or Gelatin anil Grease out of Hide and Skm
Waste and of Bones at comparatively Lou Temperature.
L. Bertram, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 951, January 18,
1892.
Give or gelatin of the best quality are only obtained when
the extraction is carried out at a low temperature. The
inventor proposes for this purpose an apparatus in which
the raw material is extracted at a temperature of 75° to 85° C.
The apparatus consists essentially of a water-bath which can
be heated either by a steam coil placed inside the water
jacket or by a separate steam compartment fastened to the
bottom of the vessel. Inside the water-bath the inventor
places a vessel made of sheet iron and tinned inside and
furnished with a false bottom made of the same material on
which the raw material to be extracted is placed and covered
with water. By two or three extractions the most valuable
parts are obtained ; the last quantities are recovered by
boiling the material with direct steam, for which purpose the
innermost vessel is provided with a lead steam coil. To
increase the heating surface of the water-bath hot water
tubes communicating with the water-jacket protrude into the
inner vessel, in which the extraction is carried out.
There are six claims and one sheet of drawings. — .1. L.
4*8
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
XV.-MANUEES. Etc.
Formation and Behaviour of Basic Calcium Phosphates
and their Relationship to Thomas-slag. O. Foerster.
Zeits. E. angew. Chem. 1892, 13—22.
See under XXIII., page 16o.
XVI.-SUGAR, STARCH, GUM, Etc.
The Technical Analysis of the Calcined Vinasse from
Beetroot Molasses. C. Heyer. Chem. Zeit. 18'J1, 15,
1489 — 1490, 1523 — 1524 and loo". (Compare this
Journal, 1891,861.)
The Technical Analysis <f Ihe Calcined Y masse from
Beetroot Molasses. Alberti and Henipel, Chem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1623—1624.
See under XXIII., page 462.
1 Method of Inversion and Estimation of Raffinose.
Koydl. < testerr. Zeits. Zuckerind. 1891, 20, 700,
See under XXIII., page 463.
PATENTS.
cold water. This may be effected in a closed vespi I con-
taining the substances, t )gether with sulphurous anhydride,
heated by an oil-hath, but a more uniform action is insured
by the use of an apparatus described in the specification.
It consists of a cylindrical vessel supported at its extremities
by two hollow trunnions in pedestals, and capable of
revolving on its longitudinal axis ; a steam coil, fed by a
tube branching from one of the trunnions, the steam
escaping by two pipes provided with valves having an exit
at the other trunnion, is placed within the vessel; the
trunnions are fitted with stuffing boxes to avoid the escape
of steam. A man-hole is attached, capable of being easily
opened and hermetically sealed. The vessel is half rilled
with the amylaceous substance, and gaseous sulphurous
anhydride passed in until the air is displaced, when the exit
tube is closed, and when the vessel is full of sulphurous
anhydride, the temperature is raised from 120° to 190° C,
according to the nature of the desired product. When the:
conversion is complete, the sulphurous anhydride is allowed
to escape. — A. 1!. L.
Improvements in the Refining or Extraction of Sugar from
Hate Sugar Solution, .time, or Molasses. A. Schncller
and W. J. Wisse, The Hague, Holland. Eng. Pat. 5236,
March 24, 1891.
A S< mBBKR in the form of a tower is packed with broken
brick, earthenware, china, or glass, and the solution con-
taining the raw sugar juice or molasses is thrown in a spray
upon the top portion of it. As it trickles over this surface
in a downward direction, ozonised air, produced according
to the process specitied (Eng. Pat. 5222 of 1891; this
Journal, 1892, 354), is caused to enter at the lower part of
the scrubber, and coming into close contact with the solution,
oxidises the impurities contained therein. The solution
afterwards collects in a reservoir at the bottom of the
scrubber, and is again (as often as necessary) treated in a
similar manner in the same, or preferably another scrubber.
With more than one scrubber the process may be carried
on without interruption. The spent ozonised air may 1»*
used for bleaching or other suitable purpose, but if it be
desired to destroy tin- ozone in it, is is led into a furnai <
—A. R. L.
Improvements relating t" tlie Manufacture of Cube-, Loaf,
and Similar Sugar. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool.
From .1. Hirsch, Griinan, Germany. Eng. Pat. 21,477,
December 8, 1891.
Tiik patentee claims that his invention provides a method
of directly preparing the sugar obtained by the Steffen
washing process, or by any other process of refining for
table cubes, loaves. &c, without dissolving, clarifying, or
filtering such sugar.
A warm mash is prepared in a receptacle above a vacuum
apparatus, and in the mash white sugar is mixed with a
clarifying liquid or water to a thick paste, and carefully
warmed. The vacuum pan is then charged with the
mixture, closed, and the air pump applied ; the liquid sugar
is then brought to the required temperature and finally
drawn off. " Blued cleare, or blued pure water" is then
added to it, and it is boiled down until of the necessary
firmness, the massecuitc thus obtained being put into
moulds to be made into cubes, loaves, &c. — A. K. L.
Improvements in Mucilages, Sizes, anil Adhesive Com-
pounds. C. M. Higgins, Brooklyn, U.S.A. Eng. Pats.
22,679, L'L'.r.s-j. and 22,685, December 29, 1891.
See under XIII., page 447.
1 in pi m i mi nts in a ltd Apparatus for ( Converting Amylaceous
Substances into Soluble Prodticls. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. Prom A. H. J. Berge, Brussels, Belgium.
Eng. Pat. 7272, April 27. 1891.
'I'm patentee claims an improved process for the conversion
of amylaceous substances such a- " starch, flour, or farina,
ground, bruised, or even whole grain " into dextrin-like
products in ;i dry state by means of gaseous sulphurous
anhydride; tin- products being soluble in cither warm or
Improvements in Refining Sugar. E. Langen, Cologne,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 420, January 9, 1892.
The patentee claims that his invention provides a method
whereby the total sugar obtainable by crystallisation from
the after-products of the refining process is led back into
the circuit of this process in the form of an almost
chemically pure sugar solution.
A filtered solution of raw sugar is boiled down to a
granular filliiiir mass in the usual manner to obtain No. 1
product of the refining process. The first so-called green
svrup is concentrated to a granular consistency, and the
resulting mass is agitated with sugar crystals to induce
crystallisation, according to the Wulff or Bock process ; it
being then divided according to Steffen's process of
"fractionated washing" into a whitish crystalline magma,
consisting of Xo. 11. product, and low-grade syrup. After
pumping off the low grade syrup (see below) from the
magma, water is distributed uniformly over its surface in
thin streams, whereby all the sugar passes into solution.
If the first portion of the solution issuing from the washing
vessel be coloured, it is used as boiling liquor for No. 1.
product ; whilst that subsequently pumped out is employed
for the preparation of the clear liquor. The low-grade
syrup from No. IL is concentrated and made to crystallise
as described aluvc, the mass produced being subjected to
Maysi.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
449
centrifugal action, and the yellowish granular sugar
( No. III. product) used for inducing the crystallisation of
No. II. product. The syrup obtained from No. III.
product is, as a rule, sufficiently low for treating as
molasses, but when this is not so, it may be again subjected
to the crystallisation process and No. IV. product obtained,
the latter being used to induce the crystallisation of cither
Xo. II. or No. III. products. — A. It. L.
XVII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
The Decomposition of Manitol and Dextrose by the
Bacillus Ethaceticus. 1'. F. Frankland and J. S.
Lumsden. Proc. Chein. Soc. 1892 [lid], 70—72.
The products of the fermentation of both these compounde
consist of ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, carbonic anhydride,
hydrogen, and traces of succinic acid. When the fermenta-
tions are couducted in a closed space there is invariably also
a considerable quantity of formic acid produced, whilst in
fermentations in an open space (flasks plugged with cotton
wool) formic acid, except in traces, is a most exceptional
product. The same phenomenon has been already pointed
out by one of the authors in the case of a fermentation with
another organism (/i. ethacetosuccinicus), and it is doubtless
due to formic acid being one of the primary products of the
fermentation, and then breaking up, more or less completely,
into equal volumes of carbonic anhydride and hydrogen ;
this decomposition is, however, retarded wheu the products
— carbonic anhydride and hydrogen — are prevented from
escaping, as is the case in fermentations conducted in a
closed space. Indeed, the proportion in which the carbonic
anhydride and hydrogen were found coincides almost exactly
with that in which they are present in formic acid. The
proportions in which the several products are obtained
from manitol is approximately represented by the equation —
3 CGH1406 +
5 C.,H,,( )
II..O =
5 CPU).
whilst in the case of the dextrose the products occur in the
proportions —
2-5 C2H60:l-5 C3H4Oa:3 CHs02:COs
Thus, there is more acetic acid in proportion to alcohol
aud formic acid produced in the case of dextrose than in
that of manitol. The carbon dioxide given among the
products really represents that liberated from the calcium
carbonate present in excess by a fixed acid insoluble in
ether, the nature of which could not be determined.
The fermentations conducted in a closed space are always
found to be markedly less complete than those which take
place in an open one.
There is a close qualitative and quantitative resemblance
between these fermentations by the IS. ethaceticus and
those previously described by one of the authors as taking
place through the agency of the Pneamococeus (Fried-
hinder), which renders it probable that this ethacetic
decomposition is a very general and typical form of
fermentative change.
In reply to a question by Dr. Kipping, he added that it
was very remarkable that, notwithstanding both alcohol and
acetic acid were formed, no trace of ethylic acetate could
be detected among the products.
PATENT.
Improvements in the Process of and Apparatus for Brewinq
Birr. D. Quertain, Lobbes, Helgium, and II. Pecker,
Charleroi, Belgium. Eng. Pat. 654, January 13, 1891.
(By International Convention), June 14, 1890.
The " invention consists of a new process for the brewing of
beers by one continuous work and by natural decantation
by means of new or improved apparatus, and the object of
the invention is to obtain a more rapid manufacture to
prevent evaporation, (o prevent the formation of a head, and
to obtain a beer as strong as those now manufactured, at the
same time employing a less quantity of malt." In details
of this invention the original specification must be con-
sulted.—A. L. 8.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
(A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
On the Chemistry <>f the Preserve Industry. W. Reuse.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1522—1523, and 1583.
The author noticed the presence of lead in some preserves
put up in tinned-iron canisters, the latter were constructed
by bending the sheet-metal together, thereby avoiding
contamination with lead by means of solder and hermeti-
cally sealed by india-rubber bands. He subsequently
traced the lead to these bands, which contained this metal
in the form of minium. On examining red india-rubber
hands of French, German, and English manufacture, hi
found them to contain as much as CO per cent, of minium.
—A. R. L.
On the Estimation if Fatty Matters in Milk Products.
Leze and Allard. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113, 65-1—656.
See under XXIII., page 165.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Means for Storing and Preserving Fvud
for Domestic Uses. L. Smith, Chicago, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 2414a, February 10, 1891.
It is a well established fact that canned goods undergo a
change, aud that their delicate flavour is either entirely
destroyed or sufficiently altered to render them more or less
unpalatable. The cold-storage system also has its disadvan-
tages, apart from the great expense, as food thus preserved
must not he kept for any length of time after removal from
the cold storage, as it is known to perish very rapidly.
The invention consists in storing the goods in an air tight
receptacle from which the air cap be exhausted, while
carbonic acid is allowed to take its place- This gas, as is
well known, has little or no effect upon articles of food, and
does not alter their flavour or impart to them an unpalatable
taste to any gnat extent, Forfurther particulars the original
specification must be consulted. — L. de K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Soap and in the
I 'tilisntion of the Residue of the Substances Used therein.
R. Stone, London. Ihig. Pat. 4454, March ii, 1891.
See under XU., paye 446.
450
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
I Veto Chemical Food. A. D. McKay, Liverpool. Eng.
Pat. 270, January 6, 1892.
To be utilised as food by young children or aged persons
who are unable otherwise to retain or assimilate it, milk is
subjected to special treatment. The invention consists in
adding to the milk, which is preferably lirst condensed, a large
proportion of sugar and pure dextrin, a small quantity of
albumin, and a very small amount of both sodium and
calcium hypophosphites. — L. de K.
(fi.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
Drinking Water and Disease. W. P. Mason. Jour.
' Franklin Inst. 1891, 132, 356—365.
The author comments on the prevalent ignorance of the
pi.tho^enic significance of The presence of fresh-water alga;
in our city water supplies : he is also inclined to regard
water polluted by sewage from healthy persons as less
harmful than sewage from pathological sources. Referring
to the self-purification of polluted water in running streams,
he is of opinion that a very considerable self-purification
does take place in running streams, but that what holds
good for dilute sewage does not necessarily apply to waters
as they approach the limit of potability ; in fact, he believes
that the rate of self-purification varies directly as the
amount of sewage contamination, and therefore, given a
stream with a certain amount of pollution, the percentage of.
this disappearing per mile should continually decrease as
the stream flows on. His views find support in the analytical
investigations of Dr. Long on the water of the Illinois and
Michigan canal. This canal receives its supply of water, or
rather dilute sewage, at Bridgeport ; it then flows along the
level to Lockport, 29 miles below, requiring about a day for
its passage. It receives no dilution on the way, but is
frequently agitated by passing boats, and it is distinctly
shown, by a great number of analyses of samples taken on
various dates, but at both Bridgeport and Lock port on the
same days, that when the free ammonia, the albuminoid
ammonia, and oxygen consumed were very high, the amount
of reduction was considerable, and that when they were low
tin amount of reduction was insignificant. Taking two sets
of analyses for example, the numbers obtained are . — ■
Free
Ammonia.
Albuminoid
Ammonia.
Oxygen
consumed.
June r: nt Bridgeport.
2-6
0-M
12MI
Uig. 25, ;it Bridgeport
'!'.''-
1-90
35 i
.tunc 6, at Lockpoi t. . .
J'S
ii-'.r.
1V36
ii Lockport . .
l.s-o
0-88
12-40
This result is better shown in the paper by diagrams
giving the numbers mapped in curves. The author points
out that even the best of the water samples from this canal
are very far from being potable, and he is of opinion that
the self-purification of large streams contaminated with city
sewage is exceedingly slow, and quotes his experience with
the Hudson River water in support of this opinion. He took
the precaution, when examining the water supply of Albany,
to examine the river both above and below the place where
the contamination entered, and although it showed a great
improvement between the latter place and Albany, yet when
comparison was made with the camples taken above the
influx of contamination, the results led the author to
condemn the river as a water supply. In another instance
he traces an outbreak of typhoid fever in various cities using
Hudson River water which bad received contamination,
whilst cities in the immediate proximity and using Hudson
River water taken above such contamination were practically
exempt from the outbreak.— D. A. I,.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for Treating
Towns' Slaughter-house and other Refuse or Substances
to- Materials. E. Cunliffe and E. Barlow, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 19,967, December 8, 1890.
The invention consists chiefly in filtering off any solid
matter or sludge, or cutting up .any animal refuse before
subjecting to heat and destructive distillation. The hot
gases are withdrawn and burnt ; the residue is discharged.
The special apparatus, figured, is claimed. — L. de K.
Improvements in Means or Apparatus for Sterilising
Water. J. Y. Johnson, London. From " La Societe
Geneste, Herscher and Co.," Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
2051, February 4, 1891.
This invention relates to an apparatus for completely
sterilising water under pressure, so as to avoid the loss of
the discolved gases on which its palatibility depends. The
apparatus is complete in itself and is arranged to work
continuously. The water to be sterilised is forced by a
steam pump successively through two closed cylinders, each
of which is provided with a coil through which hot 2nd already
sterilised watsr circulates. The latter is thus cooled down,
whilst at the same time the fresh water in the outer
cylinders is fore-warmed. The water then passes on to a
sterilising vcsel in which it is heated to 120" — 1300 C. by
means of steam pipes and a steam coil supplied with steam
from a small boiler. Subsequently the water passes through
a filter, and filially is cooled by its passage through the
cooling worms mentioned above. The sterilised water
leaves the apparatus by a valve-tap which opens at a suitable
pressure. The various valves, &c, are so arranged that
the pump automatically ceases working until the water in
the steriliser has attained the right temperature ; or when-
ever the boiler pressure falls below a certain limit. — II. T. P.
Improvements in the Disinfection and Deodorisation of
Sewage, and in the Apparatus fur Preparing and
Applying the Disinfectant. A. McDougal, Southport,
and J. J. Meldrum, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 2846,
February 17, 1891.
The prejudicial and offensive products of the decomposition
of sewage matter are mainly compounds of sulphur and
phosphorus with hydrogen and sulphur, or phosphorus
compounds with alkalis, or ammonia. Sulphurous acid
decomposes these products with the formation of odourless
products, such as hypophosphites or thiosulphates, and on
this fact the inventors have based their process. The
sulphur dioxide is generated by the combustion of sulphur,
pyrites, or spent oxide in a suitable furnace, and as a rule
the termination of the action of the gas is conveniently
indicated by the change of the liquid from an alkaline to an
acid reaction. The sulphurous acid is supplied to the
sewage, &c. by a steam injector fitted to the furnace
generating the gas. — L. de K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Purifying Water. F. C.
Nunn, Loudon. Eug. Pat. 4C19, March 14, 1891.
This invention relates to Anderson's revolving purifiers in
which water is brought into intimate contact with metallic
iron under high atmospheric pressure. The improvement
consists in forcing the air into the cylinder through a pipe
passing through one of the trunnions. On entering it
branches out into four or more perforated pipes running
side by side in the form of a grid to the other end of the
cylinder. The air escaping from these pipes rises through
the water to the top of the cylinder, and escapes through
a pipe taken down and out through the other trunnion.
The water is led out of the purifier through a long box
with a perforated top, and suspended in a fixed position in
the cylinder underneath the air pipes as low down as may
be to allow the shelves to pass under it as the cylinder
revolves. One end of the box is connected by a chamber
Mn.v.ii, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
451
to the ordinary outlet pipe. The other hox is closed so
that the water cannot escape from the cylinder save through
the box. The action will be readily understood. As the
cylinder revolves, a large quantity of the purifying material
is brought up by the shelves fixed in the cylinder and
showered down on to the box, covering both box and air
pipes and forming a heap by which means the bubbles of
air are broken up. At the same time the water is thoroughly
brought into contact with both the air anil the purifying
material on its way to escape through the box. The
materia) is prevented From raking by the revolving of the
cylinder. — L. de K.
Improved Process for Purifying Sewage Effluents and
other Impure Liquids, and Apparatus therefor. E. E.
Scruby, Kpping. Eng. Pat. 5330, March 25, 1891.
The invention consists in first removing as far as possible
by the usual processes of settling, filtering, &c. all solid
matters. By means of the inventor's apparatus the liquid
is then saturated with oxygen, which may be generated in
any suitable and convenient manner. — L. de K.
An Improved Mode of and Apparatus for Clarifying
Muddy Liquids. 1!. Dervaux, Brussels, Belgium. Eng.
l'at. 5340, March 25, 1891.
'I'm: improved apparatus described is intended to facilitate
the deposition of suspended particles from muddy liquids.
It consists of a number of superimposed chambers, separated
from rich other by slanting or conical partitions. The
water to be clarified is charged into these chambers from
below, either from a common main or by means of separate
supply pipes. The mud which settles out passes through holes
in i lie centre or near the lower edge of each partition, to the
bottom of the apparatus ; whilst the clear liquid flows from
the top of each compartment into a vertical collecting pipe.
Finally, if necessary, the liquid is forced upwards through a
filter, and thus further clarified. Details and drawings of
various forms of the apparatus are given. — H. T. P.
.4. New or Improved Filter-Pump. H. Nordtmeyer,
Breslau, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7155, April 25, 1891."
See under I., page 422.
Improvements in Apparatus for Purifying or Treating
Water. E. Devonshire, London. Eng. l'at. I 1,735,
September 1, 1891.
The invention relates to apparatus for purifying water by
bringing it into intimate contact with iron " or other
chemically acting material," and aerating the water, and
especially for " producing uniform contact between all the
water and the purifying material, and air or gas." The
invention consists in a vessel, chamber, or tank having a
water inlet and outlet and grids or open-wotk partitions at
intervals in the chamber with means for polishing them.
An elaborate description of the apparatus is given, but
it cannot be well understood without the accompanying
drawings. — L. de K.
Improvements in the Disposal of Sewage, and Apparatus
connected therewith. J. Norris, Egham. Eng. Pat.
20,726, November 28, 1891.
Tin-', inventor proposes a new method for the disposal of
sewage without the ordinary cesspool, and for the preven-
tion of the accumulation of sewer gas. A chamber called
the fresh air inlet chamber has its sides and ends lined
with glazed bricks. Its slopes at the bottom are of concrete,
lined with white glazed tiles, and at the bottom is an
enamel overflow pipe to carry off the liquid portion of the
soil. The chamber is covered in by a hinged iron grating.
The soil drain from the water-closet enters the chamber
about one foot from the bottom. Underneath its orifice
is placed a strainer, the sides and ends of which are made
of galvanised iron wires about J in. apart, the top of the
strainer being open. The bottom of the strainer is made
of galvanised sheet iron punctured all over with holes of
about i in. in diameter, and turned up about 2 in. all
round. A handle is fitted to the strainer so that it may
be daily taken out and replaced, and it is also kept in its
proper position b}r means of tu o iron rods. When the
soil enters the strainer, its solid portion is retained, but the
liquid portion passes into the chamber and is carried off
by the overflow pipe. The solid contents should be daily
removed and mixed with earth. A current of fresh air
passes through the iron grating of the inlet chamber
through the soil drain, which is connected with an ordinary
ventilating shaft. — L. de K.
A Neio or Improved Method or Process for Purifying
Sewage or Foul Waters. .1. T. Wood, Rochdale. Eng.
Pat. 22,747, December 30, 1891.
According to this process, sewage is purified hy subject-
ing it, in a finely-divided state, to the action of a current of
air, air and oxygen, ozone, or other suitable gas. In prac-
tice the sewage to be treated flows through a screening
chamber, and from thence passes over a suitable distributing
mechanism into an oxidising chamber. Daring its descent
into the latter, the sewage encounters a blast of air, See.
underpressure, with the result that it is converted into spray
and becomes saturated with the gas. At this stage, any
chemical precipitant that it is desired to add i>. projected
into the spray by means of a hopper with revolving rollers.
Subsequently the sewage flows into tanks where the sus-
pended matters are allowed to settle. The clear supernatant
liquid is then further purified by passing it over an
" oxidising stairs " the " risers " or " faces " being provided
with openings which communicate with tubes conveying air,
&c. under pressure. It is claimed that by this process the
oxidation will be more vigorous and complete than by any
other means, that it will require less area for its operation,
and can be applied indiscriminately in all cases. Modifica-
tions of the air-blast process, applicable to filter-beds and to
weirs of rivers, are described. For details and drawings of
the apparati s the original specification must be consulted.
— H. T. P.
(O.)— DISINFECTANTS.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Supplying Disinfectants to the Flushing
Pipes of Urinals, Water-Closets, and the like. T. Panario,
London. Eng. Pat. 4287, March 10, 1891.
By this invention simple and efficacious means are provided
whereby disinfectants can be supplied to the flushing pipes of
urinals and water-closets in a definite quantity. Various dis-
infectants can be used in and with the apparatus. Any solid
disinfectant soluble in water, such as permanganate of potash,
or any heavy liquid such as carbolic acid may be employed.
The disinfectant is put into a receptacle which is tightly
attached to the outer end of an elbowed block in a pre-
ferably vertical position. When a flush is given, the rush
of water will create a vacuum and so draw a portion of the
disinfectant from the receptacle and cause it to mingle with
the water. — L. de K.
A New or Improved Manufacture, being a Disinfectant,
Antiseptic, Deodoriser, Vermin and Insect Destroyer,
and also applicable for use ua an Ingredient in and as
Fire-lighters. A. Lutschaunig, Liverpool. Eng. Pat.
4352, March 11, 1891.
The leaves (needles) and young branches or shoots of
pine or other resinous trees are broken, shredded, and
dried, or pulped or otherwise reduced to a small condition
and dried. If desired the material may further be teased
and the dust separated from it by sifting. This pre-
paration constitutes a valuable disinfectant for sick rooms,
hospitals or similar places. When desired it may be
452
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 181I2.
mixed with other disinfectants. It is also a good vermin
or insect destroyer, and the inventor particularly recom-
mends to spread it over the floors of dwelling rooms before
sweeping these. In the application of the substance as a
fire-lighter it must be mixed with an equal weight of rosin
or like inflammable material. After melting the mixture
it must be moulded by pressure into blocks of suitable
form and size. — L. de I\.
Improvements in the Method of Vaporising ( 'arholic
Acid and other Disinfectants, and in Apparatus there-
for. C. Scott, Belfast. Eng. Pat. 9083, May 29,
"l89l.
Fob the purpose of disinfection, carbolic acid or any other
volatile disinfectant is subjected to the action of heat in a
vessel having a large surface internally and a small bell-
shaped mouth or aperture to admit the disinfectant and
allow the vapour thereof to escape, by which means large
quantities of the disinfectant volatilise in a moderate space
of time.
After the vessel has been placed in the fire and made
red hot it is removed into the room where the persons,
animals or their belongings are to be disinfected, aud after
external air has been as far as possible excluded, t lie carbolic
acid is poured into the vessel. — L. de K.
Improvements in and relating to Soluble Quinoline Anti-
septics. A. Lembach, l". Schleicher, and C. J. Wolff,
Hiebrich, Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,913, November 3,
1891.
It has been proved that quinoline aud toluquinoline possess
great antibacterial properties, but the complete insolubility
of these substances in non-acid fluids presented a serious
obstacle to their becoming available for general use.
The inventors have at last succeeded in finding a suitable
solvent, and there is now nothing in the way of the
technical aud commercial application and use of the said
substances as antiseptics. The invention consists in using
soap in the nascent state. For instance, to 50 kilos, of
a suitable oil, such as castor oil, is added 50 kil<>^. of
quinoline, and also 15 kilos, of hydrate of potash in 50
kilos, of water. The mixture is boiled until the saponifica-
tion is quite complete, which stage is indicated by the
perfect clearing of the liquid, which must then be diluted
with another 85 kilos, of water. — L. de K.
Improvements in ( 'andles or Tapers for Fumigating or
Perfuming or Evaporating Purposes. J. Kyder, -Man-
chester. From E. A. Weidemann, Liebenburg, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 22,742, December 30, 1891.
See under XII., page 446.
XIX.-PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Determination of Mechanical Wood Pulp in Paper. II
Godeffroy. Mitt. U. k. Techn. Gcw. Museums, 1891, 295.
See under X X 1 1 1., page -16-4.
On the Quantitative Determination of Mechanical Wood
Pulp in Paper. .1. Bandisch. Papier Zeitung, 1891, 16,
2414—2415.
Set under \\III., page 4G4.
Bisulphite Process : Boiler Tests. Papier Zeitung, 1891,
16, 2699.
Tun progress of the treatment in the digesters is best
followed according to A. Ilarpf, by the results of the
" ammonia test," precipitation of neutral sulphite, together
with those of the iodine titration, of samples of the liquor
withdrawn from time to time. Such purely empirical
evidence as colour, smell, and viscosity are adopted by the
"practical man" often as his only guide, and it must be
admitted with satisfactory results. — C. F. C.
Straic Boiling. Papier Zeitung, 1891, 16, 2700.
In boiling straw for straw boards it is recommended to
introduce the quicklime directly into the boiler : and in
districts where only inferior lime is obtainable, a proportion
of soda ash should be added. The mixed lime and soda
boil is an economical variation of the ordinary treatment
in the case of refractory straws, or where the supply of
water for washing purposes is not abundant. — C. F C.
On Cellulose and its Forms : Cellulose Gum. W. Hoff-
meister. Landw. Versuchsstat. 1891, 39, 461.
The author formerly held the view that the cellulose might
be dissolved out of plant-tissues by dilute alkalis when
certain substances, "incrustations" are removed; his
present experiments prove that this is not exclusively
the case. He confirms the observation, however, that the
cellulose can be quantitatively extracted in the pure state
on treatment with " chlorine mixture " and ammonia. By
direct treatment gum-like compounds are obtained ; whilst to
isolate these previous extraction with soda-lye is necessary.
They may also be obtained by treating the tissues with
glacial acetic acid and ammonia in the warm ; and by
dissolution in ammoniacal cupric oxide solution, hut the
form of the cellulose undergoes alteration by these methods.
Tlic author names that form of cellulose which is soluble in
caustic alkali in accordance with Tollens' proposal
" cellulose gum." This has, however, various forms which
may be spoken of collectively as cellulose gum -like sub-
stances. To prepare " cellulose gum " in the pure state the
raw material is necessarily extracted with ether, alcohol,
water, and dilute ammonia ; the residue is cither extracted
with ammoniacal cupric oxide solution to separate the
cellulose from the lignin, or when this is not needful digested
direct with dilute ammonia on the water-bath. If starch be
present it is removed by digestion on the water-bath with
glacial acetic acid and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, or
better still with malt extract. After digesting the residue
for a long time with ammonia aud washing it, it does not
give the lignin reaction, but this substance is still present.
The cellulose is then extracted with ammoniacal cupric
oxide solution, more or less " cellulose gum " can then be
separated from the cellulose thus obtaiutd, by extraction
with 5 per cent, soda-lye. II ud woods may be initially
extracted with hot glacial acetic acid. The " incrusting
substances" or their decomposition products may be ob-
tained from the glacial acetic acid and ammoniacal extracts.
A. B. L.
The Influence of Moisture on the Vegetable Sizing of
Paper. P. A. Hasselkuss. Olu m. Zeit. Rep. 1891, 15,
326.
The more humid the air is during the sizing of paper the
less successful is the operation; slow dryius is better than
quick. It cannot be stated for all descriptions of paper
beyond what limit of hunndit\ deficient sizing is produced.
There is however for all I, ids of paper a certain maximum,
ami tin- thicker the paper is the more water can it take up
without deleterious influence on the sizing; 5 — 8 per cent,
may be placed as an average amount of water for paper to
contain. When paper is sized in a too moist condition its
defects can be remedied by keeping it for three weeks to
three months in dry air; whereas even a well-sized paper
May 31, 1883.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
i'oS
is spoiled hy keeping it in a dump room. The alternating
action of dry and most air (containing more than 80 per
cent, of moisture) appears to be exceedingly harmful.
Paper containing a large quantity of "cellulose or straw
palp" is not affected by moisture, i.e., as regards its sizing.
Letter or post-card paper which require well sizing, anil
where the tinting is not of so much importance, should
contain 1 ."> — 30 percent, of" cellulose or straw-pulp." Better
and more durable papers to which the addition of "cellu-
lose" is inadmissible should only be ntored in dry rooms.
— A.R. L.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS.
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
< hi " Phenocoll" an Antipyretic and Antirheumatic.
Schmidt, l'harm. Zeit. 1898, 36, 585.
(l) (4)
"Phenocoll," (C,Hi())C6H!.(NH.CO.CH,.NHc), is pre-
pared by treating p-phenetidine with acetyl chloride, whereby
chlorophenacetine is produced, and then treating this
product with ammonia. It has the antipyretic properties of
phenacetine, while by reason of its superior solubility and
better resorption, its action is more prompt. It is a monacid
base ; the acetate forms interlaced needles, and is soluble in
:!j parts of water; the salicylate crystallises from water in long
needles, and combines the therapeutic properties of phenocoll
aud salicylic acid. The following tests are given for the
hydrochloride: — 0'5 grm. dissolves to a clear solution in
15 cc. of water, which should not give a reaction with
red litmus paper ; on addition of caustic potash a white
crystalline precipitate of the base separates ; it leaves no
residue when ignited on platinum foil. When the base
is heated with a little water it melts, but resolidifies to a
crystalline mass on cooling. — A. R. L.
On I'enlal, 05//„„ an Anesthetic. Hollander Therapeut.
Monntsh. 1891, 5, 509.
I'entai. is the name given to the amylene CH:,.CH:C(CH:()2
boiling at 38°. It is prepared by heating " amylene
hydrate " with acids, aud is a colourless liquid, which is
insoluble in water, but miscible in all proportions with
alcohol, chloroform, and ether, and is extremely volatile ;
when iuhaled it does not in any way injure the mucous
membrane of the mouth and breath passage. The narcosis
produced by pental comes on by degrees, and headache
or vomiting are not produced during the narcosis nor after-
wards ; the author could observe no effect either on the
heart's action or on the respiration. It acts quicker than
chloroform, and it has the advantage over "bromethei"
that the narcosis lasts longer, that unpleasant after-actions
are not produced, and that even in large doses it appears
innocuous. — A. It. L.
Lupanine. C. Leibeck. Arch, l'harm. 1891, 531.
Lufaninb from the blue lupin yields a hydrochloride of
the composition C15H54N20.HC1 + 2H,0.-I). A. L.
Sophorine. C. Plugga. Arch. Pharm. 1891, 561.
According to the author, sophorine from Sophosa
tomentosa is presumably identical with cytisine. — I). A. L.
Atropine and Hyoscyamine. W. Schutte.
1891, 492.
Arch. Pharm
Hvoscvamink in solution, even in the form of auro salt, it
is found is converted into atropine by repeated crystallisa-
tion, or by frequent evaporation, or by prolonged storage.
In roots of young plants of Atropa belladonna hyoscyamine
only is found ; in those of old plants atropine is also found.
The percentage of alkaloid varies according to the season.
—
Percentage in Young
Roots.
In Old Roots.
0-13
0'«
OMl!
0-17
0'36
0'2S
The leaves coutain besides a little atropine much
hyoscyamine. Atropine and hyoscyamine are both found
in the ripe berries of cultivated Atropa belladonna nigra,
but in the berries of the wild plant atropine only is found;
the ripe fruit of the yellow atropa also only contains
atropine, whilst the unripe fruit of the wild black night-
shade, the leaves of both the yellow and black wild
plants and both fresh and old seeds of Datura stramonium
contain principally hyoscyamine with a small quantity of
atropine. Datura stramonium seeds also yield a small
quantity of skopolamine. — D. A. L.
Further Researches on Ash-free Albumen. E. Harnack.
Ber. 1892, 24, 204—209.
Thk author has succeeded in preparing a form of albumen
which differs in many respects from the modifications
hitherto described. It is prepared by treating an alkaline
albumen solution (free from corpuscles) with copper sul-
phate solution, re-dissolving the filtered precipitate in a
little alkali (soda), aud re-precipitating with dilute acetic
acid, decomposing the precipitate with strong caustic potash
solution, and after allowing the solution to stand for 24
hours it is treated with excess of hydrochloric acid, and the
precipitate is washed. When the excess of hydrochloric
acid is removed the substance becomes soluble in water, is
free from ash, but still retains from 1 to 2 per cent, of
hydrochloric acid, which can be removed by dialysis. As
the last portions of acid leave the albumen solution, it
becomes a transparent jelly, which on boiling with water
becomes compact and white with a crystalline appearance
aud character, especially on drying. Alcohol brings about
a similar transformation of the jelly. The crystalline
powder is insoluble in pure water, but dissolves at once on
the addition of a trace of hydrochloric acid. An excess of
the acid would re-precipitate the albumen from this solution.
The dialysed substance is of course soluble in presence of a
trace of free alkali. The change produced by boiling seems
to be a transformation of the colloid into the crystalline
modification, but the question whether changes have thereby
taken place in the albumen molecule must be left for
further elucidation. The possibility of the soluble hydro-
chloric acid compound being identical with acid albumen is
negatived on a comparison of their reactions.
Acid Albumen. Ash-freeAIbumen.
In water
In dilute hydrochloric acid...
On adding alcohol other, &c.
to the solution.
On adding excess of hydro-
chloric acid to the solution.
(in adding neutral salts to the
solution.
Not soluble Soluble.
Soluble Not soluble.
Precipitated ' Not precipitated.
Not precipitated Precipitated.
Partially Precipitated.
precipitated.
-G. II. B.
454
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
On the Testing of Liquor Ammonia'. J. Hertkorn.
Chem. Zeit. 1891,15, 1493.
See under Will., page 457.
Researches on Digitaleih. J. Hondas. Compt. Rend.
1891,113, 648—651.
The existence of this substance which is characterised like
saponin by the property of causing water to froth, was first
noticed in the Digitalis by Horndle and Quevenue in
1840. It was isolated by Walz in the amorphous state
( Jahresb. f. prakt. Pharm. 14, 20), and has been studied by
Nativelle (Journ. de Pharm. et Chim. 20, 81), Goerz
(Dupat thesis, 1S73), Kausmann (Journ. de Pharmacie, 20,
427), and finally by Sehmiedeberg (Arch. f. Experiment.
Pathologic, 3, 16). Sehmiedeberg admits the existence of
two digitalines soluble in water, which he calls digitonin and
digitalein. The author showed in a memoir read before
the French Academy of Medicine in 1891 that Schmiede-
berg's products consist almost entirely of one substance,
for which he keeps Nativelle's name, digitalein. The
aqueous solution obtained in the preparation of digitalin
was treated with absolute alcohol according to Schmiede-
berg's directions, and then fractionally precipitated with
ether. The precipitates, after repeated fractionation, yielded
the same body as that precipitated by absolute alcohol.
Digitalein cannot be crystallised from an aqueous solution,
but if au alcohol of the fatty series, e.g., methyl, ethyl, or
amy] alcohol be added to this solution a crystalline com-
pound of hydrated digitalein and the alcohol is obtained.
The solubility of the crystals thus found decreases as the
molecular weight of the added alcohol increases. If amyl
alcohol be added to a concentrated solution of digitalein,
the solution rapidly crystallises out if the solution be
sufficiently concentrated the mass may become solid.
Phenols act in the same way as alcohols. Digitalein
crystallised from ordinary alcohol is obtained in the form of
tine needles radiating from a centre, which lose their alcohol
and water of crystallisation at 110°. Digitalein is slowly
soluble in cold, rapidly soluble in hot, water ; the solution
froths on agitation, and on evaporation yields a glassy mass.
It is a glucoside. It is only slightly soluble in absolute
alcohol, and almost insoluble in chloroform, ether, and
ligroiu. The aqueous solution is la;vo-rotatory [aD] =
— 49' 25°. On heating the substance it does not distinctly
melt ; about 250D degrees it agglomerates; at 270°, froths ;
at 280°, is converted intocaromel. It appears to be unalter-
able in the air, both in the solid and dissolved states. It is
soluble without colouration in cold hydrochloric acid, and
the solution on heating turns to a red violet colour with a
slight green fluorescence. With sulphuric acid diluted with
an equal bulk of water it gives a yellow colouration in the
cold which turns first red then black on heating. The
solution yields a precipitate with tannin and ammoniacal
lead acetate. Analysis suggests a formula C31H52017, but
this can only be looked on as tentative until the decomposi-
tion products are better known. The author rejects Kiliani's
formula (Her. 23, 1555, and 24,339; this Journal, 1S90,
820; and 1891, 567) C^U., JJ1:1. By cautiously acting on
digitalein with dilute acids it has been split up into two
new glucosides without any liberation of glucose. These
products and a new glucoside derived from the amorphous
digitalein of the Codex will be described shortly. — P. J. H.
Coca Leaves. J. Holmes. Chem. and Druggist, 40, 580.
Ix commerce there are two kinds of leaves, the dark green,
strong Bolivian, or Huanoco, and the light green, Peruvian,
or Truxillo leaf. A third variety of leaf is that cultivated
in the island of Java, which is occasionally met with in the
markets of the world, and has the reputation of being a very
carefully dried article. About four years ago Mr. Morris,
of Kcw, in au exhaustive paper on coca, described a variety
which he called " Xovogranatense," which has narrower
leaves and is of a paler green colour than the Bolivian
leaf, and this is the variety which appears to yield the
Java leaf of commerce. With regard to the respective
alkaloidal values of the various leaves, Peruvian and Bolivian
leaves yielded cocaine and isotropyl-cocaine in almost equal
parts, whereas the Java leaves gave less cocaine than the
two former. In this country, cocaine was generally prepared
by purifying the crude cocaine manufactured in Peru, and
the Java leaves were therefore all used by the German
cocaine makers. So far as cocaine manufacture is concerned
the leaves of the Erythroxyloji Boliciatnim are preferred,
and of this variety the pale brown leaves are the best. The
leaves of young plants contain more than double the quantity
of alkaloid found in the leaves from old shrubs, and moisture
caused a considerable loss in the yield of alkaloid. The
variety described by Mr. Morris tapers at the base and the
flowers have a short stigma. The cultivated Java leaves
are not so long as Mr. Morris's •' Novogranatense " leaf.
They are broader in the middle, the flowers have longer
stigmata, and the habit is different from that of the others.
The brown Bolivian leaf, finally, has a more leathery-
appearance and the midrib shows a distinct ridge.
Cinchona. J. Holmes. Chem.aud Druggist, 40,580 — 581,
At a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society nine varieties
of bark were exhibited and described. Mr. Thomson, a
Colombian planter, had discovered some of these barks in
the central range of the Colombian Andes while travelling
in that region a few years ago ; others were cultivated
by him upon his plantation. Analyses of the barks showed
them to be of remarkable average richness, the following
being the figures given : —
Quinine 0uininp Cincho-
Sulphate. ymmne- nidine.
Thomsoniana
Ledger Verde
Negra
Morada
Tuna
Pombiana...
Oreinalis....
Succirubra .
Hybrid
.V'.ll
r ir,
4*90
3-68
7' 3(1
.V4s
o'lW
2-311
8-04
.;-is
5-88
■r-41
6-32
171
5*93
4 ' l.->
3-32
2-4'J
0-27
0-00
o'Oi)
ii-iiii
0-40
0-34
Cincho-
nine.
Quini-
dine.
Amor-
phous.
irs2
O'OI
(1-10
11-111
0'38
irii2
f23 lllll
2-77
1-92
0-12
0-01
a- 2i;
0-20
Trace
0'50
o-is
Trace
0-07
0-02
Trace
ll 74
u-4t
II-7S
0-38
0-42
•21!
0-42
0'S6
II-.-.2
The three last named kinds are well-known varieties, and
not natives of Colombia, any more than the Ledgeriana
Verde and Morada. The tree yielding the bark marked
" Negra " was discovered by Mr. Thomson in 1883. It grows
at an altitude of 8,000 feet, attains maturity with singular
rapidity, resembling, in this respect, the. Succirubra variety,
and is exceedingly rare. Both flowers and leaves are very
large ; the latter have a rich brown colour and hairy under-
surface. They are without the scrubbicules, or little warts,
the existence of which has been held to indicate alkaloidal
richness. Whether, as a matter of fact, rich barks are
always collateral yvith scrubbiculed leaves may be doubted.
The microscopical structure of the Negra bark indicates a
relationship to that of the Lancifolia. The tree grows slowly
and does not appear to prosper so well under cultivation as
iu the wild state. It received from Mr. Thompson the name ■
of "Negra" (black), because of its deep claret-coloured
petioles, by which the peons are able to distinguish it from
other kinds. In the Tuna bark ("tuna" is a native word of
uncertain meaning), the richest of all Mr. Thompson's
varieties, the resemblance to the Ledger species is very evi-
dent. Like all other kinds belonging to the Lancifolia group,
the bark of this species contains numerous stone cells, fairly
well distinguishable under the microscope ; in the soft or
middle layer there are no stone cells ; in the other layers the
cells are now arranged in solitary lines, now in clusters. The
Pombiana variety was discovered in 1883 in Ecuador by a
May »i» 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
455
gentleman living in that country, and whose name had been
given to it. The Pombiana does not in histological structure
resemble any of the cinchonas, but it is like the uiyrtaceous
plants. Its leaves are small and glossv, and its foliage is
very dense. The capsules also are small (a fact which, in
cinchonas, is held to presage richness in quinine). The
wood fibres form distinct oblong groups like those of the
(!. lancifolia, the leaves are leathery and narrower than
those of the C. pitayensis, the flowers are hairy on the
under-surface of the corolla, the petals are hairy all over,
whereas in nearly all true ciuchouas the petals are only
fringed with hair. In C. pitayensis there are no stone cells
in the middle layers of the bark. The Pombiana may be
-•-liil to form a link between the Pitayo and the Lancifolia,
or " soft Colombian," species.
Eucalyptus Oil. J. Holmes. Chem. and Druggist, 40,
581.
The author referred to the introduction of Eucalyptus
Globulus oil, and the great differences which were noted
in the qualities of commercial oils as soon as eucalyptus
began to be popular. Within the last two years a new
kind of oil had appeared in the market under the
name of E. oleosa, which had a cuminlike odour, very
different from that formerly known as oleosa oil. The
fact w:is that the oil which formed}' went by that name
was the Mallee scrub oil, a mixture distilled from four
species which grew together, and the new oleosa is a distinct
variety. He expressed the opinion that although the original
reputation of eucalyptus oil was based on the Globulus
variety, it had, in reality, happened that for years the
amygdalina oil was the only one which came on the market,
and even yet, this oil is preferred for inhaling in lung-
diseases.
Artificial Salicylic Acid Chem. and Druggist, 40,
590—591.
The investigation completed about two years ago by
Messrs. Dunstan and Bloch, and supplemented by Pro-
fessor Charteris, left it somewhat uncertain as to whether
artificial salicylic acid can be obtained absolutely identical
with the natural product — at least, on a commercial scale.
Apart from the work of these investigators, which un-
doubtedly served to call special attention to the salicylic
acid question in this country, much has been done to show
that a determination of the melting point of the acid is the
best criterion of its quality, and it has been admitted that
the boiling point figure, 155° C, is too low. In this
connexion Messrs. Helbing and Passmore have just com-
pleted an examination of a well-known brand of salicylic
acid and its sodium salts, the result of which, as published
in " Helbing's Record," contains several interesting points.
The investigators confirm previous observations, in stating
that the melting point of the pure acid is slightly below
157°C— to be exact 156-S5°— 156-86° C— and they find
that fractionation of the silver salt is the quickest and
surest means of determining the purity of the acid,
since any cresol derivatives which may be present
accumulate and come out in the last fractions. In one
respect, it is a matter of regret that Messrs. Helbing
and Passmore were not dealing with a less pure acid
than they had, for in the worst sample, melting at
156-4° — 156-75", the amount of impurity was only about
0-1 per cent., whilst Messrs. Dunstan and Bloch dealt with
acids melting at 154° C, and the like. Ii, fractional crystal-
lisation with silver, a known weight of the acid is first
converted into the sodium salt, and freed from carbonic
acid by adding a trace of nitric acid, and boiling. During
ebullition a 10 per cent, solution of silver nitrate is added
in quantity sufficient to precipitate from a tenth to a fifth of
the salicylic acid. Silver salicylate is practically insoluble
in hot water, and, unlike lead salicylate, has no tendency
to the formation of basic salt, a disadvantage which gave
Messrs. Dunstan and Bloch much trouble, and to which is
probably due the want of regularity in the melting points
of their fractions. After the first fractionation with silver,
a second, third, and fourth, or even more may he made
using increased quantities of silver nitrate until 50 or
60 per cent, of the acid has been precipitated, and then
decreasing the size of the fractions. Much depends upon
the initial melting point of the acid ; should this be low, it
is advisable to keep the larger fractions towards the end, so
as to accumulate the impurities in them. The acid is
regenerated from the silver salicylate by digestion with
boiling water and an excess of hydrochloric acid, the mixture
filtered, the salicylic acid crystallised twice and dried. The
melting point of each fraction is then determined. In one
ease Messrs. Helbing and Passmore found four fractions
from a " physiologically pure " acid melted at the same tem-
perature, viz., 156 • 85° C., the residuum melting at 156'84°C.
The sample was, therefore, " chemically identical with the
natural acid from oil of wiutergreen." As showing the
delicacy of this method of testing, it is observed that the last
fraction of another specimen (7 per cent, of the quantity
taken) melted at 156 "3° C, the others being normal, and
the last of another (10-5 per cent.) melted at. 155-9° C. As
Fischer found that the presence of 1 per cent, of cresotic
acids reduces the melting point of salicylic acid by about
1° C, it is obvious that these last fractions give a very
critical indication of quality, especially when the initial
melting points only vary from the normal by fractions of a
degree. It is demonstrated then that silver fractionation
ensures true separation of salicylic acid from its objectionable
contaminants. Another point brought out by the investiga-
tion is that sodium salicylate in crystals is anhydrous, or
practically so, the loss on drying at 104° C. being only
0-24 per ceut., the boiling point formula (NaC7H503).;H2O
requiring 5*3 per cent. The loss of scale salicylate was
0-23 percent, and of powder 0-19 per cent. The obvious
conclusion is that sodium salicylate does not contain water
of crystallisation, the little which there is present being
mechanically retained after drying.
Safrol. Chemist and Druggist, 40, 592.
Thk importation into Kurope of the waste product,
camphor oil, from the distillation of camphor in Japan,
has turned out to be a veritable mine of industrial, if not
monetary wealth. At first the oil had solely a medicinal
application, but the study of its constituents resulted in
the discovery of several valuable components. The most
important of these is safrol — the sassafras-like body to
which the peculiar odour of the oil is due. This was first
isolated by Schimmel, and has since been used extensively
to cover the odour of the fatty bases of soap. The dis-
coverers report that the use of the article for this purpose
is as great as ever, and that, mixed with citronella or cassia
oil, it is also extensively employed, such mixtures being
made more lasting by the addition of a little cedar-wood oil.
One part of the mixture is sufficient to add to 1,000 parts of
common household soap basis. Under the name of
" safrine," safrol has been introduced in America as
artificial oil of sassafras. The specific gravity (1-108)
indicates its source ; ol. sassafras, U.S. P., having a specific
gravity about 1 ■ 090.
XXI.-PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
The Chemical Changes attending Photographic Opera-
tions. H. E. Armstrong. Chem. News, 65, 181 — 184.
The author describes the electrolytic action of the De La
Rue-Miiller cell and compares it with the similar action
which attends development. He discusses the influence of
bromide as a restrainer, and the accelerating effect of
alkalis. In the case of ammonia being used as the accele-
rator, the addition of bromide prevents the solution of silver
bromide in the ammonia ; and the image is probably not
456
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 18S>2.
composed entirely of silver, lmt of a species of pigment,
possibly Formed by the dissolved silver and the colouring
matter from i 1m- oxidised developer, to which also the
formation of the peculiar fog which often occurs with
ammonia and pyro-developers may be attributable. In the
ease of alkalis being used as accelerators, the bromide has
a different action, probably that of neutralising the hydro-
bromie acid formed and tbus preventing the reversal of the
action which would otherwise take place. Also, as a silver
haloid in the presence of an alkali and reducing agent tends
to undergo reduction, the accelerating effect of adding
alkali may be understood, as well as the restraining influence
of bromide which tends to reverse the action. The author,
contrary to Meldola's view, suggests that the invisible image
is not the same as the darkened product formed en develop-
ment, i.e., an oxyhaloid compound of silver ; that there are
perhaps two latent images formed, one by the blue and the
other by the yellow raj -. these behaving differently during
development. The blue image being silver and the yellow
silver oxyhaloid, the former being comparable with the silver
wire in the l)e la Kuc-Mullcr cell, whilst in the case of the
latter the silver bromide undergoes electrolysis in a circuit
which includes oxygen, the halogen which is liberated
converting the silver formed by the action of the blue rays
into silver haloid ; but in gelatin plates this halogen is
taken up, still after a time depending on the exposure, the
gelatin will become saturated, and the silver would tend to
become rehalogenised ; this view being borne out by the
phenomena of oter-exposed plates flashing out on develop-
ment, owing to the richness in oxyhaloid. If sufficient
bromide was present the oxyhaloid may be converted into
haloid, and so the flashing out prevented. Finally, the
author compares the sensitiser to oxygen as influencing the
solution of copper in sulphuric acid. — J. C. C.
PATENT.
Improvements in Photographic Printing Processes. W.
\V. J. Nicol, Birmingham. Eng. Pat'. 7:U2, April 28,
1891.
The use of silver salts for the developing mixture described
in the inventor's previous patent (this Journal, 1890, 413) is
connected with certain inconveniences. In order to obviate
these, the silver solution is employed for the preparation of
the sensitising solution, along with suitable proportions of
certain organic iron salts (citrate, oxalate, or tartrate), and
if desirable, with the potassium and ammonium salts of these
acids. The material thus prepared is exposed to light under
a screen and the ferrous image then developed with an
alkaline salt of carbonic, acetic, or any other of the above
enumerated organic acids. In certain cases addition of
potassium chromatewill be necessary. The resulting prints
are washed in dilute ammonia and finally in water.
In an alternate method the print may be developed at
once with dilute ammonia, which may hold in solution any
of the enumerated developing sails.
In a th;rd method the paper may be prepared with a
mixture of ferric salt, silver salt, and a developing salt ; the
sensitised surface is then exposed to the action of the light
and the print washed in ammonia. — II. A.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
usual mixture of strong acids. In this, the cotton is
immersed for 5—6 minutes aud conveyed with about six
limes its pwn weight of a.-ids to the second bath, which
conlainsa large exc< ss of slightly weaker acid mixture. The
partially nitrated cotton remains for IB — 4S hours in this
bath until the nitration is completed, and the large excess of
acids prevents any fuming off through heating. The
strength of this second bath is maintained by the portion of
stronger mixture introduced with each batch of cotton from
the first.— W. M.
Ffew in- Improved Explosive Compositions. E. von Brank,
Hoppard-am-Khein, Germany. Eng. Pat. .'><>27, March 20,
1891.
Tins invention relates to the manufacture of powders con-
taining potassium chlorate, for shooting and blasting
purposes. The composition of the powders is as follows: —
Shooting.
1'' itassium chlorate 100 p:irts.
Boiled linseed oil 40 parts.
Le.id oxide* 1*5 parts.
Blasting.
Potassium chlorate 101 parts.
American resin 1", parts.
In the blasting powder the ingredients are mixed to a
stiff paste with a decoction in water or vinegar of a guin-
giving plant, the iiia-s being afterwards dried and granulated.
— W. M.
Improvements in Explosives. 0. H. Curtis, London, and
G. (i. Andre, Dorking. Eng. Pat. 5821, April 4, 1891.
Tiik object of this invention is to obtain an explosive the
e.xplosivcness of which can be regulated at desire, and at
the same time to render it proof against atmospheric
changes, aud producing greater cohesion between the fibres.
Gun-cotton or other nitrocellulose compound is taken wet
and treated with a warm solution of gelatin, whereby its
fibres or particles become coated with a thin film of gelatin.
The material is then further treated with tannic acid for
the purpose of rendering the film of gelatin insoluble and
imputrescible.
The thickness of the film should be such as to increase
the weight of the nitrocellulose about 5 — In per cent,
according to the degree of explosiveness desired. — IV. M.
Improvements in the Manufacture or ProJurtion of dun
powder or like E.rplosives. .1. Y. Johnson. From
" The Dynamite Actiengesellsehaft Nobel," Vienna,
Austria. Eng. Pat. 6129, April 9, 1891.
The object of this invention is the manufacture of a
smokeless powder from nitrocellulose without the addition
of substances which dissolve or gelatinise the nitrocellulose.
Nitrocellulose ina state of fine meal is mixed with di- or tri-
nitro derivatives of benzene, toluene, xylene, or naphthalene,
the proportions of nitrocellulose to the said nitro-derivativea
depending on the projective force required, varying from 99
to 70 parts by weight of the former to 1 to 30 pans by
weight of the latter. — W. M.
PATENTS.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of Nitro-
subsiitution Compounds of Cellulose. H. Maxim,
I !ray bud. Eng. Pat. 4129, March 7, 1891.
The object of this invention is to produce nitrocellulose of
a high grade with a less consumption of acids than has
hitherto been necessary. In carrying out the invention two
immersion baths are employed, the first containing the
M:.j ■::i, 18..I] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
457
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
Spit!/ Blast-Lamp. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1494.
The lamp consists of a brass reservoir or kettle with a
copper bottom, anil is tilled with commercial spirit. The side
tiilmlns terminates with a safety valve. A small quantity
of spirit is placed in the dish under the kettle and ignited,
whereby the spirit contained in the kettle is boiled and its
vapour escapes by two tabes, one terminating at the bottom
Spirit Blast Lamp.
of tha kettle, and the other having the form of a Bunsen
burner extending from the top portion of it. The vapour
escaping from the lower tube is ignited by the flame from
the dish, and it serves to keep the evolution of vapour
continuous. On now igniting the vapour escaping from the
upper tube, a flame resembling that of a Bunsen burner is
produced, which melts 2 mm. copper wire with ease, and
brings 1 litre of water to the boiling point in eight minutes.
The two flames are regulated bv cocks shown in the Figure.
" —A. R. L.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
On Volumetric Estimations and Methods of Separation
by Means of Potassium Ferro- and Ferricyanide.
C. Luckow. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1491—1492.
In the titration of zinc with potassium ferroeyanide any
iron present must be previously removed as ferric oxide,
or the titration must be made in an ammoniacal solution,
the iron having been previously oxidised to the ferric state ;
certain metals, however, as, for example, silver, do not form
ferrocyanides insoluble in ammonia. The author finds that
many metals may be titrated with potassium ferricyanide
in acid solution, even in the presence of ferric salts, and
that with the exception of gold, platinum, antimony, and
arsenic, those metallic salts which do not form insoluble
compounds with the ferricyanide may be estimated with
the ferroeyanide, these are mercuric, ferric, manganic,
uranic, stannic, and lead salts. For the estimation of zinc
and lead in the presence of one another, the former is
titrated in a solution acidified with nitric or acetic acids
with ferricyanide (the zinc ferricyanide may also be
weighed), and the latter in the filtrate from this with
ferroeyanide. Stannic oxide is evaporated with oxalic acid,
the solution acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and estimated
either gravimetrically or voluinetrically with ferroeyanide,
the separation from antimony and arsenic being thus
effected. The ordinary impurities in commercial potassium
ferroeyanide — chlorides, sulphates and sodium salts — need
only be removed in dealing with such metallic salt solutions
as precipitate them. The solution of the ferroeyanide
undergoes slight changes in direct sunlight; whilst the
ferricyanide is influenced both in the dry state and in
solution by temperature and light. In rcerystallising the
latter the temperature should not be raised above 50° — 60°,
and the solution is cautiously treated with chlorine to
oxidise any ferroeyanide produced ; it should not give a
precipitate with lead salts.
The indicators, which cannot be added to the solution,
may be either such as react with the metal or with the
precipitant. Of the former kind a mixture, zinc salt,
ammonia, ammonium sulphide, and rosolie acid, is con-
veniently employed with those me als forming dark
sulphides, it being easy to determine the complete precipi-
tation of the metal by the appearance of the rosolie acid
colour in the place of the sulphide ; whilst of the latter
kind copper acetate solution acidified with acetic acid or
ferric chloride is used for ferricyanide, and cobaltous, or
better, ferrous salts for ferroeyanide. — A. R. 1..
On the Testing of" Liquor Ammonite." J. Hertkorn.
Chem. Zeit. 1891,15, 493.
According to the German Pharmacopoeia "spirits of
ammonia" should only give a slight turbidity on addition
of an equal volume of lime water. When, however, a
current of carbonic anhydride is passed over the surface of
this liquid or it is allowed to remain in the presence of
carbonic anhydride, it frequently still only gives a slight
turbidity with lime water which cannot be removed by
filtration; if, however, the liquid be boiled a copious white
precipitate falls. Since this cannot be due to the presence
of ammonium carbonate, the author ascribes it to the
formation of ammonium carbamate which also pre-exists in
the solution ; this compound, as is known, breaks up on
heating into ammonia and carbonic anhydride. Commercial
ammonia solution (100 cc.) sp. gr. 0-921 was diluted with
au equal volume of water (free from CO.,), lime water
(200 cc.) added, and the mixture placed aside for an hour,
when it was slightly turbid. On boiling the mixture for one
hour 0-031 grm. CaCO-, was precipitated, and the same
quantity when the ammonia solution was boiled alone for
an hour and the lime water subsequently added. As such
an ammonia solution might on the above given official test
be taken as free from carbonic anhydride, and used for
determinations which are vitiated by its presence, the
author recommends that the directions of the German
Pharmacopoeia for the testing of " liquor ammonia' " be
altered to the following : — " A mixture of equal parts of
spirits of ammonia and lime water should only show a
slight turbidity after boiling." — A. R. L. .
On the Estimation of Manganese hj the Chlorate Method.
W. Hampe. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1579—1580.
A committee appointed by the " Verein vorn deutcher
Eisenhuttenleute " recently stated in their report on the
estimation of manganese (Stahl. und Eisen, 1891,11 373)
that the chlorate method devised by the author (Chem. Zeit.
1883, 7, 1 106 ; 1885, 9, 1083 and 1513 ; this Journal, 1885,
690) only gives good results when used in a modified form,
and when the titre of the solutions are determined exactly
as the actual titration is carried out. The author contends,
and gives most cogent reasons, that the proposed modifica-
tions add nothing to the accuracy of the method. — A. R. L.
Quantitative Analysis of Sulphides. P. Jannasch and
V. Wasowicz. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45 94— 102. (See
,1 iouo 759)
also this Journal, 1890,
This paper gives an account of the working out of a
method for analysing quantitatively molybdenum glance,
realgar, and orpiment ; in the determination of the sulphur
ignition in oxygen is effected and the sulphur dioxide
formed is collected, not in bromine water as usual, but in
hydrogen peroxide solution.
Analysis of Molybdenum Glance. — The finely powdered
mineral was heated in a platinum boat in a current of
oxygen, and the evolved gas was bubbled through a three
per cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide (free from sulphuric
acid), contained in three flasks, or better, two flasks, and a
cylinder as the final vessel, the cylinder being merely a
check, need not contain so much peroxide as the others
458
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 159?.
The combustion lusted an hour and a half, an excessive
temperature having to be guarded against to prevent the
possibility of sublimation of molybdic acid.
The boat was removed from the combustion tube
while still hot and the contents found to be, as is neces-
sary, perfectly white. When cold the boat and its
contents, which were proved to be free of sulphuric
acid, were weighed, and then warmed on a water-bath
for an hour with ammonia in a porcelaiu dish ; the reddish
insoluble residue was filtered off and washed with am-
monia, and finally with amtnoniacal water. To the
filtrate (after heating for some time on a water-bath to
remove ammonia) a solution of mercurous nitrate was
added ; the precipitate was filtered off after 24 hours,
washed with a very dilute solution of mercurous nitrate,
then dried at 110° C and as completely removed from the
filter-paper as possible. What remains on the paper is
dissolved by extremely dilute nitric acid and run into a
Rose's crucible in which it is taken to dryness on a water-
bath, after which the dried precipitate previously removed
from the paper is added, and the whole reduced to metallic
molybdenum in a current of hydrogen, heating being at first
performed by a Bunsen flame, afterwards by aid of the
blow-pipe. Complete reduction occupied two hours.
The reddish residue insoluble in ammonia was shown to
contain merely oxide of iron and silica ; the iron was
removed by sulphuric acid and precipitated by ammonia.
For determination of the sulphuric acid the hydrogen
peroxide solutions were evaporated on a water-hath to small
bulk, a few cc. of dilute hydrochloric were then added, and
the sulphuric was precipitated with barium chloride in the
usual way.
A number of results obtained show close agreement with
each other.
Analysis of Realgar and Orpiment. — These were burnt
in oxygen as in the foregoing case of molybdenum, and the
products passing away were bubbled through hydrogen
peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide was subsequently evapo-
rated to a smaller bulk on a water-bath, and then excess of
ammonia was added and magnesia mixture free from sul-
phates. The whole was allowed to stand 24 hours, then
filtered and washed, and dissolved in hydrochloric acid.
The precipitate was again brought down, a few drops of
magnesium chloride being added, filtered off, washed, dried
at 10U°, and ignited like the molybdenum precipitate. The
sulphuric acid was determined in the filtrate after evapora-
tion of the ammonia.
Results obtained are very good. In a note Jannasch
remarks that no priority can he claimed for the method,
and all that is claimed is the proof that the method is appli-
cable generally to inorganic sulphides (besides organic).
The mode of carrying out the analysis is simpler than the
method used by Sauer (see this Journal, 1890, 330). — T.L. B.
The replacement of oxygen by air during the second part
of the operation is rendered necessary owing to the liability
to explosions; during the use of the ammonium carbonate
it is likewise absolutely necessary to watch all passages, as
blocking may occasionally occur.
Comparative analyses show : —
The Determination of Sulphur in Galena, and in
Minerals containing Lead. P. Jannasch and K.Aschoff.
J. I'rakt. (liern. 1892,45, 103—109.
Vfteb trial of a number of methods for oxidising the
sulphide by means of oxygen, the following was adopted
as the only one capable of giving complete oxidation. The
galena is very finely powdered and introduced into a
porcelain boat, which is then placed in a combustion tube ;
the whole is then heated, a quick current of oxygen con-
taining oxides of nitrogen (obtained by bubbling the oxygen
through fuming nitric acid) being passed the while. Hydro-
gen peroxide is used in the receivers (see foregoing
abstract). For about 20 minutes a dull red heat only is
necessary, then a higher temperature is used for an hour.
The nitric acid bottle is replaced by a flask containing
ammonium carbonate, which is gently warmed, and the
current of oxygen is replaced by a current of air. After
half an hours strong heating the chief reaction begins, and is
evidenced by fusion of the material in the boat ; completion of
the reaction takes place in less than an hour from this point.
The residue in the boat is now completely oxidised and
contains no sulphate, the whole of it having passed as
ammonium sulphate to the receivers.
—
Dry Way.
Wcl Way.
Theory.
133-2
85-99
C-4-2
13-50
W4 7
0-4-2
13-4(1
Pb
SG'CO
99'73
59-39
line. ill
The method as described is perfectly easily applicable to
the analysis of the mineral bournonite ; it is to be noted,
especially in this latter case, that the temperature must be
raised to redness quite gradually, after which heating at a
strong red heat for an hour and a half in a current of air
and ammonium carbonate takes place as before. — T. L. B.
Wet Methods of Analysis of Galena. P. Jannasch
and K. Aschoff. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892,110—111; and
P. Jaunasch and T. Bickcs, J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45,
111—113.
The use of chlorine ina\ be conveniently replaced by-
bromine as follows: —
The powdered mineral is treated in a large crucible with
tolerably strong nitric acid, and the sulphur thereby
separated is oxidised by bromine. The lead sulphate is
dissolved in caustic soda and the whole is largely diluted
with hot water, so that the gaugue may be filtered off. Now,
instead of chlorine being passed into the solution, bromine
is added and allowed to act in the cold, heating on the
water-bath being resorted to finally for purposes of driving
away the bromine.
Another convenient method of analysis is as follows, the
lead being precipitated by hydrogen peroxide in ammoniacal
solution. Half a gnu. of the finely-powdered mineral is
oxidised as before in a large porcelaiu crucible and the
whole is then taken to dryness. The residue is evaporated
three or four times with concentrated hydrochloric arid, so
as to decompose the small quantities of lead bromate formed,
and the lead sulphate then got into solution by aid of 10 cc.
of ammonia and 10 cc. of glacial acetic acid together with
the necessary amount of water. This solution, covered, is
warmed on the water-bath and filtered from gangue, the
filter being washed thoroughly with a hot dilute solution of
ammonium acetate. Lead is precipitated in the filtrate by
addition, in the cold, of a mixture of ammonia and hydrogen
peroxide ; at the end of an hour filtration may be performed,
the washing being done with cold water. In order to obtain
a good result precipitation must be performed in the well-
cooled solution. The sulphur may be determined in the
usual way by precipitation with barium chloride, in the
filtrate.— T. L. B.
'Employment oj Cadmium in Gold Hnll'iun Assays. C.
Whitehead. ' Jour. Franklin lust. 1891, 132, 365— 3C9.
Great difficulties are encountered when it is desired to
determine a small percentage of silver in bullion containing
platinum or copper or both. Making an alloy containing
added silver and lead is unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the
comparative insolubility of lead nitrate renders it impossible
to extract all the silver-lead alloy from the gold. The author
recommends as successful the following modification of
Balling's cadmium treatment: — 0'5 grm. of the refractory
bullion is heated with lOgrms. of potassium cyanide; when
the latter is well fused 1 grm. of cadmium is dropped in
and the molten mass is poured on a slab to cool. After
washing, the alloy, being very brittle, is pulverised and
Kay si, int.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
ild
treated with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-278, along with I '004 grm.
of silver; the total silver is then determined either as
chloride or thiocyanide, neither of which determinations
are interfered with by the cadmium nitrate. The result is
compared with a proof assay made with 1-004 grin, of pure
silver dissolved in the same amount of acid. — D. A. L.
Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis* V. Rudorff.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892, 3 — 7.
In reference to this branch of analytical chemistry, the
author remarks, that proposed methods for the estimation
of particular metals by means of electrolysis are not only
very numerous but to some extent contradictory, so that it
it difficult for chemists to make a selection. The author
has therefore submitted all the proposed methods to com-
parative practical tests, in order to ascertain which are the
most suitable for use in an ordinary laboratory where costly
and exceptional apparatus are not readily accessible. The
requirements, in his opinion, are : — A cheap source of
electricity, which must be always available and simple to
handle; aiid-a method as exact and as reliable as the
ordinary gravimetric methods now in use. Of all the
sources of electrbity investigated by the author, including
dynamos, accumulators, Darnell's cells, Bunsen's elements,
&c, ihe Meidinger elements are accepted as the most
generally suitable for the purpose under consideration.
These elements are neither dear to purchase nor to keep
in order, and when properly charged their activity remains
for months almost unaltered. The strength of current
obtainable from them, as indicated by cc. of water-gas
per minute in a voltameter is as follows : —
Cc.
8 elements 2"6
ti „ 1-9
4 „ 1-2
3 0-8
■1 ., about 0-03
The apparatus employed by the author consists of a
platinum dish 60 mm. high, 75 mm. diameter at the top,
about 40 grms. weight and 170 cc. capacity, and a piece
of thick platinum wire bent into a helical form at one end.
The condition of the precipitated metal is greatly influenced
by: — 1. The intensity of the current ; 2. The concentration
of the solution ; and, 3. The substances added to the solution
undergoing electrolysis. It is in this latter point that most of
the proposed methods vary. In the estimation of copper,
for instance, by the Luckow method, so much nitric acid
is added that the precipitated metal has to be washed
while the circuit is still closed, which is undesirable ; and
Classen's suggestion of adding an excess of ammonium
oxalate does not improve matters. The following is a
successful method:— A solution containing 0-1 to 0-4 of
copper as nitrate or sulphate, after any free acid has been
neutralised with' ammonia or soda, is mixed with 5 drops
of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-20. diluted to about 100 cc. and
electrolysed with 2 to G Meidinger elements over night.
When the electrolysis is complete, about 10 drops of a
saturated solution of sodium acetate are added, the circuit
is then broken and the bright pale red precipitate of copper
adhering firmly to the dish is well washed, drained, dried
at 100° and weighed.
The presence of chlorides would cause the metal to form
a spongy deposit, but this is prevented by adding 2 to
3 grms. of ammonium nitrate, 20 cc. of ammonia, sp. gr.
0-91, and water to make volume up to 100 cc., then electro-
lysing with 4 to 6 Meidinger cells, and when precipitation
is complete, saturating any free ammonia with acetic acid,
before opening the current. In the presence of iron, 2 or
3 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added instead of
the nitric acid, the precipitated copper has not then such a
good appearance, but the estimation is nevertheless trust-
worthy. Mercury is readily estimated in a solution con-
taining 0'1 to 0-3 grms., any free acid being first
neutralised by alkali, to which any of the following additions
are made : — 5 drops of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1 -20 ; 5 drops of
dilute (1:10) sulphuric acid; 1-5 grm. of tartaric acid,
ami lo cc. of ammonia, sp. gr. 0-91 ; 5 cc. of nitric acid;
10 cc. of a saturated solution of sodium pyrophosphate, and
13 cc. of ammonia, or about 1 grm. of potassium cyanide,
making up to 100 cc. with water, and electrolysing over
night with 2 to G cells. Then adding 10 cc. of the saturated
solution of sodium acetate, disconnecting, and washing the
bright mirror or adhesive lustrous globules of deposited
mercury first with water, then with alcohol, allowing to
drain and ultimately to dry over sulphuric acid. For the
electrolytic estimation of silver, the addition of ammonium
sulphate and ammonia has not proved satisfactory in the
hands of the author, but excellent results are obtained by
using a solution containing 0-1 to 0-3 grm. of silver,
neutralising any free acid with soda, adding slight excess of
potassium cyanide, making up to 100 cc, and electrolysing
over night with 3 to 6 Meidinger cells. The dull white
adhesive precipitate of silver is washed with water and
dried at 100"- The best process for estimating nickel, in
the absence of chlorine, is by adding 25 cc. of a saturated
solution of ammonium sulphate and 25 cc. of ammonia,
sp.gr. 0-91, to a solution containing from 0-1 to 0-3 grm.,
diluting to 100 cc, and electrolysing with 3 to G elements
over night. The moderately bright, platinum like, adhesive
deposit of nickel is washed with water, dried at 100°, and
weighed. With 20 cc. of a saturated solution of sodium
pyrophosphate instead of the ammonium sulphate the
nickel separates out dull and grey. Cobalt is estimated iu
the same way as nickel, using six to eight cells ; the deposit
is dull and grey. In the case of cadmium various additions
give unsatisfactory results, and as sodium acetate and acetic
acid, or oxalates, in ammonia, or sodium pyrophosphates
and ammonia, the following treatment is, however, efficient :
The neutral solution, containing from 0-1 to 0-4 of the
metal is mixed, until clear, with potassium cyanide, made
up to 100 cc, and electrolysed with three to six cells over
night. The dull grey adhesive precipitate of cadmium is
washed first with water, then with alcohol, and dried at
70° — 80". Of the numerous suggestions for estimating
manganese, the author selects the following : — The man-
ganese must be present only as sulphate, and must not
exceed 0-04 grm. iu quantity. To such a solution three
drops of dilute (1 : 10) sulphuric acid are added, and the
volume is made up to 100 cc. ; two cells only are used for
the electrolysis, or six cells may be divided between three
dishes working simultaneously, and the dish is connected
with the positive electrode and not the negative as in all the
cases hitherto considered. The precipitate is washed with
water, drained, dried over sulphuric acid, and then at 60°,
inasmuch as at this temperature the composition remains
constant as Mn02 + H.:0, and the author considers this
mode of procedure more trustworthy than ignition to
Mn304 ; the numbers obtained multiplied into 0 ■ 523 give
the proportion of mangaLese in the precipitate. The dry
precipitate is brown with metallic lustre and adheres well to
the dish. The dish in this instance is best cleaned by
dissolving the precipitate in very dilute sulphuric acid, to
which some hydrogen peroxide is added ; in the other
instances the same object is effected by the use of dilute
nitric acid. Further communications on the fifth subject
are forthcoming. — D. A. L.
Estimation of Aluminium in Ferro-Aluminium. E. Donath.
Zeits. f. angew. Chem. 1892, 13.
The author, referring to F. Kegelsberger's paper on the
estimation of aluminium in its alloys (this Journal, 1891,
1033), points out that he investigated the cyanide method
iu 1880, and found that the presence of much iron was
unfavourable. Therefore, when small quantities of alumi-
nium are to be determined in the presence of large quantities
of iron, it is considered preferable to precipitate all the
aluminium with a little of the iron, and proceed with the
estimation in this precipitate. Moreover, for the reduction,
the author prefers using sodium sulphate to either sodium
hydrogen sulphite or ammonium cyanide suggested by
Kegelsberger ; working with boiling ammonium cyanide is
any way not agreeable. — 1). A. L.
i- 2
460
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Maj 3l,lS6i.
A Quick and Reliable Method for the Decomposition and
Analysis of Ferrochrome. H. N. Warren. Chem.
News, 65, 186.
The finely powdered substance is treated in a flask with
strong sulphuric acid and gently heated, SO; is evolved,
and the heat is raised until the sulphuric acid begins to
volatilise. In this way the ferrochrome is completely dis-
solved in a tew minutes. A few drops of hydrochloric acid
are added, the solution is diluted, filtered, and made up to
a known volume. An aliquot portion is titrated with
standard bichromate for iron ; and the chromic and ferric
hydrates precipitated in another portion, from these the
percentages of iron and chromium may be obtained.
—J. c. c.
Formation and Behaviour oj Basic Calcium Phosphates
and their Relationship to Thomas-slag. O. Foester.
/., its. f angew.Chem, 1892, 13—22.
Tin; proneness of calcium and phosphoric acid to form basic
salts has long been realised. Thus it is known that tri-
calcium phosphate is decomposed and yields up some of its
phosphoric acid to hot solutions of sodium or potassium
carbonate, or when ignited with these salts; and, moreover,
when the hydroxides of these metals are used in moderately
strong solution, a residue remains containing calcium oxide
and phosphoric acid in the proportions of 10 mols.: 3 mols.,
and to which the formula (Ca3P;< M:tCa< ) has been ascribed.
The same compound is obtained whether mono-, di-. tri, or
pyrocalcium phosphate is employed. With very strong
alkali and prolonged boiling the proportion of phosphoric
acid remaining in the residue can be reduced to 1 mol.:4 mols.
of lime. The compound (I 'a .!' ' '.) ,< !a( I, prepared by
igniting di- or tricalcium phosphate with calcium dihydroxide
or carbonate, although not attacked by dilute alkali, can be
brought to yield a residue of 1 Ca( I : 1 P»< ) , with very strong
alkali. Whilst basic cinder and tetracalcium phosphate,
obtained by strongly igniting di- or tricalcium phosphate
with the requisite proportion of lime, yields up their
phosphoric acid more readily still, and leaves a residue in
which the proportion of phosphoric acid to lime is 1 niol. i
•> mols. Sugar solution dors riot extract lime from the
products, ;( 'a I' I >.)< a(ll< ))_,, of the dec, imposition of di-
or tricalcium phosphates, thus showing that all the lime in
this compound is in combination, but as long a* any water
rel ined by it it is soluble in citric acid. On the other
hand, by drying at a high temperature it becomes almost
insoluble, owing to the formation of the anhydrous com-
pound. This is the compound which is found in ordinary
blowpipe ignitions, but at the temperature of the softening
of wrought iron tetracalcium phosphate is formed, for even
it the quantity of lime present is insufficient to convert the
whole of the phosphoric acid into tetra-compound, a mixture
of it with tricalcium phosphate and (l'a3l\.< >„ ) .( 'at > is
obtained. The products of the decomposition of calcium
phosphates containing a large proportion of lime appear by
their behaviour not to be chemical compounds, but mixtures
of Ca3P208) i !a(OB i3 with free Ca(HO)2.
The phosphoric acid can be abstracted from calcium phos-
phates far more readily and more completely by fusion with
alkalis ; in fact, by repeated and continued fusion the whole
of their phosphoric acid can gradually be extracted, especially
when there is free access of carbonic anhydride. All
calcium phosphates give by fusion with alkalis a mobile,
transparent, and molten mass, which becomes opaque when
solid, and by treatment with water leaves a residue contain-
ing all the lime mostly as carbonate, but some free, and the
remainder not as (Ca3Ps08)3CaO, but as tricalcium phos-
phate II i- assumed that really all the calcium phosphate
undergoes decomposition, hut that during the treatment of
the fused mass with water a partial recombination takes
place resulting in the formation of some tricalcium
phosphate.
In order to ascertain the composition of the various
products of theseand subsequent experiments, the products
are: 1. Ignited with ammonium carbonate: 2. Suspended
in water and exposed for some time to a current of carbonic
anhvdride to remove any carbonate of lime: 3. The lime
soluble in a solution of sugar is estimated and extracted ;
4. The products are treated with dilute acetic acid in
quantity insufficient for solution : 5. They are also digested
at 40 — 60' for 10 hours with 100 parts of 5 per cent, citric
acid solution. In both the latter cases the composition of
the insoluble residue is ascertained, and in almost all cases
the residue from the citric acid treatment is (Ca.jP2Os)3CaO.
The author has made numerous experiments on the action
of these various solvents on the different calcium phosphates,
examining in all cases intermediate products; with carbonic
auhydride and water, for instance, tricalcium phosphate is
partially decomposed into dicalcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate, whereas t,Ca3P2Os)3CaO is converted into
(Ca.3£'2Os)3CaC03 and tetracalcium phosphate remains
unaltered. By dilute acetic acid tricalcium phosphate is
very slowly half changed into dicalcium phosphate, whilst
(Ca3PaOs)3CaO after some time only gives up its extra
molecule of calcium oxide, but tetracalcium phosphate is
quickly and completely converted into dicalcium phosphate
by this reagent. By treatment with a 5 per cent, solution
of citric acid, which also gives a measure of the solubility,
of the phosphoric acid in the soil, in proportions of 100 cc.
to one grm. of phosphate, and at 40° to 60 for about 10
hours, both unignited tricalcium phosphate and tetracalcium
phosphate pass completely into solution; ignited tricalcium
phosphate leaves a residue which contains somewhat more
lime thau the preparation employed, but (Ca3P2< >9)3C'aO
undergoes no change.
Similar products to those obtained with the alkaline lye
are produced by heating dried mixtures of aqueous phos-
phorio acid, mono-, di-, or tricalcium phosphate with the
proportion of lime, quick or slacked, or calcium carbonate,
required to form the basic salt. In these cases the extent
of the decomposing action on the tricalcium phosphate,
first formed or already present, depends on the degree of
heat and the duration of the heating. The mixtures were
therefore ignited: — 1. Many days in a potter's kiln.
2. Many hours in a good drawing reverberating furnace,
tired with wood, charcoal, and coke. 3. Two hours at a
temperature sufficiently high to render wrought iron plastic
without melting it. The first two temperatures occasioned
considerable shrinkage of the mixtures and yielded a caked,
but not sintered, friable product ; whilst the product of the
third and highest temperature employed was a strongly
sintered partially fused, mass, with a distinctly stallate,
crystalline structure, but of slight hardness.
With regard to the chemical behaviour of these mixtures
under these conditions, a noteworthy formation of tetra-
calcium phosphate only regularly occurred at the highest
temperature used, although it was observed occasionally in
the reverberatory product ; but, in fact, at the lower
temperatures the greater part of the tricalcium phosphate
combined with the excess of lime to form (Ca;,P3Oj)3CaO.
The products in which the saturation of the phosphoric
acid had only arrived at this stage, yielded only traces of
phosphoric acid to boiling alkalis, but when heated with
ammonium carbonate, no matter what the proportion of
lime to phosphoric acid had been employed in the original
mixture, they absorbed so much carbonic auhydride that
after the removal of the calcium carbonate, (CajPjOg^CaO
alone remained. Under" the simultaneous action of water
and carbonic auhydride things were different, for theu so
much carbonic anhydride is absorbed that, after the
removal of the calcium carbonate, tricalcium phosphate
remains. Perhaps, in this instance, the apatite-like
compound, (Ca3l,.:Os)3CaCo3, is formed, which is the pre-
ponderating mineral constituent of limes.
The products of the higher temperature behave quite
differently, for, although in no case consisting entirely of
tetiacalcium phosphate, owing probably to the fact that
the mixtures never fused, yet in all these experiments
evidence of its presence in large quantities is obtained ;
they yield plenty of phosphoric acid to boiiing alkali, also
to citric acid, and are readily and completely changed to
dicalcium phosphate by dilute acetic acid, &c. ; in fact, the
citrate insoluble portion consists of (Ga3P208)3Ca(.). More-
over, they arc not acted on by prolonged exposure to water
and carbonic anhydride, and they do not contain any lime
soluble in sugar solution
Mu.v3i,i992.*j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[61
The author reviews, criticises, and discusses the various
opinions which have been advanced for and against the
existence of the tctra-basic calcium phosphate in basic
cinder, the ultimate conclusion being that not alone does it
exist, but that all the phosphoric acid in basic cinder
ought to be there as tetracalcium phosphate, in fact, under
under the conditions of its formation, could not be preseut
in any other state of combination. Nevertheless, chemical
examination of different samples of basic cinder always
indicates the presence of a certain irregular amount of
phosphate, which is not soluble in citric acid or ammonium
citrate, and which, therefore, cannot be tetracalcium
phosphate. This has hitherto been very generally, but in
some eases erroneously, attributed to admixture with some
adulterant. The author has, however, investigated the
point, and finds that when tetracalcium phosphate is
exposed to a temperature somewhat below its temperature
of formation that it undergoes reversion with the setting
free of lime and the formation of (Ca3P1!09)3CaO or in the
presence of much silica, (CajP2Os):lCa.SiO,. The free lime
has been extracted by means of sugar solution, and found
to be present in the proper proportions required by —
3 Cu.iy >„ (Ca3P2Oa)3CaO + 2 Cat )
This change takes place more readily in the presence of air.
The author is, therefore, of opinion that the presence of
citrate insoluble caleiuai phosphate in basic cinder is to be
ascribed to the treatment the cinder undergoes after leaving
the converter, and that, in fact, it is the result of the re-
conversion of some of the tetracalcium phosphate, in the
manner just set forth, during the slow cooling of the mass
of heated cinder in the air; the comparatively small
proportion of insoluble phosphate found in slag may be
accounted for by the reasonable assumption that in such a.
complex environment the free lime, as well as the
phosphates, would probably enter into some other state of
combination ; and this assumption has been to some extent
experimentally confirmed. Moreover, (Oa3P2Os)3CaO is
not absolutely insoluble in citrate, and therefore in the line
state of division in which it exists in basic cinder, it may
probably pass into solution in larger quantities than mipdit
be anticipated. The presence of citrate in soluble calcium
phosphate may also, perhaps, in part be ascribed to lime
being present in insufficient quantity to change all the
phosphoric acid into the tetracalcium salt. It seems, how-
ever, worth while trying if more rapid evolving of basic
cinder will prevent the formation of the inferior calcium
phosphate.
Taking into consideration the much greater facility with
which tetra-basic phosphate undergoes decomposition in the
soil, and conversion into dicalcium phosphate, as compared
with tricalciutn phosphate, the author suggested that the
two of the lime molecules must be in looser state of com-
bination. The following formulas aic furnished to give a
graphic representation of such an arrangement ;-—
Tricalcium phosphate —
, 0— Ca— O .
Ca,P.,< )s O = V( O— Ca— O ) 1' - U
\0— Ca— 0/
Tetracalcium phosphate
0-
ra,iy:>,, o^i'/o
-Ca-
-Ca-
\ O— Ca— O— Ca— O
o \ P = o
—D. A. L.
The Separation of Arsenic, Antimony, and Tin. John
Clark. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [110], 68—70.
The mixed sulphides of arsenic, antimony, and tin obtained
in the ordinary course of analysis are dissolved in a strong
solution of ferric chloride in chlorhydric acid, and the
arsenic is distilled off and weighed as trisulphide. The
residual liquid contains the antimony as trichloride, and
the tin as stannic chloride, also ferrous and ferric chlorides.
The author corroborates Loveton's statement that antimony
and tin can be separated by taking advantage of the
difference in solubility of their sulphides in solutions of
hydrogen chloride of certain strengths, but thinks the pro-
portion of acid should be reduced from a half to a third,
to ensure the complete precipitation of the antimony, and
to avoid the necessity of filtering through cotton wool. He
recommends a combination of Loveton's and W. F. Clarke's
processes, anil without removing the iion salts he precipitates
the antimony with hydrogen sulphide in a tepid solution
containing from one-thitd to one quarter of its volume of
chlorhydric acid and a considerable quantity of oxalic acid.
The precipitate, which is free from tin, is washed first with
water, then with alcohol, and finally with carbon bisulphide,
and weighed as SboS( after being heated at a temperature
of about 13u° to ensure the complete expulsion of water.
He considers this temperature sufficiently high to dry the
Sb2S3. He points out that when Sb.S, is dried at 130°,
it suffers little or no further loss in weight till it is raised
to the temperature at which it is converted into the black
sulphide, and his experiments indicate that the loss in weight
observed at this stage is not due to water, but to oxidation
as after heating between 200 and 230° for several days
there was a continuous loss, the black sulphide becoming
brown, and it was found by analysis to consist chiefly of
oxide of antimony.
When the Sb2S3 precipitate is large it is necessary, after
drying, to digest it in carbon bisulphide to extract the
whole of the sulphur. To obviate this objection the author
reduces the excess of ferric chloride with thin sheet iron,
and as soon as the yellow colour has disappeared the
undissolved iron is removed and the antimony which has
come down is redissolved with the aid of a little ferric
chloride, which is added drop by drop till the solution is
distinctly yellow to ensure that all the tin is in the stannic
state; a warm solution of oxalic acid containing about one-
third of its volume of chlorhydric acid is then added, and
the antimony is precipitated as SbjS.,, together with traces
of sulphur, and washed with water, alcohol, and carbon
bisulphide.
After the removal of the antimony the hydrogen sulphide
is expelled by boiling, the oxalic acid decomposed with
potassium permanganate, and the tin precipitated in a hot
solution with hydrogen sulphide, and allowed to stand till
cold. The SnSn obtained in this way can be filtered off
and washed with water without passing through the filter.
It is then converted by ignition into SnO?, in which form
the tin is weighed. The test analyses are very satisfactory.
For qualitative purposes in distilling off the arsenic a
condenser is not necessary, a bent tube dipping into water
being sufficient. It is advisable, however, to use a safety-
tube to prevent the distillate coming back.
In the case of alloys the metal is dissolved in strong
chlorhydric acid with the aid of ferric chloride, and the
arsenic distilled off at once. The antimony and tin after
being separated from the other metals of the group are
then estimated in the manner described above.
Properties of Ammoniacal ( 'upper Hydrate.
Monit. iscient. 1H91, 5, 681.
See under V ., page 427.
Prud'homme.
The Cornish Assay, Engineering and Mining Journal
See page 470.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
A Colour Reaction of Acid Anilides. J. Tafel. Ber. 1892,
25, 412-113.
Many acid anilides give with concentrated sulphuric acid
and potassium bichromate, or lead peroxide, colourations
similar to those obtained with alkaloids under like conditions ;
unlike acid hydrazides, phenylhydrazones, and phenylosa-
zones. the acid anilides give no colouration with sulphuric
acid and ferric chloride.
162
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 81, 1892.
The reaction is best carried out by dissolving a few
milligrammes of the anilide in sulphuric acid and then adding
a little powdered potassium bichromate ; under these
conditions the anilide and the hydrazide of one and the
same acid give the same colouration. The reaction is given
by all simple anilides and by all phenylcarbamides, but not
by the products of the interaction of acetic anhydride and
benzoic chloride with ethyl- and methyl-aniline.
Acetylparatoluidine gives no colouration but acetylortho-
toluidine does ; the acetyl and benzoyl derivatives of
a- and 3-naphthylamine give a dirty brown colouration.
The following compounds give the reaction : — Acetanilide,
reddish-violet ; propanilide, blood red ; ethyl oxanilate,
magenta red; oxanilide, violet; oxalacetanilide, magenta-
red ; benzanilide, violet ; symmetrical diphenylcarbamide,
bluish-violet ; symmetrical ethylphenylcarbamide, rose-red ;
asymmetrical ethylphenylcarbamide, cherry-red ; acetyl-
hydrazobenzene, blood-red ; acetylorthotoluidine, cherry-
red ; dibenzoj'lmetaphenvlenediamine, blood-red ; henzoyl-
tetrahydroquinoline, blood-red ; acetyltetrahydroquinoliue,
rose-red. — F. S. K.
ORGANIC CHEMISTR Y—QUANTITA Tl VE.
Action of Nitric. Acid on silk. L. Viguon and P. Sisley.
Compt. Rend. 1891,113, 701—704.
See under VI. page 430.
The Rotatory Power of Silk. L. Yignon. Compt. Kend.
1S91, 113, 802—804.
See under V., page 427.
The Technical Analysis of the Calcined Vinasse from
Beetroot Molasses. C. Heyer. Chem. Zeit. 1801, 15,
1480—1490, 1523—1524, and 1557. (Compare this
Journal, 1891, 861.)
The author gives tin following scheme for the analysis
of this substance. The sample is pulverised, mixed and
stored in a dry bottle fitted with a cautchouc stopper.
(1.) Moisture: — 5*12 grms. are heated in a drying oven
at 1 10 until of constant weight. (2.) Insoluble matter .—
20 grms. are slowly added to 250 cc. of boiling water
contained in a beaker, boiled, and after well stirring and
allowing to remain for 15 minutes, collected on a tared
filter previously dried at 110° C, washed with boiling
water and finally dried at 110° C. until of constant weight ;
the filtrate and washings are made up to 500 cc- (see
below). After ascertaining the weight of the insoluble
matter dried at llo C, it is ignited, and the amount of
fixed matter determined bj* reweighing this. (3.) Alkali
salts: — Four 25 cc. portions of the filtrate and washings
mentioned above (each corresponding to 1 grm. of vinasse)
are evaporated to dryness in tared dishes on the water-
bath, the residue carefully calcined, ignited, and weighed ;
the numbers deviate from one another at most 0-l per cent.
(I.) Potassium chloride: — One of the last-mentioned
residues is dissolved in water exactly neutralised with
nitric acid, boiled to remove hydrocyanic acid when present,
X ...
and titrated with - silver solution, employing potassium
chromate as indicator. (5.) Potassium sulphate : — Another
of the residues is dissolved in 100»cc. of water, an excess
of hydrochloric acid added, and after boiling the solution
with a small quantity of nitric acid or bromine water, it is
precipitated with a boiling solution of barium chloride, the
barium sulphate being collected as usual and weighed : it
is calculated to K2S( .),. (G. ) Potassium phosphate : — To
250 cc. of the standard solution an excess of nitric acid
and ammonium uitrate (40 grms.) are added, it is then
precipitated with molybdenum solution, and finally con-
verted in the usual manner into magnesium pyrophosphate,
weighed as such and calculated to K,P04. (7.) Potassium
carbonate: — A portion of the ignited residue from 25 cc.
of the solution is dissolved in water in a 100 CO. flask,
boiled with an excess of hydrochloric acid, and exactly
precipitated with the quantity of barium chloride calculated
from (5) ; then cooled, made up to the mark, and filtered
through a dry filter. 20 cc. of the filtrate are evaporated
on the water-bath with platinic chloride solution (10 cc,
containing 1 grm. Pt), 80 per cent, alcohol poured over the
residue, and allowed to remain for half an hour ; then
washed by decantation with 80 per ceut. alcohol, brought on
to a tared filter previously dried at 120J, and finally, after
drying at the same temperature, weighed. This is calcu-
lated to K3C03 aud represents the total potassium, the
amount of potassium carbonate in the sample being
arrived at by deducting from it that of the other potas-
sium salts as found, likewise calculated to K2CO:1. It
is unnecessary to correct for the volume of the barium
sulphate precipitate, as the slight raising of the results
occasioned thereby is compensated by the lowering of the
same due to the co-precipitation of a small quantity of
potassium chloride with the barium sulphate. (8.) Sodium
carbonate : — This is obtained by deducting the sum of the
percentages of K2CO,, KC1, K„S04, and K,POj found from
that of the total alkali salts (3), and may be controlled by
determining the alkalinity, calculating this to K2CO„
deducting the K2C03 found from it, and calculating the
difference to Na2C03. (9.) Alkalinity : — This is determined
by dissolving the residue from 25 cc. of the standard solu-
tion in water and titrating with normal sulphuric acid ; or
25 cc. of the solution may be directly titrated with normal
nitric acid, and this used for the chlorine estimation (4).
The f ollowiug analysis of a sample of the calcined vinasse hy
the above scheme is given : —
Per Cent.
KX'O;, 50-03
Kt'l IS'18
KsSO t'i;
KJ'O, 0-20
Na.2C03 (from alkalinity 15'06 per cent. \ 1B'14
Insoluble rmtter (oiyanic, 1*15 per cent.;
inorgaui ■, 8*95 per cent.) 5'10
Moisture 0'S7
Tutal 00-S7
The ordinary way of determining the amount of potassium
and sodium, viz., precipitating the solution acidified with
hydrochloric acid with an excess of barium chloride,
rendering alkaline with ammonium carbonate, filtering,
washing with ammoniaeal water, evaporating, igniting,
extracting with water and filtering from silica, then again
evaporating, igniting, weighing the soluble chlorides, and
finally separating them with platinic chloride gives good
results, but the author contends that the same accuracy is
attainable by the method given above (7 and 8), which is
much more expeditious. The strengh of the alcohol em-
ployed to wash the platinochlorides (80 per cent.) is that
recommended by Fresenius, aud the author makes use of
the factor (Op2832) adopted by this chemist for calculating
potassium platino-ehloride to the carbonate. (Compare
following abstract). — A. It. L.
The Technical Analysis of the Calcined Vinasse from
Beetroot Molasses. Alberti and llempcl. Chem. Zeit.
1891,15, 1623—1624.
The authors point out that Heyer (preceding abstract) has
not taken into account the estimation of silica, and they
disagree with him in calculating the total sulphur as potas-
sium sulphate. They propose the following alterations in
(.V) and (7) loc. cit. : — The ignited residue from a 25 cc.
portion of the solution is acidified with an excess of hydro-
chloric acid, evaporating to dryness, and heated at
105 —110° fori — 2 hours; it is now extracted with water
containing a few drops of hydrochloric acid and filtered from
silica, the filtrate being made up to 250 cc. The sulphuric
acid is determined in jo cc. of this; whilst 100 cc. are
introduced into a 200 ce. flask exactly precipitated with
barium chloride, made up to the mark, and the potassium
determined in 25 cc. of the filtrate by the platinum method.
The authors further propose to determine the amount of
sulphuric acid before and after ignition and in the vinasse, and
to calculate the difference as potassium sulphide. — A. R. I..
May si, 1889.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
463
A Method of Inversion and Estimation of Baffinose.
Kaydl. Oestterr. Zeits. Zuckerind. 1891, 20, 700.
'I'm method is that of Herzfeld (Deutseh. Zuckerind.
1890, 15, 166), but instead of dissolving the semi-normal
weight of sugar in 100 cc. of water, that weight of sugar
is dissolved in 250 cc. of water in order that 75 cc. of
the solution contains exactly the seuii-uunnal weight in
grms. of dry substance. It is applicable to all kinds
of products. Her/feld's constant (— 32*66) has been
fully confirmed. It will be seen that with products of
different sugar percentage, but giving the same quotient
of purity, the same quantity of sugar will be inverted,
and the influence of the quotients of purity have therefore
to be determined. As all experiments show that the
(optically inactive ?) organic matters {Nichtznckci-) arc
without influence, and as all salts raise the constants about
the same amount, the amounts of organic matters (Nicht-
zucker) have been neglected, and the inversion-constants
determined for pure sugar in the presence of various weights
of a mixture of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, and
anhydrous sodium acetate.
The following table was constructed from the results
obtained : —
Inversion-Constants at 20° C. von the Quotients.
Quotients 9.1
83
si I
,;
Percentage of Av'i in the Dry Substai
3-2-iis
0-60
11
11
12
IS
14
IS
lei
17
IS
19
20
21
23
21
S2-8lj
0-67
ins
S.'v..-.
52 G2
0-70
ir,-
nilt
0*74
H'711
ii .17
"'77
0-73
li'7il
((•82
0' 77
0-73
0-82
ii 70
IV s;
ll-vl
0*94
0-84
Ir'-ll
0*94
0-!i0
33-05
nil
32 -(',2
32-58
0*65
u-iil
II -.is
iri-.l
32-47
071
0-G7
0-59
n-02
iv 7.1
11-71
0-64
0-57
32*58
32-56
32*52
32- ill
0*79
0-7.1
0-08
0"f2
0-62
II lj2
II -on
0-06
0-81
0'79
0-73
11-17
n-117
0-08
0-66
0-64
0*89
il-sl
077
II71
n - 7 _'
u-73
0-72
0-71
O-'Jl
0-89
0-82
0"76
ll'77
ii-7'.i
II79
0-79
ii!:.
n'.il
0-87
IV si
ns:;
li-so
0-85
0*86
3V05
33-00
0-93
n-S7
0-S9
0-91
li-'.'o
0-94
n-|l
o-oi;
n'.r.i
II -'.12
Oat
0*97
33-00
33-02
o-)s
in:;
33-05
0"98
33 -co
33-03
ii-in;
0-10
IV 2.5
0-19
1112
38-05
0*07
mill
n-13
IJ-17
0"32
0-26
0-10
n-12
n-13
irio
0*20
0-2-3
0-33
M-20
iris
01!)
11-2!
0-27
ir:;;
11-11
0-32
0-24
0-25
(V27
034.
IV H
ii 19
0*39
M-.-.ll
0:il
033
ii- in
ir IS
D'57
0- 17
0-37
0-38
0-38
ir 17
o-oii
0-64
0*44
11-11
II- 10
n-oi
0-63
IV02
0-51
(1-01
irOI
0-lil
u-71
The author has directly determined the influence of the
organic matters (Nichtzucker), and found it to be nil. By
precipitating the total sugar and ratfinose from a technical
product by strontia and lime, he obtained a solution polarising
slightly to the right, the optical activity not undergoing any
alteration when treated with acids. Lead chloride was used
as clarifying agent in these experiments, and subsequently
three grms. of extracted bone charcoal was added (when
necessary); three grms. of this charcoal occupy 1-95 cc,
and flasks having two marks (100 cc. and 101-95 cc.) were
used. In the analysis of molasses it is preferable to employ
llerzfeld's method (semi-normal weight — Hu) cc).
The dextrorotation in the above solution of the organic
matters (Nichtzucker) and in some other technical products
was found to be due to dextrin. The author states that
syrups have been obtained by the diffusion process having
a purity quotient of 1 12, which contained as good as nc
ratfinose, hut large quantities of dextrin. It is therefore a
matter of importance not to make use of the rafliuose formula
unless the presence of ratfinose is known, in all other eases
to calculate the results by ( 'lerget's formula.
A portion of the rafliuose present in raw beet sugar is
contained in the crystals themselves, and the amount thus
occurring is in some cases considerable ; it appears to be
less dependent on the form of the crystal than upon the
quantity of ratfinose contained in the solution from which
the sugar was crystallised.
To prepare ratfinose, a solution of molasses is precipi-
tated with basic lead acetate, Altered and the filtrate
reprccipitated with ammonia, again filtered and this filtrate
concentrated to a syrup. It is dissolved in strong methyl
alcohol, and saturated with carbonic anhydride, and the
filtrate from this after distilling off the methyl alcohol, is
evaporated to a syrup, a crystal of pure rafliuose added, and
left in a cool place for 7 — 8 days. — A. R. L.
40 1
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
Determination of Mechanical Wood
.1 Baudiseh. Papier Zeit. 1891, 16.
On the Quanlitalio
Pulp in Paper.
2414—2415.
The method of Godeffroy and CooIod and its importance for
the above purpose has already been discussed in this
Journal. (See this Journal, 1888, 863—864; 1889, 374—
576; 1891, 57G — 577.) As this test, with the exception of
Bamberger's method, is the only one which if properly made
{rives reliable results, and as Godefftoy and Coulon have
only published their preliminary results, the author
describes the operation of the method in full. As shown in
the notices already referred to, the method is based on
the fact, that the incrusting substances of the mechanical
wood-pulp reduce certain metal salts, e.g., gold chloride,
and that from the quantities reduced we may ascertain the
quantities of mechanical wood-pulp that are present in the
paper. But also pure wood and straw cellulose, have to a
certain extent the same reducing properties, and therefore
it is necessary to nullify their influence by a preliminary
extraction. The reduction is unaffected by different con-
centrations of the gold chloride, as long as only weak
solutions are employed, and also uninfluenced by the time
during which the mechanical wood-pulp is treated by the
reagent. From the previously published results (see this
Journal, 1839, 576), it is evident that on an average
100 parts of mechanical wood-pulp reduce about 14 parts
of gold chloride. This property of mechanical wood-pulp
seems to be uninfluenced by the various compositions of
different papers, and therefore the same reduction number
may be used for all sorts of paper. But the sizing,
especially vegetable sizing, does affect this property of
mechanical wood-pulp, and it must therefore first be re-
moved. Papers to be tested by this method should first
be examined by one of the qualitative reagents for the
presence of mechanical wood-pulp, preferably by phloro-
glucinol and hydrochloric acid. ,Then three strips, about 2 5
or 3 cm. broad, must be cut from a sheet of the paper in
question, in a diagonal direction. One of them is used for
the determination of moisture, and then reduced to ash for
finding the quantity of mineral substances in the dry paper.
The second is used for finding the quantity of ash after
the aforesaid extraction has been made ; and the third
serves for the determination of mechanical wood-pulp.
The second and third strips must be freed from animal and
vegetable sizing, before the examination is made. To
effect this, they are rolled together, placed on glass funnels
as filter-papers are, and there washed first with cold, and
subsequently with hot distilled water. The presence of
animal size is ascertained by the usual test with oxide of
mercury. After all animal size has been removed in this
way, the resinous sizing substances are extracted with pure
absolute alcohol, to which a little tartaric acid is added.
Hydrochloric acid mnst not be used, because of its influence
on the fibres as well as on the gold chloride. This mixture
of alcohol and tartaric acid must be used hot, and the
paper treated with it, until every trace of resinous
bstance is removed. Finally, traces of tartaric acid are
removed by washing with hot water, until the paper ceases
to show an acid reaction. The paper strips thus freed from
animal and vegetable size, must now be dried absolutely'
at a temperature of 100 to 110 C, and then weighed.
< 'lie of them is then treated with pure absolute alcohol, and
subsequently with pure ethyl ether for 24 hours each, in
order to remove straw and wood cellulose if present.
The residue is dried and weighed again, aud afterwards
reduced to ash which i< weighed. The third strip, after
having been absolutely dried and weighed, is torn into
small pieces, which arc put into a beaker, and some diluted
gold chloride solution added, which, however, Fhould not be
too weak. It is then boiled for 10 or 15 minutes, allowed
to cool, filtered and washed with distilled water. The
filter and its contents are then absolutely dried at 100" to
110 C, and both reduced to ash and the latter weighed.
The weight of the filter ash is now known, the weight of the
ash of the paper strip is likewise known, and therefore the
weight of the reduced gold is found by subtraction, and by
means of the above proportion the quantity of mechanical
wood-pulp contained in ihe paper is discovered. — II S.
Determination of Mechanical Wood-pulp in Paper.
K. Godeffroy. Mitt. k. k. techu. Gew. Museum, 1*91, 295.
The reducing action of the lignocelluloses upon gold
chloride has been shown by Godeffroy and Coulon (ibid.
1888, 18, 62 ; 1889, 9 ; this Journal ) to be available as
the basis of a quantitative method of estimation of mecha-
nical wood-pulp in paper. Pulps from the fir, willow, elm,
acacia and pine, were found to be approximately equal in
reducing power, the quantity of gold reduced in the boiling
solution of the chloride being 14 per cent, of the weight of
the lignocellulose. In applying the method to papers, it is
necessar}- to eliminate sizing constituents before applying
the tests. With the view of simplifying the process of
purification previously given (loc. cit.) the aa'hor has
investigated a number of treatments, of which the most
satisfactory is to boil with 10 per cent, aqueous ammonia.
Bv this treatment, the reducing power of the lignocelluloses
investigated, viz., pine, fir, poplar, maple and hazel, was
found to be increased by exactly 50 per cent.
The simplified method consists in the following opera-
tions : —
(a) boiling in 10 per cent, aqueous ammonia for 10
minutes, followed by an exhaustive wash. Two portions of
the paper are treated simultaneously. They are then dried,
one is reduced to ash, and the quantity of the latter
estimated ; the other is subjected to (i) boiling for ten
minutes with the solution of gold chloride, wishing, drying,
and burning. From the weight of ash obtained, that in
the untreated paper is deducted giving the weight of gold
which, multiplied by 100 and divided by 212, gives the per-
centage of lignocellulose in the paper.
Investigations with the view to substitute for the gold
salt, ltes expensive reageuts, viz. alkaline solutions of
copper and bismuth oxides, were attended with negative-
results, the reduction numbers obtained with these reagents
being variable. — C. F. C.
Anal /sis of Sealing War. C. Maugold. Zeits. f. angew.
Chem. 1892, 75—76.
An attempt was made to ascertain the composition of
sealing wax by aid of the iodine equivalent of its alcoholic
solution. Boiling alcohol dissolved 66 per cent., the re-
maining 34 per cent, being taken as the total mineral
matter. From the iodine equivalent it is calculated that
the 66 per cent, of soluble matter consists of colophonium
(formed by heating the shellac aud turpentine together),
and shellac in the relation of 36 to 30.— T. L. B.
The Testing of Indigo.
See under Indiyo and its Application*, Sfc.
Class VI ,/>a.9e428.
On the Estimation of the Organic Substances in the Air
by Potassium Permanganate. J. Arcbarow. Arch.
Hyg. 1891, 13, 229.
The author's experiments prove that the difference in the
amount of organic matter in the air of different dwelling
rooms can be estimated by potassium permanganate, when
this difference amounts at least to 25 per cent. He employs
a specially constructed apparatus by which the air is in
complete contact with the permanganate solution.
The following precautions are necessary :— (1.) The air
must pass through the solution which is heated to a fixed
tempi nature (43 C.) ™ ray small bubbles. (2.) In order
that the end reaction shall be sharp, the solution must be
strongly acidified. (3.) All the glass or porcelain appara-
tus employed in the determination must previously be boiled
with permanganate solution. (4 ") The whole process must
always be conducted in the same manner in order that the
unavoidable errors may be kept constant. (5.) Strong
solutions are not so accurate as dilute ones. The best
concentration is 0' 026 mgrms. of potassium permanganate
to a litre of water. — A. B. I
m,, :i,,i89_\] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
■165
On the Estimation of Fatly Matters in Milk-products.
Lezi and Allard. Compt. Rend. 1891,113, 654—656.
J,i;/.i: described in 1890 (Compt. Rend. 110, G47 ; see this
Journal, 1890, 6G0) a method for estimating fatty matter in
milk, which consisted in adding 4 — 5 vols, of pure concen-
trated hydrochloric acid (enough to redissolve the casein pre-
cipitated at first) saturating with ammonia, and diluting till
all the fatty matter was raised into the neck of the flask in
which the operations were executed, which was graduated
into tenths of a cc. The flask was then heated for some
hours to 40° in an oven. The authors have improved the
method and generalised it. The separation of fatty matter
from casein solution takes place more satisfactorily if the
flask he left at the ordinary temperature, or hetter at 25° —
SO . It is, however, to he heated finally to 40" on the water-
hatli, this temperature being necessary to unite the drops of
fatty matter. The neutralisation with ammonia is un-
necessary. The hydrochloric acid used must be absolutely
free from chlorine, as otherwise a floeculeut precipitate is pro-
duced and gas is given off which renders it difficult to read
off the volume of butter. The fatty matter is pure milk
butter.
By this action of hydrochloric acid, it is easy to isolate
completely, and estimate easily, the fatty matter of milk,
cream, cheese, &c, and also of margarine. When the
substance is too pasty to be introduced at once into the flask
with the graduated neck, it is first treated in an evaporating
dish, and then transferred to the flask. In all cases it is
treated with hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved to a liquid,
which becomes brown in colour on warming, but remains
limpid, while the fatty matter separates out. Many bodies
have been examined and an estimation of fat in a sample
of Gruyere cheese is quoted.
Per Cent
Water 2S'20
Tiitty matter extracted with ether 31 '8*
„ „ carbon disulphidt: . 82'Oi
„ by the new method 3l'7-3
In this case the operation was carried out by treating
10 grins, of cheese with 50 cc. of pure hydrochloric acid,
leaving it to digest for a quarter or half an hour, and then
warming on the water-bath till the liquid turned brown.
Luke-warm water was then added till the fat could be read
off on the divided scale on the neck of the flask. The
density of butter at 10 is 0 ■ 90, so that to obtain the weight,
the volume must be multiplied by this number ; if 9 grms.
of the substance be taken the volume read off in tenths of
a CC. gives directly the percentage of butter in the products.
—P. J. H.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
On the Existence of Acid and Basil- Salts in very dilute
Solutions. D. Berthelot. Compt. Rend. 1891, 113,
1.11—643.
This is a study of the constitution of dilute solutions by
means of their electric conductivity. Gradually increasing
quantities "of a solution of a strong acid, such as hydro-
chloric acid, are added successively to an eouivalent solution
of a strong base, such as potash, and the variation of the
conductivity with the composition is represented graphically
by plotting the conductivities of the solutions as abscissa1
and the relative proportions of one of the bodies {e.g. the
alkali) as ordinates. The figure obtained (whether the acid
be added to the alkaline solution, or the reverse), consists
of a system of two straight lines whose directions are
inclined to each other at an acute angle, and which are
joined by a short curved line. The one straight line
corresponds to the solutions in which there is an excess of
alkali, the other to those in which there is an excess of
acid. But the fact that both in acid and alkaline solutions
tne variation of the conductivity with the composition ceases
to be linear in the immediate neighbourhood of the point of
neutralisation proves that a small quantity of a second salt
(acid or basic, as the case may be), is formed ; in many
cases these salts are known in the solid state, e.g., the oxy-
chlorides and the hydrochlorides of the chlorides. To avoid
all suspicion that the curved position of the system may be
due to the presence of dissolved carbonate, the author has
experimented with a solution of baryta (1 litre = -.j^ gramme-
molecule) to which were added gradually increasing quanti-
ties of hydrochloric acid (1 litre = 1~7 gramme-molecule).
A second series of experiments was performed with a solu-
tion of crystallised barium chloride (1 litre = Ij^rrT gramme-
molecule) to which small quantities of above-mentioned
solution of baryta were successively added. The difference
between the ordinates observed and those calculated, on
the supposition that only a neutral compound is formed and
that the system should consist only of two straight lines,
amount to as much as about 1 per cent, of their value.
The curve becomes a straight line more quickly iu the case
of acid than of alkaline solutions. — P. J. H.
Lecture Experiment to show tin- Absorption of Hydroj u
by Palladium. T. Wilm. Ber. 1892, 25, 217— 2 IV.
3 — 4 grms. of palladium sponge, made by heating palladious
ammonium chloride (PdCl2.2 NH3) first in the air and
then in hydrogen, are placed in a bulb blown at the end cf
a Utube. The tube is connected on the one side with a
Kipp's hydrogen generator, and on the other with a glass
tube provided with a good stop-coek, special care being
taken that the connexions are tight. Pure dr}' hydrogen is
then passed through the tube, the exit tap being open,
whilst the bulb of the IT-tube is heated by an ordinary
burner. In order to remove the water formed in the tube
the two limbs are also carefully heated. After the hydrogen
has passed through the tube for a considerable time, and
long after the whole of the air has been replaced, it is found
that the gas coming through the exit tap only burns inter-
mittently, unless the tap be turned when the increased
pressure in the tube allows a small flame to burn con-
tinuously. If now the heating b3 discontinued and the
exit cock closed, the occlusion of the hydrogen will be
shown by the fact that the current of hydrogen continues
to pass through the wash-bottles. When no more gas is
absorbed the palladium is again heated and the exit tap
opened (the current of hydrogen being still allowed to pass)
when the issuing hydrogen burns with a long continuous
flame, which immediately goes out when the heating is
discontinued. By this means the occlusion of the hydrogen
can be readily shown to a large audience.— C. A. K.
^fh) £oofcs.
Gas Works. Their Construction and Arrangement, and
the .Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. Original! v
written by Samuel Hughes, C.E. Re-written and much
enlarged by William Richards, C.E. Eighth edition,
revised, with Notices of Recent Improvements. London :
Crosby Lockwood and Son, 7, Stationers' Hall Court,
Ludgate Hill. 1892.
8vo volume bound in cloth, with frontispiece representing
plan of Gas Works for town of 10,000 inhabitants, Preface,
Table of Contents, Subject-matter covering 410 paees, and
an Alphabetical Index. The text is illustrated by 75 well-
executed wood engravings. The subdivision of the subject
into chapters is as follows : — Chapter I. Historical Sketch
of Gas Lighting. II. The Chemistry of Gas Lighting.
III. The Composition of Coal Gas. IV. Coal used in (las
Making. V. Carburization. VI. General Construction.
VII. Retorts and Retort Settings. VIII. The Hydraulic
Main and Valves.' IX. The Exhauster. X. The Purification
of Gas. XI. Gas Holders. XII. The Station Meter.
XIII. The Photometer. XIV. The Governor, Regulator,
Pressure Gauge, and Pressure register. XV. Application
and Manufacture of Pesidual Products. XVI. Distribution.
XVII. Consumers' Meters. XVIII. Burners and Glasses.
XIX. The Various Applications of Gas for Heating, Cooking,
and other Purposes. XX. Gas Explosions. XXI. Various
Methods of Producing Light. XXII. The Various Con-
466
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [MaySi.isw
trolling Influences which affect the Quality and Volume of
Will. Public Lighting. XXIV. General Remarks.
XXV. The Sliding Scale. The price of the work is 6s.
CraDt Import.
Farkyard Manure. Tts Nature, Composition, ami
Treatment. By CM. Aikmvx, M.A.. B.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
Sue., Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry, West of
Scotland Technical College. William Blackwood & Sons,
Edinburgh and London. 1892.
Small 8vo. volume, bound in cloth, limp. It contains
Preface, Table of Contents, Introduction, and 65 pages of
Subject-matter. There is no Alphabetical Index, but the
Table of Contents is both clear and well arranged. The
sub-division of the matter is as follows: — Introduction.
On what fertility of soil depends. Function of manures.
Farmyard Manure. Solid Excreta. Urine. Horse
manure. Cow manure. Pig manure. Sheep manure.
Methods of calculating the amount of manure produced on
the farm. Fermentation of farmyard manure. Analyses
of farmvard manure. Comparison of fresh and rotten
manure. Methods of application of farmyard manure to
the field. Value and function of farmyard manure.
The price of the book is Is. 6d.
Chemisch -Techxis( hes RErKr.TORirM. Uebersichtlich
geordnete Mittheilungen der neuesten Erfindungen, Fort-
schritte und Verbessernugen auf dem Gebiete der Tech-
nischen und Industriellen Chemie, mit Hinweis auf
Maschinen, Apparate, und Literatur. Herausgegeben von
Dr. Ejiil Jacobsex, 1891, Erstes Halbjahr. Zweite
H litte. Berlin, 1892. R. Gaertner's Verlagsbuehband-
lung, Hermann Heyfeldcr, S.W. Schonebergerstr. 26.
London : H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent
Garden.
The Repertorium of Chemical Technology for the latter
quarter of the first half of 1891 has just appeared. Its
pages run from 153 to 307, and the following branches of
chemical industry are treated of: — Food Stuffs; Paper;
Photography ; Residuals, Manures, Disinfection, and Sani-
tation : Soaps : Explosives ; Preparation and Purification of
Chemicals ; Chemical Analysis ; Apparatus, Machinery ;
Electro-Technology ; Thermo-Technology. and Appendix.
Special Preparations, Adulterants of Trade Products, &c.
New Books. The text is interspersed with numerous wood-
cuts representing apparatus and plant.
Fuels, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous. Their Analysis
and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers.
By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. Second Edition.
Revised and Enlarged. Londou : Crosby Lockwood and
Son, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, E.C. 1892.
Small 8vo. volume, bound in cloth. It contains Prefaces,
Table of Contents, and Text covering 108 pages. The
pages are illustrated with 1 4 wood engravings, and the
work concludes with an Alphabetical Index.
The work is subdivided into the following branches : —
Methods or Analysis: Characteristics of Fuels. Esti-
mation of Ash and Moisture; of Coke and Volatile
Matter ; of Sulphur, Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen. Estimation of Specific Gravity and Flash-point.
Analysis of Gaseous Fuel. Ashes of Fuels. Methods OF
Valuation: Calorific Values. Tables of Practical Results
and Analyses. In his Preface to the Second Edition the
author proclaims that in 12 months he has been called on
for a second edition by a demand from both chemists and
engineers. The enlargement is considerable and the im-
provements very manifest. Thus, amongst the additions,
methods for the analysis of the ashes of fuels, practical
methods for obtaining the calorific value and specific gravity
of gaseous fuel, and for the determination of sulphur in
gaseous fuel, &c , &c.
The price of the work is 3s. 6(/.
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
(From the Board of Trade Journal.)
Switzerland.
Note. — Quintal = 220-1 lb. avoirdupois. E'rauc = '.*-~d.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the Swiss Customs tariff were given by the Swiss
Customs authorities in the month of March last : —
Oil of amber. — Category 13. Duty, In francs per
quintal.
Sulphate of benzidine. — Category 46. Duty, CO cents.
per quintal.
Electric accumulators of every kind and detached pieces
of the same, such as plates, fitted or not, frames, &c.j
telephones and detached parts of the same, such as boxes,
registers, &c. — Category 215. Duty, <'• francs per quintal.
Plates (frames), of lead, perforated, for electric accumu-
lators are removed from Category 240 to Category 215. and
uow pay a duty of 6 francs per quintal.
France.
Note. — Kilog. = 2 '204 lb. avoirdupois. Fr.inc = 9-j^rf.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the new French Customs tariff have recently
been fiven by the French Customs authorities : —
Mvrobolams, properly so-called, dry, whole or crushed,
and libi-divi or divi-divi. — Category 156. Free of duty.
Dry colours composed of sulphate of barytes or any
similar substances, coloured with a small quantity of a
derivative from coal tar (3 per cent, at the most). —
Category 310. Duty, 5 per cent, ad valorem.
Bone-glue, English glue, bone-size (product of a gela-
tinous base used in the prcparatisn of tissues and specially
of Amiens cotton velvet ). — Category 313. Duty, 6 francs
per 100 kilos.
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
The Silician Sulphur Industry.
The French Consul at Messina has recently addressed a
report to his Government upon the condition of the sulphur
industry in Sicily. He states that the production of sulphur
in 1891 showed a decided falling off as compared with 1 890,
the amounts being 4,499,479 cantars (13 cantars = 1 ton)
in the former and 3,817,053 cantars in the latter year.
This diminution is owing in great measure to the fact that
the large mines which represent three-fourths of the pro
duction worked with exceptional activity at the time of the
last crisis, in order to distribute the general expenses over
a much larger product, with the result that at the present
time they are unable to show an increased out-turn, and in
some cases there is a very decided diminution in the amount
produced. Again, no new workings were begun during the
period the crisis lasted.
As regards the smaller mines, which are very numerous,
these show no increase in production, while a large number
have gone out of working altogether. In considering the
question of the diminution in the supply of sulphur, account
must also be taken of the variation in the number of hours
devoted by the workmen to labour in the mines. When
prices were low the Sicilian labourers were obliged to work
like persons engaged in other industries, six days a week
and as many hours as was found necessary, in order to
extract th v in sufficient quantity to enable them to draw
an ordinary wage. With the enhanced value of the product
came an increase in the price of labour, the workmen then
May si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
467
commenced to work l>v the half-day with one day a week
off, and then a reduction of the hours of labour was effected,
to the extent that about 24 hours' work a week is now
about ;ill that an ordinary labourer in the sulphur mines
performs. Consequently, as the working mining population
is limited and is composed of special workmen, the produc-
tion becames more and more restricted.
Among other causes pf diminution in the output may be
mentioned the placing under cultivation of land productive
of ore of an inferior quality, and which the owners thought
it more to their advantage to cultivate than to work for
sulphur, and the imposition of a new tax of 60 centimes per
kilogramme upon the manufacture of mining powder.
The very gravest apprehensions are felt for the future of
the sulphur industry in Sicily. It is expected that for some
years to come the production will he to a great extent
Hmited. In the first place a restriction of labour appears
to be threatened by the action of the Italian Legislature
affecting the employment of children. Of the latter many
of 11 to 12 years of age are engaged in the mines carrying
ore, and owing to the absence of capital it will be difficult
for the mine owners to replace their labour by machinery.
The depth of the mines is continually increasing, par-
ticularly in the case of those mines in which shafts are sunk
vertically, and these latter are by far the most important
and the richest. With an increase of depth, difficulties also
increase, these consisting of more improved methods of
extraction, greater ventilation, and the employment of larger
pumps, all of which require considerable outlay. It will,
therefore, in the spinion of M. de Lalande, be some years to
come before the average production of the last 10 years is
again reached.
According to the chief engineer of the Sicilian mines,
the falling off in the production of sulphur in 1891, as
compared with 1890, amounted to over 58,000 tons, and this
was owing to the wild speculations in Sicily, especially those
which were engaged in between December 1890 and May
of the following year, and which ruined many of those
engaged in the sulphur industry. At this period also
throughout the world (for Sicily furnishes nearly nice-
tenths of all the sulphur used) merchants, agriculturists,
and manufacturers, in fact consumers of all kinds, rather
than purchaae at the then exorbitant prices, exhausted their
stocks, and if it became necessary to buy they confined their
orders to a supply only just sufficient to carry them on
from day to day.
The exhaustion of the stocks of sulphur in foreign
countries brings into relief the fact that the falling off in
the demand is more accentuated in countries where sulphur
is more particularly employed for agricultural purposes, and
especially in the treatment of vines, as, for example, in
France and Greece, than in countries like the I'nited States,
England, Austria, and Sweden, where sulphur is used
chiefly in the various industries, and is therefore the object
of frequent and direct purchases. From the United States,
however, evidences are forthcoming of a tendency to sub-
stitute for certain industrial purposes pyrites for sulphur,
but this substitution cun only be effected slowly and in
factories having had the time to renew their plant, and
there is little probability of all of them acting in this
respect simultaneously. This abandonment of sulphur in
certain respects would find its compensation in the employ-
ment of the article by new industries or by the application
of improved processes. In this connexion mention may be
made of the methods now being attempted in Germany of
extracting fatty substances and oils by the action of liquid
sulphuric acid, and if, as is claimed, this system is superior,
so far as results are concerned, to all those hitherto in vogue,
it points in the future to a fresh outlet for sulphur and one
not without some importance.
M. de Lalande, speaking of the present condition of the
sulphur market in Sicily, says that it is by no means un-
satisfactory ; the production certainly shows a tendency to
restriction, hut this in his opinion is due less to an absence
of confidence than to the want of new outlets. Capital is
wanting, labour is dear, and miners difficult to find, but in his
opinion the outlook is far from discouraging, as the sulphur
beds in Sicily still enjoy the reputation of being the finest
in the world. — Board of Trade Journal.
Industrial Development and Fields fob Capital in
Mexico,
A report has recently been presented to the French
Government by the French diplomatic agent in Mexico,
upon the undeveloped mineral and agricultural resources of
that country. From this report the following information
has been extracted : —
The richness of the soil of Mexico exceeds anything that
can be imagined. In a relatively small area all climates and
products are found. It is is not necessary to travel great
distances in order to pass the region of wheat, of the beet,
oak, and pine, of the vine, olive, and orange, and of the
sugar-cane, coffee, and vanilla. The transitions are rapid.
The traveller who passes through the torrid region of Vera
Cruz in the morning may at nightfall enter into the region
of eternal snows.
The absence of means of communication has paralysed
the efforts of numerous agriculturists, but this disadvantage
is disappearing daily ; the railways are extending and
branching out rapidly throughout the couutry.
The wealth of the subsoil of Mexico is enormous ; silver,
gold, copper, iron, lead, tin, and all other minerals abound
everywhere. The volcanoes contain immense quantities of
sulphur ; the petroleum wells and salt deposits present
favourable openings for capital.
The abundance of raw materials and the cheapness of
labour favour the establishment and development of indus-
tries. The raw materials cost little; there is no lack of coal
mines, the working of some of them having already given
satisfactory results. In Mexico, therefore, not only could
the metallurgical industries be profitably established, but
also weaving, sugar, dyeing and other industries. These
industries certainly have at the present time some represen-
tatives, but they are by no means sufficient for such an
extended market.
There is also a lack of saw and wood mills, and paper, oil
and soap factories ; there are no tanneries, glassworks,
distilleries, factories of chemical products, for which some
lakes and volcanoes offer inexhaustible quantities of valuable
products. — Ibid.
Argentine Republic
Drug Imports.
Among the imports of pharmaceutical goods into the
Argentine Republic in 1890, the following items arc of
interest. (The first number, except where otherwise stated,
denotes the quantity in kilos. ; the next, in parentheses, the
value in dollars'): — Sulphuric acid, 1,246,376 (62,219);
linseed oil, 452,237 (80,908) ; spirits of turpentine, 437,261
(57,442) ; varnish, 98,253 (78,600) ; bicarbonate of soda,
360,374 (25,624); carbonate of potassium, 16,873 (2,531);
carbonate of soda, 328,195 (12,715) ; paint, in powder,
1,958,916 (149,488) ; ditto, prepared, 2,041,057 (189,749) ;
essential oils, — (43,860); specifics for curing sheep-scab,
— (269,488) ; phosphorus, 16,079 (16,249) ; gums, 139,011
(33,279) ; iodide of potassium, 643 (3,215) ; soap, common,
36,930 (10,642) ; ditto, perfumed, 42,504 (22,784) ; malt,
2,902,798 (290,279) ; prepared medicines,— (273,560) ; per-
fumery,— (257,624) ; pharmaceutical products, — (65,595) ;
chemical products, — (417,785) ; soda ash, 2,581,048
(77,430); caustic soda, 132,806 (6,640); sulphate of
quinine, 19 (760) ; druggist's utensils, — (182,254); glass
bottles, 238,624 dozen (71, 584) ; scientific instruments, —
(88,311) : gutta-percha articles, — ■ (92,254).
Drug Exports.
The exports from Argentina connected with the drug
trade are mostly of the animal kingdom. They total as
follows:— Extract of beef, 187,566 (375,132); glycerin,
161,306 (46,522) ; pepsin, 13,830 (20,745) ; honey, 52,799
(9,004) ; beeswax, 6,798 (3,059).— Chemist and Vrwggisf.
t68
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May SI, IMS
W \l Kl'Ill s.
Drugs.
Last year Mauritius imported 1,385,100 rs. worth of
chemical products, mostly sulphate of ammonia and nitrate
of potash, from Australia and India, but also including
302,197 rs. worth of dings and medicinal compounds from
England and France.
Soap.
Ten years ago nearly all the soap used in Mauritius came
from France and, as the consumption is over 1,000 tons a
year, this was a trade worth cultivating. But since then
France has been deprived of nearly half her trade by-
Australia and by the Seychelles islands, in which latter
group a soap-works hus recently been established. — Ibid.
Mori
British Trade.
The share of Great Britain in the imports of Mogadore is
very satisfactory— viz., 55 per cent, in 1891 against 52 per
cent, the year before. The remainder of goods imported
was mostly from F'rance.
Italy.
British Trade.
The following figures relate to the exports from and
imports into Italy of pharmaceutical goods from Great
Britain and her colonies : —
Foreign Goods via London.
Although these figures are eminently gratifying, yet, on
examining the subject more closely, we find that, in the
import table at any rate, they are liable to some discount,
since there is no doubt that for some years prior to 1890 a
consideiable quantity of goods of German and some of
Belgian origin had 'been imported riu London in English
steamers, and therefore illusively swelled the total from
Great Britian. Even now some German merchandise
sometimes comes in on Finglish steamers.
Exports to Germain/.
The export trade to Germany commenced in 1S90 with
the opening of the " Woermann " and "Alias" lines of
steamers. The tint year the steamers took, among other
goods, beeswax, 720/.; cumin seed, 5072. ; gums, 900Z. ;
olive oil, 29,248/. ; orris-root, 36/., and sesame. 33/. In
1891, beeswax, 2.304/.: cumin. 24/.; gums, 2.L'.jo/. ; oil,
10,710/.; orris-root, 224/. ; rose-leaves, and sesame, 48/.
Gums.
The sum exports from MogadorC were as follows : —
(Jams.
1891.
Ions.
Brown 65
Amrad :;;
i 171
Saudarac 198
6 375
Tnlls. £
I'-
1,056
ll! brown.
n.n
130 11.::'"'
14^50
1515 11,700
Oil.
The shipments of olive oil were affected both by shorter
supply and lowness of prices, especially in London, the
total for the year amounting to 43,8902. against 138,720/.
lor the previous one. The value was thus divided : ( ireat
Britain, S,9C>n/. : France, 10,955/. j Germany, 10,710/. j
Portugal, 2,'.Xi.'j/. : Spain. 490/. In the middle of March
there was a considerable quantity of Government oil in
store, awaiting favourable advices from European markets.
— Ibid.
Imports inf" Italy.
1890.
1S91.
Difference.
Cwt.
- 610
Cwt.
•
Cwt.
■- £252
Potash and caustic soda 136,016
(impure).
Alkaloids 33
Oxide 17,844
1 i nates 59,766
Chlorides 76,482
Xitra'cs W.554
Sulphates 258 H-
Other chemical products — £5,698
Quinine and bark 9.096
Gums and resins 21. i tf
Soap
20,440
68,460
38,406
1 1 700
308 596
3,198
8,550
- 926
+ 39
1 8,694
- 38,076
25,854
- 50,151
- 6.49S
+ 15,924
- 961
Exports from Ilaly.
Difference.
Cwt.
Boricacid 31.(150
Lb.
Alkaloids
Cwt.
Tartar and lees of wine 101,782
Orange and lemon juices
Liquorice, aloes. &c 12 SS2
Soap 19,018
Cwt.
28,272
Lb.
701
Cwt.
151,148
1.1.111
12,182
21,156
i ..ii.
- 5,778
Lb.
- 1,779
Cwt.
10.36G
17-11
7nii
2,138
-Ibid.
Mineral Discoveries in Greece.
The mineral wealth of the island of Milo has just been
increased by the discovery of mines of barytes containing,
it appears, a large quantity of silver.
According to the French Consul at Syra, explorations
have been made in the localities of Mirovilia, Pikroudon,
Castagnia, and at Teriades on the promontory of Vaiii to
the north-east of the island. Everywhere the results have
exceeded the highest anticipations.
At .Mirovilia there have been opened six galleries of a
total length of 104 metres, and four wells of 11 metres each.
Analysis has established the proportion of from 300 to 1,900
guns, of silver per ton of barytes.
At Pikroudon pits to a small depth have been Mink from
which 720 metrb centners of barytes have been extracted.
The proportion of silver is from 200 to 2JO grins, per
tou.
At Castagnia the barytes extracted from three pit,
contains the same proportion of silver.
At Triades five horizontal galleries have been sunk, and
the barytes extracted in this locality contains 300 grins, of
silver per ton.
Further, in other places pieces of barytes have been
gathered in the open trenches which have given up to
10,000 grms. per ton.
The mass of barytes at Milo is estimated at 12,000,000
tons. Supposing that 200 tons were extracted daily it
would require 700 years to exhaust it. It is recommended
that foundries of the " Augustin " type, similar to those iu
use in Hungary, should be established in the localities
mentioned above, and more particularly at Kannari and at
Pigadakia, where water is lo be had in plenty. These two
localities are also sumeient'ynear to the sea to permit ship- of
large tonnage to effect loading. — Board of Trade Journal.
Haysi,i892.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
499
Exports of Henequen from Mexico.
The French Consul at Vera Cruz, in a report upon the
Mexican export of henequen in 1891, says : —
The weight of henequen exported from Mexico in 1891
was 113,263,519 lb., valued at 5, 990,044 piastres. In 1890,
the quantity and value were respectively 97,959,373 11). and
5,007,562 piastres, and in 1889, 87,839,783 lb. and 8,783,978
piastres.
It therefore appears that production has increased to a
large extent in 1891, compared with the two preceding
years, but the article having kept at a low price, which was
lower still in 1891, it results that the value exported in 1889
was superior to that which is represented by the exports for
the two following years, although the quantity exported has
been less.
In fact the average price iu 1889 was 10 centimes of a
piastre per pound, against .V 1 cents, in 1890 and 5'2 cents.
in 1891. The average price for last year is therefore
slightly higher than that for 1890, a fact which should be
taken into account as well as the increase shown by the
quantity exported. — Ibid.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Quinine and Java Cinchona.
Chem. and Druggist, 40, 589 — 590.
Full statistics are given of the estimated crop of Java
cinchona for 1S92. The statistics show that of the 115 planta-
tions known to exist in the island two have been abandoned
siuce last year, while on three others all the trees have been
uprooted. These three plantations only produced an aggre-
gate of 120,000 lb. of bark, or less than 3 per cent, of the
total production — a fact which disposes of the assertion that
there has been a general uprooting of trees in consequence of
the low prices which have ruled. Moreover, nearly all the
uprooted cinchona averaged only 3 to :\\ per cent, of
quinine sulphate, a yield admittedly too low to hold out
any prosper! of successful competition in the future. On
the other baud, twenty-six plantations have either not yet
come into bearing at all or only yield insignificant quan-
tities, while six others, though still in existence and ready
to ship bark under more favourable circumstances, did not
harvest any last season. These figures indicate that there
is plenty of reserve stock in the island to tall back upon
when the market improves. Another important feature of
the return is that the quinine value of the hark on almost
all the large estates is increasing. The manufacturing bark
from .lava, which averaged about 3§ per cent, not long
ago, will next season represent an average value of nearly
5 per cent, in sulphate of quinine, and that proportion is
likely to be still further increased later on. The main
interest of the statistical returns, however, lies in the fact
that, for the first time iu the history of the Java cinchona
industry, they presage a falling off, positive as well as
relative, in the shipments from the island. If the unit
remains where it is now, the compilers expect the quikiine
output of the island to be fully 10 per cent, less than last
season, and even if the unit should improve to \\d. or ljrf.
per lb., it is likely to fall below that of 1891 by 1 per cent,
or thereabouts. Private advices state that the actual ship-
ments will almost certainly fall below the minimum
mentioned in the returns, unless indeed, in the unlikely
event of a considerable improvement in prices.
The position of the Java planters to-day resembles that of
their Ceylon colleagues in 1886 in this respect — that the
excessive feeding of the Kuropean bark-market is beginning
to produce the inevitable reaction— but the situation is
different from that in Ceylon six years ago, first, inasmuch
as there is in Java a heavy supply of rich bark to fall back
upon ; secondly, because the Java growers have taken to
heart the lesson that the indiscriminate prcduction of low-
grade, quickly-growing barks does not pay ; and, finally,
because they have not, as the Ceylon growers had at the
time, looming before them the spectre of a new aud rapidly-
growing source of production the advent of which they are
bound to forestall at all hazards. There is no important
source of supply behind the Java planters.
The threatened falling off iu the production of Java cin-
chona-bark would, no doubt, under ordinary circumstances,
make itself felt in the quinine market. But that market
has been unhinged to such a degree by speculative sales, that
the effect of the laws which usually govern the fluctuations
of manufactured products may be retarded for a considerable
time. There is certainly no indication yet of any upward
movement in quinine, though the signs which would
warrant such a tendency are slowdy accumulating at the
horizon.
On the Production of Sugar in British India.
Chem. Zeit. 1891, 15, 1581.
According to statistics received by the Indian Government
from a certain firm, the average yield of sugar is one ton
per acre, and it is of very poor quality ; whereas in the
West Indies the sugar planter obtains two tons per acre.
The explanation of this small yield is that, in India, with
the exception of three large sugar factories in Madras,
only small plantations exist, and the 2) — 3 million acres
devoted to the industry are almost exclusively cultivated
by natives under conditions which render the management
of large sugar refineries impossible. Some years ago the
native planter was still using primitive methods which had
been in vogue for centuries, but the above-mentioned firm
has since introduced a cheap, easily transportable, crushing
mill of simple construction, and this has been such a
success that at present upwards of 200,000 are iu use, and
a planter wdio formerly cultivated 30 acres now cultivates
600 acres, and obtains a better product. Improved
forms of evaporating apparatus have also been introduced.
—A. R. L.
The Sisal Grass of Yucatan.
One of the most remarkable vegetable products known,
and one of the most valuable resources of Yucatan, says
the Mexican Financial Review, is its sisal grass. It grows
in long, narrow blades, often to the length of four or live
feet, and these, when dry, curl up from side to side, forming
a flexible string, stronger than any cotton cord of the same
size ever manufactured. It is in great demand among
florists and among manufacturers of various kinds of grass
goods ; but as soon as its valuable properties become known
it will have a thousand uses now undreamed of. Hopes,
cords, lines of any description and any size may be manu-
factured of it, and a ship's cable of sisal grass is one of
the possibilities of the future. It is almost impervious to
the action of salt water, and is not readily decayed or
disintegrated by moisture and heat, and will, in time, prove
one of the most valuable productions of Mexico. It takes
its name from the port of Sisal, in Yucatan, through which
it was formerly exported. — Ibid.
Canadian Platinum.
It has long been known that platinum had been found in
the province of Quebec. In the Report of the Geological
Survey for 1851-52 it is stated that Dr. Hunt had
detected native platinum in some of the gold washings of
the Chaudiere district. In the province of Ontario platinum
has been discovered in the Sudbury district. It there
occurs iu combination with arsenic, forming the mineral
sperrylite, which is of great interest, as it is " the first mineral
yet found containing platinum as an important constituent
other than the natural alloys with various metals of the
platinum group." So far as can be learned, no effort has
yet been made to utilise sperrylite as a source of platinum,
but at present it brings a high price as a mineralogical
curiosity.
Canadian platinum ore, as a commercial article, is entirely
the product of British Columbia. In association with
alluvial gold it has been met with in a number of the
streams of that province. At present the most important
platinum-bearing district of British Columbia, as well,
indeed, as of North America, is that of the Tulameen or
North Fork of the Similkameeu river. Placer mining in
this district yields both gold and platinum, the latter being
found, like the gold, in grains and small nuggets. A
notable quantity of platinum has already been obtained
from this district. One firm in the United States claims to
have purchased within the last year or two fully 2,000 oz.
470
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May SI, 18i>2.
of British Columbia platinum, and it is well known that a
portion of the \ kid of this district has found its way to the
Loudon market.
An inereas d output may be expected, as the Tulameen
Hydraulic and Improvement Company has made prepara-
tions to begin hydraulic mining on a large scale with the
advent of spring. Mr. R. G. Tatlow, a member of this
company, informs me that his company has erected a saw-
mill having a capacity of 5,000 ft. per diem, and has
constructed about two miles of flume, 5 ft. at base, 20 in.
high, on sills placed on solid bed about 7 ft. wide, and
having a grade of J in. in 12 ft. The water is taken from
Eagle Creek, about 14 miles above Granite Creek, the only
creek capable of giving the necessary quantity of water and
pressure. In addition to this flume, the company has on
the ground and ready for work about 400 ft. of iron pipe
and a monitor, which, where work is to be commenced, will
work with a pressure of 900 miners' inches and a drop of
about 160 ft. Mr. Tatlow also states that the largest yield
of platinum appears to have been in the vicinity of and
below Eagle Creek, where the yield has been about two
parts of gold to one of platinum.
Two samples of this Tulameen ore contained 69 • 28 per
cent, and 72 per cent, platinum. It is really a very complex
alloy of platinum with a number of the comparatively rare
metals of this group, such as palladium, iridium, and
notably an alio}' of osmium and iridium, known as
osmiridium, which, in grains of proper size and form, is
used for pen-points. This ore is worth to-day about
5-50 dols. per oz. troy. The price is very unsteady, being
determined by the demand for the metal and by the state
of affairs in Russia, the principal producer of the ore.
An interesting statement in connexion with the metal-
lurgy of platinum was made by the President of the
Chemical Section of the British Association at the meeting
of last year. It is to the effect that one firm of refiners in
London have such facilities that 2\ cwt. of platinum may be
melted in a single charge, and that the same firm, in a
single operation, extracted a mass of palladium valued at
30,000/. from gold-platinum ore actually worth more than a
million sterling! — Engineering and Mining Journal.
Russian Sunflower Oil.
The sunflower has been known in Russia for many years
but only in certain districts has it been cultivated on a large
sale. The first cultivation of sunflower-seed for mercan
tile purposes in Russia began in 1842, in the village of
Alexeievka, district of Uerutchiusk, government of Votonezh .
That province is even now the chief district in European
Russia for the growing of the sunflower. From there the
cultivation of sunflowers spread to the adjacent govern-
ments of Tambov and Saratov, where there are extensive
cultures owned by the town of Saratov itself. The people
of the governments of the Don, Simbirsk, and Samara, are
more or less engaged in this trade. Two kinds of sunflower
are known, one with small seeds used for the production of
oil, and the other with large seeds consumed by the common
people in enormous quantities as a dainty. In a district
where the seed is cultivated on a large scale, and the plant
has been continually grown on the same soil for many
years in succession, the sunflower has become subject to a
disease called Puecinia diocoidearum. Owing to this
disease the sunflower crops have been rather poor in the
government of Voronezh for the last ten years, and the
cultivation has, therefore, abated somewhat in this locality.
The sunflower-seed is used principally for obtaining an oil
which has superseded all other vegetable oils in many parts
of Russia. In general, the cultivation of the sunflower in
Russia is considered to be very profitable. At the average
yield of 1,350 lb. per acre, and at the average price of |rf.
per lb., the farmer receives an income of about 4/. per acre.
This income can be increased in districts where the grower
himself is engaged in producing the oil from the seed.
However, oil-mills are very rare in the villages, the farmers
selling their seed to the oil producers. In the seed-growing
district of Saratov there are only 34 village oil-mills, pro-
ducing oil worth 8,000/. annually, whereas in the town of
Saratov 90,000/. worth of oil is manufactured annually.
The substance remaining from the oil manufacture, or the
sunflower cakes, being used as cattle food, is also a valuable
product. These cakes, however, have a comparatively small
demand in Russia, and are largely exported to foreign
countries, principally to Germany and England. The sun-
flower shells, being used for heating purposes, form an
article of trade in several districts. The seed-cups are used
as food for sheep. Of the different kinds of sunflower
seed in Russia — some white or grey, some brown with white
or grey stripes, some quite black, dyeing the cells a dark
violet colour — the grey and striped seeds are preferred, as
they appear to be much cleaner and handsomer, and there-
fore command a higher price, especially for the purpose of
raw consumption by the common people. The black seed,
owing to its dark colouring matter, is generally avoided.
All these seeds appear in the market divided into two sorts.
The larger kind, containing less oil, is the cheaper; the
smaller, producing more oil, is sold to the oil manufac-
turers, and is much more expensive. The latter seeds are
flat and oval, like coffee beans, and are considered the best
for this industry. — Chemist and Druggist.
The Cornish Assay.
Last year the Anaconda Mining Company took a step in
advance by declining to sell copper matte in England upon
English terms and deductions, so far as the settlement was
concerned, bills being made out and settled for at so many
pence for so mauy pounds of fine copper. The result was
not reached without some grumbling on the part of English
smelters, and now Mr. Haggin has made another further
and radical advance in declining to sell any longer by the
Cornish assay, insisting upon the wet analysis, with the
allowance of 1 • 3 units, customary in this country. 1'pon
these terms 1,800 tons of argentiferous matte were pur-
chased by a large Liverpool house last month, followed by
a second purchase of 600 tons by another smelter. Since
then large contracts have been made on the same basis,
amounting to many thousands of tons. It is but a step
further now to compelling all foreign buyers to accept
American assays and weights, since American methods of
assay and settlement are conceded. In the present state
of the market for furnace material it requires the concur-
rence of only two or three American producers to obtain
this concession. As is well known, some of our largest
copper miners never sell on any other basis. — Engineering
and Mining Journal.
Wire Glass.
Under the name of wire glass a new invention has been
brought on the market by a Dresden firm, the Actien-
Gesetlschaft fur Glasindustrie vorm. Friedr. Siemens, says
Iron, which marks an important development in the glass-
making industry. The process of manufacture consists in
furnishing glass in hot plastic condition with a flexible
metallic layer, iron wire netting, for instance, which is
completely inclosed by the vitreous substance and effectively
protected against exterior influences, as rust, &c. The new
glass possesses much greater resisting power than the ordinary
material, and is, it is claimed, indifferent to the most
abrupt changes of temperature. A proof of its toughness
and durability is the fact that it may, in a highly heated
state, be sprinkled with cold water without being materially
damaged. The glass is specially adapted for skylights, the
powerful resisting qualities of the material enabling the
usual wire protectors to be dispensed with. As wire glass
cannot be cut by the diamond, except under the application
of great force, and cannot be broken without creating con-
siderable noise, the substance is claimed to be, iu a
measure, burglar proof. Wire glass has also been success-
fully applied to the manufacture of hollow glass ware, it
being particularly suitable for making glass vessels which
have to withstand a high pressure or be subjected to rough
usage. The new material is at present being manufactured
in sheets of 8 mm. thickness and upwards.
Alkali Works, &c. Act Amendment Bill.
On Friday, May 6th, a meeting, called by the Council of
the Society of Chemical Industry, was held at the Society's
offices, to consider the Alkali Works, &c. Act Amendment
Hill recently introduced by the President of the Local
M«y 31,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
471
Government Board. The following gentlemen were present :
Sir II. E. Koscoe, M.P., F.K.S., Mr. J. T. Brunner, M.P.,
-Mr. J. C. Stevenson, M.P., Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Her
Majesty's Chief Inspector under the Act it is proposed to
amend, Col. D. Gamble representing a committee of Lanca-
shire and Cheshire manufacturers, Messrs. Xewlands,
Crowder, Howard, Redwood, and Tyrer. The following
resolution was passed : — "That this meeting of members of
the Society of Chemical Industry, called by the Council of
the Society, and comprising chemical manufacturers engaged
in trades affected by the existing Act and the proposed Bill,
adopts the resolution of the meeting of chemical manufac-
facturerx held yesterday in Liverpool, to the effect that the
proposed Bill is not comprehensive enough in its scope, and
that to be satisfactory provision should be made for the
inspection of all works evolving certain specified noxious
gases with the view of ultimately fixing a definite limit ;
also that the passing of the proposed Bill will render it
difficult to pass another more comprehensive measure in
the near future."
A meeting of the Chemical and Allied Trades Section of
London Chamber of Commerce, states the Chemical Trade
Journal, was held at the offices of the Chamber on Friday,
-7th May, to consider the effect on chemical and allied
industries of the same Bill. It was thought that this
measure, if passed, would be productive of grave injury
to many of the smaller industries, and might have the
effect of driving them abroad altogether. Further, it was
believed that the real offenders would not be touched by
the present Bill, inasmuch as dyeworks and works of a
similar character which give off noxious vapours, purposely
cany on at times part of their process of manufacture
during the night, with the result that any neighbouring
chemical or alkali works usually is credited with creating
the nuisance complained of. It was reported that the
chemical manufacturers of Liverpool, the Society of
Chemical Industry, and the Coal Tar Distillers' Associa-
tion had already taken steps to oppose the Bill, and it was
resolved to second these efforts by a petition to the House
of Commons. A petition has since been lodged opposing
the Bill on the following grounds : —
(«.) That the extension of the provisions of the Alkali
Act of 1881 to the works set forth in the schedule to the
Amendment Bill would be a serious hindrance to trade, by
reason of the restrictions proposed, and that in the case of
many of the works it would seriously hamper them in their
struggle with the increasing competition of foreign manu-
facturers, thus tending to drive these industries abroad.
(i.) That the Bill is entirely unnecessary inasmuch as
where grievances are alleged the complainants have very
ample facilities and powers to prosecute under the Local
(iovernment Acts.
(c.) That if further legislation is deemed necessary it is
submitted that the present Bill is not sufficiently general,
as the schedule thereto does not include many works which
in their processes of manufacture are liable to emit gases at
least as offensive and injurious as the works which form the
subject of the proposed legislation.
((/.) That the inclusion of certain works and the exclusion
of others similarly conducted and equally requiring inspec-
tion— if such is necessary — in the schedule to the Bill, can
only result in anomalies, inconveniences, aud difficulties,
which would be a source of general dissatisfaction.
(e.) That any Bill affecting the industries scheduled should
contain provisions for the inspection of all works evolving
certain specified noxious gases.
Mineral Production of Prussia.
The production of the mines and metallurgical works of Prussia in 1890 and the two preceding years, according to the
Zeitschrift fur das Berg-, flatten-, und Salinenwesen im Preussischen Staate, Band xxxix., was as follows : —
Production of Mines.
Brown coal
Asphalt
Petroleum
Rock salt
Salt from brine
Kainit
Other potassium suits
Magnesium salts
Boracite
Iron ore
Zinc ore
Lead ore
Ct pper ore
Gold and silver ore
Cobalt ore
Nickel one
Arsenic ores
Manganese ores
Pyrites
Other vitriol anil alum ore .
Amounts.
Value.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1SSS.
1889.
1890.
Tons.*
59,475,351
1
Tons
01,430,991
Tons.
04,373,810
Marks.t
291,918,935
.Marks.
332,581,039
Marks.
470,523,844
13,207,888
1 (,205,047
15,468,431
32.159,317
35.3-Js 1 33
39371,250
10,747
12,310
i 1,533
1111.301
107.22U
21111.315
2,770
3,059
2,249
393,762
HT.I'sn
338,178
1sni;:>2
251,819
250,351
913,655
1,145,231
1.212,204
268,463
268,363
271.015
5,639,810
6,354,753
6,884,894
257,557
■J7:>,'.isi
308,660
3,734,147
1,044,320
4,383,565
720,181
689,341
708,467
7,380,141
7,329,100
7,750,816
11,152
8,959
6,688
87,598
68,189
57.213
118
Hi
170
K.V.I 1
33.1(10
£3.1110
1.1 15.251
4,375,283
1,2 13,399
25,540,012
31,124,3!«l
31,599,880
666,700
7»7..v;7
7.-.7>:-2
13.727,832
17,656,457
23,375.415
143,383
148,773
148,615
16,096,003
10,071,808
17,398,456
521,873
563,863
587,722
17.210,071
17.808,749
19,911,173
03
77
132
41,223
31.1H3
51,374
33
.-,(13
651
3,967
10,954
B.955
'■'
17
33
1.315
8,489
1,634
1,198
1,882
lis:;
72.390
104.320
110,910
27,308
14,006
40,131
613,542
901,589
720,785
99,305
1117,955
111,292
740,131
781,020
SII7.S43
211
343
911
1,217
1,977
2,501
' Metric tons of 2,204 pounds.
t Tlie mark is equivalent t" 23"8 cents.
1,72
THE JOUliNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Maysi.isoa
Production of Prussian Smelting Works.
Pig ir -ii
Zinc
Lead
Litharge
Copper
Bhck copper
1 ;■'.■ r matte
Nickel
Coball
Chloride <>f tin
Antimony alloys
Manganese and alloy
Arsenic salts
Sulphur
Sulphuric acid
Sulphate of iron
Sulphate of copper ..
Mixed vitriol
Sulphate of zinc
Sulphate of nickel . .
Mineral paints
SOver
Gold
' ";i Imiuui
Bismuth
Amounts.
Y-.iliU'.
18SS,
1889.
1890.
L888.
18S9.
1890,
Tons.
3,098,757
133,280
SII.S17
3,208
18,900
13
077
288
36
Tons.
3.218,719
135,972
90,809
2,373
21,063
283
282
38
"HI
liil
16
si ;
2 183
319,574
7,245
l,7ii0
243
1.117
27
1,158
Kilos.
256,823-81
179-37
.-."1.7
Tons.
8,288 369
rS9,05G
91,138
2.907
21.770
1
702
181
411
115
21
817
1,601
340,512
6,381
2.1S2
281
1 <Ht
26
1,659
Kilos
260,824-14
127-67
4,137
Marks.
1 12,882,232
13,578,005
22,971,754
801,918
27,614,902
il 180
3H.021
1,168,000
529 500
187,500
32,783
175,758
237,350
9,397,482
252,129
537,1 19
21,021
11,668
5,000
71. '177
32,855.892
318.633
■:■• 355
Marks.
102.746,028
19,334,086
23,036,212
605,976
21,655,217
101.008
1.100.115
731.310
207,100
74,580
13,200
172.i-.On
235,000
10,097,329
204,697
693,897
29,071
si. it:;
5,000
122,460
32.2~1.111
17.713
Marks.
190,510,082
62,296, l".s
22,850,828
701. si 1
25,720,003
25 '
•.'.;::. s-,:;
1,867.130
7so,70o
220
69
11
67.596
50.3-1
B42
2,270
164,433
160 390
297,062
lii.os,'. >58
8,517
],61S
175
772
28
GS7
Kilos.
259,504 34
195-95
1,794
159,618
868,202
33,207
113,831
:.; JO
135.510
86,187,865
:;."7.i7o
15,154
.
The Production of Stassfubt Svlts.
The productions of these well known mines, which are
controlled by German syndicate, arc extensively used for
manufacturing and agricultural purposes. The following
table gives total annual production for the last three
Potassium chloride .
p. tassium sulphate.
18S9.
Double sulphate of potassium and
magnesium calcined.
Double sulphate of potassium and
inaLri.isiuin crystallised.
Manure salts— calcined
Kieserite
Kaimi and sylvinite .
Carnalite
1890.
1-01.
Tons.
60,667
Tons.
02,009
Tons.
05,730
8.047
0,313
8310
4. 711
5,306
5,585
:;js
441
515
1,390
897
1,507
1 1,592
15.-682
13,998
129,090
1 19,456
202.010
18,682
17,093
19,317
— Chemical Trade Journal.
THE SALE OF FOOD AXD DRUGS ACT.
The following is the text of the Bill introduced into the
House of Commons last February, by Dr. Cameron, M.P.,
and only just printed : —
Ue it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by
and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :—
1. The provisions of the Sale of Food and Drug- Act ,
1875, and of any Act amending the same, shall apply to and
include every wholesale trader or manufacturer of any
article of food or drug who shall sell to the prejudice of the
purchaser any article of food or drug which is not of the
nature, substance, and quality of the article demanded by
such purchaser; and the 17th section of the said Act shall
be read as if the words " whether by wholesale or" were
inserted between the words " on sale" and the words "by-
retail " in the -aid section.
2. The 25th section of the said Act shall be and is
hereby amended by the deletion of the word " written "
before the words " warranty to that effect," and every
wholesale trader or manufacturer of any article of food or
drug, or other person who in the course of trale shall sell
to any person any article of food or drug, with intent that
the same may be resold by retail in the state in which it is
purchased from him, shall, unless he has in writing in-
formed the purchaser to the contrary, be deemed, for the
pui pose- of the said Act, to have given a warranty to the
Way si.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
173
person purchasing from him that such article of foot) or drug
is <>f the nature, substance, and qnality demanded by such
purchaser.
.'!. In any proceedings under the principal Act having
reference to the sale of "margarine" as denned by the
Margarine Act, 1887, it shall be a good defence to prove
that the sale was made in conformity with the regulations of
the said Margarine Act, 1887, and in the ease of proceed-
Scotland under the said Margarine Act, the 33rd
section of the Food and Drugs Act, 1875, shall be held to
lie added to the sections 12 to 28 inclusive incorporated in
section 12 of that Act.
4. In determining whether an offence has been committed
under section 6 of the principal Act, by selling to the
prejudice of the purchaser coffee not adulterated otherwise
than by the admixture of chicory, ii shall be a good defence
to prove-
Where the admixture of chicorj dues not exceed 50
per cent, that the seller delivered with or on such
mixture a notice by a label distinctly and legibly
written or printed bearing the words " This is sold as
a mixture of coffee and chicory."
(h.) Where the admixture of chicorj does no1 i
75. per cent., that the seller delivered with or on such
mixture a notice by a label distinctly and legibly written
or printed bearing the words " This is sold as a mixture
of chicory and coffee."
(c.) Where the admixture of chicory exceeds 7.5 per
cent., that the seller delivered with or on such mixture
a notice by a label distinctly and legibly written or
printed stating the proportion of chicory contained in
Such mixture.
5. This Act shall be read and construed with the Sale
of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, and any Act amending the
same.
6. This Act may he cited for any purposes as the Sale of
Food and Drugs Act (lsT.'il Amendment Act, 1892.
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS
Summary of Imports.
Month endim; 30th April
1891.
1893.
£
2 »72,sl 1
813,37(1
tsi.ari
3,120,860
£
i ,837,21 |.
783,671
2,942,160
Raw materials for non-textile in-
it. si Ill's.
Total value of all imports ....
38,(1 8,537
81,020,272
Summary of Exports.
Month ending 30th April
1891.
1892.
Motals (other than machinery) ....
Chemicals and medicines
£
3,063,725
800,492
3,091,150
£
3,179,216
i ;77.-J ] 1
2,307.-7 1
20,919,066
17,865,876
Imports of Mktals for Month ending 30rn April.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
Copper :—
Ore Tons
Regulus
Unwrought ....
Iron :—
Ore
Bolt, bar, &i:
teel, unwrought..
Lead, pig and sheet
Pyrites
Quicksilver Lb.
Tin Cwt.
Zinc Tons
Other articles ... Value £
Total value of metals
5,579
1L594
£
11,780
16,625
11,562
105,983
3,323
2,329
183,268
265,659
311,713
215,138
3,110
3,446
2s,si,;
51 1
352
6,519
12.9'.!.-,
18,454
161,621
65,618
62,691
1II5.7S1
.-,:;s.t'_>r,
137,435
58,759
G2.S0G
46,948
281,912
4,830
3,424
110,709
169,498
• •
••
2.072,81 1
£
sj.lTs
294,529
109,842
230,810
28,058
3,596
203,376
109,986
12,260
213,097
79,081
470,101
1,837,214
Imports of Raw Materials for Non-Textilb
Industries fur Month ending SOtii April.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891.
Bark, Peruvian . . Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum :—
Arabic „
Lac, &.c
Gutta-percha ..
Hides, raw: —
Dry
Wot
Ivory
Manure : —
Guano Tons
Bones
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
Esparto
Palp of wood
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin
Tar Barrels
Wood:—
Hewn Loads
Sawn „
Staves
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . . Value £
9.S20
260,857
29,668
1,733
15,807
6,138
18,188
31,355
1,048
3,669
10,366
60,94 1
3,216
19,251
12,390
193,355
181,172
2,820
199,118
112,11117
8,046
4,142
Total value .
9,075
111,703
20,915
1,6.86
19,370
5,844
12,904
38,010
1,2111
1,278
11,042
■43,1151
3,849
16,340
18,841
166,28 i
122,319
1.275
21S.072
211.333
11,734
6.8S3
£
28,195
18,758
106,470
13,150
61,114
64,236
117,052
78,341
69,027
17,557
511,137
88,485
30,919
91,541
59,031
26,470
224,052
1,274
840,218
326,394
17,828
39,88 1
9117,732
£
21,613
21,753
203,159
12,830
75.29 1
70,847
110,049
82,06!
62,128
9,411
50,0 in
59,110
2:i,529
71,790
69,099
84,344
157.100
799
372,llllt
192,112
66 902
62,521
801,472
3,120,869 i 2,91.1' lee
Bisides the above, drugs to the value of 81.2771. wire i
us against 88,8632. in April 1891.
imported
G
■171
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
M 13 :i 189
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestufes fok Month
ending 30th April.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tanners, Ac) „
Brimstone
Chemicals Value £
Cochineal Cwt.
Cutch and gamhicr Tons
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
Alizarine ,,
Other „
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda.... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles... Value £
Total value of chemicals
41,073
28,18(1
023
2,117
1,309
1,823
5,503
38,071
59,036
30
2,491
2,285
S0,S32
£
4.11:1
16,104
113,737
56,828
20,759
27,254
739
i;s>.T57
267,113
32.31 i
39.3 H
182,809
£
17,129
115,693
2,273
57,032
1 1,203
20,126
1 IV
39,044
196,826
25,804
61,487
212,992
783,674
Imj-orxs of Oils for Month ending 30Tn April.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1S92.
[1 0 |3
1,314
74,585
8,224,252
1,634
576
1, 1 13
14,015
1,970
111,069
10,493,718
1,972
58!
19,259
£
39,770
55,298
- I,64S
179,938
41,169
63/186
£
16,397
74,965
222,377
48,373
12,519
22 922
30,185
Other articles .. Value £
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
60S.168
Exports of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
30th April.
Quantities.
Vul
ues.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
524.74!!
119,533
24,817
162,650
114,588
23,006
£
197,862
10,576
181.S40
£
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Ot her articles ... „
15,1 I!'
85,21 1
217,695
..
00,492
677,211
Exports op Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending :50th April.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1991.
1892.
Brass Cwt.
Copper : —
Unwrought , -
Wrought
Mixed metal
Hardware Value £
Implements ,
Iron and steel Tons
Lead ,
Plated wares. . . Value £
Telegraph wires, &c. „
Tin Cwt.
Zinc
Other articles . . Value £
Total value
9,091
73.703
30,995
2kS85
287,422
1,244
9,190
£
13,884
79,662
27,00?
26,869
204,506
102,562
69,786
218,065
110,530
223,518 2,012,17:i
4,973 02,182
£
38,251
191 069
80,395
67,883
181,401
112,491'
1,935,713
61,518
80,036
21,000
■ ■
U7.88S
9,920
8,594
17,131
40,719
17,61 1
21,742
19,478
20,245
■•
78,211
76,975
"
"
3.179,216
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 30m April.
Articles.
Gunpowder Lb.
Military stores. . Value £
Candles Lb.
Caoutchouc Value £
Cement Tons
Products of coal Value £
pjarthenware ... „
Stoneware
Glass :—
Plate Sq.Ft.
Flint Cwt.
Bottles
Other kinds
Leather : —
Unwrought
Wrought Value £
S 1 oil Tons
Floorcloth Sq. Yds.
Painters' materials Val. £
Paper Cwt.
Rags Tons
Soap Cwt.
Total value
Quantities.
1891.
1,058,800
1,357,700
62,102
240,823
81,249
17,331
11,81 1
8,271
95,190
15,657
1,422,500
34,978
191,468
7,m;
62,559
21,514
11,818
5,906
1,155,100
71', 157
(,606
43,359
Values.
1891.
£
23,974
1 16,926
26,438
11 1 575
£
15,144
27,387
97,582
125.960
66,039
123,256
1711.3511
151,867
15,814
18,698
11,201
11,390
20,058
16,659
29,811
13,460
16,575
107,762
112,211
30,449
21,582
LS5.670
117,476
05,030
l\'M'
152.245
114335
102,731
131,991
29,527
(1,858
52,841
.VII
3,091,150
May 31, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
-175
iflontblj) fatmt Stsst.
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications arc advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPAE4TUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
:.".:::•,. J. Duckett, A. Duckett, and II. Stephenson. See
Class IX.
7 7:"):s. J. Morrison. Improvements in ejectors for ejecting
water, thick or thin, or tar and ammonia water. April 25.
7923. W. Foulis. Improvements in apparatus for regu-
lating the flow and pressure of pis. April 27.
s I 55. .1 . Bonnoure. Improvements in distilling apparatus.
April 29.
8773. (I. 1". Redfern. — From W. P. Abel], British Guiana.
See ( 'lass XVI.
9140. A. Koehl. Improved apparatus for evaporating
solutions. May 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
8823. A. McDougall. Covering lead surfaces to protect
water and other liquids from contamination with the dis-
solved metal. May 18.
9187. E. J. Mills and C. .1. Ellis. Means and method of
closure for the regulation of gaseous pressures. May 18.
9318. A. J. lioult.— From A. Klonne and F. Brcdel.
Apparatus for charging retorts. May 11.
10,456. II. L. Callendar. Pressure gauges, suitable
especially as piezometers, barometers, thermometers, and
the like. April 27.
10,771. W. .1. Tranter and S. Hale. Compound for
preventing incrustation anil corrosion in steam anil other
hot-water boilers. May 4.
10,833. A. W. Ellis. Stand for chemical or other purposes.
May 4.
lu,902. J. F. Braidwood. .Sec Class II.
11,034. R.Harvey. Evaporating apparatus. May 4.
11,210. L. H. Armour. .S'ce Class II.
14,221. J. Tobin. New method of applying soda to
for preventing
the formation of
incrustation in steam
internal parts of boilers
scale. May 4
16,965. K. Morris Preventin;
boilers. April 27.
1892.
5325. H. II. Lake. — From T. Craney. Evaporating
apparatus. May 4.
5377. S. II. Johnson and C. C. Hutchinson, Apparatus
lor mixing liquids with liquids and solids. May 18.
5619. J. A. Fisher. Construction of non - conducting
coverings to prevent the radiation of heat. April 27.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
7379. A. J. lioult.— From II. C. Hew, United States.
Improvements in or connected with gas generators. Com-
plete Specification. April 19.
7468. A. Philburn. An improvement in apparatus for
burning smoke. April 20.
7614. G. Heslop. See Class VII.
7708. J. C. Chandler. Improvements in apparatus for
washing, purifying, and scrubbing gas. April 23.
7709. H. Pa/.olt. The manufacture of an improved
artificial fuel. April 23.
7888. J. II. W. Stringfellow. Improvements relating to
the distillation of coal and other substances for gas-making
and other purposes, and in apparatus therefor. April 20.
7983. P. Dvorkovitz. Improvements in apparatus for
the manufacture of gas for illuminating or heating purposes,
applicable also for the distillation of liquid hydrocarbons.
Complete Specification. April 27.
7995. J. P. Bayly. An improved apparatus for charging
inclined gas-retorts. April 28.
8159. R. Marshall. Improvements in the combustion of
fuel and apparatus therefor. Complete Specification,
April 30.
820". W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins, II. Fuller, and W. II.
Fuller. An improved metallic block to be used in the
production of gas. April 30.
8426. A. Longsdon. — From I'. Krupp and Co., Germany.
Xew or improved processes for the manufacture of gas from
water vapour, and for purification and separation of mixed
gases. Complete Specification. May 4.
8484. J. E. Richardson. Improved means or apparatus
for generating ozonised oxygen. May 5.
8592. T. D. C. Leveritt. An improvement i;i the purifi-
cation of coal-gas used for the purposes of heating and
cooking. May G.
8664. R. Welford. Improvements relating to fuel.
May 7.
8892. II. J. Rogers. An improved apparatus for the
manufacture of gas for lighting and heating aud for use in
gas-engines. May 11.
8900. J. Duggan and W. J. Harley. An improved fire-
lighter, also applicable for use as a temporary fire. May 11.
8949. T. J. Barnard. Improvements in the manufacture
of fuel, together with the means and combinations in
connexion therewith. May 11.
9080. W. D. A. Bost and T. F. Haldaue. Improvements
in the manufacture of fire-lighters. Complete Specification.
May 13.
9114. R. N. Oakman, jun. Improvements in gas-
producing plant. Complete Specification. May 13.
9171. T. Charlton. Improvements relating to the more
perfect combustion of fuel in furnaces. May 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1(1,902. .1. F. Braidwood. Apparatus for charging retorts
for the manufacture of gas and for other like purposes.
May 11.
11,210. L. II. Armour. Ovens, furnaces, retorts, or
other structures used in the making of coke or charcoal, or
for distilling or roasting carbonaceous matter, or otherwise
subjecting carbonaceous matter to the action of heat.
May 11.
I7i ;
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOJIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Ua\ 31, L892
11,764. A. O. Jones. Manufacture of artificial fuel,
utilising sewage therein. May 4.
12,572. <i. E. Stevenson. Apparatus for charging inclined
gas retorts. May 4.
1892.
5994. .1. Rudd. Apparatus and means for increasing the
illuminating power of gas. May 4.
C. Bougourd de Lamarrc. Process and. apparatus
for the manufacture of illuminating gas. May 11.
7079. C, It. Collins. Gas-making apparatus. May is.
ill.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAK
PBODUCTS, Etc.
Application.
8462. P. II. Bayle ami A. Camhray. An improved
process of distillation, heating, and condensation of bitu-
minous schists and an\' mineral substances which by
distillation in closed vessels will \ ield mineral oils, paraffins,
amnioniacal waters, and analogous products, and improved
apparatus in connexion therewith. May 4.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Appln vno.Ns.
8269. O. Imray. — From The Farbwcrke vormals VIeister,
Lucius, and Briiuing, Germany. Manufacture of di-
alkylised meta-methoxy, meta 'ethoxy, ami inctabenzyloxi -
para-amido benzopheuones. May 2.
,s27n. (). lim-ay. — 1'roiu The Farbwerke vormals Mcister,
Lucius, and Briiuing, Germany. Manufacture of a/,o-
colouring matters derived from paraphenylenediamiue.
May 2.
S455. J. Y.Johnson. — From E. von Heyden, Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of alpha-oxyuvitic acid.
May 4.
H4.j(i. .1. Y. Johnson. — From F. von Heyden, Germany.
Improvements iu the manufacture of colouring matter from
alpha-oxyuvitic acid. May 4.
8634. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Aniliu uud
Soda fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of triphcnylmethane dyestuffs. May 6.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,861. II. II. Lake. — From K. Oehler. Manufacture of
colouring matters. April 27.
11,046. .1. V. Johnson. — From tin- Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture ami production of alpha-
naphthoquinonc dichlorimide, ami of basic dyestuffs there-
from. May I 1.
11,049. O. Iinray. — from The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briiuing. Manufacture of mcta-amidobeuz-
aldchyde, and of salts thereof. M;n I
11,275. .1. V. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture and production of new dyes of
tin- rosaniline series and of new materials therefor.
May I.
11,328..0. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Mcister,
Lucius, and Briiuing. Manufacture of yellow azo colouring
matters striking on mordants, and absolutely fast against
the action of fulling, soap, and light. May I.
11,472. W. I'.. Espent. Manufacture of extracts from
logwood and other dyewoods, also in preparing dyewoods
for use in dyeing. May 11.
11,629. .1. Y.Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin uud
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture of hasic naphthalene colouring
matters anil of sltlpho acids therefor. May I.
11,663. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
E. B.iyer and Co., Germany. Manufacture of colouring
matters tor dyeing and printing, derived from benzidine
and its analogues. May 4.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Application.
S3(j;i. (i Young. Improvements in tin- process or mode
of producing polished, dyed, and bleached yarns or threads,
j ami in machinery or arrangements for the purpose. May 3,
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
8776. E. V. M. Kaabe. Treatment of vegetable textile
fibres for the manufacture of yarns and fabrics. April 27 .
10,543. W. R. Comings. Impregnating paper and other
fibrous materials. April 27.
1892.
5297. P. Temming. A new fabric suitable as a substitute
for cotton waste for cleaning parts of machinery, and process
lor making the same. April 27.
6550. B. J. B. Mills. — From <L Bergicr. Spinning and
treatment of silk iu the manufacture of various classes of
silk thread. May 11.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPEB
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
7440. T. Dawson and H. F. Clayton. Improvements in
the method of and apparatus for dyeing cotton anil other
like textile fabrics. April 20.
7555. C. Sehnureh. Improvements in apparatus for
effecting the oxidation of aniline black in the process oi
dyeing cotton thread or wool on bobbins and cops. Com-
ple Specification. April 21.
7628. C. Young and W. Crippin. Improvements in or
applicable to mechanism or apparatus for dyeing, bleach-
ing, and otherwise Heating cotton and other fibrous
materials in the raw or manufactured or partly manufac-
tured state. April 22.
slTo. .1. Aldrcd. Improvements in bleaching cotton
piece -g Is. April 30.
8241. E. Sykes and I). Sykes. Improvements in
machinery for scouring and dyeing hanks of yarn. May 2.
8364. M. I.ob. Improvements connected with the dyeing
of stockiuctce. May :'..
8921. T. T. Whittiugton. " Whittiugton's " direct
mordant lor dyeing cotton and linen fabrics. May 11.
Way 31, 1KB.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
477
COMPLETE Sl'1,1 IlKATIONS ACCEPTED.
1891.
9470, R. Lanhaui and 1). Gulland. Method and appa-
ratus for embossing, colouring, and printing upon paper or
other suitable material. Ma} 1*.
1 1'. 138. E. 1>. Truman. Solution for use in the dyeing of
-ilk fabrics, yarns, and threads. May 11.
10,678. E. Sutcliffc and (1. E. Suteliffe. Dyeing ami
treatment of cotton and other textile materials. May is.
11,327. O. [mray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, und BrQnii g, ( iermany. Process of dyeing
silk a solid black by means of alizarine, flavopnrpurine,
anthrapurpurise, and mixtures of tliese bodies. May 4.
20,787. c. H. Nrvill. Process for producing designs
upon ealieo and other woven fabrics. May 28.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
739.1. F. Hurter. Improvements in the manufacture of
bleaching powder and apparatus to be employed therein.
April 19.
7528. J. W. Smith and II. I!. Jagger. Improvements in
the manufacture of vinegar. April 21.
7C14. G. Heslop. The application of a by-product of
the manufacture of acetates for warming and heating
purposes. April 22.
7958. II. I'reeht. A process for the production of phos-
phates of potassium or aluminium soluble in water.
April 27.
7997. H. ('. Hull. Improvements in or connected with
the manufacture of ferric chloride. April 28.
8276. La Societe A. R Pechiney and t'ie. Improvements
in means or apparatus for the manufacture of a mixture of
hydrochloric acid gas and air. Filed May 2. Date applied
for November 28, 1891, being date of application in France.
8890. B. F. 11. Newlands. Improvements in the purifi-
cation of carbonic acid. May 11.
8964. W. 1'. Thompson.— From W. I!. Brittingham,
I'nited States. New or improved bleaching compound.
Complete Specification. May 11.
9181. .1. Hargreaves and J. Hargreaves. Improvements
in apparatus employed in the manufacture of sulphate of
soda. May 1 1.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9732. H. Rylands, Manufacture of carbonic acid gas,
and in tubes for containing the same. May 18.
9947. A. T. Hall. Treatment of waste liquors from
metallurgical processes to obtain sulphurous or sulphuric
acid and zinc. May 1.
9948. A. T. Hall. Treatment of waste liquors from
metallurgical processes to obtain sulphurous or sulphuric
acid and oxide of iron. May 4.
10,fi30. A rtupre.— From F. Dupre. Manufacture of
potassium carbonate. April 27.
11,4119. T. II. Bell.— From T. Schloesing. Manufacture
of anhydrous chloride of magnesium, and the apparatus
used therein. May 1 1 .
11,470. T. II. Bell.— From T. Schloesing. Manufacture
of chlorine, and apparatus used therein. May 11.
1892.
.» 125. J. C. Ody. Method for making caustic soda (sodium
hydrate)- April 27.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
7792. C. F. E. Grosse. An improved method of
producing marbled glass. Complete Specification. April 25.
7906. H. C. Hull. Improvements in or connected with
casting tables for glass and glass making. Complete
Specification. April 27.
8361. J. Rigby. To make pressed plate glass of any
thickness or any colour or design. May 3.
s.,17. II. \V. Cox. Improvements in vitrifying photo-
graphic prints on glass, metal, porcelain, china, and like
substances. May 5.
8865. V. 1!. Lewes. Improvements in the manufacture
of glass. May 10.
8S9G. T. H. Hunt. Improvements in appliances employed
in the glazing of earthenware pipes and analogous articles.
May 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,454. .1. Armstrong. Manufacture of tanks or boxes
and other articles of glass, and mechanism or appliances
to be used in the said manufacture. April 27.
10,817. I. Pennell and J. T. Harris. Apparatus or
appliance for use in supporting ceramic ware in enamel
kilns whilst being fired. May 4.
11,039. P. Sievert. Process for producing' glass articles
with metal enclosures. May 4.
11.205. H. J. Chappell. Machines for pressing and
moulding plastic materials. May II.
10.005. G. Pitt. Mode of constructing Hues for brick,
terra-cotta, aud other kilns. May 4.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
7490. G. Martenstein. Improvements in the manufacture
of materials for street and other pavements. April 20.
75o2. W. P. Thompson. — From L. II. Itoeser-Miillei
and B. Deike, Germany. Improvements in and in the
manufacture of plaster for building purposes. Complete
Specification. April 20.
7533. J. Duckett, A. Huekett, and 11. Stephenson.
Improvements in and relating to the construction of kilns
or ovens for drying aud burning bricks, tiles, lime, and the
like. April 2 1!
7719. S. Theraizal and F. Grand'Montagne. Improve-
ments in the manufacture of artificial marble. April ■>■',.
774 1, .1. C. Bloomrield. Improvements in the manufacture
of plaster. April 25.
TS.'ii). E.T.Warner and . I. F. Curry. An improvement
in the art of making mortar. Complete Specification.
April 20.
478
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [May 31, 1KB.
7s."i7. A. Angcll and F. Candy. Improvements in the !
manufacture of hydraulic cement from sewage ^ltiilyi-.
April 26.
s_".ij. (.. M. Graham, Improvements in artificial stone
Mocks. Complete Specification. May 3.
8460. W. W. Hewitt and A. Suart. Improved com-
pounds for paving or covering road*, paths, or floors, and
for manufacture of paving bricks or blocks. May 4.
8777. T. W. Brittain. Improvements in apparatus for
grinding cement or other substances. May 9.
8889. F. IT. Willis ami R. Astley. An improved form
and method of constructing fireproof floors and stairs.
May 11.
9209. li. Astley. An improved form and method of
construction of fireproof floors. May 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7845. II. Faija. Continuous or running kilns for the
calcination of cement. May 1!.
11,209. II. Aitken. Treatment of stone, brickwork,
plaster, or stucco, and the like, for preventing deterioration
thereof. May 18.
12,730. F. Wachsmuth. Process for use in the manufacture
of gypsum objects. May 11.
16,005. G. Pitt. See Class VIII.
21,199. R Norwood. The manufacture of an improved
compound for coating walls and other surfaces, and for the
production of easts or mouldings, and for analogous
purposes. May 4. .
21,374. 1!. Norwood. The manufacture of an improved
compound for coating walls and other surfaces, and for
analogous purposes. May 18.
1892.
574fi. A. T. Morse. Distemper for walls, ceilings, and
the like. April 27.
6745. V. F. L. Smidth. Manufacture of hydraulic
cement for building purposes. May IS.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
7378. P. C. Choatc. Improvements in the art of
producing metallic zinc Complete. Specification. April 19.
74 18. W. Mayer. The manufacturing of cast iron
expansive moulds used for molten materials of different
kinds. April 20.
7 173. ('. 11. Aston. Improved methods of utilising
slag made in connexion with iron and steel furnaces.
April 20.
771 s. 11. Evans and K. Davies. Improvements in means
or apparatus to facilitate the manufacture of moulds for
use in easting moulds for ingots of steel or other metal.
April 25.
7758. II. Hofer. Improvements in refining iron.
April 25.
7795. .1. Colley anil A. Colley. Improvements in the
manufacture of steel and iron. April 20.
7S32. II. A. Penrose. Improvements m or relating to
(he treatment of silver ores containing zinc and gold ores
containing zinc. April 20.
7909. (i. YVcguer. A process for galvanising aluminium.
Complete Specification. April 27.
8121. A. Brin. Improvements in converting and refining
metals, and in cupolas or apparatus employed therein.
April 29.
8257. C. M. Pielsticker. Improvements in the method
of extracting gold and silver from ores. May 2.
8280. E. Bonehill. Improvements in the manufacture of
iron, and in apparatus therefor. May 2.
8393. W. Holland. Improvements in apparatus or
means for hardening anil tempering metals. May 4.
8400. II. J. Smith. Improvements in the manufacture of
pig-iron or steel ingots. May 4.
S467. II. II. Lewis and C. Gelstharp. Improvements
relating to the treatment of ores containing blende or zinc
in association with gold, silver, lead, copper, antimony,
sulphur, and other metals or metalloids, and to apparatus
therefor. May 4.
8523. .1. Simpson. Improvements in the separation of
gold or silver from auriferous or argentiferous sulphide of
antimony ores, sometimes called stibinite. May 5.
8551. A. J. Iloult. — From C. Saner, Germany. Improve-
ments in or relating to aluminium solder. May 5.
S571. .1. J. Lish. Improvements in the treatment of
blast furnace slag. May 5.
8612. E. II. Saniter. Improvements in or relating to the
purification of iron or steel therefrom. Filed May 0.
Date applied for January 21, 1892, being date of application
in Belgium.
8779. J. B. Chamberlain and A.. Gutensohn. An improved
process for the preparation of iron or steel plates to receive
electro-plating of other metals, such as silver, gold, or
nickel. May 9.
8834. E. W. Cooke. An alloy. Complete Specification.
May 10.
8861. C. F. Hengst. An improved metallic alloy. May 10.
8887. T. Twynam. Improvements in the utilisation of
tin plate, scrap, and tin slags and residues. May 11.
8932. W. II. Luther. Improvements in and relating to
baths for coating metallic plates. May II.
9098. A. Needham. Improvements in the manufacture
of steel, iron, or other material to be used in the making of
treads for stairs, steps, and floors. May 13.
9127. J. Y. Johnson. — From N. Li'bedeff, Russia. Im-
provements in the extraction of metals from ores or metal-
liferous materials. May 13.
9128. J. Y. Johnson. — From X. Lebedeff, Russia. Im-
provements in the manufacture of alloys of aluminium.
May 13.
9146. \V. A. Briggs. An improved alloy of aluminium.
May 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
2361. J. P>. Alzugary. Improvements in metal allovs.
May IS.
8819. W. Bevan. An annealing apparatus to be applied
to heating furnaces for iron, steel, or metal sheets and
plates. April 27.
SS37. The Rovello Syndicate, Lira., and .1. C. Howell.
Apparatus for use in obtaining copper. May 4.
9117. J. II. Day. Alloys and compositions for use in
covering and coating surfaces of iron and steel, and the
surfaces of other materials, in order to prevent corrosion
ami fouling thereof when submerged. April 27.
May 81, 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
479
9708. C.J. Fauvel. Furnace for the treatment of refrac-
tory ores. May 1.
10,761. ('. W. Kil.lt, (I. Ashworth, and E, Ashworth.
Linings for Bessemer converters. May 4.
10,984. 1''. II. Mason. Process for the extraction of tin
from ti'i slags or tin refuse by founders' ashes, copper salts,
carbonaceous matter, fluorspar, and cither suitable fluxes
Mav IS.
11,095. J. S. Taylor and S. W. Challen. Process or
method of manufacturing metal tubes. May 4.
11,190. F. W. Harhord and \V. Hutchinson, jun. The
utilisation of tin-plate scrap. May 11.
11,208. J. Turton. Process for the extraction of metals
from ores and metal minerals containing them. May 4.
11,217. 1,. Reuleaux. Construction and working of
smelting ami melting furnaces. May 11.
1892.
4173. P. Rossigueux. Method and means of de-
sulphurising castings or alloys of certain metals. May 4.
6038. G. Wegner. Solder for joining together aluminium
pieces or pieces of aluminium with other metals. May 4.
G704. S. II. Brown. Compound for carburising metals.
May IS.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO
METALLURGY.
Applications.
7412. Sir C. S. Forbes, Bart. An improved battery
element. April 19.
suSH. ,T. O. Dale. A means of electrically heating iron,
steel, anil other metals in the processes of rolling, drawing,
pressing, and stamping. April 29.
8108. J. W. Davis and .1. O. Evans. Improvements in
the manufacture of metallic articles by electro-deposition.
April 29.
8529. W. Moseley. Improvements in galvanic batteries.
May 5.
8572. II. Beckmanu, E. Beckmann, and J. Schmitt. An
improved galvanic element. Complete Specification.
May 5.
8987. P. Germain. Improvements in secondary batteries
and accumulators. Filed May 12. Date applied for
February 23, 1892, being date of application in France.
9014. H. J. Allison.— From P. Kennedy and C. J. Diss,
United States. Improvements in storage batteries.
May 12.
9132. II. Howard. Improvements in heating and
welding by electricity. May 13.
9192. A. J. Boult. — From F. C. Bromley. Improve-
ments in the electrolysis of chloride and other solutions.
( 'ompletc Specification. May 14.
9197. A. .1. Boult.— From E. Liebert, Belgium. A
process of extracting zinc, iron, lead and copper from the
solutions of their salts by electrolysis. May 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9652. A. Watt. Production of copper tubes by electro-
lysis. March 18.
11,060. P. Girand. Thermo-electro batteries. May 4.
1 1,5C0. G. G. M. Ilardingham.— From J. II. Hard and
H. t'onnett. Galvanic batteries. May 11.
18,097. C N. Souther. Galvanic batteries. May 11.
19,(517. M. Muthel. Exciting fluid for galvanic zinc
carbon batteries, and method of recovering useful products
from the spent fluids of such batteries. April 27.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
7354, It. Bell. Improvements in the manufacture of
soap. April 19.
7581. R. Stewart. Improvements in soap or washing-
powder. Complete Specification. April 21.
S217. C. Kloeble. An improved soap tablet. April 30.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,516. R. J. Jordan. Compound for cleansing pur-
poses. May 11.
11,799. X. M. Henderson. Treating or purifying paraffin
wax, and apparatus therefor. May 18.
11,889. ( >. ('. Ilagemann. — From E. K. Mitting. Treat-
ment and purification of soap-makers' spent lye for
extracting glycerin therefrom. May IS.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
7353. K. Bell. A new or improved compound or mixture
for preventing the fouling of ships' bottoms and other
submerged surfaces or structures. April 19.
7631. E. Waller and C. A. Sniffen. Improvements in
the manufacture of white lead for use as a pigment.
April 22.
7688. W. Cutler. Improvements in the manufacture of
gold, silver, and bronze paints. April 23.
8199. B. Goldmann. Improved dryer for paints and the
like. April 3d.
8765. J. Burbridge. Improved mode of preparing
variegated rubber for manufacturing purposes. .May 9.
9135. F. D. Mott. An elastic or resilient covering for
ships' bottoms. Complete Specification. May 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
8480. F. Ragon. Manufacture of material applicable as
a blacking ami for other purposes. April 27.
1892.
5287. J. W. II. James. Manufacture of white lead, and
apparatus therefor. May 4.
4S0
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, lnd SIZE.
Applications.
7698. A.J. Boult. — From A. E. Ebcrt, Germany. Im-
proved manufacture of substitute for leather. Complete
Specification. April 23.
8469. II. II. Lake. — From Durio Bros., Italy. Improve-
ments in anil relating to tannine hides ami skins. Complete
Specification. May t.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
6416. \V. P. Thompson.— From F. A. Wolff. Apparatus
for tlir treatment of liquid gelatin or glue for the ultimate
production of plates or sheets of such. May 11.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Applications.
T. M. Smith. Improvements in ami in the method
of manufacture of fertilisers. Complete Specification.
\l \ 10.
8901. .1. S. Yule. An improved manurial compound
obtained in filtering sewage. May 11.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
8274. A. Walker. Improvements in tie- treatment and
■aiccharification of grain ami other materials containing
starch, dextrin, or similar substances. May 2.
W. P. Thompson.— From .1. A. Morrell ami W. R.
Stringfellow, United States. New or improved process and
apparatus for concreting sugar, or crystallising saline or
other solutions. Complete Specification. May:!.
B773. t.- 1. Redfern From W. P. Abell, British Guiana.
Improvements relating to filtering apparatus for saccharine
ami other liquors. May 9.
9167. S. ('. I!. Hunter. A new or improved treacle or
s\ rup compound. May II.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,874. R Harvey. Manufacture of sugar, and apparatus
thercf connected therewith. May is.
1892.
nifiO. It. Broekhoff. Apparatus for manufacturing sugar,
Mai i
XVII.— BREWING, WIXES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
7534. .1. V. Johnson. — From J. A. Saladin, France.
[Improvements in the manufacture of malt and in the apparatus
employed therein. April 21.
7 .1 4 7 . G. Hitter, .1. H. A. Meyer, ami L. Hofnian. An
improved wort ami yeast aerator. April 21.
7643. A. II. Hobson. Improvements in the production of
non-alcoholic ales or beers. April 22.
8060. J. Chesmore. A new or improved non-alcoholic
ale. April 28.
8290. II. Gehrke. Improvements in apparatus tor altering
beer ami other alcoholic ami gaseous liquids. Complete
Specification. May 2.
8623. T. Haynes, jun. An improvement in the drying and
curing of malt. May 6.
S'.I52. 1'. M. Justice. — From A. W. Billings, United
States. Improvements in apparatus for the manufacture of
malt liquors. Complete Specification. May 11.
9165. R. G. Ross, .1. B. Hilliar.l, ami W. Paterson. A
new or improved method of purifying and hardening water
for use in the manufacture of malt extract, ami tor brewing
and analogous purposes. May I I .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,123. M. A. Adams and C. S. Meacham. New or
improved means for the preservation of Imps. May 4.
1892.
4682. A. .1. Boult.— From The Pfaudler Vacuum Fer-
mentation Co. Manufacture of beer. April 27.
46SS. A. .1.
mentation Co.
Boult. — From the Pfauliler Vacuum Fer-
Manufacture of beer. April 27.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTrtY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
77H9. E. Edwards. — From ]•'. Grognet, France. An
improved process and apparatus for preserving meat, fish,
iml other perishable substances. April 25.
7848. E. Barker. Improvements in or relating to the
preparation or treatment of certain waste pioducts to make
them suitable for use as food and in apparatus therefor,
April 2fi.
8264. G. Muller. Process of producing sterilised butter.
Complete Specification. May 2.
S727. A. P. Wire. Improvements in the preservation of
animal and vegetable substances. May 9.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
7721. II. II. Hazard. A system for the treatment of
smoke, L'ases, fumes, or chemical products arising from any
furnace, chimney, vent, fire-place, or outlet, so a~ to
prevent the contamination of tin- atmosphere and the evils
arising therefrom, and for making use of the products.
April 23.
May 51, 1SU2.J
THE JOUKNAL OE THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INHUSTKX
181
C. — Disinfectants.
8725. C. 1"'. Hirons. The Hinni's disinfectant and air
purifier. May 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1892.
5589. S. L. \W-st. Apparatus for purifying, sterilising,
ami filtering water, and rendering the same lit for potable
purposes. April 27.
5725. J. Falcimagne. Preservation of meat and fatty
matters. April '_'7.
6841. \V. ( Jrawford. Manufacture of malt bread, biscuits,
confectionery, and other articles of diet. May 18.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
10,929. W. E. Adeaey. Treatment ol sewage sludge.
May 4.
11.764. A. II. Jones. Sci Class II.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
B239. W. Saunders. Highly everlasting solid white
non-fading opaline key covering for pianofortes, organs,
&c. Mai 2.
S-17::. J. Robertson. Improvements in the manufacture
of vegetable parchment. May 4.
8700. C. E. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and C. Beadle.
Improvements in dissolving cellulose and allied compounds.
May 7.
8713. S. G. Rawson. Improvements in and in the
manufacture of waterproof paper, cardboard, and the like.
May 7.
8810. K. L. Grunert. An improved method of manu-
facturing variegated plates of wood-pulp or cellulose, and
other plastie materials. May 1(J.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
SIS7. A.Sheldon. Apparatus lor the manufacture of
paper pulp. May 18.
10,513. W. R. Comings. .See Class V.
1892.
433. II. Richardson and II. Glenny. Manufacture of
paper, and apparatus used lor that purpose. May 11.
2IJ29. V. li. Drewsen. Method of purifying the liquid
which has been used in the manufacture of cellulose,
and the production of useful products therefrom.
April 27.
XX.— EINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
7782. II. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabrikcn vormals
F. Layer ami Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of periodides of phenols and phenolcarboxylic acids.
April 25.
7979. E. ICaudcr and L. Merck. Improvements relating
to the production of narceiuesodium-sodium-salieylieum.
April 27.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,833. 1!. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabrikcn vormals
I'. Layer ami ( 'n.- Manufacture and production pharma-
ceutical compounds. May 11.
11,811. .1. F. von Menng. Improved anaesthetic and
hypnotic. May 11.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
7414. E. Hooker. Improved means and ingredients
for colouring and tinting photographic silver prints.
April 19.
7501. A. J. Boult From G. Eastman, United States.
Improvements in or relating to photographic films or the
like. April 20.
7."ii;7. T. Christy. Improvements in the manufacture of
transparent materials and the application of the same to
photographic and other purposes. April 21.
Sllj. C. E. Elliott. Improvements iu connexion with
artificial -light photography. Complete Specification.
April 29.
8328. E. H. Fitch. Improvements in and connected with
photographic sensitised celluloid films. May 3.
8967. A. J. Boult.— From G. Eastman, United States.
Improvements in or relating to photographic plate- or
films. May 11.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
lo.lnl. .1. Joly. Methods of obtaining solar altitudes by
the aid of instantaneous photography. May 1 1.
XXIL— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
7392. A. E. Molison and A. McLucas. A steam
cartridge for blasting purposes. April 19.
7978. C. II. Curtis and G. G. Andre. Improvements in
explosives. April 27.
I-J
THE JOURNAL. OV THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[May 31, 1892
7981. J. Lawrence. Improvements relating to the
extraction of nitro-glvceriu from the waste acid formed in
the manufacture of nitro-glycerin. Complete Specification.
April 27.
8256. G.W.Thomas. Improvements in matches, fusees,
and the like. May -.
8740. M. Mullincux. Improvements in smokeless
cartridges. May 9.
8926. C. O. Lundholm and J. Sayers. Improvements in
the manufacture of explosives. May 1 1 .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9485. T. Holmes. Safety-fuse igniting to be used in
conducting blasting operations in mines, quarries, and the
like. Hay 18.
14,429. G. C. Dymond. — From ¥,. Lagneau. Manufac-
ture of matches, and apparatus or machinery therefor.
Mav 11.
19,346. P. W. Masson. Time or distance fuse for
explosive shells. May 11.
Printed mid Published by Ktre and Spottiswoode, East Hurdinp Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
0¥ THE
Society of Chemical 3ttousttf :
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 6.— Vol. XI.]
JUNE 30, 1892.
Non-Members SO/- per annum; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers
_ Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
2T0f £>orietp of Clmmral (trtustrp.
Past Presidents:
Sir H. E. Roseoe, M.P.. LL.D., V.P.R.S 1881— 18S2.
Si.' Frederick Abel. K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S 1882— 188S.
Walter W.ldim, F.R.S 1SS3— 1884.
W. H. Perkin. Ph.D., F.R.S 1884— 1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1888.
David 1 [..ward 1886—1887.
Prof, .lames Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond. F.R..S 1888—1889.
Sir Lowlhian Bell, Bart., P.R.S 18S9-1S80.
B, Eider Ci ok 1890— lam.
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Pro/. J. Emerson Reynolds, )/.//., Ji.s,- , F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents :
BirLowthian Bell, Bart., P.R.S.
Will. Crow der.
Jamt s Duncan.
SirJ Am Eoans,K.C.B.,F.S S.,<fci
David Howard.
A H. Johnson.
Ludwig Mond, P.R.S.
Hi: Hugo Villi, i: F.S S.
B.E. R.Newlands,
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
A. Norman Tate.
So- John Turney.
A. H.Allen.
\i i inn' Boake.
Jim. 1 ',//./< rwood.
Ill', I 'llUI'll |l|r\ I'llS.
11.1 .1 llltslriVV.
Prof. R. M. 1,1. ,1a, F.R.S.
Ordinary Members of Council:
B. K. Muspratt.
r. L. Patterson.
Boverton Redwood.
,/«... Spill e.
V. W. SI mi el.
William 'Hi, „■/,, B.Sc.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer :
E. Rider Cook, East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Dr.F Hurter.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. 11. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
n. II. li: y, 11. Se.. Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
elms. |liv.\[us, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, P. U.S.
John Heron.
D. li. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Win. K.-llncr. Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond. P.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. II. Perkin. Ph.D.. F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Bo\erton Redwood.
John Spiller.
A. Norman Tate.
Win. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor:
Watson Smith University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors:
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX.. X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chein.
D. Bendii III.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos.Bernays.M.I.C.E. I.
E.J.Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount . -f y ! ^ \X. '.'.'
Arthur G. Blosam XIV., XV.
J.C.Chorley I., XXI.
.I.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII
P. Dvorkowitsch.il., III., IV.,
XII., XVIII., XXIII.
Dr. P. Norman Evans XIX.
W. M.Gardner V..VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Cliem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc. ... VI, XVI.
F. S. Kipping, ) II. and
D.Sc J Gen. Chem.
Chas. A. Kohn,
Ph.D
Gen. Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
J. Walter Leather, ) Tv
Ph.D /■*■*■
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII, XXI.
J. Lewkowitsoh. ) TIT VTT
Ph.D i 111.. Xll.
.} XVI-
XVII.
A. R. Ling IV., XVI.
D.A.Louis XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H. S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
II. T. Pcnter-
inaun.
G. 11. Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut ... Patent Lists.
H. Schlichter- Ph.D.. V., XV.
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
U.K. Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem .
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
A. Wiugham X.
NOTICES.
In accordance with the provisions of Rule 18 of the
Bye-laws, notice is hereby given that those Members of
Council whose names are placed in italics in the annexed
list will retire from their respective offices at the forth-
coming Annual General Meeting.
Sir .Inbii Evans, K.( '.!!., F.R.S., lias been nominated to the
office of President ; and Professor .1. Emerson Reynolds,
F.R.S., has been nominated Vice-President under Rule 11.
lb-. V. Hurter, Dr. W. II. Perkin, F.R.S., Mr. John Spiller,
and Professor T. E. Thorpe, F.lt.S., have been nominated
Vice-Presidents under Rule 8 ; and Mr. Thos. Tyrer has been
nominated an Ordinary Member of Council under Rule 17,
in the place of Mr. John Spiller, nominated a Vice-President.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., lias been nominated Foreign
Secretary ; and the Treasurer has been nominated for re-
election.
481
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Juno so. 1898.
Mr. R. Forbes Carpenter, Mr. C. C. Hutchinson, Mr.
John Pattinson, Mr. A. Gordon Salamon, and Mr. E. C.
Cortis Stanford have been nominated, under Rule 18, to
fill five vacancies among the Ordinary Members of Council.
A ballot list is enclosed herewith.
Axni'u. Gkxkr u. Meeting.
The Annual General Meeting will he held in London on
tin- 20th, 21st, and 22nd July next. The following is a
synopsis of the arrangements : —
Wednesday, July 20th.
1. Annual Meeting (Drapers' Hall) 3 p.m.
2. Reception by the President at Galleries of
Royal Institute of Painters in Water
Colours 8.30 p.m.
3. Smoking Cone.-i i al do. do. 0 p.m.
Thursday, July 21st.
1. Excursion to Works on the Thames below
Bridge; steamer leaves Charing Cross Pier 9.30 a.m.
3. The Dinner at " The Ship," Greemi ich ... 0.30 p.m.
Friday. July 22nd.
Excursion to Windsor and C'lievedeu ; train
leaves Paddington 9.30 a.m.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it he desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 4 1 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Fvre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED. 23rd JUNE 1892.
Barden, Alf., Par Bank, Shelley, near Huddersfit Id, glue
and si/.e manufacturer.
Bell, Percy Carter, Fylde Terrace, Fleetwood, Lancashire,
analytical chemist,
Buchanan, | D. G., Mount Vernon House, Glasgow,
analytical chemist.
Duxbury, Thos , Gas Works, Darwen, Lancashire, gas
engineer.
Feld, Walthcr, Chemisehe Fabrik, Honningen a lthein,
Germany, manufacturing chemist.
Ferguson, W. B., 3, Plowden Buildings, Temple, F..C,
and Banktield, Prestwich, barrister-at law.
Hampson, Jas., 42, Woodland Street, Cheetham Hill,
Manchester, chemist.
Harrison, M. C. C, Havcrbrack, Bishop Stortford, Essex,
brewer.
Holton, E. C, Sherwin-Williams Co., 130, Canal Street,
Cleveland. Ohio, U.S.A., chemist.
Howard, Alf., 1, Prince's Road, Lewisham, S I']., architei t
anil surveyor.
Hunter, Sidney II. . 202, Bow Road. E., mechanical
engineer.
Innes, lioht., 85, Brook Boad, Bootle, Liverpool, soap
works chomist.
Lambert, Alan, 1, Prince's Mansions, Victoria Street,
S.W., oil mills director.
MeVie, Jas. P., Teunaut's Works, Hebburn-on-Tyne,
analytical chemist.
Meacham, C. S.. Brewery House, Karl Sticet, Maidstone,
Knit, brewer.
Mercer, 0. A., Dagmar Lodge, Cheam Road, Sutton,
Surrey, chemical apparatus manufacturer.
Russell, W., Summerlee Ironworks, Coatbridge, N.B.,
anal} tical chemist.
Slater, Sydney II. , 126, Highbury New Park, N.. chemical
student.
Stein, Sigmund, 323, Vauxhall Road, Liverpool, sugar
refinery manager,
Stephens, II. O'Reilly, 20, Brunswick Gardens, Kensing-
ton, W„ ink manufacturer.
Stewart, Ebenezer, Oilseed Mills, Rochester, Kent, seed
crusher,
Turnhull, Saml. G., 10, Rue de Bas Trevois, Troyes
(Aube), France, dyer and finisher.
Valentine, A. H., II, Teneriffe Street, Broughton, Man-
chester, chemist.
Whitney. Willis 1!., Mass. Inst, of Technology, Boston
Mass., U.S.A., assistant in general chemistry.
Wirt/, Dr. Quirin, 28, Great Ormond Street, W.C.,
consulting chemist.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Allihon, G. II., I/o Liverpool; c/o Richardson Bros,
and Co., 30, Donegall Place, Belfast.
Bailey, C. M., lo Uphall; 6, Piimpherston, Midcalder,
N.B.
Harrow, J., 35 (not 65), Bromboro' Road, Bebington,
near Birkenhead.
Bay ley. Thos., l/o Merrion ; 2, Sandymount Avenue,
Ballshridge, Dublin.
Hlythe, Herbert F., !/o Leyland Road; Southport,
Lancashire.
Burdekiu, G., Journals to Sutton Lodge Works, St.
Helens.
Chorley, J. C, l/o Warrington; University College,
Cower Street, W.C.
Christie. John, Journals to Levenlield, Alexandria, N.B.
Coomber, Thos., l/o Clifton; -lo. Clarendon Road,
Redland, Bristol.
Cunningham, II. D., l/o Hebburn ; 1-4, Griffin Street,
York Load, S.l\
juiie8<U892.1 THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
485
Curphey, \V. S., l/o Strathbungo ; 15, Hate Mansions,
Hillhcad, Glasgow.
■' Engineer, The," l/o Strand ; 33, Norfolk Street, Strand,
W.C.
Everett, H. H.,l/o Borneo ; Highclere, Marlborough Road,
Tooting, S.W.
Fleck, H., l/o Tubingen ; 108, Ritteuhouse Street,
Gennantown, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Francis, E. G., l/o Halstead Villas ; c/o Manbre Saccharine
Company, Hammersmith, W.
Gihnour, J. D., l/o 138 j 142, Aitkenhead Road, South
Side, Glasgow.
Graham, J. A., l/o Punmow ; The Rookery, Povercourt.
Harvey, E. Feild, l/o Brompton ; c/o C. \V. and W. Gray,
31, Great St. Helens, E.C.
Holland, Philip, l/o Albert Road; c/o Jas. Greenway,
33, London Street, Southport.
Houston, R. S., l/o Hope Villa; Brisbane House,
Bellahonston, Glasgow.
Kemp, W. J., l/o Croydon ; Mountfield, Hawkhurst,
Kent.
King, Walter I!., l/o St. John's Road ; 1, Florence Villas,
Hadleigh Road, Southend.
Knaggs, A. Batty, l/o Leeds ; Springfield Mill, Worley,
near Leeds.
Krause, O. H., l/o bov 577 ; Box P., Jersey City, N.J.,
U.S.A.
Latham, B., Journals to 13, Victoria Street, Westminster,
S.W.
Lenox, L. R-, l/o Washington ; Stanford University, Pale
Alto, Cal., U.S.A.
Limpach, Dr. L., l/o Manchester ; Schweinf art, Germany.
Miller, Robt , l/o Manchester; 79, West Nile Street,
Glasgow.
Moore, Thos., l/o Thio ; " Le Nickel," Noumea, New
Caledonia.
O'Neill, Charles, l/o Carter Street; 14, (Veil Street,
Greenheys, Manchester.
Pitt, Theo, 16 (not 13), Coleman Street, E.C.
Roberts, C. F., l/o Bradford; Lintitts, Delph, via
( H.lham.
Sharp, Henry, l/o Bournemouth ; Sutherland House,
Southampton.
Smail, J. I., Journals to Harcourt, Biekley, Kent.
Smith, Fred., l/o Box 1812; c/o VV. J. Kent, Box 2'J4,
Johannesburg, S.A.R.
Takamine, J., l/o Japan ; 907, Chamber of Commerce
Building, Chicago, PI., U.S.A.
Walton, F., l/o Portugal Street ; 114, Holbom, E.C.
Williams, Percy P., l/o The Bank ; 22, Btsham Gardens,
Highgate, N.
CHANGES OP ADDRESS REQUIRED.
Gibson, Pr. J., l/o 15, Pick Place, Edinburgh.
Venables, T., l/o 3, Gardner Street, Glasgow.
IBeat&g*
Ellis, G. E. R., at Nelson, British Columbia.
Fullarton, R., 30, Ponegall Place, Belfast.
Pringle, Win., Castle Street, Bangalore, India.
Sieber, C. II., Whitworth, near Rochdale.
iUmtion ^tttiotu
Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House.
C. F. Cross.
J. Ikwar.
A. G.Green.
8. Ball,
C. IV. Heaton
D. Howard.
W. Kellner,
Chairman: T. Tyrer.
Vice-Chairman: W. Crowder.
Committee:
W. Ramsay.
]i, lledwood.
W, 8. Squire.
(.;. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
IVm. Thorp.
T. E.Thorpe.
Hon. Local Secretary : John Heron,
E Herd ale. Cottenhftm Fail, Wimbledon.
The names in italics ore those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the currenl Session.
The following have lifM-n t-liclid \> fill the varaiu-irs. and will
take office in July nexi : Gliainnan: Win. Thorp. Secretary.
John Heron. Committa C. C. Hutchinson, !;. E. It. New lands,
V. G. Adair Roberts, A. Gordon Solomon, T. Tyrer, and Fi;mk
Wilson.
SESSION 1891-93.
1892:—
July 20th, 21st, and 23nd —Annua] Gi nerul Meeting
Meeting held Monday, iwth Mag 1893.
int. thus, tyrer in the chair.
THE LATE PROF. A. \V. VON HOFMANN, I'.R.S.
The Chairman, referring to the recent death of Dr. Hof-
mann said, that as a considerable number of industrial
chemists in the London Section of the Society were students
of his in the days when he occupied the position of Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines, it was
only fitting that at the commencement of the proceedings
that evening some reference should be made to the great
master. He had, therefore, taken upon himself to com-
municate with some of those who were most intimate with
Pr. Hofmann ; among them were Sir Frederick Abel and
Pr. Perkin. Sir Frederick Abel was prevented, in conse-
quence of his engagements, which pressed upon him very
severely, from attending the meeting, hut he had written a
letter which would be read ; after which he would ask
Pr. Perkin to speak of Dr. Hofmann as he knew him, and to
move a resolution which Mr. David Howard, Mr. Moud,
and Mr. William Thorp would support. Mr. John Spiller,
who was away from home, had telegraphed his inability to
come, and his sympathy with the action taken. Sir Fre-
derick Abel had written as follows : — " I very much regret
that it is impossible for me to attend the meeting on
Monday evening, as I could much have wished to have the
privilege of moving a resolution expressing the Society's
sense of the great loss which chemists have sustained in
the death of Hofmann, and the reverential affection with
which his memory is cherished by his old pupils, of whom
I was the first entered at the college, and from whom 1
was the first whom he selected as assistant." He would
now call upon Pr. W. H. Perkin to pay his tribute of
honour to the great master.
Pr. W. H. Perkin regretted that Sir Frederick Abel
eould not be present, but he was glad to take the oppor-
tunity of snying a few words about the great chemist who
E a
18 ti
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June 30, 1898;
had .just passed away, l>i-inji one of his old pupils, who felt
how much he owed from having studied under such a
teacher, whose enthusiasm and zeal could not hut stimulate
anj student who hud in him a spark of love for his science.
Hi's knowledge of Dr. A. W. von Hofmann dated from the
year 1853, when he was Professor :it the Royal College of
Chemistry in Oxford Street, an institution rendered famous
by the thorough chemists he made of those who studied
there, as well as by the brilliant and continuous flow of
scientific work which was produced, not only in his own
laboratory, but also by his students, whom he inspired with
the love of research. No other laboratory in the kingdom
was so fruitful as that of the Royal College of Chemistry,
and it was a great loss to this country when Dr. Uofmann
left London. Of the value of the work which he achieved
during his lifetime it was difficult to form an adequate idea,
its amount being so great, and he continued it with un-
remitting zeal throughout his life; ill fait his last paper hail
only just been published. His researches were of special
interest to the Society on account of the technical bearing
which many of them possessed, showing the practical value
of scientific investigation for the advancement of chemical
industry, a fart which was now being so well recognised on
the Continent, and was becoming more and more appreciated
in this country. To Dr. Hofmann's kind and genial nature
all who knew him could testify, and any one who had read
th,- three volumes which he wrote in remembrance of his
deceased chemical friends could get some idea of his kindness
of heart. Of this he might mention an instance in his own
experience. When the Fellows of the Chemical Society
gave a dinner in his (Dr. Perkin's) honour on the occasion
of his being their President, Dr. Uofmann travelled all the
way from Berlin in order that he might preside, a practical
mark of friendship for his old student, which he would never
forget, lie little thought that that would he the last time
that he would have the pleasure of seeing his old master, as
it proved to he. They had indeed lost a great man, one who
left behind him an almost unparalleled record of devotion to
chemical science. lie would conclude by moving the
following resolution : —
•• We, the members of tie- London Section of the Society
of Chemical Industry, desire to express our deep sympathy
with the family of 'the late leveled Professor A . \V . yon
Hofmaun. So many of the members owe all their chemical
success to Professor von Hofm t's invaluable instruction,
that his memorj will ever endure among us, and as long as
chemical industry exists, hi- historic discoveries will remain
the foundation- of no small portion of our work."
Mi- David HowAKDfelt no small honour in being allowed
to speak a few words in expression of the deep regard and
the profound respect which he felt for the great man who
iiad been taken away. Those who were under him in the
old days knew the marvellous power he had, not only of
teaching — which was a great gift— hut of communicating
that wonderful enthusiasm for science, the love of know-
ledge for its own sake, which he possessed to an extent
which none perhaps had ever exceeded. It might be
questioned whether it was quite appropriate to speak of his
love of pure science to a bodj of men who were devoting
themselves to applied science, lie thought, however, that
all the great discoveries in that science were grounded upon
a love of truth for its own sake. Truth for itself was the
first, the use made of it the second, consideration, ami
therefore, by one of those paradoxes which have a great
meaning uii.I.tIv ing them, because he studied truth tor itself,
he was the great founder of applied science.
Mr. Li ovv [G MOND -aid that, although he had not been a
pupil of Dr. Hofmaun, he c sidered it a privilege to he
allowed to say a few words in his memory. The name of
August Wilhelm von Hofmann was revered by everyone
who called himself a chemist, lie hail lived long enough to
remember the startling effect which his researches had
made on the chemical world during the last Ml or 35 Mais.
'He had the pleasure of meeting Dr. Hofmaun not much
more than a year ago. At that time, although grey, he was
a- full of life as any in the room, ami as cheerful as
only a man who had EO splendid a career behind him could
be, a man whom he should have hoped to meet again, ami
whose researches he expected to enrich our science for
many a year to come. He had been taken away in the full
strength of his mind, and up to the last day had devoted
himself, with that enthusiasm for which he was unparalleled,
I,, the science which they all cherished. Whilst addressing
an assembly of technical chemists, he felt bound to call
attention to Dr. Hofmanu's great appreciation of applied
chemistry, which was clearly shown in the classical volumes
which he had published on the progress of applied chemistry
in 1862 and 1873, works containing more information, and
having that information better arranged, than any hooks on
the subject which had ever been written.
Mr. W.u. Thorp thought that the speakers had pro-
ceeded in \ci\ appropriate order. He regretted the absence
of Sir Frederick Abel, as Dr. Hofmann's first English
student, hut was glad that Dr. l'erkin, at all events one of
his earlier students, was present. He felt it a great honour
to he asked to speak, -eeing that he was not one of Dr.
Hofmann's lirst English pupils, for it was during the time
that he was a student at the College of Chemistry that
Dr. Hofmann left England to go to Germany. One of the
most striking characteristics of Dr. Hofmann was the amount
of attention which he gave to his pupil-, and perhaps
that was the secret of his success. He made it a practice
to sec all the first year's students every other day: half of
them one day, and the other half the next ; and all the
second, third, and fourth year student- he saw every day
at least. It was said that a stamped document was not
valid unless it had actually touched the substance of the
die; and it seemed to him that this personal contact with
the teacher was the great secret of Dr. Hofmann's success
with his students. It might have been that -nine of his
pupils were very unreceptive, ami did not do him credit ;
hut still he believed that his close attention to them
(which, together with the immense amount of work he
had on hand in the way of private research ami consulting
practice, must have meant a large amount of personal self-
sacrifice), wa- the mean- of giving to his pupils something
of that enthusiasm to which Dr. Perkin had referred.
Some three or four year- ago, happening to he in Berlin,
as a matter of course, as an old pupil, he called upon
his former teacher. He was received very cordially ami
they had a long talk about old times. Perhaps one of the
thin"- that struck him most was that Hofmann -aid that
although he had then been for twenty years in Germany he
thought that he kiuw London better than lie did Berlin,
which seemed to imply that hi- heart was still very much in
London. lie did not think that a greater loss could he
suffered by industrial chemistry than that inflicted by the
death of Dr. Hofmann.
The t n uni v\ thought that he ought to content himself
with putting the resolution as worded ; but as one who had
In en a pupil of Dr. Hofmann at the same time as his friend
Mr. David Howard, at a time when Dr. 1'cikin's researches
had become objects of ambition and stimulus for every one
of the pupils ; when in the same laboratory were Professor
Macleod, who was Dr. Hofmann's efficient assistant (where
efficiency meant perfection) ; when Marlins, Volhardt, F..I.
Mills, droves, tliiess, Valeiitii e, and other- well known in
applied chemistrj were in the laboratory studying in one
part of it or another, one felt it an honour to have been in
the same place and at work with such men. References
had been made to the personal character of Dr. Hofmann,
and the enthusiasm which he created in the minds of those
who came within the sphere of his influence. There was
an atmosphere about the place which was one of industry ;
a lazy man was told severely and promptly that his
room was more valued than his company. The place was
small, hut it was crowded, and enthusiasm was in the
atmosphere. lie could say at this distance of time 30
years — that Dr. Hofmann had little reason to he proud
of him as a pupil; lint he had every reason to thank
Dr. Hofmann for having permitted him to study under his
influence. The personal influence of Dr. Hofmann Um\
done a great deal more to stimulate enthusiasm than
anything else, audit would be a good thine if they could
have a Hofmann in every school of science. The science
of chemistry had never before had a better professor,
i. 30,1899.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
487
.1 1 ■• I it seemed hardly possible that they should sec his like
again. As fur as he, personally, was concerned, everything
thai hr was lie owed to the Tact that he had been a pupil
of Dr. Hofmann, It had given him his introduction to
business; and ever since he bad found itf a testimony and
a passport to favour and to consideration, tic confidently
asked the meeting to support the resolution.
The resolution was accepted in si'enee.
«==3toeeee'e
VJNEG&K MANUFACTURE.
\:\ J. \. M III 11" IN, f.C.S.
I s tin works on viuegar-making edited by Br aunt, vinegar
is le fined as consisting of " a dilute solution of acetic acid,
contaminated with colouring, flavouring, and extractive
matters I'nun various cereals." Whether this definition
was the result of his own sad experience, or whether in
creating it " the wish was father to the thought" I do not
know. < Hher authors have adopted the same definition.
But vinegar, as I prefer to understand it, and us it is
manufactured in the United Kingdom, is a fermented and
acidified wort derived from malted and unmalted cereals
and from sugar. The distillate from such wort may also be
included in the definition, as may also the acidified product
from the fermented juice of apples, pears, and other fruits.
Wine vinegar is another description of the genuine article,
and German potato vinegar lias some claim to he included
also.
I must nut attempt this evening to cover the whole course
<<i vinegar making, nor can 1 even allude to the legal nor to
ihr historical aspects of the manufacture, nor to the older
methods of vinegar-making, as they are still conducted in
some parts of the country.
( hi the manufacturing scale the earlier parts of the
vinegar-makers routine coincide almost exactly with those
of the distiller. He employs any material from which he
can economically obtain a saccharine extract, whilst soured
ales or wines may occasionally he worked in. As compe-
tition with the acetic acid makers is so keen, I will endeavour
to show where economies may be effected, and I will there-
fore refer to three of the most important processes of the
manufacture.
Broadly, the object of the vinegar brewer is to obtain
from a given weight of grain and sugar materials as much
acetic acid as he can, and to obtain it quickly in a palatable
and presentable form. To do this it is first necessary to
obtain from the same materials the largest possible amount
of alcohol, and so, travelling backwards, it will be seen that
during the mashing process the extract from the materials
should be as high, and the conversion of it to a fermentable
form as complete as practical considerations permit of.
With this purpose, and to employ as large a proportion of
unmalted material as is possible, it is necessary to ensure
the complete gelatiuisation of the starchy material and to
biing it intimately into contact with — at the best conversion
temperatures — the diastatic albuminoids of the malted
materials, not neglecting the saccharifying principles
possessed by the albuminoids of the unmalted materials.
When the inasli consists of barley, oats, and wheat, with a
proportion of malt, these functions are assisted by first
rendering the raw material more friable by kiluing it for
several hours at a temperature of 110° — 120° F. This
process assists the mash conversion and doubtless improves
the flavour of the final product, not only by driving oil the
rawness and reducing the bitterness of such matt-rials, but
also by its effect during the fermentation process. The
kilning may be regarded as practically sterilising the grain,
by weakening the mould and bacterial organisms that abound
upon it, and so curtailing their effect and reducing their
products iu the fermenting vat ; especially is this the case
if moderate quantities of sulphurous fumes are allowed to
play upon the drying grain. Besides this the gain in
friability implies a direct gain in extract, gelatiuisation is
more easily effected, and a moil.- saccharine wort is pro-
duced. The system of dry -grist heating prior to mashing,
if limited iu this manufacture to a temperature of 130° T\,
will effect most of the same services. When riee and maize
grists, whether previously gelatinised or not, arc ventured
upon, their complete gclatinisatiou must be secured, either
he the acid or the mall conversion treatment, before they are
admitted to the malt mash, and this admission must he
gradual, so that full play is allowed at or near the optimum
diastatic temperature. Even with the ordinary mashes of
barley and oats it is better to reserve a portion of the mall
grist lor mixing with the mash after gelatiuisation and
fooling to a slightly lower temperature. The same com-
p lotion of saccharin1 cation may he brought about if sufficient
of the first and cooler malt extract is held over for admix-
ture iu the underback with the final dcxtrinous runnings
from the mash-tun. There are several other ways of
manipulating the mash so as to secure the highest extract
ami one richest in fermentable carbohydrates, besides the
obvious one of retaining the linal spargings for the next
mashing, the principles in each ease being, to gelatinise and
dissolve the starch, then to cool the wort anil bring it into
contact witli unimpaired diastase. Thus in American
distilleries the method is adopted of cold-water mashing,
followed by partial draining, then steaming up the grain
slowly, and afterwards cooling and finally returning the
cold wort first drained off. In any mashing, it is not so
much a tpiestion of the proportion of malted to unmalted
materials, but rather one of bow the mixture is made and
maintained. The choice of fully-grown but moderately
kilned-malt and the utilisation of the powerful diastatic
properties of green malt are matters of great importance.
Before leaving the mashing process it may be pointed out
that, as the wort is not boiled, a pure water supply is an
important consideration. Either by filtration or by heating
with moderate quantities of disinfectants, impure supplies
should he improved. With the view of slightly encouraging
diastatic action during mashing, moderate quantities of those
salts which generally appear to effect this result may be
added to the mash liquor.
Later on, reference will be made to the use of sugar.
Here it is recommended that all sugar worts should be
boiled. An obvious advantage of employing sugar is that
the mash goods can be thoroughly draiued of extract without
fear of reducing the gravity too low.
Passing now to the cooling and fermentiug operations.
If no opportunity exists for aerating the wort during cooling
the aeration may be performed in the fermentiug back.
Not that exhaustive fermentation cannot be guaranteed
without any aeration save that resulting from the transitory
exposure on the refrigerator, for, as a matter of fact, the
attenuation is completed without any additional exposure.
Hut in such cases the fermentation has to be rushed by
employing high pitching heats, and allowing the temperature
to run up to 94° — Do F. during the operation. Excessive
quantities of yeast are also added for the same purpose.
Iu several ways these causes are deleterious to the ultimate
quality of the wash, besides occasioning a sheer waste of
yeast, an item of no little importance when it has to be
purchased. Even when yeast production is effected the toes
is almost as heavy, for as Adrian Brown has recently shown
(J. Chem. Soc. 1H93, 369) doubling or trebling the quantity
of pitching yeast involves neither an increased crop nor in
the end an increased alcoholic yield. With much less
yeast, a lower temperature, and plenty of aeration, an
exhaustive fermentation may be ensured, and as the aeration
by modern means, even in the deepest backs, is a simple
process, it is to be strongly advocated. Pitching at high
temperatures with an excessive quantity of yeast makes it
next to impossible to secure a bright wash for admission to
the acidifier even if time be allowed for settling and cooling.
Again, the system of aeration by means of compressed air
forced through a pipe readily permits of the entrance of a
much purer quality of air to the wort than the exposure of
the wort on a cooler permits of. It may be urged that it is
useless to purify such air when it is remembered that the
488
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Juno 3ii, 1892.
wort itself lias not Ihtii boiled, aud must, therefore, swarm
witb disease ferments, and that the acidification process
later on necessitates the absorption of a large quantity of
aerial impurities. Hut it must be pointed out that, with a
considerably reduced fermentation heat the disease organisms
would be less powerful, and their products consequently
reduced ; and further, that by the judicious use of anti-
septics, it is possible still further to limit their action
without endangering the main fermentation. As for the
impure air entering the draught holes of the acidifier it
would doubtless be an improvement if such air were filtered
or washed in some way, but even without this it is to he
remembered that, during acidification, with increasing
quantities of acetic acid and decreasing quantities of nutri-
ment for foreign organisms, these latter receive less and
less encouragement. But their entry into rich wort in the
fermenting back allows them a fuller play. As fermenta-
tion is carried on at present, many distinct fermentations
proceed simultaneously, the high temperature favours them,
and it is difficult to believe that the alcoholic yield is not
sensibly diminished. Some experiments made on a large
scale with fermenting wash at Bordeaux by Gayon and
Dupetit, and described in the Society's Journal in 1886,
confirm my contention, whilst sonic smaller ones made by
Liudct on the effects of high fermentation heats show
corresponding increases in fusel oil. We often find that at
the high temperatures attenuation of the wash is completed
in 24 to 30 hours from an original gravity of 1,050 down to
or below water, hut, in consequence of this haste, a yeasty
wash is produced, containing as much as 0'5 per cent, of
acid and literally swarming with disease organisms. Their
products are, of course, strongly in evidence, most of these
being included in the comprehensive term " fusel oil," the
effect of which in the acidifier will he referred to. The high
fermentation heats entail a loss of alcohol and ethers
through evaporation, and much is carried away by the
large volumes of CO., that are eliminated. This is found to
be so when attempts are made to purify the escaping gases
in the manner carried out at Guinntss's brewery.
Jt may he remarked here that if the collection and
purification of the C0.2 from fermenting vats could be made
remunerative anywhere, it could surely be so at a large
vinegar brewery, where the fermentations are conducted
quickly and exhaustively, and at temperatures which must
drive off the greater portion of the gas. I calculate that
from a vat holding 10,000 gallons of wash fermented from
1,050 down to water the maximum quantity of C< *: evolved
is approximately 2}, tons, With a close-covered back anil
two or three outlets for the gas, the removal being facilitated
hy suction, a high percentage of the maximum production
could be collected.
As to the 3'cast Crop, it is high time that vinegar brewers
should endeavour to secure all or much of their pitching
yeast. The economy ought to be effected in the same way
that it is done at many distilleries, not only with regard to
the pitching yeast but also with the view of supplying
pressed yeast for the baker's use. Even if the high tem-
peratures arc adhered to these economies can be effected.
An occasional all-malt brew might sometimes be advisable,
the wash being mixed eventually with the grain wash, but
even without this and with nothing but grain worts it is
possible to secure most of the pitching yeast and to supply
a large quantity of pressed yeast.
Of late some attention has been given to the subject of
fractional fermentation both for analytical purposes, and
as applied to beer manufacture. The products from pure
cultivated yeasts or from moulds in different fermenting
media have also been studied. Amongst many others who
have worked in these directions there is Borgmann, who
has found that with wort from a lager brewery, if a selected
type of Carlsberg yeast be used, the ordinary alcohol ratio
to that of glycerin in the products is increased, whilst the
flavour produced is distinctive for any one variety of
yeast. Ordonneau has published similar results both as to
the quality and quantity of the alcohols produced. Gayon
and Dupetit, by the aid of a species of mould, have been able
not only to saccharify dextrin and starch but to cause the
sugar so formed to ferment, whilst they have shown that
the same organism in the presence of all the ordinary
products of alcoholic fermentation and of the residues
which accompany them is still able to complete the main
fermentation by saccharifying and fermenting the residual
carbohydrates. Now these bodies are always present in
the wash, and it is a matter worthy the attention both of
distillers and vinegar brewers whether the sowing of appro-
priate quantities of these yeasts or of these moulds would
iu the time at their disposal be able to produce sufficient
yield in alcohol to repay the trouble.
I have made a calculation witli a view of showing the
amount of vinegar at 6 per cent, acid that can be expected
from the mashing materials usually employed, hut as the
loss of acid during acidification varies so considerably I
will first state the results iu wort which possesses an alcoholic
strength of 5 '75 per cent.
Taking malt :s cwt. the quarter, and the wort produced
at 1,050 original gravity (18 lb. per barrel), with good work
5 barrels, or 180 gallons, should be collected. Allowing
5 per cent, for waste during fermentation and removal to
the acidifier, 171 gallons remain as the net estimated wort
yield at 5' 75 per cent, alcohol, it being assumed that
attenuation is carried down to water.
In the same way, with malt and grain mixed (one-third
malt and two-thirds barley, oats, and wheat) there would
be a wort production of 200 gallons, which, less 5 per cent.,
leaves 190 gallons for acidification. With sugar of good
quality, yielding per 1 cwt. a barrel at 42 lb., a net yield of
81 gallons of wort for acidification would result, or 243
gallons for 3 cwt.
With rice or maize in the raw state, aud separately
gelatinised, 1 cwt. would yield about 68 net gallons, or 204
gallons per 3 cwt. The gelatinised grists of rice and maize
would yield still more.
Summarised, the estimated yields in wort of 1,050 original
gravity would permit of the acidification of the following
quantities of wash, viz. : —
Malt 3 cwt. 171 gallons.
Malt and grain „ 190 „
Rice and maize , 204 „
Sugar (raw, good quality) . , „ 243 „
From the above figures some 5 to 20 per cent, must be
deducted before ascertaining the final vinegar yield, the
deduction varying according to mode of acidification. The
cost per gallon of vinegar is found hy dividing the actual
yield in gallons into the cost per 3 cwt. of materials.
The distinctive operation at a vinegar brewery is the
acidification. It aims at a rapid and complete oxidation of
the alcohol to acetic acid, witli the retention in the wash
of any volatile products formed during the alcoholic or the
acetic fermentation. Au additional object is to form a
vinegar which will keep bright under the ordinary condi-
tions of exposure. It is therefore necessary by allowing
time for settling, and by effective filtration, to introduce as
bright a wort as is possible into the acidifier. This precau-
tion delays the periodical sliming of the filling material, and
accelerates the acidification. During the whole process the
heat should be steadily regulated by means of the tin coil
in the charging or in the receiving vessel. As the acidifica-
tion slackens towards the end of the process iu consequence
of the smaller amount of available alcohol and the diminu-
tion in the amount of nitrogenous, carbohydrate and
mineral food, means should be taken to supply these
deficiencies and of maintaining the optimum temperature
and increasing the air supply. A constant flow of warm air
through the draught hole should be admitted, and means
should be taken for condensing the large quantities of
escaping fumes which are so rich iu acid, alcohols, ethers,
aud aldehyde. The fumes should, when condensed, be
made to trickle back again or be otherwise collected aud
returned.
The loss of acid usually taking place where no precautions
of this nature are adopted, ranges from 6 to 20 per cent.,
the average is at least 12 per cent, estimating it upon the
alcoholic percentage of the raw wash as compared with the
acid percentage of the raw vinegar. The loss is generally
attributed to evaporation, and it is increased if the up-
draught is too powerful, for this carries away the nascent
aldehyde. To further promote the acidification it is very
Juneso 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
•189
essential that the ferment and the fermentable liquid should
be brought closely and constantly together — not merely
intermittently. In the majority of cases this detail is
imperfectly carried out, though of late, by the inttoduction
of new tilling materials and new methods of arranging
them, the delay and loss have been minimised. Delay is
sometimes due to the Hooding of the aciditier with a cold,
thick wort, or one rich in alcohol but very poor in nutri-
ment for the acetic ferment ; at other times an excessive
and cold air-supply is admitted. The former case prevails
when worts derived mainly from sugar are used and to
which only just sufficient nitrogenous food has been added
in the form of malt-extract to permit of alcoholic fermenta-
tion. So again, when worts derived largely from maize
and rice grists are utilised. It has been recognised in
alcoholic fermentation that with these descriptions of wort
the nitrogenous food may he so diminished as to need the
addition of yeast foods to complete the fermentation, but the
idea has scarcely extended itself to the acetic fermentation.
The addition of nitrogenous and mineral food for stimu-
lating either the alcoholic or the acetic fermentation requires,
however, the most careful management. Adrian Brown, in
his paper on the " Numerical Increase of Yeast Cells," read
before the Institute of Brewing in January 1890, showed
that although a moderate quantity of nitrogenous food
stimulated the fermentation, an excessive quantity inter-
fered with it. Previously to this, viz., in June 1885,
Salamon, in a paper read before this Society, had shown
that in malt worts at any rate after the main alcoholic
fermentation was complete, there always remained a large
proportion of the nitrogenous matter which had existed in
the original wort. He showed that similar results occurred
with the salts of phosphorus. Notwithstanding these facts
it is evident that in the fermentation, either alcoholic or
acetic, of strong sugar worts, nitrogenous food certainly,
and mineral food probably would he necessary to finish the
processes.
There arc other causes for loss and delay. The tilling
material may be too tightly packed, or may become so
gradually, so that air cannot rise through it. The wash in
such a case selects a natural course for itself in a series of
channels, in which the slime accumulates. A thick, yeasty
wash accelerates the sliming. Through the absence of an
attemperator, the wash may undergo extreme variations in
temperature, so that fermentative action is alternately
weakened and strengthened. The exposure of a part of the
aciditier to cold draughts chills the action. The filling
material is but a poor medium for encouraging the con-
tinuous contact of wort, ferment and air. What is required
is not merely the largest surface of exposure to aeration or
to liquid, but a surface, which, like flannel, is absorptive or
retentive of a large portion of liquid. The constant, rapid
flow over materials such as smooth round twigs affords
little time for the desired contact.
There are more intricate causes of dissatisfaction than
any of these. The quantity and quality of the constituents
of the wash exercise a powerful effect upon the fermenta-
tive action. Not only docs the wash contain, according to
its origin, more or less of the more prominent constituents
such as the nitrogenous, mineral, and carbohydrate residue,
but it coutaius, besides the main fermentation products, all
the miuor fermentation products, as well as the numerous
species of ferments which originally created them. The
alcohols higher than propylic in the ethyl series are not
oxidised to their corresponding aeids by the action of the
ferment ; not only is this the case, but there is reason to
believe — guided by the researches of Adrian Brown — that
the growth of the acetic ferment is directly retarded by
these bodies. I believe I am well under the mark in
stating that the higher alcohols in a vinegar wash at the
close of the vinous fermentation, and when the wash is
admitted to the aciditier, amount to |- per cent, of such
wash, or range from 2 to 5 per cent, of the total alcoholic
produce. Such a quantity must appreciably affect the
action of the ferment. Then again there is the presence
of many other ferments or micro-organisms to consider, and
their continued action during the acidification period not
only upon the alcohol present, but upon the other organic
matter in solution. Take, for instance, the effect of some
varieties of the acetic ferment itself upon the huge
quantities of yeast in the wash and, in a minor degree,
upon any dextrose or levulose residue. The slimy
cellulosic matter formed by the continuous contact of
these impedes the main process. ,So, too, with other
specific ferments which abound in the wash, and which, for
a time at least, must continue their work commenced in the
fermenting vat, and so deprive the wash of appreciable
quantities of acetic acid. Thus the lactic fermentation
which sets in so powerfully at the high fermentation
temperatures, not only tends to retard the attenuation, hut
competes with the acetic ferment for the appropriation of
the nitrogenous and carbohydrate supplies.
An obvious remedy for many of the inconveniences
occurring during acidification would be found in a method
of sterilising the fermented wash in a close vessel, followed
by filtering over materials steeped in vinegar or clear
vinegar wash.
Perhaps a short explanation as to the general con-
struction of acidifiers will make my previous remarks
more clear. The usual aciditier resembles a large wooden
vat some 15 to 20 ft. high, slightly tapering towards
the top, the lower diameter being, say, 11 ft., and the
upper S ft. The lower portion of the vessel, to the height
of some 4 or 5 ft., is fitted with a block-tin coil, so that
the wash that trickles into it from the higher portions may
be kept at an uniform temperature of about 90° F. This
part of the aciditier serves as a collecting tank, whence, by
a pipe dipping almost to the bottom of it, the wash is
pumped up to the top of the aciditier, where it is dis-
tributed over the top surface by means of a revolving
sparger. The sparger, with the pump and pipe, are
invariably made of ebonite or of wood. Immediately
above the collecting tank is a stage which supports the
filling material. This stage may be simply formed of
crossed laths supported at the centre and side of the
vessel, or the laths are themselves supported by stronger
bars similarly held. In other cases the stage may be
of strong wicker work, two or more pieces of it in one
plane so as to form a complete stage or diaphragm. Upon
the stage rests the filling material. Shavings of beech
wood were formerly used, they required to be thoroughly
steamed and then saturated with vinegar. The shavings
were long and broad, and much trouble was taken in
arranging them neatly to the height of some 4 or 5 ft. on
one or more stages in the aciditier. Though shavings or
even small chips are still employed in some places, they
have been more frequently displaced hy bundles of twigs.
The tender twigs of birch or beech are tied up in small
bundles, and, like the shavings, are thoroughly steamed and
then saturated with vinegar and packed in layers on one or
more stages, the total height being 4 to 6 ft. Besting upon
the top surface of the filling material is a frame of wicker
work, and just above this the sparger revolves. A clear
space of two or more feet intervenes between this and the
inside of the top cover, unless the sparger is fixed too high
aud revolves immediately below the cover. The cover fits
close, but it is pierced with a few draught holes, which are
usually kept plugged, or there may be a few such holes in
the acidifier's circumference just below the cover. The
escaping air, gases, aud vapours have, as a rule, no other
escape thau through the small spaces between the planks
of the cover, or through the interval between the cover aud
the circumference it rests upon. Just below the lowest
stage of the aciditier are bored the draught holes, an iuch
or more in diameter and about 12 ins. apart round the
whole circumference of the vessel. These are plugged
when necessary so as to diminish the air supply. Air is
also admitted in some vessels through the bottom of the
vessel by a tube passing well up into the centre of the vat,
and protected by a cowd.
Formerly there were some ingenious automatic arrange-
ments for constantly feeding the vessel and dispersing the
wash, but the pump and sparge arrangement has supplanted
them. The air-supply is slightly warmed, for the acidifying
chamber is kept warm by a stove or other heating arrange-
ment, and the admission of cold air is regulated by a
shutter.
■('.Ml
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 80. 1892.
A few yearsago Shears and Manbr. exhibited at the
Brewers' Exhibition an acidifying tower consisting of a
series of superimposed chambers. Each chamber consisted
of a perforated Boor supporting a portion of the filling
materia] — shavings,] believe. Draught holes were pierced
below each floor, so thai aeration was well provided for:
The wash entered the top chamber and gradually trickled
down through the whole series, meeting in its course fresh
supplies of air. The bottom chamber was as usual titted
with a coil, the patentees claimed that the acidification
was accelerated, the less of acid vapours reduced, and the
acidifying period was to be reduced from some eight or
twelve days to at least half the time. I am not aware that
any vinegar maker lias adopted the invention, though it has
been tried at one large brewery with the object of clarifying
the condition of and increasing the acidity of soured beers
so as to render them suitable for cutting isinglass.
I am incline. I to believe that rapid acidification depends
more upon the description of filling material than upon an
increased air supply. A constant through draught of warm
air and a constant shower of finely-divided wash are
doubtless advantages, but a rilling material of an absorptive
or retentive character will facilitate acidification better than
will one with a smooth, polished surface over which the
wash easily glides. This idea evidently suggested itself
some ten years ago to Edward Luck, and to some American
inventors. They proposed, though in different ways, the
substitution of the Oldinary tilling material by flannel or
felt, or by other fabric. The Americans placed this
material over a number of parallel hollow frames fixed in
rows one above another. The air could surround the flannel
on both sides, whilst the wash, after having traversed one
frame, was guided on to the top of the one below it. The
flannel when saturated with wash acted as a nucleus for the
acetic ferment, and the wash slowly traversing it was in
continual contact with tli ganism. Luck preferred
strings, bauds, or cords of the material. A large number
of these were twisted tightly round wooden bars, and the
wash was made to traverse these appendages by entering a
groove or channel to which the strings were attached.' I
believe the new arrangement has proved most satisfactory.
The same principle has subsequently been suggested by
other persons though the internal arrangement of the
acidilier was differently provided for.
( Hher recent improvements in acidifiers refer to means of
creating a through draught by means of an exhaust fan,
and to methods of condensing the escaping fumes and
inducing a steady up-draught, but this is too large afield
to be entered upon now.
Before closing this paper, I will venture a few remarks
upon the discrimination of genuine from spurious vinegars,
as the subject is one of some int. rest. For the manufac-
turer himself it is a comparatively easy matter to decide
whether a given sample is his own or not. He has at his
disposal all the ordinary analytical data with their limits of
variation in his own particular produce to guide him.
There is Hie final specific gravity, the percentage of fixed
and volatile acid, the percentage of solid matter with its
rati.i of organic and mineral residue, and the amount of the
different salts in the latter. Furnished with these and
supported by the further observations which the outside
analyst must rely upon, he cannot fail to recognise his own
again. The analyst is often obliged to work without these
data, and he has to distinguish between various kinds of
\ inegar. There is the genuine vinegar, but of all strengths ;
tli. re are diluted vinegars which have been fortified with
acetic acid and flavoured with acetic ether; there is distilled
vinegar, a varietj seldom met with ; and there are tie acetic
u. id preparations. Attempts have been made to decide
upon adulteration by the ratio of two or more constituents
or properties, such as specific gravity taken with the
percentage of volatile and fixed acid, the various salts
(especially the phosphates), and the nitrogenous matter.
Now for all these determinations very wide limits must be
allowed, for natural vinegars vary in strength from ('.', to
3| per cent, of total acid. As to the nitrogenous matter;
this also varies considerably, according to the materials
used, a highly sugared wor't or one largely derived from
rice and maize being much poorer in this constituent than
a wort from malt and barley. Besides the nitrogenous
matter is in many eases carried away to a great extent by
the mineral finings in the final stages of clarification, whilst
in other cases no fining operation is performed.
As to the varying proportions of phosphates and of
nitrogenous matter iu unfermeuted wort, and in the same
wort when fermentation is complete, I may refer to a paper
read before this Society in June 1835, by Salamou. Salamon
found in worts produced from malt and sugar of varying
qualities, that the amount of PjOg ranged from a maximum
of 0'197 grm. per 100 cc. of wort to a minimum of
0'086 gnu., that is less than half the higher quantity-
After the fermentation, with equal quantities of the same
vest, and without any disturbing influences, the residual
phosphates ranged in amount per 100 cc. of the original
volume from ()■ l.V.I grm. to 0 -051, nor would any ratio bet ween
the original quantity and the residual quantity be established.
As to the nitrogenous matter in the wort before and after
fermentation, Salamon's experiments show that a mere
comparison of the quantities originally and finally present
would not help us here. In some eases the residual
quantity was nine-tenths of the original in the wort, in
others it was only four-tenths. The vinegar brewer's worts
vary iu strength from 1,030 to 1,060 gravity, and Salamon's
experiments show that within these limits, with carefully
regulated fermentations the residual nitrogenous matter
yielded quantities of nitrogen per 100 cc. of original worl
ranging from 0 ■ 03 grin, to 0- 1 18 grm. These variations would
probably be extended during the acetic fermentation, so
that as quantitative tests, for the genuineness of vinegars the
estimation of phosphates and nitrogen appears to me to be
valueless. As qualitative tests the estimation is of some
service, for phosphate and nitrogenous residues are always
present iu genuine vinegars however small those residues
may he.
Variations from a given standard for vinegar residues are
also due to the quality of the water employed in mashing,
and to its treatment for brewing purposes, so that wide
limits in the mineral residue must be made upon these
accounts. The analyst must also allow for the use of
preservatives and of colouring matter (both iu moderate
quantities) during the final stages of the vinegar process,
nor should these substances be regarded as evidences of
adulteration, but rather as legitimate and even necessary
adjuncts.
\ inegar substitutes are frequently very cleverly prepared,
and it is impossible in some eases to detect adulteration,
unless the vinegar brewer will assist the analyst. Genuine
vinegars will contain residues of carbohydrate, nitrogenous,
and saline matter, and appreciable quantities of ethereal
salts. Examined microscopically, they will be found to
abound iu the acetic ferment, though mostly the ferment is
inactive; yeast cells too can nearly always he found. The
acid substitutes will nut contain these organisms, and usually
they arc stronger in acid percentage than a genuine vinegar.
The coloured preparations will leave a caramel residue, but
scarcely any nitrogenous residue.
Discussion.
Mr. A. Gobdos Sai vmon wished to ask Mr. Nettleton
a question with reference to the " body " which vinegar-
makers seemed desirous to obtain in their products. As
far as the mashing temperatures were concerned, he would
Ilk.- to ask the author of the jiaper if he could give the
approximate ratio between the maltose and the dextrine
that should be formed, because that would influence very
largely the flavour of the ultimate product, and also the
attenuations which could be carried out. With reference
to the preparation of his wort, Mr. Nettleton had dwelt
upon the fact that it was not subjected to the hopping and
boiling process obtaining in brewing: and yet at the same
time he had emphasised the necessity of removing some of
the nitrogenous matter. He would like to ask him, in that
connexion, whether he had ever tried the use of gypsum
in waters for the manufacture of vinegar. lie had under-
stood him to say that he had tried various salts. The
isi.leration of the effect which would be produced by
the action of gypsum on the water used for preparing
Juno 80, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
491
the worts was a matter of great interest, both from the
theoretical and the practical point of view. lie would also
like to ask Mr. Nettleton what percentage of alcohol he
would regard as the maximum one could venture upon in
preparing the wort. If a malt vinegar were examined it
would he found that there was a considerable residue left
after the acid was removed, and his own experience led
him to believe that there were limits in the preparation
of thi' alcohol beyond which one must not go. He would
like to hear Mr. Nettleton's views about those limits, ami
he thought it would be an advantage if he could define
them. With regard to the question of analysis of malt
vinegars, he would say that Mr. Hehner's method was an
admirable one for estimating their purity; but he (Mr.
Salamon) always took the phosphates in conjunction with
tlie amount of acids, and he also took it with reference
to the gravity; and he thought that if that were done a
very accurate opinion could be formed as to whether the
acetic acid was artificially added or naturally formed.
Mr. T. S. Davis would like to hear a little further
discussion with reference to the question of fermentation.
He understood Mr. Nettleton to say that in the alcohol
fermentation for vinegar he considered it highly undesirable
that air should be artificially introduced to a variable extent
according to the rapidity of its progress. He (Mr. Davis)
hail had much experience in that direction, and had not
found any benefit whatever from the artificial introduction of
air through the bodyr of the wort in the fermenting vessel.
Mr. Nettleton bad also referred to the fact that under
certain circumstances he thought it desirable and economical
to preserve the yeast obtained from one fermentation and
add it to the next, just as a brewer would do. In his
opinion, it was far better that the whole of the yeast should
be allowed to deposit. He would also state, for the infor-
mation of those not practically acquainted witn the subject,
that the cost of fresh yeast per 1,000 gallons of vinegar
would be under 3s., and that as fresh yeast could always be
obtained from a beer brewery, it was far more convenient to
add such than to preserve that produced in a vinegar
manufactory where brewings took place at irregular intervals,
dependent on the rapidity of the subsequent ucctilicatious.
He advocated legislation as to the selling of vinegar below a
certain standard. The strongest standard vinegars sold in
London and the country usually contained about 6'3per
cent, of monohydrated acetic acid; but owing to com-
petition the price had been much reduced, and in some
instances cheap descriptions were sold containing as little as
2; per cent., and he did not consider that vinegar sold at
that strength was worthy of the name. He would also like
to be allowed to make an observation with regard to distilled
vinegar, of which a large quantity was manufactured, and
was principally consumed in the North of England. This
was produced iu two grades; one was a vinegar distilled
from a pure malt vinegar, anil another was diluted acetic
acid distilled from sodium acetate. There was a certain
amount of ether present in pure distilled malt-vinegar, which
remit red it both different in flavour, in character, and in
aroma from that which could be produced from any other
source. A short time ago a ease came before a court
of law as to whether the distillate from a pure malt
vinegar could be correctly described as " malt vinegar." A
certain analyst announced in court that a sample had no
right to he so called, inasmuch as the phosphates had been
separated therefrom, thus making it simply pure acetic acid,
and this assertion was supported by the judge. This view
was erroneous, because the acetic acid was flavoured with an
aroma which could not be separated therefrom by distillation,
but to prevent any future erroneous nomination, the vinegar
is now described as "white vinegar distilled from pure malt
vinegar." This description is accepted as satisfactory, both
on the part of the analysts and consumers.
Mr. Nkttleton, in reply, said that he entirely
sympathised with the remarks made by Mr. Davis in
reference to the fixing of a standard. He was of opinion
that 2 per cent, was far too low a standard at which
vinegar should be allowed to be sold. It was well
known that at least 90 per cent, of " white vinegar "
was the product of the distillation of acetate of soda.
In reference to the question of yeast, he quite concurred
in the view that there might he practical reasons why
vinegar brewers did not hold over yeast from one brewing
to another ; but he thought there might be other ways
of disposing of it. Iu alcoholic fermentations there
was a vast amount of yeast wasted, and it was only during
recent years that distillers began what had now become an
enormous trade in pressed yeast, and yet even they could
also use some of their yeast after a time for their own
fermentations. For his own part he could not see why
vinegar makers should not do the same. He could see
many points in favour of occasionally purchasing barrels
of yeast from the beer brewer; and he also recognised that
if brewings only took place periodically, or a long interval
lapsed between two different brewings, this would have to
be 'lone. The only other course he could see was to have
some system of washing and preserving the yeast. As to
the question of air. Of course an acidifier would not always
work well, but as a rule he thought acidi tiers had quite a
sufficient air supply ; but it should be remembered that the
air was sometimes supplied at a temperature of 60°, at
other times at one of 70" or 80° F. He thought there were
more improvements to be made iu the direction of regulating
and distributing the air at a suitable temperature, such as
80° or 85°, thau by admitting a larger quantity. He
presumed Mr. Salamon's question with reference to the
standard of alcohol in wort was dictated by a wish to know
what would be the most economical arrangement to carry
out. Thus, assuming that worts could he obtained at a
very high specific gravity, and that consequently a large
yield of alcohol were obtained, and that such alcohol could
be completely acidified, what would be the highest per-
centage of alcohol that should he found in the wort ?
Mr. Salamon explained that he meant the proportion of
alcohol in the practical limits of work.
Mr. Nettleton replied that in Branut's work on vinegar
a certain limit was quoted, beyond which it would not pay
to have the alcoholic strength iu the wort ; but whether that
limit was 10 or 12 per cent, he could not remember. Such
a high standard as that of 10 or 12 per cent, absolute
alcohol was never reached in practical work.
Mr. Salamon further explained that his object iu asking
tin question was, that he understood Mr. Nettleton to say
that the vinegar maker fermented his wort below 1,000,
and therefore he was anxious to know the percentage of
alcohol.
Mr. Nettleton explained that supposing a wort of very
high specific gravity, say 1,080, were taken, it would be
quite possible to ferment below 1,000, but he questioned
whether it would be wise to have such a very high alcohol
percentage. He did not think that such strong wort would
undergo acetic fermentation, because so much acid would
be formed that he believed the acetic ferment would not
he able to cope with the residual alcohol, ami unconverted
alcohol would remain. He was aware that there was a
system of acidifying by which a very strong wort could be
used, the wort being passed first through one vessel so
constructed that it would induce acidification up to a certain
point, and then through two others which finished off the
acidifying. Hut this was a very complex process, and
he did not think it was used iu this country. He was of
opinion that in ordinary worts it was desirable to ferment
down as low as possible.
Mr. Salamon asked whether he was right in under-
standing that any dextrin formed during the process of
washing underwent fermentation.
Mr. Nettleton admitted that there must be a residue
of dextrin, but whether it was solely responsible for the
" body " which existed in vinegar he doubted, for there was
also a nitrogenous residue. He thought that the use of
gypsum in moderate quantities was very desirable. Gypsum
was supposed to exercise a clarifying influence upon the
wort. Iu the case of vinegar brewing, such action in the
mash-tun had alone to be relied on, for extra clarification
could not be produced as there was no boiling operation.
So far as its action in the mashing and fermenting processes
were concerned he would say that gypsum in very moderate
quantities was a most beneficial salt to use.
"-JtcoCCCtiOo — *-
I"J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June SO, 1892.
ON CERTAIN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS.
m i . R. U.IUK WRIGHT, D.SC, P.K.S.
It is well known that whilst, as a general rule, molten
metals are miscible with one another in all proportions,
there are a small number of well-marked exceptional casus
where the two metals behave to one another as ether anil
water when shaken together, I.e., two such metals, A anil
li, when intermixed molten give a mixture of two alloys
which separate from one another by gravitation on
standing molten for a sufficient time ; one, consisting
chiefly of the heavier metal, A, and as much of the lighter
one, 1!, as it can dissolve at the temperature prevailing, the
solubility being greater the higher the temperature ; the
other mainly consisting of B, with as much of A as is
permanently soluble therein at that temperature. For
instance, when A is lead or bismuth, and B zinc, the
immiscible binary alloys formed have the following
compositions* deduced from the average of a large number
of determinations : —
Temperature.
Heavier Alloy.
Lighter Alloy.
Lead,
Zinc.
Lead.
/ 1 c
Near 650°
., 800°
98-76
93-70
1-24
L-30
I'll
1-57
US-si;
98 r>
Bismuth.
Zinc.
Bismuth.
Zinc.
., sun'
85-72
81-82
84-17
14-28
15-18
15'83
2-47
2 ;,:
97-08
97-53
97-48
< In the other hand, when lead (or bismuth) is mixed with
melted tin a homogeneous fluid results, exhibiting no
tendency whatever to separate into two different alloys, no
matter how long the mass is allowed to stand molten.
It does not, however, follow that because a mixture of
two (or more) metals remains perfectly homogeneous whilst
standing at rest molten at au equable temperature, therefore
the mass w ill solidify as a uniform whole ; or that if solidified,
the ingot will not " liquate " on heating again, a more
fusible alloy running away from a less fusible one of
different composition. In fact, the reverse is very
frequently, if not almost invariably, the case, the forces
coming into play when change of state occurs being
wholly different from those at work when the whole mass is
kepi always liquid.
The author has recently made a number of observations
on various aluminium alloys, some of the results of which
are wholly at variance with the usually received notions on
the subject, as described in the text-books. Thus he finds
that from the point of view of complete or imperfect
miscibility with other metals whilst molten, aluminium
presents a close resemblance to zinc, in that it will not mix in
all proportions with lead or bismuth, mixtures of this kind
separating on standing molten into two alloys, one consisting
of lead (or bismuth) with a minute quantity of aluminium
dissolved therein ; the other chiefly consisting of aluminium
with a small quantity of the other metal. It differs, how-
ever, from zinc in not mixing in all proportions with
cadmium. On the other hand, mixtures of aluminium with
most other metals (notably tin, silver, zinc, antimony, &c.)
give homogeneous fluids exhibiting no tendency to separate
into different alloys whilst standing molten, provided the
temperature is sufficiently high to keep the whole mass fluid :
if, however, the temperature be low enough to permit of
a solid less fusible alloy separating, this sometimes occurs,
especially with antimony.
These results as regards bismuth, cadmium, and antimony
are very far from being in accordance with the usual book
llder Wright and Thompson, Roy. Soc. Proc. 45, 161; 48,
2u: nint 49, 156.
statements. As regards hail, it was originally observed by
Deville, and subsequently by Tissier and others, that the two
metals will not mix when melted and stirred together. Ti ssier
found that antimony behaved in the same way, and the
statement that the two metals are not perfectly miscible
is accordingly copied into the text-hooks, although this is
very far from being the case. On the other hand, Tissier
found that bismuth and aluminium combine readily, forming
fusible alloys wdiich oxidise very rapidly when melted, and
are also very alterable in the air at ordinary temperatures
when the bismuth is in large proportion. This description
applies accurately to certain of the antimony aluminium
alloys (not to all, some being comparatively infusible) :
but is quite incorrect as regards bismuth and aluminium,
inasmuch as these two metals are as immiscible as are zinc
and had. The alloy containing HI per cent, of bismuth
lies, Tihed by Tissier as hard and malleable does uot exist.
According to Deville, cadmium unites easily with alumium
forming malleable and fusible alloys capable of being used
to solder aluminium, but only imperfectly. The author,
on the other hand, finds that cadmium and aluminium
are as immiscible as bismuth and aluminium, or lead and
aluminium.
The source of these inaccuracies, in all probability, lie- in
the circumstance that when mixtures of metals not com-
pletely miscible together are well incorporated by agitation,
w'at is formed is a sort of metallic froth or emulsion,
which in many cases requires a very considerable time
before it completely separates into two different fluids ; so
that if the fused mass is solidified before this separation has
taken place, a product is obtained consisting of a more or
less intimate mechanical intermixture of two entirely
different substances. If, on the other hand, the fused mass
be poured into a hot long narrow crucible (like a long clay-
test tube), and maintained molten at an equable temperature
for eight hours and upwards (preferably by immersion in a
bath of melted lead), the two constituent binary alloys
gradually separate from one another, in some cases com-
pletely, so as to give a well-marked line of demarcation
between the two, as with a froth of ether and water, or
water and chloroform, allowed to stand until complete sepa-
ration takes place; in other cases less thoroughly, hut in
such fashion that the lowest portion of the fluid mass
consists of the heavier alloy with little or no admixture of
suspended particles of the other, and vice versd, with the
uppermost portion : the middle part consisting of the two
still mechanically intermixed, much a- a frothy mixture of
ether and water containing soapy or mucilaginous matters
often behaves under similar conditions. In all such cases
when the clay test tube is removed from the lead bath and
quickly cooled down, the contents solidify to a thin com-
pound bar, easily obtained by breaking away the clay ; with
a tube of } to £-inch internal diameter and .3 to 7 inches
long, filled half or two-thirds full of metal, the bar is
generally solidified sufficiently rapidly to prevent any
material alteration in the normal composition of the two
alloys constituting its ends, through liquation or segregation
during solidification, although such an action is obviously
not impossible, and indeed with very slow cooling is some-
times noticeable.
When aluminium and tiu (or silver) are fused together,
well stirred, and maintained molten for eight hours in a
lead bath, the bar finally obtained gives on analysis sensibly
the same results, whether the portion employed be cut from
the extreme bottom, the middle, or the uppermost pari of
the bar, indicating perfect miscibility of the two metals
whilst fluid. If, however, lead or bismuth be used as the
second metal very different results are obtained ; provided
that the molten mass has stood long enough to bring about
proper separation, the heavier end of the bar consists
almost entirely of lead (or bismuth) with only a minute
quantity of aluminium ; whilst the lighter end consists of
aluminium with 1 to li per cent, of the heavier metal. If,
however, the separation has been less complete, more or
less considerable increment is observed in the aluminium
found by analysis of the heavier end and of the lead (or
bismuth) found at the heavier end. The following figures
were obtained on analysis of a number of such binary
alloys, the aluminium only being determined at the heavier
.i 30,189*.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
493
end, :iinl the lead (or bismuth) at the other end ; the
temperature of the lead bath throughout was between 750°
tn 850°, averaging near 800°, as determined by the platinum
specific heat pyrometer. The. period during which the
mass stood at rest molten was usually eight hours.
Lkad — Aluminum.
A'uminimu iu Heavier Uloy.
Load in Lighter Alloy.
0'02
I'M
D'03
1T,:i
0'0C
1-72
(ill
rsii
nil
2'0I>
2'06
•J' Hi
2 '25
1- V.l
l'U2
IhsMUTii — Aluminium.
Alumiuium In Heavier Alio}'.
Bismuth in Lighter Alloy.
Mtea
o-iu
0
10
II
21
0
u
0
■w
ii
51
23
On comparing these results with those above quoted
obtained with zinc instead of aluminium, it is obvious that
notwithstanding the slightly higher temperature, the solu-
bility of aluminium in lead or bismuth is markedly less than
that of zinc ill these metals respectively, especially in
bismuth. The solubility of lead in aluminium, on the
other hand, is slightly greater than that of lead iu zinc ;
whilst the solubility of bismuth iu aluminium is slightly less
than that of bismuth in zinc, the difference not being very
great in either case.
It results from the incomplete miscibility of molten
aluminium with fluid lead or bismuth, that when a third
metal is added to a mixture of aluminium and either of
these metals, such that this third metal is miseible in all
proportions with either aluminium or lead (or bismuth), the
ternary alloy formed will either be " real,"* exhibiting no
tendency to separate into two different ternary alloys, or
" ideal," i.e. incapable of permanent existence, separating
on standing into two different ternary alloys, according as
the mixture represents a point lying outside or inside the
" critical curve " for the three metals employed at the
temperature of the experiment. The data for the delineation
of the critical curves for various mixtures of aluminium and
lead (or bismuth) with appropriate third (" solvent ")
metals are being accumulated.
When aluminium and cadmium are melted together and
well stirred, they behave in a fashion much resembling that
observed with lead (or bismuth) and aluminium, on standing
at rest molten for some hours, cadmium containing only a
few tenths per cent, of aluminium, sinks to the bottom,
whilst aluminium containing between 2 and 3 per cent, of
cadmium floats up to the top.
* Vide this Journal, 1802, p. 245. Abstracts of papers by the
authors and collaborators read before the Royal Society.
( )u examining the behaviour of aluminium when melted
along with antimony some remarkable results were obtained,
leading to the conclusion that with certain proportions alloys
are formed exhibiting melting points much above those of
either antimony or aluminium; so that unless the tempe-
rature of the mixed metals is considerably elevated, the
whole mass sets solid, or at any rate so pasty as to be
incapable of being poured out from the crucible. With
mixtures containing from 15 to 25 per cent, of aluminium
and 75 to 85 of antimony, the temperature of complete
fusion of the mixture appears to be quite as high as that ol
silver. Thus, on melting aluminium in a small Fletcher's
blast gas furnace, and then adding the antimony in lumps,
the latter rapidly melted down and sank to the bottom of
the crucible, the fused alumiuium floating on the top; on
continuing the heat for a few minutes so that the whole
mass was well above the melting point of silver, and stirring
up with a clay rod previously heated nearly white hot, the
two metals quickly intermixed, and then set to a nearly
solid mass. When the proportion lay between 10 and 15 of
aluminium to 85 and 00 of antimony, or between 25 and 35
of the former to 65 and 75 of the latter, the mixtures
remained fluid at temperatures above the melting point of
silver ; but on continuing the stirring at a slightly lower
temperature they became pasty, a. precipitation of a solid
alio;/ obviously occurring. My carefully pouring off the yet
fluid portion when this occurred, patting down the solidified
or pasty mass iu the crucible with a red hot clay pestle, so
as to squeeze out as much fluid metal as possible, the
contents of the crucible could be divided into two portions,
viz., the more fusible alloy poured off, and the almost solid
residue. This latter, on cooling, formed a brittle, highly
crystalline mass ; when the mixed metals were iu the pro-
portions of 18 — 19 aluminium to 81 — 82 antimony, very
little fluid alloy could be thus expressed, aud this differed
but little from the unfused portion in eompositiou ; with
mixtures richer in aluminium the more fusible alloy always
contained considerably more aluminium than the less fusible
residue ; whilst with mixtures poorer iu aluminium the
reverse was the case ; strongly suggesting that the precipi-
tated solid alloy essentially consisted of a definite compouud
indicated by the formula AlSb, which requires —
41..
Sb.
Per Cent,
. is' I
. 81'6
liiu-ii
together with more or less considerable intermixture of
mechanically adherent more fusible alloy containing excess
of aluminium or of antimony, as the case might be.
When the proportion of aluminium present in the
mixture was less than about 10 per cent., it was found
difficult to regulate the temperature so nicely as to bring
about the precipitation of this comparatively infusible alloy ;
but on allowing the mass to cool and solidify, and then
raising the temperature again, so as to cause a portion
to melt aud liquate away from the rest, it was found
that the portion thus melted contained more antimony
relatively to the aluminium than the uumelted portiou ;
indicating as before that the latter was AlSb together with
an admixture of more fusible alloy, containing in this ease
excess of antimony.
Precisely similar results were obtained when the propor-
tion of aluminium present exceeded about 35 per ceut.,
excepting that in this case the portiou liquating away from
the rest contained mere aluminium relatively to the antimony
than the less fusible portion.
Whether the proportions of aluminium present were
below or above 18-4 per cent., in all cases if the tempe-
rature were high enough the whole mass melted to a
uniform fluid easily poured off from the scorirc which
formed somewhat rapidly on stirring; to diminish this
tendency the air-blast was so regulated as to keep the flame
reducing rather than oxidising. When the melted metal
was poured off into a brightly red-hot clay test tube and
kept fused for several hours at a temperature of 900J C. and
upwards, no marked difference in composition between the
top and bottom ends of the resulting ingot was noticeable.
\\l\
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 189B.
showing! plete miscibility of the metals when thoroughly
melted. With the smaller percentages of aluminium
the resulting alloys were brittle and crystalline, and differed
little from antimony in appearance ; on keeping in the air,
especially when coarsely powdered, they absorbed oxygen
and slowly disintegrated to a black powder, not unlike
manganese dioxide. The alloys richest in aluminium were
generally somewhat spongy : they also absorbed oxygen
from the air slowly, the ingots swelling np and falling to
powder on keeping.
The difficultly fusible substances that precipitated solid
from the molten mixtures containing intermediate propor-
tions of antimony (more or less impure AlSh) showed the
greatest tendency of all to absorb oxygen and disintegrate
to black powder, a considerable gain in weight being usually
noticed if fragments were weighed and left on the pan of
the balance for some hours. When placed in water a slow
evolution of hydrogen was generally noticeable, becoming
strongly marked on heating the water to near its boiling
point. The gas thus evolved appeared to contain small
quantities of siliciuretted hydrogen (derived from traces of
silicon contained in the aluminium used) as it slowly
browned white paper moistened with silver nitrate ; but on
burning, no antimonial spots were produced on cold
porcelain, and only very faint indications of antimonial
mirrors were formed on passing through a red-hot narrow
combustion tube for half an hour at a lime; so that anti-
moniuretted hydrogen "as practically not evolved at all.
The following numbers were obtained on analysis of a
scries of products formed with mixtures of aluminium and
antimony where the former varied between 8 and 36 per
cent, of the whole mass. The aluminium used was com-
mercially pure metal (so-called 99 per cent., containing
small quantities of silicon and iron, but otherwise pure) ;
the antimony was pure metal prepared from tartar emetic.
The analysis was made by dissolving in dilute hydrochloric
acid containing a little nitric acid, precipitating the antimony
by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, collecting on a weighed
filter, and finally beating a portion of the mixed precipitate
of sulphur and antimony sulphide in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide. The aluminium wras precipitated from the
filtrate by ammonia, and the weighed alumina corrected for
traces of silica and ferric oxide. In each case the figures
are calculated on the sum of the aluminium and antimony
found as 100: —
Percentage of
Al originally
employed for
Fusion.
<'niiij,:n;itiv,'ly Infusible
Residue.
Moo fusible Alloy
poured off.
Aluminium.
Antimony,
Aluminium.
Antimony.
1.
2.
S.
1.
5.
G.
7.
S.
:n;
32
2!l
•j;;-:,
21
20
15
8
27-25
26-76
24-50
21-00
18-78
19-42
15-2.3
7 -.or,
72-75
78-25
75-50
79-00
81-22
80-58
sf77
92-46
56-00
38'55
.'it -75
27-75
21 '28
18-35
12-98
5-00
15'00
61 ' 15
68-25
72-25
7S-72
81-65
57*02
94-40
The mixtures marked 1 and 8 were liquated, i.e., after
Fusion the mass was allowed to solidify, and then by raising
il» temperature a portion was melted which was poured off,
leaving the ununited part behind. The other mixtures,
Nos. 2 to 7, wire prepared by melting the aluminium,
adding the antimony which melted and sank to the bottom,
and then stirring well together with a red-hot clay rod, the
temperature being so regulated that during the stirring a
portion of the alloy precipitated in the solid form. With
Nos. "> and 0 the temperature was judged to be above the
melting point of silver, and very little lluid alloy eould be
poured off; with the other mixtures the temperatures were
somewhat loner, but not much.
With the mixtures numbered 1 to 1, the proportion of
aluminium originally used was above that corresponding
with the formula AlSb ; and in these cases the more fusible
alloys contained much larger proportions of aluminium than
the Comparatively infusible residues. With Nos. a and 6,
the original compositions differed little from AIS1, ; in these
cases the more fusible alloy obtained was very small in
quantity, and differed comparatively little from the less
fusible portions. With Nos. 7 and 8 the proportions of
aluminium originally employed were below that corre-
sponding witli AlSb ; and in these cases the mure fusible
portions contained excess of antimony as compared with
tlie others, [n all cases, therefore, the relative values arc
just such as would be obtained by the separation out from
the molten mass of a solid compound AlSb, tins compound
necessarily remaining wetted, as it were, by the more fusible
alloy "when this latter is poured off as far as possible.
i hi contrasting the temperatures of complete fusion of a
series of alloys starting with pure antimony and going up
toAlSb.it is evident that the melting point continuously
rises up to a value considerably above the inciting point of
pure aluminium : when the aluminium present exceeds that
contained in AlSb the melting point falls again, the
maximum being with the composition AlSb. A precisely
similar state of things lias been recently shown by Professor
Roberts Austen to occur with aluminium-gold alloys,*
excepting that the maximum is found for the definite
purple-coloured compound ALAu, and not for a compound
containing only one atom of each metal.
Disci ssion.
flie Chairman said that he was going to ask Dr. Wright
what was the practical application of the alloy, hut when the
samples were seen the hopes of practical application were
at an end. The question of oxidatiou was exceedingly
interesting, and the absence of antimoniuretted hydrogen
was a very singular fact. With regard to the compounds
from which the samples were reduced, he had had a good
deal of experience in purifying commercial bismuth, and be
bad found that ill ordinary methods of fusion the bismuth
adhered to, or, in the author's words, dissolved considerable
fractions of impurities, so as to render the production of
pure bismuth, as distinguished from ordinary commercial
bismuth, a matter of considerable difficulty. But it had
been done. Although the immediate practical results of
Dr. Wright's investigations iu this connexion were not
apparent, yet the value of such researches would be seen
when they appeared in the Journal.
» R. Sue. I'roc. 50, 368.
JlanrI)r;s<t<T ^rttion.
Chairman: Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairmati : Edw. Sehunck.
Committee :
J. Augell.
G. H. Bailey.
R. F. Carpenter.
G. E. Davis.
Harold /?. Dixon.
H. Grimshaw,
J. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
A. L'< liinann.
SirH. E. Roscoe, M.P.
0. Truby.
I>. Watson.
lion. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Hank Souse, The OUT. Higher B rough ton, Manchester.
The nanus in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at the end of the mm ui St-.sn.ir.
The following have beep elected to nil the vacancies ami will
take office in July next : — Committee : P. II. Bowman, .1. M. Irving,
ami E. Knecht.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the. Meetings to he
sent to the Local Si-eretary.
IuaBSO.iBM.3 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
495
Meeting held Tuesday, ZUt May 1892.
MR, !;. FORBES CARPKNTEH IX THE i -II VI It.
o\ OIL AND IRON STAINS IN COTTON CLOTH.
\:\ , Vl;l. OTTO WEBER, PH.D., P.C.S.
Oil stains in cotton cloths are an occurrence well known
to every bleacher and flyer, and it is the general experience
that tin ii complete removal is effected in the kiering pro-
cess. This is absolutely certain where the oil stains have
teen caused by animal or vegetable oils and greases, as in
this case under the circumstances obtaining in kiers, the
saponification of these oils completely removes the stains.
Not quite so simple is the ease if the stains are caused by
mineral oils. These are incapable of saponification, but as
snap solutions (especially alkalii nes) dissolve consider-
able quantities of mineral oils, it is generally assumed that
(he rosin snap employed in the process of kiering emulsifies,
and eventually dissolves also these stains. This may be
ti ue as long as the stains are fresh, but it applies not to old
stains, which through long exposure to die air have
undergone oxidation. Cloth containing sneb mineral oil
-tains cannot be effectively dealt with in an open kier,
although in a pressure kier and conditional to a liberal
■ n|.|l\ of rosin soap, the stains practically disappear, i.e.,
they can no longer be seen, and in the process of printing
or dyeing such cloth, nothing occurs that would indicate
that these oil stains are still in existence. Iron stains per-
haps occur not so often in cloth as oil stains and may prove
a great nuisance occasionally, but under ordinary circum-
Btan -is their removal is rasv enough. If the stains are few
ami Far between, they are treated one by one with a
moderately strong solution of oxalic acid, the piece being
subsequently washed. If there are too many of these
stains in a piece to apply this treatment, padding in a bath
of oxalic acid ata Tw. or in bisulphite of soda at 7° Tw. will
answer. If, however, oil and iron stains appear in the same
piece, forming as it were one single stain, the question of
getting rid of these combined- stains is in most eases a
matter of very considerable difficulty, the oxidised oil
retaining the iron stain even against concentrated solutions
of oxalic acid or strong sulphurous acid ; even the most
powerful agent for removing iron stains, a solution of tin
oxalates in hydrochloric acid lias not the slightest effect on
these compound stains. I may at once say that 1 do not
know of a case of these stains ever being found in grey cloth,
or being produced in the course of the bleaching process,
although the single oil or iron stains are common enough
at this stage But the compound stain inevitably forms
when oil-stained doth is dyed with an iron mordant. The
faintest trace of an oil stain left in the cloth can be found
out by treating a suspected sample in a bath of ferrous or
Ferric lulphate, and producing the well-known iron buff by
afterwards passing through weak soda carbonate. As a
rule the stain dues not show in the buff, but after stripping
the cplour in any suitable acid bath, a bright iron stain
remains wherever the cloth retained the least trace of an
oil stain. From tliis it is clear that in the majority of
cases these compound stains will never be noticed, unless
thecl. .tli is stripped of its dye. Unfortunately the latter
pi. ices- is Frequently necessary in the case of drab twills,
which have at times from some unaccountable reason an
awkward tendency to bleach in the folds, or to come up a
wrong shade in dyeing. For the purpose of re-dyeing such
pieces the colour is stripped and then the oil stains become
visible as bright iron stains. On re-dyeing these pieces in
th. manner generally used for this class of goods, by first
giving two ends in a mixed bath of fustic, sumac, and
anatto, and afterwards fixing in a bath of ferrous sulphate,
tliesein.il slain- do not disappear but show as ugly olive
patches. That these stains show only in the see, md
dy.ing is easily accounted for, as they now contain twice as
mm h iron as the rest of the piece. It is therefore evident
that, before re-dyeing pieces stained in this manner, ii is abso-
lii.l, necessary to first remove these stains. I have already
mentioned the obstinacy with which these stains resist ail
ordinary agents, ami the cause of this, no doubt, is that we
ha.- tin ii, .n here in the form of an iron soap. Taking
this into consideration, there is no doubt that the iron stain
will only yield if treated with an agent, which at the same
time loosens the oil stain. After a great many experiments, I
found that by padding such pieces in a hot solution of one
part of soft soap, one part of glycerin, and three parts of
water, taking through squeezing rollers, letting lie for 24
hours, then washing, the iron stains, together with the oil
stains, are completely removed. The rationale of the pro-
cess will be readily understood it' we remember the great
ease with which oils of every description dissolve in
solutions of glycerin and soap, and also the capability of
alkaline glycerin solutions to dissolve ferric oxide in large
quantities. The price of the process amounts to about
3s. per 100 lbs. of the cloth, and from t'nis the price per
piece may easily be calculated, the weight of a piece vary-
ing from 2fi to about 80 lb.
The whole difficulty about these compound stains would
of course best be dealt with by taking care to remove every
trace of oil in the cloth in tin; kiering process, but as I have
already remarked, this is a matter of considerable difficult}
in the case of mineral oil stains, although pressure kiers are
as a rule fairly efficient in this respect. From experiments
carried out on a large scale, it appears, however, that this
difficulty eau he overcome by deliberately increasing the
mineral oil stain in the grey cloth, by adding a vegetable oil
to it. Treatment even in an open kier is then quite
sufficient to remove every trace of an oil stain,
TURKEY-RED OIL— Part II.
BY .1. ARTHUR WILSON.
The results contained in this paper are a brief resume of
an extended investigation into the best method of detecting
and approximately determining the adulterants of Turkey-
red oil The most common, and at the same time the
cheapest adulterant is, of course, water, hut as most buyers
and users of this material stipulate for a certain percentage
of fatty matter, it is necessary to use some cheap oil in
place of water. Cotton-seed oil is possibly the most used,
and I may say that I have reason fur believing that a large
amount of adulterated Turkey -red nil is made aud used
It is as well to remember that a manufacturer of oil may
unwittingly prepare an adulterated article. I mean, of
course, by the use of adulterated castor oil. The writer
lias submitted the fatty matter prepared in a definite matter
from Turkey-red oils made from genuine castor oil, also
from castor oil containing other oils, to the usual methods
of analysis of oils and fats, and more especially to Benedikt's
acetyl process, but it is to be regretted that none of these
methods alone give evidence sufficient to condemn or pass
a sample. It is the careful consideration of the results of
the whole of the tests on which one must rely. These tests
are, 1st. Specific gravity, combining weight, point of conge-
lation of fatty acids, iodine value, and acetyl value.
Before describing the results ol my investigations, it is
necessary to mention the method of preparation of the
fatty matter for analysis, loo grins, of the sample are
tankeii in a 24 oz. flask, to which is added 250 cc. of
methylated spirit and 20 grins, pure caustic potash. A
long tube is attached and the flask and its contents kept
for one hour on the water-bath with frequent agitation.
The alcohol is then evaporated and about half a litre of
water added, containing sufficient pure hydrogen sulphate
to decompose the soap and leave a moderate excess. A
piece of pumice coiled with platinum wire is added and the
contents of the flask kept in gentle ebullition for one hour.
The flask is allowed to stand and the aqueous layer
syphoned off, and the fatty acids washed three times with
hot water, dried on the hot (liter, and then by heating in
a porcelain dish for a short time. The fatty matter thus
prepared is used for the above determinations.
The results of my investigation are as follows: The
specific gravity of the fatty matter prepared as above from
genuine castor oil varies with the proportion of vitriol used
496
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June 30, 1m,
in the manufacture of the Turkey-red oil, but only to a
Email extent, whilst on tbe other hand, olive and cotton-
seed oil are much more affected. The average density of
thu various acids taken by the Weetphal halance at 98° C.
are : —
Nature of Oil.
Specific Gravity »' '•- '
oil a< [da
it1, oiltu ids .
< Sotl il acids
B98-0
961 '0
S72-0
The point of congelation of the fatty acids is often very
useful. The fatty acids o) Turkey-red oil from castor oil
do not deposit any, or the merest traces, of solids at 15' ■'> C.
Olive oil and, still more, cotton-seed oil acids deposit much
solid matter at the above temperature. The melting point
of the acids from olive oil ami cotton-seed oil as determined
!>\ t! apillan tube pressure method are —
I
Melting poinl of ootton-s loll acids 44
Melting poinl of olive oil acids 4a
The combining weights of the fatty acids are too mar
one another tobeof any service whatever. Thus we have —
Nature of Oil.
Bfgrms. of K II* > per 1 --'hil.
of Fatly acid.
Castor oil .
Olive oil ..
Cotton oil.
180 im
173—176
fT 1 — 17".
Tbe iodine value is also very variable, and besides being
dependent on the age, \c. of the oil used, is liable to con-
siderable fluctuations, by the method of preparing the
Turkej red oil, especially on the amount of vitriol used.
(In ihis account it is not to be strongly recommended.
The method on which the most reliance i- to be placed
is undoubtedly the acetyl value. I may remind members
who may not be acquainted with this process that it consists
of th • introduction of acetyl groups into the substance and
subsequent elimination by saponification, and estimation of
the alkali required for this removal. It is, notwithstanding
the remarks ■ >!' Lewkowitseh, a most valuable process, and is
certainly a very valuable addition to our methods of examining
oils and fats. The process is worked as follows: The dry
fatty mailer is heated to boiling for one ami a half hours under
a reflux (dry) condenser with four-fifths of its weight of
dry acetic anhydride, and the acetilised acid washed with ho!
water till the wash-water is neutral to delicate litmus paper,
when the fatty matter can be dried as quickly as possible.
A weighed quantity of about 2 ■ 5 grms. is then titrated in
alcoholic solution quite cold with semi-normal alcoholic
potash, and the amount noted. A further quantity of
alcoholic potash about I1, times more than the first quantity
is added, and the flask kept 30 minutes on the water-
bath with a long tube attached. After this time the
residual alkali is estimated by semi-normal hydric chloride.
Phenolphthalein is used as indicator in both cases. The
alkali used in the first instance is calculated to milligrammes
per I grm. of fat, and is termed the acid value. The total
alkali is calculated in the same way and is termed the
saponification value, the difference between the two is the
acetyl value.
The three chief oils for Turkey-red oil manufacture show-
when thus tested : —
( hving to the interactions between the glycerides and the
vitriol in the manufacture of the Turkey-red oils the
differences are not so apparent. The following table shows
the results to be expected : —
A,.;,i B in
Nature of Turkey-red Oil. Ji\ ' ' fication
*allR- Value.
Acetyl
\ alue.
, ■ ■
Cotton-seed oil 179'0 232'0
113 4
1387
1IW3
53 '0
The determination of the iodine value before and after
acetilisation, affords a check on the latter determination.
Useful information is also afforded by a determination of
tbe solidifying and melting point before an after acetilisation.
If mineral or rosin oil were present they would of course bo
separated and estimated in the usual manner.
SOMF FURTHER NOTES OX NITROGEN
IN COAL-GAS.
RV GEORGE E. I) WIS.
Fiiu.mvi.vn the reading of a paper at the last meeting of
this Section, by Mr. C. II. New, on the determination of
nitrogen in coal-gas, a discussion occurred in which some
doubts w ere expressed as to whether such a large amount of
nitrogen as If per cent, could possibly exist in a gas
supply, seeing that Professor Vivian Lewes had examined
a sample of London coal-gas which contained less than
1 per cent, of nitrogen. It was also pointed out by
Mr. Stenhouse that if 15 per cent, of nitrogen were present
due to the pumpingin of air, there should be at least 2 per
cent, of free oxygen, the presence of which the reader of
the paper had not recorded. I saw that the argument used
by Mr. Stei. house would at once prove the accuracy or
otherwise of Mr. X'ew's results, and on Saturday, May 7th,
the day after the reading of tbe paper, I decided to make
an examination of the gas for oxygen, nitrogen, and illumi-
nating power, concurrently. At 10 a.m., and when it
might be supposed that the night gas lay dormant in the
pipes, I found the gas contained l'l per cent, of oxygen,
audits illuminating power 15- C candles. At 12.30, afler the
gas had been burning the whole interval in tbe laboratory,
tests were again made, witli the following results : —
Per Cent.
Oxygen 2 1
Nitrogen 13'9
Illuminating power 13'0 candles.
I think this shows clearly enough that there is a difference
between the night gas and the day gas, and that the difference
in illuminating power is chiefly due to oxygen and nitrogen.
Why this is so I do not pretend to explain. I have made
some further tests with reference to the percentage of
nitrogen. The day tests on the 18th instant were 8 '28 per
cent, of nitrogen with 108 per cent, of oxygen. On the
23rd the day gas contained 8 '67 per cent, of nitrogen. The
night tests contained less nitrogen. On the 16th, taken at
8 p.m., the percentage of nitrogen was 7'3 ; on the 17th it
was 7 4, with la per cent, of oxygen; on the 19th, at
7.30 p.m., it contained 5 • 6 per cent, of nitrogen ; on the
20th, at 10.30 p.m., it contained 7 ' 4 per cent, of nitrogen ;
and on the 22nd, at 8 p.m., it contained 7" 75 per cent.
Hetween the 16th and 23rd the illuminating power varied
from 13'2 candles in the daytime to 15'6 candles at night.
Compared with Professor Vivian Lewes' figures of the
London gas, we appear to have a very different mixture
in Salford, and the low illuminating power as recorded
upon our photometer is clearly explained. How this
nitrogen and oxygen gets into the gas is a matter I
Juno 30,1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
497
have not considered, and these facts seems to be borne
out by some further Sgures from Professor Lewes. He
finds that 100 volumes of gas require about 230 volumes
of either air or nitrogen to reduce its luminosity to nil,
a quantity which certainly does not agree with the earlier
notions of gas engineers. In the Salford gas there exists
at the utmost 14 volumes, and, as a general thing, 7 to
8 volumes, which is about the proportion necessary to
reduce the illuminating power from 18 to 14 candles,
if reckoned as a diluent, combined with a certain amount
of light-destroying power. Hunter, in his lecture at Sal
ford (published by J. and E. Cornish, Manchester) in
1S7S slates (p. 32) that 10 per cent, of air added to
25-cnudle gas reduced its illuminating power to 8*25 candles.
Under extraordinary conditions this might be so, but I
think I have shown that it is possible to have 14 per cent.
of nitrogen and - per cent, of oxygen in M-candle gas.
Discussion.
Mr. STENHOUSE (Rochdale) -aid that after hearing
Mr. Davis's and Mr. New's papers read at the last meeting,
he had obtained two samples of gas from Blackfriars Street,
and very carefully determined the amount of oxygen, find-
ing 0*6 per cent, in each sample. If there were oxygen in
the gas there must be air present, and there could not be a
large quantity of nitrogen in the gas without there being a
corresponding quantity of oxygen. Such a large percentage
of nitrogen was very remarkable, especially from Salford
gas, where it was very carefully made and where there
would be no means of air rushing in without its being
known. If they did pass air in they would only use just
sufficient to revivify the purifiers, whether oxide of iron or
lime \\.re used ; and with that end in view it would be folly
to add mere than four or five per cent, altogether, because
half a per cent, of air could not, possibly hi' taken up by
partly fouled oxide. It might be said that they made a very
good gas at Salford, and then reduced its illuminating power
by passing air into it, but that would he a very expensive
process, and if Mr. Davis's figures were correct, of which
there could be scarcely any doubt, it would appear that a
large quantity of air was being passed into the gas. Mr.
Davis appeared to have found a large quantity of nitrogen
in the morning. It was difficult to understand why there
should be untie iii the morning than at night, for if they
had to pass air in it would be in regular quantities, and it
would be impossible to say into which holder it had passed.
Mr. Duncan asked if the nitrogen might have got there
by diffusion ?
Mr. Carpenter said that he remembered it once being
suggested that every gas manufacturer who proposed to put
air in his gas should carefully measure it, but it was quite
possible that air might get into the gas through cracked
retorts.
Mr. Stenhouse: That would lie an isolated case;
whereas Mr. Davis had quoted many instances.
Mr. Cmppin: I said that undoubtedly there were certain
periods when gas contained large quantities of air, but how
the air got there he could not say, unless it was through
cracked retorts. He had just heard evidence given before
a Parliamentary Committee with regard to the Kccles and
Swinton districts which verified the fact.
Mr. I) wis, in reply, said that he could not see why it
would be foolish to put air into gas, so long as the con-
sumers were prepared to accept a mixture of gas and air. It
was an undoubted fact that gas had a low illuminating
power at certain times of the day; and it was also un-
doubted that the tests proved the presence of air, but
whether it got there by diffusion through the pipes or joints
as suggested, by Mr. Duncan, he was not prepared to say.
j^otu'ngbam *«tiom
University College, Nottingham.
F. Clowes.
J. B. Coleman.
C. II. Field.
II. Forth.
E. Francis.
S. J. Pentecost.
Chairman : L. Archhutt.
Committee :
E. W. Small,
H. J. Staples.
C. Taylor.
Sir John Tuvney.
J.T.Wood.
Treasurer: J. M. C. Paton.
lion. Local Secret a rii :
It. L. Whiteley, University College, Nottingham,
The names in italics are those of members of Committee who
retire at he end of the current Session.
The following have been elected t" lill the vacancies, and will
take office in July next :— I ice-Chairman : F. Clowes. Commilti i ■
F. J. K. Caiulla, F. D. Monlle, and <i. .1. Ward.
SESSION 1892.
Notices cf Paiiers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent le the Local Secretary.
Meeting held Wednesday, 2.">M May 1892.
MR. L. AIKHIUTT IN THE CHAIR.
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
FROM ALKALI WASTE AFTER TREATMENT BY
THE CHANCE SULPHUR RECOVERY PROCESS.
BY CHARLES BPACKMAN.
The accumulations of waste from the manufacture of soda
by I he Leblaue process have long been a source of un-
ceasing trouble and expense to the manufacturers, and the
proposal lo make use of this waste as the lime constituent
of Portland cement is not new. In a book on Portland
cement by II. Reid, published in 1877, reference is made
to experiments carried out at St. Helens some years pre-
viously with a view to its utilisation for this purpose,
which were not successful, as the sulphate of lime inter-
fered with the production of a perfectly hydraulic cement.
A paper describing his process for the manufacture of
cement from alkali waste was read before the Liverpool
Section of this Society by J. S. Riglvy (this Journal, 7,
301), in which the author states that his attempts to
produce cement with the unpuriticd waste were unsuccessful.
" It produced a cement of a very uncertain quality ; when
made into briquettes and placed in water they frequently
crumbled away, or if they held together at all a very slight
strain caused them to break. The cement had also an
unpleasant slippery feel with it when taken from the water;
it also evolved sulphuretted hydrogen when treated with an
acid." Cement of good quality was, however, obtained by
purifying the waste. This was said to be accomplished by
passing carbon dioxide obtained from the calcination of a
previous kiln of cement through the semi-liquid waste, either
before or after it had been mixed with the required quantity
of clay.
A second paper, by the same author (this Journal, 9,
254), considers the action of calcium sulphate on cement,
and describes a continuous process of calcination.
In Mr. Chance's paper describing his sulphur recovery
process, three analyses of the waste after treatment by this
process are given (this Journal, 7, 162), and reference is
made to the possibility of utilising it for the manufacture
of cement. In this paper I propose to briefly consider this
subject, and to give the result of an actual experiment.
498
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June SO, 189S.
The analysis of the waste with which my experiments
Fen made was as Follows : — ■
Coke 2"«2
-.-I i f09»
Silt.:, 1-156
Alumina 0-920
Ferrous sulphate LM88
Ferrous sulphide 0" t'2l
Calcium i ar late 18-861
i nleium sulphate 1*738
M . ... sin bonatc 2' 138
Soda 0-982
Water 15' 711
luii-277
Sulphur compounds exist lure in much larger quantity
than in tin- samples (if which analyses are given In
Mr. Chance. The presence of sulphur to any great extent
in the raw materials is Liahle t<> seriously interfere with the
production of Portland cement of even moderate quality,
ami as the material in question will always certainly contain
a small quantity, ami may contain a considerable one, we
must, as part of our subject, consider what its effects are,
and to what extent its presence is detrimental.
Tin' action of sulphates on lime was first investigated by
the late General Scott, R.E., F.R.S., now more than 35
years ago. Experimenting with the Plymouth hydraulic
limestones ami burning a piece of the -tone in a dull lire,
he foitud on grinding to a tine powder and mixing with
water that instead of slaking and heating as previous
samples had done, it set and hardened in exactly the same
manner as a cement, lie consulted Dr. Faraday respecting
this, and they came to the conclusion that the change was
ilue to the formation of some form of sub-carbonate of
lime. It was, however, subsequently ascertained thai it
was caused by the presence of a small quantity of calcium
sulphate formed by the action of the iron pyrites of the
coal. This led to the invention of Scott's cement, which
was made as follows : — grey chalk lime, such as that of
i l:i rh mi on the Medway, containing from 10 to 15 per cent.
of clay, was reheated to redness in shallow kilns with per-
forated hearths. When the lime was sufficiently hot, pots
of sulphur were placed beneath the hearths, the sulphur
being immediately ignited by the heat of the kilns. The
sulphur dioxide evolved combined with the lime to form
calcium sulphite which afterwards passed to sulphate.
When finely ground the cement was ready for use.
This system of manufacture was about 1871 abandoned
for a much simpler one, the lime being finely ground with a
certain proportion of gypsum. When so treated it is known
as selenitic lime, and it is now manufactured in large
quantities from the hydraulic limestones. Mortar made
with selenitic lime hardens rapidly and possesses a much
greater strength witli a larger proportion of sand than if
made in the ordinary manner with the same lime not made
selenitic.
General Scott also found that by the addition while
grinding of a quantity not exceeding „ per cent, of gypsum
to hot overlimed Portland cement with a tendency to
expand and blow, it could he rendered lit for immediate
use without undergoing the usual process of ail slaking,
and that sound hut quick setting cement iM be rendered
slow setting by the same treatment. This fact is now so
well recognised that the German standard rules, which most
stringently regulate the addition of any foreign substance to
Portland cement by the manufacturer, allow gypsum to be
added in quantity not exceeding 2 per cent, to confer slow
setting properties. Its effects are well illustrated by the
results given in the following table by Messrs. Dyekerholi
taken from the Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., Vol.
l.XII., p. 92, which shows the gradual increase in the time
of setting of a sample of quick-setting cement by the
addition of |, 1, and 2 per cent, of gypsum, and the corre-
al ling increase of strength, both neat and with three
parts of standard sand at from one to fifty-two weeks :—
Table by Messrs. Dyckebhofj*.
Showing the increase in strength which results from an increase in the time occupied in setting.
Kilogrammes per sq. centimetre.
v 'i, ■- 1 1 of Cement.
'fun.' Ol
SettilC.'
\. .1 Cement.
275 Grras. ..i Water t . i. iGrms. of Cement.
' ine ..f i .'nient in Three oi Sand
Standard Test.
Neat.
( in.'
\\ eek.
r ■
Weeks
T\v. lve
Weeks.
Twi iiiy-iive
\\ . eks.
Fifty-two
Weeks.
One
Week.
Four
We. 1.-.
Pwelve
Weeks.
Twenty-six
Week-.
Fifty-two
Wee!
1
Miniili
2"
Jin
22 '7
22 ' 2
2S'5
32-1
30- 1
in .;
1V7
43 -!l
19-3
IV-
-1
inn
11 -
ll'.l
W7
23-8
...
21 s
25-3
2
The same cemenl
with ! per • ■hi .
27 1
3
The same cement
with 1 per cent.
Dim
l'.; i
:-;',• 7
39-9
,;,-,
5 1".
11-2
lli'7
21 9
25-9
27 i.
1 The vim -nient
with 2 per iint.
840
29-9
■
IS-4
50 '
56-7
1-i'T
IST,
21-4
20 :;
•
We must now consider calcium sulphate occurring
a- ' ..I tin constituents of Portland cement, instead
of being added after burning. The materials in general
use for the manufacture, as a rule, contain sulphur
compounds in such small quantity that practically their
presence maj 1..- disregarded. At the same time, cal-
cium sulphate i.e. in- in more or less quantity in all
Portland cement, its presence being due to the coke
used a- fuel. The sulphur dioxide evolved during its com-
bustion, in passing upwards through the layers of unburned
material in the kiln, to some extent attacks the calcium
carbonate, forming ultimately calcium sulphate, as in the
manufacture of Scott's cement, except that in the latter case
entire absorption of the sulphur dioxide was seemed by
heating the lime to redness. The formation of calcium
sulphate is less in open than in closed kilns, and less in
some forms of closed kilns than in others. The quantity,
however, due to this cause is too small to. of itself, at all
influence the character of the cement, hut many French
engineers attach great importance to the freedom of Port-
land cement from sulphuric acid — it is difficult to understand
why — and specify a maximum percentage. The cement
specification for the Boulogne harbour works contains a
clause providing that sulphate of lime shall not exceed 1 per
cunt., a condition that Few, if any, English cements, which
are generally burned with gas-coke, could comply with.
If the raw materials, as in the case of the desulphurised
alkali waste, contain sulphur in any form — for even under
the most careful treatment we know that it niu-t do SO, a-
any ferrous sulphide present cannot he decomposed, and
June30,i892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
499
as wr ^li;itl presently see, the quantity of calcium sulphate
thai maj be present in the eumeni is a limited one, the
quantity of this due to the ;i^h and iron pyrites of the coke
becomes an important consideration, aud it is necessary t < i
know what the amount really is. In the Following table I
have arranged the results of some experiments which show
this
Tun E A.
IJubm-ned Material.
CiiSOj
Pel Cent.
I'VS,
I'd Oiit.
Cement.
,
1 |GS
■•.
l :.iij
■■).
t.
,, j.i
1 501
1 :,;:'
s.
I 601
a
1-301
v.
limit
1*090
'I'll.' mixture .i> dried ready for the kiln in N'os. 1 to 6
contains only 0*234 per cent, of CaS04, which would give
about 0*32 imi cent in tin- cement. l'YS,, a common
constituent of mauy clays, Was entirely absent. The kilns
were open ones of about 20 tons of cemcnl capacity. About
one-half the coke was gas-coke; the remtiiuder was made
in ovens underneath the drying Hats. The cement from
each "I six Kilns was ground separately and carefully
sampled, the OaSO.j 1" ling determined in each wiik the
results given in the tabic. The average of these is 1-528,
ami if we deduct 0*32 per ceut., tin- approximate quantity
ilue to that originally present in the raw materials, wo have
1-2 per cent derived from the coke. Practically, the
cement differed in no way from specially prepared samples
in which the CaS(>, fell considerably below 1 per cent.
In No. 7, tin- CaSO, in the material before burning exists
as a mere trace, l*\-s, being absent. The cement was
burned in closed kilns, with the result that we get 1 '99 per
t't'iii. of CaSt >, derived entirely from the coke.
In the next table the results show the CaSt I, present in
the dement produced by burning by different methods, a
mixture containing sulphur present principally in FeS2.
Table B.
Unburned Material.
10.
11.
(.'a SO,
Percent.
1-VS .
Per i .in.
Cement.
r.isn,
Per Cent.
How Burned.
G'l'SO
.-.072
5-002
.vii.-.ii
4-778
1-148
5-100
S'893
3-872
+•320
3-340
In 30-ton rinse kiln, with
i tad draught. Whole
proauct of kiln.
As 90.1.
As No. 1.
As No. I, !mt a v.-i'y
sharp draught. A hie-h
wind during whole
timekiln was burning.
An No. 1, but draught
of kiln permanently
improved.
As No. 1. Sample from
bottom of a kiln.
In open 30-tou kiln.
Whole product.
In open 'Jii-leii kiln.
Whole product.
In open Ln-tou kiln.
Mli ile product.
Prom top "i 15-ton open
kiln.
From bottom of 15-ton
open kiln.
A consideration of this table will show that it is not an
unimportant matter in what state sulphur if present exists
in the raw materials. Taking the example given, we find
that the mixture before burning contained 1*67 1 per cent.
of IfeSj. This quantity is equivalent to 3*801 CaSOj, and
would make with the n-112 actually present as CaS04 a
total of 4*248 before burning, giving in the cement about
G* 33 per cent, of CaS04. If we take into account that
derived from the coke, which, in a closed kiln of the kind
used for burning cements rfos. 1 to 4, would certainly be-
not less than 1! percent., we should get S-IS per cent, of
('aSt),in the cement, supposing the S present combined
with Ke as l'YS, had existed in combination with lime as
CaSOj, or if the S02 evolved by the decomposition of the
FeSohad entirely combined with lime.
The presence of s-:; per cent, of CaS04 would be fatal
to the cement, and it will be noticed that it is much higher
than any of the tabulated results. Kvidently then a con-
siderable amount of sulphur escaped from the kilns a- SI t .,
the best results being obtained in the small open kilns, there
being practically no difference between those of 15 and 20
tons capacity.
'I'h.' cements in Table 1!. with many others in which the
( aS( I, varied from 3 to 6 per cent, were tested against a
sample containing only 2-5 pet cent., and their behaviour
ran fully watched. The 2- 5 per cent, sample was prepared
in the same manner and from practically the same materials
as the other cements, by omitting a shale which contained
the principal part of the l'YS. and substituting another
containing a smaller quantity.
Generally, the results were as follows: — I'roin 2'5 to
alioul I per cunt, of CaSl >,. both the time of setting and
the comparative strength of all the samples tested increased
with the percentage of ( 'aSt I,, aid all were moderately slow
setting.
With I'roin I to 6 per cent, of CaSl I, all the cements did
not give good results. Those that were successful set much
more slowly than the previous series, the time occupied in
setting increasing with the percentage of CaS04, until with
6 per cent, the cement set so slowly as to render it unsuitable
for many purposes. The strength of these when tested
without sand was very gieat at short periods of time, much
greater than was the case with those containing below I per
cent, of C'aSO, ; with sand the results were not quite so
good. All the test briquettes were moulded as soon as
possible after the cement was ground, and in no case was
any sample improved by exposure to air before being tested.
It has been already explained that the effect of gypsum
added in small quantity to quick-setting cement or to freshly-
made cement with a tendency to expand or blow, is to
render it slow setting aud fit for immediate use without
being air-slaked. We now see that the same effect is
produced by CaS04 occurring as one of the constituents of
the cement.
The tests, some thousands in number, extended over a
long period of time, and the result generally showed a high
initial strength steadily increasing with age, except, of
course, in the case of the samples just mentioned as not
having given good results, the cause of the failure of which
we must now consider.
We have hitherto assumed that the whole of the sulphur
present in the cement exists in 0aSO4, but this is not
strictly true, as a small quantity of C'aS is also always
present, which is formed by the reduction of CaS( I, during
the calcination of the cement, which takes place in contact
with the fuel. Even if only 1 per cent, of CaSO, is present,
( aS will also be found, and the larger the quantity of ( aSi I
the larger is the quantity reduced to C'aS. If ordinary care-
is exercised in the manufacture, the quantity of C'aS in
cements containing up to 4 *5 per cent, of CaS04 is not a
matter of great importance, but from 4-5to6perccnt.it
may exist to so great an extent is to entirely ruin the
cement.
I found that when the CaSl >, would exceed a per cent, in
Hi.- finished cement, great care was uecessarj .lining the
process of manufacture to prevent the formation of a
dangerous excess of Ca.S, to which cause the failures were
due. Briefly, its effects are as follows :— The fine blue grey
colour of the freshly-ground cement gradually changes to a
f,00
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June so, 18SS.
dirty brown. This is caused by tlic CaS in presence of tbe
moisture of tlic air reacting with the FoO or Fe303 existing
in the cement. FeS first forms, this slowly oxidisesto FeS< i,,
which is further oxidised aud becomes brown. This
reaction takes place much more rapidly when the cement is
gauged. .Samples left in air dry out a dirty brown colour, if
broken when dry the fractured parts are of a pale greenish
blue, which rapidly becomes brown on exposure. If
immersed in water the samples do not harden well especially
when mixed with sand, and become throughout of a dark
green colour, which changes to brown on removal from the
water and exposure to air. The cement sets extremely
slowly, even with a moderate proportion of water, with
excess of water it will scar, ely sel at all, especially at a low
temperature. Briquettes made of neat cement will, if
allowed to thoroughly harden before being put in water,
frequently possess a fair tensile strength, but with sand the
strength when compared with that of ordinary cement of
average quality is very low indeed.
The results of the experiments of which I have given a
brief summary led me to tix the absolute limit to which
CaS04 may be present in Portland cement at 5 per cent.
This is considered, not as added to a normal cement, but as
derived from the fuel aud the materials from which it is
made, the relative proportions of basic and acid con-
stituents in the mixture before burning being arranged with
reference to the percentage of CaS04 ultimately present in
the cement.
Although my experiments were made with other materials
aud with a different object, they are equally applicable
to the present case, in which we are considering the
application of a material to the same purpose, the only
drawback to its successful use being the presence of sulphur
compounds.
The analysis of the alkali waste previously given shows
that even when mixed with sufficient clay to bring the
calcium carbonate down to about 72 per cent, in the dry
mixture, it would still contain calcium sulphate in such
quantity as to largely exceed in the cement the limit I have
laid down.
An experiment was, however, made in the following
manner ; The waste was dried and ground in the dry state
with clay fairly free from calcium carbonate. The mixture
was pugged with a small quantity of water, and was
moulded into bricks, which were dried on a heated floor
and afterwards burned with coke in a trial kiln. Mixtures
were made with various proportions of the alkali waste and
clay, the cement in each case being ground and tested
separately, with the result that every one of the samples
failed, although some remained sound until put in w-ater-
Clearly then, it was necessary to devise, some means of
reducing the quantity of calcium sulphate if success was
to be achieved, and the following method was adopted.
A marly clay was used containing from 30 to 40 per
cent, of carbonate of lime. This rendered necessary the
addition of a larger quantity than was used in tbe first
experiments, and advantage was taken of the sparing
solubility of calcium sulphate in water.
The materials were mixed in the wet way, using a
considerable quantity of water, and the mixture was
allowed to settle for some days in tanks, when the water
was, as far as possible, drained from the surface of the
deposited slip. This now contained about 66 per cent, of
water, and, after being again thoroughly mixed by stirring,
was allowed to run upon a drying flat heated by coke
ovens, the floor being constructed of fireclay slabs. These
absorbed a considerable amount of water from the slip,
which, of course, together with that previously drained
from the surface, was saturated with calcium sulphate.
The process is really the one originally adopted for the
manufacture of Portland cement from chalk aud clay which
is still largely in use, and which is fully described in a
paper by myself (this Journal, 7, 102). In this case, how-
ever, a larger quantity of water was used, and the slip,
instead of being allowed to settle for from six to eight
weeks in backs until the water is reduced to 40 or ,">() per
cent., was, as time was of importance, run upon the drying
flats in a more liquid condition.
In the following table of analyses, No. 1 is that of one
sample of the dry slip prepared from the alkali mud and
clay. The other two are for comparison with it. No. 2 is
that of ordinary Portland slip or slurry prepared from grey
chalk and gault clay. No. :>, the same material from white
chalk and a pit clay.
X,,. 1.
Nil 2.
No. 3.
Coke, water, and organic matter ..
1-032
Sand
1-343
12 220
12836
1-842
13-770
:;-fJ7
2-.-.TS
3-025
0-324
4-993
71-002
2- 155
0-351
76-882
0-342
6-812
73-093
0'044
L-955
0-759
0-168
Potash
0-671
0-772
I -X.it del
!
100-200
99 31
SIS -703
The dried slip was burned in a trial kiln with gas coke.
The previous experiments had shown that the mixture was
very fusible, aud great care was necessary to prevent over-
burning. No attempt was made to get good results by
selecting the best clinker for grinding. The under-burned
material was first picked out, as is the usual practice, and
tbe remaining contents of several kilns were ground
together.
The cement set slowly ( in about 10 hours) aud was
tested immediately after being ground. The briquettes
were made in Grant's form of mould 1-ineh section, were
put in water 24 hours after moulding and left there until
the moment of testing. They were tested in a Jlichele's
machine, strain being applied at the rate of 400 lb. per
minute, with the following results in pounds pel sq. inch.
Xent Cement.
Water 16'3 per Cent.
1 Cement, 3 Standard Sand,
"Water 6*2 tier Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average
of
6 Tests.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average
of
6 Tests.
At :; days
At 7 days
Al 28 days
020
inn
770
570
Olio
712
58S
615
740
200
200
350
185
170
300
192
190
317
For comparison with the foregoing tests, those following
are given. They are of six samples of ordinary commercial
Portland cement taken without selection from a register
of tests.
Neat Cement.
1 Cement, 3 Standard
Sand.
:; days.
7 days.
2s .lays.
7 days.
28 days.
Cement A..
no
595
697
126
102
Cement B . .
386
136
581
199
2tt
Cement C.
013
.-.-:.-,
1!'5
212
Cement D. .
363
(36
..
100
Col. ut E. .
500
:, 15
307
Cement F. .
"
17s
5111
138
1*2
Juno 30,188*.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTIIY.
.001
It will be noticed that the cement made from the alkali
waste far exceeds any of these in strength, liotli neat and
with sand. This is to some extent due to the calcium
sulphate, but principally to the extremely tine state of
division of the calcium carbonate, which rendered possible
a most intimate mixture with the clay before burning, a
result not always obtained when dealing with some of the
natural carbonates except at a great, and often a prohibitive
cost.
In comparing these- results it is but fair to remember that the
tests with sand of all of those in the second table would have
been much higher had the cement been more finely ground,
but the strength neat, in which condition, however, cement
is rarely used would have been rather less. Any of these
cements, some of which possess far less strength than that
made from the alkali waste would, for many purposes, be
much more suitable as they all set more quickly.
In the following table the analysis of four cements are
given. No. 1 is that made from the alkali waste, the
others are three samples of ordinary commercial Portland
of very good quality. It will be observed that Nos. 2 and
3 agree fairly closely in composition with No. 1, but it
must at the same time be remembered that the analysis
of a cement taken by itself is no guarantee of its
quality : —
Insoluble residue
Silica
Alumina
Ferric oxide
Lime
Sulphate --i I -
Ktagnesia
Potash
Soda
I.
2 '7 U>
18'215
8-018
G'5G:i
5G-682
5-OOG
1-639
0:6M
0-779
3-302
19"166
7-103
f67S
60-170
1--778
3-101
1-327
O'+IO
100*339 loo- 113 100-013 100-661
2-.SI3
20-204
7-300
6-891
56-905
3-389
0'003
1-102
0-375
1-012
21-; 300
8-826
•P30i
oo-o;2
1-507
1-116
0-789
0-289
The results of my experiments show, that if so far free
from sulphur compounds as to give in the cement calcium
sulphate in quantity not exceeding 5 per cent., alkali waste
may, after treatment by the Chance process for the
recovery of its sulphur, be successfully utilised for the
manufacture of Portland cement. With this quantity,
however, the cement would set very slowly, but it could
be made to set more quickly, and would be more generally
useful if the calcium sulphate was reduced to from 3 to
■I per cent.
This material may be easily dealt with by the methods
generally adopted for the manufacture of Portland cement
from chalk and clay, but Tables A. and B. show that as
regards kilns, open ones of moderate capacity ate the most
suitable as the quantity of calcium sulphate in the cement,
derived from the coke and the sulphides present will be
materially reduced by their use.
(glasgoto anto drottisty &rrtion.
Chairman: E. C. ('. Stanford.
Vice-Chairman: A. Cram Brown.
J. Christie.
W. J. A. Donald.
D. S. Dolt.
C. J. Ellis.
G. A. Fates, tt.
Wm. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
R. A. Inglis.
Committee :
It. Irvine.
J. Falconer King.
O. McRoberts.
T. P. Miller.
.1. Pattison.
J. B. Readman.
JC. Smith.
R. It. Tatlock.
Son. Treasurer : W. J. Chrystal.
lion. Local Secretary :
.). Stanley Muir, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to lie
sent to the Local Secretary.
The names in italics are those of memhers of Committee who
retire at the end of the current Session.
The following have been elected to Mil the vacancies and will
take oilicc iu Julynext: Chairman: C. A. Fawsitt. Vice-Cltair-
man: E. J. Mills. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer: J.Stanley Muir.
Committee: G. Beilby, W. J. Clirvstal, J. S. Macarthur, T. L.
Patterson, E. C. C. Stanford, and G. Watson.
Meeting held in the Societies' Rooms, 207, Bath Street,
Glasgow, oti Tuesday, 1th June 1892.
MR. E. C. C. STANFORD IN THE CHAIR.
NEW METHODS OF ESTIMATING CHROMIUM IN
FERRO-CHROMIUM AND STEEL.
BY JOHN CLARK. I'll. I).
Ferro-chromium.
On account of its technical importance, the estimation of
chromium in ferro-chromium has engaged the atteutijn of a
considerable number of chemists, but the processes hitherto
published are for the most part very tedious. This is to a
large extent due to the difficulty which is experienced in
getting the whole of the chromium into solution, as alloys
rich in chromium are only partially soluble in nitric,
sulphuric, or hydrochloric acids, or even aqua regia.
H. N. Warner, it is true (Chem. News, 65, 186),
states that ferro-chromium is readily dissolved by heating
with strong sulphuric acid, but I have not succeeded in
completely dissolving in this way the alloys which I have
had occasion to test, the best result obtained after heatiug
with H2S04 for a day giving 8'9 per cent, of insoluble
chromium, and as they frequently contain aluminium his
method of estimating the chromium by weighing the pre-
cipitates of oxide chromium and iron, and deducting the
iron is, in my opinion scarcely entitled to be called accurate.
According to R. Schoffel (Her. Deutch. Chem. 1879, 1863)
even direct fusion with carbonate of soda and nitrate of
potash is of no use, and he therefore recommends that the
greater portion of the iron of the ferro-chromium should he
dissolved out with the double chloride of copper and sodium
or ammonium, and the residue fused with carbonate of soda
and nitrate of potash, but he admits that this process is not
suitable for alloys containing more than 8 per cent, of
chromium.
0 2
THE JOURNAL 01 THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Juno 30, 180S.
A. Ziegler states thai ferro-cliromium ran lie dissolved by
fusion with a large excess of bisulphate of potash or soda,
>ui he recommends ( Dingl. 279, l«:f) that the ferro-
chromium should be Fused with a mixture of ti parts of
caustic soda and 3 of nitrate of potash.and the chromium in
the solution twice precipitated with ammonia after evapo-
ration to dryness with hydrochloric arid to render the silica
insoluble. In addition to this, the iusoluhle in water is
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the oxide of iron tested
for chromium.
In 1871 (i linn. News, 24, 286 and 304) 1 pub-
lished a new method of estimating chromium in chrome
iron ore, depending on the oxidation of the chromium by
means of a mixture of caustic soda and magnesia, and
subsequent titration of the chromic acid. In 1877, or fully
five years afterwards, this process was reproduced by
A. Christomanos as his own in a paper read before the
German Chemical Society (Her. Deutch Chein. 10, 16).
1 did nol observe this publication at the time and would have
taken no notice "I it now, but I tiud that in Koscoc and
Schorlemmcr's Treatise on 1 Chemistry ( Vol. 2, I'ari 2, p. is:; ),
Christomanos is referred to in a foot-note as the author of
the process, and I therefore take this opportunity of pointing
out my claim to priority. This process is very suitable for
ores or oxide of iron precipitates, as the oxide of chromium
1- readilj converted into chromic acid at the temperature of
a Bunsen II. 11110, but on applying it to poor ferro-chromium
under the same conditions so little oxidation tool, place tint
1 concluded it was necessary to oxidise the chromium bi fore
it could be converted into chromic acid by soda and
magnesia. Unfortunately, ferro-chromium is onbj partially
oxidised in the muffle or over a blowpipe, and even when
heated in pun' oxygen by means of a gas combustion
furnace oxidation takes place very slowly. I found, how
ever, on repeating my experiments with rich alloys'of
chromium, that when the temperature was lowered to a
point at which it seemed scarce!} possible that any action
could take place the ferro-chromium, even when in coarse
powder, was readily and rapidly oxidised by the soda and
magnesia without the use of an oxidising agent such
as chlorate or nitrate of potash, any excess of which
would interfere with the subsequent titration of the
chromium.
Wagnesia <*>i<l Soda Process. — One grm. of the finely
pulverised ferro-chromium is intimately mixed in a platinum
crucible with 5 grms. ot magnesia mixture, consisting of
two parts of freshlj calcined magnesia, and three' parts of
finely pulverised hydrate of sodium, and the crucible is
placed over a low Bunsen Same in such a manner that only
the point of the Maine touches tin bottom of the crucible.
Oxidation begins almost immediately, and takes place so
rapidly that the contents of the crucible actually glow for
several minutes. After heating at this temperature for
about hall' an hour without stirring, the flame is raised
and the bottom of the crucible maintained at a dull red
heat lor another half hour. The contents, which consist of
mi adherent powder, are then washed into a porcelain basin
and boiled lor some minutes to dissolve out the eliminate,
which i-> either pure yellow or slightly green in colour it"
manganese is present. To decompose the manganatc
peroxide "I hydrogen is added drop by drop till there i- no
further change of colour, and after boiling for a few minutes
to remove an} excess of peroxide of hydrogen the solution
is filtered, acidified with sulphuric acid, and the chromium
estimated by adding an excess of ferrous ammonium
sulphate, and titrating the unoxidiscd iron with a standard
s iluiiiin of liichr ate of potash. Although the bulk of
the chromium is rendered soluble in the first fusion,
a little always escapes oxidation. To extract this the
insoluble on the filter is ignited, ground in an agate mortar,
ind again fused with ahoiit twice its hulk of magnesia
mixture for about half an hour, and the chromic acid is
estimated as before. The insoluble is now washed into a
beaker or basin, and the hull, of the magnesia is removed
by adding dilute sulphuric acid till the reaction is neutral.
The oxide of iron is then filtered off and again fused with
magnesia mixture, when tin last traces of chromium will be
obtain, d.
Example.
—
Pound.
Per Cent.
firm,
in.-, f'.ll
0'0320
0-O096
54*91
S'20
ii-'.h;
Total
0-.WII7
r.ro/
Lime and Soda Process. — Rich ferro-chromium can also
he oxidised by heating the finely pulverised alloy in the
manner already described with live times its weight of lime
1 1 .oil and sodium hydrate in equal proportion. In this
ease it is advisable before filtering to add about 2 grins, of
bicarbonate of sodium to convert the lime into carbonate,
but in other respects the process i- the same. A- a rule,
however, at least four fusions are needed to extract the
whole of the chromium.
( 'allium Hydrate Process. — Although alloys of chromium
me difficult to oxidise when heated alone either in air or
oxygen, they are readily converted into oxide at high
temperatures in presence of calcium hydrate, and this fact
can be utilised for the estimation of the chromium as
follows : —
(hie grm. Of the finely pulverised ferro-chromium is mixed
with three times it weight of calcium hydrate and heated
iii a platinum, nickel or porcelain crucible in a muffle or
over the blow-pipe for about half an hour when oxidation
i- practically complete. The action takes place most rapidly
ill platinum or nickel, hut the platinum is strongly acted
upon, and the nickel usually giyes way after being used
two or three times. It is therefore more economical to use
a porcelain vessel. The contents of the crucible consist of
a green powder, which can easily he crushed with a glass
rod and 'contains no chromate. The oxide of chromium
thus formed may be converted into chromic acid by adding
to the crucible "> grins, of the magnesia and soda mixture
above referred to, stirring with a rod and heating in the
muffle or over a Bunsen for about an hour; hut when the
ferro-chromium is employed in coarse powder it is advisable
to grind the lime fusion before the addition of the magnesia
mixture. Tin contents of the crucible, winch seem to have
little or no action on the porcelain, are boiled with water
and a little peroxide of hydrogen, filtered after the addition
of about 3 grins, of bicarbonate of sodium, and the chromic
acid titrated in the manner already described. As a small
quantity of the chromium usually escapes oxidation, the
insoluble is again heated with about its own bulk of the
magnesia and soda mixture for about half an hour, aud
the chromate estimated as before. The insoluble should
now be neutralised with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove
the bulk of the lime and magnesia, and the residue subjected
to a third fusion to ensure the extraction of the last trace of
chroinitim.
/.' cample.
Nickel Crucible.
Porci lain Crucible.
Found.
PerCent. Found. Pe
(0 in.
O'SMS
56' 15
(0111.
O'lall
t'.IIH
0-SJ321
■r:n
0-0673
tr73
Mnl fusion
1 1 in,
ir I.',
0-032S
:;•■_':;
••
11 0025
0-25
Total
0'5921
59'21
0'5925
59-25
This process works well, and is more suitable for poor
alloys of chromium than those which I have already
described
Jnno so, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
503
The oxide of chromium produced by heating 1 grin, of
the fcrro chromium with hydrate of calcium may also be
converted into chromic acid by beating with -1 grms. of
carbonate of soda in the muffle, but, as a rule, a smaller
yield Of eliminate is obtained in the first fusion anil more
Fusions are required. In other respects the process is the
same and the results equally correct.
Example.
t'r Found.
Cr Per Cent.
Giro.
0*4585
0-1064
8- 0188
0*008,1
0*0020
16*86
la-lit
1*98
o-s.-i
0-20
Total
0*5896
68*95
Sulphur Process.— The disintegration and oxidation of
I. mo < liromium can also he effected by means of sulphur
instead of hydrate of calcium. For this purpose 1 grin, of
the finely pulverised alloy is placed in a porcelain boat and
subjected for about SO minutes to the action of sulphur
vapour in a porcelain tube heated by an ordinary gas
combustion furnace. As soon as the vapour comes in
contact with the heated fcrro-chroinium a strong action
takes place, tile metal glows and swells up to several times
its original bulk, and- a little ponder is apt to be carried
away mechanically by the sulphur vapour and scintillates.
The product, which is greyish black in colour, is in the form
of a line powder and consists essentially of ( 'r,N . and l'VS.
I he sulphide thus produced is easily ground in an agate
mortar, and may be at once converted into chiomate by
heating over a I'.unsen with eight times its weight of the
magnesia and soda mixture already referred to, or it may
In eon-verted into oxide by ignition in a porcelain crucible,
then fused with five times its weight of the mixture, and the
chromic acid titrated as already described after removing
the manganese.
E vample.
IU (1?.)
Cr Pound. Cr PerCent. Cr Found. CrPerCent.
linn,
ii 5606
0*0229
0*0015
66*96
2*29
iri.-i
Grin.
0*5718
0-0075
11-01 I2H
57*13
n 7:,
0->!l
Total
0*5860
38*50
irr,si7
r.s-17
The results obtained by this method are rather lower
than by the other processes, but this is in my opinion
sufficiently accounted for by the slight mechanical loss
sustained.
The ferro-chromium may also be completely converted
into sulphide by heating with excess of sulphur in a covered
porcelain crucible over a Bunsen, but in this case it is
necessary to repeal the operation three times, as the action
takes place chiefl*i when the bulk of the sulphur has been
volatilised, and the scintillation and mechanical loss are
greater.
Carbon Bisulphide Process. — Sulphurisaiion can also be
elfe. ted by exposing the metal to the action of carbon
bisulphide vapour in a porcelain tube heated by a com-
bustion furnace. The product in this case also is a bulky
powder, a portion of which is apt to fall over the side ol
the boat, but otherwise there is apparently no mechanical
loss. It requires no grinding, anil is heated with magnesia
and sodium hydrate either with or without previous roasting,
and the chromium estimated as described. One grin, ferro.
chromium gave with this treatment !—
Cr r> 1.
Cr Per Cent.
1st fusion
2nd fusion
3rd fusion
till fusion
Total ..
(inn.
0*5789
57*89
0*0056
0*56
o-oois
IVls
0*5863
58*63
Steel.
On account of its greater solubility in acids, the estima-
tion of chromium in steel is usually considered to be easier
than in ferro-ehi-omiuni, but I must confess i' has given
me more trouble. I have already indicated that poor
alloys of chromium are very imperfectly oxidised when
heated direct with sodium hydrate mixed with magnesia or
lime, and the same holds good to a still greater extent with
steel. Calcium hydrate works better, but the oxidation of
the chromium seems to be prevented by the formation of a
crust of oxide of iron ; and when this method is used it is
necessary to grind the lime fusion once or twice to expose
a fresh surface. When this is done, fairly good results are
obtained, but the sulphur and carbon bisulphide processes
arc by far the best. When steel turnings arc exposed to
the action of sulphur vapour, there is no indication of
mechanical loss as in ferro-chromium, and the sulphide pro-
duced appears slightly fused. Sometimes it adheres to the
porcelain, but it can generally he detached, in which ease it
is pulverised, then roasted in a porcelain crucible, and fused
with lour times its weight of the mixture of magnesia and
sodium hydrate already referred to, and the chromium
estimated as described.
When the sulphide adheres firmly to the porcelain, it is
ignited in the boat itself till it can be detached and ground.
Two fusions are generally sufficient for the extraction of the
whole of the chromium.
Example.
Three grins, of a steel received from .Mr. K. A. Hadlield,
of the Hecla Works, Sheffield, and said to contain 1-60 per
cent, of chromium, gave the following results by this
process : —
(A.)
(B.)
Cr 1' id
CrPerCent.
1 i I'nlmil
CrPi i -hi
3rd fusion
C-ni.
(1- ll ISO 1*60
0*0036 0*18
firm.
0*0492
0-0021
1-61
0-07
Total
0*0516 1*72
0*0513
1-71
Although the sulphur process works well, the carbon
bisulphide method is, in my opinion, the best for steel It
is most conveniently carried out by attaching a flask t
taining carbon bisulphide to o md of the porcelain tube
and a small condenser to the other, and passing a gentle
stream of C'S._, vapour over the beated steel for about an
hour. On the removal of the boat, it will he observed that
the steel drillings have increased considerably in bulk and
are soft and porous, but they retain their original form.
As the product has no tendency to adhere to the porcelain,
50-J
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Juno 30, 1892.
it can at once be transferred to a crucible and roasted.
( Ixidation takes place very rapidly, and in the course of
about half an hour the sulphide is converted into a fine
powder without stirring or grinding, and may be at once
heated with four times its weight of the inixtureof magnesia
and sodium hydrate, and the chroinate extracted and
• -iiinat.il as described.
Two grins
in this way—
of tin
Example.
steel from the
Heola Works treated
—
Cr Found.
Cr Per (,nt.
Grm.
0-0332
o-oois.
0-09
0-0350
These methods involve several fusions, but the time
occupied in the estimation of the chromium should not
exceed one day, and, of course, the lilt rates from the
different fusions can he united and titrated as one.
-.fcrt.i»>a>aia===
.MODIFICATION OF KREUSLER'S NITRIC ACID
APPARATUS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF
DISSOLVED GASES IN WATK1!.
BY .IAS. BOBSON.
Chief Assistant to the " Freeland " Professor of Chemistry
in tin- Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.
Some time ago, at the suggestion of the late Professor
Dittmar, I carried out a number of experiments to see if
Kreusler's apparatus could be adapted for the extraction
of the dissolved gases in water. The first series of experi-
ments was made with a combination of Jacobsen's and
Kreusler's apparatus. Instead of Kreusler's nitrate flask
I inserted a Florence flask and pear-shaped bulb. This
method I found did not work well, as the pear-shaped bulb
was liable to collapse when being pushed further into the
Florence flask so as to establish communication between
them.
The second series of experiments was carried out with
the apparatus shown in the figure. The method of working
tin- apparatus is as follows : — The bolt-head T is filled with
from 2 to :S litres of boiled-out hot distilled water, which is
kept aboui boiling to the end of the experiment. The
syphon n z is filled by blowing in at s- ami aliowed to run
for a little while and tlfeu stopped by closing clip x. Some
water is now poured into flask R and boiled down to expel
all the air from the apparatus. At first clips g and m are
open and clips x and w closed. After some time m is
closed and the steam allowed to go out through w. When
the water in flask R has been boiled down to about 5 or
10 cc. to is closed and the lamp withdrawn. Clip e is then
closed and clip x is opened cautiously so as to prevent the
water rushing too quickly into the collecting cylinder S.
Clip .r is now kept open to the end of the experiment.
Any remaining air bells in S are forced out through m,
and it is then connected with a Schiffs nitrogen
measurer charged with mercury. R is then charged
with 500 cc. of the water under analysis by means of the
funuel and capillary delivery tube i, and the tube filled
with mercury to prevent any gas lodging in it. The
extraction is now carried out as usual. After the gases
have been collected in S they are transferred to the Schiff
and in many cases the aualysis completed there.
The advantages of the apparatus over Jacobsen's are
obvious, for both the troublesome process of sealing up the
tube, and the still more troublesome operation of transferring
the gas to an apparatus for its analysis are obviated, and
also it is easy to test and find if all the gases are expelled.
A series of test analyses with the apparatus described
gave very satisfactory results.
ON MAIZE OIL.
ET J. ORriOKSHANK SMITH, B.SC.
The grain of the maize plant (Zea Mais), which is exten-
sively used in the manufacture of starch, can be made to
furnish an oil whose properties would seem to render it
suitable for several technical applications. At the sugges-
tion of Professor E. J. Mills, I have recently examined a
sample of this oil which is believed to be genuine, and the
results have been embodied in the present paper.
The sample was of a bright golden colour, it had a
somewhat peculiar " starchy " odour, and its taste was mild
and not unpleasant.
Specific Gravity, Sec. — At different temperatures the
specific gravity was as follows : —
Atl0°C 0-9267
At 15° C 0"92*t
At 2(1 (' 0-9218
The mean coefficient of expansion (corrected for glass)
between 10° and 20° C. was 0-000706.
Schaedler (Technologic der Fette und Oele) gives the
specific gravity at 15" as 0-9215, and Professor Mills
informs me that in 188-1 he found a rather coarse brown
sample to have a specific gravity of 0-92G2.
At — 10°, according to Schaedler, the oil sets to a solid
mass. I find, however, that when exposed to intense cold,
the oil becomes turbid, owing to the deposition of solid
matter at — 10°, and that below that temperature it
becomes very viscous, but is still fluid at —20°. The
precipitated solid matter is entirely redissolved on warming
up again.
Bromine and Iodine Absorptions. — These were as
follows : —
Per Cent.
Bromine absorption 66*50
Iodine absorption 122*90
Iodine aborption (calculated ; Br absorption x sk). 105-50
It was observed that when the bromine solution remained
in contact with the oil for more than 15 minutes, the
results obtained were somewhat higher, and did not agree
among themselves, owing.no doubt, to a secondary oxidising
action.
in, .i,i,i892.j THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
A thick dark-coloured sample was found by Professor
Mills in 1S81 to have a bromine absorption of 74" 42 per
sent.
Saponification and Action of Alkalis. — On saponification
with alcoholic potash, the total KOH absorbed was 19-34
per cent., which gives a "saponification equivalent" of
■ZW -07.
The free acid, estimated directly by titration with *
soda, amounted to 0*55 per cent, in terms of KOH. On
performing a check experiment, however, by placing in
contact witli the nil a measured excess of alkali of known
strength, in presence of a little alcohol, and titrating hack
with standard acid, I found a much greater proportion of
alkali absorbed, and examination showed this to he due to
partial saponification. In order to determine how far
saponification could proceed with this oil in the cold, the
following experiments were carried out : — Solutions of
caustic potash and soda in alcohol were prepared separately,
the proportion of alkali to solvent being 5| per cent, in
each case. Small quantities of the oil (1 to 2 grins.) were
then placed in contact with a considerable excess of each
of the solutions for four hours at the ordinary temperature.
After that time it was found that the oil in the potash
solution was completely saponified, 19' 3 per cent, of KOH
being absorbed, ami a perfectly clear solution being
obtained. On the other hand, the oil in the soda solution
was only partially saponified, 10"36 per cent, of NaOH
being absorbed, which is equivalent to 14 -50 per cent, of
KOH. In the latter case a pasty mass of soda soap,
insoluble in the alcoholic solution, formed after a short
time, and this may have had a retarding effect on the rate
of saponification.
It was at first thought that this ready saponification in
the cold might be made use of for the quantitative separation
of maize oil from other oils ; but while no other oil that I
have examined gives such a high absorption in the cold as
maize oil, many of them are undoubtedly acted upon under
similar conditions, and concordant results could uot be
obtained.
The higher fatty acids present, in maize oil seem to
present no unusual features, but exact determinations as
regards the proportion in which they are severally present
were not made in the present instance.
The volatile fatty acids, separated by Reichert's distilla-
tion process, in 100 parts of the oil required for their
neutralisation 0-5G parts of KOH.
Drying properties. — A tendency to oxidise or to gum is
almost absent in this oil. No decided siccative properties
are commuuicated to it by simple " boiling," or by the
addition of litharge to it. On passing a current of air
through it for an hour at a temperature of about 1503 C,
the oil becomes slightly darker in. colour, and rather more
viscous, but by no means to the same extent as cotton oil.
If to the oil so treated a small quantity of borate of
manganese is added, the oil acquires to a small extent
siccative properties, and a thin film on lead dries in from
10 to 20 hours, but not completely, being tacky to the
feel at the end of that time. Like cotton-seed oil the
eliiidin reaction gives rise to a mass having a pasty or
buttery consistency.
Maumeni test. — The rise in temperature when 5 ec. of
strong sulphuric acid were mixed with 15 grms. of the oil
was 89-0° C. For a non-drying oil this is a high figure,
but it is in keepingwith what may be called the " tenderness "
of this oil in the presence of chemical reagents. The
So-called qualitative tests for oils with sulphuric and nitric
acid, &c., fail to give with maize oil reactions sufficiently
characteristic to warrant their application in identifying or
detecting this oil. Hence its bromine and iodine absorp-
tions, its high Maumene figure, and the ease with which it
saponifies in the cold, must be looked upon as the features
by which the oil may be best recognised.
Technical applications. — Specimens of the potash and
soda soaps were prepared, and both of these proved to be
of good quality, being light in colour, and readily and
completely soluble in water. The ooda soap is'distiuctly
the harder of the two, but the potash soap is harder than
the average "soft" soaps. Soap-making, therefore, is a
use to which the oil might with advantage be put. The
ease with which it saponifies, also, might make it useful
to mix with other oils to accelerate their saponification.
As a lubricant it might in certain eases be applicable, its
low acidity, and its small tendency to deposit solid matter
or to "gum," being properties that recommend it for this
purpose.
The oil dissolves readily in acetone and more sparingly
in alcohol or glacial acetic acid.
The following numbers represent the volume of oil
dissolved by 100 vols, of the three above-mentioned
solvents.
Solubility. — In 100
parts (by V0
1.) of—
Absolute
Alcohol
t = 16° C.
Absolute
Alcohol
t = 113° V.
Commercial
Acetone
t = IOC.
Glacial
Acetic Acid
t = 18° C.
Glacial
Vcetic Acid
t --= 68 ' ( '.
2
13
21
3
!)
Viscosity.^— This was determined roughly by observing
the time of flow of 5 ce. of the oil through a burette with
a capillary point, and comparing the results with standard
oils.
t = 18° to 19° C.
Maize.
Olive.
Colza.
Mineral
•".no "
Specific grai itv .
Time of flow
Viscosity
(Colza = inn)
do. ( water =1)
0-1121
177'S"
f.fl
2.", -7
0-018
2H-5"
84-3
35 I
0-915
290-0"
loo
42-0
0-910
24.T5"
S.i',1
852
Maize oil thus possesses a striking individuality. In
general it may be said that in properties it is somewhat
akin to cotton-seed oil. At the same time there are
differences between them which are very marked.
Discussion.
The Chairman said that he gathered from the paper that
castor oil was the nearest approach to this maize oil, and
although it did not resemble it in appearance it did so by
being soluble in alcohol. He wondered whether there
were any particular acids present. He noticed too, that
the potash soap was quite solid.
Dr. Clakk asked whether the sample of oil was obtained
from the germ or from the whole maize.
Mr. Smith, in reply to the Chairman, said that the exact
determination of the acids had not been undertaken.
Regarding the source of this sample of oil he could not
give any particulars, but it seemed different from the
sample which Professor Mills had some years ago. It, he
supposed, was derived from the germ.
1 otcccm*" -
506
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June so. mi.
••BLOWN " OILS.
IIV II. I, THOMSON AMI II. I'.AI.I.VNn XK.
Tiik published analytical data of any value in the chemical
examination of "blown" oils are very few, and indeed
extend only to two or three isolated facts. About *i\
years ago Messrs. Efox and Bayues shawed that the per-
centage of insoluble fatty acids in rape oil was reduced to
s.v.'i per sent., and those in cotton-seed oil to 84-7 per
cent., when these oils were oxidised by blowing air through
them, at a temperature of TO to 75 ('.. until tiny reached
a specific gravity near that of castor oil. Allen, in his
second volume on " Commercial Organic Analysis," showed
that the alkali-neutralising power of blown rape oil was
considerably high c than that of the original nhoxidised
oils. Taken in conjunction with their high specific gravity,
these are the main facts known, or at least published with
regard to blown oils. In the following paper we have
. lideavoured to throw a little more light on the composition
of these oils, in order that their detection and differentiation
may 1"- effected with somewhat more certainty than lias
been ln-fore possible. As our time lias been limited we
have confined our observations to blown rape, cotton-seed,
and -pei in oils: and the results of the experiments are
embodied in the accompany iug table.
'The first three columns contain the results of experi-
ments on rape oil at different stages of oxidation. After
analysing the pure rape oil about 50 ec. of it wire placed
in a tall narrow glass provided with a cork, through which
parsed two glass tubes, ■ ahoYe the level of the liquid
and the other reaching to the bottom of the glass. The
latter had a few minute perforations at the lower end to
allow the passage of air in a finely divided form through
the oil. The shorter glass tube was now connected with a
suction pump, by means of which a rapid stream of air
was drawn through the oil. During the passage of the air
»he vessel containing the oil was immersed in a large
In aker of water maintained at a temperature of 72 to 76 .
After five hours treatment the product, as shown in the
second column, had increased in -] ific gravity and alkali-
neutralising power, and decreased markedly in iodine
absorption. After '-blowing" for 'Jo hours the specific
gravity of the oil had risen from i»14- 1 to 961 '5, which is
about the average gravity of castor oil- It is interesting
to observe that the free acidity had at the same time
increased about 2 per cent., and the potash-neutralising
power mon than -2 per cent. ; while the iodine absorption
had fallen more than 37 per cent. This loss of power to
absorb iodine appea*6 to he directly due to the absorption
of oxygen during the " blowing " with air, and the further
the oxidation is carried the lower will the iodine absorption
become. The increase in free fatty acid points to the
fact of decomposition of the oil, but that it is no true
measure of the extent of decomposition will be seen by a
reference to the partial analysis of the oil next given in the
table. While tin- pure rape oil contained 94*76 percent.
of insoluble fatty acids, the " blown " product contained
only S.'i '.M per cent, of insoluble acids, with an additional
9' 2 per cent, ol soluble nou-volatile acids, and 0"82 of
soluble volatile acids. These resulls were arrived at by
saponifying the oil with alcoholic potash, evaporating off
the alcohol, dissolving in water, and liberating the insoluble
acids with sulphuric acid. These were collected, washed
with hot water, dried, weighed in the usual way. dissolved
in alcohol, and their molecular weight determined by
titration with standard alcoholic potash, using phenol-
phthalein a- indicator- The filtrate was then distilled to
dryness, the distillate neutralised with standard barium
hydrate, the solution evaporated to dryness, the harium
salt weighed, then converted into barium sulphate, and
from these .lata the molecular weight and proportion of the
soluble volatile acids were calculated. The soluble non-
volatile acids were extracted by ether from the dry residue
left after distilling oil the volatile aeids, weighed after
expelling the ether, and their molecular weight determined
hy standard alcoholic potash.
With these facts before us it is scarcely necessary to
point out how they can be utilised in tin- detection and
estimation of blown rape oil in other oils. With regard to
the molecular weight of the insoluble acids it may be
mentioned that Messrs. Fox and llaynes state it to he 18G,
while our result shows 327. The first figure seems to us
to he quite inconsistent with the alkali-neutralising power
of the oil as given by Allen, and determined by ourselves.
In the fourth column of the table are given the results of
an analysis of a commercial sample of blown rape oil,
which confirm those just described. This sample, however,
contains a somewhat large proportion of unsapouitiable
matter, probably derived from some fish oil adulterant iu
the original rape oil.
Tin- fifth column of the table contains the results of an
analysis of commercial blown cotton-seed oil, and a similar
change in constitution is observable by blowing with air as
iu rape oil. It will be noticed, however, that the molecular
weight of the soluble volatile acids contained in blown
cottou-seed oil is much higher than that of the product
front rape oil. The true means of distinguishing them is
Table showing Results of Analysis oi Oils.
No. l.
Pur Rape
Oil.
No. -2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 6.
Partially Blown
Blown Blown Blown Cotton
Rape Oil Rape Oil RapeOi ml.
prepared prepared I oimnercial. Commercial
from No. 1. llomXo. I. Sample. Sample.
Pure
Sperm
(til.
No. 7.
Blown
Sperm
t>d
prepared
I nun No. ii.
at IS'50 C. (water at 15"5! - 1
I ' I Pet at
L-
K< ill neutralised
absorption
Specific tempi ra n Action
Insoluble acids Per cent.
s iluble non-volatile acids
Soluble volatile acids
\l .1, cular weight ol .. '.
„ .. soluble non-volatile acids
„ „ soluble volatile acids
879-9
rw
■■:
13-04
s-2 1
693 !!
3-27
84-66
1 1 23
07-1
1,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
507
to be found iu the large difference in alkali-neutralising
power, as all the other data approach too close to each
other to provide any means of determining which oil is
being tested. In making these comparisons it is apparent
that the oils must have reached the same state of oxidation
before correct deductions can he made. Thus, a blown
rape oil of a specific gravity of about 960 ought to be
compared with a blown cotton-seed oil of about 96K.
The only other point to which special reference may bo
made is tin- largely increased power of developing heat
when mixed with sulphuric acid, possessed by the Mown
over the unblown rape and cotton-seed oils. This is
expressed as the Specific temperature reaction, for the
definition of which term, and method of determination, see
our paper in this Journal for 1891, page 233. The increase
in specific temperature reaction by oxidation of oils exposed
to air and lighi has alread] been shown by one of ourselves
(gee " The KITeet of Exposure under certain Conditions upon
some ( 'onstants of Oils," by II. llallantyne, in this Journal
for 1891, page 89),
In the sixth and seventh columns of the table are
recorded results obtained in the analysis of pure sperm oil.
and til.' same oil alter treatment lor 25 hours with air in the
same apparatus as was used in blowing the rape oil. Of
eouisc blown sperm nil is not an article of commerce, but it
occurred tons that it might beat least interesting to observe
tb,' effect of oxidation on an oil having a totally different
chemical constitution to that of rape or cotton-seed oil. It
will he observed that the increase in specific gratify is not
nearly so great with sperm as with rape oil, for while 25
hours treatment raised the specific gravity of the sperm oil
19 units, a treatment extending only to 20 hours sufficed
to raise the specific gravity of the rape oil 17 • I units. This
plainly shows that rape oil is more easily oxidised than
sperm oil. a fact which almost goes without saying when
their comparative qualities as lubricants are. taken into
account. These observations are corroborated by the
iodine absorptions, which were reduced la per cent, only in
the ease of sperm oil, and 37'3 per cent, in that of rape
oil. Thus, although these oils differ so entirely as regards
their source and chemical constitution, yet their specific
gravity and power of absorbing iodine rises and falls in
almost exactly the same ratio during oxidation by air-
blowiug. If we assume that the change is regular from one
extreme to the other, the fact is established that a unit of
rise in specifie gravity is equal to a decrease of o-7S7 per
cent, of iodine absorption in the case of sperm, and of 0*789
iu that of rape oil. Auother noticeable fact is the increase
in free fatty acids, in which sperm agrees with rape oil. and
which may lie regarded as an invariable accompaniment of
the prolonged oxidation of oils. Lastly, there is a fall iu
the proportion of unsapouifiable matters to the extent of
1 67 per cent., a circumstance which is not at all surprising,
as these alcohols may be in part oxidised to acids
during the blowing, and thus be lost in the subsequent
saponification.
Discussion.
The ( la URMAN said that Mr. Thomson had gone into the
subject with qnite his usual minuteness. The experiment
on sperm oil seemed to him to be remarkable.
Dr. I'uiii, said that Mr. Thomson hail referred to the
fact that experiments with oil blown on the large scale
differed from those made on oil blown in the laboratory.
Would this not be due to the fact that on tin- large tie
a higher temperature was maintained while hlowiii" the
oil ?
Mr. I'vn isii.n askeil if Mr. Thomson noticed any increase
in the weight, or if there was any product driven off during
blowing.
Mr. Thomson, in reply to Dr. Clark, said, the only differ-
ence referred to was the difference in the unsapouifiable
matter. With regard to the increase in weight mentioned
by Mr. 1'attison. they bad that point in mind, but had not
had time to investigate it. There was no iloiibl that gases
were gi\i ii off during blowing.
journal a»rti patent* -Etterature*
Class. Page,
I. — General Plant. Apparatus, ami Machinery r.ti;
II.— Fuel, Gas. and Light 510
III. — Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c ."ill
IV.— Colouring Matters and 1 lyes 512
V.— Textiles-. Cotton, Wool, Silk, &e 517
VI.- -Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, ami
Bleaching 519
VII— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts .-,21
VIII.— Glass, Pottery, and liarlheiiware 523
IX.— Building Materials, plays. Mortars, and Cements.. 521
X.— Metallurgy 521;
XI.— Electro-chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 534
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 535
XIII.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, ic 536
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 539
XV.- Manures, &c 539
XVI.-— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 541
XVII.— Brewing, Wines. Spirits. .4r r,i:;
XVIII. — Chemistry <>i" Foods, Sanitary I ti Miiistry. and
Disinfectants 543
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, &c
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts &u
XXI.— Photographic Materials ami Processes 545
XXII.— Explosives. Matches, ic 5 n;
XXIII. — Analytical Chemistry 5*7
I.-GENERAL PLANT, APPAKATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
Iron Vessel* for Molten Substances. Foehr. Chem. Zeit. 16,
503 and 532—533.
See untler X., page 526.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Process if and Appurttliis for
Evaporating or Drying. V. M. Robertson, London.
Eng. Pat. 20,166, December 10, IS 90.
Through a horizontal cylindrical chamber, filled partly
with the material to be dried, passes a shaft which carries
a screw of about the same diameter as the vessel, which
on rotating pushes the material towards the forward
end. Openings near both ends of the chamber, on a level
with its lowest point, are connected to large outside tubes
which run parallel with it, and lead the materials back to
the starting point, where the}' come again under the
influence of the screw. A current of hot or cold air is
maintained through the upper parts of the chamber, taking
up the moisture from the materials and from the exposed
surfaces of the screw. — II.
Improvements in Fillers, II. W. Barker, Loudon. From
II. Goodacro, Lexington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4*17,
March 18, 1891.
The improved filter consists of an upright cylinder, with
double walls packed with a nonconducting substance. It
* Any of these specifications may be obtained bj post liy remitting
%d. — the price now fixed for all specificat s, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller oi the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. London, W.C.
508
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June 80, 1892.
is provided with an air-tight cover connected to a pipe
from the source of supply. The draw-oft coek is at the
lower end, and above it is a box carrying a removeable
ice-drawer. The filtering medium consists of an upper and
lower circular disc, each disc having a central hole, and
several concentric series of alternating flanges and slots.
Between the two discs is a series of porous filtering cylinders
graduated to fit one within the other, and arranged so as
to form a number of annular filtering compartments, the
upper disc being perforated opposite the upper end of each
alternate compartment, and the lower disc opposite the
lower end of each intermediate compartment, a bolt passing
through the two discs keeping them and the cylinders in
position. The unfiltered water passes through the slots
in the upper disc at the upper end of each alternate com-
partment, through the filtering cylinders to the slots and
compartments of the lower disc, and the filtered water is
thoroughly cooled before being drawn off by flowing round
the ice-box. — E. S.
Improvements in Digesting Apparatus. W. H. Munns,
London. Prom G. Kaffenbergcr, Cleveland, l'.S.A.
Eng. l'at. 6057, April 8, 1891.
The object of this invention is to produce a digesting
apparatus in which the process may be carried on in a
continuous manner. The invention comprises a conduit,
which has a receiving and a discharge end. Two valves are
arranged near the discharge end and a chamber is formed
in the conduit between the valves. A similar arrangement
is provided at the receiving end. Suitable horizontal
cylinders, with piston and valves, open at one end into each
of the above-mentioned chambers. For details of the mode
of working, which here specially refers to the digestion
of straw for paper-making, the specification must be
consulted. — B. !">.
Improvements in Distilling and in Apparatus therefor.
1>. A. Attout, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 21,698 (under
International Convention"), May 16, 1891.
A description of a rather complicated apparatus is here
given, by means of which the liquid to be purified is
successively filtered, boiled, cooled, again filtered, and
finally distilled.— A, L. S.
Improvements in and relating to Evaporating Apparatus.
B. Harvey, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 11,034, June 29, 1891.
The improvements have reference to evaporating apparatus
of the kind known as multiple effects, in which evapora-
tion of the liquid, such as sngar juice, is effected by
vertical steam-heated tubes, held between tube plates fitted
in the lower parts of upright evaporating vessels. The
improvement consists in filling the steam drum only partially
with the evaporating tubes, and leaving a large return
passage lor the liquid at one side of the chamber, the space
being partitioned off from the heating tubes, whereby a
better circulation of the liquid is secured during evaporation.
The tubes are further set out in such a way as to leave clear
passages betweeu them radiating from the point where the
heating steam enters the drum or " calandria," with a view
to the better distribution of the steam to all the tubes. The
accompanying figures show one of the arrangements.
Here A, represents the tube, drum, or "calandria," with
the enlarged passage, b2 on one side thereof. The heating
steam enters at 2, and reaches the " calandria" through the
passages «,„ and the farther tubes by the channels A..
(in plan). The resulting vapour passes through B,, and by
the corresponding passages a and a, to the next evaporator.
i aT"
Dvapo
BATING Al'l'.A
-B.
Improvements in Appliances for Saturating Air, O.rggen,
and other Gases with the Vapours of Ether or other
Volatile Fluids. A. T. Banks, Melbourne, Australia.
Eng. Pat. 154, January 4, 1892.
A horizontal brass cylinder is secured in ends provided
with feet or flanges forming a stand. One end is fitted
with a cover, having a central hole for the admission of the
required air or gas. Inside this cylinder are several con-
centric cylinders, plain and perforated, arranged alternately,
the former being secured to the cover and the other end,
the latter being held in position by discs. The annular
spaces surrounding the perforated cylinders are filled in
with flannel, which is wrapped round them, the perforations
being left uncovered for the free passage of the air or gas.
The volatile fluid on being poured in is absorbed by the
flannel : the air or gas is then admitted, preferably under
pressure, through the hole in the cover, and after passing
through, and between the concentric cylinders and the
flannel, passes out at the other end thoroughly saturated.
— E. S.
Improvements in connection with the Use of Aluminium
and Aluminium Alloys. 6. Pickhardt, Bonn, Germany,
Eng. l'at. 581, January 12, 1892.
This communication relates to the application of aluminium
or any suitable alloy of it, either in the form of plates or
Juno 3IM892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
509
sheets, perforated by drilling or punching, or in the form of
gauze woven from spun or drawn wire, to the construction
of percolating surfaces of screens, sieves, and similar
articles. — D. A. L.
Improvements in Apparatus for rapidly Heating Liquid*.
B. Zeitschel, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 1210, Januarv
21, 1892.
Tins is an apparatus for quickly and continuously heating
a small current of liquid, and consists essentially of a
number of super-imposed hollow annular discs of thin metal
connected together by numerous small tubes, encased within
a jacketed cylinder of the same material and heated from
below by means of a gas burner. The cold liquid enters the
cylinder jacket at the lowest point, rising to the top where
it enters the uppermost of the hollow discs, whence it
finds its way gradually to the lowest. Here it reaches a
central upright tube, by which it leaves the apparatus in a
heated condition. The whole may be placed within an
ornamental stand, its principal use being to provide hot
water for bat lis and for other domestic purposes. — li.
Improvements in Apparatus fur Distilling Water in the
Presence of Air, and for communicating Heat thereto,
and for Supplying Water and Air thereto, and Deliver-
ing Water therefrom. N. Hunting, Albany, N.Y.,
America. Eng. Pat. 3013, February 1G, 1892.
Thk patentee produces distilled water, aerated without
special appliances, by evaporating the impure or saline
water at low temperature, and condensing the vapour, in
the presence of atmospheric air, thereby approximating
to the action of the evaporating process in nature. One of
the examples given is a domestic apparatus in connection
with a hot-water supply of the ordinary description.
A hot water coil heated from the kitchen tire circulates
and heats the water in a cistern from which the vapour rises
through a large central tube into a casing overhead which
carries a cold-water cistern, the bottom and sides of which
are exposed to the rising vapours. These condense and
collect in an intermediate annular water space where they
remain at a moderately high temperature and can he drawn
off as required. An overflow leads thence into another
cistern outside, in which the water is allowed to cool and to
serve as fresh water supply. Air is admitted and retained
in the evaporating cistern and the casing, and circulates
therein in contact with the vapours. — B.
improvements in or Relating to Apparatus for Filtering
Liquids. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From D. Wil-
liamson, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 3064, February
17, 1892.
Tins invention relates to rotary or centrifugal filters, in
which the walls of the rotary vessel are composed of the
filtering material and allow the liquid to pass through by
the action of centrifugal force. The improvement con-
sists in making the rotary vessel slightly conical, the wider
part being at the top, in order to allow the precipitate to work
its way slowly upward and out over the edge into suitable
channels, thus preventing its accumulation on the sides.
The specification describes a filter constructed on this
principle. — B.
Improvements relating to the Utilising of Healed Air in
Drying Apparatus. H. Leydecker, Gluckstadt, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 4224, March 3, 1892.
When materials are dried in direct contact with heated air
the current is quickly saturated with moisture and is with-
drawn from or drawn through the materials at a rapid rate,
leaving them at a comparatively high temperature, whereby
a certain amount of heat is wasted.
The patentee obviates that loss by passing the moisture -
laden air through a range of pipes in a second heating
chamber, which pipes give up the acquired heat to another
current of air which passes directly through the materials
in the second chamber. The second current may then be
led through pipes into a third chamber where a third
current of air is heated, and the operation repeated until
nearly the whole of the heat has been extracted. — B.
Improvements in Indicators for Montejus and Similar
Apparatus. J. M. C. Baton, Nottingham, Eng. Pat.
43G7, March 5, 1892.
This improvement relates to indicators for montejus or
other similar apparatus for forcing thick liquids into higher
receptacles, filter-presses, or against pressure, in whieh ease
ordinary floats for indicating the upper and lower levels
of the liquid are inconvenient or impracticable owing to
the thickness of the liquid. The inventor inserts two tubes
into the upper faces of the vessels, both projecting to a
convenient height above the vessel and closed at the top.
Small floats are inserted through the tubes, one to the upper
and one to the lower level of the liquid, each provided
with a rod, and with a cone at the upper end making
electrical contact with the closed end of the tube as the
liquid reaches the highest or lowest level respectively. — B.
Improvements in Evaporating Apparatus. H. H. Lake,
London. From T. Graney, Bay Gity, Michigan, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 5325, March 17, 1892.
Thk inventor proposes to evaporate brine and to produce
salt in an apparatus indicated in the accompanying figures
in vertical and cross section.
Evaporating Apparatus.
F is the outer and D the inner shell of the vertical
evaporating vessel. The inner shell forms a fire-box E
into which the fuel is admitted through the conical top and
passage O, raised thereto by the elevator O,. and distributed
over the fire-grate C by the spreader Q, shaft P, and
gearing P,. The products of combustion pass through the
annular boiling pan by the tubes or passages N into the
smoke-chamber L, whence they issue by the chimney
shafts M M. The vapour is condensed in the hood H by
means of the water jet I,, the combined waters descending
510
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June SO, 189a
by the well I aud pipe J aided, if desired, by a suction
pump. • The lower end of the evaporating pan is fitted with
two water lege S leading to the inclined passage S, with
elevator Sj for the removal of the deposited salt. The fuel
may he admitted and the salt removed in other convenient
ways. I' and V are doors for access, and A brick walls
supporting the whole. — li.
II.-FUEL, GAS. AND LIGHT.
/.■'.. Determination of tin Temperature of Steam arising
front Boiling Salt Solutions. .1. Sakurai. Proc. Chem,
Sqc. 1892 (ill j, 9.2—94.
See iimltr Anal, and Seient. Notes, /"<;/' 551.
Natural Cake in Australia. Eng. and Mining. J.,
Fehruary IS, 189B, JUG.
Natural coke, having a very close resemblance io
the manufactured article, has been discovered at the Hrelli
Pass Mines, New South Wales. The seam, which occurs
in a coal measure covering 550 acres, is composed partly
of a coal of abont the same description as ordinary Austra-
lian coal and this coke. The junction of the two is clearly
defined, and can ho traced through the entire workings.
In comparison with the manufactured article, the natural
c«»ke is a little the heavier, and contains less fixed carbon
and a much smaller percentage of ash and sulphur. It is
said that it burns without smoke and can he mined at a
cost much below that of the cost of manufactured coke.
— W. S.
The Use of Mutual Oil Uesidues as Fuel fur Glass
Fwnaces. .1. Malyschew. Zap. imp. ras-k. techn.
obszcz, 1891, 25, 98; Chem. Zeit. 16 (Chem. Rep I.
85.
T.n the first glass furnace using mineral oil residues put up
at Bekunow's glass works in Astrachan, two Nobel hearths
were used, the flames being led through a vertical tube into
the actual furnace, which was of similar design to the French
reflector furnaces. A high temperature was attained by
this means, but after four or rive days' wink the tube
which led the gases into the furnace and the stage on which
the pots stood, fell in. The second furnace was of oblong
form, and was large enough to take eight pots, four on each
side, the Nobel hearths being in the mid. He. Lest the flame
should impinge directly on the pots, whereby they would
have been destroyed alter a single fusion, the space between
the rows was increased to about two feet. The increase..
size of the furnace prevented its temperature rising as
freely a- before, and it was useless for refractory glass. It
was, liowee.-r, at work for four years.
In the plan now adopted, the glass i- fused direct on the
li.ai th of the furnace, which closely resembles a Siemens
regenerator furnace. There are two gas regenerators and
one regenerator for air on each side of the furnace. Into
.in. ..I tie ga regenerators, previously brought to a red
heat by a previous part of the operation, petroleum residues
are allowed to flow, and arc volatilised by contact with
the hot bricks, the vapours streaming through red-hot flues
and entering the furnace in a gaseous state. Coke remains
as a decomposition product of the residues and rovers the
walls of the regenerator. The layer gradually increases
until it partially blocks the exit Hues, and causes a rise of
pressure in the regenerator which is indicated by the gas
blowing oil' at a safety valve. The stream of oil is then
.In. i t<il to the next regenerator, air being at the same time
ht into the first regenerator, the coating of coke of which
burns, and the products of the combustion (which ate not
completely oxidised l ate allowed to enter the furnace
through the same tube as that conveying the mineral oil
gas. Fresh air meanwhile is heated in a separate regene-
rator and meets the combustible gases in the glass furnace
itself. While the gas and the air flow into the furnace
from one side, the regenerators on the other side are in
connexion with the chimney. The products of combustion
pass through these regenerators aud escape at a fairly low
temperature ; should coke from a previous operation
remain in one of these regenerators, it is not burnt out
because the spent gases are free from oxygen. The mineral
oil is allowed to flow into the regenerator for a period of
20 to :S0 minutes, at the end of which time the influx is
stopped altogether for about five minutes in order that the
residue in the regenerator may be completely gasified,
whereupon fresh oil is turned into the second regenerator.
The furnace gives a high temperature, the flame being
white and depositing soot only at the beginning of each
period. The soot falls in flakes into the furnace upon the
molten glass, an occurrence which is rather an advantage
than not. An attempt to burn off the coke more quickly,
by blowing in air, proved a failure, as the temperature
produced was so high as to fuse the arches of the regene-
rator. According to the investigations of Schibaew aud
the author, the heating of glass furnaces by any atomising
arrangement is impracticable. Eighty poods of mineral oil
residues sufficed to melt 250 poods of glass.* — B. Ii.
PATENTS.
A Process fur Recovering Cyanides from Coal Gas.
W. 1,. Rowland, Philadelphia, Peon., U.S.A. Bag. Pat.
22,347, December 22. 189.1.
Tin object is to remove the cyanides from coal-gas into
the ammoniaeal liquor, and to recover them therefrom. To
the water in the washers or scrubbers a soluble salt of iron
is added. On passage of the gas, first of till insoluble
carbonate, sulphide, or hydrate of iron is obtained, hut
gradually ferro.v anide of ammonia is formed, the cyanides
being thus removed. Excess of iron is to he guarded
against, otherwise a large quantity of sulphide of iron is
forme. I, which tends to clog the scrubber. The ammoniaeal
liquor is subsequently distilled In the usual form of still and
thi i< i (..cyanide recovered from the settled waste liquor by
precipitation with an acid iron salt : or a second portion of
salt of iron or oxide of iron may he added to the liquor
just before or .luring distillation, when by the boiling off of
the ammonia in the presence of an excess of the iron salt
the soluble ferrocyanide of ammonia will be converted into
an insoluble double salt, the ferrocv anide of iron and
ammonia, which may he separated afterwards by settling or
nitration, in which case it is mixed with insoluble linn- salts
if lime has been employed in the distillation. The settlings
ate treated with excess of lime, which decomposes tlu'
insoluble ferrocvauide, aud a soluble lime salt is obtained
which is removed by nitration. The liquor is boiled, -and
potassium or sodium chloride is added so as to precipitate
all the ferrocyanide as double ferrocyanide of lime and
alkali, or the liquor may he acidified and boiled, when the
double ferrocyauide of lime and ammonia will he precipi-
tated I >n boiling with i carbonate of the alkali an alkaline
ferrocyanide is obtained. — T. L. B.
Gas Generator for the Distillation of Mineral Oils and
the Combustion at n Distune, of a Part of the II hole of
the Products of the Distillation applicable to Apparatus
for Lighting and Beating. I. Sepulchre, Herstat,
Belgium. Eng. Pat. 2367, February s, 1892.
If but a small portion of the exposed wick of a mineral
oil lamp could he caused to ignite and hum. it- flame and the
heat therefrom would cause a distillation of the oil con-
tinually ascending in other parts of the wick, not ignited.
It is tceivable that such vapours could he led off by a
suitable conduit to a distance, and there ignited and burnt.
* One pood = 3<i'll pounds,
JuneSMSM.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCTETl? OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
511
It i^ t<> cany this idea into effect that (Mr proposals of the
patentee are made. The touus of distillation is kept as
cool ;is possible by suitable air-currents arranged to act in
jets upon the wick, and the intense focus of combustion is
transported not only to a distance from the burner and the
wick, but farther above the metallic deflectors, ami for
heating flames, even very high above the deflectors. AH
the metallic parts of the burner anil of the reservoir can
thus be at a considerable distance beneath the intense focus
of the flame anil are consequently absolutely safe as regards
heating. The petroleum contained in the reservoir does
not vaporise, hence the following important results are
obtained: (1) complete safety j (2) constant and uniform
feeding of the focus of distillation insured ; ami (:i) the
wick being removed from the intense focus of combustion
is consumed slowly. The distillation of the gases requiring
the combustion of but a small quantity of gas, the result
is that a very large part of the totality of the gases distilled
is reserved (almost in a state of purity) for the intense
combustion, thus effecting a considerable saving of oil per
unit of light or of heat, compared with all other known
apparatus. With this arrangement absolute suppression of
all smell ami of all snioke even of all redness at the
extremities of the flame is secured; this result is due to the
mixture of pure hydrocarbon gases ami air, which mixture
in the journey between the two distinct foci becomes inti-
mate, and is thus under the best possible conditions for a
complete combustion. — 1). 15.
III.-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Preliminary Heater for the Distillation of Petroleum.
¥. Fuchs. ' ( 'hem. Zeit, 16, 314—315.
The author describes the explosion of such heaters in two
■uses at one Of the largest Austrian factories. Such
heaters are used in petroleum factories for two purposes :
(1) as fuel economiscrs, and (2) lor separating mud-
substances contained in petroleum.
The author accounts for the explosion of these heaters as
having been occasioned by the pressure of gases produced
by the formation of vapours of benzine (petroleum spirit"),
which had not sufficient room for evaporating, and suggests
as a preventive the use of cylindrical heaters instead of the
usual square ones, the former being capable of bearing a
higher pressure, ,
rs. The condensing pipes placed in the heater must not be
put higher thai] the centre thereof to prevent them becoming
uncovered when the quantity of petroleum in the heater
decreases, thus avoiding the formation of benzine vapours.
Those heaters with a dome must also be supplied with
'two pipes for the removal of the benzine vapours formed, to
the cbndeinsor, and, finally, they must also be furnished
with a manometer and thermometer, which will give the
opportunity of controlling both the pressure and tempera-
ture of the heater. — P. 1).
Percentage of Guaiacol in Wood Creosote, Sfc. J.Bongartz.
Apoth. Ztg. 1891, 6, 697 ; Chem. Ztg. Rep. 1892, 16, 6.
The officinal creosote from beech-wood tar consists of a
mixture of guaiacol and varying quantities of different
creosols and xylenols. The author showed that creosote
contains Till — (HI per cent, of guaiacol. The latter has a
boiling point of "206 — 207 C. and the specific gravity of
1-133 at 15° C. (uot 1,117 as stated in text-books). The
guaiacol is soluble at 15° in 85 parts water and eight parts
petroleum spirit. Concentrated sulphuric acid gave n slight
yellow colour only, whilst the commercial preparations of
guaiacol are at once more or less reddened by the concen-
trated acid. J. 1,.
The Use of Mineral Oil Residues as Fuel for Glass
Furnaces. 3. Malyschew. Chem. Zeit. 16 (Chem.
Rep.), 85.
Sec under II., page 510.
PATENTS.
lmproeemenls in Apparatus jar Extracting Tar ami
Ammoilia from Has. A. A. Lister, Loudon. Eng. l'at.
7092, April 21, 1891.
Tine improved '"washer'' or apparatus for removing the
tar and ammonia from gas consists of a circular drum or
casing standing vertically and containing two wooden per-
forated discs, nearly fitting the interior of the drum and
arranged to revolve in opposite directions. Tile washers
are placed in series in line one behind another on a founda-
tion built, in ascending steps. Clean water flows into the
highest washer and leaves it by an overflow syphon-pipe at
about the centre, so that the drum is always about half
full of water; thence it Hows to the next washer, and so
on in succession, emerging from the last or lowest one of
the series charged with tar and ammonia removed from the
gas. The gas flows through the washers in the opposite
direction, entering at the lowest one and leaving at the
highest. The wooden discs carry up the water, and by
reason of their revolving in contrary directions in each
casing, cause the gas to thoroughly mix with the water and
>o remove tile tar and ammonia, Partitions may with
advantage be placed In the drums to more completely bring
the c;is in contact with the wet perforations aud surfaces of
the discs. Each disc is mounted on a short horizontal shaft
entering the side of the casing, the inner ends being sup-
ported in bearings carried on a central standard or cross-bar.
A pulley is fitted on the outer end of each shaft, and a
series of pulleys to correspond is fixed on an over-head
shaft, revolution of the discs in opposite directions being
obtained by means of open and crossed belts. The wooden
discs and their perforations are left i|iiite rough in order
more effectually to carry up the water. — D. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Ammonia aud Tar
from Nitrogenous Organic Substances, and in Apparatus
relating thereto. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool, brum
P. Kuutze, Asshersleben, Germany. Eng. l'at. 9052,
May 28, 1891.
This invention relates to the manufacture of ammonia and
tar from nitrogenous organic substances whereby as a
source of nitrogen the extensive turf moors and peat, hogs
are proposed to be utilised. The treatment referred to
consists in : —
(a.) Subjecting the broken-lip and dried material to
charring in a charring furnace, which is heated by producer
gases, generated at a later stage of this process, while the
resulting mixture of tarry, aqueous, and nitrogenous vapours
is submitted to au igniting process for decomposing the
organic nitrogenous vapours, in the presence of superheated
steam and great surfaces of light red-hot porous refractory
matter, into ammonia aud hydrocarbons, which are
separated and absorbed in the usual manner ; and
(6.) Treating the residue from the charring process in a
generator situated below the charring furnace by means of
hot air aud superheated steam in order to liberate the fixed
nitrogen and convert it into ammonia, the resulting mixture
of ammonia and permanent gases being separated in any
well-known manner aud the gases applied for heating pur-
poses. The generator for converting the residue into gas is
arranged below the charring furnace in order to allow of the
residue from the latter dropping directly from the charring
furnace into the generator, whereby the process becomes a
continuous one. — 1). B.
512
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June 30,1892.
Improvements in Methods of Storing Inflammable Spirits
or Highly Volatile Hydrocarbons. B. H. Thwaite. Eng.
Pat. 9180, June 1, 1891.
Around the storage lank, which may be circular or rect-
angular, the patentee provides an annular space to serve as
a water seal of such depth as will allow the side plates of
a cylindrical movable cover to be sealed. Even when the
contents of the tank have been withdrawn the cover, which
resembles the dome of an ordinary gasometer, is so arranged
that there is a continual and close contact of the top plates
thereof with the surface of the oil. The upper part of this
storage tank cover is made to serve as a water tank, in
which a layer of water is maintained, l-'or balancing the
weight of the cover an arrangement similar to that used for
counterbalancing the moveable part of ordinary gas holders
is provided. In order to withdraw from the holder any-
possible accumulation of gas an escape pipe arrangement
is provided, the vertical limb of which works in a vertical
and annular hydraulic seal — this allows for the lift of the
cover plates. In ordinary gas works the outlet of this seal is
connected^ the gas mains— the upper part of the space (if
any) between cover of oil tank and surface of oil is then
connected with the gas distributing mains, by which means
any accumulation of gas simply diffuses with the ordinary
town lighting gas and there is always established under the
cover a pressure of gas which will itself prevent the admis-
sion of air. For tank steamers the patentee uses a sheet
iron float cover having flexible connexions to the store
tank -ides. This cylindrical cover, with its annular or
surrounding hydraulic seal, is so formed that it floats on the
surface of the oil, and as the latter is withdrawn it falls with
the oil, there being sufficient play in the flexible sides to
allow this, and thus as the oil is withdrawn there is not left
behind any serious accumulation of combustible gas. — 1). B.
Gat Generator for the Distillation of Mineral Oils, ami
the Combustion at a Distance of a Part or the Whole
of the Products of the Distillation applicable to Appa-
ratus f«r Lighting and Heating. L. Sepulchre, Herstat,
Belgium. Eng. Pat, 2:567, February 8, 1892.
See tinder II., page 510.
Improvements in the Manufacture if Asphaltum. J. A.
Dubbs, Allegheny, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Eng. l'at. 3026,
February 16, 1892.
This invention relates to the manufacture of asphaltum
from crude petroleum or petroleum residues, and consists in
the combination of the crude petroleum or petroleum
residues, when subjected to heat, with sulphur. — L>. B.
n.-COLOUMNG MATTERS AND DYES.
A Aitro-ketone derived from Camphosulphophenols. P.
Cazeneuve. Compt. Rend. 114, 838—840.
A.METHYLI lAMPHOPHENOLStJLPHONE, CgH^SOjXOH^O,
and the isomeric amethyleamphophenolsulphonic acid
C,Hls(SOa.OH)(OH)0 are the most important campho-
sulphophenols derived from camphor.
On treating these compounds with dilute nitric acid,
their sulphur is eliminated, with formation of sulphuric
acid and at the same time a nitro-compoutid, C9HuO.NO;.
This compound crystallisi • from alcohol in beautiful yellow
needles, melting at from 47° to 48 C. In small quantities
these crystals can be sublimed without alteration, larger
quantities distil at about 262° C. with partial decomposition.
The nitro-compound is capable of decomposing the alkaline
carbonates, and combines easily with the caustic alkalis,
forming salts of the general formula C,,H10M'O.XO2, some
of which are distinguished by the dichroism of their crystals
The reaction of this compound with phenylhydrazine, with
which it forms an azone, proves it to be a nitro-ketone.
which, by means of tin and hydrochloric acid, is converted
into a ba.se of very remarkable properties. The nitro-
ketone dyes silk yellow without intervention of a mordant,
and is, according to the author, probably a derivative of a
hydropropylbenzene. — C. O. W,
(hiucit;' Recent Patent Improvements in Aniline Black.
H. Schmidt. Chem. Zeit. 16, 502—503, aud 531—532.
See under XL.paye 519.
The Itiii/iii of ('clour. The Constitution of Coloured
Ailm ( 'ompounds. H. E. Armstrong, l'roc. Chem.
S »'. 1892, 112, 101.
In a communication in March 1888 (,1'roc. Chem. Soc
1888,27), in which the relation between colour aud con-
stitution was discussed, it was maintained that in the cast
of azo-dyes, the rosanilines, methylene-hlue, &e. colour
was conditioned by a quinonoid structure. The author
states the opinion at which he has arrived, viz., that in the
case of coloured compounds which have been fairly well
studied, it is so generally true that a quinonoid formula is
applicable, that the reconsideration of the formula of any
coloured substance is warrantable if it do not come within
the rule. The term " quinonoid " must, however, be
understood to include compounds of the type of benzil :
and it is to be noted that in the case of closed chain com
pounds, it appears to be essential that at least one of the
quinonoid carbon atoms be associated with a dyad radicle,
and that the ring itself be unsaturated ; the presence of
two ortho- or para-carbonyl groups in a saturated ring
appaiently does not condition colour.
Nitro-compounds have from an early period attracted the
author's attention, as he states that they do not come
within the suggested "colour rule." It is well known,
however, that nitro-eompounds are not all coloured, many
which are commonly described as yellow being obtained
white when prepared from pure materials and precaution is
taken to remove the phenolic compounds which are so
frequently formed even from hydrocarbons during nitration ;
from this it follows that the nitro-group does not per se
condition colour. A comparison of ortho- with para-nitro-
pheuol affords striking confirmation of the correctness of
this conclusion ; the former alone is coloured, being
intensely yellow, very volatile, and insoluble in water ;
whereas para-uitrophenol does not volatilise with steam,
and is fairly soluble in water. To what is the difference
ascnbable ? It can scarcely be otherwise than to a
difference in structure beyond that involved in a mere
difference in the relative positions of the radicles. On
comparing the methoxynitrobenzenes prepared from ortho-
and para-nitrophenol, Dr. Kipping and the author find not
only that they are both colourless, but that they agree as
closely in their general properties as do most isomeric
compounds containing the same radicles ; it is particularly
noteworthy that they are about equally volatile with steam.
The non-correspondence of the two nitrophenols is rendered
far more striking by the correspondence of the compounds
prepared from them by methylation, and the conclusion
is strengthened thereby that they are not mere position
isomerides : it therefore appears justifiable to represent
ortho-nitrophenol by a quinonoid formula, which may
readily be done by transferring the hydroxylic hydrogen to
the NO; group, thus transforming it into a dyad group,
X< l»H, a chaDge which admittedly attends the formation of
so-called nitrosophenol (quinonehydroxime) (cf. Nietzki,
Organische Farbstoffe, Berlin, 1889). On this hypothesis,
the name quinoneorthonitroxime may be suggested for
" ortho-nitrophenol."
Para-nitrophenol, although itself colourless, yields coloured
metallic derivatives, in the formation of which a change
of structure must be involved, according to the view here
advocated.
i .30,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
513
As only para- and ortho-compounds can have quinonoid
formula;, it would follow that metanitro-derivatives must
be colourless; but actually metanitraniline has an intense
yellow colour. There are hut two ways out of this
difficulty : to assume that metanitraniline either is not (a?
ordinarily obtained) an uniform substance, or that its
structure is not really that of an amidonitrobenzene. There
is, however, no other obvious mode of representing it ; and
although Dr. Kipping and the author have spent mucl
time in trying to deprive it of its colour, they have beer.
unsuccessful ; they have found, however, that it yields a
practically colourless benzoate, a result regarded as strong
presumptive proof in favour of the view that meta-
nitraniline is not what, it is supposed to be, and it is
therefore proposed to submit it and similar compounds
the closest study.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters
derived from Anthra quinone. B. Willcox, London.
From the " Farbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer uud Co.,"
Elberfeld, Germauy. Eng. Pat. -1871, March 18, 1891.
Tins specification, comprising 18 claims, is an extension of
several earlier patents, and also describes certain new
dyestutls belonging to the alizarin class.
I. Oxyehrysazin (oxyanthrarufin), as shown by the
following formula', occupies an intermediate'position between
alizarin and alizarin-bordeaux.
,CO
OH
/\/^\/\
\/
CO.
on
co/
.Alizarin
(III
/\/^\/\
\n
(ill
t'o
OH
/
Oxyclirysazin.
OH ,,n OH
X/\ OB
Alizarin-bordeaux.
If oxychrysaziu be treated according to Eng. Pat. 8725
of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 537) it is converted into a
colouring matter resembling alizarin-bordeaux, the reaction
in this case also taking place in two stages. By substituting
erythroxyanthraquinone for oxyehrysazin in the above
process a dyestuff is obtained resembling in its properties
that prepared from anthrarufin according to Eng. Pat.
18,729 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 917).
II. In Eng. Pat. 18,729 of 1890 and Eng. Pat. 1883 of
1891 (this Journal, 1892, 29) the preparation of colouring
matters is described from anthraquiuone or dichloro- or
dibromo-anthracene by the action of sulphuric anhydride.
The same process can be applied to substances such as
tribromo- and tetrabromo-anthrncene, dibronio-anthracene-
tetrabromide, hromo-anthraquinone, and anthranol. The
colouring matters are similar to those already described,
and dye wool mordanted with alumina salts a violet, and
with chromium salts a blue colour.
III. By treating alizarin-bordeaux in a sulphuric acid
solution with oxidising agents according to Eng. Pat. 12,715
of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 759) it is converted into a new
colouring matter which is now termed " Alizarin-cyaniue
1!." According to Eng. Pat 17,712 of 1890 (this Journal,
1891, 917), an intermediate product formed in this process
gives a new colouring matter when treated with ammonia.
It has now been discovered that two cyanines are produced
according to the conditions under which the oxidations are
performed. If the temperature he kept low and an insuffi-
cient quantity of manganese dioxide added, a product is
obtained called " alizarin-pentacyaniue." By employing a
higher temperature and more manganese dioxide, using
arsenic acid or acting on alizariii-pcntacyauine with sul-
phuric acid alone, alizarin-hexacyanine is produced. The
two substances are pentahydroxy-anthraquinone and hexa-
hydroxy-anthraquinoue. The former is more easily soluble
in nitrobenzene and glacial acetic acid, whereas the latter
dissolves in sulphuric acid to a redder colour than the
pentacyanine and possesses a stronger fluorescence. The
solutions exhibit characteristic absorption hands.
IV. In the preparation of the above-mentioned alizarin-
penta- and hexa-cyanines by means of manganese dioxide,
intermediate compounds are formed which have been
termed anthra-diquinories, since they contain a true quinone
group in addition to the double ketone group of anthra-
quiuone. By reduction with sulphurous acid they are
converted into hydroquinoues which are the cyanines, and
hence these quinones may he produced by oxidation of the
cyanines. By dissolving Alizarin-cyanine K in potash
solution and passing air through the liquid the potassium
salt of the quinone separates out. The salt is then decom-
posed with an acid at a low temperature.
V. The formation of these quinones and their reduction
to the cyanines points to an improvement in the method for
the production of the latter on that described in Eng. Pat.
12,715 of 1890. The melt obtained by treating alizarin-
bordeaux with manganese dioxide in a sulphuric acid
solution is poured into water and treated with sodium
sulphite until it smells of sulphurous acid. The mixture is
then boiled up, filtered, and the dyestuff re-dissolved.
VI. By oxidising the cyanines in an ammoniacal solution
by means of air, or by the action of ammonia on those
quinones described under IV. corresponding to the cyanines
described under III., similar colouring matters to Alizarin-
cyanine G are obtained, the preparation of which is described
in Eng. Pat. 17,712 of 1890.
VH. The processes described under IV. and V. can also
be applied to the quinoline derivative of alizarin-bordeaux
or dihydroxy-alizarin blue of Eng. Pat. 8725 of 1890, or to
the hexa-hydroxy-anthraquiuone produced according to
Eng. Pat. 17,712 of 1890, or Eng. Pat. 18,729 of 1890.
The diquinones obtained from these bodies can also be
treated with ammonia forming quinone-imides and giving
somewhat greener shades than the original products.
— T. A. L.
The Production of New Bases and of Azo-Colourimj
Matters therefrom. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller,
Limited, and A. G. Green, Hackney Wick, Middlesex.
Eng. Pat. 8376, April 11, 1891.
New azoxy- and azo-derivatives of o-toluidine are obtained
by the alkaline reduction of nitro-n-toluidine —
C6H3.CH3(NH=)N02 [1:2:6]
which melts at 92° C. The nitro-o-toluidine is formed by
reducing fluid binitro-toluene (Bernthsen, Ber. 15, 3016,
this Journal, 1883, 169), and is also obtained together with
the nitro-o-toluidine melting at 107" C. by the nitration of
o-toluidine in sulphuric acid at a low temperature. In the
latter case the nitro-o-toluidine melting at 92° C. is precipi-
tated from the mother-liquor from which that melting at
107° C. has separated, by the addition of an alkali. The
new azoxy -o-toluidine —
[l:2:6]C6H3.CH;i(NH2)N2O.C6H3.XH2(CH3) [6:2:1]
melting at 149 C, and the new azo-o-toluidine —
[1:2:6] C6H3.CH3(NH2)N,,.CsH3.NH2(CH3) [6:2:1]
melting at 175J C. are produced in a similar manner to that
described in Eng. Pat. 14,304 of 1889 (this Journal, 1891,
131) for the production of isomeric bodies from the nitro-
o-toluidine melting at 107°. They are similarly employed
for the production of dyestuffs by diazotisation and com-
bination with naphthol and naphtnylamine sulphonic acids,
and with phenols and amines generally and their sulphonic
acids. A colouring matter dyeing unmordanted cotton a
brilliant scarlet unaffected by acids is obtained by combining
diazotised azoxy-o-toluidine with 1 ■ 4 naphthol sulphonic
acid in an alkaline solution. If azo-o-toluidine be employed
the shade is somewhat bluer. — T. A. L.
514
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 1892.
The Manufacture and Production of New Diazo-Dyes, and
of Intermediate Products in their Preparation. .1. V.
Johnson, London. From the " Badische Aniliti und Soda
Fabrik," Ludwigshafen, Germany. Fog. Pat. 771H,
May 4, L891. Second Edition.
Tin-: 1: 1'- amido-naphthol sulphonic acid described in Eng.
Pat. 9676 of, 1890 (this Journal, 1891,538) is capable of
combining with diazo-compounds to form disazo derivatives,
%\ liit-li dye wool ;i deep blue black from an acid bath.
Various amines may be employed such as aniline, o- and
p-toluidine, m- audjj-xylidine, /i-anisidine, a-naphthylamine,
and acetyl-p-pheuylene diamine. Also the isomeric 1:1'
amido-naphthol sulphonic acid, obtained by Fusing with a
caustic alkali the naphthylamine disulphonic acid prepared
by sulphonating naphthylamine sulphonic acid Sot Ger.
I\ii. 10,571, can be substituted for the above mentioned 1:1'
aniido-naphthol sulphonic acid in the formation of these
disazo compounds. The combination is performed in the
well-know n manner, but preferably by allowing one molecular
proportion of the diazo-compound to combine in :i faintly
acid solution of one molecular proportion of tin: amido-
naphthol sulphonic acid, ami afterwards making the solution
alkaline and running in t lie second molecular proportion of
the diazo-compound which may be derived from tin: same
amine a- the first or from a different one or from a sulphonic
acid Mich as sulphanilic acid, — T. A. L.
Production oj Blue Colouring Matters. O.Imray, Loudon.
From tin- " Farbwerke voruials Meister, Lucius, und
Briining," H6chst-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat.
7964, Slay 8, 1891.
The arid colouring matters known as " Patent Blues,"
described in Eng. Pat. 12,796 of 1888 (this Journal, 1889,
7nl ; 1890, 286), and Eng. Pat. I l,822of 1888 (this Journal,
1889, 980), which are sulphonic acids of m-oxy- and »i-aniidO-
tetra-alkyl-dianiidotliphenyl carbinols yield blue colouring
matters of great value when oxidised. The oxidation may
be performed by means of fuming sulphuric acid, bnt
preferably it is conducted in an aqueous solution by means
of [rob salts or chromic acid. 24' 6 kilos, of tetra-cthyl
patent blue (the monocalcium salt of the disulphonic acid
of »i-oxy-tetra-ethyl-diamido-tripheny] carbinol) are dis-
solved in 200—300 litres of water, boiled, and a solution of
8 kilos, of CrOj in water slowly added. After about two
hours, when the oxidation is complete and the solution is
free from chromic acid, the liquid is filtered and evaporated
to dryness. The colouring matters dy^ wool and silk in
uniform blue shades from an acid hath fast to soap, light,
ami air. — T. A. I..
Production if Blue Dyestuffs. S. Pitt, Sutton. From
I,- < assclla ami Co., Frankfort on the-Maine, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 8407, May 15, 1891.
A PROCESS for obtaining blue dyestuffs for mordanted
cotton of the thionine class from o-toluidine. 10 .J kilos, of
the nitrosamine of mono-ethyl-o-toluidine, are dissolved in
150 Kilos, of concentrated hydrochloric acid at about J C.
After standing some time, the clear solution, which contains
the hydrochloride of p-nitroso-ethyl-toluidine —
(N'o.l'.ili.,. I'll,. NIK ,II,|
is diluted with water, cooled with ice and reduced with 15
Kilns, of zinc dust. When the solution is colourless, the
free acid is neutralised and 24*8 kilos, of sodium thiosul-
jihate and 10 kilos of potassium bichromate are added. A
solution of mono-ethyl-o-toluidme hydrochloride is then
poured in, and after the addition of 120 kilos, of zinc
chloride, the whole is oxidised by means of 30 kilos, of
potassium bichromate, raised to the boil and kept boiling for
an hour. Tin: dyestilff winch separates out is mixed with
chromium Oxide, from which it is separated after filtration
by extraction with hot water and precipitation with salt,
when it forms small green crystals. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of Colouring Matters
derived from Anthraquinone and Alizarin Blur.
II. Will, ox, I Ion. From the " Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co.," Elberfeld, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 8702, May 21, 1891.
Tin: authradiquinones i alizarin eyanine quinones) described
in Eng. 1'at. 1871 of 1 w.< 1 (sec above) for new mordant
dyestuffs by condensation with phenol, dihydroxy-benzeues
and their homologues, a- anil /3-naphthol and their carboxylic
acids or other substitution products. The condensation
is most easily effected by means of sulphuric acid, and hence
the formation of these new dyestuffs starling with alizarin
bordeaux may he performed in one operation without
separating tin quiuonc. New colouring matters are also
obtained by condensing with rcsorcinol, salicylic acid,
p-hydroxy-benzoic acid, and o-crcsotinic acid, the quinone of
hcxa-hydroxyanthraquinonc isomeric with alizarin hexacya-
nine described in ling. Pat. 18,72'J of 1890, and Eng. Pat.
17,712 of 1890 (tin- Journal, 1891, 917). The alizarin
bordeaux described in Eng. Pat. *72."> of 1890 (this Journal,
1891, 537), its analogues and the polyhydroxy anthraqui-
nones obtained therefrom by further oxidation, and other
com [mi 1 1 ids of this class such as Alizarin hi in: green, Alizariu-
grecn, and Alizarin indigo blue described in Eng. Pat. 14,353
of 1888 (this Journal, 1889, 77o) and Eng. Pat. 15,121 of
I8SS (this Journal, 1889,772), form new dyestuffs by
treatment with ammonia. The reaction taking place
appears to he the substitution of an amido for a hydroxy
group. It is generally complete' at ordi y temperatures,
hut heating with an excess of ammonia on the water-bath
i- sufficient in all cases. The dyestuffs thus obtained differ
from the originals by the redder or yellower colours of
their solutions In sulphuric acid, and this lest serves I"
indicate the end of the reaction. With chromium mordants
ou wool, these colouring matters dyo a greenish blue.-T. A. L.
Production if Blur I 'olouring Matter. < ). lniray, Loudon.
From the " Farbwerke vormals Meister, Lucius und
Briining," Ihiehst-on-thc Maine, Germany. Eng. Fat.
9943, . I tine 11, 1891.
By the action of fuming sulphuric acid on anthrachrysone
(a derivative of anthraquinone) a new colouring matter is
obtained which gives blue shades on chrome-mordanted
wool and cotton, fast to light and fulling. Anthrachrysone
is stirred into fuming sulphuric acid at a temperature not
exceeding 50 (.until the solution becomes .bluish-green.
It is then poured ou to ice, boiled, dissolved in an alkali,
and precipitated by an acid from this solution. The colour-
ing matter forms a black powder dissolving in concentrated
sulphuric acid with a violet red, in ammonia with a bluish
violet, and in dilute caustic soda with a reddish-brown
colour.— T. A. L.
The Manufacture ami Production if New Basir Dye-
stuffs. J. V. Johnson, Loudon. From the " Badische
Aniliri und Soda Fain ik," Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 10,619, June 22, 1891. Second Edition.
An extension of Eng. Pat. 4476 of 1888 (this Journal,
1889, 280), which describes the preparation of dyestuffs of
the Nile blue series obtained by the condensation of the
nitroso - dimethyl- and diethyl - m - amido phenols with
o - naphthylamine and its derivative-, such as ethyl-o-
naphthylamine and di - methyl - a - naphthylamine. The
present specification describes tin' employment of benzyl-o-
naphthylaminc in place of a naphthylamine and its deriva-
tives mentioned in the preceding patent. Heuzyl-a-naph-
thvlaniine has been obtained by the action of berizyla'mine
on'o naphthv lainine, hut is more easily prepared by con-
densing two molecules of a naphthylamine with one molecule
of benzylchloride in toluene at the temperature of the water-
hath. The hydrochloride of the base is obtained by passing
hydrochloric acid gas through its ethereal solution. The
following proportions are given for preparing a greenish-
blue dyestuff. About 69 kilos, of nitroso-diethyl-w-aruido-
June so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
515
phenol hydrochloride and 5-1 kilos, of benzyl-a-naphthyl-
amine hydrochloride in 100 litres of spirit are heated on the
water-hath under a condenser. The reaction sets in at
about 60° C, and sufficient heat is eiolved to raise the
solution to the boil. It is kept boiling for 3 to 4 hours and
then allowed to cool, when a crystalline precipitate separates
which can be used directly for dyeing and printing. Other
salts than the hydrochlorides may be employed in the above
condensation, or one of the components may be in the form
of base, but in this latter case it is preferable to use acetic
acid as a solvent. The colouring matter obtained from
nitroso-diiuethyl-m-amido-phenol gives a redder shade of
blue, and its hydrochloride is sparingly soluble iu water, so
that it is best employed as its more soluble sulphate.
— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters.
H. H. Lake, London. From K. Oehler, Offenbach-on-
the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,861, June 25, 1891.
By combining diazotised benzidine or tolidine with one
molecule of amido-hydroxy-a-naphthalene disulphonic acid,
and then with m-hydroxy-diphenylamine or tolylphenyl-
amine, blackish-blue colouring matters for cotton are ob-
tained. Eleven kilos, of tolidine (or the equivalent quantity
of benzidiue) in 75 kilos, of muriatic acid of 12' 5 per cent,
strength and 500 litres of water are cooled to 0° C,
diazotised with 7 kilos, of sodium nitrite, and poured into a
solution of 18 kilos, of amido-hydroxy-a-naphthalene
disulphonic acid in 700 kilos, of 1'5 per cent, caustic soda.
The intermediate compound thus formed is converted into
the new dyestuff by adding a solution of 9 '25 kilos, of
/n-hydroxvdiphenylamine, or of 10 kilos, of m-hydroxy-
tolylphenylamine, in 250 litres of water and 2 kilos, of
caustic soda. The colouring matter is precipitated by salt,
pressed, and dried. The sodium salts of the new dyestuffs
are blackish, bronze-coloured powders, soluble in water,
giving red to bluish-violet solutions, from which concen-
trated hydrochloric acid precipitates a bluish-violet acid,
which dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a blue
colour. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of New Dyes of the
Rosaniline Series and of New Materials therefor.
J. Y. Johnson, London. From the " Badische Anilin
und Soda Fabrik," Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng. Pat.
11,275, July 2, 1891.
Bv condensing resorcinol with p- or o-toluidine, or with
ni -xylidine the following compounds are respectively
obtained : — »i-hydroxy-phenyl-^)-tolylamine, m-hydroxy-
phenyl-o-tolylamiue, and m-hydroxy-phenyl-m-xylylaniine.
It has been discovered that the alkylated derivatives of
these compounds when condensed with tetra-alkyl-diamido-
b^uzophenones yield basic colouring matters of the rosaniline
scries, and these on sulphonation give soluble acid dye-
stuffs. The following details of the various operations are
given : —
1. About 100 kilos, of m-hydroxyphenyl-^-tolylainine,
20 kilos, of caustic soda, 400 kilos, of methyl alcohol, and
40 kilos, of methyl chloride, are heated iu an autoclave for
24 hours to 115° — 120° C. The methyl alcohol is then
distilled off, and the residue washed first with caustic soda,
then with water, and finally dried at 100°. The «i-methoxy-
phenyl-p-tolylamiue thus obtained is sufficiently pure for
the preparation of dyestuffs. It forms a thick oil, distilling
with decomposition at about 360° C, and is preferably
distilled in vacuo. After standing some time it solidifies,
and can then be crystallised from benzene, when it melts at
about 68° C.
2. The condensation with tetramethyldiamidobenzo-
phenone is performed iu a similar manner to that described
in Eng. Pats. 4850 and 5038 of 1884 (this Journal, 1885,
20 1,279). About 22 kilos, of m-inethoxy-phenyl-p-tolyl-
amine, 27 kilos, of tetramethyldiamidobenzophenoue, and
35 kilos, of phosphorus oxychlorde are diluted with 8 kilos,
of toluene, and heated on the water-bath in a vessel
provided with a stirrer for about half an hour. The melt
is then poured into brine, boiled and extracted with toluene
or heavy oil. The colouring matter which remaius behind
is dried at 60° C, and powdered. It is slightly soluble in
water, more readily in alcohol, and gives violet-blue shades
on wool and on cotton mordanted with tannin.
3. This product is sulphonated by mixing it with an
equal weight of anhydrous sodium sulphate, and adding the
mixture to 2^ times its weight of fuming sulphuric acid
containing 24 per cent, of SO:1, the temperature not being
allowed to rise above 10° C. When a sample is completely
soluble in alkali, the melt is poured into ice water, and the
solution nearly neutralised with caustic soda. The dyestuff
is then precipitated with sodium sulphate, filtered, and
dried. It dyes wool violet-blue from an acid bath.
— T. A. L.
New or Improved Colouring Matter or Dye and Methods
of Extracting and Utilising the Same. E. Schweich and
E. Bucber, Winnington Park, Chester. Eng. Pat. 11,298,
July 3, 1891.
A brown mordant colouring matter, to which the name
" Prosopine " is given, is obtained from the " heartwood of
the species ' prosopis' commonly called cashaw tree," by
some process of extraction, and the extract can be used,
together with a mordant, either by itself or with some other
dyewood, for dyeing, printing, or staining, &c. — T. A. L.
Process of Dyeing Silk Solid Black, by Means of
Alizarine, Flavopurpurine, Anthrapurpurine, and
Mixtures of these Bodies. O. Imray, London. From
the " Farbwerke vormals Meister, Lucius und Bruning,"
Hochst-on-the-Maine, Germany, Eng. Pat. 11,327,
July 3, 1891.
The methods for dyeing silk black and dark brown with
logwood do not give colours fast to acids, soap, or alkalis.
The process described in the present specification gives fast
blacks, produced as follows : — Boiled silk is mordanted
with ferric sulphate of 30° B., well soaped and treated with
the quantity of potassium ferrocyanide and hydrochloric
acid corresponding to the oxide of iron on the fibre. The
silk in this way receives a grounding of Prussian blue. It
is then passedinto a bath at the boil containing cutch and
tin salt corresponding to the degree of weightening required,
and after washing, having been worked in a second bath of
cutch, it is ready for dyeing. It can also be prepared by
mordanting the crude or boiled silk with tin salt solution
of 30°, washing and treating with ferric sulphate and
potassium ferrocyanide as described above, and finally
passing it through a boiling bath of cutch, when after
washing it can be dyed. For this purpose the silk, treated
according to either of the foregoing methods, is worked for
about half an hour at 65° C, in a weak soap bath containing
2 — 2\ galls, of water to every pound of silk, a quantity of
soap, varying from 15—20 per cent, of the weight of the
silk, according to the hardness of the water, and a quantity
of alizarin from 20 — 50 per cent, of the weight of the soap,
sufficient to produce the desired shade. The temperature
is then raised to the boil, and the silk worked at 95° C. for
three-quarters of an hour. Finally, a further quantity of
soap is added, the bath is heated to boiling, and the silk
worked for half an hour, in order to give it lustre and touch.
After dyeing, the silk is washed for a few minutes in a bath
at 30° C., and made slightly alkaline with sodium carbonate.
It is then well waslied, treated with an acid, some size, and
an oil emulsion, and is finally shaken out and dried. The
colour thus obtained is said to be fast to acids, alkalis, and
sunlight. — T. A. L.
Manufacture of Yellow Azo-colauring Matters Striking on
Mordants and Absolutely Fast against the Action of
Fulling, Soap, and light. O. Imray, London. From
the " Farbwerke vormals Meister, Lucius und Bruning."
Hochst-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,328,
July 3, 1891.
The colouring matters described are obtained by com-
bining diazotised diamido-sulphobenzide (diamido-
516
THE JOUliNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June 30, 1892.
diphenylsulphone), its derivatives and homologues with
hydroxy carboxylic acids. The colouring matters dye
chrome-mordanted wool fast to fulling, soap and light. In
the case of the colouring matters from diazotised diamido-
diphenylsulphone and salicylic acid and from diazotised
diamidodiethoxy-diphenyl-sulphone this fastness is abso-
lutely perfect. 12 4 kilos, of diamido-diphenyl-sulphone
and 12 kilos, of hydrochloric acid are dissolved to a
10 per cent, solution in water and diazotised by the
addition jf 12 kilos, of hydrochloric acid and a solution of
6-9 kilos, of sodium nitrite in 35 litres of water. The
tetrazo compound which separates out from moderately
dilute solutions is added at 0° C. to a 10 per cent, solution of
16 kilos, of o-cresotiuic acid and 33 kilos, of calcined
sodium carbonate. The combination is complete in 12
hours when hydrochloric acid is added, the colouring
matter filtered off and used preferably as a paste. In
addition to the derivatives and homologues of diamido-
diphenyl-sulphone, the diamido-dinaphthyl-sulphones may
also be employed. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Basic Naphthalene
Colouring Matters, and of Sulpha Acids thereof.
J. Y. Johnson, London. From the " Badische Aniliu
" und Soda Fabrik " Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 11,629, July S, 1891.
By heating together rosindone with o-toluidineor m-xylidine
and the hydrochlorides of the two latter, colouring matters
are obtained which give red shades different from those
given by phen3'l-rosinduline. These homologues of phenyl-
rosinduline as well as that one obtained by employing
p-toluidine give mono-sulphouic acids when treated with
ordinary sulphuric acid at the temperature of the water -
bath (cf. Eng. Pat. 15,259 of 1888 ; this Journal, 1889,
877). On further sulphouation with fuming sulphuric
acid, disulphonic acids are obtained which are homologues
of azo-carmine and are yellowish-red to bluish-red dyestuffs
readily soluble in hot, but sparingly soluble in cold water,
especially in presence of mineral acids. The bases o-tolyl-
rosinduline and m-xylyl-rosinduline yield higher sulphonic
acids on further sulphonation which are readily soluble in
cold water. The p-tolyl-rosinduline decomposes on further
sulphonation. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters
for Dyeing and Printing derived from Benzidine and
ils Analogues. B. Willcox, London. From the
" Efarbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer and Co.," Elber-
feld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,663, July 9, 1891.
Bv reacting with one molecule of tetrazo-diphenyl chloride
or one of its homologues or derivatives on one molecule of
an aromatic hydroxy carboxylic acid, such as salicylic acid,
o- or m-cresol carboxylic acid or resorcylic acid, an inter-
mediate product is obtained which, on boiling in an alkaline,
neutral or acid solution evolves nitrogen and is converted
into a derivative of w-amido - hydroxy - diphenyl. The
following equation illustrates the course of the reaction —
C6H4 - N = N - C6H3 - OH
| \ + H20 =
C6H4 .- N = N OCO
( „II, - K = N - C6IL - OH
I I + Na
C6H4 - Oil C02H
The dyestuffs obtained by this process are valuable not
only on account of their dyeing mordanted wool, but also
because they can be employed in calico-printing, in this
respect resembling alizarin. The colours produced are
yellow varying from a red to a brown shade. — T. A. L.
The Production of Fast Yelloio Mordant Dyeing Azo
Dyestuffs. A. Bang, Leeds. From G. A. Dahl,
Barmen, Germany. Fug. Pat. 960, January 18, 1892.
Substitutes for fustic are obtained by diazotising the a-, £-,
7-, or 8-, 0-naphthylainine sulphonic acids or the a-naphthyl-
amine sulphonic acids of Laurent or Piria, and combining
them with salicylic acid and o- and m-cresotinic acids.
On chromium mordants these colouring matters like fustic
are absolutely fast to milling and have moreover the
advantage of being faster to light. They also dye un-
mordanted wool fast to milling and light. The shades
obtained from the /3-naphthylaniiue sulphonic acids are
greenish yellow, those from the a-naphthylamiue sulphonic
acids being more orange-yellow. Similarly salicylic acid
gives a greener shade than the cresotinic acids, (cf. Eug.
Pat. 17,583 of 1887; this Journal, 1888, 839).— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters
II. II. Lake, London. From A. Leonhardt and Co.,
Muhlheiui-ou-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 1231,
January 21, 1892.
Bv oxidising the rhodamines obtaiued, for instance, from
dialkylated ;«-aniidophenol or nt-amidocresol and phthalic
acid, by means of potassium permanganate, dyestuffs of a
more yellowish-red shade are produced. The colouring
matters themselves or their leuco-compounds may be
employed. Eight kilos, of rhodamine from succinic acid
are dissolved in 400 litres of water and 20 litres of acetic
acid, and oxidised in the cold by the addition of 4 kilos, of
potassium permanganate in 100 litres of water. The whole
is then boiled up, filtered, and the colouring matter precipi-
tated by the addition of zinc chloride and salt. By
employing less permanganate the product is more bluish-
red. The dyestuffs obtaiued according to this invention are
basic, forming salts with acids. They dissolve in water or
spirit, giving scarlet solutions with a brilliant green
fluorescence, and are adapted for dyeing or printing mor-
danted or unmordanted cotton or silk, the latter when dyed
showing a yellowish, fluorescence. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Production of Black Dyes suitable for
Dyeing Wool. S. Pitt, Sutton. From I,. Cassella and
Co., Frankfort-ou-the-Maiue, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2718,
February 11, 1892.
An extension of Eng. Pat. 9214 of 1885 (this Journal,
1889, 700), and of Fug. Pat. 7067 of 1889 (this Journal,
1890, 385). A diazotised amine or sulphonic acid thereof
is combined with a-naphthylamiue monosulphonic acid
(1'6 orl'7). The amidoazosulphonic acid thus obtained
is diazotised again and combined with phenols or amines or
their derivatives. 24 ■ 5 kilos, of sodium naphthionate are
diazotised and combined with 24 '5 kilos, of 1'6 or 1*7
a-naphthylamine sodium sulphouate in presence of sodium
acetate. The amidoazodisulphonic acid thus formed is
diazotised by means of muriatic acid and 7 kilos, of sodium
nitrite, and separates as the diazo compound. If combined
with 35 kilos, of /3-naphtholdisulphouic acid K in an
alkaline solution a black dyestuff is obtained which
resembles naphthol black. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture of New Colouring Matters or Dyes.
I'. Monner, St. Fons, Lyons, France. Eng. Pat. 4677,
March 9, 1802.
Colouring matters to which the name "Anisolines" is
given are produced by heating salts of the rhodamines with
the haloids of methyl, ethyl, amyl, or benzyl, forming
alkylated rhodamines. — T. A. L.
June so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
517
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON. WOOL. SILK. Etc.
Vulcanisation of Waterproof Fabrics. Industries, 12,
1892, 498.
Op late years there has been a great development of the
waterproof trade in the direction of increased variety in the
fabrics employed. In fact, 15 years ago the number of
cloths used for the purpose were very few, but at present
we see an almost endless variety of wool, silk, and cotton
goods, alone and in combination with each other. Scotch
and Yorkshire woollen tweeds now constitute the largest
portion of the dealer's stock-in-trade, the black or blue
paramatta — a mixture of wool and cotton — being con-
spicuous. The nature of the cloth has to be considered
before it is submitted to any vulcanising process. To
briefly summarise the " spreading " part of the process, it
may be said that the rubber is mixed with sulphur or other
curing agents and is rolled out into thin sheets and dissolved
to a paste in coal naphtha. This paste is then spread ou
the cloth by the knife edge of what is known as the
" spreading machine." The spread cloth passes then over a
steam chest, whereby the naphtha is volatilised and the
rubber left as a thin coat. Several of these coatings are
required to make up the necessary thickness of proof, and
then the material is ready to be vulcanised. This is done
by one of three processes, viz., (1) steam cure, ('2), cold
cure (Parke's process), ( 3) dry heat.
In the first process the proofed cloth is rolled round a
sheet-iron drum, and exposed in a " vulcan pan " to high-
pressure steam at about 275' F. for an hour or more. This
process is not much used for fabrics, as it is found impos-
sible to ensure equal heating owing to the non-conducting
nature of the material, whereby the outside layer is over-
heated before the inner is heated sufficiently. In the second,
or cold cure process, the vulcanising agent is chloride of
sulphur. This is dissolved in bisulphide of carbon in the
proportion of 1 to 40 parts by volume. In applying this
process the rubber surface is made to pass over a roller
which is kept revolving in the solution. In spite of the
disagreeable nature of the chemicals, this process has been
and is very largely used, though the " cure " is not a
complete one, being merely effected on the surface where
the solution has come in contact with the rubber. This
process is not considered a very satisfactory one, and the
use of the mephitic liquid bisulphide of carbon, with its
attendant fire risks, is likely to become obsolete, a satis-
factory substitute having been found for it. The liquid
being merely a vehicle for the chloride of sulphur to ensure
the absorption of the latter by the rubber, it is clear that as
long as it has a solvent action ou the rubber its chemical
constitution is of no great moment.
The cold cure, so long without a rival, has been supplanted
to a great extent by the third, or "dry heat process,"
which, although used to a certain extent for some time, was
not worked on a large scale until, in 1877, Mr. Waddington
invented his improved dry-heat stove. This stove consists
of a long wooden chamber lined with zinc and fitted in its
interior with a system of rollers so arranged that the cloth
occupies, in its passage, the necessary time to effect
vulcanisation at the one operation, and, being continually
on the move, no portion can receive more or less heat than
another. In this way the rubber coating is vulcanised all
through, and not merely on the surface, as in the cold cure.
It may be asked whether the dry heat injures the textile
fabrics ? There is no fear of this if the process is carefully
carried out, and the heat not allowed to rise higher than is
absolutely necessary. When cured by this process the
goods can be depended on to remain soft and pliable during
cold weather, and, what is even of more importance, they
will not decompose by being kept in stock in a hot climate.
It is to this dry heat method of vulcanising that Mr. Fawsitt
referred (this Journal, 1889, 368"), and he claims that, by
the employment of metallic iodides — notably those of
antimony, lead, and tin in conjunction with sulphur — the
proof can be cured in a shorter time and at a lower heat
than when sulphur alone is used. The writers agree with
the author that the cost of the iodide is likely to militate
against its adoption.
How is this vulcanising action to be explained ? The
reply is made that there really is very little known regard-
ing the true nature of the change, whether it is a true
chemical reaction or merely a physical fact. It is generally
stated that in the ordinary vulcanising process, when a
mixture of rubber and sulphur is submitted to high-pressure
steam for an hour or so, 3 per cent, of sulphur is chemically
combined, the rest being physically held and capable of
abstraction by solvents. Some expert experience, however,
leans to the opinion that not more than J per cent, of sulphur
is chemically held if insolubility in caustic solutions is to be
taken as a proof of chemical combination. The reaction
with chloride of sulphur is generally allowed to be due to
the substitution of hydrogen in the rubber by chlorine.
That a substitution compound exists is shown by passing a
current of chlorine gas into a solution of rubber in chloro-
form, when a white solid body is formed, and hydrochloric
acid is evolved. A similar reaction occurs in the case of
bromine, though we have it on the authority of Gladstone
and Hibbert that no reaction whatever occurs in the case of
iodine. Chloride of sulphur is found to be the most
practicable way of applying chlorine to rubber, though
many other compounds of chlorine act in a similar manner.
— W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Vegetable Fibrous
Matters to obtain Fibres therefrom. P. W. Nicolle,
Portland Place, Jersey, and .1. Smith, Camberwell. Eng.
Pat. 18,284, November 13, 1890.
For obtaining the fibrous portions of vegetable substances,
e.g., Bcehmeria nivea, flax, hemp, New Zealand flax, &c, these
materials are steeped in a solution of creosote or phenol,
or of any tar acids. A solution of any of these acids in
combination with an alkali, of a strength of about one-half
per cent, by weight, may also be employed. For flax and
hemp a cold solution is used for 24 or 48 hours. Refractory
vegetable substances, such as ramie bark, should first be
placed in a cold solution for 24 hours, then passed through
rollers, and finally treated with a boiling solution for three
to six hours. The pulpy substance of New Zealand flax
is removed by means of corrugated rollers or knives, &c.
At the end of the process the fibres are passed through
rollers and washed.— II. S.
Improvements in Machines for Decorticating liamie and
other Textile Plants. G. E. N. I. E. Subra, Paris,
France. Eng. Pat, 19,100, November 25, 1890.
The object of this invention is the complete removal of the
ligneous matter and of the leaves of ramie, as well as of
the epidermis which covers the fibrous parts of the plant.
The machine used for this purpose consists of two pairs
of cylinders, one pair being smooth or slightly fluted and
both turning in the same direction. This pair is for the
preliminary crushing of the ligneous matter of the stalks.
The second pair, the stripping cylinders, by which the
wood, the leaves, and the epidermis are entirely broken
and disengaged, are formed of metal blades or plates firmly
fixed upon the parallel shafts, and forming grooves. Their
speed is greater than that of the crushing cylinders, and
the latter therefore detain the stalks long enough to give
the stripping cylinders sufficient time to effect their work.
The plates of these cylinders are so arranged that they
pass betweu each other when rotating. The edges of the
blades are either rounded, square, or sharp, the last form
being specially intended for green ramie. The disengaged
wood, leaves, and epidermis fall to the ground without the
possibility of choking the stripping cylinders. When the
operation has taken place upon half the length of the stalks,
the operator removes them and presents the opposite or
unworked half to the cylinders. The two pairs of cylinders
may be arranged horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and
are mounted upon wooden or metal frames of suitable
shapes and dimensions. The machine may be driven by
hand or other power. — II. S.
D 2
518
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 1892.
Process for Cleansing or Purifying Woollen Fabrics.
C. D. Abel, London. From Philip? and Mathee, Khein-
luncl, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,252, .November 26, 1890.
The patentees have found that sulphurous acid, sodium
bisulphite, and all compounds which give off sulphurous
acid on the addition of an acid, have the property of
removing from woollen fabrics the impurities which are
accumulated during the spinning, weaving, and fulling
processes. These impurities become to a certain extent
insoluble under the influence of the usual carbonising
process, and are detrimental to the dyeing of the fabrics,
producing stripes, spots, and other defects. To effect their
removal the fabrics are, after the carbonising process,
soaked in pure water together with mineral acids, and then
treated for some time with aqueous sulphurous acid or
with sodium bisulphite, &c. The liquid is then drawn off
and the remainder of the sulphurous acid and of the
impurities are removed by means of soda-lye of of any other
alkaline liquid. Finally the fabrics are thoroughly rinsed
with water. Without the previous treatment with sulphurous
acid the solution of the impurities by means of soda only
is stated to be very imperfect. — H. 8.
An Improved Fireproof Fabric. L. Allard, Paris, France.
Kng. Pat. 19,579, December 1, 1890.
This fabric is composed of a mixture of animal fibres and
asbestos, felted together in varying proportions by any
suitable means. It is designed to replace ordinary felt
where the latter is unable to withstand extraordinary heat.
— H. S.
Improvements in the Cleansing, Treating, or Washing of
Wool and like Animal Fibres, and in Apparatus
employed therein. A. Ambler, S. Ambler, and F. Ambler,
Willesden. Eng. Pat. 20,267, December 12, 1890.
Tin- refers to a modification of Eng. Pat. 13,626 of 1889
(this Journal, 1890, 856). The liquor and wool passes
along a series of superposed channels, first in one and then
in another (usually the opposite) direction, and then
returning, and so on, the object being to cause the liquor
and wool to come into close contact without feltiog. Xear
the end of the chanuel, and below a perforated portion of
it, is fixed a sand box to receive precipitated solid matters.
— H. S.
Improvements in or relating, to the Preparation and Dress
ing of Silk and other Fibre. G. F. Priestley, Halifax.
Eng. Pat. 123, January 3, 1891.
Silk-tufts have hitherto been made by means of the so-
called " tilling engine " which produces them looped at one
end and fringed at the other, which is an objectionable form
of tuft. Instead of this machine the patentee uses an
ordinary form of gillbox provided with fallers and heckle
pins, made to travel by screws through the fibrous material.
The " film of fibre," as it issues from the machine, is wound
round a fluted roller, and afterwards severed by means of a
knife, and the strips, thus cut, are then formed into tufts.
The circumference of the fluted roller must be such as to
produce the required length of tuft. — H. S.
An Improved Machine for Decorticating Ramie. P. Faure,
Limoges, France. Eng. Pat. 1115, .March 7, 1891.
The stalks to be decorticated are placed on a table, where
they are seized by a pair of feeding rollers, conveyed to a
trough, and subjected to the action of a beater drum,
whereby the woody parts are broken and partially separated
from the fibrous elements of the plants. — H. S.
Improvements in the Waterproofing of Textile Materials.
J. G. Smith, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 6698, April 18, 1891.
In this invention the solutions employed in the process of
waterproofing textile fabrics are described, and the inventor
avails himself of the property of paraffin wax, stearin, or
any fatty acid to dissolve as much as 100 percent, of its
own weight of gutta-percha or india-rubber, when heated to
from 100° to 110° C. Generally such a solution of 15 parts
of india-rubber in 100 parts of paraffin wax is prepared, and
the solution so obtained is either directly or after suitable
dilution with benzine or benzol (benzene) applied to the
material to be waterproofed. — C. O. \V.
Improvements in the Treatment of Samples of Crude Wool
for Estimating Purposes. A. Frayssc, Antwerp, Belgium.
Eng. Pat. 11,717, July 9, 1891.
This invention has to do with the detection of the so-called
rendement of crude wool which is usually done by mere
inspection and touch, but this frequently gives rise to errors.
The patentee, therefore, subjects a sample of crude wool to
the action of two machines, which remove therefrom first
all foreign substances, e.g., thistles, grain, sand, &c. ; and
secondly, the grease of the wool ; then the pure wool is
dried and weighed, and the absolute yield of wool hereby
ascertained. The thistles, &c., are removed by a rinsing
and carding machine, in which a jet of cold water under
pressure first removes all the grains, sand, and other granular
impurities ; then the fibres are freed from thistles, &c, by
passing the wool between a carding cylinder and a series of
carding rollers. The washing machine in which the wool is
afterwards subjected to the action of a number of boiling
baths or lye washes for the removal of the grease, consists
of two rectangular tanks, and of a feeding apparatus
between them. The machine is further provided with two
rollers, so that the wool can be alternately conveyed from
one tank to the other. The tanks can be heated from below,
and have perforated false bottoms, below which each tank
has a tap for discharging the 13'es when exhausted. After
the grease is removed, the wool is dried in the open air and
weighed, and finally some small samples of it (about 200 grins,
each) are weighed, then absolutely desiccated, and weighed
again. For the last two operations one of the tanks is used
as a sort of wool-conditioning apparatus. It is stated that
from the results thus obtained the proportion of wool in the
whole sample, and thence in the whole bale, can be
calculated.— II. S.
Improvements in or connected with the Manufacture of
Textile Articles tvith Fringed Edges. A. Bancroft,
Manchester. Eng. Pat. 15,056, September 5, 1891.
This invention is for making upon textile fabrics fringed
edges the threads of which will not fray or become loose, by
saturating certain parts of the fabrics with gum, size, &c,
and then cutting them into fringes the threads of which are
cemented together. This is effected by stamping upon the
material in the piece a quantity of gum or size, &c, in suitable
forms, allowing it to dry, and then cutting these parts of
the fabric into fringes which are stiff and not liable to curl.
The gummed parts, while still soft, may be coated with
gold, silver, or other metallic leaf, or the parts forming the
fringe printed upon or dyed. — H. S.
An Improved Compound Fabric. F. J. Bugg, Ipswich.
Eng. Pat. 18,003, October 20, 1891.
Sheets of " composition compressed or lay leather " are
covered with felt, woollen cloth, flannel, canvas, calico, or
other suitable textile fabric by sizing one surface of each
sheet, placing the sized surfaces together, pressing, and
drying. Both sides of the leather may be so covered or
several sheets stuck together to give the required substance.
—A. G. B.
June so, 1888.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
51 'J
VI -DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER-
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
So-called " Decolourised " Tannin Extracts. V. II.
Soxhlet. Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 15— 1G.
Decoi.oukiskd tannins are required for three distinct
purposes : — (1.) As a stiffening and weighting material
for silk ; such must he absolutely colourless and is
prepared from oak-galls. (2.) As a mordant for cotton,
for which sumac is particularly applicable, chestnut-
wood, divi-divi, bablah, and others beiDg also used. (3.)
For the actual process of tanning, the object being to
remove cither an excess of colouring matter or an
objectionable colour, as in the case of quebracho and
hemlock. The mixture of one extract with another will
sometimes serve to correct the colour ; a French sample of
'• Extrait de quebracho decolore" was found by the author
to be a mixture of quebracho and chestnut-wood.
Gondolo's method of decolourising by means of bullocks'
blood gives good results, particularly with Virginian
sumac aud chestnut-wood, although the latter does not, as
a rule, require decolourising for the tanner.
Lead acetate can be very successfully applied under
certain conditions ; the addition of 0-4 kilo, per 1,000 litres
of tannin-liquor, the boiling of the liquor and its subsequent
filtration and evaporation are the features of the process.
The method gives good results with chestnut, oak, and
larch, but is not adapted for sumac, valonia, and other
bloom tannins, such as divi-divi and myrabolans, because it
leaves such extracts opalescent — a fatal fault in the eyes of
dyers. Lead nitrate has been patented for the same
purpose in Germany.
Foelsing's patent has appeared in this Journal, 1892,
237 ; in a recent method by the same author the use of
electricity is dispensed with, aud he employs antimony
oxalate as a precipitant ; but Soxhlet points out that a
considerable amount of tannin is thus lost.
The author finds that most salts will effect, the decolourisa-
tion required, to a greater or less extent. Iron, copper, and
chromium salts are of course beyond the pale, but sodium
sulphate, zinc acetate, magnesium sulphate, ammonium
sulphate, and bismuth nitrate can be employed. The last
mentioned works well, but is high-priced. To apply these
salts, a weak extract (3° — 4° 13.) is prepared either by the
diffusion method or by extraction under pressure at 112°,
and to every 1,000 litres of this 250 — 500 grins, of the salt
are added ; the liquor is run into basins and allowed to
remain with frequent stirring, at 60° — 70°, for 1 — 3 hours.
Neutralisation is then effected by addition of borax or
sodium phosphate, and the warm liquor passed through a
filter-press. The neutralisation is of great importance,
because if left acid the liquor will become turbid during the
subsequent and concluding process of evaporation to
30° B.
In a very recent patent (this Journal, 1892, 81) stroutium
compounds are proposed. (Compare also Villon, this
Journal, 1890, 820 ; Jean, this Journal, 1892, 46.)— A. G. B.
Grawitz' Recent Patented Improvements in Aniline Black.
II. Schmidt. Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 502—503 and 531—
532.
Grawitz has patented a process (French Pat. 212,082, 1891)
which claims to be an improvement on that of Lightfoot
(1863), in which aniline hydrochloride, alkali chlorate and
copper or vanadium are used. He employs an excess of
filkali, or acetates of the alkaline earths, tartrates, oxalates,
citrates, &c, to combine with the hydrochloric acid which
is set free in the reaction. The following is an example of
the bath -.—Aniline hydrochloride (1,295 grms.), crystallised
sodium acetate (1,020 grms.), tartaric acid (100 grms.),
sodium chlorate (207 grms.), and ammonium vanadate (5
gnus.), dissolved in water (1,300 cc). He has since confirmed
Nietzki's view that the tetramine (aniline black) resulting
from the condensation of the four aniline residues is a
mon-acid base, and therefore three molecules of hydrochloric
acid are set free in the reaction. The author points out
that hydrochloric acid is also produced by the decomposition
of the chlorates ; in this respect chromates are superior as
oxidising agents. The hydrochloric acid from the
" chlorate black " impregnates the fibre, and when the latter
is dried slowly the cellulose is converted into hydro-
cellulose. In printing, in which one surface only is
concerned, the hydrochloric acid does not exert so harmful
an effect, and the thickening medium protects the fibre :
ferric hydroxide, lead dihydroxide, aud lead chromate have
been used advantageously, especially the last salt, in aniline
black printing. For dyeing, however, these are inadmissible,
and it has long been the custom to partially basify the
aniline hydrochloride employed by ammonia, aud ten years
ago exact directions were given for the application of aniline
partially converted into hydrochloride. C. Koechlin several
years ago proposed the use of aniline tartrate and later of
aniline acetate iu conjunction with ammonium chloride,
substantially in this respect, as now again patented by
Grawitz, and it is well known that in the Prud'homme steam
aniline black process. An amount of sodium acetate
proportional to that of the aniline black formed must be
used. Grawitz employs vanadium in the form of ammonium
vanadate, and the author finds that the bath prepared
according to his directions (see above) becomes turbid
within an hour after its preparation, and can no longer be
used ; in a word, Grawitz' improvement is impracticable.
The author shows that the amount of chlorate employed by
Grawitz is only sufficient to convert 55 per cent, of the
aniline salt into black ; taking this iuto account, therefore,
the sodium acetate must be present iu large excess, the more
so if it be calculated on Kayser's formula for aniline black
C12H10N2 instead of Nietzki's C18H15N„.
With regard to the weakening of the fibre, it is remarked
that the oxidising agent as well as the free acid is concerned
in this, and that in addition to hydrocellulose, Witz'
" oxycellulose " is produced. When the oxidation is
carried in the dry way to the stage of emeraldine and
then completed in the wet way by potassium chromate, a
black is obtained which does not rub off the fibre. — A. K. L.
Contribution to our Knowledge of Sumac. W. Eitner.
Der Gerber, 1892,18, 51.
See under XIV. — paye 539.
The Dyeing of Smooth Mohair Fabrics and Plushes.
E. Weiler. Farb. Zeit. 1892, 155.
Mohair piece goods offer considerable difficulties in dveiug
as compared with other woollen fabrics or unions. These
difficulties are caused through the great stiffness and water-
repellent nature of mohair yarns, which prevent the rollers
of the " jiggers " from properly gripping the cloth, which
consequently keeps slipping upon the rollers. This is the
reason why in the dyeing of mohair fabrics the old hand-
worked dye-vats are still used. The above-mentioned
~b~ a,
Jigger for Dyking Mohair Fabrics and Plushes.
520
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 1892.
drawbacks of the automatic dye vat can be overcome by-
taking into account in their construction the peculiarities of
the material to be dyed.
The side a a' of the jigger is arranged at an angle of
45° ; the perforated diaphragm b V partitions off that part
of the vat in which the steam pipe c c' is arranged. The
latter enters the jigger from the right or left and goes to
the bottom, where it is bent at a right angle and is
then conducted right along the bottom. The horizontal
part of the pipe is perforated in such a manner as to
allow the steam to go upward only. In d d', instead of
the usual circular roller, an elliptical roller is arranged, with
as large a longitudinal diameter as possible and well grip-
ping edges. The seeord roller, e, is a circular groined
roller.
For the dyeing of yarns in this jigger a rake f is
arranged along the guiding roller e, which keeps the skeins
always in position. In the dyeing of piece goods a gauge
is employed instead of the rake. — C. t >. W.
The Use of Mineral Pigment Colours in Cotton Dyeing.
V. II. Soxhlet. Karl.. Zeit. 1892, 151.
The employment of mineral pigments for the dyeing of
cotton has, since the introduction of the coal-tar colours,
decreased in a very considerable measure, chiefly owing to
the greater ease with which the latter allow of the produc-
tion of brilliant and cheap shades. There is no doubt,
however, that in many cases mineral pigments, even at
present, may with advantage be used upon the fibre.
The application of "iron buff" from iron salts is still
practised to a considerable extent, on account of its great
cheapness and fastness against air and washing. Toluylene
orange and cresotine 3-ellow are probably the only coal-tar
colours capable of producing similar shades, and are in this
way particularly employed for "padding" calicoes. The
'•buff" obtained by these dyes is superior to "iron buff,"
as far as fastness against acids is concerned. The pro-
duction of " iron buff " is exceedingly simple. It is
sufficient to treat the cotton to be dyed with the solution of
a ferrous or terric salt, following with a passage through an
alkaline bath. The iron salt generally employed for this
purpose is " nitrate of iron," i.e., ferric sulphate 40° 15.
(77° Tw.) ; very seldom ferrous sulphate is used. The
cotton is treated in baths of ferric sulphate at from 2° to
5° B., hydro-extracted, and then introduced into a sodium
carbonate bath at 2 B. Instead of the sodium carbonate
bath a lime passage may he adopted. These operations
can be repeated in order to obtain darker shades.
On passing yarns or cloth dyed with this " iron buff "
through a cold bath containing a solution of ferrocyanide
acidulated with sulphuric acid, very fine blue tints are
obtained the depth of which is in diiect proportion to that
of the " iron buff." This blue is scarcely ever produced at
present, the artificial dyes yielding brighter and very much
faster shades. The only property which might commend
this blue to the dyer for occasional application is its great
fastness against acids. In dyeing this blue it is advan-
tageous to add to the "nitrate of iron" bath in which the
huff is dyed 2 per cent, of" tin crystals." The buff is fixed
in the ordinary way in an alkaline bath, and subsequently
the blue is developed in a bath of yellow prussiate con-
taining about 2 per cent, of sulphuric acid.
Of other blue colours which might he produced upon the
fibre, only molybdenum blue is worth mentioning, which,
however, has not, and probably never will, find industrial
application.
Nature favours us in every respect with an abundance of
yellow colours. They are very numerous amongst the
natural dyestuffs, as well as amongst mineral pigments and
artificial dyestuffs. Hut owing to the existence of such a
variety of yellow and orange dyes, mineral pigments of
these shades are only employed but to a very limited extent.
The chromates of lead are almost the only yellow and
orange pigments used, and are obtained by the interaction
of bichromates and soluble lead salts. The practical
method of the application of these colours tc the cotton
fibre has been originated by Lassaigne in 1820. Since then
chrome-yellow, and especially chrome-orange, has been
very extensively used on cotton, the colours being fast to
light and washing, aud exceedingly simply produced. The
modern benzidine and diamine dyes are, however, super-
seding the chrome pigments, although the latter are much
faster to light. The process of dyeing cotton yarns with
these chrome pigments consists in well handling the
previously boiled yarn in a 2° B. solution of acetate of lead,
the hanks are then wrung, and without washing worked in
a cold bath containing per 100 of water 4| kilos, of sodium
bichromate and lj kilo, of sulphuric acid. The shade
being developed, the yarns are well washed and dried.
Golden yellows, i.e., redder shades of yellow, are obtained
by using for the first bath basic acetate of lead instead of
the normal acetate. A beautiful orange is obtained by first
treating the cotton in a 5 B. solution of basic acetate of
lead (subacetate), then developing the yellow in a second
hath with 20 per cent, of sodium bichromate, and finally
working in a hot bath containing 12 per cent, (of the weight
of the cotton) of lime. The tendency of the yarns dyed
with chrome pigments to "rub" or •' dust off" may be
reduced to a minimum by oiling them.
( 'admiwn yellow is scarcely ever- used on cotton, although
nitrate of cadmium is used in calico printing to prevent the
sulphuretted hydrogen, given off by the albumen used in the
process, from damaging the printed chrome yellow. In order
to produce cadmium yellow alone upon cotton, the latter
is heated for half an hour in a bath containing 4 J per cent.
of cadmium chloride at 60: C. The hydro-extracted cotton
is theu transferred to a hath containing I per cent, of
sodium sulphide, whereby the yellow is developed.
Of other mineral salts suitable for dyeing cotton yellow,
antimony-orange and sulphide of arsenic may be mentioned.
These two compounds, however, are no longer in practical
use for dyeing purposes. On impregnating cotton yarns
or fabrics with concentrated solutions of tartar emetic or
oxalate of antimony, and exposing them subsequently'
to a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, good orange shades
are obtained, although the shades obtained with arsenic are
very fugitive if treated with alkaline liquids. This fact and
the poisonous nature of the sulphide of arsenic entirely
prohibit its use in dyeing For similar reasons the green
chromium arsenite and copper arsenite are never used.
Of considerable importance, especially in calico-printing,
are the salts of manganese for the production of a variety
of brown shades, technically termed " Bistres." The pro-
duction of these colours consists in the fixation of manganic
hydroxide upon the fibre. For these purposes the fabrics
are impregnated with manganese salts and then taken
through a chloride of lime solution, when a full brown
shade at once appears. Well as this process answers for
calicoes, it gives very poor results on hanks. Nor does a
passage first through permanganate and then through an
acidulated solution of ferrous sulphate answer the purpose
any better. Of importance are, however, those processes
in which sulphate of manganese together with permanganate
is used. The yarns are worked in a solution of sulphate
of manganese at 2 1!., hydro-extracted, and subsequently
immersed in a bath of permanganate at 1' B. A very good
brown shade is obtained, which may be made darker by
repeating the operations. These colours darken considerably
in the process of drying, though in a very irregular manner,
thus causing unevenness. This tendency to uucveuness can
be counteracted by passing the yams before drying through
a bath of acetate of iron at > B.
Extremely fast shades of grey may be obtained by
passing yarn through a solution containing 4 per cent, of
mercuric nitrate, hydro-extracting and then treating in a
solution of sodium sulphide. Owing to the great fastness
of the grey shades obtained in this manner no poisonous
effect need be apprehended, although special precautious
may be required to protect the workmen who are treating
the yarns in the solution of the mercuric salt. — C. O. \\\
J.mc 3»,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
521
PATENTS.
Improvements in Transparent Coloured Materials for
Decorative Purposes. A. McLean, West Kensington,
Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 8296, May 14, 1891.
Gelatin dyed with aniline colours is made into thin sheets
which are dipped in a bath of thin oil varnish and hung up
to dry. The sheets thus prepared may be cut up into
pieces of various shapes and patterns and applied by means
of some adhesive material to the surfaces to be decorated.
Patterns in more colours may be produced by cutting out
from the coloured gelatin certain portions, which will
constitute the pattern. By running over this gelatin
uncoloured or suitably coloured gelatin, a number of
colour effects may he obtained. — C. O. W.
Improvements in the Process of Dyeing, Tanning, and
Mordanting Leather, Teazled Fabrics, or other Porous
Materials, and in Apparatus employed therefor. J.
Goldsclimidt, Furth, Bavaria, Germany. Eng. Pat.
19,397, November 10, 1891.
The distribution of dyes on surfaces of leather and other
fabrics has heretofore been effected by the application of
centrifugal force or by means of brushes or rolls. These
methods are tardy and liable to damage the grain of the
leather or surface of the fabric. By this invention the dye
and mordant are distributed by means of compressed air.
The hides are placed on discs superimposed on one another,
with sufficient working distance between each, in an air-
tight vat ; as each disc is put in its place the dye is distri-
buted oxer the hide by means of a rubber pipe leading
from the reservoir of dyestuff, from which the dye is forced
by compressed air. When all the discs are in position the
vessel is closed and the compressed air turned on ; the dye
is thus forced into the fabric. The mordant maybe applied
in the same manner. For drawings of apparatus for which
claims are made the original specification must be consulted.
—A. G. B.
Improvements in Process and Apparatus for Bleaching
by Electrolysis. O. Imray, London. From T. Y. Mont-
gomery, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 2329, February 6,
1892.
See under XL, page 535.
Erratum.
This Journal, May issue, page 432, col. 1, the figuring
to be reversed, Fig. 2 becoming Fig. 3. Fig. 1 to remain
as it is.
VII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Sulphuric Acid Manufacture in 1891. B. Hasenclever.
Chem. Ind. 1892,15, f.9.
It is now recognised that the reactions that take place in a
vitriol chamber can be aided by bringing about a more
intimate contact of the gases by causing them to traverse
narrow tubes in their passage from one lead chamber to
another, the advantage being more marked at the end of
the operation, and several small chambers at the exit end
being therefore provided through which the gases are driven
and in which they are intimately commingled. At Petrowitz
in Austria, and at Ghent in Belgium, lead chambers in the
form of gasometers are in use, but nothing has yet been
published to prove that they possess any particular advan-
tages. The coke, both in the Gay-Lussac and Glover towers,
can be replaced by brick or stone exposing sufficient surface
for the work of absorption, the reason for the change being
that the coke generally used becomes gradually clogged
and inefficient, and further that it reduces nitrosulphuric
acid, yielding carbonic acid and nitric oxide, the latter being
useless at that part of the process at which it finds its way
back to the chambers.
A considerable proportion of the impurities in sulphuric
acid can be avoided by freeing the gases from dust after
leaving the pyrites burners and before entering the chambers.
A further quantity can be got rid of by deposition before
the chamber aeid goes to be concentrated. By pursuing
this system at Griesheim, the residue left by evaporation
can be reduced to one-third or one-fourth of its usual
amount, e.g., from 0-009 to 0' 003 grm. per litre.
On account of the high price of platinum, considerable
alterations have been made in the methods of concentrating
sulphuric acid to 66° B. Faure and Kessler have proposed
an improvement consisting in the use of a flat platinum
vessel provided with a leaden head. A construction
specially recommended is that in which a series of tubes are
arranged spirally and soldered to a cylinder the lower edge
of which enters the liquid seal of a platinum dish. The system
adopted by Negrier consists of porcelain dishes, arranged
one above the other in terrace form, resting upon iron
plates and heated from beneath,— the sulphuric acid diipping
from one to the other. Scheurer-Kestner has devised an
apparatus of which the lower part is of cast iron while the
head is of platinum. The acid first flows into a still wholly
of platinum, and then into the cast-iron still with the
platinum head. In such an apparatus 4,500 kilos, of
sulphuric acid of 95 per cent, strength can be prepared in
24 hours. The weight of the platinum is 18-8 kilos., and
that of the cast iron 250 kilos. The amount of platinum
dissolved is about 0'15 grm. per ton of acid of sp.gr.
66° B. The cast iron is more attacked when less concen-
trated acid is produced, the product moreover becoming
turbid, but it withstands the action of 95 — 96 per cent, acid
better. Heraeus has made the observation (this Journal,
1891, 460) that platinum alloyed with 10 per cent, of
iridium is about twice as resistant as pure platinum.
For very concentrated sulphuric acid the same technologist
has constructed an apparatus of platinum plated with gold,
with which the loss of metal is only about one-seventh that
of pure platinum. The plates are prepared by casting gold
round platinum 1 cm. thick previously heated to the
melting point of the former metal, an alloy being formed at
the point of contact, and plates perfectly coated with a
thin layer of gold being obtained on rolliug. Taking the
price of go'ul at 2,800 marks, and that of platinum at 1,800
marks per kilo., the cost of the metal dissolved by the
action of the acid is only 22 per cent, in the ease of the
gold-plated retort of what it is when unprotected platinum
is used. L. Kessler has endeavoured to concentrate
sulphuric acid by leading heated air through it in an
apparatus made of lead and stone now in use with satisfactory
results at Clermont-Ferrand.
The quantity of sulphuric acid produced in Germany in
1890 is estimated at G27,392 German tons.* In the Rhine
provinces, Westphalia, Upper Silesia, and Belgium, the
output has exceeded the demand, a result contributed to by
the fact that in German}' 80 per cent, of the total amount
of soda is now made by the ammonia process. An outlet
might be found for it in the preparation of artificial manures.
It is calculated that the agricultural products of Germany
require yearly 640,276 tons of phosphoric acid, of which
156,020 tons are supplied in the form of superphosphate,
basic slag, and guano. The balance of 484,256 tons could
be supplied by human and animal excrement, which accounts
for 553,572 tons, provided no loss occur. Assuming 50 per
cent, to be lost (a very moderate estimate) a quantity of
207,470 tons of phosphoric acid is still lacking. This
deficiency in phosphoric acid explains the inferiority of
Germany in the amount of the crops compared with other
lands. The following table shows the yield per hectare in
tons of England and Germany respectively : —
522
THE JOUTvNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Junes..,- $92.
England.
Germany.
Wheat
195
I-9S
1-SS
1-S1
i-a
l-lo
21-13
■ -
O'Jl
The quantity of phosphoric acid needed in Germany
would he 960,000 tons ins) 270 tons if th:
- hectare wt ■ - ■' there as in this
country. In the author's opinion, the increased use of
artificial manure* is . - ity. — B. B.
Concentrating Snlphv « Gold-lined Platinum
Stills. G.'Eunge. Eng. and Mining J. 53. - -
The stills in question were brought out by YV. C. Heraeus.
of Hanau. in Gen:..
460 — 461. Since that time 15 of them have bei
• outers. It was found in all cases eh hare
hitherto come under i >:.._; -..::on that goldis fa:
by boili: . - - . - i than platinum, the proportion
being 1 to 7 or 10. But a mistake was coram/
Is. which has now beendete
3 thought thai goH lining
the stills, or.
is the liquid .. Bnt a ysar's experience has
proved thai 5 is not « . the gold, and th
the bottom, is certainly perfectly uncha: _ te upper
portion of the still, where the platinum is not pro;-..
- corroded as much as before, especially at the point
of junction bet wet urn and the gold. This has
led to ordering new stills to be lined ent:: _ Id, but
keeping the lining much thinner at the upper portion than
bottom.
tsieim Chemical Works 3 still was set to work
in April 1S91, composed of an old platinum dome joined to
_.'.d bortom.
The still^ras run night and day, mostly for acid of the
_ -: concentration (5
.: mined, and the . :^um) portion was found
to be corroded, hut the gold-lined bottom did not show a
:' either mechanical or chemical action. Therefore a
-t.ll. entirely lined with gold, was ordered forthwith.
. Faure and
- - : still was started in June - ished with a
platinum bortom of 0-4 mm thickness, lined with 0-1 mm.
gold. On January 15 the still was dismounted, baring
furnished 646 to::- - _ ■ .trio!, becans
portions, not lined with gold, were corroded. The bottom,
however, plainly showed the hammer marks and exhibited
signs of corrosion whatever.
- a Prentice still 1
np on March 9, 1S91, lined at the bottom and 3 in. np the
sides with 0-05 mm. gold. In January 1895 having
furnished 1.7 boos of si _ ■ triol, partly up to 96 per
cent, it was examined, and the loss in " "~as found
= -_:::-. all of which was from the upper unj :
portion.
At the Aupry works a similar still was started in Febm-
-1. and stopped for examination in Februat ■ "
after having furnished 1,163 tons ol - . . half of
-- _ : was 120 gnus., or
a fifth of what would be expected from an ordinary still
under favourable circums::i^tes. Here also the loss mani-
xtended only to the unprotected platinum portion.
There cannot be any reasonable doubt that the 1( --
stock entirely protected . _ hning would be !< --
one-tenth of that of an ordinary platinum still. But two
questions may be asked now. First, why must the Heraeus
combination be en t' an ordinary jr _
the platinum ? Secondly, if gold is the only n
contact with platinum, why not employ a copper still lined
with gold ? The first question may be answered as follows :
Any ordinary gilding, whether galvanic or isneous, does not
ffect the purpose of protecting the platinum, as the
minute film of gold is always more or less porous : the im-
perfections are speedily found by the boiling acid, and the
gold film is soon detached from the underlying metal. But
in the Heraeus system a sound and thick lining is produced
by pouring melted gold on to the surface of a platinum
ought to a white heat, beyond the fusing point of
gold. Thus an intimate junction is produced, and a sub-
stantia, solid coat of gold is left on the inside, which is
never at any point detached from the platinum, and behaves
toward sulphuric acid as if the metal consisted entirely of
gold. Xor is it possible to employ a base metal in lieu of
platinum, for the slightest accidental injury to the thin gold
lining would allow the boiling acid access to the base metal
which would be instantly dissolved and would cause the still
to collapse.
It is true that a gold-lined still costs a good deal more
than an ordinary one. Taking a Delplaee still, weighing
37J lb., an inner gold lining of 0- 1 mm. for the bottom, and
0-025 mm. for the dome will weigh about 5 J lh., and will
e cost by about 1 ,000 dollars, deduction being made
for the value of an equal thickness of platinum. This
..'. amount for additional interest on plant. But
allowir. ly production of 2,000 tons of acid, the
annual saving of platinum, otherwise dissolved and carried
away by the acid, would be at least 2} lb., worth nearly
300 dollars, and the saving would be in reality very much
" the total renewal of a still,
- only two-thirds or three-quarters of the price
of new platinum is realised, will occur at very much rarer
I resent. It may be assumed that the
additional expense of a Heraeus still will be paid for in
from one to two vears. — W. S.
:von the Estimation of Chlorine in Electrolysed
Solutions. L. M. Norton. Technol. Quarterly, 1891, 361.
See under XXTTT., pa* ■ I-.-.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and connected icith the Manufacture of
unofes. E. Fleischer, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Eng. Pat 7437. April 29, 18
The improvements are in the process for manufacturing
alkali alurmnates. alumina, caustic alkalis, and carbonates
of soda and potash, the alkali aluminate being obtained
from aluminous substances bv means of alkali sulph
The chief difficulty in " sodium aluminate by
fusing bauxite and sulphate of soda with the addition of
coal has hitherto been the formation of liquors containing
quantities of compounds of sodium, sulphur, and iron ;
furthermore, the fused mass seriously attacks the melting
pot. The author avoids the production of the deleterious
compound by using in the fusion quicklime or carbonate of
lime, so that, as • - 1, the sulphide of iron part
combined with calcium sulphide may be produced in
- uble form. The following rule is given : — * Add to
the aluminous substance (clay or bauxite) for every
molecule of alumina one molecule of alkali sulphate, and
- re by the addition of iron or its oxides that fully one
molecule of iron (including that already contained in the
) be present for the formation of FeS for every mole-
cule of alkali sulphate or alumina. The lime or chalk is to
be reckoned as two molecules for every three molecules of
silica, and a further quarter molecule of lime or chalk is to
be added for every molecule of alumina." To this must
be added, oi - - v amount of charcoal.
D is performed at a moderate red heat, not too
high, after which the mass is cooled, preferably in closed
iron vessels. Lixiviation is performed in the usual ^ ay.
June 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
523
To obtain alumina ami alkali carbonates, the colourless
solution of aluminatc is saturated at nearly boiling point
with carbonic acid.
Should it be desired to obtain caustic alkali liquor direct
from the alumiuate solution, the alumina may be precipitated
by lime.— T. L. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production oj
Chlorine and Alkaline Carbonates. C. Kellner, Vienna,
Austria. Eng. Pat. 20,713, November 27, 1891.
For the simultaneous production of chlorine and an alkaline
carbonate, a heated saturated solution of an alkaline
chloride is caused rapidly to circulate in two separate
streams through an electroly tical decomposing apparatus, one
of these streams, viz., that which flows past the anodes of
the apparatus, and to which a small quantity of sulphuric
acid or of a sulphate of the base used has been added,
being conveyed, after leaving the apparatus mentioned,
through a vessel provided with the alkaline chloride in a
solid state, whereby the liquid is again completely saturated
before being conveyed back to the anodes ; the other
stream, viz., that which flows past the cathodes of the
apparatus, being subjected, after leaving the said apparatus,
simultaneously to a cooling action, to contact with solid
alkaline chloride, and to the action of carbonic acid,
whereby a carbonate of the alkali present is formed and
precipitated from the solution, which is afterwards con-
veyed back to the cathode cells of the apparatus.
To facilitate the escape of hydrogen set free, carbonic
acid is introduced into the cathode cells. The electrolyte
is also maintained at such a velocity and temperature as
will prevent carbonate of soda from settling within the
decomposing apparatus.
Improvements in the Production of Chlorine and Alkaline Carbonates.
To carry out this process an electrolytical decomposing
apparatus, consisting of a succession of frames R (Fig 1)
in which the electrodes are arranged, is proposed ; these
frames, being separated from each other by diaphragms, aud
having in their upper parts passages g g' (Fig. 2) con-
nected by other passages h h' with the passages o . . . and
a, through which the electrolytes are caused to circulate,
the passages </ </ allowing the gases set free during the
electrolytical decomposition to escape separately from the
ions. Diaphragms 1) of a permeable fabric or porous clay
are used, the pores of which are filled with gelatinous
material mixed with a solution of salt corresponding to
that to be decomposed. This is to prevent injurious
mechanical diffusion from one cell to another of the liquids
treated, and to facilitate circulation of the ions.
The electrodes are made by mixing together powdered
retort carbon, thickened solution of wood cellulose in zinc
chloride, kneading to a paste, moulding, washing, and then
heating in a muffle, impregnating with a hydrocarbon, and
then heating several times.
Electrodes are also claimed, the pores of which have been
filled up with peroxide of lead obtained either by covering
these electrodes with a layer of litharge and sulphate of
ammonia mixed together, or by boiling them in a saturated
solution of lead acetate, and afterwards electrolytically
transforming the lead or oxide of lead thus obtained into
peroxide of lead. — J. C. 0.
A Process for Recovering Cyanides from Coal-Gas. W.
T. Rowland, Philadelphia, Penn., U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
22,347, December 22, 1891.
See under II. page 510.
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
The Application of certain Rare Metals for Ceramic
Colours. Sprechsaal, 1892, 25, 85.
The following results are described : — Tungstic oxide
(1 part) and a vitrifiable pigment flux (4 parts) yield an
extremely stable bright yellow colour. The endeavour was
made to replace chromic oxide by vanadic oxide. Pure
ferric oxide (64 parts), marble (32 parts), ammonium
vanadate (4 parts), and vanadic oxide (2 parts) finely
powdered, give a beautiful light rose-coloured sub-glaze for
stoneware. — A. R. L.
The Use of Mineral Oil Residues as Fuel for Glass
Furnaces. J. Malyschew. Chem. Zeit. 16, (Chenj.
Rep.) 85.
See under II., page 510.
PATENTS.
An Improved Composition or Compound designed to serve
as a Substitute for Wood, and also applicable for the
Manufacture of Brichs a?id Crucibles, Retorts, and
other Articles of Earthenware. W. A. Kerr, Rhyl.
Eng. Pat. 7040, April 23, 1891.
" A variety of talc containing hydrated silicate of magnesia
and alumina," or kaolin either free from or containing sand,
or other clay or clayey loam is mixed with " sphagnum,
which is a kind of moss, or with peat, either in the condition
of fibre or granules, or with the said sphagnum and peat
combined." The talc or clay is weathered before use, and
after having been ground is mixed with the peat by making
a pile of the two materials in alternate layers, allowing the
mass to " ripen " for 48 hours, and slicing down the pile
vertically and passing the mixture into a mixing-press con-
sisting of a hollow cylinder provided with an axial shaft
bearing blades inclined so that the mixed material is con-
veyed to one end of the cylinder and forced out through any
324.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 80, 1892.
suitable die. The column of clay and vegetable-matter as
it issues from the die, is cut into blocks by a buzz-saw,
dried by -waste heat and fired, the peat serving; as an
auxiliary fuel. — B. 1!.
Improvements in Kilns or Ore/is for Firing Terra-Cotta
and other like Materials. C. D. d'Enghein, A. D.
d'Enghein, and S. 1). d'Enghein, Belgium. Eng. Pat.
18,281, October 24, 1891.
In these kilns the hearths are at a sufficient distance from
one another to leave between them compartments in which
delicate articles can be baked. Uniformity of baking is
secured by causing the draft to follow two conduits of
equal dimensions placed one at each side of the oven.
Either wood or coal can be used for heating. The floors of
the beating compartments are not horizontal but inclined,
an arrangement which facilitates the charging and emptying
of the baking compartments.
It is claimed that these kilns effect economy of fuel and of
labour, scenic uniform baking, do not require close watching,
and can, if desired, be charged entirely with glazed
goods. — V. C.
A JS'riv and Improved Process of Marking Glass by Acid.
W. Leader, London. Eng. l'at. 1974, February 2nd,
1892.
This process consists in " steeping brown paper stencils in
hydrofluoric acid and pressing on the articles to be marked
with heated silver sand." — A (
Improvements relating to the Marbling of Enamelled
Articles and to Apparatus therefor. G. Gniichtel
Saxony. Eaig. Pat. 3034, February 16, 1892.
Hitherto enamelled kitchen utensils have been given a
marbled surface by squirting a liquid upon the surface of
the enamel and then shaking the vessel so as to distribute
the liquid in lines or veins. This needs care and skill on
the part of the operator and at best does not permit of an
uniform marbling.
In this invention a plate is used provided with pins
or bristles which are dipped in the liquid. From the points
of the bristles drops of uniform size are deposited on the
enamel in a regular manner. By gently knocking the
utensil the drops are caused to run out into veins or lines,
and a uniform marbling is thus produced. — V. C.
Improvements in Kilns or Ovens for Burning and Glazing
Sanitary Ware and the like. C. Armstrong, Burnley
Eng. Pat. 3586, February 24, 1892.
The invention relates more particularly to kilns in which
sanitary ware is burnt and glazed. In the ordinary kilns
sooty matter becomes mixed with the salt and the excessive
heat at the roof of the kiln often causes the salt deposited
there to liquefy and fall on the goods beneath, producing
unsightly blotches. In this invention a midfeather is placed
in the tire box projecting downwards into the incandescent
fuel, and leaving a space at the back closed by a damper.
Instead of disturbing the hardened crust at the top of the
fire when the salt is to be deposited (which inevitably
produces a cloud of soot) the damper is raised and the salt
is introduced at the back of the midfeather where the fire is
burning hotly. This prevents the contamination by soot.
To prevent the liquefaction of salt on the roof and the
consequent staining or blotching of the goods, air is
admitted near the base of the kiln and is carried upwards
by flues and discharged along the roof, thereby reducing the
temperature at this part of the oven, and thus preventing the
formation and adhesion of liquid salt. — V. C.
An Improvement on the Method of Treating Glass Cullet
known as " Blacks." J. S. Williams, Brierley Hill.
Eng. Pat. 9097, February 29, 1892.
" lir.M ks" is the trade term for the glass removed from the
blowing irons. Hitherto the adhering rust has been
removed from the " blacks " by means of cold acid.
In this invention the acid bath is heated, thereby accele-
rating the cleansing of the " blacks." The method of
heating recommended is by blowing steam into the bath.
—v. c.
IX-BUILDING MATERIALS. CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
The New Regulation for the Supply of Portland Cement
in llussia. Thonind. Zeit. 1892, 16, 21 and 40.
Fortlaxd cement is made either from a calcareous marl or
a mixture containing clay and chalk, by burning until
friable, and then grinding to a fine powder. The hydraulic
modulus, or ratio of the sum of the parts by weight of
CaO and (K.,< > + Xa.l ) ) to that of the parts by weight of
SiOa, A1.,03, and Fe203 ought not to fall below 1-7 nor
to exceed 2 '2, for Portland cement
CaO + Xa„Q + K20
Sid. + AU), + Fe„Q,
= 1-7 to :
The percentage of sulphuric acid and magnesia should
not be greater than 1-75 to 3 in Portland cements ready
for use.
The specific gravity of Portland cement must be not less
than 3 • 05.
The cement should not set in less than one hour, or take
longer than eight hours. A sieve with 4,900 meshes per
sq. cm., should not pass less than 50 per cent., and one
with 90") meshes per sip cm. should pass all but 15 per
cent, of residue.
The cement after seven days setting should he able to
show a limit of elasticity of 20 kilos, per sq. cm., and after 28
days 25 kilos, per sq. cm. A test piece, prepared with 3 parts
sand and 1 cement, should be able to stand, after seven days,
5 kilos, and after 28 days, S kilos, per sq. cm. — A. L. S.
Tlie Fifteenth Annual General Meeting of the Association
of German Portland Cement Makers. C'hem. Zeit.
1892,16,371.
At the meeting of the Association held in Berlin on the
26th and 27th of February last, it was stated that there
were about 80 members, representing a production in
Germany alone of 7,850,000 casks of Portland cement. In
the report of the council it was stated that efforts were
being made to restrict the use of the name Portland cement
to those commercial products which alone had a right to
the title. With respect to the magnesia question, two
cements had been examined which contained 4-5 and
6-5 per cent, of magnesia respectively, and it would be
necessary to ascertain whether they showed a retrograde
tendency in course of time. Similar scrutiny was requisite
with such cements as contained no admixture of foreign
matter nor any abnormal amount of magnesia, but gave
unusual results in respect of the loss on ignition, specific
gravity, and tensile strength when tested by the standard
rules. Brands of cement in the manufacture of which slag
was known to figure as a raw material, were also to be
examined, lest they should contain slag added subsequently
to the manufacture. The question whether it was per-
missible to add more than 2 per cent, of colouring matter,
not with a view of altering the time of setting, but for
June30.l89B.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
525
bringing the colour of the product to a standard tint, was
decided in the negative, it being ruled to be a deception to
alter the colour of cement in order to hide the results of
careless manufacture. The question as to the permissible
limits of magnesia has not j-et been completely decided, and
was referred back to the committee. Schumann com-
municated some results on the influence of oils on Portland
cement.
Tensile Strength in Kilos, per Square Centimetre.
Age of Test Pieces.
1 Cement
; 1 Sand.
1 Cement ; 3 Sana.
Water.
Petroleum.
Vulcan Oil.
Rape Oil.
Water.
Petroleum.
Vulcan Oil.
Kape Oil.
3f8
37-0
4f-l
M'4
40-3
48-2
34 -3
33-4
SV1
:u-7
38-9
44' 9
35-0
3.V7
31-1
26' 4
21-6
19-5'
39'6
45-1
51-3
27 -5
28-5
33-3
28-4
3V0
35-3
215-4
26*0
7-6
28- 1
30-9
32-0
25-4
20-8
22-3
Destroyed
26-3
22'0
Cracked on the outside.
The first series of test pieces were hardened one week in
water, three weeks in air at about 30° C, and were then
placed in the various liquids mentioned in the table. The
test pieces of the second series were differently treated,
inasmuch as after the first, week in water they were kept
for two weeks iu air at the ordinary temperature, during
which time they were placed in water for half au hour each
day. Finally they were immersed in the liquids experi-
mented with as before. The question of the best method of
determining the time of setting of Portland cement is now
being considered in collaboration with the Director of the
Koyal Prussian Testing Station for Materials of Construction.
— B. B.
The Action of certain Chlorides on Portland Cement,
Dobrzynski. Thonind. Zeit. 1892, 16, C4.
The author has examined the action of the chlorides of
magnesium, barium, sodium, and ammonium upon cement,
with the following results. The quantity of water necessary
to produce a paste of normal consistence is greater the
more difficultly soluble the chloride used. The time of
setting is lengthened, in the case of the more difficultly
soluble chlorides, as the percentage added is increased. In
the experiments on the influence of the various chlorides on
the tensile strength, the test pieces were kept in solutions of
the same salts at the same degree of concentration as had
been used in gauging them. Barium chloride had the most
marked effect — -a result which the author attributes to the
tendency of barium oxide to behave towards the silica and
alumina of the cement iu the same manner as lime, the
resulting compounds however possessing a greater tensile
strength. The cement used had a tensile strength of
9'75 kilos, per sq. cm.* at 7 days and 12'83 at 28 days,
when tested under normal conditions, that is to say, gauged
with three parts of sand to one of cement, using clean water
only.
The following results, expressed in kilos, per sq. cm.
were obtained when the chlorides above-mentioned were
used : —
Percentage of Chloride.
1%
ST 3% j. 4 7o
5%
6%
7 Days.
Magnesium chloride.
n-o
W85
11-0
9-25
9 25
8-75
Barium chloride ....
10-5
10-5
12-0
12-75
12-75
13-25
Ammonium chloride.
10-5
10-25
9-0
8'75
8-75
8-50
Sodium chloride
10-75
10-5
100
9-75
11-0
s-«
Percentage of Chloride.
1%
2 7o
3°/o
*7o
B%
6%
28 Dnys.
Mtornesium chloride.
Ammonium chloride.
Sodium chloride
13-75
13-5
12-75
13-0
l .-!■:,
13-5
12-75
12-5
l.T.-,
IT 75
12-1)
12-75
11-5
14-75
11-5
11-5
IV 0
1.V0
11-25
12-25
10-5
15-25
10-75
110
— B. B.
PATENTS.
* To convert kilos, per square cm. into pounds per square inch
multiply bj 14-2515.
A Process or Method of Treating Meerschaum to render it
as Porous and as Absorbent in the Manufactured State
as in the Natural, and to Adapt it to Various Uses,
J. S. Weingott, London. Kng. Pat. 11,244, July 2,
1891.
The meerschaum either in the rough state or cut to any
desired shape, such as a pipe howl, which may or may not
have been previously polished or waxed in the usual way,
is gradually heated so as without cracking to carbonise and
blacken it. The operation may be conducted by placing
the articles to be treated between laj-ers of dry sawdust
(preferably oak) and igniting the sawdust, or in a closed
vessel and heating the exterior thereof. The meerschaum
is then plunged into melted wax or oil and re-heated, until
a deep black colour is produced, after which it may be
polished with waxed cloths. It may also be dipped in a
solution of pyrogallic acid with a view of neutralising the
nicotine from the tobacco ; other solutions of similar efficacy
may be employed. Meerschaum prepared according to the
invention is capable of being used for crucibles, cupels and
the like.— B. B.
The Manufacture of an Improved Compound for Coating
Walls and other Surfaces and for the Production of
Casts or Mouldings and for Analogous Purposes.
K. Norwood, Denmark Hill. Eng. Pat. 21,199, Decem-
ber 4, 1891.
The object of the invention is to produce an adhesive
compound similar to that described in Patent 1620 of 1882,
commercially known as " alabastine," but different therefrom
in respect of the fact that it can be used with cold water
instead of hot. One hundredweight of gypsum is calcined,
and while it is hot, five to eight pounds of glue dissolved in
water are added, and from half a pound to one pound and a
half of zinc sulphate or some equivalent substance, the
526
THE JOURNAL OI-' THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June »>, 1892.
object being to retard the setting of the glue and gypsum
and produce a harder compound. An alternative method
consists in adding the glue dry, relying on the moisture
liberated from the gypsum during it- calcination for the
necessary water. The mixture is heated until both the water
from the gypsum and that added with the glue are driven
off, the dry mass ground and coloured if desired. — B. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of a Resistible Material
chiefly Designed for Building Purposes. H. Hartmann,
Mannheim, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2957, February 15,
1892.
Materials such as " lime, trass, cement, and gypsum,"
with or without gravel or sand, are mixed with metal strips,
shavings, turnings, or wire-like particles, and made into a
mass with water, the metal fibres more or less uniting or
" felting " together and forming a coherent product. It
may be used as a building mateiial for ceilings, floorings,
wans, &e., either alone or with a core of ordinary cement
concrete, the chief strain on the structure being taken by
the outer layers containing the metal wires or strips. — B. B.
Improved Artificial Stones. .1. S. Holliday, Camberwell.
Eng. Pat. 4496, March 7, 1892.
Two compositions are patented, one for the face and the
other for the body of the stone. That for the face consists
of whiting 0'25, clean Bath stone dust 0'3, Portland
cement 0-3, and yellow ochre 0'15 parts respectively.
They are mixed together with water to a suitable con-
sistency, and poured into a mould to a depth sufficient for
the face of the block. The backing is composed of crushed
slag, washed clean, 0-5, crushed granite 0-2, and Portland
cement 0'3 parts respectively, and is poured into the mould
after the facing has been prepared. The object of the
separate facing is tc provide a material capable of being
carved or similarly ornamented. — B. B.
An Improved Distemper for Walls, Ceilings, and the Like.
A. T. Morse, London. Eng. Pat. 5746, March 23, 1892.
Fifty parts of gilder's whiting, \2\ parts of gelatin, 10 parts
of zinc oxide, 1 part of manganese sulphate, 10 parts of
terra alba, 12 parts of Paris white, 14 parts of heavy spar,
\ part of salt, 1 part of alum, and 1 part of bichromate of
potash, are separately crushed, then ground and mixed
together with colours such as arc usual in distempers. The
composition may be used with hot or cold water. — B. B.
X.-METALLUKaY.
Iron Vessels for Molten Substances. Foehr. Chem.Zeit.
1892, 16, 503 and 532—533.
The iron boilers, retorts, autoclaves, &c, at present
obtainable are much more durable than those formerly
made ; for example, cast-iron dishes for desilvering zinc
are now furnished, which will withstand the wear and tear
of 150 operations. The cast iron of which these vessels are
constructed is very dense and line grained, and ferro-
manganese, ferro-silieon, ferro-chromium, tungsten, and
recently also aluminium are added to it in its manufacture.
Very frequently the requisite qualities are attained by
mixing various sorts of crude iron, the proportions being
kept secret. When two samples of east iron are compared,
of the same composition, that having the highest specific
gravity will invariably be found the best to withstand
chemical influences and high temperatures. The form of
the vessel is of great importance, especially when molten
substances are suddenly introduced into them. .Steel vessels
are more liable to crack than those of cast iron, whilst it is
difficult to remove a solidified mass from wrought-iron
vessels. To avoid unequal strain, the best form is that of
a hemisphere, but this form is impracticable, being difficult
to empty and to transport, especially with large quantities
of material. After mentioning in detail several forms of
iron tilting troughs, all of which have disadvantages, the
author describes the following apparatus which was patented
by R. Leder (Quedlinburg, Germany). It consists of a
cast-iron trough made in two pieces, which are bound
together by a riveted wrought-iron band. In the sketch, d
is the boundary curve of the two halves of the trough.
Iron Vessels for Molten Substances.
When, for example, a stream of slag touches the point a,
the surroundings of this point expand in all directions, and
the trough, if made in one piece, generally splits in the
direction a b, whereas, when it is made in two pieces, the
force acts in the direction a c, so that, instead of a fracture,
the upper rim b c of one half takes the position 6' c'. The
composition of the cast iron of which these vessels are made
is kept secret. One of these vessels has been daily in use
for several years, and is in excellent preservation. An entire
waggon weighs about 500 kilos., and holds 1,000 kilos, of
slag. They are so convenient for transport that a wide
application for various molten substances is considered
probable. — A. It. L.
Alloys of Nickel and Iron. 11. Wedding. Verhaudl. d.
Vereins. z. Beforder. d. Gewerbfl. 1S92, 52.
Foe general use the alloys should contain but little carbon,
less than 0'5 per cent., otherwise they are difficult to
work, the amount of nickel should not exceed 5 per cent.,
otherwise the limit of elasticity is insufficient, and for
practical purposes the cost must be kept down, in view both
of the amount of nickel used and the difficulty of working.
To prepare nickel iron alloy, a mixture of ore containing
iron and nickel oxides may be reduced in a blast furnace,
but the crude alloy thus obtained is not suitable for the
preparation of a malleable alloy (i.e., one poor in carbon).
According to Gautier, on refining, nickel oxide is produced,
which remains dissolved in the iron and causes it to be
brittle.
In order to obtain a malleable alloy, metallic nickel must
be added to the fluid malleable iron. The metal should be
free from arsenic and sulphur. The alloy is not a chemical
compound, but only a mechanical mixture. The addition
of aluminium is useful. Experiment must determine how
much manganese on the one hand, or magnesium on the
other, is necessary to remove the oxygen. The required
carbon is best introduced directly.
Further particulars as to the details of preparation and
best composition of alloys are at present wanting, but it
is hoped that further experiments will remedy this.
—A. L. S.
The World's Production of Gold. Eng. and Mining J.
53, 1892, 272.
Beginxtxg with the older gold-fields of the world, California
in all probability made about the same out-turn in 1891 as
in the previous year, but the mines of Deadwood, South
Dacota, have made an increase, and there has also, without
doubt, been an increase from the silver mines the ore of
which carries some gold. It is estimated that the total
production |of gold in the United States in 1891 had
June 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
527
amounted to 33,250,000 dols., against 32,845,000 dols. in
1890, as reported by the Director of the Mint. Australia
will in all probability show about the same yield in 1891 as
in 1890, for although there has been a falling-off in the
product of the Mount Morgan mine, the great gold pro-
ducer of Queensland, and perhaps also in New South Wales,
the returns from Victoria show an increase of 37,216 oz.,
which will do much to make up for the deficiencies of the
other colonies, uot in any case likely to be large. The
latest statistics from Russia, those for 1890, show an
increase of over 75,000 oz. over the production of 1889,
and although the returns for 1891 have not yet been com-
piled, it is officially reported that all indications point to
another notable increase.
In the Transvaal the year 1891 was a phenomenal one,
the output of the Witwatersrandt mines having amounted
to 729,223 oz. against 494,801 oz. in 1890. The regularity
of the advance in the yield of these mines month by month
for the past four years, or since they were first opened,
leaves no doubt that their maximum capacity has not yet
been reached. Indeed the year 1892 has been commenced
by a remarkable increase, the production during the month
of January having amounted to 84,560 oz. against 80,312 oz.
in December, this having been the greatest output in any
one month iu the history of the district. The production of
the four principal gold mines of Mysore, India, which
practically represents the total gold output of that country,
was also considerably greater iu 1891 than in 1890, amount-
ing to 130,140 oz. against 104,500 oz. Here, too, the out-
put has shown such a regular expansion during the past
three years that it is probable that the climax has not yet
been attained, and a steadily increasing yield may be
expected from this source.
According to statistics, the United States, Australasia,
Russia, Africa, and India produced in 1890 a trifle more
thau 83 per cent, of the total amount of gold produced iu
the world. In 1891 each of these countries or natural
divisions made an increased output, with the possible
exception of Australasia, and in the case of Africa, Russia,
and India the increase was large and important.
But there is every reason to expect that new deposits of
auriferous gravel and auriferous quartz lodes will be found
within the next few years, particularly in the United States,
Africa, and Siberia, while it is certain that the extensive
and rich beds of gravel in Brazil will not remain unworked
much longer. The vast expanse of country forming the
north-western portion of the United States has by no means
been thoroughly prospected, and new gold mines are con-
stantly being found and opened there. Africa, an unexplored
country, bids fair to yield a constantly increasing amount
of gold. Pioneers are just going into Mashonaland and
Matabele-land, and the reports that they send out are
generally favourable. Eastern Siberia is also a land of great
promise. Only within the past month has come news of new
gold fields at Nertsehink, in the valley of the River Boom,
which are said to be rich. In Brazil there are immense
beds of auriferous gravel, which can be worked without
difficulty. No doubt is felt that the production of gold in
the world will show as great an increase in the present
decade as it did from 1880 to 1890, when it rose from
160,152 kilos, to 174,556 kilos.— W. S.
The Basic Bessemer Process applied to the Metallurgy of
Lead. Rev. Univ. des Mines et de la Met. January
1892 j Eng. and Mining J. 53, 1892, 431.
Dr. Rousing, formerly director of the Friedrichshutte
works in Upper Silesia, has applied the basic converter to
the treatment of base bullion. By this process the lead is
oxidised to litharge, which is then reduced by carbon or by
galena. A part of the lead may be desilverised by zinc
and refined in the converter. The following processes
constitute the new system : A. treatment in the converter ;
(1) of base bullion for pure litharge and enriched lead;
(2) enriched lead for impure litharge and lead-silver ; (3)
desilverised lead for refined lead. B. reduction of the pure
litharge by carbon for merchantable lead. C. treatment of
the galena with molten litharge for base bullion. The
most interesting and most important of these innovations
is the treatment of the base bullion in the converter.
Calorific calculations having led to the anticipation of
favourable results, experiments were made with this
process in the laboratory in quantities of 500 grms. ; then
with charges of 0,000 kilos, in a Thomas converter at the
Friedrichshutte in Upper Silesia. The method presented no
difficulty ; the charge of 6,000 kilos, of base bullion was
blown for 15 minutes with air pressure of l\ atmospheres.
The lead had been heated previously a little above its
melting point. The litharge formed had a temperature of
more than 1,200° and was very fluid. It crystallised in
mass on cooling without formation of any amorphous
litharge, and fell iu scales. The silver contents of the
litharge were 0-0036 per cent., but could be diminished in
regular working.
In treating poor, impure and zinciferous lead the refined
lead obtained in a few minutes was of excellent quality and
the following composition : Lead (by difference), 99 '9934
per cent.; antimony, 0'0007 per cent.; arsenic, 0-0005
per cent.; copper, 0-0013 per ceut. ; iron, 0-0022 per
cent. ; zinc, 0-0015 per cent. ; silver, 0-0004 per cent.
In consequence of the great increase of temperature in
the converter duriug the blowing, new charges may be
worked immediately without reheating the vessel, so that
there is no delay in the process. In regular operation it
would possibly pay even to utilise the heat obtained in the
converter for the fusion of the lead.
The basic lining of the converter stood perfectly. The
engineers of the Friedrichshutte steel works declared " that
they are satisfied that the basic lining will last better in
treatment of lead than in the manufacture of steel."
The impurities of the lead (zinc, arsenic, and antimony)
are removed in a more rational manner than in the common
process since the blast acts uniformly throughout the mass
and not merely upon the surface of the bath ; the latter is
to-day, purified first, then uselessly oxidised, while the
impurities contained in the lower strata of the metal are a
long time withheld from the action of oxygen. There
results therefore an oxidation, which is superfluous and
injurious to the lead. In the new process it is necessary to
take into account the reduction in the expense of treatment
aud the loss in the working of intermediary products. As
for the loss in blowing there is produced naturally in that
operation very thick lead smoke, but as it is of very short
duration, the amount is small and it can be easily recovered
because it is not mixed with combustion products. In this
process there is a saving in comparison with cupellation,
according to the calculations made at the Friedrichshutte,
-of 18 marks and 94 pfennig (4-50 dols.) per 1,000 kilos,
of base bullion. As for enrichment of the lead it is recom-
mended not to carry it too far at once, but rather to
interrupt the blowing at intervals and unite the lead of
several charges which can be submitted to a new operation
for enrichment.
In the experiments at the Friedrichshutte with base
bullion containing 0-0425 per cent, of silver, lead assaying
0-673 per cent, silver has been obtained as a maximum and
condensed fumes with 75 per cent, lead and 0-0086 per
cent silver.
The litharge obtained is very liquid and can be reduced
in a very simple manner by pouring it on a bed of incandes-
cent carbon in a special furnace by which it is immediately
reduced. The same furnace may be employed for the
treatment of the galena. The latter is comminuted to fine
grains and heated to the point where roasting commences.
If the liquid litharge is spread on this galena it is rapidly
decomposed with the evolution of sulphurous acid gas which
is mixed neither with an excess of air nor with combustion
products, and consequently can be recovered easily. The
rapidity of the decomposition of the litharge by carbon or
by the galena permits of a large production in small appa-
ratus, aud the consumption of fuel amounts only to that
required in the preliminary heating. The amount of labour
necessary and the loss in metal are both very small. — W. S.
The Passive Slate of Iron and Steel. Part II. Thos.
Andrews. Proc. Royal Soc. 50 [303].
In Part I. of this research (Roy Soc. Proc. 48, 116; this
Journal, 1890, 951), the author showed the influence of
528
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June so, 1892.
magnetisation ou the passive state of iron and steel, and
now the results of a further study of certain temperature
and other conditions affecting the passivity of these metals
in concentrated nitric acid are given. The experiments of
Series III. in this paper relate to the effect of temperature,
and the observations of Series IV. refer to the influence
exerted by nitric acids, of various degrees of concentration,
on the passive condition of iron and steel.
Series III.
Effect of Temperature on the Passivity of Iron and
Steel. The bars selected for these observations were
unmagnetised polished rods, which had been previously
drawn cold through a wortle ; a pair of bars of each metal
were cut adjacently from one longer bar, and then placed
securely in the wooden stand W ; each bar was 8j ins.
Table III.
Fig. 1.
long, 0-261 in. diameter. The U-tube, containing 1^ fluid
ounce of nitric acid, specific gravity 1-42, was rigidly
placed in an arrangement as shown in Fig. 1. One
limb, A, was surrounded by a tank containing water, the
other limb, B, by a tank of the same capacity, containing
powdered ice ; the arrangement was such that the water-
tank could be heated by a Bunsen burner, and its tem-
perature slowly raised, whilst the ice-tank was kept full
of powdered ice. A non-conductor of wood was put
between the ends of the two tanks so as to prevent the
melting of the ice ; the bottom or bent portion of the
JJ-tube was also enclosed in a thick non-conductor of
wood. A thermometer, T, was placed in the water-tank.
The bars were in circuit with the galvanometer, and soon
after immersing them in the nitric acid heat was applied
to the water-tank, and the temperature of the nitric acid
in that limb of the U-'ut»c' slowly raised to the temperatures
required, whilst the acid in the other limb of the (J-tube
was meanwhile maintained at a temperature of 32° F.
The arrangement will be understood on reference to Fig. 1.
Current between two bright " passive" bars of the same
composition, one in warm, the other in cold, nitric acid,
sp.gr. 1-42. The electro-chemical position of the bars in
the warm nitric acid was positive. The experiments show
that the wrought iron was less passive in the warm nitric
Time
from com
Current between two bright " passive" wrought-iron or
various steel bars of the same composition, one in cold
nitric acid, specific gravity 1*50, the other in cold
nitric acid, specific gravity 1'42. The electro-chemical
position of bar in weaker acid positive, except other-
wise stated.
E.M.F. in Volt.
ment of
Experi-
ment.
Wrought
Iron.
Soft
Cast Steel,
combined
Carbon
Hard
Cast Steel,
combined
Carbon
Soft
Bessemer
Steel,
combined
Tungsten
Steel,
"■ombined
Carbon
0-57 per
Cent.
run pit
Cent.
0'55per
Cent.
1'7-j per
Cei:t.
Secomls.
0 0'OSO
0-041
0-055
0-055
0-0S8
30 0-077
0-040
0-055
0-052
0-038
Minutes.
1 0'076
0-036
0-054
0-053
0-041
2
0-074
0-036
0-053
0-050
0-013
3
0-073
0-088
0-053
0-058
0-048
4
0-072
0-040
0-052
0-060
0-048
5
0-072
0-041
0-052
0-061
0-019
75
0-071
0-041
0-050
0-067
O'OSO
10
0-069
0-041
0-049
0-071
0-050
15
0-006
0-040
0 018
0-074
0-050
20
0-064
0-037
0-046
0-077
0-049
25
0-062
0-035
0-04S
o-o71
0-049
30
0-060
0-034
0-042
0-072
0-048
35
0'059
0-033
0-040
0 071
0-048
40
0-058
0-031
0-038
0-071
0-047
■15
0-050
0-030
0-038
0-070
0*047
50
0'055
0-029
0-036
0-068
0-046
55
0-054
0-029
0-036
0-067
0-046
Hours.
1
0-053
0-02S
0-035
0-066
0-0-45
11
0-051
1-025
0-034
0-061
0-044
2
0-049
0-022
0-033
0-058
O'OIS
2i
0-018
0-020
0-033
0-050
0-041
3
0-047
0-019
0-033
O-II02
0-011
4
0-046
0-018
0-034
0-050
4-013
5
0-043
0-017
0-034
0-048
O'OIO
li
0-041
0-016
0-031
O'OIS
0-038
7
0011
0 013
0-034
0-047
0-11,7
8
0-041
0-013
0-031
0-047
0-037
1G
O'OIO
0-009
0-030
0-17
0-037
18
(J -oio
O'OOO
0-029
0-046
0-037
20
0-040
0-008
0-029
0-046
0-037
21
0-040
..
01120
0-031
0-040
22
0-040
..
0-024
0-013
24
o-oss
0-019
• •
0-013
20
0-038
0-016
..
0-013
28
0-089
..
0-013
• ■
0-013
20
0'03S
0-O12
• •
0-013
30
0-040
ll-llll
0-013
40
0-042
..
0-006
..
0-024
45
-
••
1 "
o-o:u
Juno so, ism.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
529
Table IV.
Chemical Analysis of the Wrought-Iron and Steel Bars vsed in the Experiments.
Description.
Combined aii,-.™
Carbon. I Slllcon-
Sulphur.
Phosphorus,
Manganese.
Tungsten.
Iron (by
difference).
Total.
Wrought ircn (Wortley best scrap)..
Soft east steel
Hard east steel
Soft Bessemer steel
Tungsten steel
Per Cent.
Trace
0-570
1-600*
0-550
1-759*
Per Cent.
0-224
0-032
0-145
None
0-135
Per Cent.
None
Trace
0-002
0-032
0-069
Per Cent.
0-289
0-060
0-025
0-175
0-139
Per Cent.
0-071
0-147
0-1S3
0-210
0-720
Per Cent.
9-270
Per Cent.
99-466
99-185
98-045
99-027
87-917
Per Cent,
loo- uoo
100-000
100-000
100-000
lOO'OOO
* By combustion.
The terms " soft " and "hard" relato only to difference of percentage of combined carbon, and not to their having undergone annealing or
hardening processes.
Table V.
Physical Properties of the Wrought-ikon and Steel Bars used in the Experiments.
Original.
Ultimate Stress.
Fractured.
Stress
per
Square
Inch of
Fractured
Area.
Extension
Description.
Total.
Per Square
Inch of Original
Area.
Size.
Area.
Difference.
10 in.
Appearance
of
Fracture.
Size.
Area.
Area.
Per
Cent.
Inch.
Per
Cent.
Wrought iron (Wortley
best scrap.
In.
0-296
0-298
0-297
0-300
Sq. In.
0-06S8
0-0697
0-0093
0-0700
Lb.
0,028
10,967
9,851
12 661
Lb. Tons.
87,618 = 39-1
55-42
157,3413 = 70-2
142,150 = 63-4
179,413 = 80-1
In.
0-284
0-289
0-275
0-270
Sq. In.
O-0O33
0 0656
0-0E94
0-0570
0-0055
0-0041
0-0099
0-0130
7'9
22-0
6-8
14-2
18-6
Lb.
95,229
167,179
165,841
220,368
o-ii
0-12
0-16
0-73
1-1
2-0
1-2
1-6
7-3
Per Cent.
100 fibrous,
Soft Bessemer steel . . .
100 granular
100 granular.
( 10 silky.
1 90 granular.
acid than the soft cast steel ; the average E.M.F. of 94
observations with wrought iron was 0 ■ 03U volt ; whereas in
the case of the 94 observations on cast steel the average
E.M.F. was only 0-010 volt. The behaviour of the steel,
under the conditions stated, was more irregular than that of
the wrought iron.
In the whole of the series of experiments the nitric
acid was raised to a temperature of 175° F. ; the cold
nitric acid in the iimb of Ihe U"tl'be A remained
perfectly colourless, and the steel or iron therein
absolutely passive ; but the steel or iron in the warm
nitric acid in tube A commenced to be gradually acted
upon as the temperature increased, a pale yellow tint
beginning to appear in the solution in the tube A
shortly after commencement. When the temperature of
about 170° to 175° F. was reached, a faint evolution of gas
in the form of bubbles was manifest, adhering to the steel,
in the warm tube only. No powerful solvent action or
violent evolution of nitric-oxide gas, however, occurred in
any of these experiments even up to the temperature of
175° F., and these experiments were not continued beyond
this temperature. These results show that iron or steel
does not fully lose its passivity up to a temperature even
of 175" F., though the passivity is shown to have been
considerably modified by temperature only. The critical
point of temperature of transition from the passive to the
active state is therefore higher than 1 75° F., and is shown
in the experiments of Part I., Series II., Table II., to have
been about 195° F. (.this Journal, 1890, 951).
Series IV.
The Passivity of Iron a?id various Steels increases with
the < 'oncentration of the Nitric Acid. — Schonbein con-
sidered that "by immersing an iron wire in nitric acid
1-50 sp. gr., it became likewise indifferent to the same acid
of 1'35 sp. gr.," and to all outward appearance this is so.
Scbeurtr-Kestner considered that the passivity of iron was
not dependent on the greater or less degree of saturation of
the acid. The author, however, ascertained by the delicate
electro-chemical mode of experimentation employed, and
hereafter referred to, that the passivity is materially
influenced according to the concentration of the nitric acid.
The following experiments indicate that the property of
passivity in iron is not absolutely fixed or static, but that
its passivity is modified to a certain extent in relation to
the strength of the nitric acid used. The modus operandi
was generally similar to that previously employed. Pairs
of uumagnctised polished steel bars, 6 in. long and 0-310 in.
diameter, each pair being of the same kind of steel, and
cut adjacently from one longer bar, were placed as before
in the wooden frame W (Fig. 2), and then instantly and
simultaneously immersed in nitric acids, of two different
degrees of concentration, contained in the U-tube arrange-
ment, one limb of the (J-tube containing red fuming nitric
acid of sp. gr. 1'50, the other containing nitric acid of
sp.gr. 1-42, circuit being made through the galvanometer
in the usual manner. The results, the average of repeated
experiments experiments in each case, are given in
Table III., and show that the passivity of irou increases
considerably with the strength of the nitric acid.
The steel rods selected for this set of experiments were of
the kinds given in Table IV. ; they were drawn cold through
a wortle, and were of the general physical properties and
chemical composition given in Tables IV. and V. The
reduction of the E.M.F. towards the close was probably
owing to partial diffusion between the two acids of different
concentration. The above results show that wrought iron
was less passive in the weaker acid than most of the steels,
the soft Bessemer steel being found similar in passivity to
the wrought iron. The average E.M.F. was as follows : —
With wrought iron, 0-054 volt ; soft cast steel, 0-028 volt;
hard cast steel, 0-036 volt ; soft Bessemer steel, 0'059 volt ;
tungsten steel, 0-039 volt. — W. S.
530
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 80, 1892.
Parting Bullion. F. Gutzkow. Eng. and Mining J.
53, 1892,497—498.
It is stated that the process works regularly and with best
success, the refining costs being 0'35 cents per ounce.
Considering that in Argentine, Kansas, the wages of the men
employed at the plant are 3 dols. and 4 dols. per day, and
the cost of sulphuric acid li cents per pound, elsewhere
refining may doubtless be done at 0-25 cent per ounce.
Parting charges average 1 cent per ounce in the eastern
half of the United States and 2 cents per ounce in San
P'rancisco, so the pecuniary advantage is apparent. In the
following is described the plant and the operations of one of
those small establishments having a maximum capacity of
porting, say, 6,000 oz. of dore in the day-shift by the
author's improved process. Fig. 1 shows the plant in top-
view and Fig. 2 in section.
1. Parting. — It is assumed that the bullion is of the
common high grade character, containing 90 per cent, or
more of silver. It may be placed in the kettle in the shape in
which it leaves the mill or smelting works ; that is, as retorted
amalgam or in large and irregular bars as they are ladled
from the cupelling furnace, or in slabs of more uniform size
and thickness if the bullion is re-melted in order to charge
it to the parting works by weight and assay. The charge
may vary according to local convenience, the maximum
being about 400 lb. of dore. The commercial sulphuric
acid is admitted into the kettle by gravitation from the
wrought-iron drum which serves as a reservoir, and ought
to be large enough to hold the 50,000 to 60,000 lb. of acid
shipped in a " tank car." One or more old steam boilers
may be arranged for this purpose, and the acid may lie
raised into them by exhausting the air therefrom by a steam
jet. The consumption of sulphuric acid of 66° B. need not,
and after some practice will not, exceed materially the
stoichiometrical proportion, which is 1 lb. of acid for one of
silver, as all surplus acid evaporated or required for dis-
solving the silver sulphate ia regained and utilised in the
course of the process.
For a beginner it is advisable to employ between the
kettle and acid reservoir a small cast-iron tank as an inter-
mediate reservoir in which the acid required for the charge
of bullion under treatment may be measured off.
It will be noticed in the figure that the usual half- globe
shape of the parting kettle is discarded, but a flat bottom
with a pocket or well in the centre in the shape of a spherical
segment is used. To gain more capacity for equal height is
one reason for this construction, but the most important one
is that the bottom can be reached everywhere by a straight-
edged stirrer or paddle, and, practically speaking, that every
particle of gold can be scraped into the pocket and be taken
therefrom with a ladle. This is not possible in a round-
bottom kettle in the position in which the refiner has to
work.
The dissolving of tbe stated maximum charge takes from
four to six hours, according to the heat employed. When
the larger half of the bullion appears to be dissolved
" mother-acid " is added from 7, a pitcher or two at a time,
until the charge is completely dissolved.
The fire is now moderated and the kettle is gradually
tilled with mother-acid within an inch or two from the top.
These gradual additions are regulated by the temperature
of the solution in the kettle, which ought to be so that only
faint fumes are discernible. If the fuming stops entirely it
signifies that the temperature has become too low, and that
silver sulphate may separate. The gold ought to keep its
bright colour during this operation, which presents no
difficulty. At larger works, for instance at Argentine, the
mother-acid is lifted by steam power, but lifting by hand is
sufficiently convenient for the small plant under description.
The well-stirred contents are now ready for settling, and the
fire is still further moderated. Ten minutes is all the time
required and given for settling, that is, for obtaining a
perfectly clear solution of silver sulphate, which may be
safely siphoned off the insoluble residue without carrying
any gold along. This rapid settling is due to the change of
the iron sulphate formed during dissolving from a yellowish
slowly subsiding salt into a greenish flocculent compound,
which carries all suspended matter readily to the bottom.
The solution is now siphoned into the open cast iron pan 6.
A f-in. gas pipe, which is suitably bent and ends in a
" return elbow " resting on the bottom of the kettle, is used
as a siphon. The proximity of 6 to 5 has the advantage
that only a short siphon is required.
2. The Gold.— The residue in the kettle contains, besides
silver solution, the gold and the insoluble sulphates of iron,
lead, antimony, mercury, &c, together with sulphate of
copper, if the bullion contained more tban a certain amount
of this, and sulphate of silver if the heat has not been well
regulated. It is ladled into a portable copper kettle (tbe
solution settling therein is poured back into 5), which is
carried to the lead-lined tank 8. Here it is emptied, and the
contents are boiled with water until the sulphates soluble in
water, viz., those of iron, copper, and silver, have dissolved.
The fairly settled solution runs on the " gold filter," which
is a piece of cotton cloth spread over a false bottom in the
tank 9. The filtered solution finds yet a chance to settle
underneath the false bottom and overflows into the " silver
filter" 10. The gold is brushed and washed through a pipe
toward which the bottom of 8 pitches from all sides into a
large earthen dish resting on the cloth of 9. In this dish it
is stirred with hot water and decanted over the cloth until
the insoluble sulphates have been washed off and the gold
is left bright and clean. It is then scraped into a smaller
dish and delivered to the superintendent to be melted in the
assay office when sufficient weight has been accumulated for
a commercial bar.
Of course it will be just as well or better to deliver the
copper kettle with its acid contents to the care of the super-
intendent, and to make one job of the washing of the several
batches of gold when there has been enough collected.
The cloth on 9 is scraped and sponged into an earthen
jar, and, after settling, is decanted back on 9. The stuff
collected is occasionally dried and melted with the fluxes
from melting the gold and silver into a buttou. The
appearance of the latter decides whether it can go at once
into the parting kettle or is to be cupelled with addition of
some lead in a hone-ash cupel, stamped into a worn-out
crucible, and heated in the melting furnace.
3. The Silver. — The great bulk of the silver is in the
hot solution which stands in 6, about 6 in. high, when
the plant works to its maximum. Steam is now blown in
and the solution is tested for sufficiency of dilution in the
manner fully described in my previous article. The diluted
acid, which is caught in the leaden condenser-pipe leading
from 5 to the chimney, may occasionally be mixed in for
utilisation when the steam has raised the temperature high
enough to allow such addition without causing a precipita-
tion of silver sulphate. The solution is now allowed to cool
over-night.
In Argentine, water cooling is used, but it is hardly
necessary in San Francisco. In the morning the mother-
acid is allowed to run off into the cast-iron reservoir 7.
Through an iron pipe toward which the bottom of No. 6
slopes, the crystals are detached by an iron shovel, and
arc thrown on the false bottom of the draining-box 11,
which runs on wheels and has been moved to 6. They are
sprinkled with water, and the first drainage, down to a
certain specific gravity, is run back into 6. The box 1 1 is
then moved into the position shown in the Figure. Here
cold water is allowed to percolate through the crystals until
the free acids and the sulphates of iron and copper are
removed. The liquid runs on the silver filter 10, where all
silver which it holds in solution is retained, and it escapes
finally through the pipe 12. The silver filter is a lead-lined
box provided with a false bottom. It is filled to about 6 in.
above the false bottom with precipitated copper. The
silver separates on the top of the copper as a spongy sheet,
a corresponding amount of copper being dissolved. Once
or twice the sheet is loosened and turned in order to expose
what copper may cling to it to the first action of the silver
liquid entering. When the sweetening of the crystals has
been finished and the crystals have been removed from 1 1
for further treatment, the silver separated in 10 is thrown
on the false bottom of 11, a shovel of crystals is added, and
11 is filled with hot water and left at rest. By the time
that 1 1 is again required to receive another batch of crystals
from 6 all copper which the silver sponge may have still
Juno so, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
531
retained has been dissolved, the liquid is run on 10, and the ! rendered metallic does not exceed 3 per cent, of the whole,
silver is left in 11 to be mixed with the new charge of as the crystals of silver sulphate are only slightly dissolved
crystals. In practice the total amount of silver thus ' by cold water.
Gctzkow's Parting Process.
Arrangement of Plant.
72'
F=H
12
Bullion Parting Plant.
1, drying pan ; a, melting furnace 5 3. dust chamber ; 4. chimney; 5, parting kettle: 8, crystallising pan: 7, reservoir for mother-acid:
8, lead-lined tank for boiling gold; 9, do. for "gold filter; in, do. for "silver filter;" 11, do. for draining crystals; 12, outlet of all
liquids ; 13, reservoir for commercial acid ; 11, hot water tank.
The sweetened crystals from 400 lb. of bullion, which
measure about 2 cb. ft., are now thrown on the drying-
pan 1. When dry they are mixed with 5 per cent., more or
less, of charcoal, the weight of the charcoal which is neces-
sary being ascertained approximately from the known weight
of the bullion which has furnished the batch of crystals
under treatment. The mixing is done on the pan 1 itself
and the mixture is at once fed into the hot crucible in the
melting furnace 2. The silver sulphate is reduced at a very
low temperature, that is, at just red heat, into metallic silver,
carbonate and sulphurous gases being evolved and escaping
without causing any trouble whatever, every trace of these
gases having been removed by the time the temperature of
melting silver is reached. The surplus of charcoal is finally
lifted off the molten silver and reserved for mixing with the
next charge of crystals. The silver is cleared by borax and
toughened with nitre until the so-called " boiling " indicates
that spitting needs to be apprehended no further. After
cooling to the proper temperature it is ladled into moulds, a
little assay bar being cast from the first and last ladle, and
the crucible is again charged with the mixture of crystals
and charcoal.
Those who are familiar with the author's old San Fran-
cisco process from its description iu " Percy's Metallurgy "
will notice that the treatment of the silver as here described
contains three essential novelties, namely : First, the dilution
of the original silver solution by steam, which forms the
claim of his patent, and enables him to work with only one-
third of the volume of " mother-acid " previously employed.
In addition, it dispenses with certain cumbersome apparatus.
Second, the desilverisation of weak silver solutions over a
bed of precipitated copper, which replaces their storing in
capacious lead-lined tanks for re-utilisation or for treatment
with copper, or iron, or salt. Anybody who knows of the
difficulty of getting a plumber who understands lead burning
with the hydrogen flame to an out-of-the-way place, or has
heard of the lead-burners' union, will appreciate the reduc-
tion of size and number of lead-lined tanks. The few small
tanks used are shipped ready-made from Chicago. Third,
the direct reduction in the crucible of the silver sulphate
with charcoal. His former practice had been to reduce the
crystals to the metallic state by percolating them in the
drainiug-box 11 with a hot solution of ferrous sulphate.
The ferric solution which was thus formed was made again
ferrous by metallic iron and used over again. The silver was
sweetened with hot water, then dried and melted. The
advantages of the new method need hardly be discussed.
4. The Copper. — The liquid which flows from 12 removes
all the copper which the bullion did contain, and all that
which has been dissolved in the silver filter 11. In parting
works, which treat only high grade bullion, the weight of the
copper thus escaping is so small that it hardly pays for its
recovery. The liquid from 12 may run to waste, and the
copper in the silver filter be replenished by preparing
occasionally a quantity of it at the works by dissolving blue-
stone in 8, and precipitating the solution by iron in 9, or by
buying some in the market. When, however, the bullion
contains a larger percentage of copper than can he econo-
mically neglected, the liquid issuing from 12 is carried in
the usual manner through troughs or other vessels containing
old iron.
This process is common enough, but it requires some
judgment. It ought to be known that precipitated copper
ought never to he exposed to the atmosphere before sweet-
ening, because certain basic salts of iron are formed which
are insoluble even in boiling diluted acid, and that in an
acid ferrous sulphate solution, even in this absence of iron,
a continual consumption of acid takes place, because the
ferric sulphate formed by the atmosphere absorbs more acid
than the ferrous sulphate from which it was generated con-
tained, and, lastly, that no copper precipitated from cold or
merely warm solution is tit for sweetening by filtration, on
the large scale at least, before it has been violently boiled in
acid water and thus has been made dense. For parting
very low grade bullion with 30 or more per cent, of copper,
532
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June 30,1892.
the author modifies the process of dissolving in the kettle 5
iu a novel manner which he may publish at some future
occasion.
5. The Lead. — It has been said already that the lead
sulphate is washed from the gold by decantiDg. The
amount of lead in the residue taken from the parting kettle
is, however, very small, much less than is generally assumed,
and almost nil when, as onght to be done in larger esta-
blishments, the gold is subjected to a second boiling with
sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid process in this surpasses
the electrical method of parting. By the latter a number of
substances, among which are quite unusual ones, as, for
instance, tellurium, separate with the gold and have to be
removed by special treatment. The vaunted simplicity of
the electrical process may well be questioned when it is
known that it includes a boiling of the gold with nitric acid
with all the appliances and operations of a miniature parting
plant working by that old-fashioned process. In the sul-
phuric acid process, at least by his method, all the gold iu
the bullion which is placed into the parting kettle in the
morning is delivered in the evening as a fine and tough bar,
except what traces cannot be scraped from the kettle, and
what the sponging of the gold filter may have removed.
The principal part of the lead in the bullion, provided the
latter contains of it only a few per cent., is dissolved in the
hot silver solution.
In the old style of parting this solution is poured into a
tank containing water and copper, and every trace of lead
sulphate consequently intermingles with the silver to be
removed therefrom by fluxing and toughening. By the
author's modification the lead sulphate separates on diluting
the solution by steam, and has subsided by the time the
formation of crystals commences. It coats, therefore, the
crystals where they have touched the crystallising pan.
The following method for removing the lead sulphate is
employed, whenever the character of the bullion makes it
necessary to do so : — The crystals of silver sulphate are not
directlyshovelled from 6 into the draining-bcx 1 1 as described
above, but are thrown into a small lead-lined tank filled
with water, are stirred therein, and finally taken out with a
wooden shovel and thrown into 1 1 . The powdery sulphates
of lead, antimony, &c. are very readily washed off the heavy,
hard, and large-sized crystals. What is left behind iu the
wash-tank is heated by steam, the solution is run over the
silver filter, while the residue of lead sulphate, &c. is made
metallic by adding some iron, and finally washed, melted,
and cupelled. — W. S.
The Gold and Platinum Industry of the Ural. Annates
des Mines, 18, 537, and Kng. and Mining J. 53, 430.
The auriferous deposits of the Ural have been classified by
Karpinsky into primary and secondary groups. In the
former gold is found either iu quartzose vein-stuff, or
interspersed through the mass of crystalline rocks, such as
diorite and serpentine, while the secondary deposits are
auriferous sands, situated either immediately above the
primitive deposits, or transported to and re-arranged at some
distance from the point of origin. Platinum is only found
in secondary or alluvial deposits. The primary gold
deposits of the Ural are very numerous, four groups of
them being actually worked — namely, those of Berezowsk
and Goroblagodask, of the district of Miask, of the
liaschkir territory, and of the Orenburg Cossacks.
The Berezowsk deposits, which are the only ones that
have been systematically developed to any extent, are
included in an area of about 22 square miles, in which the
prevailing rocks are schists penetrated by numerous veins or
dykes of a fine-grained granitic rock containing pyrites
known as beresite, varying in thickness from 12 ft. to 120 ft.
and upward, many of which extend beyond the limits of
the mining region. The beresite dykes are traversed by
numerous fissures filled with quartz, forming veins varying
in thickness from about 10 mm. to 70 mm , or, on an
average, 30 mm., having a general east and west course,
often uniting into groups but never becoming parallel to
the enclosing dyke. Sometimes, but rarely, they pass from
the beresites into the neighbouring schistose rocks. The
vein-stuff, as well as the rock, where most auriferous, is
rusted from the decomposition of pyrites ; the best mines
yield from 1 to lj oz. per ton, 10 grms. (about 7 dwts.)
being considered as the lowest workable limit. The pyrites
is often much richer than the quartz, in some instances
averaging up to 6 or 7 oz. per ton. Below the level of
decomposition of the pyrites into gossan, or as it is locally
called, krassiks, the gold appears to be entirely contained
as sulphide.
The secondary auriferous deposits, although called sands,
are almost entirely clays, pure or somewhat sandy, and
enclosing rolled masses and blocks of many different rocks.
They are found throughout the whole Ural region over a
length of more than 500 miles, having filled the valleys
and forming marshy plains on both slopes of the chain,
the larger development being, however, on the eastern
side.
Gold is found in the alluvium in particles of all sizes up to
large nuggets, accompanied by many other minerals, such
as palladium, platinum, osmiridium, native copper, diamond,
cinnabar, iron pyrites, magnetite, chromite, specular iron ore,
rutile, brookite, anatase, corundum, garnet, and quartz.
Speaking generally, the deposits associated with rocks
containing hornblende and augite are richer than those in
which granite and gneissic rocks prevail.
The auriferous beds vary in thickness from about H ft.
to 3J ft., in breadth from 60 ft. to 150 ft., and exceptionally
to about 300 ft., and in length from 60 ft. or 80 ft. to
1,500 ft., the direction being generally parallel to that of
the chain. The most extensive deposits are those of
Balbuk, 2^ miles, and Stolbuk, 3| miles long. The sterile
covering or over-burden is usually less than 13 ft., although
exceptional deposits have been found at 60 ft. and even 130ft.
below the surface. The cover very frequently forms peat
bogs. The amount of gold varies from 12 to 39 grs. per
ton of sand, although occasionally it is double or even four
times the latter amount.
Platinum has not up to the present time been found
except in alluvial deposits, in which it is always asssciated
with gold ; sometimes the latter predominates, and the
platinum may not exceed 1 per cent, of the product. On
the other hand, gold may at times be almost absent, and
the deposits in which this condition prevails, although less
abundant, are those of most value. They are confined to
districts of Nischne, Tagil, Goroblagodask, and Biseik. In
the first of these localities they extend for about 25 miles to
the south of the village, and from the associated minerals,
such as olivine and chromite, they appear to be derived
from the waste of a mass of serpentine known as Mount
Solvaiska or the White Mountain. The platinum is found
in grains and nuggets, the largest of the latter weighing
about 320 oz. The yield varies from 39 to 195 grs. per
ton. The richest deposits, those of the Martiane River, are
from 13 ft. to 1 6 ft. thick, and are covered by 60 ft. or 70 ft.
of overburden, chiefly consisting of clay. The conditions of
occurrence in the other localities are similar to those
described above, except at Goroblagodask, where the bed
rock of the alluvia is limestone, but outcrops of porphyry
and serpentine are found iu the vicinity.
The gold deposits are partly the property of the Crown or
its lessees, and partly of private individuals, but in the
latter case there is often a reservation of minerals which are
subjected to special royalty rents. The rate paid by the
Crown lessees is from 8 j per cent, to 20 per cent., in addition
to which a 3 per cent, tax is levied on all gold produced in
any of the mines, the product being compulsorily saleable
to the State. Platinum working, on the contrary, is free
from all taxation, and the government monopoly of refining,
which was kept up for a time, having been abandoned, the
product is mostly placed in the London and Paris markets.
In working the alluvial deposits two methods are followed.
In the first the plant and apparatus are provided by the
ground owner, who hires labour and directs the operations,
either personally or by deputy ; while in the secoud a
system of tribute is followed, the ground being let to free
workmen or staratcli, who provide everything necessary
for working, and deliver the produce at a fixed rate to the
proprietor. This price may vary with the difficulty of
working, from 9 dols. to 10-50 dols. per oz. ; hut iu all cases
rntaeS0.l««.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
533
the prime cost in the proprietary workings is higher than
in those of the free labourers, who are able to handle, to a
profit, stuff with from 8 to 10 grs. of gold per ton.
Platinum sands are considered poor when containing less
than 45 grs., and rich when above 180 grs. per ton. The
lowest profitable limit seems to be about 39 grs.
The platinum workings of Avrorinski are at present the
most important operations of their class. The deposits,
from 13 ft. to 16 ft. thick, lie upon a conglomerate of
serpentine, are covered by nearly 80 ft. of dead ground,
and extend for about H miles, with a breadth varying
between 70 ft. and 250 ft. The average yield is about
87 grs. of platinum minerals per ton, but in places it goes
up to 20, 30, or even 50 times as much. The working is
entirely subterranean, small pits 70 ft. to 80 ft. apart being
sunk to the deposit, and the material, being drawn to the
surface by windlasses, is washed in the ordinary Siberian
frame at the mouth of the pit. About 400 hands are
employed, the work going on night and day.
The crude platinum contains about 1 part in 4,000 of
gold, which is separated by amalgamation and washing
with water in large capsules. The final product contains
90 per cent, of platinum. The whole of the gold produced
in the Ural and Siberia is sent to the Government assay
office at Ekaterineborg, where it is melted and cast into
bars, the assay of which forms the basis of final settlement
between the Government and the miners. — W. S.
Determination oj the Value of Commercial Aluminium.
Chem. Zeit. Kep. 1892, 16, 4.
See under XXIII., page 548.
The Action of certain Liquids on Aluminium. G. Lunge
Eng. and Wining J. February 13, 1892, 206.
See under XVIII., page 543.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Extraction of Precious Metals from
Ores. W. T. Kickard, London. Eng. Pat. 6479, April
15, 1891.
The finely pulverised ore, either raw or roasted, as the case
may be, i« charged into an iron tank with a semicircular
bottom, and is mixed with water to a thin pulp by means
of a revolving horizontal shaft carrying iron discs, set at an
angle. The temperature is then advantageously raised by
steam to about 180 " F. and, while the discs are revolving
a solution of acid mercury sulphate and a small quantity of
the metal are added to the pulp. After half an hour the
rate of rotation is diminished so as to allow the amalgam to
settle, whilst the tailings are washed away by a stream of
water; or the mass is run into a settling tank of similar
construction to the above but furnished with amalgamated
copper discs instead of iron ones; or the usual course of
running over amalgamated copper plates with the ordinary
mercury traps may be pursued.
Wooden tanks and scrap iron may be used instead of iron
tanks for the amalgamation. The evolution of hydrogen is
regarded as an important auxiliary. It is claimed, owing to
the precipitation of metallic mercury within the mass, that
even the finest particles of gold and silver are amalgamated
by the atom treatment. The precious metals arc recovered
in the ordinary way from the amalgam.
Refractory ores are first roasted in a furnace constructed
with a number of superposed hearths, with a fire-grate at
one end of the lowest hearth, whilst the space above the
uppermost hearth communicates with the first of a series of
settling chambers, having the inlets and outlets alternately
at the top and the bottom ; hence hot gases in traversing
them have to assume a zig-zag course, which facilitates the
deposition of suspended matters. In the side of the furnace
doors are provided for each chamber and hearth, and the
latter have also an opening in the middle of the bed,
through which ore settling on them can be discharged into a
truck placed beneath the lowest hearth. The pulverised ore
is fed from a hopper fitted with a screw or other regulating
appliance, through an elongated horizontal pipe, into the
throat of the furnace, where it encounters a blast of hot air,
and is projected on to the end edge of one of the hearths. By
this means the ore is scattered, kept in motion, and carried
along by the gaseous current, and a suitable temperature
being maintained the desired oxidation ensues. — D. A. L.
New or Improved Metallic Alloys. S. Pearson and J. IT.
Pratt, Birmingham. Eng. Pat. 8137, May 12, 1891.
Patentees make various alloys by any means, but ordinarily
by first melting either copper and nickel together or previously
prepared copper-nickel alloys and then mixing in the zinc.
The proportions are varied according to the character of the
product required, but the following are the proportions
preferred : —
Nickel.
Copper.
Zinc.
Nickel.
Copper.
Zinc.
Percent.
Per Cent.
59*
Per Ceut.
40
Per Cent
t;
Per Cent.
46
Per Cent.
4S
1
5S
41
7
49
50
2
56
42
8
42
50
3
54
4,1
9
41
50
4
51
45
1(1
40
50
5
49
46
The first three yield superior brass or bronze, giving a
smoother surface than ordinary brass when cut, filed, or
turned ; the fourth, fifth, and sixth are similar but harder,
whilst the subsequent mixtures exhibit a progressive
hardness and are sufficiently white to replace German
silver.
To give the alloys a fine close grain and to render them
more malleable and ductile they are vigorously stirred
when in a molten state with a mixture of 100 parts of
manganese dioxide, or carbonate, 50 parts of borax, and
25 parts of potassium or sodium nitrate, or an equal weight
of carbon, using i to 3 oz. of this mixture for each pound
of alloy. Whereas an addition of J to 1 per cent, of
aluminium to the alloys is made when greater tensile
strength is required.
All these alloys may be rolled and drawn hot. — I). A. L.
A Process for Extraction if Antimony from its Ores, and
Separation of other Metals therefrom. A. \\". Warwick,
London. Eng. Pat. 8415, May 15, 1891.
Br this process the finely pulverised ore is agitated and
heated with a solution of an alkaline sulphide or hydroxide,
and the filtered liquid is either acidified, to precipitate the
antimony as sulphide from which the metal is recovered in
the ordinary waj-, or the liquid may be treated electrolyti-
cally and the antimony deposited from it directly as metal.
— D. A. L.
E 2
534
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June so, ltm.
XL-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
The Siemens, Electrolytic Process for the Extraction of
Copper from the Ores. Eng. and Mining J. 53, 1892, 327
and 329.
Copper has hitherto been extracted from its ores in the
electrolytic way hy using as anodes either plates of impure
copper or copper matte. The copper was then dissolved
from the anode and precipitated galvanically at the cathode
Only a part of the electric current was utilised, however,
for dissolving the copper, the solution soon became poor in
copper, and had to he replaced by a new solution, the
formation of which from the ores was attended with expense
and difficulty. Moreover, the use of copper matte for the
anodes required a previous smelting of the roasted ore,
which forms one of the costly parts of winning copper in
the ordinary manner. Finally, the casting of the anode
plates is difficult and uncertain, and the electrolytic process
itself is interfered with by the falling to pieces of the anodes
before their complete solution.
Soluble anodes are, 'however, necessary in the ordinary-
electrolytic process, because the use of insoluble anodes
leads to strong polarisation whereby the useful work of the
electric current is reduced in very great measure. In the
Siemens method this evil is overcome by adding to the
decomposing copper-carrying solution another solution
which takes up the oxygen set free at an insoluble anode,
and thereby lessens the polarisation. For such a depolari-
sing solution ferrous sulphate is used, which is changed, by
the oxygen set free at the anode, into ferric sulphate. A
lixiviant for the copper in the ore is thus obtained, at the
same time, as ferric sulphate is capable of dissolving
metallic copper, as well as the sulphides of copper.
Instead of the iron sulphates the chlorides, ferrous and
ferric, were formerly used with similar results. In this
method, however, there were insuperable practical difficul-
ties, so that it was abandoned. The method of Dr. Hopfner
differs essentially from that of Siemens, only in that no
iron salts are used, but cuprous andcupric chlorides instead;
besides the construction of the apparatus is different. The
electrolyte used in the Siemens method consists of a solution
of ferrous and cuprie sulphates, with the addition of some
free sulphuric acid to increase its conductivity. This
liquid is continually added to the cathode chamber, where a
portion of the copper is deposited by the electric current,
after which the liquior passes down into the anode chamber,
and is finally drawu off at the bottom of the latter.
During this passage downward the ferrous sulphate is
changed into basic ferric sulphate ; then by the action of
the free sulphuric acid, coming from the decomposition of
the cuprie sulphate it is changed into neutral ferric sulphate,
which by its greater specific gravity sinks down to the
carbon rods or plates of which the anode is composed. The
liquor drawn off has thus become poor in copper and con-
sists of a solution of neutral ferric sulphate. This solution
has the property of converting cuprous and cuprie sulphides,
as well as metallic copper, into cuprie sulphate. The ferric
sulphate is thereby reconverted into ferrous sulphate, while
the oxygen set free oxidises the copper. This oxidation
and solution of the copper can be completely carried out
with many finely pulverised sulphide ores, even in an un-
roasted condition, by use of a solution moderately heated.
With other ores, however, a moderate roasting of the pulp,
by which the copper compounds are converted essentially
into cuprous sulphide, must precede the solution of the
copper.
The lixiviation of the pulverised ore by means of the de-
copperised and oxidised liquor is performed in long, narrow,
shallow wooden troughs, in which the pulp is kept suspended
by means of stirrers. The liquor coming from the electric cells
is continually fed at the head of the trough, mixed with the
necessary amount of pulp, and leaves the trough with the
decopperised pulp at the other end. The solution is
hastened, if necessary, by heating the lixiviant hy means of
a steam-pipe lying in the trough. The leached pulp is
separated from the solution either by settling or by a filtra-
tion apparatus. The solution has now become rich in
copper and deoxidised, and is fed anew to the electric
apparatus. Thus is constituted a continuous process
between the leaching of the ore and the electrolysis of the
solution, the lixiviant being produced electrically in the
decomposition cells and the electrolyte regenerated chemi-
cally by the solution of the copper in the ores.
For the successful operation of this process it is necessary
that it be carried on continuously night and day. The
dynamo should be driven by its own motor in order to
secure the most even possible running.
The cost of a plant for the production of 1,000 kilos, of
pure copper per 24 hours, for ores containing from 4 per
cent, to 4i per cent, copper, not including buildings,
motive power, or foundations, is estimated as follows: —
Electrolytic plant, 115,308 marks; ore crushing plant,
31,152-50 marks; leaching plant, 61,140 marks; total,
209,600 50 marks. With ores rich in copper the cost of
the crushing and leaching plants is less inversely, as the
grade of the ore. The size and number of the electrolytic
vats, &c, is the same, whether the ore is rich or poor.
In the above estimate the electrolytic plant includes
dynamos capable of precipitating 1,040 kilos, of copper per
day, measuring instruments, conductors, 1,200 anodes, and
the fittings for 100 baths. Also the following apparatus
constructed at the proposed works : 100 wooden boxes
(baths), 4,970 mm. long, 1,620 mm. wide, and 370 mm.
deep, inside measurement, lined with asphalte ; 5 wooden
boxes (leaching vats), of 2 cb. m. contents, lined with
asphalt ; about 500 m. of wooden launders, lined with
asphalt, 100 mm. wide and 100 mm. deep; 1,200 wooden
slabs (cathodes), 1,520 mm. long, 400 mm. wide, and 25 mm.
thick, without the copper plates ; 600 wooden gratings
(filters), 1-6 m. long, 0-815 ru. wide, and 15 mm. thick,
made of staves 25 mm. wide, together with 900 square
metres of linen ; 100 wooden gratings (stirring apparatus
for the baths), 4,700 mm. long, 1,560 mm. wide, 20 mm.
thick, made of staves 25 mm. wide.
The leaching plant consists of 16 wooden vats, with the
stirring apparatus, 4,500 mm. long, 750 mm. wide,
and 1,000 mm. deep ; one wooden vat, lined with asphalt,
for fresh liquor, nine iron vacuum chambers of 3 cb. in.
contents, lined with lead, for half-regenerated lixiviant, and
three of the same size for regenerated lixiviant ; 10 wooden
settling basins, lined with asphalt, 2 x 2 x 2 metres; 100
wooden launders, 100 mm. x 200 mm. ; vacuum pumps,
stirring apparatus, pipe fittings, filters, &c. The power
required for the leaching plant is estimated at 10 h.p.
The crushing machinery, figured in this estimate, consists
of three patented ball mills, with a capacity of comminuting
25 tons of ore to the necessary size per 24 hours. The
estimate also includes the conveyors, elevators, and other
appurtenances. For this part of the plant 45 h.p. is
required.
The cost of producing 1,000 kilos, of fine copper per 24
hours, from 4 per cent, to 4j per cent, ores, is estimated as
follows: — Interest on the capital invested in the plant
(209,600 marks), at 5 per cent, per annum, 28 '75 marks ;
amortisation of plant, at 1 0 per cent., 57 ■ 50 marks ; motive
power (130 h.p.), 62 ■ 40 marks ; labour, 15 men, at 2 marks
per man per day, 30 marks ; interest on the copper in the
baths, 10 marks ; fuel for warming the lixiviant, 10 marks ;
general expense, superintendence, &c, 40 marks ; total,
238 • 65 marks, exclusive of the cost of ore.
The cost of producing 1,000 kilos, of fine copper from
ores rich in copper, copper matte, with 35 per cent. Cu for
example, is estimated as follows : — Interest on the capital
invested in the plant (160,000 marks), at 5 per cent., 22
marks: amortisation, at 10 per cent., 44 marks; motive
power (85 h.p.), 40-80 marks ; labour, 12 men at 2 marks,
24 marks ; interest on copper in the baths, 10 marks ;
fuel for heating the lixiviant, 10 marks ; general expenses,
superintendence, &c, 35 marks; total, 185-80 marks.
-W. S.
.Tune SO, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
535
PATENTS.
Improvements in Ozone Apparatus. Siemens Bros., Lon-
don. From Siemens and Halske, Berlin. Eng. Put.
8929, May 26, 1891.
This invention relates to improvements in tubes or appara-
tus for ozonising air. The electrical arrangement of such
apparatus has hitherto consisted in interposing between two
conducting coatings charged with electricity of opposite
sign, one or two dielectric layers and the layer of gas to be
ozonised, but according to this invention both the electric
coatings are situated on the same side of the dielectric
layer and separated by a shield of insulating material ;
while at a small distance from the other side of the dielectric
layer is situated an insulated conducting plate. Thus
currents will pass from the part of the dielectric layer
below the one electric coating, through the narrow space in
which the gas to be treated is situated, to the insulated plate,
and from this back again through the gas to the part of the
dielectric layer beneath the second coating. — G. II. R.
Improvements relating to the Electrolytic Extraction of
Metals and to the Electrolysis of other Substances.
C. Hoepfner, Giessen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 9079, May 28,
1891.
This invention consists in the use of fetro-silicon for anodes
in electrolysis wherever expensive carbon or platinum plates
have hitherto been employed. It is well known that this
material has already been used by Uelsmann for the
cathodes in Bunsen batteries, but this use is restricted to
batteries having nitric acid as an exciting liquid, in circum-
stances where a preserving effect of the electric current is
presumed. — G. H. R.
Improvements in or Appertaining to Accumulators for the
Storage of Electric Currents. W. P. Thompson, Liver-
pool. From E. Correns, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 16,27(1,
September 24, 1891.
This invention consists in the production of electrodes for
secondary batteries by mixing with the active material the
silicate of a metallic earth in order to cause the whole to
set to a stone-hard mass, with the object of effectively
preventing the crumbling and breaking away of the plates.
To render the adherent mass porous, so as to afford access
for the current to the interior, some substance such as zinc,
which will subsequently dissolve out, is added to the mixture
of lead salts and the alkaline silicate. Antimony, or tin
also, may be employed, since they dissolve under the action
of the current. — G. H. R.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of
Chlorine and Alkaline Carbonates. C. Kellner, Vienna,
Austria. Eng. Pat. 20,713, November 27, 1891.
See under VII., page 523.
Improvements in the Method of Purifying Electrolytes
containing Zinc, relating to or connected with the
Electro-metalluryic Production of Zinc. Nahusen,
Cologne, Prussia. Eng. Pat. 2225, February 5, 1892.
Zinc has been employed in the form of chips or grains
with the object of purifying electrolytes containing zinc,
but this treatment is insufficient, and the present invention
relates to its employment in the form of powder. When
rough zinc, or alloys of zinc, have to be refined and are
used as anodes in the baths, the resulting lye is always
neutral or slightly basic, and is at once passed into the
purifying apparatus where it is treated with zinc powder to
free it from impurities, after which it is again ready for use
in the baths. When the anode is insoluble, however, and
the electrolyte consequently acid, it must first be neutralised
by the addition of an ore containing the oxide or carbonate
of zinc, or any other raw material containing zinc in a
readily soluble form, Defore it is passed into the purifiers,
which consist of flat vats kept constantly stirred. When
the impurities consist of copper only and amount to 1 per
cent, of the entire quantity of zinc 10 lb. of copper must
be precipitated by means of zinc powder in the daily pro-
duction of 1,000 1b. of zinc, which will necessitate a daily
addition of 1 1 lb. of zinc. It is preferable to introduce at
the beginning of the operation a larger quantity of zinc
powder into each vat, say 100 lb., and subsequently add the
amount required daily to the first of the series. 1 per
cent, of silver will require a daily addition of 5J oz. of zinc
for the same output of ziuc. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Process and Apparatus for Bleaching
by Electrolysis. O. Imray, London. From T. Y. Mont-
gomery, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 2329, February 6,
1892.
The invention consists in using sea water, or a solution of
rock salt or sea salt of the same density, as the electrolyte,
and providing means whereby air may be driven through
the bath, thereby aiding the process of oxidation and
bringing the products of electrolysis into better contact with
the fibre or fabric to be bleached. The electrodes, which
are perforated, are arranged horizontally in the bath, and
the conductors and connections are coated with paraffin or
other similar substance to protect them. — G. H. R.
Improvements in the Electro-Metallurgic Extraction of
Zinc. G. Nahnsen, Cologne, Prussia. Eng. Pat. 2913,
February 15, 1892.
The improvement consists in using an electrolyte composed
of a mixture of the sulphate of zinc with a sulphate of the
alkalis, but preferably not magnesia, and heating the bath
to a temperature of about 130 F. The solution contains
from 1^ to 2^ ounces of crystallised sulphate of zinc, and
10| to 5| ounces of a sulphate of an alkali per litre
according to the density of the current. The following
advantages are claimed for this process : that the con-
ductivity is 300 to 400 per cent, higher than that of the
sulphate of zinc electrolyte at the degree of concentration
yielding the best conductivity, that any density of current
from 8 to 125 amperes per square yard can be employed,
and that using condensing engines it is possible to extract
a ton of zinc from the ore with a consumption of only 3 to
3 ■ 5 tons of coal.— G. H. R.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Occurrence of Octylic Alcohol hi Distilled Wool Fat.
C. Hannau. Pubbl. del. laborat. chimico eentrale delle
Gabelle. Roma, 1891 ; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1892, 16, 2.
The author thought Guetta's statement that octylic alcohol
occurred in distilled wool fat, as a special characteristic
thereof, might lead to a method of discovering adultera-
tions practised with wool fat upon other fats. He
was, however, unable to prove the presence of any such
alcohol in distilled grease, and so cannot support Hannau's
observation and statement (this Journal, 1892, 138). — J. L.
Testing Lard for Fatty Oils. P. Welmans. Pharni. Zeit.
36, 798 ; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 16, 4.
See under XXIII., page 548.
536
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June 30. 1892.
Adulteration of Linseed Oil with Hosin Oils. F. Coreil.
Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1892, 16, 90.
See under XXIII., page 550.
An Apparatus for Determining the Liability of Oils to
Spontaneous Combustion. E. H. Richards. Teelmol.
Quarterly, 1891, 346.
See under XXIII., page 547.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Detergent Powder.
B. Armstrong, Preston. Kng. Pat. 8827, May 25, 1891.
The invention consists in adding to a mixture of sodium
carbonate and soap or grease certain quantities of ammonia
salts in crystals, or if the mixture of the materials in a
hvdrated condition, is to be made, the ammonia salts are to
be protected by a coating of fat, stearin, or paraffin wax,
so as to "prevent chemical contact with the alkali o) the
detergent powder." There are no less than eight claims, one
of which protects the perfuming of such detergent powder.
— J. Jj.
Improvements relating to the Purification of Fatty Sub-
stances. H. H. Lake. From " La Societe anonyme des
Paifunis naturels de Cannes," Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
9431, .luue 3, 1891.
In previous specifications (Eng. Pats. 10,280, 1889, and 5940,
1890 ; this Journal, 1890, 325 j 1891, 159), the use of steam
and of a vacuum had been patented for purifying fatty sub-
stances extracted by volatile solvents, hut these two methods
have the drawback that a small quantity of water was
retained by the fatty mass, whereby the latter acquired a
dim appearance. This is avoided by the new patented
method, according to which the fatty substance is heated
— by means of a coil or a double bottom — up to a tempe-
rature higher than the boiling point of water under tin,
pressure existing in the vessel. — J. L.
An Improved Filtering Apparatus for Oil and the Like.
H. Berk, Chemnitz, Germany. Eng. Pat. 3052, February
16, 1892.
The novelty claimed by the inventor consists in fixing two
concentric casings in such a manner that a space is left
between the outer casing and the inner one, which forms
the filter proper ; in this space all heavier impurities settle
out before they can get on the filter. There is one sheet of
drawings illustrating the apparatus. — J. L.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
Experiments to Determine the Effect of the Substances
usually added to Caoutchouc and Gutta-Percha. C.
Heinzerling and W. Pahl. Verhandl. d. Yereins zur
Befbrd. d. Gewerbefl. 1891, 415, and 1892, 25.
Nimerovs experiments on the hard and soft rubbers made
from caoutchouc have given the following results. (By
hard rubber is meant ebonite, vulcanite, &c.) : —
1. All mineral and organic admixtures diminish the
elasticity of soft rubber, the rubber mixture containing
10 per cent, of sulphur, used for vulcanising, yielded the
most elastic product. The elasticity of hard rubber goods
is, on the contrary, increased in certain cases by the addition
of organic substances, such as rosin oil and rosin, asphaltum,
and such inorganic substances as vermilion, and lime.
2. The resistance to stretching of soft rubber is more or
less increased by the addition of pitch, chalk, heavy spar,
zinc oxide, and particularly magnesia. The addition of
vermilion and magnesia has the same effect on hard rubber,
as also has a longer vulcanisation with more considerable
quantities of sulphur. All other mineral admixtures, such
as litharge, hydrate of lime, and any organic mixtures (with
the exception of a considerable addition of asphaltum),
diminish the resistance of stretching in the cases both of
soft rubber- and hard rubber-goods.
3. Mineral admixtures, as zinc oxide, lead oxide, chalk,
magnesia, lime, and organic substances like asphaltum
and glycerin, increase the solidity of soft rubber. The
solidity of hard rubber is increased by the addition of large
quantities of asphaltum. lime, or magnesia. Kosin oil and
rosin in quantity diminish this quality. The solidity of
soft rubber is diminished by the addition of linoleum, oil
substitute, rosin oil, and paraffin.
I. Although pure rubber with sulphur has long been
considered the best insulator, yet this is not so, as mixtures
with a number of other substances answer better. These
bodies are zinc oxide, lime, chalk, magnesia (in small
quantities), antimony sulphide, also linoleum, oil substitute
(in small quantities), rosin oil, rosin, and paraffin. The
mixture of rubber and paraffin is the best. The addition
of vermilion, lead oxide, and magnesia (in large quantities)
diminishes the insulating power. The cold vulcanised
rubber (so-called patent india-rubber) is the worst insulator.
,'t. All the mixtures of caoutchouc and organic substances
give off vapours when exposed to heat (130° — 150° C).
Rubber so prepared is badly adapted for standing exposure
to heat. The other mixtures are not affected at these
temperatures.
6. Most of the mixtures containing metallic oxides are
attacked by acids, in many cases with the formation of
insoluble metallic salts, which increase their weight. The
mixtures of rubber and the already-named organic bodies
resist acids well.
The power of resisting oil is increased by the presence
of the already specified inorganic substances and especially
of lead and zinc oxides. The action of alkalis and coal-
gas is so slight that it may be ignored.
7. Most of the mixtures of caoutchouc and mineral
substances become in time hard and brittle. Their insulating
power does not, however, appear to become affected.
The experiments with various samples of gutta-percha
have given the following results : —
1. The following bodies do not appreciably affect the
action of chemicals on gutta-percha :— Vermilion, 50 per
cent. ; rosin and rosin oil, 15 per cent, each ; lime (hydrate),
50 per cent. ; asphaltum, 30 per cent.
2. Pure gutta-percha and pure " Ballata " (the dried
juice of Sapota Millerie Bleck, gutta-percha substitute)
without any addition whatever, form the best insulators.
3. The addition of other substances, as vermilion, lime,
rosin oil, and rosin, diminishes the insulating power.
4. Asphaltum up to 30 per cent, has very little effect on
the insulating power.
5. The resistance to stretching is somewhat increased by
the addition of vermilion, 50 per cent., or lime (hydrate),
50 per cent. The limit of elasticity is diminished by these
additions. The solidity is increased by vermilion and
diminished by lime.
6. Rosin oil and rosin, 30 per cent., and asphaltum,
30 per cent., diminish the elasticity and hardness. These
slightly increase the resistance to stretching. — A. L, S.
Note on tke Sporitancous Conversion of Isoprene into
Caoutchouc. W. A. Tilden. Chem. News, 65, 1892, 265.
Isoprene is a hydrocarbon which was discovered by
Greville Williams many years ago among the products of
the destructive distillation of india-rubber. Later, in 1884,
(Trans. Chem. Soc. 45, 410) it was observed by the author
Juneaua*.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
537
among the more volatile compounds obtained by the action
of a moderate heat upon oil of turpentine aud other terpenes.
It is a very volatile liquid, boiling at about 30°. Its mole-
cular formula is C6H8, and it forms a tetrabromide,
(,Hs15r,, but no metallic derivatives, like the true homo-
logues of acetylene.
Houchardt (Compt. Bend. 87, G54, and 89, Ml and
1117), observed that when isoprene is heated to a tempera-
ture near 300°, it gradually polymerises into a terpene
which he called di-isoprene, but which is now usually
called dipenlene. This compound boils at 176°. A quantity
of colophene similar to that which is produced by the action
of heat upon turpentine is formed at the same time.
When isoprene is brought iuto contact with strong acids,
aqueous hydrochloric acid, for example, it is converted into
a tough elastic solid, which has been examined by G. Bour-
chardat and the author ; it appears to be true india-rubber.
Specimens of isoprene were made from several teipenes
in the course of the author's work on those compounds,
and some of them were preserved. He was surprised a few
weeks ago at finding the contents of the bottles containing
isoprene from turpentine entirely changed in appearance.
In place of a limpid colourless liquid the bottle contained a
dense syrup, iu which was floating several large masses of
solid of a yellowish colour. Upon examination this turned
out to be india-rubber. The change of isoprene by spon-
taneous polymerisation bad not to his knowledge been
observed before. The author can only account for it by the
hypothesis that a small quantity of acetic or formic acid
had been produced by the oxidising action of the air, and
that the presence of this compound had been the means of
transforming the rest. The liquid was acid to test paper,
and yielded a small portion of unchanged isoprene.
The artificial india-rubber, like natural rubber, appears to
consist of two substances, one of which is more soluble in
benzene or in carbon bisulphide than the other. A solution
of the artificial rubber in benzene leaves on evaporation a
residue which agrees in all characters with a similar prepa-
ration from Para rubber. The artificial rubber unites with
sulphur iu the same way as ordinary rubber, forming a tough
elastic compound.
The constitutional formula of isoprene is not known with
certainty, but it must be selected from the five following
formulae : —
CH3CH2CH=C=CH5
( H3CH = C=CHCH3
(CH3)2C = C = CH„
CH.,CH = CH-CH = CH2
Derivatives of allcne,
CH,=C = CH„
S
Derived from crotonylene,
CH2 = CCH3-CH = CH2"J' CH2 = CH-CH = CH2
It is obvious that compouuds such as these containing
doubly-linked carbon may polymerise in a variety of ways,
but which way would lead to caoutchouc cannot be at present
deficed.— W. S.
Analysis of Linoleum Floorcloth. J. Pinette. Chem. Zeit.
16, 1892, 281.
See under XXIII., page 550.
Colour Testing. W. C. Wilson. Paper read before the
Association of Master Painters and Decorators of Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A., p or Chem. Trade J. 10, 130, 163, 274,
290.
The following points must be made the special features of
colour testing : —
1. Purity of the material.
2. Purity of the tone ; brilliancy, richness, which indicate
the amount of care in selection.
3. Fineness of grinding or preparation ; this signifies the
degree of the division of the particles, and upon the
completeness of such division will depend —
4. Its spreading capacity (covering power).
5. Its body. This of course applies to opaque or semi-
opaque colours only. " Body " means capacity to conceal
the surface to which the paint is applied and must not
be confused with spreading capacity (covering power).
1 1 i* an inherent quality.
<i. Its staining power or tintiug strength with white or
other colours.
7. The quality or purity of the tint with white.
8. If a paste colour the consistency of the paste.
9. Transparency of trausparcnt colours and the quality
of transparency.
Sulphate of lime or silica are only adulterants when
added surreptitiously to those articles in which they have
no recognised place as components, as for instance, sulphate
of lime in Venetian red and silica in ochre. White clay, or
kaolin, is quite frequently used as an adulterant. Clay is a
silicate of alumina and would occur naturally to a greater
or lesser degree in ochre, sienna, umber, Vandyke brown,
and earths generally. Carbonate of lime is found naturally
in some of the earth pigments, but generally in very small
quantities, and when found in quantities exceeding 5 or 10
per cent, must be considered an adulterant. Exceptions to
this rule would be colours like rose pink, or all those lakes
in which carbonate of lime is used as the medium for
carrying the organic colouring matter. The same applies to
the presence of barytes in pigments. Barytes, when mixed
as oil paiut, is absolutely devoid of opacity and covering
power. When mixed with pigments that are specifically
lighter, it will separate when painted, permitting the real
pigment to come to the surface. Whiting and terra alba
(sulphate of lime) are decidedly better oil absorbents than
barytes. Zinc white, owing to its certainty to scale, will
never replace white lead, though it may be desirable to use
it in admixture with white lead.
Green Pigments. — The green most used is that known
as chrome green. It is prepared by mixing Prussian
blue and chrome yellow, or by making the two together
simultaneously. The commercial chrome greens consist of
about one part of colour and three parts of mineral base,
chiefly barytes. They may be divided into two classes, one
inclining distinctly to yellow in tone and the other to blue.
The difference is due almost entirely to the character of the
chrome yellow in the green. For testing these greens three
standards in three different shades of perfectly pure greens
are used. By mixing two of them the shade of any chrome
green sample can be perfectly matched. The sample to be
tested is then reduced to one-tenth by mixing it with white
lead. Next, 150 parts of white lead are weighed out and
mixed iu portions with the standard shade until the same
depth of shade is obtained as that made with one-tenth of
sample. The remaining part of the white lead is then
weighed and found amounting to, say 30 parts, showing
that 120 parts have been used to one part of the standard
shade. This would show that the sample has but one-
twelfth the colouring strength of the standard, or is
approximately 8 per cent, strong.
To test the fineness of the greens, the colour is rubbed
out on a piece of smooth glass with a palette knife ; coarse
particles show their presence by scratches. Chrome greens
being a mixture of two colours are liable to show a separa-
tion of their elements when mixed very thin with oil of
turpeutine. The green showing this separation in the least
degree is best in that respect. Body tests are made by
equally thinning two samples with oil and painting them on
well-primed boards of equal size.
Paris Green is distinctly crystalline in its character and
its richness of colour depends entirely on this. In grinding,
a Paris green must be selected of very fine crystal. Purity
and quality must be determined comparatively. A ready
test for purity is to dissolve out the oil with benzine and
when the dry powder is obtained treat it with strong
ammonia, in which it should be entirely soluble.
Verdigris is entirely a transparent colour. Like Paris
green it is a copper compound and should be entirely soluble
in ammonia.
Beds. — Venetian red, Indian red, Turkey red, rose pink,
and red oxide, owe their colour wholly or in part to iron
oxide, with the exception of rose pink and rose lake.
Indian Beds cannot be classed as pure, unless they
contain from 95 to 99 per cent, of oxide of iron. The
paler the Indian red, the greater the tinting strength and
the rosier the tint ; the deep coloured gives a purplish tint
in comparison.
638
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 8n, 18S2.
Tuscan Red is essentially a mixture of Indian red with
some sort of lake colour, the cheapest article being made
from a reduced Indian red and rose pink. The first
quality of Tuscan red to be noticed is its brilliancy, next its
opacity or body. Its tinting strength is of far less import-
ance than the quality of the tint. Fineness of grinding
must be insisted on. The best product of this class of
pigments is the " new " Tuscan red, which contains the most
permanent red lake colour known.
Venetian Red. — The best Venetian red is that one con-
sisting of ferric oxide and sulphate of lime only. For a
standard a red with 20 per cent oxide is best used. Its
comparative brightness ought to be examined as well as
fineness of grinding.
Vermilion. — This is a crystalline pigment. The deeper
the shade the larger the crystal, hence the paler shade will
have the more body. Although not brilliant it is the
most reliable of all reds for permanency. The imitations
are primarily orange lead coloured with eosiue. Crimson
tones are obtained by the introduction of white lead, zinc
white, sulphate of lead, &c; they are comparatively fugi-
tive. Cheap grades are made with red lead and barytes.
Red Lead is quite an important pigment now. It is the
very best preservative that can be applied in the shape of
paint. It should never be mixed with whiting or similar
bodies ; where a mixture is desired equal parts of red lead
and iron oxide will be found to give an excellent paint.
Yellow and Orange Chromes. — These colours are particu-
larly susceptible to adulteration. In the pure state they are
compounds of chromic acid and oxide of lead, or of chromic
acid, sulphuric acid, and oxide of lead.
Pale Chromes. — The great desideratum is to get the
minimum paleness of shade with the mimimum of sulphuric
acid, or with the maximum of chromic acid : that is, to
obtain the minimum of paleness with the maximum of
staining power. As the shade deepens, the strength lessens.
This applies particularly to the orange chromes, which
contain frequently orange lead. The presence of the
latter is very objectionable, but is easily detected by the
nitric acid test.
Medium Chromes ought to form clear golden tones with
white lead and not a buff. A fourth or a third of zinc
white mixed with the white lead used for these tints, has
the property of holding the colour better. Adulterations of
the medium chromes are found out by testing tinting
strength in comparison with recognised pure standards.
The pale shades ought not to incline to greenness, as such
yellows will blacken very quickly. The grinding should be
perfectly fine, without the faintest trace of grit.
Ochres. — -The French ochres, which are the finest yet
discovered, are regarded as the standard of quality.
Yellow Ochres. — These pigments owe their colour to
hydrated oxide of iron. The other constituents are princi-
pally silicate of alumina, or clay and free silica. The value
of an ochre does not depend on the percentage of ferric
hydroxide. Gold ochre is invariably a mixture of ochre
and chrome yellow. The standard of this should be a
mixture of good French ochre with pure chrome yellow.
Blacks. — Bone blacks have generally some blue added,
to intensify the colour. They varj- greatly in colour and
opacity, hence careful selection must originally be made.
Lamp black improves the opacity of bone blacks, but is
very injurious to their intensity. There is only about
10 per cent, of carbon in bone black, the rest being chiefly
calcium phosphate. — C. O. W.
The Application of Certain Hare Metals for Ceramic
Colours. Sprechsaal, 1892, 25, 85.
See under VIII., page 523.
PATENTS.
A Process for the Manufacture of White Lead. J. H.
Xoad, East Ham, Essex. Eng. Pat. 3832, March 3,
1891.
Tins invention relates to the production of white lead by
electrolysing a solution of acetate of ammonia, lead being
used as anodes and any other conducting metal or carbon
as cathodes.
An electrolytic bath is charged with a 10 per cent,
solution of acetate of ammonia and in it are suspended
as anodes, slabs, bars, or plates of lead. The cathodes,
which may consist of any other conducting metal or carbon,
are enclosed within porous cells or partitions, prepared of
Willesden waterproof paper. These cells, as well as the
bath itself, are provided with overflow pipes, which com-
municate with a pipe supplying carbonic acid gas and with
a filter-press.
The bath is worked with an electric current of a density
of about 4 amperes to the square foot and a pressure of
about 1 volt to each tank. After a time the liquid in the
porous cells is mostly ammonia, that of the bath being
mostly acetate of lead. Through the mixed liquid over-
flowing from both, carbonic acid gas is blown, and the whole
sent through the filter-press ; the filtered liquid, containing
the regenerated acetate of ammonia, is returned to the
bath.— C. O. W.
Improvements in the Waterproofing of Textile Materials.
J. G. Smith, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 6698, April 18, 1891.
See under V., page 518.
A New or Improved Composition for Coating Ships'
Plates and the Like. R. Jacks, South Shields, Durham.
Eng. Pat. 9193, June 1, 1891.
A nor mixture of tar, pitch, and cement. The tendency
of this mixture to set or harden is further secured by the
admixture of litharge or other suitable dryer.— C. O. W.
Vulcanisation of Waterproof Fabrics. Industries, 12,
1892, 498.
See under V., page 517.
Improvements in Paints or Protective Coverings for Ships'
Bottoms and other Structures. C. H. Bigland,
Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 2253, February 5, 1892.
In this invention a paint is proposed consisting of a boiled
mixture of —
1 part of curare poison,
3 parts of Venice turpentine,
3 parts of sulphate of manganese,
6 parts of carbonate of lime,
6 parts of belladonna,
24 parts of ordinary pigment,
and sufficient oil or varnish to render the mass liquid.
— C. o. w.
Improvements in Spreading Machines for Spreading
India-Rubber or other Plastic Material on Textile
Fabrics and the Like. W. Coulter, Greenheys, and
T. Rowley, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 3155, February 18,
1892.
The improvement relates to the gauges used on spreading
machines and consists in three gauges swinging on the
same pivots. The edges of these three gauges possess
various degrees of sharpness, and being arranged as it
were in the form of an equilateral triangle, the angles of
which form the edges of the gauges, either of the latter is
available for immediate use by turning the whole gauge
round through an angle of 60°. Drawing attached to
specification. — C. O. W,
June 3d, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
539
XIY.-TANNINQ, LEATHEE, GLUE. AND
SIZE.
Contribution to our Knowledge of Sumac. W. Eituer.
Der Gerber, 1892, 18, 51.
The author confirms Macagno's statement that the per-
centage of tanniu in sumac leaves reaches a maximum and
decreases afterwards. Macagno had shown that Virginia
sumac contained in June, 21 per cent, tanning matter, whilst
in August, 15 per cent, only were fouud. Eitner gives the
following values for sumac from Bosnia which was collected
on the following dates: June 23rd, 18 '07 per cent, tanning
matter; July 7th, 22-97 per cent.; July 21st, 18-89 per
cent.; August -ith, 17-17 percent.; August 18th, 17-30 per
cent.; September 2nd, 16-83 per cent.
The period at which the maximum of tanning matter
appears in the sample from Bosnia is that before flowering,
when all the leaves are completely developed. In Sicily the
leaves are gathered at three periods ; the lowest leaves are
collected in May and gradually the upper leaves, when they
have reached full development, are taken. Thus a product
containing large quantities of tanning material (sometimes
up to 26 per cent.) is obtained. American sumac reaches
its maximum of tanning material (27 per cent.) in July ;
but as the leaves are gathered much later, namely before
they become withered, the commercial product contains a
considerably smaller quantity of tanniD.
There is another advantage attending the gathering of the
sumac leaves at the time of the tannin-maximum, since they
tan a bright colour, while the over-ripe leaves contain a
yellow-brownish colouring substance which makes its
appearance only when the period of vegetation reaches its
end. The same colouring matter also occurs in leaves
gathered early, when they are exposed in a moist state to
the action of sunlight, or if they are stored when moist.
In the former case they lose at the same time some tannin ;
in the latter case, however, this does not occur, except when
they grow mouldy. The Sicilians only have due regard for
these properties of sumac, while in other countries, through
the irrational methods attending the gathering, large sums
are wasted. The government of Bosnia, assisted by the
author, has started a rational system of cnlture of sumac.
— J. L.
So-called " Decolourised " Tannin Extracts. V. H. Soxhlet,
Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 15—16.
See under VI., page 519.
Weighting of Leath
B. Kohlmann. Chem. Zeit. 1892,
16, 16—17.
See under XXIII., page 549.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Drying Leather or Hides, and in
Appliances therefor. E. Pim, Maghull, Lancaster. Eng.
Pat. 6603,' April 17, 1891.
Leather and hides have heretofore been dried by currents
of air travelling in a more or less horizontal or upward
direction, and in contact with both sides of the leather or
hide. By this method damage has frequently occurred,
especially to the grain, owing to the " variable and too
energetic action of the air." By this invention the leather
or hides are folded lengthwise, with the outer surface or
grain within the fold, and suspended, belly edges upwards,
in a closed chamber provided with holes disposed evenly
through the ceiling and floor. Heated or dried air is drawn
through the chamber downwards by means of fans or a
chimney at the rate of a few feet a minute. Thermometers
indicate the temperature of the air, and hygrometers its
humidity. Valves serve to regulate the current of air,
which is dried by quicklime. The drying of the leather or
hides is thus effected from the flesh surface, and the grain
protected. — A. G. B.
An Improved Process of Decolourising and Clarifying
Tanning Liquors or Tannic Extracts. A. Huillard,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 7106, April 24, 1891.
The liquors (which mark on an average from 2~ to 3°
B.) from the tubs or vats of the exhausting batteries
are treated " by a certain quantity of a derivative of
strontium, such as strontium hydrate, anhydrous strontia,
strontium carbonate, or other strontium salt." The effect
of this treatment is claimed to be the precipitation of the
colouring matters in the liquor. Eiltration and the addition
of a little sulphuric acid to precipitate the excess of strontia
follow. A further filtration and concentration in a vacuum
to 20" or 30° B. complete the process. — A. G. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Manure.
A. Knorre, Wandsbek-Marieuthal, Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 8402, May 15, 1891,
See under XV., page 541.
An Improved Compound Fabric. F. I. Bugg, Ipswich.
Eng. Pat. 18,003, October 20. 1891.
See under V., page 518.
Improvements in the Process of Dyeing, Tanning, and
Mordanting Leather, Teazled Fabrics, or other Porous
Materials, and in Apparatus employed therefor.
I. Goldschmidt, Fiirth, Bavaria, Germany. Eng. Pat.
19,397, November 10, 1891.
See under VI., page 521.
XV.-MANUEES. Etc.
The Phosphate Beds of Florida. A.Keller. Chem. Zeit.
1892, 16, 65, 78—79, 110—113.
The first portion of the paper deals with the climatic,
geographic, and economic conditions which subsist in
Florida, and influence the production and exportation of
phosphates ; this part may be dismissed as of commercial
interest rather than chemical. The detailed consideration
of the various kinds of phosphate follows and is here
abstracted.
River-pebble is found in many of the rivers of West
Florida, especially the Peace and the Alafia, and where it
is abundant it is the most easily obtained phosphate. The
sand and pebbles are raised by a dredging machine with a
powerful centrifugal pump and thrown on to a revolving
sieve made of iron bars and turning in an inclined plane.
The pebble, sandstone, and sticks are retained by the sieve,
the sand falling back into the river, and are immediately
transferred to the drying apparatus. The quantity thus
raised in a day varies with the locality; 100 tons may be
pumped one day and only 20 the next, some parts of the
river containing much phosphate, others containing little
else than sand. The drying systems are three: — (1.) The
brick-dryer, which is very similar to a pyrites burner ; this
does the work best, but is the most costly. (2.) The
revolving dryer, an iron cylinder which is kept in rotation
and through which the furnace gases pass. (3.) The screw
dryer, which continuously passes the phosphate through
the furnace. The cost of raising river-pebble averages
1 dollar per ton ; during the current year this has been
added to by the imposition of an ad valorem tax ranging
from 50 cents to 1 dollar per ton. In certain parts of the
Peace there is a greater tendency for phosphates to deposit
than in others, and when such a spot has been dredged it
may frequently pay to return to it sooner or later ; in some
540
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 3», 1892.
places the phosphate bank will leave the spot entirely during
B Hood and he deposited elsewhere. The exhaustion of the
phosphate in the river Peace may be expected at no distant
date; between April 1890 and September 1891 42,000 tons
left by ship and 19,000 tons by rail.
Land-pebble. — Pebble phosphate consists of stones
varying in size from the barely visible to that of a nut ; in
shape they resemble peas and beans ; the angles are rounded
and the surfaces polished. The river-pebbles are dark grey,
bluish or black, a colour which they owe to tannin washed
from the plants in the rivers; the land-pebbles differ from
the river-pebbles only in that they have not been recently
washed and are lighter in colour, being frequently white.
In composition there is no difference between land- and
river pebble ; their average contents of calcium phosphate
and iron and aluminium oxides are G5 — 70 per cent, and
3 per cent, respectively. River-pebble in the market does
not contain more than 60 — 65 per cent, of calcium phosphate,
as a rule, owing to the admixture of sandstone and sticks.
All the land between the Peace and Alalia creeks is more
or less phosphatic. The richest district is an area of some
160 square miles between Bartow, Port Meade, Chieora, and
C'allsville ; the soil of this portion is sandy and covers a
phosphatic clay. The following analyses of three borings
are instructive : —
I. Cypress marsh on Chiloccochatchee : Black mud,
decaying wood, S:c, 3 ft. ; sand, 4 ft. ; blue clay, with 2^ lb.
of white pebbles, 1 ft. ; sand free from phosphate, 1 ft. ;
sand with \\ lb. of gray pebbles, 3 ft. ; sandstone.
II. C'owbridge on Horsecreek : Humus, j ft. ; sand, I ft. ;
sand, with 4'. lb. pebbles, 4 ft.; clay without phosphates,
10 ft.
III. 14 miles west of Bartow: Sand, 2 ft.; sandstone,
2 ft.; sandstone containing pebble, 1 ft.; white and green
clay, with 25 lb. of white and green pebbles, 20 ft. ; clay
without phosphates, 5 ft.
Prospecting a pebble bed is easily accomplished with an
ordinary clay-borer, but very erroneous estimates as to the
quantity of phosphates are frequently made hecause of the
necessity for passing through the ground-water which is
nearly always near the surface ; the clay gets churned up
with the water, and if the phosphates be reckoned as a per-
centage on the bored-out clay the estimate for the bed will
be too high. The author quotes a case in which his esti-
mate for a bed was 15 — 20 per cent, of phosphate, while
that of the American engineers, unaware of this pitfall, was
50 per cent. The use of 4-in. iron tube-borers, which are
kept pumped out and not worked more than is necessary, is
recommended.
An analysis of a section of the core of boring III., men-
tioned above, gave the following percentages on the dry
substance: — Loss on ignition, 0-79; Pn05, 33*61; CaO,
48-04; Fe,0:„ 1-20; AU>;„ 1-38; MgO, &c, 5 -54 ; CO,,,
2-29; SiOj, 7*15. The top pebbles are frequently mixed
with, or imbedded in, sandstone ; but beyond a certain
depth they are nearly always free from sandstone, and the
deeper they are the better they seem to be ; the white
nodules containing much alumina seem to be for the most
part at the top.
The land-pebble industry is still in its infancy, being but
two years old. Improved machinery is wanted ; the
present washing machines perform their work very per-
functorily and leave too much alumina in the form of clay,
rendering the phosphate practically useless. Failing a
better method, some works dry the whole material and then
sift out the sand and powdered clay ; the phosphate
obtained, however, is too aluminiferous for the European
market. It has been found that many of the pebbles have
been lost by the use of too coarse a sieve ; one of 22 meshes
to the inch gave in several experiments 25 per cent, more
phosphate than one of 12 meshes. Although this particular
kind of phosphate has not yielded much return as yet, great
things are expected of it, mainly because it can be won
entirely independently of manual labour. It may bu noted
that recent experiments to apply the dredging method used
for river-pebbles proved abortive.
Hard-rock is as geographically distinct from pebble
phosphate as it is mincralogically. South of Alalia Creek
pebble has the monopoly, while northwards hard-rock is
almost the sole representative. The best of it occurs in
" boulders," varying from several tons to several pounds in
weight ; these are embedded together with " gravel "
in sand, clay, or the " soft-phosphate," described below.
The depth of the beds varies from 40—50 ft. to 5 — 10 ft. ;
experimental boring has shown their extension at 60 — 65 ft.,
but, except where they outcrop, beds which are deeper than
10 ft. or 15 ft. have not been generally worked. The
market phrase " land containing so much per cent, of phos-
phate " means that under 1 00 acres of such land there are
so many acres in which the phosphate is covered by not
more than 15 ft. of sand ; on this scale of valuation 3 per
cent, laud is good and 5 per cent, very good. Prospectors'
rules, such as " Where hammock — no phosphate " or
" Where saw-grass- phosphate " are rife, but have only
local significance, if any at all. The distinction between solid
and laminated rock has reference to the greater homogeneity
of the former, which is either white, grey, yellow, or, less
frequently, dark blue or black ; most frequently it is
marbled and not all of one colour.
Guild hard rock contains from 77 to 82 per cent, of
calcium phosphate and 3 per cent, of ferric oxide and
alumina. A detailed analysis gave, per cent. : —
H.,0092; CaF24-40; C%(P04)2 8b • 14 ; CaC033'63:
ALU., 1-52; Fe.:( ), 0'45 ; SiO.,4'13.
Formerly hard rock only was exported, and the gravel
was voted to coutain too much alumina to be of use ; but
the latter is now washed, after which it contains 30 — 35
per cent, of phosphoric acid and seldom more than 3 per
cent, of ferric oxide and alumina. This also applies to the
laminated rock which contains pockets of clay amounting
to some 5 — 8 per cent. ; it is now burnt to make it brittle,
broken, and sifted ; this reduces the ferric oxide and
alumina to 3 — 4 per cent, and renders the phosphate fit
for export. In America phosphate can be marketed with
much higher contents of ferric oxide and alumina than the
European purchaser will tolerate. The burning of the rock
is carried out by piling 100—200 tons to a height of 3 — 4
feet on a layer of wood one foot high and igniting ; the
method is cheap but otherwise unsatisfactory, and in the
author's opinion practically useless.
Some details as to the methods of raising the rock, and
a discussion concerning the respective merits of various
cranes and scrapers here follow.
Plate-rock or sheet-rock is the most interesting of the
Florida phosphates. It occurs in irregularly shaped tables
of varying area, but most frequently about the size of a
man's hand ; they are one or more centimetres thick, and
vary in colour from brownish yellow to white. The heavier
and more brittle pieces are the richer in phosphoric acid,
the lighter and softer coutain more clay. The average
contents of calcium phosphate is 74 — 78 per cent., and
that of ferric oxide and alumina 3 — 4 per cent, and more ;
the latter however is due to the admixed gravel. Plate-
rock always rests on the irregular suifaee of a stratum of
limestone which is frequently dolomitic and contains
remarkable " wells." These wells are nearly circular and
10, 12, or 15 metres deep ; they are sometimes as much as
one metre in diameter, and are filled with the same plate-
rock, embedded in sand or clay, which forms the whole bed.
In good places the phosphatic bed will contain 50 — 80 per
cent, of plate-rock and is covered by 6—10 feet of sand.
The mining is considerably easier than in the case of hard
rock but the yield per acre is much less.
Plate-rock has been mined for some year and a half, but
very little has found its way into the market ; washing
has proved difficult and capital has not been plentiful.
Soft phosphate is a phosphatic clay or clayey phosphate
which is friable and easily worked ; it is white, reddish or
yellow, and contains varying quantities of water. The
following analyses are put in : —
(1.) Soft phosphate from Polk county contained, per
cent., - H20, 8-35; total P;05, 29-80; water soluble, P.205>
0/81; citrate soluble P.U," (after Wagner), 2"05; ditto
(after Petermann), 2-83;" Fe.X>3 and A1.,03, 8-86.
Juno 3o, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
541
(2.) Soft phosphate from Alafia creek contained per
cent., HsO, 5-8; total P.,Os, 19-94; water soluble, P„05,
0-62; Fe.,U:j, 7-50; A1;0"„ 10' 26.
Much swindling is done in Florida with this soft phos-
phate. Certified by jerry' analysts to contain 10 per cent,
and more of water-soluble phosphoric acid, it is offered and
purchased as a " complete fertiliser " at 30 — 35 dols. per
ton, and as "raw soft phosphate " at 5 dols. In reality it
is dear at any price, and what value it has as a manure can
only be reaped by the farmer who can dig it for himself; it
is not worth transport.
Pebble land in Florida will fetch 15 — 50 dols. per acre ;
for hard rock land 25,50, and 100 dols. are paid ; the value
of unphosphatic land is 3 — 5 dols.
The production of phosphate in Florida will not compare
with that of South Carolina. The cost of winning should be
reduced by improved machinery ; lower rates of transport
and wages are badly wanted. The author estimates the
cost of mining at 4 dols. for good hard rock, 3 — 5 dols. for
plate rock, and 1 — 2 dols. for river pebble (this Journal,
1891, 393 and 737; also 1890, 505).— A. G. 15.
Sulphuric Acid Manufacture in 1891. K. Hasenelever.
Chern. Ind. 1892, 15, G9.
See under A* II., page 521.
PATENTS.
Means of Colouring Liquid Weed Destroyers, Sheep Dips,
Insect Destroyers, and other Poisonous Liquids.
T. Keade, Wolverhampton. Eng. Pat. 7569, May 1, 1891.
The object of colouring such liquids as are detailed in the
title is the prevention of accidents and crime ; it is attained
" by the introduction of a chromium compound, or com-
pound of which chromium forms a part, to such preparations
when of an alkaline character, or, when such preparations
are not alkaline, but are compatible with an alkali, by the
introduction of such compound and of an alkali." — A. G. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Manure.
A. Knorre, Wandsbek-Marienthal, Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 8402, May 15, 1891.
The invention relates to the mucous refuse of tanneries,
particularly from the fleshing and unhairing shops. This
refuse is stated not to have been successfully employed
heretofore for agricultural purposes when received direct
from the tanneries, partly '• on account of its great heating
properties," and partly because it is liable " to form an
impermeable felted cover on the land," in consequence of
its constituents being principally hairs and " mucous parts."
The refuse is dried, first by draining or in a centrifugal
machine, and then in a kiln. When dried it is ground in a
" mill course," crushing mill, or other disintegrator. The
hair having been made brittle by the action of the lime
dunDg unhairing and the subsequent drying, will readily
grind up together with the other matter to a fine powder.
If this powder is to be used directly after grinding, it is
better to add a mineral acid (preferably sulphuric) to the
refuse before drying and grinding, for the lime is thus
converted into gypsum, which hardens during drying and
renders the grinding more easy. Moreover, as sulphate,
the " lime will be more effective and appropriate for nume-
rous soils than the carbonate of lime." The powder is easily
distributed over the land, and will not felt. — A. G. B.
An Improved Insecticide and Fertiliser. H. H. Lake,
Middlesex. From the Biolytie Gypse Company, New
York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 3029, February 16, 1892.
The " lime-mud " obtained during the manufacture of
caustic soda by boiling soda ash or black ash of 48 percent,
strength (100 parts) with unslaked lime (40 — 60 parts) in a
" suitable quantity of water," is dried and powdered. This
constitutes the new insecticide and fertiliser ; in the former
capacity it acts by virtue of the caustic soda which it
retains. It is sown broadcast, or " dissolved in water " and
sprayed on to the trees or other plants infected. — A. G. B.
XVI.-SUGAR, STARCH, GUM, Etc.
Recent Inventions in the Beetroot Sugar Industry. E. O.
von Lippmann. Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 500 — 502.
Among the most important points touched upon in this
review are the following : — The use of animal charcoal in
the manufacture of raw beetroot sugar is growing quite
exceptional, being by degrees entirely replaced by the
improved mechanical filters. Even in the refining industry
the use of animal charcoal is falling off. The Steffeu
Systematic washing process for the direct production of
white sugar in the beetroot sugar factory has been employed
to some extent, but has not given the results which were
anticipated. Some factories in Austria and Belgium have
worked successfully in this direction with Drostand Schultz's
process, but detailed and exact proof is wanting. The
recovery of sugar from molasses is almost abandoned at
present in raw sugar factories. In the refining industry the
chief claims of Steffen have been declared invalid in
Germany. Very ingenious and effective forms of apparatus
have been constructed for drying "crystals" and " granu-
lated." The production of after-products in refineries is
reduced to a minimum, or altogether avoided, and the
recovery of sugar from molasses has been given up in
almost all German refineries.— A. K. L.
7'Ae Best Means of Valuing Raw Sugar. A. Herzfeld.
Zeits. d. Ver. f. Rubenzuckerind. Chem. Zeit. 16
(Chem. Kep.), 114—115.
This lengthy paper (112 pages), which deals with the
question from historical as well as technological and
chemical aspects, contains several important and careful
investigations, the following being the salient points : —
1. Production of Raffinose in Beetroot Sugar
Products, and its Influence on the Form of Sugar Crystals.
— Raffinose originates in the root without doubt, but the
opinions hitherto broached as to the causes of its origin
are by no means certain, and in some cases incorrect. It is
present in strontia after-products (rarely in first products)
and molasses to the extent of 8 — 16 per cent.; in osmose-
molasses to 8 per cent., and in many ordinary beetroot
molasses and refuse products of the industry. Small quan-
tities of raffinose may occur in first products of polarisa-
tion, 94—97, as well as in clean after-products, but its
amount is usually below the limit (0-33 per cent.) which
can be estimated by the inversion method. The raffinose
, . „ 0-5124 P- 1 p-s
formula : — fc> = — ^.j^ — ; B = T-SsT' ougnt ou'y t0 he
applied to those products in which the presence of this
substance is probable, since many products contain com-
pounds which would be reckoned as raffinose, and which
are produced either from the sucrose or invert sugar by
overheating in the manufacture, and also by exposure to
the weather ; among these are saccharic acid and its salts ;
high polarising substances (dextran ?) are often present,
and fermentation derivatives of the organic constituents
other than sugars frequently occur in molasses. To control
the optical test, the copper method of Preuss is recom-
mended. The mucic acid method serves as a qualitative
542
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jnneao^MW.
test for raffinose, but is frequently inadmissible (in the
presence of calcium salts for example) for quantitative
purposes, as is also Gunning's methyl alcohol method,
because in this case invert sugar saceharates, &c, are also
dissolved. The occurrence of elongated crystals is not a
specific indication of the presence of raffinose.
2. The Solubility of Sugar in Water; the Formation of
Molasses ; and the Melassigenic Effect of Raffinose. — ■
By very accurate experiments made in an apparatus capable
of maintaining the temperature to 0-1° C., it was found
that 100 parts of water dissolve 65' 17 parts of sugar at
5-2° C.j 66-fio parts at 19-15° C.; 68-31parts at 28-8° C.;
72-23 parts at 49- 53° C. ; 74-33 parts at 59-4° C. ; and
82-7G parts at 99-45° C. From these the percentage
solubility of sngar is calculated by the method of least
squares, thus : —
y to x°C.:y = G4-1835 + 0-13477 .r +0-0005307 .r3,
whence the following table is constructed : —
Temperature C.
0°
5"
103
15°
20° 25" 30°
35°
40°
4,
50°
Percentage of sugar. . .
64-18 !
64-87
65-58 |
66-38
67-09
67 -89
6S-70
69-55
70 -43
71-32
72-25
Temperature C.
55-
0(1°
65°
70°
75' 80° 85°
90"
95°
100"
Percentage of sugar . . .
73-20
74-18
75 'IS
76-22 77-27 78*36
7
9-46
80-61
81-77
82-97
The old tables of Scheibler and Flourens are, therefore,
only partially accurate, and show differences amounting to
10 per cent, in certain places. The solubility of sugar is
decreased by the presence of small quantities of salts
(organic and inorganic), but increased by that of large
quantities; whilst salts containing water of crystallisation
decrease the solubility, easily soluble salts such as potassium
acetate increase it. The same is true of mixtures of salts,
but each salt appears to act as if it were alone, therefore,
relatively small quantities of mixtures of easily soluble
salts raise the solubility of sugar largely in concentrated
solutions. Normal molasses is not a supersaturated solution
of sugar, but a saturated solution of sugar in that of the
other (" nichtzucker ") constituents. When sufficient
water is added to molasses to form a saturated solution of
sugar if it were present, per se, this diluted molasses will
dissolve fresh quantities of sugar. Wheu small quantities
of potassium acetate, potassium chlorate, &e. are added to
saturated sugar solution, the sugar is partially precipitated
but redissolves on addition of an excess of the salts ;
albumin, pectin, dextrin, and dextran behave in the same
manner. Baffinose follows the same rule as the other
" nichtzucker" constituents, but has much weaker melassi-
genic properties than all the other substances examined,
even than potassium chlorate.
3. Proposed Alteration in Calculating the Rendement
{Estimated Yield) of Rate Sugar, with regard to the
Organic " Nichtzucker " especially Raffinose. — In France
it has long been the custom, instead of multiplying the ash
by five and deducting this from the polarisation in calcu-
lating the "rendement," to deduct four times the ash,
twice the invert sugar, and 1-5 per cent, for loss in
manufacturing, or for the money value, to deduct twice the
organic " nichtzucker " constituents reckoned at 60 centimes
for each per cent. The author considers it more accurate,
instead of merely deducting five times the ash, to take
into account all the non-sucrose constituents, for not only
are all these substances melassigenic, but certain of them
are produced by the over-heating and decomposition of the
sugar, and not being in combination with the ash, their
action is at present entirely ignored. It is proposed, since
the effect of raffinose has not been accurately ascertained,
to deduct twice the total non-sucrose constituents from the
polarisation in the case of first products. The chief
objection to this is that the amount of organic " nicht-
zucker" which being obtained by difference is dependent
on the accuracy of the estimation of all the constituents,
the most inexact estimation being that of the water. This
is, however, overcome by employing a drying-oven with
double walls of asbestos or inlaid glass, and salt water,
or toluene (boiling point, 109' — 110°) as heating material.
A new basis for the calculation of after-products is to be
desired. — A. R. h.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Candy, II. H. Lake,
London. From W. P. Kirehhoff and .f. W. Kirehhoff,
New Orleans, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,566, August 11,
1891.
When a solution of cane-sugar and glucose is concentrated
in vacuo to the consistence necessary to form " hard
crack," the candy produced is hygroscopic ; whilst when
the evaporation is performed in an open vessel, much
caramel is produced. The patentee claims to have
remedied these objections by the following process : —
The solution is evaporated in vacuo to a consistency
below that necessary to form " hard crack," and finished
in an open vessel heated either by steam or direct fire.
—A. B. L.
Improvements in and relating to the Production of Adhesive
Substances Soluble in Water from the Gwn exuded
from Almond, Cherry, Teach, and other Trees. L. Kern.
Hamburg, Germany. Eng. Pat. 21,370, December 7,
1891.
The patentee claims a process for purifying and preparing
the gums from the above-mentioned sources, prior to their
application and use as adhesive substances.
The crude gum is ground, separated by boiling from earth
and other impurities, and the meal steeped in water for
12 — 24 hours. The gelatinous mass is run into an autoclave,
where it is exposed to the action of steam at a pressure of
15 — 90 lb. per square inch for ^ — 1 hour, and then filtered
under diminished pressure through narrow woven cloths.
The filtrate is evaporated at a moderate but uniform tem-
perature, and the viscid product dried on galvanised or
enamelled iron sheets previously greased ; the finished
product is hard and brittle, and possesses all the properties
of genuine gum arabic. — A. B. L.
An Improved Coil for Feeding Syrup or Molasses into
Vacuum Pans. H. Basanta, San Juan, Porto Bico.
Eng. Pat. 3236, February 19, 1892.
The coil is somewhat smaller in diameter than the vacuum
pan, and is placed within it, preferably over the steam
coil, to which latter it may be secured. It is perforated on
its lower portion, and on that part outside the pan there is
a pipe for steaming the coil, and another for introducing
chemicals, such as " bloomer " or sulphuric acid, &c, into
the pan. It is claimed that the feed is more regularly-
distributed over the pan by this coil, and is, in fact, so
gentle and well divided in the massecuite that each crystal
continues to develop and the formation of small grains of
dust is avoided. — A. B. L.
June so, 1892.] THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
543
Improvements in the Crystallisation of Saccharine and
other Solutions. J. C. Mewlmm, London. From " The
Muchinenfabrik Greveubroieh," Grevenbroich, Germanv.
Eng. Pat. 85-15, May 19, 1892.
Well developed crystals are placed in a tank (or series of
tanks connected by pipes), having a perforated bottom, a
tube or channel below it, and a second tube above the layer
of crystals. The tank is heated by a jacket, and a saturated
solution, at the same temperature as that of the crystals, is
introduced through the lower tube ; the solution circulates
through the crystals and passes off through the upper tube,
the process going on continuously ; during its progress
cooling air or water is caused to pass through the jacket.
By this means the solution is kept in constant agitation
during the cooling, and the patentee claims that the inven-
tion provides a process whereby well developed crystals are
obtained even from solutions of low value, and the secondary
formation of tine grains avoided. — A. K. L.
XYII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
On the Presence of Inverlase in Wine and Beer.
E. Donath. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 459.
The nitrogenous constituents of wiue and beer are not
definitely known, and it appeared probable to the author
that one of them might be invertase. Quite recently
A. Bau (Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 143; Chem. Kep. 1892,
16. 86), has determined the cupric reducing power of beer
both before and after digestion with cane sugar. His
results indicate the presence of invertase.
The author took 1 litre of white wine and concentrated
it to \ litre, taking care to keep the temperature below
35° C. ; the residue on treatment with ether yielded a
colourless jelly in the ethereal layer ; this should contain
the ferment if present. The jelly was poured into strong
alcohol, and the floccular precipitate separated on the filter,
subsequently dissolved in water, and re-precipitated with
alcohol. The purified substance in aqueous solution did not
reduce Fehling's solution, but on digestion with cane-sugar
solution it did ; thus proving the presence of invertase.
Two litres of beer were treated in the same way and with
the same results. — A. L. S.
Softening Brewing Water and the Treatment of Hard
Water containing Soda. T. Langcr. Allgem. Ztschr. f.
Bierbr. u. Malzfabr. 1892, 20, 4.
A brewing water of 34 • 6° hardness, which yielded a beer
of unpleasant colour, was softened according to Clarke's
method with lime until it possessed a hardness of 18c. It
was then found to be quite satisfactory.
In another case a water which, besides being very hard,
contained sodium carbonate, was treated in the same way
and the sodium carbonate rendered harmless by the addition
of gypsum. — -A. L. S.
Report on the Deplastering of Wine. Berthelot, Gautier,
and Duclaux. Compt. Rend. 114, 152—155.
Fur many years plaster of Paris has been added to wines,
not, however, without objections having been raised to its
use. A recent French statute has fixed 2 grms. per litre
as the maximum amount of potassium sulphate that shall
be present in a wine.
In order to reduce the amount of sulphate to this, after
the operation of plastering has been performed, a mixture
of strontium tartrate and tartaric acid has been used,
strontium sulphate and potassium acid tartrate being
produced.
After this process it is unfortunately found that quite
appreciable quantities of strontium tartrate remain in
solution, even when the deplastering has only been
partially performed.
Although the salts of strontium in such quantities are
not known to be in any way harmful, yet it is quite possihle
that when taken in daily doses they might in time have
some ill effect. Also as commercial strontium salts are
almost invariably contaminated with barium salts, of which
the poisonous properties are well known, the employment
of any compound of strontium for the above purpose must
be attended with not a little risk.
Taking everything into consideration, the committee
appointed recommends that the French Academy of
Sciences expresses its disapproval of the practice referred to.
— A.L. S.
PATENT.
Improvements in or Applicable to the Manufacture of
Unfermented Wine. J. F. Henderson, Aberdeen, N.B.
Eng. Pat. 1044, January 19, 1892.
About 84 lb. each of bruised Muscatel and Valencia raisins,
the rind of 28 lemons, and 24 lb. ginger are extracted with 5
to 6 gallons of spirits of wine 10 overproof. After drawing
off the spirituous extract the residue is extracted with water
containing 2 oz. salicylic acid, the aqueous extract is boiled
with 3J cwt. cane sugar and lemon juice. When cool there
is added to it the spirituous extract and about 12 oz. of
caramel. It is diluted with boiled water until the gravity
is reduced to 45° Tw. and clarified cither by subsidence or
finings. To make an unfermented sparkling wine, 4 oz.
of the extract are taken for each reputed quart bottle, the
bottle filled up with water and the mixture carbonated in
the usual manner. — A. L. S.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
{A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
The Action of Certain Liquids on Aluminium. G. Lunge.
Eng. and Mining J. February 13, 1892, 206.
Experiments were all made with commercial rolled sheet
aluminium, 1 mm. thick, from the Neuhausen works, of the
following composition: — 0 44 per cent, combined silicon,
0 • 1 1 per cent, crystallised silicon, 0-25 per cent, iron;
traces of copper; 99-20 per cent, aluminium (by differ-
ence). The sheet was cut up into strips of such a size
that they could be conveniently introduced into the
flasks serving for experiment. Each strip was freed from
sharp edges by a file, and was thorough^' cleaned in order
to lay bare a real metallic surface and remove the exces-
sively compact surface produced by the rolling process.
They were for this purpose treated, first with concentrated
solution of caustic soda, then with water, then with dilute
sulphuric acid, again with water, scrubbed with a brush
and distilled water, rinsed with alcohol and dried in an
oven. Three such strips were accurately weighed, hung
by means of small holes, upon a glass hook, in such
manner as not to touch one another, and introduced into
the flasks containing the liquids to be tested. Each flask
held about 400 cc. of liquid, and was closed by a cork
through which passed the stem of the glass hook. After
leaving the whole for six days at the ordinary temperature
of the room, the strips were taken out, rinsed with distilled
water, freed from any adhering alumina, by means of a
soft brush, rinsed with alcohol, dried and weighed. The
loss of weight was referred to the aggregate surface of the
three strips (about 130 sq. cm.), and is in the following
table reduced to 100 sq. cm. Each liquid was tested at
least twice in order to guard against accidental mistake,
in a few cases, where the nature of the liquids presented
no special difficulties, the alumina was, moreover, deter-
mined gravimetrically in the liqui 1 after the experiments,
with results closely approximating those found by ascer-
544
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 80, 1892.
taininfr the loss of weight of the aluminium. The following
table gives the results of the experiments : —
Loss in Weight.
Liquids Experimented upon.
Ordinary olaret
Ordinary hock
JJrandy
Pure 50 per cent, alcohol
5 per cent, solution of tartaric acid
1 per cent, solution of tartaric acid
0 per cent, acetic acid
1 per cent, acetic acid
5 per cent, solution of citric acid . .
1 per cent, solution of citric acid ..
5 per cent. lactic acid
5 per cent, butyric acid
Coffee
Tea
Beer
4 per cent, boric aciil solution .
5 tier cent, carbolic acid
1 per cent, carbolic acid
$ per cent, salicylic acid
Mg.
41
4-0
1G
0-8
1-9
3-6
4'3
6-a
2-8
2-3
6-1
1-7
0-G
2-3
.-,
0-8
7-S
Ml-.
3'3
45
12
0-8
2-4
3-1
5-7
5-2
2-8
2-G
G-3
1-7
<V7
Mg.
37
4-3
1-4
0-8
2-'
3'4
5-0
5-7
2-8
2-5
G-2
1-7
0'7
Reduced
to a
Surface
of 100
sq. ct.
2-3
2-3
0-5
' 0-3
05
0-7
9-2
8-3
Mg.
2 -84
3-27
1-08
0-61
1-89
2-58
8-85
4-38
2-15
1-90
4-77
1-31
0-50
1-77
0-23
0-49
C-35
In very few of the cases was any action outwardly visible.
In the case of brandy and alcohol, where the quantitative
action was extremely slight, the surface of the aluminium
showed a few fungus-like excrescences, probably formed by
alumina, and caused by accidental flaws in the sheet,
iiiibbert and Roscher found that alcohol, ether, and all
similar liquids had no action at all on aluminium foils, so
that the observation made by the author would appear to
be due to an accidental cause. Only in the last case, that
of a solution of salicylic acid, did the aluminium lose its
bright surface and become dull.
The following are the conclusions :— The action of coffee,
tea (both of which had been poured in hot), and beer is
zero, or practically so ; that of brandy is also extremely
slight ; the action of acids and acid liquids (wine, sour
milk, fruit-juices, &c.) is more pronounced, but even in
this case far too slight to cause any alarm whatever,
Taking the worst case found, that of acetic acid, a maxi-
mum attack of less than 5 ingrnis. per 100 sq. cm. in six
days was found. Now, a canteen holding a litre (or nearly a
quart), has an inner surface of about 600 sq. cm. and an
aluminium weight of about 200 grms. Such a canteen
would in the very worst case lose 5 mgrms. in a day, even
if it were always full, or 1 grm. in 200 days, and only in 55
years would it be reduced to half its weight. This action
is certainly too trifling to be practically considered.
Aluminium may, therefore, without any fear, be employed
for canteens or any other vessels serving for holding articles
of food, at least at the ordinary temperature. — W. S.
PATENT.
A Process for the Manufacture of Artificial Unman Milk,
and other easily l)igestihle Fowls. R. Keith and O.
Dahm, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7345, April 28,
1891.
The patentee proposes that albuminous substances such as
" white of eggs, blood albumen, fibrin, casein, legumin,
gluten, and the like," shall be heated in solution at 120° —
150° C. in a closed vessel by steam or a jacket of super-
heated steam. Such substances are thus coagulated and
subsequently redissolve, giving rise to a solution closely
resembling one of albuminose. When 1 — 2 parts of this
albuminose-like substance are added to 100 parts of cows'
or other milk, it is rendered as digestible as human milk,
may be used as a substitute for the latter, and may be
boiled, sterilised, or desiccated without suffering the detri-
mental change which coagulable albuminous bodies would
produce therein. The new substance possesses the ad-
vantage over peptone in being devoid of bitter taste. 1^ —
3i parts may be added to 100 parts of beef tea, cocoa,
coffee, or tea, for the use of children, invalids, &c, and
these rendered nourishing to any extent without affecting
either their taste or smell. — A. K. L.
XX -FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Ephedrinc. P. Spehr. Pbarm. Zeits. Kuss. 1892, 31, 84.
The alkaloid of theEphedra monostachia forms on oxidation
with potassium permanganate, benzoic acid. It is very
easily soluble in water and alcohol, and these solutions can
be kept for days at a temperature of 80° without decom-
position of the alkaloid ensuing. It is soluble in chloroform
1:11, in ether 1:109, in benzene 1:1180, and in petroleum
spirit 1 : 13,570.— B. B.
Ephedrine. P. Spehr. Pharm. Zeits>Iluss. 1892,16, 101.
Ephedrine, prepared by the author from Ephedra mono-
stachia, has the composition Ci3H,9NO, whereas the alkaloid
prepared by Nagai from Ephedra helvetica has the formula
O10H15NO. A pseudo-ephedrine of the same formula as
the last named substance has been prepared from the same
plant b}' E. Merck. A comparison of the three alkaloids
gave the following results : —
Nagai's
Ephedrine.
Pseudo-
Ephedrine.
Formula
Melting point :
Free base
Hydrochloride
Solubility in:
Water
Alcohol
Absolute ether
I Mlicinal ether
Benzene
Chloroform
Light petroleum
C10H15NO \ C10H1SNO
210 C.
216° C.
Slight
Great
Very slight
116° C.
174° C.
1:451
Very great
1:15
1:24
1:26
1:8
Almost
insoluble
Spehr's
Ephedrinc.
CjHrjNO
112° C.
207° C.
Very great
„
1:98
1:109
1:1180
1:11
1 : 13750
Tasto
Action
Crystalline form
Free base
Hydrochloride
Bitter, astringent
Strongly poisonous
and mydriatic.
Rhombic prisms
Rhombic prisms
Burning, anasst hetic
Very feeble
Monoclinic
Hexagonal prisms
June su. 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OE THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
545
Robert has investigated the physiological action of Nagai's
ephedrine on dogs and cats, and finds that they show strong
symptoms of poisoning upon internal administration. The
alkaloid prepared by the author, on the other hand, has
no such effect. — B. B.
Chemistry of the Kola Nut. E. Knebel. Apoth. Zeit.
1892, 7, 112.
Tick kola nut was first investigated by Liebeg, who detected
caffein in it, and ascribed its action to that substance.
Heekel showed that, even after the removal of caffein from
the kola nut, it had a distinct physiological action, which he
ascribed to the presence in it of kola-red. The author has,
however, recognised a glucoside, which splits up on heating
with water or dilute acids into caffein, glucose, and kola-red,
and to which he has assigned the name Kolanin. This
substance is split up on the ripening or drying of the nut
by the action upon it of a diastatic ferment, so that the red
colouring matter contains varying proportions of kola-red
and kolanin. Kola red corresponds in composition to the
formula CMH18Os and, according to the results of its
acetylisation, contains five hydroxyl groups. It is a very
unstable body. The percentage of tannin in the kola nut
(which is 1 to 2 per cent.) appears to correspond with the
equation expressing the oxidation of kola-red —
C,4H1306 + 80 = Ci.HnOo + 4 H.O
whence it appears that the fusion of kola-red with alkalis
would give the same decomposition products as tannin.
— B. B.
Hydvastinine Hydrochloride. E. Merck. Zeits. Osterreich
Apoth. Ver. 1892, 30, 107.
Ax absolutely white preparation cannot be obtained as
the salt, even when pure, has a light lemon colour. A
sample passing the following test is found to satisfy all
requirements : —
0-2 of a grm. is dissolved in 6 cc. of water and six drops
of caustic soda solution (1:5) added. Each drop pro-
duces a white precipitate, which disappears on shaking.
On shaking and stirring the clear solution, the free base
crystallises out, the separation being completed by allowing
to stand, and subsequently adding a little more caustic soda.
The precipitate must be pure white, and the supernatant
liquor clear and colourless. On acidifying with hydro-
chloric acid the uydrastinine redissolves, and the liquid
takes a yellow colour. Samples which when thus tested
give a precipitate that docs not wholly dissolve and gives a
turbid solution, or which form a turbid or coloured mother-
liquor after the base has crystallised out, are contaminated
with foreign matter. — B. B.
American Oil of Turpentine. J.H.Long. Chem. Trade
Jouru. 10, 2G1.
Various kinds of turpentine oil differ from each other
in marked degree in their action on polarised light, French
oil being hevo-rotatory, while the American and Russian
oils are dextro-rotatory. The degree of rotation is not
constant, especially great variations being found in the
American oil.
The Distillation of Turpentine. — The largest proportion
of American turpentine is obtained from the " longleaf "
pine (jpinus Australia'), The " loblolly " or " oldfield " pine
{jiinus tueda), "pitch" pine (p. riijida), and the " swamp"
or Cuban pine (/). cubensis) supply comparatively small
quantities. The crude turpentine is collected by cutting
in the tree a few feet from the ground, " pockets," or
" boxes," capable of holding about half a gallon. To
facilitate the collection of the "gum " in the boxes, grooves
called " streaks " are cut in the tree above each box. The
exudation runs down these streaks and is collected in the
boxes. Boxes cut in new trees are " virgin " boxes and the
" gum " found in them, which is white and of the con-
sistence of honey, is called " virgin dip." Gum which,
running down the tree and has, by exposure to air and light,
become hard, is removed in the autumn and is called
" scrape." After four or five years working, the trees are
abandoned.
The process of distillation is carried out in copper stills,
holding from eight to 50 barrels of the gum. Water is added
so that the oil may pass over in a current of steam. The
vapour leaving the still is condensed in a worm surrounded
by cold water, and the distillate flows into a receiving tank,
where the oil collects on the surface. A bowl of " gum "
weighs about 280 lb. (127 ko.) and yields from 7 to 9 gallons
(26 • 5 to 34 • 3 litres) of the oil. The weight of rosin left in
the still is about four times as great as that of the oil
obtaiued. The American production is about 300,000
barrels per annum, of which over one-half is exported,
chiefly from Savannah and Wilmington. — C. O. W.
Percentage of Guaiacol in Wood Creosote. J. Bongartz.
Chem. Zeit. Rep. 16, 6.
See under III., page 511.
Manufacture of Nitro- and Amidomethylphenylpyraznlone
and a Derivative of the latter. O. Imray, London.
From the " Farbwerke vormals Meister, Lucius, und
Briining," Hochst-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat.
7963, May 8, 1891.
Methylphenylpyrazolone when dissolved in five times its
weight of sulphuric acid (monohydrate), and nitrated with
nitrating acid of 33 per cent, is converted into a jellow nitro
body, which separates out when the melt is poured into iced
water. After recrystallisation from alcohol, in which it is
sparingly soluble, the nitro-methylphenylpyrazolone forms
an orange yellow crystalline powder having the composition
CioH9N303, and melting at 218° C. It is insoluble in water,
but dissolves in a soda solution. On reduction with tin and
hydrochloric acid the nitro-compound is reduced to the
corresponding amido body, and after removal of the tin by
sulphuretted hydrogen and partial evaporation the hydro-
chloride separates out in fine needles. It is purified by-
dissolving in water and reprecipitation with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and has the composition C^HnN^O . 2 HC1.
By diazotising and boiling a solution of the salt a precipitate
is obtained scarcely soluble in alcohol or glacial acetic acid.
It dissolves in soda and is reprecipitated by acids. — T. A. L.
XXI.-PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
Aluminium Light. A. M. Villon. Bull. Soc. franc. Phot,
1892, 8, 13L
Powdered aluminium can be used for a flash light for
photographic purposes instead of magnesium. It is
considerably cheaper than magnesium, and burns without
smoke. The light given by it is almost as actinic as that
obtained from magnesium. Powdered aluminium cannot be
satisfactorily burnt in an ordinary spirit lamp, and the best
result was obtained by using a spirit lamp, in the middle of
the flame of which the end of a tube conveying oxygen
was introduced, and into which the powdered aluminium
was projected by means of a compressible india-rubber ball.
The best light was obtained by the use of a mixture of
100 parts of powdered aluminium, 25 parts of lycopodium,
and 5 parts of ammonium nitrate. — B. B.
546
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 1892.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
The Annual Report (Sixteenth) of Her Majesty's Inspectors
of Explosives for 1S89.
Is their annual report recently published, Her Majesty's
Inspectors of Explosives are fortunately able to state that
only one death occurred from accident during manufacture.
Thirty-four persons, however, lost their lives during the
year owing to accidents in the use of explosives, and in
most cases carelessness was the cause of the accident.
There were only two fatal accidents owing to improper
thawing of nitroglycerin explosives ; hitherto this has been
a fruitful source of accident. There have been several
outrages and malicious attempts made with explosives, but
happily no lives were lost. The chief explosions of this
character were at Dublin Castle and Dawsholm Gas Works,
Glasgow, and were in both cases clearly the result of
deliberate planning. Particulars are given of a fire which
took place on board S.S. " Delcomyn," en route for India
with 56 j tons of safety cartridges on board. About 18 tons
were jettisoned, and the remainder were destroyed by the
fire without giving rise to a general or violent explosion.
In regard to the great explosion of the Vigna Pia
Magazine near Rome, the committee appointed to inquire
into the explosion " came to the conclusion that it originated
in a fire initiated by the spontaneous ignition of parachute
or signal rockets, and the committee laid special stress on
the danger of storing with gunpowder combustible stores
such as fireworks, liable to spontaneous ignition." A serious
explosion took place at the Schlebusch Dynamite Factory
near Cologne during a thunderstorm ; a heavy discharge of
electricity struck the gelatin and washing houses, causing
both buildings to explode simultaneously. The lightning
conductors had been examined duriug the previous month
and were found to be in perfect order.
A considerable addition has been made to the list of
authorised explosives during the year, but no striking new
departure is exhibited as nearly all those added are
modifications or slight variations on previously existing
explosives. It is pointed out that there is at present a vast
variety of smokeless or quasi-smokeless powders on the
market at home and abroad, but practically all may be
classed under two heads, viz., those consisting essentially of
nitrocellulose and those consisting of the same material in
conjunction with nitroglycerin.
Owing to the considerable extent to which electric lighting
is adopted or proposed to be adopted in factories for
explosives, a series of rules have been drawn up to indicate
the minimum of precautious which should be observed in all
electric light installations for factories and magazines for
explosives. These rules have been largely based on those
issued by the Phoenix Fire Office with special modifications
or additions in some cases. Arc lamps are not to be used,
and in the case of danger buildings the light is to be placed
outside of the building.
Where there iis any liability to the formation of dust the
lamps are to be immersed in water or otherwise protected
from dust falling on them. Experiments made at Waltham
Abbey showed that if the globe of an incandescent lamp be
broken in gunpowder dust, the carbou filament retained its
heat long enough to fire the dust. Dr. Dupre calls attention
to the fact that gelatin dynamite has gradually advanced to
the first position among the various explosives employed,
judging by the number of samples received. He examined
two samples of gun-cotton which are of considerable interest,
and reports: "One of them was taken in 1887 from the
river which passes the gun-cotton works at Stowmarket,
having been in the water since lltli August 1871, or for a
period of 16 years. The other was dug up in February 1891,
on the place of the old exploded magazine at the same
factor}-, having been buried in the earth for a period of
19i years. Both samples were in perfect condition, not
having undergone the least deterioration. This, though not
quite unprecedented, is nevertheless highly interesting as
tending to confirm, most strongly, previous conclusions, viz.,
that well made gun-cotton is an extremely stable compound."
Some experiments were made as to the ignition of gunpowder
by means of an electric spark. It was found that dry
gunpowder could not readily be exploded by a series of
sparks from a small induction coil, while moist gunpowder
readily took fire. Notices are also given of the more
important accidents with petroleum and similar substances,
one of the most serious being the explosion on board
S.S. " Tancarville," which " was due to the ignition and
explosion of a quantity of petroleum vapour in admixture
with air accummulated in and about the ballast tank."
From a special report made by Her Majesty's Inspector
of Explosives, Lieut. -Colonel Cundill, on the ignition and
partial explosion of gelatin dynamite which took place at
Nantymwyn lead mine, Carmarthenshire, on March £8,
1892, it appears that a miner was lowering a case containing
50 lb. of gelatin dynamite down a shaft when it slipped
from the rope and fell. A report was heard, and smoke and
flames issued from the spot. Another miner, who was
waiting to receive the case, as well as the man lowering it,
died from the poisonous fumes, neither having received any
external injury beyond a few scratches. The case fell, at
most, 48 ft. This is the first instance in this country of a
simple fall exploding a nitroglycerin compound. The
actual cause of the accident is obscure, but Lieut.-Colonel
Cundill considers that " from the evidence afforded by the
facts it is most reasonable to conclude that the ignition and
quasi-explosion were produced simply by shock acting on
the gelatin dynamite when in an abnormally sensitive state "
(owing to its having been frozen and partially thawed on
the outside), "and perhaps brought violently in contact with
the hard rock, or that they were produced by actual contact
with the flame of one of the men's candles." — W. M.
Nitrojnte, an Explosive. O. Mulhiiuser. Chem. Zeit.
16, 163.
Aftek purifying the jute fibre by boiliug with a 1 per cent,
solution of sodium carbonate and washing with water, the
author treats 1 part of the purified jute with 15 parts of
nitrosulphuric acid. With different proportions of nitric
and sulphuric acids he obtained the following results : —
Exp.
HN03:H2SO,
Yield.
Ienition
Point.
Xitrogen.
I.
1
: 1
Per Cent.
129-5
°C.
170
Per Cent.
U-9«
II.
1
: 2
132-2
1(57
12-15
III.
1
: 3
135-8
169
11-91
Another trial made with fine carded jute and an acid
mixture similar to that in experiment II. gave 145-4 per
cent, yield of nitrojnte, which ignited at 1 62' C. and contained
12 per cent, of nitrogen (this Journal, 1892, 214).— W. M.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method of Charging Explosive Shells.
F. W. Dodd, London. Eng. Pat. 5608, April 1, 1891.
A OASR is constructed of wood, compressed paper, or india-
rubber of such form and size that when inserted into the
shell there is a small space left in all directions between the
outer surface of the case and the inner surface of the shell.
The case is filled with the explosive and inserted into the
shell, the space between case and shell being then filled with
any suitable plaster which will set hard, the cap is screwed
on, and the charge becomes securely fixed in the shell.
— W. M.
Improved Machinery for Compressing Gunpowder or other
Material into Pellets. H. Greenwood, Leeds. Eng.
Pat. 7948, May8, 1891.
Tins invention is for arrangements of machinery for
" compressing gunpowder and other material in measured
quantities into pellets and discharging the same automati-
cally from the machine, such pellets being formed either
solid or hollow, and compressed between oppositely moving
plungers." — W. M.
i in iii.isui] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
547
Improvements in Machinery for the Manufacture if Explo-
it. W, Anderson, Erith. Eng. Pat. 12,303, July
20, 1891.
Tnis invention relates to improvements in machines
described in Specification No. 11,667, 1889,(this Journal,
1890, 893), for the manufacture of cordite. The original
specification must he consulted for details of the mechanical
arrangements adopted, which are illustrated by numerous
drawings. — XV. M.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
A Neie Colorimeter. Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1891, 15, 324.
Gaxlenkamp's colorimeter consists of two equally wide
adjacent troughs constructed of plate-glass and encased
together in metal. The one into which the liquid under
examination is placed has the form of a parallelopiped,
whereas the other, which serves to contain the normal
solution, is circular. The colour of the normal solution
in the latter gradually decreases down to a colourless
A New Colorimeter.
liquid. By means of the observation apparatus, which can
be moved in front of the troughs, a point of the scale may
be found at which both liquids show the same colour. The
scale is divided into 100 parts, so that it gives the percentage
relation of colour between the liquid under examination
and the normal solution. When the telescope attached to
the observation apparatus is replaced by a small direct vision
spectroscope, the instrument forms a spectro-colorimeter.
Besides its accuracy and delicacy, the instrument has the
advantage that the heights of the liquids remain unaltered
during the measurement. After some practice single
readings do not differ more than 0-5 per cent. It is best
illuminated by projecting diffused daylight by means of a
white screen from behind. — A. R. L.
An Apparatus for determining the Liability of Oils to
Spontaneous Combustion. E. H. Richards. Tcchnol.
Quarterly, 1891,346.
The author describes the following laboratory apparatus
for the experimental determination of the facility with
which oils oxidise under favourable conditions. At the
instigation of the New England Cotton Manufacturers'
Association and of the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire
Insurance Company, I'rofessor Ordway undertook the
investigation of this subject, the outcome of which is this
apparatus in the form given it by W. B. Allbright and F.
W. Clark.
The apparatus consists of an outer shell formed by a
six-inch wrought-iron tube which can be closed at each end
by discs of wood. Inserted into this tube is an inner four-
inch tube of sheet-iron with overlapping metal covers at
each end. Thus there is left an air-space of one inch
around the inner tube and of three inches at each end. The
whole apparatus is conveniently placed on a tripod and
heated by a Bunseu burner. Three thermometers which are
inserted into the inner shell through the outer one allow of
the reading of the temperature.
For purposes of testing an oil 50 grms. of the oil are
evenly distributed over, say, 50 grms. of cotton waste, and
the waste carefully pushed into one end of the inner tube
undone thermometer inserted into the middle of the ball.
A second ball of unoiled waste is placed at the other end of
the tube. On heating, the thermometer inserted into this
blank waste should not rise above 100" — 101° C, which can
be easily controlled by the readings of the middle ther-
mometer. The latter should be kept at about 125° C.
The results obtained by means of this apparatus have
been of the greatest use for determining the cause of fires
and for gauging the degree of safety of oils. For instance,
the percentage of fatty oil which may be safely mixed with
mineral oils can be easily determined. Thus neats-foot oil
and best lard oil may be added to the extent of 50 — 60 per
cent., while cotton oil should not be allowed beyond 25 per
cent.
Shavings, leather, skeins of dyed yarn, or rolls of dyed
cloth may be tested in the same way in this apparatus.
Paper pulp, boards, and other combustible substances,
when heated to a higher temperature, would indicate the
temperature at which inflammation sets in. — J. L.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
Colour Testing. W. C. Wilson. Chem. Trade J. 10, 130,
163, 274,290.
See under XIII., page 537.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITA TIVE.
Dry Method of Analysis of Galena. P. Jannasch
and T. Bickes. J. Prakt. Chem. 1892, 45, 113 — 114.
Bromine attacks the mineral at ordinary temperatures to
a certain extent ; complete transformation into bromide
may be brought about by first heating with a small flame
and finally heating to fusion point, a current of bromine
passing all the while. So soon as the conversion is complete
the boat containing the material is allowed to cool in a
current of bromine, and subsequently weighed. The
contents of the boat are then treated with chlorine water,
warmed, and the lead chloride formed is dissolved by hot
water, aided with a little nitric acid. The liquid is filtered
from the gangue and the lead precipitated as sulphate in
the filtrate.
On the Electrolytic Determination of Metals as Amalgams
W. Gibbs. Amer. Chem. Journ. 13, 570—571.
The author in 1883 read a paper before the National
Academy of Sciences on a method of electrolysis for the
separation of metals from their solutions by the use of
mercury as the negative electrode, the positive electrode
being platinum. Iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, cadmium, and
copper can be completely separated as amalgams from a
solution of their sulphates in this way.
Drown (Trans. Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. 20,
not yet published) has shown that iron may thus be
separated from even very small quantities of alumina, and
548
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 3«, 1892.
it is to be expected that iron and some other metals may
also be separated from titanium, zirconium, niobium, and
tantalum, and that the electro-negative portion of certain
metallic salts may be estimated in the same way.
Liickow (Zeits. Anal. Chem. 25, 113) has estimated
zinc, and Vortmann (Ber. 24, 2749) has estimated mercury,
zinc, cadmium, lead, bismuth, and antimony by the author's
process.
E. F. Smith, in his " Electrolytic Analysis," erroneously
states that the author applied this method to tin and
mercury. — P. J. H.
Determination of the Value of Commercial Aluminium.
Schweiz. Wochenschr. Pharm. 1891, 29, 471 ; Chem.
Zeit. Kep. 1892, 16, 4.
The impurities occurring in aluminium and depreciating
greatly its value are chiefly silicon and iron. After
discussing the various methods in vogue the author proposes
the following : — The aluminium is dissolved in caustic potash
of 30 — 40 per cent, (free from Si02), and silicon and iron
are determined separately. He dissolves 3 — 4 grins, in
35 ec. warm caustic potash ley. Without filtering off the
black flocculent residue, the liquor is treated with an excess
of pure hydrochloric acid and evaporated to dryness. The
silica is then determined in the usual way.
For the determination of iron the author dissolves in the
same way 3 — 4 grms. aluminium, acidulates with dilute
sulphuric acid, and titrates with potassium permanganate.
—J. L.
On the Volumetric Estimation of Sulphuric Acid.
K. Farnsteiuer. Chem. Zeit. 16, 182.
The sulphuric acid is precipitated in a nearly boiling solu-
tion, slightly acid with hydrochloric acid, by a measured
but excessive quantity of barium chloride solution of known
strength. The solution is again heated for some time and
ammonia free from carbonate is added until the neutral
point is just passed, and then ammonium chromate (which
is preferable to potassium chromate) in slight excess. When
the liquid is cold it is introduced into a suitable measuring
flask, filled up 1o the mark. When the precipitate has
settled, half the liquid is filtered off into a beaker, or better
a wide mouthed flask nrovided with a ground stopper.
The excess of chromate is then estimated by Volhard's
method, i.e. potassium iodide and hydrochloric acid are
added, and the iodine liberated is titrated with sodium
thiosulphate.
( Kving to the fact that barium sulphate carries down the
chromate with it, the results are too low except in solutions
containing small quantities of sulphuric acid. Thus, a
solution containing about 0-8 percent, of potassium sul-
phate gave 45-11 and 44H3 per cent, of SO-, instead of
45-91. But with very dilute solutions (containing 0- 04 to
0-08 per cent, of potassium sulphate), the results are
sufficiently exact. Thus, in a solution of potassium sulphate
"ontaining 0-0744 of the salt in 100 cc, the SOa found
was 0-0340 grm. ; SO:, calculated was 0-0342 grm. The
method is recommended for the estimation of sulphuric
acid in soda, rock salt, aud table salt, potash, and potassium
chloride. In estimating the sulphuric acid in natural waters
100 — 200 cc. are taken ; the carbonates are first decom-
posed by heating with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the
method given above is then followed. 200 cc. of Hamburg
tap water gave 0-0079 S03 by gravimetric, 0-0077 by
volumetric analysis.
The only bodies which interfere with the determinations in
water are ferric oxide, which is precipitated by the
ammonia, and nitrous acid, which can be decomposed by
adding a few crystals of pure urea to the water while the
carbonic acid is being driven off. A .single determination
can easily be made in an hour. — P. J. II.
JYotes upon the Estimation of Chlorine in Electrolysed
Solutions. L.M.Norton. Technol. Quarterly, 1891, 361.
Ox electrolysing aqueous solutions of sodium chloride,
solutions are obtained which contain chlorine in several
forms of combination. The author describes his methods
of estimating the chlorine,
It may be premised that by the electrolysis of a sodium
chloride solution at ordinary temperature the liquor will
contain sodium chloride, sodium hypochlorite, and sodium
chlorate, whilst sodium chlorite could not be found. At a
temperature of 50° — 55° C. mainly sodium chloride and
sodium chlorate are obtained.
(a.) Estimation of Chlorine combined as Hypochlorite.
— 25 cc. of the solution are titrated with a standardised
sodium arsenite solution and the chlorine present as hypo-
chlorite calculated. The solution must be preserved for the
determination of Ihe chloride present.
(6.) Estimation of Chlorine combined as Chloride. — ■
The solution from the preceding operation is made np to a
known volume and an aliquot part of it is titrated wilh
standardised silver nitrate solution, potassium chromate
being used as indicator. The presence of arsenic does not
interfere with the correctness of the result ; in fact, sodium
arsenite itself may be used as indicator in place of the
potassium chromate.
Thus the chlorine present as hypochlorite plus chloride
is estimated ; by subtracting the amount found sub a, the
quantity of chlorine present as chlorde is obtained.
(e.) Estimation of the Total Chlorine. — It is, of course,
evident that the total chlorine could not be obtained by the
titration of the original solution before being electrolysed.
The simplest way of determining the total chlorine is to
reduce the hypochlorite and the chlorate to chlorides and
to titrate with silver nitrate. To effect the reduction the
author uses sulphurous acid, which has been recommended
for this purpose by Kose and Engel. Free acid being
formed during the reduction potassium chromate cannot he
used as indicator for the subsequent titration with silver
nitrate ; the author adds, therefore, an excess of silver
nitrate and titrates back with ammonium sulphocyanide.
From the total chlorine thus found the chlorine present
as chlorate can be easily calculated.
The method of determining the hypochlorite plus the
chlorate by allowing them to act on potassium iodide in the
well known way has not been found as convenient as the
one described above.
A less rapid method would be to determine the total
oxidising power of the solution, i.e., the hypochlorite plus
chlorate, by means of an excess of standardised ferrous
sulphate.
In testing the efficiency of electrolytic chlorine generators
the chlorine produced is most conveniently absorbed in
sodium hydrate, the amouut of chlorine, which the latter
contained, having been determined previously. The
chlorine in its different combinations may be estimated as
above.
The author recommends these methods for the analysis
of bleaching powder if the determination of total chlorine
and chlorate is desired. — J. L.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
Testing Lard for Fut/i/ Oils. P. Welmans. Pharm.
Zeit. 1891, 36, 798 ; Chem. Zeit. Kep. 1892, 16,5.
The author proposes a new reaction by means of which
he is able to detect the presence of any fatty oil in lard.
If one grm. of a fatty oil be dissolved in 5 cc. chloroform
in a test-tube, and 2 cc. phosphomolybdic acid or sodium
phosphomolybdate aud a few drops of nitric acid are
added, on violent agitation the reagent is reduced and the
mixture becomes emerald green. Ou standing a few min-
utes the lower layer of chloroform becomes colourless
whilst the upper layer shows a green colour; on adding
ammonia or alkalis, the green colour is changed into a blue
one.
JuueSO.1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
549
Lard (tallow, goose fat, butter faO, treated in the same
« ay iloes not show any change of colour; on saturating with
ammonia or alkali the mixture becomes colourless.
The only oil of animal origin which reduces the above
mentioned reagent is cod-liver oil, which contains besides
amines of the fatty series, several bases of an alkaloid
character, viz , Morrhuine, Gadiuine, &c. — J. L.
Adulteration of Turpentine. J. H. Long. Chem. Trade J.
10, 261.
Turpentine oil is not largely adulterated at the present
time. Light petroleum oils, gasoline, benzine, or light
rosin oils have occasionally been employed as adulterants.
The various sophistications can be detected by the following
tests : —
1. Specific Gracity. — The specific gravity of American
turpentine varies within the narrow limits of from 0-8G4 to
0870, according to Allen. Thirteen samples examined by
the author showed results varying between 0-8622 and
0*8655 ;it l.V C. With pure commercial samples, the
density was found to range from 0-8656 to 0-8718.
Tin- petroleum products, which could be used for the
sophistication of turpentine have all a density much lower
than this.
Gasoline, 88° B Sp. gr. r-6508 at 13° C.
74° B C-7001
Benzine, 63° B 0'7300 .,
"Standard white," 110 fire test „ 0-7999
"Water white," 150 „ „ 0-7918
"Headlight," 175 „ „ 0-7!152
Mineral seal „ ()'8293 „
Paraffin oil 0'8906
A mixture of 95 vols, of a turpentine, sp. gr. 0-8680,
with 5 vols, of each one of these oils, gave the following
results : —
Sp. gr.
With 5 vols, gasoline, 8S5 B 0-8568
„ gasoline, 74° B 0'8595
benzine, 63° B 0'8608
„ "standard white," 110 fire test. 0-S637
"water white," 150 fire test 0'8632
"heart light," 175 fire test 0'8630
„ mineral real 0'S656
paraffin oil 0'8688
For the detection of ordinary rosin spirit the specific
gravity is not of much use, some grades having a lower, and
some a higher density than turpentine. Fatty oils can
readily be detected by this test.
2. Soiling Point. — In the examination of a large number
of pure commercial samples of turpentine, the boiling
point was uniformly found at 155° to 156° C, 85 per cent.,
distilling between 155° and 163° C. The distillation is
practically complete below 185° C. The initial and final
boiling points of the eight mineral oils referred to were as
follows : —
Gasoline, 88°
Gasoline, 74°
Benzine, 053
" Standard while," 110°
" Water white," 160° . . .
" Head light," 175°
Mineral seal
Paraffin oil
Initial.
Final.
°C.
About 40
■O,
About 110
„ 55
„ m
„ 95
„ 105
„ 130
Above 360
,. 148
About 310
,. 160
„ 315
„ 230
Above 360
„ 300
„ 300
The initial temperature means the point when about 1 ec.
out of 100 has passed over. The presence of 5 per cent, of
either of these oils in turpentine would readily show
itself.
3. Flashing Point. — Much importance is attached to the
flashing-point test, which according to Redwood is at 33° C.
By the presence of volatile petroleum products it is much
lowered. Mixtures of 95 vols, of turpentine and 5 vols, of
the above mineral oils show the following flashing- points: —
With gasoline, f
. Flashing point below 15° C.
„ 19° C.
benzine, 03'
„ about 22= C.
■•Standard White," 110°
„ 32° C.
"Water White," 150° .. „
„ 33° C.
" Head Light," 175°
„ 34° C.
Mineral seal
„ 35° C.
Paraffin oil ,
„ 36-5° C
This table requires no comment.
4. Vapour Density. — This was determined in a Victor and
Carl Meyer's apparatus with ethyl benzoate as heating liquid.
Thus fractionated fresh turpentine was found in two tests to
possess a molecular weight of 1.35-11 and 134-53 respec-
tively. Ordinary commercial turpentine, not fractionated,
gave results varying between 136-6 and 147-7, average of
15 samples 142 0. The light petroleum products have
molecular weights considerably lower than that of turpen-
tine. A small addition of benzine can be detected by
fractionating the sample and determining the vapour
density of the first 10 cc. This method of course fails
with heavier petroleum products.
5. Distillation with Steam. — The results obtaiued in this
way fully agree with Armstrong's experience. The method
is valuable for the detection of vegetable oils, or heavier
petroleum products.
6. Nitric Acid Oxidation. — Win. Burton (Amer. Chem.
Jour. 12, 102) has shown that a fairly quantitative measure
of the petroleum products present in a turpentine may be
made by slowly dropping 100 cc. of it into about 300 cc. of
fuming nitric acid which is kept in a flask immersed in cold
water. At the end of the reaction it is simply necessary to
wash the oxidation compounds with hot water, in which
they dissolve, while the practically unattacked petroleum is
left behind. This method gives very satisfactory results.
— c. o. w.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Weighting of Leather. B. Kohlmann. Chem. Zeit. 1892,
16, 16—17.
Inasmuch as such substances as may be used for this
purpose can only be introduced by making the leather
absorb solutions of them, it is obvious that insoluble
materials are inapplicable, and it would appear that sugar,
barium salts, and cheap vegetable extractive matter
are the only weighting materials actually used. The
detection of the fraud resolves itself into the determination
of soluble organic matter, ash, sugar, and barium ; the two
former should be compared with the average quantity to be
found in genuine leather ; the two latter will serve as
qualitative indications, since properly tanned leather is free
from them.
The samples must be dried at 105° before they are
weighed, for the water in genuine leather varies from 12 to
20 per cent. ; they are then cut into the thinnest possible
strips and extracted with cold water, hot water being inad-
missible because leather speedily goes slimy in it, and is
thus imperfectly extracted. In testing for sugar in this
extract it must be remembered that any excess of tannin
which may exist in the leather will be dissolved, and will
yield sugar when boiled with alkalis or alkaline liquids, like
Fehling's solution. To avoid errors from this source the
aqueous extract should be precipitated with lead acetate and
F 2
.wo
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Juno so, 1892.
the excess of lead removed by solium carbonate before the
sugar is determined by Fehling's solution or by the
polarimeter. The other estimations need no comment.
The examination of pure leather showed that cold water
extracts 10 — 12 per cert, of the weight of the dry leather,
and that the ash varies between 0-5 and 1 percent. It
will thus be seen that samples II. and VI. in the subjoined
table are the only pure specimens, IV. is adulterated with
soluble organic matter other than sugar, and the rest contain
both sugar and barium.
Sample?.
100 of Leather Dried at 105 contain
i.
11.
III.
,V.
V.
73 i
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Organic matter insoluble in water
79 ■>.>
89" 2
79' S
78-0
87-7
80-0
77-H
15-9
10-2
15-8
20-9
22'6
11-8
17-1
19-3
Ash
n
0*6
4'4
1-1
3-S
11-5
2-9
.VI
Found
Nil
Found
Nil
Found
Nil
Found
Found
Found
N„
Found
Nil
Found
Nil
Found
Found
-A. G. B.
Analysis of Linoleum Floorcloth. J. Piuette. Chem.
Zeit. 1892, 16, 281.
Linoleum floor cloth is manufactured from ground cork
and oxidised linseed oil, with admixture of various pigments
and mineral weighting materials. In the analysis of this
material the first step is to remove from its uuder-part a
sort of very coarse cloth, which generally carries a thick
coat of paint. The linoleum is then ground or cut into
small pieces, and extracted with ether in a Soxhlet apparatus.
The mineral constituents of the linoleum are estimated by
analysing the ash obtained after ignition. The loss on
ignition, oil and cork, supplies the analytical figure for the
latter constituent. The following analyses were made in
the above manner : —
—
i
2
3
3-39
3-01
3-41
11-43
10-60
19-58
77-21
73-63
54-16
f Silica
2-94
399
431
Alumina
1-91
4-91
0-61
j3 < Ferric oxide.
1-78
1-79
<T86
LAlkalis, &c. .
>
1-31
2 -ill
s 6-17
I 2-90
100*00
As the quality of linoleum floorcloth depends chiefly
upon the percentage of linseed oil contained in it, the
interpretation of these analyses offers no difficulty.
— C. O. W.
Estimation oj Glycerol in Wine. M: T. Lecco. Chem.
Zeit. 1892,16, 504.
In the determination of glycerol in wine by the method
proposed by the Commission on wine analysis methods,
Berlin 1848, it is more accurate to employ a large relative
proportion of sand, the extraction of the glycerol being
more complete : — 10 cc. of the wine are mixed with dry-
pulverised calcium hydroxide (0* 1 grm.) and quartz-sand
(10 grms.) evaporated on the water-bath almost to dryness,
and the residue extracted 4 — 5 times with hot absolute
alcohol, the alcoholic solution filtered, and the filtrate
(40 — 50 ec.) evaporated on the water-bath to a syrup.
The latter is mixed with alcohol (5 cc.) and ether (7 — 5 cc.)
and allowed to remain for some hours in a corked flask,
when it is decanted into a tared weighing flask, evaporated,
placed for an hour in a water oven, and weighed. The
following amounts of glycerol were obtained in three
samples of the same wine, by the methods stated.
No. I. — The same method as above described. Glycerol
= 0-0873 grm.
No. II. — The same, but mixture of wine, sand, and
calcium hydroxide more completely evaporated,
moistened with water, and extracted with absolute
alcohol. Glycerol = 0-0889 grm.
No. III. — The same, but still more completely evaporated,
without stirring, and the residue extracted direct with
absolute alcohol. Glycerol = 0-0971 grm.
It therefore appears that the highest results are obtained
when the evaporation is most complete and the residue
extracted, without addition of water, with absolute alcohol.
The author is still continuing his experiments, especially in
the direction of ascertaining whether the glycerol isolated
iu this method is pure. — A. K. I..
The Best Means of Valuing Raw Sugar. A. Herzfeld.
Chem. Zeit. 16 (Chem. Hep.), 114—115.
See under XVI., page 541.
Adulteration of Linseed Oil by Rosin Oil. P. Cored.
Journ. Pharni. Chim. 1892, 5 ser, 25, 185; Chem. Zeit.
Kep. 1892, 16, 90.
The author proposes a new method for recognising the
presence in linseed oil of rosin oil. The principle of this
new method is that rosin oils, just like oils of animal origin,
are blackened by gaseous chlorine. The author passed for
three minutes a current of chlorine through samples of pure
linseed oil and of such oil containing 5, 10, and 20 per cent, of
white rosin oil. The pure oil, likewise the oil containing 5 per
cent, of rosin oil, were but slightly coloured, whilst the other
two samples were slightly darkened. Pure rosin oil became
reddish brown. After three hours* standing the pure
linseed oil had remained unchanged ; the oil containing
5 per cent, rosin oil was slightly brown, that with 10 per
cent, distinctly brown, that with 20 per cent, dark brown ;
the pure rosin oil by this time had become black.
The author criticises the methods proposed by Eemont
(Bull. Soc. Chim. 33, 401—466; 525—532) and Aignan
(this Journal, 1890, 330) for the estimation of rosin oils and
replaces them by the following method : 2 grms. of the oil,
previously dried at 105° C, are heated with 40 cc. of
standardised alcoholic potash on the water-bath for two
hours. If pure linseed oil be treated in this way the
saponification will be found complete after 1 — 1^ hours ; in
the presence of more than 15 per cent, of rosin oil the saponi-
fication never becomes completed, which can be recognised
by the appearance of oily drops on shaking or by an
opalescence on adding water.
Juno so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
551
V.fter two hours' boiling, allow to cool, add phenol-
phthalein, and titrate back the excess of alkali with
half-normal hydrochloric acid.
Pure linseed oil requires per grm. of oil 201—221
mgrms. potash, whilst white rosin oils, which are used
mostly for adulterating linseed oil, only require 20 — 41
mgrms. caustic potash. Taking 211 as the mean value for
linseed oil and 31 for rosin oils, the formula ""'.,'"".7 -
n being the amount of potash required by the grm. of oil
under examination, gives the percentage of rosin oil used
as an adulterant. — J, L,
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
The Determination of the Temperature of Steam arising
from Bnilin<i Salt Solutions. J. Sakurai. Proc. Chem.
Soc. 1892 (111), 92—94.
Tin: evidence now on record as to the temperature of the
steam arising from boiling salt solutions is exceedingly
unsatisfactory, Rudberg has maintained that the tempera-
ture of such steam is always the same as that of water
boiling under the same pressure, but, under the conditions
observed in his experiments, the temperature indicated was
evidently mt that of the steam, but of a film of liquid
water condensed upon his thermometer bulb. Mtiller came
to the conclusion that steam at the moment of its formation
within a boiling salt solution has only the temperature of
100°, though it is more or less superheated by rising
through the hoc solution. Not only is this conclusion
difficult to accept on theoretical grounds, but the observa-
tions on which it is based are by no means of a convincing
character, and are not peculiar to salt solutions.
( )n the other h nd, Faraday and Magnus thought they
had proved that the temperature of steam escaping from a
boiling salt solution is the same, or nearly the same, as that
of the solution, but from the manner in which their
experiments were conducted, it is not clear that the
temperature they observed was really that of the natural
strum escaping from a boiling solution. On the contrary,
it would appear that what they determined was essentially
the temperature of the wall of the vessel around the
thermometer and of the steam superheated thereby.
Such being the case, the author has studied the conditions
under which the true temperature of steam escaping from a
boiling salt solution may be ascertained, and he has devised
a method by which this can be readily effected. The result
of his observations is, that the temperature of steam escaping
from a boiling salt solution is the same as that of the
solution. The most essential conditions for success are: —
1 . The thermometer used in ascertaining the temperature
of the steam must be kept from contact with the solution —
even the smallest drops thrown up by ebullition.
2. The effect of the cooling of the thermometer by
radiation must be rendered insignificant in proportion to
the heating up by the steam. This condition is readily
fulfilled by rapid renewal of the vapour in contact with the
thermometer by the expedient of combining the introduction
of steam from without with the boiling of the solution by
tin- lamp. Ebullition alone should suffice, but the practical
difficulties in the way prevent such being the case; the
boiling would have to be tumultuous to generate much
vapour, and in a short time the solution would become too
concentrated for the experiment to be continued with
convenience. On the other hand, by duly regulating the
amount of steam entering from without, and the height of
the flame, an abundant supply of steam can be secured, and
the temperature of the boiling solution may be maintained
constant within a few thousandths of a degree for any
length of time.
3. The walls of that part of the vessel which serves as
the steam chamber for the thermometer must be sufficiently
protected from external cooling, and yet, at the same time
mn-t not be heated to the temperature of the steam.
Through the non-observance of the former condition as in
Rudberg s experiments, so much of the steam is condensed
in keeping the walls at 100° that it is hardly possible to
keep enough passing over the thermometer bulb, while it*
the latter condition is ignored, as in Magnus's experiments,
the indications of the thermometer may be illusory.
In the apparatus employed this last condition was secured
by protecting the steam chamber with a jacket, through
which passed a slow stream of the vapour generated by
gentle distillation of somewhat dilute acetic acid. Ily
modifying the degree of dilution any desired temperature,
changing only slowly as distillation proceeded, was obtained
in the jacket; in this manner condensation of steam upon
the thermometer bulb, as well as upon the surrounding
walls, was prevented.
A salt solution whose boiling point had been approxi-
mately determined and known to be higher than that of the
dilute acetic acid was boiled, and a rapid current of steam
introduced into the boiling solution from without. The
thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the steam
now rose above that in the jacket, and ultimately attained
the same temperature as the hoiling solution. The following
are an example of the results obtained with a solution of
calcium chloride: —
Temperature of the
Difference.
Steam.
Solution.
Acetic Acid
Vapour.
(II.)— (I.)
(I.)-(IU.)
0
o
o
111-2
112-5
110"8
1-3
0:4
111 "7
112-0
11D-9
0-3
0-8
112-2
112-11
111-1
if 1
1-1
112T,
112-7
111-3
0-2
1-2
112-7
112-il
111-5
0-2
VI
113-0
113-0
lire
IVO
1-1
113-1
113-2
111-8
0'1
1-3
113-3
113-3
111-9
o-o
1-4
— W. S.
Note on an Observation by Gerlach of the Boiling Point of
a Solution of Glauber's Salt. J. Sakurai.
A few years ago G. T. Gerlach (Zeit. Anal. Chem. 26,
413) published a paper in which he mentions that steam
escaping from a boiling solution of Glauber's salt containing
a crystalline magma of the anhydrous salt indicated a
temperature of 100°, whilst the liquid is boiling at 82°, or
even at 72°. This observation appeared so curious and so
anomalous that the author was induced to repeat his experi-
ments : the results, on the whole, confirmed his observations
as to temperatures, but, at the same time, deprived them of
all exceptional character, in fact showed them to be erroneous
in so far as they imply that a substance can evolve a vapour
hotter than itself. — W S.
Ammonia in Bain Water and in the Atmosphere.
A. Muntz. Compt. Rend. H4, 184—186.
Mtjntz and Marcauo (Compt. Rend. H3, 779) found that
the mean of a number of estimations of the ammonia in the
rain of the tropics was 1-55 mgrms. per litre. Taking the
mean amount of ammouia present in the rain of temperate
countries to be 0-50 mgrms. per litre, their experiments
show that the rain of the tropics is richer in ammonia than
that of temperate climates.
Albert Levy (Compt. Rend. 113, 804) considers the
number 0'50 mgrms. per litre as too little, since he has
552
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June so, 1898.
found that rain collected at the Montsouris Observatory,
Paris, contained a mean amount of 2-2 rngrms. ammonia
per litre. The author quotes the results of experiments
made by several chemists, which show that the rainfall of
towns always contain considerably rrore ammonia than that
of the country, and so considers that Albert Levy's numbers,
which were obtained from rain collected near Paris, are
not fairly comparable with the author's numbers.
He quotes numbers obtained from the analysis of a large
number of rain waters collected at Kothamstead, the
mean of which do not differ greatly from 0/5 mgrms. per
litre— A. L. S.
Erratum.
This Journal, May issue, page 4.58, col. 1, line 27, for
" sulphuric acid " lead " hydrochloric acid." Also line 45,
for the words "like the molybdenum precipitate," substitute
the words " in a slow current of oxygen."
$.rto 3Soob*
Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry. Revised and en-
tirely re-written by H. Poster Mohi.fy. M.A., D.Sc.,
Professor of Chemistry at Queen's College, London, and
M. M. Pattison Moth, M.A., Prelector in Chemistry,
of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Assisted by
Eminent Contributors. In Four Volumes. Vol. III.
London : Longmans, Green and Co., and New York
(15, East 1 6th Street). 1892.
Octavo volume, strongly and handsomely bound, price 50s.
Tbe work is to be completed in four volumes, and the
present issue is the third volume. It contains Introduction
to the Articles relating to Organic Chemistry, by Dr. II. ¥.
Morley. Then follow a list of Special Contributors, list of
Abbreviations and of Terms and Quantities, &c., frequently
used. The subject-matter covers 85:j pages, commencing
with I (Indigo-earboxylic acid) and ending with P (Phenyl-
tetrazole carboxylic acid). The condensed and abbreviated
style followed in the text is nevertheless easily interpreted,
and the method of dividing the paragraphs and giving each
its function and title greatly facilitates reference.
Thus, under the principal heading with the name of any
substance under consideration, one generally uniform method
of treatment is observed, which is easily classified by means
of the spaced-off sub-headings. After some general remarks,
a paragraph may commence headed" Formation," and this is
necessarily followed by other paragraphs respectively headed
" Preparation," " Properties," ic Reactions" and " Salts,"
so far as is admissible. In the volume are to be found
important but concise treatises on the following subjects : —
Isomerism, Isomorphism, Metallurgical Chemistry, Rare
Metals, Mineralogical Chemistry, Molecular Constitution of
Bodies, Molecular Weights, Molybdenum, Nitric Acid,
Nitrogen, Nitrogen Group of Elements, Oxygen, Oxides,
The Periodic Law, and Petroleum.
CraTje Import*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
United States.
Customs Decisions.
The following decisions respecting the construction to be
given to Acts of Congress relating to the classification of
articles in tbe Customs tariff and the application of the
Customs Laws of the United States, base recently been
given by tin- Customs authority in that country : —
" Eikonogen," a chemical salt, the distinguishing charac-
teristic element of which is derived from coal-tar, not a
colour or dye, and not an aniline salt, is dutiable ;i~ ;i
coal-tar preparation, not a colour or dye, at 20 per cent, ad
valorem under paragraph 19, N. T.
" Duresco," a paint containing ziuc but not containing
hail, neither dry nor ground in oil, but ground or mixed
with water, is dutiable at 25 per cent, under paragraph 61.
An extract or paste of indigo, commonly known as white
indigo not carmined, is dutiable at three-quarters of one
cent per pound under paragraph 29, X. T.
Liquid composed of water, arctic acid, and gelatin, not
liquid albumen, is dutiable at 25 per cent., as a chemical
compound, under paragraph 70, N. T. — Hoard of Trade
Journal.
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
Industrial Enterprise in Japan.
Paper Mills. — The manufacture of foreign paper in mills
is an industry of earlier date than cotton spinning, if the
single cotton mill established in Kagoshima Vic excepted.
It has not, however, developed of late years in the same
rapid manner. There are at present, exclusive of the large
Government paper mill at oji. a suburb of Tokio, and the
Kobe paper mill, a foreign enterprise, only si\ paper mills
in Japan, distributed as follows : —
In Tokio, two, namely-, the Seishi mill, established in
1876 with a capital of 79,166/., owned by a company, and
employing 400 workpeople; and the Yukosha mill,
established in 1874 with a capital of 17,483/, owned by a
company, and employing, on an average, only 24 work-
people.
In Osaka, two, namely, the Shimogo mill, established in
1876 with a capital of 19,000/., and owned by a private
individual; and a large mill owned by a Mr. Abe, now in
course of erection, the capital invested being 190,000/.
In Kioto, one, the Umedzu mill, established in 1875.
In Kokura (province of Buzcn), one, the Senjin mill,
established in 1891.
The paper made in these mills is intended for home con-
sumption. It consists of printing paper and writing paper
of various kinds, wrapping and packing paper, and paper
of a coarse kind used in the mateli-box trade. The
machinery used is in some cases English, in others
American. The materials used are rags, rice-straw, and
the bark of the " Abies firma."
With regard to the future of the Japanese paper-making
industry, Mr. Lay says : —
"Things do not augur well for the future of this industry.
At present there are eight mills engaged in the foreign
paper manufacture, but, owing to excessive competition
amongst themselves, only two of them, tbe Oji paper mill
and tiie Kobe paper mill, are quite able to hold their own.
For some years past the amount of paper produced has
gradually grown, a specially huge increase taking place last
year (1890), when the total output reached to about
22,400,000 lb. The demand in Japan is only for 16,000,000
June so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
553
lb., which leaves a surplus of 6,400,000 lb. This over-
production is telling heavily upon the trade, and it is thought
thai some of the smaller mills with limited capital will be
compelled to stop work ln-fore long. The price per loo lb.
of paper is less than half of that of 1881. Io 1881 it was
•21. As. Ad. ; in 188:!, 1/. 14s. Ad. ; in 1885, 1/. 6s. ; in 1887,
1/. Is. 2d. ; in 1889, 1/. Is. :!</. ; and in 1890, 19s. ?d.
"Japanese paper manufacturers have not only to eoni-
pete against each other, but have also to struggle against
foreign competition. < her 5,000,000 lb. of foreign paper are
annually imported. The desire of those engaged in the
industry is to have the import duty raised, so as to keep
"•* ; ".•'..,;..i.t' I'min abroad."
mixed and churned together with a large quantity of water
by apparatus working in tanks for the purpose ; the fluid
" slip," from which after being strained is passed into
settling-ponds or "backs" of the ordinary kind. The
" slurry " there deposited is cut into lumps and dried on
drying-floors heated by means of flues. Calcining is
carried out in kilns of the intermittent type, the fuel
generally used being anthracite coal. The " clinker " after
sorting is ground under pairs of revolving grindstones,
usually about 6 ft. in diameter and a foot thick ; and the
ground cement is then sifted through rotating gauze-
covered sifters, after which it is exposed to cool, and
finally packed for sale in casks or bags. The mixing,
- * .l^ii'on ttv steam
SSL
teniL'in LULU!,,,..,, .....>r.. ..,
Company, Atsnta, near Nagoya j the Osaka Cement Com-
pany, Osaka; the Onoda Cement Company, Yamaguehi,
near Shimonoseki ; the Nippon Cement Company, Yatsushiro,
on the Hiogo coast.
There are some minor works, such as the Mikawa
Cement Company in the province of Mikawa, another in
Joshin; and I understand that the Kawaguchi (Osaka)
Works, which have been suspended for a time, are likely
to be soon started again. All of these, however, are of
small capacity.
There is no chalk formation in the country, and the
general practice is to use ordinary slaked lime (hydrate of
lime), mostly prepared at works in Nimo, Yashin. Iyo, and
Tosa. To ibis is added the necessary proportion of clay,
usually in the form of river mud. The materials are
all cases quire so am,«m»ui>uAj , n— —
been a marked improvement of late in the latter respect.
" Japanese manufacturers have now realised the im-
portance not only of technical knowledge and suitable
appliances, but also of ceaseless care, and of aiming
especially at uniformity of quality, the lack of which gave
the earlier-made Japan cements the doubtful reputation
from which they are only now emerging. Engineers and
chemists have been sent to the factories of England and
Germany to master the secrets of the craft ; and the know-
ledge thus gained, together with the incentives created by
a steadily-growing demand, and a fair amount of competi-
tion have already had a beneficial effect on the manufacture
generally. Grinding and sifting in particular have been
very greatly improved ; but in burning there is doubtless
552
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June SO, 1892.
found that rain collected at the Montsouris Observatory,
Paris, contained a mean amount of 2-2 mgrms. ammonia
per litre. The author quotes the results of experiments
made by several chemists, which show that the rain-fall of
towns always contain considerably n ore ammonia than that
of the country, and so considers that Albert Levy's numbers,
which were obtained from rain collected near Paris, are
not fairly comparable with the author's numbers.
He quotes numbers obtained from the analysis of a large
number of rain waters collected at Rothamstead, the
mean of which do not differ greatly from 0'5 mgnns. per
litre —A. L. S.
Cratie import*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
United States.
Customs Decisions.
TltC follnwillir flof>Jc!/M-ic rocnnntinw *U ,i.... ,' |
lxYFUSION-CuNsTANTS AT 20' C. FOB THE QUOTIENTS.
Quotients.
Percentages ■ ■
Ash in Dry
Substance.
1
90
50
■09
32 -Oil
•67
•7"
71
32-65
•67
•70
•73
•77
•82
•87
•n-t
33
32 -62
'65
•68
■71
'75
•79
■81
•89
•ot
•39
iS-05
•11
•is
32-58
•61
•CA
■07
■71
' 7.'
'79
■si
■89
•94
33-00
•06
■13
19
•26
•33
•n
•49
32-55
•59
■64
■68
•73
77
•Si
•87
•93
32-47
•52
•57
•62
•07
•71
•76
si
■-7
■99
■92
33-05
•98
•12
33-05
■19
•12
•25
•18
•32
•24
•39
•30
•47
•37
•54
•4t
•02
•51
1-66
•62
•''.7
■72
•77
•83
•89
•94
I' 00
■07
•13
•19
•25
•31
•38
■44
•51
33
•52
•59
•06
"".*
•79
'85
•93
00
•06
•13
•20
•27
•34
■40 |
■17
•54 !
■61
32' HI
"56
•64
•71
•7'.'
•86
■94
33-02
•10
•17
•25
•33
•41
'48
• 56
•63
•71
Bodies, Molecular Weights, Molybdenum, Nitric Acid,
Nitrogen, Nitrogen Group of Elements, Oxygen, Oxides,
The Periodic Law, and Petroleum.
of a coarse kind used in the match-box trade. The
machinery used is in some cases English, in others
American. The materials used are rags, rice-straw, and
the bark of the " Abies firma."
With regard to the future of the Japanese paper-making
industry, Mr. Lay says : —
'• Things do not augur well for the future of this industry.
At present there are eight mills engaged in the foreign
paper manufacture, but, owing to excessive competition
amongst themselves, only two of them, the Oji paper mill
and th«- Kobe paper mill, are quite able to hold their own.
For some years past the amount of paper produced lias
gradually grown, a specially large increase taking place last
year (1890), when the total output reached to about
22,400,000 lb. The demand in .Tapanis only for 16,000,000
J une 30, 1392.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
553
lb., which leaves a surplus of 6,400,000 lb. This over-
production is telling heavily upon the trade, and it is thought
that some of the smaller mills with limited capital will he
compelled to stop work before long. The price per 100 11>.
of paper is less than half of that of 1881. In 1831 it was
21. -is. 4i/. ; in 1883, 1/. I4s. id. ; in 1885, 1/. 6s. ; in 1887,
1/. Is. 2d. : in 18811, 1/. Is. 3<f. ; and in 1890, 19s. yd.
"Japanese paper manufacturers have not only to com-
pete against each other, hut have also to struggle against
foreign competition. ( Iver 5,000,000 lb. of foreign paper are
annually imported. The desire of those engaged in the
industry is to have the import duty raised, so as to keep
out importations from abroad."
Miscellaneous. — Of all the industries instituted in Japan
in imitation of those existing abroad, the match industry
has been the most successful. The first match factory was
established in 1876, and four years later the demand for
Foreign matches decreased considerably and Japanese
matches were exported to the value of 58,5322. ( lareless-
ness on the part of the manufacturers led during the next
few years to a sudden decline in the demand; but in 1S86
the industry recovered itself, the export of matches in that
year amounting in value to 03,000/. Since then the pro-
duction of Japanese matches has increased every year, and
although prices have fallen considerably, the industry is in
a flourishing condition, the export of matches during the
year 1890 amounting in value to 2:1.'), 7(31/. : the total
quantity manufactured in the same year was 4,101,000
gross, being an increase of 688,640 gross over the pro-
duction of the year preceding.
The chief seats of the match industry arc the towns of
Tokio, Osaka, and Hiogo, more especially the two latter,
which contain nearly 00 of the 70 odd factories now in
existence.
These factories tire all carried on as private undertakings,
and not as companies, and they enjoy no official support.
The operatives engaged in this industry belong, a.t a rule,
to a very poor class. The wages of male workers range
from Id. per diem to 2d. per diem; those of the females
employed from -\\<1. per diem to l^d. per diem.
There are, it appears from Mr! Lay's report, 17 soap
factories in ( Isaka and one in Hiogo. The amount of soap
produced in the Hiogo factory in the year 1890 was 77,100
boxes; of this amount only 14,249 boxes were consumed
in the country, the remainder being exported to China.
The value of the soap manufactured in the Osaka factories
in the same year amounted to 15,000/., half of the quantity
made being exported also to China. Most of the factories
in question are small establishments conducting operations
on a very limited scale.
In Yokohama, however, there is a large soap factory.
The cost of labour is very moderate, unskilled men being
paid at the rate of lo!r/. a day to Is. Ojd. a day, and
women id. a day to 6-]</. a day.
The manufacture of Portland cement in Japan is an
industry of comparatively recent growth, hut it may be
regarded as one of the most successful of the foreign
industries established in this country.
The following notes on this subject have been kindly
supplied by Major-General Palmer, K.E., the Engineer-in-
Chief of the Yokohama Harbour Works : —
The chief Portland cement works in Japan are : —
Asano's Cement Works, Fukagawa, Tokio : the Suzuki
Cement Company, Onagigawa, Tokio ; the Atsuta Cement
Company, Atsuta, near Nagoya ; the Osaka Cement Com-
pany, Osaka ; the Onoda Cement Company, Yamaguchi,
near Shimonoseki; the Nippon Cement Company, Yatsitshiro,
on the Hiogo coast.
There are some minor works, such as the Mikawa
Cement Company in the province of Mikawa, another in
Joshiu ; and I understand that the Kawaguehi (( Isaka )
Works, which have been suspended for a time, are likely
to be soon started again. All of these, however, are of
small capacity.
There is no chalk formation in the country, and the
general practice is to use ordinary slaked lime (.hydrate of
lime), mostly prepared at works in Nimo, Yashin, lyo, and
Tosa. To this is added the necessary proportion of clay,
usually in the form of river mud. The materials are
mixed and churned together with a large quantity of water
by apparatus working in tanks for the purpose ; the fluid
" slip," from which after being strained is passed into
settling-ponds or " backs " of the ordinary kind. The
" slurry " there deposited is cut into lumps and dried on
drying-floors heated by means of flues. Calcining is
carried out in kilns of the intermittent type, the fuel
generally used being anthracite coal. The "clinker " after
sorting is ground under pairs of revolving grindstones,
usually about 6 ft. in diameter and a foot thick ; and the
ground cement is then sifted through rotating gauze-
covered sifters, after which it is exposed to cool, and
finally packed for sale in casks or bags. The mixing,
grinding, and sifting apparatus are driven by steam
machinery. One day per month is usually given to clean-
ing and repairs. At the (Isaka Cement Company's works
the simple methods above outlined have been somewhat
improved upon lately in certain respects. The clay in a
dry Mate (from beds near Akashi) is pounded in steam-
driven stamping mills ; and both the lime and the powdered
clay are well sifted before being mixed together (without
water) in rotating iron vessels fitted with distributors.
The powder mixture is then passed into brick tanks, where
it is wetted with only a moderate quantity of water, and
left 24 hours to settle, after which the slurry is beaten by
hand into iron moulds, and turned out in the form of
bricks of about 240 cb. in., which are partly dried in air
before being passed to tin- heated drying floors.
At the < luoda works, in addition to six kilns and acces-
sories for manufacture by the process indicated above, an
extensive imported German plant designed to make about
600 tons of cement per month by a more modern process was
brought into work some three years ago (1889). In this
process limestone and clay, both supplied from beds in
convenient proximity to the works, are crushed and finely
ground by steam-driven machinery, and after mixture are
wetted with enough water for moulding into large bricks,
which are dried in air and then calcined in a " Hofmann
modified" kiln. The machinery throughout is of good
class, and sifting is here done on a better system than at
any of the other factories. I understand that a good
cement is now being turned out by this new plant, but.
I do not know whether the full capacity has yet been
developed.
At Vatsushiro the lime is prepared on the premises from
excellent limestone, an almost boundless supply of which
exists in a group of islets, the property of the company,
only two or three miles from the works. The clay is
alluvial, taken from th • foreshore near at hand, which is
the estuary of the.Kumagawa.
General Palmer further observes : —
" The ordinary working capacity of the several factories
may he stated approximately as follows : —
"Asano's Works (Tokio), 12,000 tons; Suzuki Cement
Company (Tokio), 6,000 tons; Atsuta Cement Company
(Xagova), 7,000 tons ; Osaka Cement Company (Waka),
4,000 tons; Onoda Cement Company (Yamaguchi), 3,600
tons ; Nippon Cement Company (Yatsusbiro), 13,400
tons.
" The quality of the product turned out at the different
works is various. Analysis has established that the in-
gredients and the proportions in which they are used are
generally satisfactory ; but the details of manufacture and
the experience and care bestowed upon it are not yet in
all cases quite so satisfactory, though there has certainly
been a marked improvement of late in the latter respect.
" Japanese manufacturers have now realised the im-
portance not only of technical knowledge and suitable
appliances, but also of ceaseless care, and of aiming
especially at uniformity of quality, the lack of which gave
the earlier-made Japan cements the doubtful reputation
from which they are only now emerging. Engineers and
chemists have been sent to the factories of England anil
Germany to master the secrets of the craft ; and the know-
ledge thus gained, together with the incentives created by
a steadily-growing demand, and a fair amount of competi-
tion have already had a beneficial effect on the manufacture
generally. Grinding and sifting in particular have been
very greatly improved ; but in burning there is doubtless
554
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June so, 1892.
something yet to be learned, which only long experience
can bring. On the whole there is good warrant for believing
that the best Japan-made cements, if not quite equal in
quality to the best European products, may be trusted,
under proper safeguards, for all engineering purposes."
The manufacture of glass is one of the oldest of the
foreign industries in Japan, and has been carried on on a
comparatively extensive scale. Mr. Lay's report enume-
rates nine glass factories in Osaka alone, which represent a
total capital of 35,167/., and employ 287 workmen. Glass
produced in these works was exported in 1890 to the value
of 11,000/.; of this 80 per cent, went to China proper,
15 per cent, to Hong-Kong, and a small quantity to
Vladivostock and San Francisco.
Glass is also manufactured in Nagasaki.
By far the largest glass factory in Japan is that in Tokio,
owned by the Shinagawa Glass Company.
Mr. Playfair, in his report, gives the following details
regarding this establishment : —
" These works were originally started by the late Prince
Sanjo as far back as 1872, when be employed an Englishman
as instructor. It then passed into the hands of the Govern-
ment, and subsequently became the property of two
Japanese merchants, who sold it to the present company in
1888.
"The capital of the company is 95,000/., and it receives
no support from Government.
" The articles manufactured are chiefly bottles for beer
and wine, medicine bottles, and table glass of cheap quality.
A small quantity is exported to China and Hong-Kong, but
tbe greater part of the production is for home use. The
material used is obtained from the province of Mikawa for
goods of a superior class, and from the province of Boshin
for beer bottles.
"The total number of workpeople employed is 14.3, of
whom eight are women, the daily averages of a man being
about llj(/.
"The average monthly output is: — Table glass, 41,128
pieces; beer, wine, and medicine bottles, 97,424 pieces;
other glass ware, 726 pieces.
" Last year the company paid no dividend."
The glass produced in all Japanese factories is, on the
whole, of a coarse description. This is probably in part
due to the fact that the demand is principally, if not
entirely, for a low-priced article. It may be doubted,
however, whether the Japanese glass-blowers have yet
attained the skill necessary to produce the finer kinds of
glassware. In any case, so far as the manufacture of
window glass is concerned, tbe industry has not been a
success. It has heen found that the foreign article is
cheaper and of a quality superior to that made iu Japan,
and the Customs returns show that the value of the impor-
tations of glassware in 1890 — and this item is made up
chiefly of window-glass — was double that of the importations
of the same commodity in 1884.
The best known hreweries in Japan, beside the one in
Vokohama, which is a foreign enterprise, are the Sakurada
brewery in Tokio, established in 1879. and the Yebisu
brewery, situated iu the neighbourhood of the city, which
was established in 1890.
Both the Sakurada and Yebisu breweries are the property
of joint-stock companies, and receive no official support.
Tbe beer is made chiefly for home consumption, but it is
also exported to China. Hong-Kong, and the Straits Settle
ments.
Tbe system followed is German, each brewery having an
instructor of that nationality. Hops are imported from
Germany, but while the Sakurada brewery uses Japanese
barley, the Yebisu Company imports German malt.
Iu 1890 the Sakurada brewery paid a dividend of 15 per
cent. The Yebisu Company also paid a dividend at the
rate of 10 per cent, for the first half of the same year, but
owing to losses sustained during the subsequent six months,
a call was made upon the shareholders at the end of the
year.
The importation of beer into Japan during 1890 was only
102,227 dozen as compared with 139,084 dozen in 1889,
and it is probable that its importation will gradually
decrease,
The manufacture of leather in Japan according to foreign
methods dates from the year 1886, when the first factory
was established.
So far the home manufacture does not appear to have
seriously affected the importation of leather from abroad,
the increased production in Japan being met by an increase
in demand.
The various industries described above do not by any
means exhaust the list of foreign industries carried on in
this country.
Japan now supplies herself with sulphuric acid, caustic
soda, and bleaching powder, commodities for which she
formerly depended upon Europe. The manufacture of
boots and shoes, as well as that of foreign clothing and
hats, is spreading extensively, though the latter, owing to
the growing demand for foreign wearing apparel, has not
yet affected the quantity imported from abroad ; and, other
industries, such as brush-makiug, saddlery, and coach-
making, and the manufacture of paints, lubricating oils,
millboard, upholstery, umbrellas, cigarettes, artificial fer-
tilisers, iron safes, gunny bags, and straw-plait — in which
last commodity a large export trade is couducted — are
gradually obtaining a foothold in the country.
In the case of some of the industries introduced into
Japan, the country is now self-supporting, foreign competi-
tion being no longer possible , in others so much has been
accomplished, as to render it certain that the time is not
far off when importation will altogether cease. The future
of other industries again — such as that of cotton spinning —
though not so assured, is still hopeful : while even in those
branches in which the least results have been obtained she
possesses a constant advantage in the great cheapness of
labour. Nor, so far at least, has this progress been made
at the sacrifice of any of the various artistic industries
which are more peculiarly her own. And although there is
truth in the criticism that would disparage her progress for
the reason that it is imitative and not constructive, the fact
that Japan, an Oriental country, has been able to dissociate
herself from her sister countries of the East and profit by
Western inventions to tbe extent that is in evidence augurs
well for the years to come. On the other hand, it must be
remembered that the concluding remarks made in this
report ou the subject of cotton spinning apply equally to all
extensive industrial operations conducted by tbe Japanese
people. The need of foreign co-operation for the successful
development of all such uudertakings — co-operation, that is
to say, in the shape of capital, finaucial experience,
organisation, and expert knowledge — is admitted by all
competent observers ; and without it foreign manufacturers
for many years to come will have no reason to fear Japanese
compctitiou. — (No. 231, Foreign Office Miscellaneous
Series.)
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Canadian Tanneries.
The following article appears iu the Toronto Monetary
Times for the 6th May : —
A subject which is well worthy some attention at this
time is the development of the leather industry of late years
in Canada. It is not so very long ago since the tanneries of
the Dominion confined their output practically to hemlock
sole, harness, upper (.cowhide) buff, pebble, splits, and
patent leathers. Then came the making of domestic calf
— up to this time calf had been usually imported from
France — and very creditable it was. Sheepskin linings
were turned out, and a few factories made glazed calf and
kid in 1870 to 1880, but the great bulk of such stock for
ladies' fine footwear came from Paris, some of it from the
1'nited States. Gradually, within the last dozen years, the
relative share of upper, calf, buff, and pebble in the stock of
June 80, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
555
a Canadian shoe manufacturer have been changing. People
in these later days want a finer material. This is the case
in the United States, aud there we find an enormous
increase in the production and use for both women's and
men's shoes of what is known as dongola leather. This is
made from goat-skins which are procured from South
America, from Algeria, aud from other parts of the world.
What is known as the ehromo process is used in producing
it.
The products of Canadian tanneries in the year 1892 are
much more varied. This arises in part from the increased
demand for fine goods such as ladies wear, and for fine goods
for men. Nor must it be forgotten that the country-folk are
wearing fewer of the " cast-iron " sort of rough stogy boots
once so numerous. More kips and splits are used. There
is now in Canada a very considerable manufacture of
dongola leather, both dull and bright, which article is
made from imported goat skins by tanners in Montreal
and Toronto. The quality and finish of this leather is
very creditable, and resembles what had in previous years
been obtained from the old country. To learn how to
produce it rapidly aud economically has been a,i expensive
process, however. Another recent product is the glove-
grain, a soft linish cow skin made in Ontario as well as in
Quebec, especially of late years. The use of this has
increased. It is used for foxing uppers, &o.
Mining in Manchuria.
The London and China Telegraph of the 9th May last says
that if the Pekin Gazette is to be believed, the rich deposits
of silver ore in the neighbourhood of Kirin are shortly to be
worked after the Western method, and the governor of the
province reports that the foreign apparatus and chemicals
necessary for reducing the silver from the galena ore have
arrived. The Kirin mine will be the first in Manchuria
worked on the foreign method, though the mountain ranges
in the north of the province are, according to popular belief
amongst the Chinese settlers and Mauchu inhabitants,
exceedingly rich in the precious minerals. On the Russian
side mining is carried on with great activity, and in a most
systematic and elaborate manner ; but hitherto, except at
one or two places, the Chinese Government has strenuously
opposed any exploitation of the mineral wealth of the
northern part of Manchuria. Perhaps they were not
altogether unwise in this, and the terrible story of the
massacre by Mauchu troops of the adventurous Chinese
miners at Shol-to-ga, or Mopo, some seven years ago, will
ever be remembered by people in Manchuria as a warning
to those who would attempt to work the mineral riches of
Manchuria against the wishes of the Government. The
remembrance of the terrible fate which overtook the large
number of the Chinese miners who were engaged at the
washings (from which over three million pounds worth of
gold is said to have been obtained in 10 months) will, we
imagine, prevent any irregular exploitation on a large scale
of the mineral wealth of Manchuria for many years to
come. As in every part of the Chinese Empire, the pro-
vincial governors jealously keep all mining enterprises under
their own control, with the inevitable results of corruption,
speculation, aud utter failure to make the mines pay. As
an instance we may refer to the mines at Shol-to-ga, which
have been taken in hand by the Government since 1880,
when they were placed under the direction of a General Li,
who brought up an American miner to assist him. Elabo-
rate and expensive machinery was obtained and carried at
an enormous outlay to the place, but the actual cost of
working has been found so great that there is little or
nothing gained by the operations. It is a capital offence,
at least in theory, for Chinese to have anything to do with
this illicit gold traffic, but their own officials wink at it
and regularly buy the gold from the dealers, and the metal
eventually fiuds its way to Moukden and Pekin, where it is
currently believed to be the product of the Government
gold mines at Mopo and at another place about 200 li to the
south-west of Aigun. No doubt much of the opposition
of the Chinese Government and officials to gold aud silver
mining is due to their desire to keep such enterprises
exclusively iu their own hands. In the memorial under
notice the governor of Kirin mentions a curious point,
namely, that an expectant chehsien, who had qualified him-
self as a professor of chemistry at the Pekin university
(Tung-wen Kwau), could not be employed in the mining
department without losing his rank in the mandarinate,
and the governor very sensibly petitioned that this aconi-
plished official should be allowed to teach his countrvmen
how to separate silver from the lead ore without involving
any loss of dignity — " rather to reward this official for his
superior attainments, and thus encourage him to exert him-
self still more." It may be accepted as a sign of the times
and of the change of ideas in Pekin that the rescript to the
memorial was " sanctioned," and what with mandarins who
are professors of chemistry, and European machinery for
the extraction of the silver, we may shortly expect to hear
more of the mines near Kirin, where lead has been exten-
sively worked for many years.
Wine Adulteration in Germany.
The Moniteur Offieiel du Commerce says that the
German Government has submitted to the Reichstag a Bill
with the object of regulating the production of wines.
From a hygienic point of view it is forbidden to use in
this manufacture compounds of barium, boracic acid,
salicylic acid, salts of strontium, &c. ; the maximum
quantity of sulphuric acid will also be fixed.
On the other hand, the Bill recognises the legality of
blending and, within certain limits, that of the addition of
water aud sugar to wine, on condition that the merchants
make known to the buyers the composition of the products
so manufactured.
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS,
Summary of Imports.
Month ending 31st May
1891.
1892.
£
1,818,067
678,759
556,842
2,899,859
£
1,696,283
579,224
3,351,827
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports ....
34.377.U98
34,935,738
Summary of Exports.
Month ending 31st May
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
3,770,025
742,054
2,616,005
£
2,775,746
2,427 203
19,741,473
17,783,969
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June 30, 1892.
Imports of
Metals for Month exdixg 31st
May.
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper :—
8,835
4,709
£
76,800
£
29.593
Kcgulus
,,
11,453
12,436
319,802
330,337
TJnwrought ...
. ,.
2,428
2,967
130,877
142,159
Iron : —
263,676
211,391
202,806
153,346
Bolt, bar, &e. ..
■ .,
5.530
8,820
54,22]
84,n79
Steel, unwrought
• „
576
931
7,122
8,681
Lead, pigand sheet „
14,913
13,561
187,64?
140,408
59,627
50,89]
110,549
91,513
bill,
447,070
58,577
40,353
Value £
metals
30.76S
5,950
36,854
3,905
141,135
137 562
391,869
160,032
S6.255
Other articles ...
410,627
Total value ol
•'
..
1,818,667
1,696,283
Imports of Eaw
Industries for
Materials for Non-Textile
Month exdixg 31-t May.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian..
Cwt.
8,801
10,015
£
17,953
£
22,715
Lb.
242,637
315,637
34,770
40,720
Cwt.
22,471
16,617
200,312
165,375
Gum :—
„
4,870
4,279
15,170
11,112
8,038
13.781
31,011
85,424
50,976
Gutta-percha ....
„
6,681
8,207
105,498
Hides, raw:—
„
48,074
87.770
116,611
101,032
39,152
43,965
87,445
88,522
„
541
806
29,075
40,525
Manure :—
Tons
4,903
2,103
25.705
8,973
6,913
30,041
4,031
56,015
29,585
Cwt.
18,079
73,180
Tons
2,260
2,661
19,899
26,978
17,313
1 1,673
82,611
67,487
Palp of wood ....
„
11,809
15,121
61,035
88,410
Cwt.
38,695
193,683
8,207
18,987
Tallow and stearin „
130,403
160,177
169,041
203,939
Tar
5,110
3,107
221,177
3,170
361,992
2,519
Wood:—
Loads
1S4,221
426,835
208,185
315,371
4S1,3S8
31,289
744,836
„
5,751
6,230
32,042
Tons
3,213
3,623
80,826
32,218
Other articles....
Value £
••
820 715
948,003
Total value
"
••
2,899,859
3.351,827
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 64,<I3u£, were imported
as against 67,XUZ. in May 1891.
Imports of Chemicals jlnd Dyestcfes foe Month
ending 3 1st May.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
Brimstone ,
Chemicals Value £
Cochin 3al Cwt.
Cutch and gambier Tons
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
Alizarine „
Other „
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda.... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles. . . Value £
Total value of chemicals
12 322
4,329
£
5,781
£
3,002
46,656
39,145
18,967
18.711
17,276
51,181
7,610
14,318
__
106,053
120,197
281
22s
1 693
1,388
1.258
1,594
32,291
37,507
..
15,816
..
..
22,646
24,828
••
• •
1,956
138
2,127
2,101
35.6S3
16436
187,555
637,154
209,6SI
i
28,191
22,041
£4,153
1,154
3 138
21,210
••
.-
17". 167
190,568
••
802.6S5
Imports of Oils for Month ending 3 1st May.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891. 1892.
1891.
1892.
2,000
1,656
78,003
11,021.02')
1,536
1,568
717
20,970
2.277
06,537
: 7'' SSO
1,501
1.60S
32,050
£
4,4S5
69,115
94,443
210,074
30,199
31,063
56S
93,895
£
24,410
83,1 1 1
109,083
162,550
38,585
30,7 12
86,0:12
Other articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
556,942
579,224
Exports of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
31st May.
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
499,864
510,974
£
104,211
£
194,782
Bleaching materials „
151,619
145,300
51,367
58.153
Chemical manures. Tons
£0,971
20,212
179,649
155,110
..
..
B2.749
83,772
Other articleo
284,048
231,229
••
••
742,054
72.:,u: in
June 30, 18920 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
557
Exports of Metals (otheb than Machinery) for
Month ending 31st May.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
9,742
60,006
21,479
25,71 IS
321.152
6,278
9,559
14,461
10,730
65,459
22,393
12,498
238,963
9,971
8,040
16,813
£
42,708
170,282
82,190
70,448
196,111
102,517
2,796,438
85,709
28,0 16
51,238
45 1S1
14,783
81,311
£
48,258
159.893
6S.507
32,196
172,231
107,498
1,803,289
117,037
21,139
107.696
38,679
16,483
SS.190
Copper : —
Unwrought
Wrought
Mixed metal
Lead „
Plated wares. . . Value £
Telegraph wires, &c. „
Other artioles . . Value £
••
3.770.0->5
.. ...
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 31st May.
Articles.
Gunpowder Lb.
Military stores.. Value £
Candles Lb.
Caoutchouc Value £
Cement Tons
Products of coal Value £
Earthenware ... „
Stoneware
Glass: —
Plate Sq.Ft.
Flint Cwt.
Bottles
Other kinds
Leather : —
Unwrought .... „
Wrought Value £
Seed oil Tons
Floorcloth Sq. Yds.
Painters' materials Val. £
Paper Cwt.
Hags Tons
Soap Cwt.
Total value
Quantities.
1891. 1892.
1,2S7,SOO
1,285,000
Values.
1891.
934,700
1,555,700
198,703
8,384
73.S21
13,301
12,376
5.77S
1,498,300
79,276
3,814
43,347
158,524
8,185
69,553
16,077
9,179
5,811
1,313,000
82,391
4,739
47,406
£
29,731
93,363
?5,3;',5
101,608
92 967
1 10,808
157,048
13,595
14,282
17,878
34,188
11,890
110.593
25,017
133,030
63,202
137,323
136,095
23,760
44,679
2,616,065
£
20,808
99,023
28 963
85,812
95,432
115,985
153.566
11,1)31,
S,£60
16,615
32,463
13,513
87,803
18,450
114,957
58,812
112,686
141,581
33,303
45,722
2,427,203
iflontblp patent list
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two mouths of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARA TUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
9231. J. A. Mays. Process of aud apparatus for effecting
the concentration and separation of solids. May 16.
9419. H. Williams. Improvements in apparatus for ex-
hausting or drawing away, and washing or purifying gas or
gases, or products of combustion. Slay 18.
9499. W. J. Mirrlees and I). Ballingall. Improvements in
apparatus for evaporating, concentrating, and distilling
liquids. May 19.
9538. H. Hirzel. Improvements in still columns. Complete
Specification. May 19.
10,126. D. Wickham. Improvements connected with
apparatus for aerating malt and other liquors and liquids
May 27.
10,298. F. W. Scott, E. G. Scott, and F. W. Scott, jun.
Improvements in evaporating apparatus. May 30.
10,595. A. Chapman. Improvements in apparatus for
evaporating or concentrating alkaline or other solutions.
June 3.
10,836. R. G. Ross, .1. B. Hilliard, and W. Paterson,
A new or improved apparatus and process for directing the
passage aud controlling the speed of gases, air, or fluids
ascending through other fluids or liquids for the purpose of
causing absorption of said gases, or for sterilising or other-
wise treating the liquids through which the gases ascend, for
treating water for brewing purposes or aciating malt worts,
but is also applicable for other purposes. June 8.
11,019. G. Inglis. A shield or protector for use during
the charging and drawing of gas retorts and other furnaces.
June 1 1.
11,078. E. Schellerrer. Improvements in couplings for
pipes for conveying heating liquids and for similar uses.
June 13.
11,125. A. G. Berry. Improvements in and relating to
triple-effect evaporators for treating sugar and other liquids.
June 14.
11,249. O. Hamilton. A new or improved method of
mixing and dissolving solids aud liquids, and apparatus
therefor. June 15.
11,296. W. J. Mirrlees and U. Ballingall. Improvements
in apparatus for evaporating, concentrating, and distilling
liquids. Complete Specification. June 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
7636. T. A. A. Pile and W*. A. Pile. Machines for
clay or other plastic materials.
moulding and pressing
May 4.
8475. W. P. Thompson. — From P. Maris. Improve-
ments in and relating to the method of effecting by means
of centrifugal force the reaction of bodies of different
densities on one another. May 18.
558
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June 30, 1892.
9434. .1. Menzies. A new composition, and process for
manufacturing the same. June 1.
9922. W. Luzi. Treatment or purification of graphite
to render it suitable for industrial purposes. May 25.
10,299. E. Theisen. Method and apparatus for effecting
the condensation and purification of steam aud other
condensible vapours. June 1.5.
10,616. E. Theisen. Apparatus for condensing steam and
other condensible vapours. June 22.
12,1 74. C. Gautsch. Apparatus for use in the prepara-
tion of chemical solutions or liquids for the extinguishing
of fire. May 25.
12,401. L. Gye. Apparatus for drying or extracting
moisture. June 1.
12,998. G. Rodger. Apparatus for heating metals by
liquid or gaseous fuel. June 8.
13,323. J. II. Minto. Apparatus for charging liquids
with gases. June 1.
14,986. P. Borgarelli. Apparatus for drying grain and
other granular or pulverulent materials. June 22.
II— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
9265. F. B. Hill and K. D. Brett. Improvements
relating to the utilisation of liquid hydrocarbons for lighting
and heating purposes, and to apparatus therefor. May 16.
9419. H. Williams. See Class I.
9444. J. Bowing. Improvements in coking processes.
May 18.
9455. G. de Velna. Manufacture of an emulsion of petro-
leum or analogous hydrocarbons and of compounds thereof
with carbonaceous material suitable for fuel, and for the
manufacture of gas. May IS.
9459. W. Foulis. Improvements in obtaining cyanides
from illuminating and heating gas. May 18.
9474. W. Foulis. Improved means for obtaining
cyanides from illuminating and heating gas. May 18.
9614. \V. Lowrie. Improvements in the method of
treating peat for fuel and other purposes. May 20.
9618. T. W. Lee. Improvements in the manufacture of
blocks or briquettes of fuel. May 20.
9619. J. Bowing. Improvements in the manufacture of
briquettes and similar artificial fuels and in the recovery
of tar products. May 20.
9620. J. Bowing. Improvements in the manufacture of
coke and in the recovery of tar products. May 20.
9757. E. Bracewell. Improvements in the treatment of
peat moss to adapt it for fire-lighters. May 23.
9854. H. Birkbeck. — From E. B. Muller, Germany.
Process for manufacturing compact pit coal out of pit coal-
dust, slack, or small pieces of pit coal. Complete Specifi-
cation. May 24.
9938. W. Baecker. Process for treating coal-tar to
render the same suitable for the production of light gas.
May 26.
10,112. E. Wall and G. H. Frecknall. Improved con-
denser for use in the manufacture of gas.
10,150. F. Thomas and J. Murray. Antiseptic sanitary
peat fuel. May 27.
10,486. H. Williams. Improvements in the manufacture
10,745. The Manchester Oxygen (Briu's Patent) Co.,
Limited, and W. M. Jackson. Improvements in the manu-
facture of oxygen. June 7.
10,933. W. J. Birnie. Improvements in the manufacture
of hydrogen gas for illuminating and heating purposes.
June 9.
10,954. W. J. Hague. Improvements connected with the
manufacture of producer-gas aud its application to marine
and other hoilers and furnaces, and the apparatus connected
therewith. June 10.
11,102. R. B. Anderson,
retorts. June 13.
Furnaces for heating gas-
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
5468. W. H. Wilson. Improvements in or connected
with the manufacture of illuminating gas. May 4.
9781. L. Labois. Treatment of sulphur ores, crude
■sulphur, ozokerites, heavy oils of petroleum, aud other
materials for extracting, purifying, or refining purposes,
and apparatus for use therein. June 15.
10,452. E. Rischgitz and the Patent Mining and Financial
Trust, Lim. Treatment of peat. June 22.
10,667. F. Fauta. A new self-acting apparatus for the
automatic production of oxygen. June 15.
13,036. G. Webb, jun., and G. H. Rayner. Manufacture
of oxygen gas. June 15.
13,431. J. H. Fergusson. Manufacture of illuminating
gas. June 22.
13,550. W. L. Wise. — From Solvay and Co., Belgium.
Purification of gas. June 22.
14,030. B. Redwood, R. Redwood, and H. Barringer.
Method and apparatus for measuring depth of water in oil
tanks. June 1.
1892.
7243. C. Fink. Method and apparatus for purifying
smoke and precipitating the products of combustion thereof.
May 25.
8159. R. Marshall. Combustion of fuel and apparatus
therefor. June 8.
8426. A. Longsdon. — From F. Krupp and Co. New or
improved processes for the manufacture of gas from water
vapour, and for purification and separation of mixed gases.
June 22.
9080. W. D. A. Bost and T. F. Haldaue.
of fire-lighters. June 22.
Manufacture
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Applications.
9619. J. Bowing. See Class 11.
9620. J. Bowing. See Class II.
Juno 30, 189-2.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
559
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
9360. C. I). Abel. — From L. Durand, Huguenin and Co.,
Switzerland. Manufacture of new bases, applicable for the
production of substantive dyes. May 17.
9633. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The manufacture and production
of new basic dyestuffs. May 20.
10,138. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Hadische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, German}'. The manufacture of a new class
of basic dyestuffs or colouring matters and of sulpho-acids
thereof, and of materials and intermediate products relating
thereto. May 27.
10,414. E. C. Kayser. See Class VI.
10,465. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Hadische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The manufacture of new basic
colouring matters of the auramine class, and of new
materials for use therein. June 1.
10.667. C. D. Abel. — -From the Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Bruning, Germany. Manufacture of
novel azo colouring matters dyeing directly on cotton.
June 4.
10.668. C. D. Abel. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Pruning, Germany. Manufacture of
alumina salts of the naphthol sulphonic acids, called
alumnols. June 4.
10,915. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Lim., and T. A.
Lawson. Partly communicated by A. G. Green, Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of azo colouring matters.
June 9.
11,395. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the produc-
tion of azo colours on fibre. June 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,395. R. Holliday and Sons, Lim., and A. G. Brookes.
— From T. Holliday. Manufacture of azo colours. June 15.
12,589. H. H. Lake. — From Kalle and Co. Manufacture
of colouring matters. June 22.
14,294. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Aniline und
Soda Fabrik. The manufacture and production of new
sulpho-acids, and of new colouring matters therefrom.
June 22.
1892.
3791. A. J. Boult.— From W. Bruns and Co. Manu-
facture of colours specially applicable for colouring
photographs. June 22.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
9219. E. Carter. A new or improved asbestos yarn.
May 16.
9281. W. B. Walters. See Class XII.
10,612. C. A. Sahlstrom and E. Parr. Improvements in
and connected with the cleansing and bleaching of wool,
hair, silk, cotton, flax, and other vegetable or animal fibres
or fabrics : the recovery of by-products, such as oil, and fat
such as contained in such fibres or fabrics, aud the recovery
of the whole or part of the ingredients used in the process.
June 3.
10,642. K. Dewhurst and Co., Lim., and A. Stockdale.
See Class VI.
10,834. A. Bayer and K. Herold. A process and
apparatus for freeing sheep's wool from pitch and other
impurities. Complete Specification. June 8.
11,095. J. C.W.Stanley. Improvements in or relating
to the treatment of fibres. June 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1^,134. G. L. P. Eyre and T. J. Hopkins. Apparatus
for treating and scouring or cleansing wool and other
materials, lor removing therefrom greasy or other matters,
and for analogous cleansing and separating operations.
June 22.
11,391. A. Mitscherlich. New process of manufacturing
from wood fibres capable of being spun, and by-products
of the same, and apparatus therefor. May 25.
13,967. E. Appenzeller and E. Filleul. An apparatus for
testing the strength of cotton, wool, and other fibres in
the raw or unmanufactured state. June 22.
1892.
243. C. Hanson. Process of extracting deleterious
matters from wool and other textile materials. June 1.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
9651. B. Haigh. Improvements in dyeing woollen and
other woven or felted fabrics. May 21.
9952. E. J. Pizzey and G. E. Upton. Improved means
and method for dyeing materials and substances of a porous
nature. May 26.
10,267. R.Shaw. Improvements in apparatus for treating
fibrous materials with dye or other liquors. May 30.
10,381. H. H. Lake.— From C. Castellani, Italy. An
improved chemical preparation to be used for washing,
scouring, fulling, bleaching, boiling, and other purposes.
May 31.
10,414. E. C. Kayser. Improvements in the production
of colouring matters on textile fibres and fabrics, and on
other material. June 1.
10,612. C. A. Sahlstrom and E. Parr. See Class V.
10,642. R. Dewhurst and Co., Lim., and A. Stockdale.
A new or improved means or process of producing coloured
patterns or designs upon silk plushes, or upon wool or velvet
plushes. June 4.
11,027. W. J. S. Grawitz. Improvements in dyeing and
printing with alkaloids. June 11.
11,057. G. M. Marchant. Improvements in machinery
for scouring, dyeing, and drying hanks of yarn. June 13.
11,318. A. S. Lyon and J. H. Lorimer. Improvements
in apparatus for skein-dyeing. Complete Specification.
June 16.
11,366. J.Kennedy. Improved composition or compound
to be used in bleaching cotton, linen, or woollen fabrics.
June 17.
11,395. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. See Class IV.
5C0
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [June so, 1892.
1 1.416. F. F. Grafton and W. Browning. An improved
process for the production and fixation of colours in con-
junction with aniline black upon woven fabrics. June 18.
Comfi.ete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
IS, 102. G. A. Cannot. Process of and apparatus for
bleaching and treating the fibre of peat, or other fibrous
substances. June 22.
13,500. C. F. Pike. Method and apparatus for bleaching
and treating textile fabrics. June 22.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
9563. W. L. Wise. — From W. Feld, German}'. Im-
provements in the manufacture or production of sulphur
and sulphurous acid from sulphuretted hydrogen, and in
apparatus therefor. May 19.
9787. L. Bemelmaus. Improvements relating to the
treatment of metallic sulphurets and sulphur ores.
May 23.
9884. W. P. Thompson. — From A. L. Lawton and W. S.
Hodge, Tinted States. Improvements in or relating to the
manufacture of salt (chloride of sodium). Complete
Specification. May 24.
10,104. A. S. Eamage. Improvements in the utilisation
of ferrous liquors, especially those from galvanising and tin-
plate works. May 27.
10,225. F. M. Lyte. Improvements in the production of
chlorine and of commercially pure lead, and in the recovery
of silver, if present. May 30.
10,281. E. Hermite and A. Dubose. A process and
apparatus for the manufacture of persalts of iron.
May 30.
10,326. C- Negrier. Improvements in and connected
■with the manufacture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of
copper. May 31.
lu .450. E. J. Barbier. Process and apparatus for the
production of neutral sulphate of soda and sulphuric acid
from bisulphate of soda. June 1.
10,517. E. Hermite, E. J. Paterson, and C. F. Cooper.
A process for purifying bleaching liquor. June 2.
10,599. E. Luhmann. Improved process for producing
pure carbonic acid gas. Complete Specification. June 3.
10,851. A. MacNab. An improvement in the manu-
facture of bay salt. Complete Specification. June 8.
10,913. W. S. Rawson and Woodhouse and Bawson
United, Limited. Method for production of oxide of zinc.
June 9.
11,034. H. S. Elworthy. Improvements in processes
for obtaining carbonic acid gas, and in apparatus to be used
in such processes. June 11.
11 203. J. Graham. An apparatus for the continuous
concentration of sulphuric acid. June 15.
11 222. J. J. Lish. Improvements in the treatment of
chloride of magnesium, sulphide of sodium, and other
analogous chemical compounds. June 15.
11,366. J. Kennedy. See Class VI.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4820. G. T. Beilby. Process and apparatus for the
manufacture of cyanides. June 22.
8692. F. M. Lyte. Production of caustic alkali and
chlorine. May 25.
9561. W. Walker. An improved method of recovering
carbonic acid gas from lime-kilns and furnaces, and appa-
ratus in connexion therewith. June 8.
9781. L. Labois. See Class II.
10,476. Comte T. Brochocki. Manufacture of peroxide
of barium and of peroxide of hydrogen. May 25.
11,311. T. Goodall.— From S. Peacock and H. A. Gait.
Improvements in obtaining chromates and bichromates of
potash and soda. June 1.
11,484. L. Labois. Improvements relating to the
refining of sulphur and the distillation of sulphur and other
ores, and to apparatus therefor. June 15.
13,409. W. H. Higgin. See Class XIX.
13,424. G. I. J. Wells. Apparatus for the extraction
of ammonia, applicable for ammonia-soda works and the
like. June 15.
1892.
3880. E. Rijan. Manufacture of oxalic acid and cellu-
lose. June 1 .
8964. W. F. Thompson. — From W. B. Brittingham,
New or improved bleaching compound. June 22.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
9235. T. M. Rymer-Jones. An improvement in the
manufacture of refractory and non-conducting bricks, blocks,
tiles, slabs, and pipes. May 16.
9397. T. C. J. Thomas. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of plate glass, and in apparatus therefor. May 18.
9428. E. Walsh, Jan. Improvements in plate glass,
in the art of rolling same, and in machinery therefor.
Complete Specification. May 18.
10,123. H. L. Houlton and S. II. Leech. Improvements
in the manufacture of terra-cotta and like materials, and
in apparatus therefor. May 27.
10,532. M. Laffont. See Class IX.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,208. J. B. Adams. Apparatus for making balls or
other articles from molten glass, or other molten or plastic
material. May 25.
10,661. W. W. Pilkington. Kilns for annealing plate
glass. June 1.
11,617. T.Severn. Kilns for heating or burning pottery
and the like. June 15.
13,738. W. Schleiming. Process of producing imitation
terra-cotta. June 15.
June 80,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
561
1892.
7793. C. F. E. Grossc. Method of producing marbled
glass. June 1.
7906. H. C. Bull. Casting tables for glass and glass-
making. June 1.
9428. E. Walsh, jun. Improvements in plate-glass, in
the art of rolling same, and in machinery therefor.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
9217. T. C. Izod. Improvements in the production of
ornamentation in clay for architectural and other purposes,
and in the apparatus for producing same. May 16.
9258. J. B. I. Julhe. Improvements relating to the
hardening of plaster and the development of colours mixed
therewith. May 16.
9332. A. J. Boult.— From J. A. Chanler, United States.
Improvements in pavements. Complete Specification.
May 17.
9542. T. Castle. Improvements in mills for grinding
cement and other matters. Iky 19.
9723. N. Procter and W. Wells. Procter and Co.'s
antiseptic waterproof and airproof composition. May 23.
9767. E. M. Fox.— From R. F. M. Chase, United
States. Improved composition for artificial stone for
ornamental and other purposes. May 23.
9857. H. B. Price. Improvements in fireproof floors
and other structures. May 24.
9974. H. A. Majewski and W. Beyenbach. A process
of manufacture of artificial marble. May 26.
10,010. J. Hoyle. Apparatus for purifying and grinding
the residue of Portland cement and other materials.
May 26.
10,160. J. Baines. Composition for making of artificial
stone. May 28.
10,196. P. A. H. Wehuer. Improvements in the manu-
facture of artificial wood. Complete. Specification. May 28.
10,253. J. Turner. Improvements in and relating to the
seasoning or preserving of wood. May 30.
10,355. W. Joy. Improvements in apparatus for sepa-
rating the finer from the coarser particles of ground cement,
clinker, and other matters. May 31.
10,532. M. Laffout. Improved manufacture of material
suitable for building and architectural purposes, and for
ceramic and other similar works. June 2.
10,927. H. Birkbeck. — From H. Heise, Germany. A
process for the preparation of a material for building or
other purposes. Complete Specification. June 9.
11,054. H. Salmon. Improved pumice stone. June 13.
11,170. G.W.Parker. Improvements in the construction
of floors, ceilings, and roofs of buildings ; also applicable
to the construction of side walks and pavements. Complete
Specification. June 14.
11,226. G.C.Taylor. A fireproof composition or cement
for boilers, flues, and furnaces. June 15.
11,241. W. Lancaster. An improved method of laying
concrete, cement, and other similar materials for footpaths,
floors, and other purposes. June 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
91:61. W.Walker. See Class VII.
13,016. G. Williams. Manufacturing hydraulic cement.
June 22.
13,616. C. Bloemendal. Process and apparatus for
producing hydraulic mortar. June 15.
13,983. W. P. Winter. Improvements in and relating to
securing moulds in the manufacturing of artificial stone-
paving, and other uses. June 22.
1892.
4408. C. H. Dobbs. Manufacture of scoria or slag blocks
for paving and other purposes. June 1.
7502. W. P. Thompson.— From L. O. Roeser Miiller and
B. Ueike. Manufacture of plaster for building purposes.
May 25.
7850. E. T. Warner and T. F. Curry. The art of making
mortar. June 1.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
9352. Sir A. Hickman. Improvements in the treatment
of crude or cast iron for the elimination of sulphur.
May 17.
9370. G. D. Burton. Improvements relating to the
forging of metals for making steel and iron tools. Com-
plete Specification. May 17.
9442. J. Bowing. Improvements in the method of
treating blue billy or purple iron ore, sand and other ores
in a similar condition, for the purpose of preparing them
for the reducing furnace. May 18.
9443. J. Bowing. Improvements in the method of
treating blue billy or purple iron ore, sand, aDd other ores
in a similar condition, for the purpose of preparing them
for the reducing furnace. May 18.
9522. J. E. Filassier and J. Faure. Improvements in
metallurgical furnaces for steel making or cementation
purposes. Complete Specification. May 19.
9523. J. E. Filassier and J. Faure. Improvements in or
relating to the manufacture of cast steel. Complete
Specification. May 19.
9701. J. Simpson. Improvements in the extraction of
antimony from the mineral sulphide. May 21.
9765. W. E. May. Improvements in the manufacture of
steel and other metal castings. May 23.
9841. W. A. Briggs. An improved alloy of aluminium.
May 24.
9859. J, C. Fraley. Process for rendering iron, steel,
and similar metals homogeneous. Complete Specification.
May 24.
10,225. F. M. Lyte. See Class VII.
10,261. G. C. Taylor and P. Hulme. A rustless metallic
alloy for parts of agricultural ploughs. May 30.
10,354. H. J. Walduck. Improvements in machinery or
apparatus used for galvanising or coating sheets or plates
of iron, steel, or other metals or alloys with zinc or with
tin or terne metal or other metallic alloys. May 31.
10,390. C. T. J.Vautin. An improved method or process
for the production of zinc from blende. May 31.
.162
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ June 30, 1S9&
10,459. F. G. Bates andW. B. Renshaw. Improvements
in coating iron and other metals with lead, and in the
alloying or treating of lead to render it suitable for this
purpose. June 1.
10,497. W. A. Briggs. An improved alloy of aluminium
for use in cycle manufacture. June 2.
10,528. F. B. Stone. A process for freeing copper from
arsenic. June 2.
10,580. W. Darby and W. P. Thompson. Improvements
in or appertaining to melting aluminium or in crucibles
therefor. June 3.
10,583. W. P. Thompson.— From. B. Talbot, United
States. Improvements in the treatment of iron and basic
slag, and in extracting silicon and phosphorus. June 3.
10,756. J. Lakin. Improvements in the manufacture of
wrought iron. June 7.
11,297. J. P. Bayly.— From J. J. Naef, United States.
Improved process of recovering tin from tin scraps.
June 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9219. H. Niewerth. Obtaining metals, half - metallic
elements, and other minerals. June 1.
9342. J. H. Rogers. Manufacture of tin and terne plates.
June 1.
12,813. A. Crossley. Apparatus for producing ferro-
ferric and ferric oxides. June 8.
13,068. B. Rosing. Treating lead for purifying it, and for
obtaining litharge, or for separating the lead from the
precious metals contained in it. June 22.
13,395. E. Meyer. Extraction of aluminium hydrate or
aluminium salts from alumiuium silicates or clay. June 22.
13,888. J. E. Stead. Carburising fluid, iron, or steel.
June 22.
14,290. H. L. Herrenschmidt. Treatment of certain
mattes and ores for the separation of nickel and cobalt from
copper. June 22.
15,482. T. H. J.Eskuchen ar.d H. A. Haarmanu. Manu
facture of briquettes of purple ore. June 15.
19,457. J. L. Hopper. Furnaces for roasting, smelting,
and separating refractory and other ores. June 15.
1892.
2214. T. D. Bottome. Casting and tempering pure copper.
June 1.
7069. G. J. Atkins. Apparatus for separating gold, silver,
and other metals from their ores. May 25.
7378. P. C. Choate. Producing metallic zinc. May 25.
7909. G. Wegner. A process for coating aluminium with
other metals. June 22.
XI.— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
9319. A. Henneton. Improvements in or connected
with anodes for the electrolytic decomposition or formation
of chemical compounds. Complete Specification. May 17.
9346. C. Kellner. Apparatus for the production by
electrolysis of chlorire and alkalis. May 17.
9347. C. Kellner. Process for the separation of the
alkali obtained by electrolytical decompositiou of halogen
compounds from the electrolyte which has not been
decomposed. May 17.
9379. G. D. Burton. Improvements relating to the
heating and working of metal bars by electricity. Com-
plete Specification. May 17.
9380. G. II. Burton. Improvements in mechanism for
converting electric currents, and in the method of applying
the same to the working of metals. Complete Specifica-
tion. May 17.
9541. F. Schmalhaus. An improved electric accumu-
lator or secondary battery. Complete Specification.
.May 19.
9569. C. P. Shrewsbury and J. L. Dobell. Improve-
ments in or connected with electric batteries. May 19.
9623. J. Vernhet. Improvements in electric batteries.
May 20.
9799. D. G. FitzGerald. Improvements in apparatus and
means for the electrolysis of alkaline chlorides which may
be in conjunction with earthy chlorides. May 24.
10,197. J. W. Cann and R. E. Commans. Improvements
in electric furnaces and in the treatment of auriferous
sulphides and similar refractory ores by means of the same.
May 28.
10,200. C. Kellner. Improved process and apparatus
for the electro chemical production of bleaching agents.
May 28.
10,388. E. Freund and L. Bristol. Improvements in
secondary batteries. May 31.
10,520. A. van Boeekxsel. Improvements in and
connected with electric batteries. June 2.
10,690. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. Improvements
in anodes for use in electric cells for treating chlorides,
fluorides, or other compounds and the like. June 4.
10,735. H. C. Bull. An improved process and apparatus
for making sodium, potassium, and like metals by electric
action and producing ferric chloride as a dry powder.
June 7.
10.S50. H. Weymersch. Improvements in primary
voltaic batteries. Complete Specification. June 8.
10,855. H. F. Kirkpatrick-Picard and H. Thame. Im-
provements in secondary batteries. June 8.
10,932. W. J. Birnie. Improvements in primary and
secondary batteries for electric lighting and power. June 9.
11,087. W.L.Wise. — From T. Rosati, E. Righetti, and
G. O'Connell, Italy. Improvements in galvanic batteries.
June 13.
11,126. J. Patersou. An improved element by the aid
of which a current of electricity may be generated.
June 14.
11,147. H. H. Lloyd. Improvements in secondary or
storage batteries. Complete Specification. June 14.
11,154. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in the method of welding metals
electrically. Complete Specification. June 14.
11,382. H. Niewerth. An improved process for manu-
facturing compound and elementary bodies or chemical
products by means of electricity, and apparatus therefor.
June 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,371. F. R. E. Branston. Production of light and the
generation of heat and electricity. June 1.
12,491. C.L.Baker, and \Yoodhouse and Rawson United,
Lim. Construction of rheostats or similar electrical instru-
ments. June 1.
i" S0.189S.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
563
1892.
3881. K. Kahabka. Electrical accumulators, June 22.
6112. H. II. Lake— From W. Sleicher, jun., and G. A.
Mosher. Secondary batteries and accumulators. May 25.
6722. W. W. Donaldson and 1! Macrae. Battery plates
Eoi secondary batteries. June lj.
8572. II. Beckmann, E. Iieekmann, aud J. Schmitt.
Improved galvanic element. June 15.
9319. A. Ilenneton. Anodes for the electrolytic decom-
position or formation of chemical compounds. June 22.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Application?.
9281. W.B.Walters. Improvements in and apparatus
for effecting the separation cr extraction of grease, oils,
gums, or resins from wool, flax, or other materials by
means of volatile solvents. May 1G
92S2. (;. W. Bcollay. Improvements in the art of treating
vegetable oils. Complete Specification. May 17.
9432. B. H. F. Finlay. Improvements in the process of
making soaps. Ma\ 18.
9769. A. C. Irwin. — From S. Wohle, France, A' new or
improved manufacture of detergent. May 23.
10,438. A. C. Irwin. — From S. Wohle, France. A new
or improved manufacture of detergent. June 1.
10,612. C. A. Sahlstrom and E. Parr. See Class V.
10,765. W. P. Thompson. — From W. B. Brittingham,
United States. Improvements in detergent compounds.
( 'omplete Specification. June 7.
10,784. C.D.Abel. — From X. Osuchowski, Russia, and
A. S. Zivierzehowski, France. Manufacture of hard soap.
June 7.
10,858. E. Barker and E. Bannister. Improvements in
the manufacture of soap. June S.
11,094. J. C. W. Stanley, Improvements in or relating
to the treatment of seed for oil extraction and refining oil,
and in apparatus therefor. June 13.
11,173. K. Xoppcl. B. Grosche, aud T. E. Tack. Im-
provements in apparatus for purifying oil and separating
new oil from drippings. Complete Specification. June 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
4441k W. S. (henhall aud W. F. S. Chenhall. Method
for the solidification of mineral, animal, and vegetable oils,
and volatile aud inflammable fluids. June 15.
C. Palmer. See
10,837. I >.
Class XIII.
13,189. II.
June 8.
C. Hagemann and T.
Pfutzner. Apparatus for smelting tallow.
16,557. W. R. Dodd. The manufacture of an improved
soap. June 22.
1892.
6955. E. J. J. 33. Benoit and J. S. y Vila. Method of
extracting stearine and oleiue from tallow, and apparatus
therefor. June 8.
7581. R. Stewart. Soap or washing-powder. May 25.
9292. G. W. Seo'.lay. Treating vegetable oils. June 22
XIII.-
-PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
Improvements in rubber corn-
Improvements in or relating to
9803. J. Wotherspoon.
pounds. May 24.
9812. W. H. Rodin,
colour washes. May 24.
10,853. C. D. Hodgson, J. Abell, and C. T. Chivers.
Improvements in anti-fouling compositions. June 8.
11,069. D. Marcus.— From J. Curio Co., Japan. Pre-
paration or material for lacquering or covering surfaces.
June 11.
11,089. R. Matthews and J. Noad. Improvement s in
the production of carbonate of lead and lead pigments.
June 13.
11,166. H. F. Serulhis. Improvements in, or connected
with, and apparatus for the obtaiument or extraction of
gutta-percha or the like. June 14.
11,3-37. R. W. E. Mclvor and W. Smith. Improvements
in the manufacture of white lead or basic carbonate of lead
and other matters, and in means or apparatus emplo3-ed
therein. June 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9526. L. Labois. Manufacture of white lead, and appa-
ratus for use therein. June 8.
10,837. O. C. Hagemann andT. C. Palmer. Manufacture
or treatment of varnish, oils, and the like, aud apparatus
therefor. June 8.
P. Blackham. Manufae-
or bleaching materials for
13,041. T. H. Rees aud W.
tare of blue or other colouring
washing purposes. June 22.
14,948. H. Seiling. Improved composition containing
coal-tar applicable as a preservative composition or cement
for building and other purposes. June 8.
1892.
6.516. G. W. Scollay. Manufacture of pigments. May 25.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
9889. L. Tilery. Improvements in or relating to the
manufacture of artificial chamois leather. Complete
Specification. May 24.
10,385. L. Roger and A. Waltber. Improvements in
the preparation of materials used in the tanning of leather.
May 31.
564
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[June SO, 1892,
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
5689. F. Riegert. A process lor waterproofing all kinds
of skins and rendering them more durable. June 8.
7698. A. J. Boult. — From A. K. Ebert. -Manufacture of
substitute for leather. June 1.
8469. H. H. Lake. — From Durio Bros. Tanning hides
and skins. June 8.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
1 1,341. B. E. R. Newlands and J. A. R. Newlands. Im-
provements in the manufacture and production of manure
from raw phosphates. June 17.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
SS59. T. II. Smith. Manufacture of fertilisers. June 15.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Application.
1 1,125. A. G. Berry. See Class I.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
13,260. T. Drost. Process and means for manufacturing
crystallised sugar in refineries. June 15.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
'.1.344. K. Schlagenhaufer and J. Blutner. Improvements
in the manufacture or production of yeast. Complete
Specification. May 17.
9538. H. Hirzel. Improvements iu still columns. Com-
plete Specification. May 19.
\i',~~;. B.J. B. Mills. — From The Brewing Improvement
Co., United States. Improvements in treating hops for
brewing purposes. May 23.
9855. J. G. Miiller. A new or improved filtering bag
for breweries, distilleries, and the like purposes. Complete
Specification. May 24.
10,078. H. Myers. A process for the manufacture of
compressed brewers' yeast into bakers' yeast and for use
in distillers' worts. May 27.
10,126. D. Wickham. See Class I.
10,305. B. J. B. Mills. — From The Universal Carbonating
Co., United States. Process and apparatus for impregnating
beer with carbonic acid. Complete Specification. Slay 31.
10,376. F. Baxter. Improved means and apparatus for
destroying bacteria and other germs in brewers' plant and
other wooden vessels. May 31.
lii,442. W. P. Thompson. — From L. Schmied, Austria.
Improvements in the manufacture of crystal colouring malt.
Complete Specification. June 1.
10,496. J. Barton. Improvements in the method of and
apparatus for mashing and brewing ale, beer, wines, and
other fermented liquors. Complete Specification. June 2.
10,518. W. Garner and A. K. Garner. Improvements iu
the treatment of grain or cereals in order to render them
suitable for various useful purposes, such as brewing,
distilling, and vinegar making, or as articles of food, and
in means or apparatus to be employed therein, and for
other uses. June 2.
10,780. C. H. Jolliffe. Improved means and ingredients
for preserving wines, beers, and yeast. June 7.
10,836. R. G. Ross, J. B. Hilliard, and \V. Paterson.
See Class I.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,237. T. White and J. Lee. Apparatus employed in
the brewing of beer. May 25.
12,606. A. Walker. Mode of manufacturing yeast.
June 1.
12,659. V. Denamur. Apparatus for the manufacture
or brewing of beer. June 1.
1892.
5059. G. Sobotka and A. Klienietsehek. Method of and
apparatus for producing clear wort. May 25.
6075. G Sobotka. Method of and apparatus for
separating yeast. May 25.
8952. P. M. Justice. — From A. W. Billings. Apparatus
for the manufacture of malt liquors. June 15.
9344. K. Schlagenhaufer and J. Blunier. Manufacture
or production of yeast. June 22.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHFMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
9361. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Rumford Chemical
Works, L'nited States. Improved baking preparations.
Complete Specification. May 17.
9483. D. Rylands. Improvements in the use of carbonic
acid gas as applied to the preservation of fruits, meats, and
other comestibles. May 19.
9667. J. Bibbv. Improvements in the manufacture of
composite cakes for cattle feeding and the like. May 21.
9912. W. Chadwick. Improvements iu the manufacture
of jams and fruit preserves. May 26.
10.217. A. Bernstein. Improvements in the treatment at'
milk. May 28.
10,788. H. Bates, jun. Improvements iu and relating to
the production of an alimentary product from Indian corn
or maize. Complete Specification. June 7.
i 80,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
565
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
9685. C. H. G. Harvey. The manufacture of a porous
magnetic ferric oxide filtering medium. May 21.
9733. M. A. Lutzuer. An improved method of and
apparatus for removing particles of soot and ash from the
waste gases emitted bv chimneys. Complete Specification.
May 23.
9700. H. Stier. A new or improved process for the
purification of waste or refuse water from sewers, mills,
works, factories, and the like. Complete Specification.
May 23.
9780. J. B. Alliott. Improvements in the treatment of
sewage sludge, and apparatus therefor. May 23.
10,308. H. Lockwood. Improvements in tanks or vessels
and apparatus used in the purification of sewage and other
foul waters by precipitation, and in the treatment of the
sludge obtained in such process. May 31.
10,887. G. C. Purvis. Xew or improved method in
sewage precipitation. June 9.
C. — Disinfectants.
10,150. F. Thomas and J. Murray. .See Class II.
11,049. M. Syer. Improved disinfecting compound.
Complete Specification. June 13.
11.275. J. M. Raymond. An improved antiseptic,
disinfecting, and deodorising compound. June 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. —Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
10,415. A. Collingridge. — From V. Cornet and A. Jones.
Treatment of common salt intended to be used for curing
food, such as meat, game, fish, and poultry. May 25.
11,045. E. Leconte. Preparation of leaven for use in
the manufacture of bread, pastry, and biscuits. June 22.
12,549. J. H. H. Duncan. Manufacture or production
of butter. June 15.
1892.
7043. C. Saville. A new or impoved food product, and
process of producing the same. Slay 25.
K2G4. G. Miiller. Process of producing sterilised butter.
June 15.
9301. J. Y. Johnson — From The Rumford Chemical
Works. Improved baking preparations. June 22.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
10,563. A. Hossack and H. C. Bull. Treatment of
sewage, and obtaining certaiu useful products thereby.
June 1.
12,025. W. II. Munns. — From A. F. Black. Apparatus
for treating sewage. May 25.
14,038. J. Makinson. Apparatus for treating foul air
aud noxious vapours or gases. June 22.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
9460. K. A. Heath. Improvements in the manufacture of
paper, oard, and the like. May 18.
10,812. A. lirin aud E. H. E. Pyle. An improved
process of treating peat for the manufacture of paper pulp.
June 7.
11,053. E. Castier. An improved cardboard and method
of making the same. June 13.
11,123. J. M. Campbell. Improvements in the manu-
facture of paper to make paper of a uniform strength.
June 14.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
13,409. W. H. Higgiu. Treatment and utilisation of
esparto liquor and other similar waste liquors and by-
products. June 22.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
9472. The Hon. L. W. Palk. An improved salt or
chemical compound for medicinal or other purposes.
May 18.
9714. H. H. Lake. — From La Societe Bain and Fournier,
France. An improved manufacture of aldehyde compounds.
May 21.
10,185. H. Barotte. Manufacture or production of
extract of tea. May 28.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
9023. W. Smith and W. Elmore. A new and more
economical method for the production of nitrous oxide.
May 25.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
9218. E. J. Browne. A process of treating gelatino-
cbloride of silver papers by development and toniiif same
without gold or other metals. May 16.
9926. A. Burchett. Improvements in photography by
means of coloured glasses used in combination with the
photographic lens. May 26.
10,942. H. V. Weyde. An improvement in photography.
June 9.
11,175. H. V. Weyde. Improvements in photography.
June 14.
11.253. J. B. B. Wellington. Improvements in or
relating to the manufacture of photographic films ami
plates. June 15.
11.254. J. T. Clarke. Improvements in or relating to
the manufacture of sensitised films for carbon printing.
June 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
3791. A. J.
Class IV.
Boult. — From W. Bruns and Co. See
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
|_June:iO,18»2.
0342. V. Mathieu.
phi tographs. June 8.
8145. C. I
Process for producing eoloure il
Artificial - light photograph)
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
9284. C. F. Cross.E.J. Bevan, and C. Beadle. Improve-
ments in nitrating cellulose and other vegetable fibrous
substances. Ma;
9359. J. G. Lorrain. — From G. Schnebelin, France. A
new or improved manufacture of gunpowder. May 17.
9749. E. von Brauk. Improvements in the manufacture
of explosives. May 23.
10,493. P. Lorenz and B, Wuppermann. Improvements
n and relating to matches. June L\
10,620. B. F. Kettle. A nevr or improved match.
June 3.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
39.")". H. P. Merriam. Fuzes. June 8.
7981. J. Lawrence. Extraction of uitro-glyceriu from
the waste acid formed in the manufacture of nitro-glycerin.
June 15.
PATENT UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Application.
11,174. W. Read, jun. Improvements in solvent com-
pounds, and the method of making the same. Complete
Specification. June 14.
I
Printed and Published by Eyre and Spottiswoodf, East Harding Street, London, E.C., fertile Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
Society of domical 3n&isttf ;
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 7. -Vol. XI.]
JULY 30, 1892.
rNon-Members SO/- per annum; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers;
L Single Copies (Members only) 2, 6.
Cftf £>omt)> of Cbnmtal Intoustrp.
Past Presidents:
Sir H. E. Roseoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S
Sir Frederick Abel. K.C.B.. D.C.I... F.R.S
Walter Weldon.F.R.8
W. H. 1'erkin. Ph.D.. F.R.S
E. K. Muspratt
David Howard
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S
Ludwig Mood. F.RS
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S
E. Rider Cook
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, W.D., D.Sc., F.IC.s.
1881— 18S2.
1882—1883.
1883—1881.
1884— 1S85.
1885—1886.
18813—1887.
1887—1888.
1888—1889.
18S9-1890.
1890— Will.
is:.] 189?,
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., ic.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Win. Crowder.
David Howard.
Dr. F. Kurtt r.
B. E. R. Newlands.
D . W. II. Perkin, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds
M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
John Spiller.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.E S.
Sir John Turuey.
A, II. Allen.
Arthur Boake.
K. Forbes Carpenter,
Dr. CS tries Dreyfus.
H. Grimshaw.
Christopher C. Hutchinson
Ordinary Members of Council:
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinson.
Boverton Redwood.
A. Gord hi Salomon.
E (ward C. Co tis Stanford.
Thos. Tyrer.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer :
K H idi i Cook. East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mriid. l-'.R.s.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc. Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
11. Brunner.
E. Rider Cool.
W. Y. Dent.
Hi:.-. Dreyfus, l'b.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prut. J. J. Hummel.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
Publication Committee :
The President.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson,
Win. Kellner. Ph.D.
Ludwitc Monti. F.R.S.
II. F. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D.. F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Urdu 1.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor:
Watson Smith University College. London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff qf Abstractors :
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
D. Bendii III.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Bernays.M.I.C.E. I.
E. J. Bevan V., XIX.
Bertram Blount . { » | 'yjnj
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV.. XV.
J. C.Chorley I.. XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish... VII I., IX., XIII.
P. Dvorkowitseh.IL, III.. IV ,
XII.. XVIII., XXIH.
Dr.P.Nornmn Evans XIX.
W.H.Gardner V.. VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chcm.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc. . . . VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping,] II. and
D.Sc } Gen. Chetu.
Chas. A. Kohn, }
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
J. Walter Leather, } v-,r
l'b.D jxv-
F.H.Leeds, ill., XIII., XXI.
J. Levvkowitseh,
ioh.J
III, XII.
Gen. Chem.
Ph.I) f
L.deKouingh XV1II.,XXIII.
Ph.D.
A. E. Ling IV, XVI.
D.A.Louis IX.. X., XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. F. Marked, Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H.S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
H. T. PenterO XTJ „„..
maun i ■*■»*■■ *.yi-i.
G. II. Robertson XI.
P. W. Renaut ... Patent Lists.
H Schlichter.Ph.D.. V., XV
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen.Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV..X11 1.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
K. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice thai
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which ease no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Juiy80,i89a.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyrk and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED. 20th JULY 1892.
Cookson, Jas. H., Stanley, near Wakefield, alum manu-
facturer.
Deaville, B., Hyson Green Works, Nottingham, manu-
facturing chemist.
Flammer, Chas. A., 329, West 19th St., New York City,
U.S.A., chemical student.
Gronow, Wm. Thos., Port Pirie Smelting Works, Port
Pirie, South Australia, metallurgist.
Hartridge, J. Hills, Byland Road, London, N.W., manu-
facturing chemist.
Horner, Jarvis \V., The Poplars, Stairfoot, near Barnsley,
analyst.
Martindale, Wm., 19, Devonshire Street, Portland Place,
W., pharmaceutical chemist.
Mason, Thos., Hyson Green Works, Nottingham, manu.
facturing chemist.
Nichols, Horace G., 11, Argyll Street, London, W.,
metallurgist.
Thomason, Wm., 107, North Road, St. Helens. Lan-
cashire, chemical student.
CHANGES OP ADDRESS.
Adriance, J. S„ l/o West 3fith Street; 231, Broadway,
New York, D.S.A.
Allen, Walter S., l/o Boston ; New Bedford, Mass., ISA.
Benjamin, Dr. M., l/o West 50th Street; c/o D. Appleton
and Co., 1, Bond Street, New York, U.S.A.
Bicket, J. Hugh, l/o Mile Knd ; The Limes, Cranwich
Road, Stamford Hill, N.
Branson, F. W., l/o Mouut Preston ; Wynneholme, Far
Headingley, Leeds.
Brown, A. Selwyn, l/o London ; Hayes Street, Neutral
Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Carpenter, H. S., Journals to Trafalgar Buildings, Charing
( !ross, S.W.
( hattaway, W., l/o 101 ; 23, Leadenhall Street, E.C.
Dent, W. Y., l/o Woolwich ; 5, Caithness Road, Brook
Green, W.
Dunn, John, l/o Dundee ; Physical Laboratory, Royal
School of Minis, South Kensington, S.W.
Dunn, Spencer, Journals to 50, Upper Park Road, Haver
stock Hill, N.W.
Froehling, Dr. II., l/o Warners; 17, South 12th Street,
Richmond, Va., US. A.
Gibson, Dr. J., l/o Dick Place ; 15, Hartington Gardens,
Edinburgh.
Hart, 11. W., l/o Manchester; Love Clough, Rawtenstall,
Lancashire.
Hatschek, M., l/o Bedford Place; Evandale, Heslop
Road, Balham, S.W.
IlausskiK-cht, Dr. W., l/o London; 123 1., Invaliden
strasse, Berlin, N.
Herman, D., l/o St. Helens ; Eccleston Park, Preston,
Lancashire.
Holdich, A. H, l/o Wigan ; c/o Post Office, Victoria,
British Columbia.
Iriye, K., Journals to c/o China and Japan Trading Co.,
Kobe, Japan.
James, Christopher, l/o Swansea; 34, York Road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
Journand, L., l'o Salon; Ste. Colombe - lez - Yienne,
Rhone, France.
Klipstein, A., l'o Cedar Street; 122, Pearl Street, New
York, U.S.A.
Liddle, G. A., 1 o Leeds ; Can- Bank, Walmersley, Bury.
Macara, Thos., jun., l/o Bath Street: 6, West Bank
Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
McLellan, J. Y., 1 o Glasgow ; 33, Annen Strasse, Bern-
burg, Anhalt, Germany.
Marsh, Walter, ho Southampton ; Mysore West Gold Co.,
Lim., Oorgaum, Mysore, S. India.
Mayer, Dr. Nelson B., Journals to 945, North 8th Street,
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
Morris, Dr. G. Harris, l'o 121 ; 6, Alexandra Road,
Burton-on-Trent.
Myers, W. S., l/o London ; c/o G. H. Lambert, 209,
Townsend Street, New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A.
Ray, Wm., l/o Kidderminster ; Fir Bank, Hereford
Square, Sale, near Manchester.
Spoor, J. L., l'o Greenhithe ; Gad's Hill, Higham, Kent.
Venables, T., l'o Gardner Street; 23, Smith Street, Hill-
head, Glasgow.
Watson, Eric E., l'o Clausthal ; Monchstrasse 21,
Freiburg, Saxony.
Wood, Jas., l/o Stockwith ; Misterton, Gainsboro'.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REQUIRED.
Field, S. E. ; l/o Stone Trough Brewery, Halifax.
Stillwell, C. M., l/o Box 1261, New York, U.S.A.
Tompkins, H. K., l/o Promenade, Bromley, Kent.
IB e a t b sf.
Professor C. Schorlemmer, Owens College, Manchester.
A. Norman Tate, at Benarth, Oxtou, Birkenhead ; July
22nd.
July 30. 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
r.09
jw^t^
PROCEEDINGS
ELEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING.
The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held on
Wednesday, the 2uth July, in the Hall of the Drapers'
Company, Throgmorton Street, a large number of members
being in attendance.
The President, Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, took the
Chair at if o'clock, ami called upon the General Secretary
to read the minutes of the last General Meeting. These
having been duly confirmed —
Messrs. A. G. Bloxam and L J.de Whalley were, upon
the mo'ion of Mr. J. C. Gamble, seconded by Mr. F. N.
Sutton, appointed Scrutators.
The ballot was then declared closed.
The President then called upon the General Secretary
to read the
Report of Curx-ni.
We have the honour to repoit that the number of
members on the register is 2,782, compared with 2,697 at
the last annual meeting. During the year 2£5 members
have been elected, andl70haye been removed by death,
resignation, and other causes, showing a net gain of 85.
At the head of the long list of those who have died stands
the name of Professor A. W. von Hofmann. To his
irreparable loss allusion has been lately made at a meeting
of the London Section ; when a resolution expressing
sympathy with his family and recognition of his great
9 to chemistry was passed. Amoug others who have
also died are Professor Win. Dittmar, Freeland Professor of
Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical
College; Charles Heisch, Gas Examiner to the City of
London and one of the founders of the Chemical Society ;
Dr. Theophilns Redwood, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry
and Pharmacy to the Pharmaceutical Society ; Dr. C.
M. \ limit Tidy, ( Uncial Analyst to the Home Office and an
eminent authority on sanitary questions ;• G. H. Makins,
formerly Assayer to the Mint and Master of the Society of
Apothecaries ; Richard Smith, of the Royal School of
Mines ; Thos. W. li. Mumford, able Secretary of our Loudon
Section; Francis C. Hills, a pioneer of chemical industry
and inventor of the oxide method of gas purification; and
lastly Dr. C. Schorlemmer, Professor of Organic Chemistry
at I hvens College, Manchester.
During the past session 74 original papers have appeared
in the Journal as against 77 the year before.
The revenue last year, as will we seen from the treasurer's
report, exceeded the expenditure by 530/. 18s. 8i/., as
against 107/. 7s. 1L/. in 1890. This satisfactory result has
been achieved in part by greater economy in the production
of the Journal, mainly in the direction of keeping dowu
expensive illustrations and excluding matter not strict 1)
connected with chemical industry, as recommended by a
special committee which sat in the previous year.
No new Section has been formed during the year, but
those already formed have done good work ; and to their
chairmen and officers our best thanks are due for their
labours.
In .Inly last the Council offered its hearty co-operation to
the Society of Arts, as Royal Commission for the Chicago
Exhibition, which met with a cordial response. Later on it
was suggested that the annual meeting next year should be
held in the I'nited States, but the general sense of the
members declared against a meeting there in an exhibition
year.
In April last legislation was introduced into Parliament
to amend the Alkali Works, .tc. Regulation Act, whereby
many more industries were added to the schedule of
inspected works. Your Council protested against legislation
on these lines as not comprehensive enough, and insisted
upon the necessity of providing for the inspection of all
works evolving certain specified noxious gases. The Hill
has nevertheless passed into law.
In April last a fire occurred in ths warehouse of Messrs.
Eyre and Spottiswoode, the Society's printers, whereby some
four or five thousand back numbers of the Journal were
damaged by water. The loss was fortunately covered by
insurance.
The Council takes this opportunity of placing upon record
its sense of gratitude to those who have served during the
year upon the various Committees of the Society. To their
labours is due the continued progress of the Society and
the efficiency of its Journal ; and it would be difficult to
over-estimate the amount of valuable aid which they have
rendered to chemical industry.
An invitation to meet next year in Liverpool will
be laid before you, for which we ask your most cordial
consideration.
Mr. Forbes Carpenter, in moving the adoption of the
Report, said that he considered the increase in the member-
ship during the past year, though small in comparison to
the total number, very satisfactory. As the number of
members increased it could not be expected that ratio
between it and the yearly increment would be maintained.
The losses of members by death had been exceptionally
heavy both in quantity and quality, and it was to be hoped
that the ensuing year would not be so notable for the
removal of distinguished members. It had been said that
no new Section had been established during the past year ;
bat he would remind the meeting that the Yorkshire Section
had commenced its work now, and from what he knew of
the district he expected that good results would follow.
Referring to the last paragraph in the Report, he was sure
that the members felt thankful to the Publication Com-
mittee for maintaining the Journal at its present high
standard of efficiency.
Dr. G. G. Henderson seconded the motioa, which was
carried unanimously.
The Hon. Treasurer (Mr. E. Rider Cook) then pre-
sented the accounts for the year, printed on page 570, and
in doing so gave a brief summary of the receipts and
expenditure of the Society during the past twelve months
and of its present financial position.
E 2
570
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMTCAL INDUSTRY.
[July SO. 1898.
-I VN-AIKNT OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOB THE VKAl! 1891.
iti:\ KNUE.
£ s. il. £ s. ,1.
Am 1 Subscriptions for Is'.'l :—
94 subscriptions received in 1890 117 8 0
2,403 subscriptions received in 1891 3,003 10 7
13 subscriptions received in 1892 in 5 0
3,137 1 7
10
5 Life Composition Fees 75 0 0
Interest on Deposit Account 2t : :
Interest on Metropolitan St., ok llrj 10 0
Journal : —
Advertisements 588 0 0
Sales 27117 1
859 17 4
EXPENDITURE.
£ s. (I.
Journal Expenses i -
Publishing 1,442 2 9
Editorial : —
Editor's Salary 500 0 0
Expenses 29 12 7
Abstract >rs 378 n 9
Portion of Secretary's Salary 100 0 0
Patent Lists 72 12 7
Indexing Journal In in 0
Foreign Journals 10 7 o
Sundry Journals 2 17 :i
1,134 17 S
Sundries : Printing
Sectional Expenses
Expenses in connexion with annual Meeting. Dublin ..
Secretary's Salary (Baian e not included in Journal
I 'i rial] .i les)
Ron. Treasurer's Assistant
Office Expenses
Stationery
Auditors' Pee
Library— Sundry Purchases ami Binding Books
Bank Charges. .'
Treasure] 9 Petfcj I lash
. \ Petty Cash :
Balance of Revenue over Expenditure ...... .
£4,134 10 I!
2..J77 ll 5
1 — 11 H
211 in
189 18 5
. 25
42 n il
Ins 1 1
ii ii :;
ill 10 II
is 14 n
21 1 2
77 7 s
580 1-* B
! HI 11
THE TREASURER— IN ACCOUNT WITH Till' SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL [ND1 STRY I'm: THE
1 I AK 1891.
Dr. I
t s. -/. £ s. d.
To Cash on Deposit (1st January 1891) 150 » »
To Balance at Bank (1st January 1891 1 . . . . 211 (i 7
Balance in Treasurer's hands (1st January
1891) r, ii ii
Balance in Secretary's hand ii-t January
1891) 4 1 2
37" 7 11
Annual Subscriptions : —
1 subscription fur the year 1888 .... l ;, i
12 subscriptions for the year 1890 . . 15 ii 0
2,403 subscriptions for the year 1891 . . 3,003 10 7
less j.v :->/. short paid. I
80 subscriptions for the year 1892 . . 1 in
1 subscription for the year 1893 .. . 1 .'■ 0
3,121 1 5
2, 187
Sundry amounts on account ol Subscriptions For If (0
1891, and 1892 1 1.". 0
Life Composition Fees 7:, 0 11
Interest on Deposit Account 21 7 7
Interest on Metropolitan Stock 113 in n
Ji iitrnal : —
Advertisements 588 0 0
Sales 27t> 0 8
-., i n -
£ s. ,/.
By Journal Expenses: —
Publishing 1,497 7 5
Editorial 1,150 Ifi 10
In, in ance ol Stocl l :> n
t 8. -A
Sundries, Printing, &s
Si cl i' n. i I iii. rises:—
Glasgow Section '....-
Liverj I Section 31 is
Londo 89 18
Manchester Section S t
Newcastle Section 11 ."i
2,649 !■ 3
11 L5 0
Secretary's Salai (balance not included in Journal
E litoria] Experts -si
Hun. Treasurer's assistant i"i work in 1890
Annua] Brleetingat Nottingham
Expenses in connection with Annual
Meeting. Dublin 173 6 In
Reporting Pr< ■ innnat Meet-
ing, Dublin lil 5 7
Office Expenses
Purchase of BIOS 2s. :;,/. 3 Metropolitan -i. , I
Stationery, &c
A nil tors' l'i
Library
Bank < lharges
Sundries
Treasurer's Petty Cash
Seen tan 's I'. ttj I lash.
Cash on Deposit (31st Decemhor 1891)..
Balance at Bank ditto
Balance in Treasurer's
hands ditto
Balance in Sei retary's
hands ditto
230 0 0
|> n ii
1 0
i-ii ia b
Ins 1 1
in.-
41 n :i
10 10 0
lv 11 11
I
1 1 0
21 1 2
: .
51
1-1 10
£4,570
- *692 3 l
{.l..-;n 2 5
" In addition to thin there is an amount of £3,983 5s. 6d. Metropolitan 3 Consolidated Stock, invested in the names ol Mr. David
Howard and Mr. Edward Rider Cook.
Wo have compared the above Statement «iih the K -i i >t Book Counterfoils, Vouchers, ami Books ■ tin Society-) and
certify it to be correct. We have also verified th< amount of the Metropolitan :i / Consolidated Stock, £3,983 5«. 6d.
by reference to the Books of the Bank ol England.
23, Si Swithin's Lane, London, E.C.,
22nd February 1S92.
(Signed) THEOB \I.1> BROS. & Ml M.I..
Chartered Accountants,
so 1892.] TKE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
671
Sir I''. A. Abel moved the :i< lopt i< >^i of the accounts and
a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Rider Cook for the ahlc
manner in which during the past year he had managed their
financial affairs. To thai sagacious control was largely due
tlic prosperity of their flourishing Society, and the very
least they could do was to give the Hon. Treasurer their
heartiest thanks.
Dr. .1. Campbell Brown seconded the motion, in putting
which —
The President said that he musl express his own
admiration for the way in which Mr. Rider Cook had
managed his department. His experience as President had
shewn him that the Society owed an immense deal to the
care and watchfulness with which its Hon. Treasurer had
looked after its interests. He therefore put the motion to
tin meeting with the utmost confidence.
The vote having been carried by acclamation —
Mr. Rider COOR briefly thanked the members for their
continued confidence in him.
The PRESIDENT then delivered his address: —
presidential address to the society of
Chemical industry.
H V .1. EMERSON REYNOLDS, M.D., D.SC, I'.li.s.
Head at tin Allium' Meeting in London, July ZOth, 1892.
The Report of Council which you have heard read
presents a picture whose lights and shadows are in strong
contrast. The membership of this Society lias leached the
large number of -j,782 ; our revenue last year amounted to
(,13 II. 16s. i'-iI., which proved to be more than we required
to expend; while the Journal bears ample record of the
g 1 work accomplished by our active Sections. These are
the bright and encouraging parts of the picture. But the
shadows are heavy indeed ; for death has been busy, and
many honoured names disappear from our roll of members.
Dittmar, Heisch, Tidy, Richard Smith, F. C. Hills, Makins,
Mumford, Schorlemmer, the venerable Dr. Redwood, and
other names in our long obituary list, recall to our minds
numerous examples of excellent work iu the various depart-
ments of analytical and industrial chemistry, as well as in
the special branch concerned in providing the physician with
the means of combating disease.
Keenly though the loss of such men must he felt, what
snail 1 say of that very recent one which science has
suffered by the death of the illustrious August Wilhclm von
Hofmann? A teacher of teachers: the source of the
primary impulses from which great industries have sprung;
the brilliant investigator of some of the most difficult
problems in the philosophy of chemistry : the wise counsellor
of princes, and the sincere friend of every lover of nature —
truly a noble man has gone from amongst us! It were
almost irreverent to slightly sketch the work of so great a
master, hence I do not attempt it. Need I remind you that
Dr. von Hofmann was one of the earliest members of this
Society, and always tool, a warm interest in its work; or
that in the persons of many of the eminent chemists who
were his pupils and are amongst the most influential of our
members, he has left us a legacy of the highest value. I
hope that my distinguished successor, Sir John Evans, when
he addresses you next year from this Chair, may not have to
record as many important losses to science anil to our
Society
But we may not unduly dwell .on the sad side
of any picture ; rather should we seek to imitate Ibe
illustrious dead in utilising to the utmost our present
opportunities, that we may establish a good foundation for
future development.
1 on arc aware that our Journal is intended to contain a
faithful record of the real advances made during each year
in the applications of the science of chemistry to the various
id I think you will agree with me that under the
i care of the Publication Committee and Editor it is
ingly successful in attaining the object in view. But
the success ,,| the Journal in this respect renders any
presidential resume unnecessary, hence several of my
distinguished predecessors in this Chair wisely abstained from
acting as chroniclers, and I shall venture to adopt the same
course. Several Presidents — notably Sir V. Abel, Dr. l'erkin,
Mr. Ludwig Moud, and SirLowthian Bell — have given in their
valuable addresses the results of their own life work in the
scientific investigation of certain great industrial operations ;
and others, following Sir H. ltoscoe, have dealt with tin-
relations of education and legislation to technical develop,
ment. I should ill requite the confidence with which you
have honoured me if I were to devote this address to the
abstract and philosophical side of chemistry in giving you
an account of my old thio-organic work, or eveu the studies
of later years in the silieo-organic department of the science,
as lew of the products of either line of investigation are
within measurable distance of practical application; more-
over, in matters of technical education and legislation it
would be more fitting for me to come to you for information.
I therefore propose to take as my theme the modern
developments in regard to fuels and their use, as the subject
is one which has occupied much of 1113' time and attention for
many years, and links in practical interest chemical and
other industries with the still wider considerations of social
economy.
The fuel question is one which concerns those of us who
live on the western side of St. George's Channel even more
seriously than it does you, as our coal beds have been
washed away in ages past, and of native fuel there is prac-
tically none save peat ; hence industries which require
large quantities of cheap coal cannot flourish iu Ireland
under existing conditions. It is therefore our interest to
watch closely the development of improved and economical
methods of using such fuel as we can obtain from other
countries and apply them in the utilisation of our bulky
but abundant peat. It is evident that no other fuels need
be considered save coal, peat, and petroleum, hence my
remarks can take somewhat the form of a trilogy, minus the
dramatic element, precedence being given to the solid fuels,
and the first place necessarily to
Coal.
We are much too prone to assume that coal will always1
be a cheap fuel, and that the supply is inexhaustible; but
both assumptions can be shown to be erroneous. I think it
is desirable to briefly indicate the grounds for that statement,
as a presidential address necessarily has its public as well as
technical aspect, especially in dealing with the topics I have
chosen, and therefore needs to be somewhat explanatory ill
order to be intelligible to those who do not possess your special
knowledge of applied science. Moreover, my general aim
being to connect somewhat different lines of work, rather
than to attempt novelty, it will be necessary for the sake of
completeness to restate much that is already familiar to you.
The reasons for concluding that coal cannot very long
remain a cheap fuel are not far to seek. Labour combina-
tions in various parts of the world tend to increase its cost
directly or indirectly. These combinations are to a certain
extent the consequences of the operation of economic laws,
and in so far are not mere accidental factors. The wider
distribution of manufacturing activity tends in the same
direction ; and til--- increase in depth from which coal must
be won leads altogether and regularly to greater cost of
production. Therefore, some causes which are spasmodic in
their effects and others which are continuous must make coal
dearer. The immediate practical effect of such considerations
should be to check waste in the use of coal, but I fear we have
not gone very far in that direction as yet, since few realise the
extent of the danger ahead.
Again there is the more remote consideration that the
world's supply is not and cannot be inexhaustible. No doubt
" common sense " people take little account of posterity iu
such matters, [though they will carefully but inconsistently
guard the transmission of property iu land for hundreds of
years in advance. We clearly owe a similar duty to posterity
in the right but not wasteful use of materials which seem to
be absolutely necessary to the well-being of the race.
Now, the world's annual output of coal is about 488
million tons, aud the countries contributing to this enormous
5*2
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, I8D2.
total are named below, together with the amounts they
produced in 1890, unless otherwise specified : — ■
Million Tuns.
British Elands (1891 1 185
America, U.S. (estimated for 1891).. in
Germany 90
France 28
Belgium -"
Lustria 9
Russia (1889) «
Others '■'
tss
During the last 20 years there has heeu a very mai ked
increase in the consumption of coal, which is, no doulit,
commensurate with increased industrial activity. Thus, com-
paring European countries alone, the average annual output
for the period 1881 — 90 was upwards of G2 million tons
greater than during the previous decade, and this rate of
increase bids fair to be maintained, so that the world's
consumption of coal will soon reach .500 million tons per
annum, if it has not already done so.
The question arises how long can this supply be main-
tained ? If, in answer to this question, we cannot give
an approximate estimate for other countries we certainly
can for our own.
The Royal Commission on Coal Supply, which eoui-
menced its sittings In July 18G6, and reported in July 1871,
after inquiring into all probable sources of coal in Great
Britain, arrived at the conclusion that not more than
146,480 million tons were available at depths not exceeding
1,000 ft. from the surface. Therefore at our present rate of
increase of population and of coal consumption our supply
would not last for 230 years. But Mr. Hall, one of Her
.Majesty's Inspectors of Mines, who has special experience ol
coal mining, forms a much lower estimate of the supply
practically available with our present means, and considers
170 years as the more probable duration of our coal beds.
This estimate is 1 ased on fuller information than that
possessed bv the Royal Commissioners ; we are therefore
justified in concluding that the inhabitants of Great Britain
170 years hence will have little, if any. home-raised coal to
burn if we continue to use it in our present wasteful fashiou.
It was pointed out by the Royal Commissioners in 187]
that we cannot suppose " the production of coal could
continue in full operation until the last remnant was used,
and then suddenly cease. In reality a period of scarcity
and dearness would first be reached. This would diminish
consumption and prolong duration ; but only by checking
the prosperity of the country." . . . . " Much of the coal
included in the returns could never be worked except under
conditions of scarcity and high prices. A time must even
be anticipated when it will be more economical to import
part of our coal than to raise the whole of it from out-
residual coal beds." As the area of coal-bearing strata in
North America is fully 70 times greater than ours, it is easy
to see where our future supplies must come from. The
rate of increase in the use of coal has been greater than the
Commissioners anticipated in 1871, and Mr. T. Foster
Brown, C.I-.., President of Section F. of the British Asso-
ciation at Cardiff last year, has placed on record his oniuion
that at the end of only 50 years from the present time the
increased cost of coal will be severely felt. Pessimism is
never pleasant ; nevertheless we cannot afford to ignore
reasonable inferences from fairly ascertained facts.
I apprehend that there are few ordinary- consumers likely
to be influenced in avoiding waste by the knowledge that
we are within measurable distance of the end of our store of
British coal, as that calamity may still be some genera-
tions off. But the case is very different with large con-
sumers : the inevitable, if gradual, increase in the cost of
coal has effectually arrested the attention of those directly-
concerned in our great industries or anxious for the main-
tenance of that manufacturing supremacy to which this
country chiefly owes its wealth and power. Keen inter-
national competition in trade has quickened the effort to get
the utmost work out of fuel, and therefore to diminish
waste.
Xo such considerations have, hojvever, produced any
effect on the domestic conscience. A spasmodic increase in
cost of coal stimulates the use of various economical devices
which are almost wholly given up when prices fall back
nearly to their former level. A small residual effect is
left, which, though slight, is on the right side. But that
economy in the domestic use of coal which could not be
effected by a patriotic desire to avoid the too rapid exhaus-
tion of our coal beds, or by a fear cf permanently dear coal,
is likely to be brought about by the growing nuisance of
large towns, namely, fog, for whose increase our " hearths
and homes "are in a greater degree responsible than the
much abused factory chimneys. The primary considera-
tion in seeking to cope with the fog demon no doubt is to
avoid the production of solid particles during the combus-
tion of any fuel we may use, hence that method which
avoids the formation of smoke at any time, and is both
more convenient and economical, must ultimately " hold
the field." As you well know, various suggestions have
been made for the purpose of avoiding the production of
smoke, and it has even been proposed that the use of non-
flaming coal should be made compulsory in all large towns,
notwithstanding the difficulties known to attend the com-
bustion of anthracite or similar substances in open grates.
But even if the fog demon could be satisfactorily exorcised
by such means the fact would remain that the combustion
of any solid fuel in an open grate is a most wasteful pro-
ceeding. On the other hand, closed grates or stoves have
not been popular in these countries. How then can we
combine economy in the use of coal with smokeless com-
bustion and domestic convenience? The answer is sulli •
cently obvious — we must more or less completely gasify the
coal prior to its complete combustion.
The late Sir William Siemens showed us long ago how
to convert coal completely into gas by means of his great
" producer " furnaces, and demonstrated the applicability
of the comparatively poor "producer" gas to operations
requiring very high temperatures as well as to the minor
work of steam raising. Siemens showed that when so used
one too of coal can perform as much work as 1*7 tons
directly burned. In such comparisons the "producer"
gas was, of course, burned at a short distance from its
source and under the regenerative system. This mode
of using coal seems to be the most economical of which
we bave practical experience: but the gas which is pro-
duced seldom contains less than 05 per cent, of useless
nitrogen, and therefore is not rich enough in combustible
matter for general distribution.
The Wilson method of gasifying coal and that employed
bv the Leeds forge permit the production of a richer gas.
The Wilson process involves the formation of a certain
proportion of "producer" gas in raising the temperature
of the coal up to the point at which it can decompose steam,
and then affords a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, or so-called " water gas." The former can be
used for steam raising or furnace work in the immediate
vicinity of the producer, while the water-gas can be trans-
mitted through mains as readily as ordinary town gas and
loses nothing by carriage save its initial heat. Thus one
general method affords two qualities of fuel ami gasifies the
coal in an economical manner.
Whether by the Siemens method in its modern form
or by the more or less complete conversion into rich water-
gas, a great saving in coal can now be secured in almost all
large operations requiring the command of high tempera-
tures : and the use of such gaseous fuel is so steadily-
extending that we may expect in the near future to reach
the maximum practicable economy of coal in our greater
industries and of smoke abatement as well.
Between the complete conversion of coal into gas and the
very partial process included in the production of ordinary-
illuminating gas is a wide gap which needs to be bridged
over in the interests of the small manufacturer and the
domestic consumer alike before we can secure that economy
in the use of coal which we know to !"■ necessary. For it
must he granted at once that our ordinary 16-candle illumi-
nating gas is seldom an economical fuel at an average price
of 3s. per 1,000 cubic feet, though it is capable of being so
used ;i~ to effect distinct saving under special circumstances.
As an example of its economical use, even near the price
stated, 1 may cite the case of the kitchen of St. John's
July 39, 1832.] TflE .JOURXAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
5/3
College, Cambridge, where gas and steam have been sub
stitnted for coal, ami an annual saving effected amounting
to about 80/. Hut in establishments which cannot be
systematically conducted coal gas at Ss. is too expensive
a fuel. Several solutions of this important practical
problem have been proposed ; one group of suggestions
involving the supply of two distinct gases, an illuminating
and a fuel-gas and therefore requiring two sets of street
mains ; but the progress of electric lighting is so rapid
that gas companies would not be justified in outlay of capital
on a second set of mains. Another proposal is to supply
one gas of high calorific value but low illuminating power
at a cheap rate, and this gas, when used for lighting, to
be charged at the point of consumption with vapours of
suitable hydroearbides. But the true solution involves a
compromise much on the lines along which gas managers
are at present apparently working.
You are aware that the average produce of 16-candle
gas per ton of coal is about 9,500 cubic feet. By the
introduction of steam to a small extent the volume of gas
can be materially increased, but at the expense of the
illuminating power. In order to compensate for this loss,
rock or other oils are injected along with the steam and the
illuminating power is maintained. An objection to this
practice is that carbon monoxide is present in such gas,
but it is also found in many samples of ordinary coal-gas,
and provided the gas has a strong and characteristic odonr,
so that its escape can he readily detected, no risk need
attend its use. The supply of the richer bituminous coals
is steadily diminishing, hence the practice must grow of
supplying a modified water-gas instead of coal-gas as we
have hitherto known it. Better far in the interests of
producer and consumer alike that the inevitable change in
the character of the gas manufacture should be carried out
with the full knowledge and assent of the public after due
parliamentary inquiry, and in such a manner as to secure the
maximum advantage without undue interference with the
great monopolies enjoyed by the gas companies. So many
satisfactory methods are known by which the illuminating
power of a gas can be increased at or near the burner, and
gas as an illuminant is moreover being so certainly displaced
by the electric light that the objections hitherto urged
against the supply of gas of high calorific value but low
illuminating power have almost ceased to have any practical
force. On the other hand the supply of a cheap gas of the
kind I refer to would prove a great boon to small manu-
facturers as well as to the domestic consumer, and com-
petent gas engineers inform me that no real difficulties lie
in the way.
The rapid extension of electric lighting in our large towns
brings us within measurable distance of some such sweeping
change in the character of gas used, in its applications, anil
in its mode of employment, while the existing mains would
serve for its conveyance, and comparatively trifling alterations
in our domestic appliances would only be necessary.
It is in this direction, then, that the best prospect of
solving a considerable part of the smoke fog difficulty
seems to lie, and it is in the sami direction that we are tc
look for true economy in the use of coal. The completion
of the system of electric lighting in towns is therefore to be
desired by the community, not only on account of its great
and obvious advantages for illumination, but because it will
render possible the provision and distribution of a cheap
gas for heating purposes; and the shareholders in gas
companies of such fortunate towns should specially rejoice,
as herein lies a good prospect not merely of maintaining
but of considerably increasing their dividends. Gas com-
panies would not only become purveyors of heat energy for
domestic use, but for many manufacturing purposes as well,
not excepting the production of the electric light.
Hence our duty to posterity and our own immediate
interests coincide in requiring the use of more economical
methods of using coal and that which gives promise of the
greatest number of advantages involves the conversion of
coal as far as possible into gaseous fuel.*
' Sn th.' above was written I have aei n :i short abstract of
Mr. Valun's address to the Institute of Gas Kiifdiieers, in which I
nil glad to find that he takes a somewhat similar view of the
situation to that expressed above.
I turn now from coal to
Pkat
which is, as you know, a much less mineralised solid
fuel. ft is obvious that the question of peat utilisation
is one of much importance in Ireland, as nearly one-
seventh of the island is bog. About 1,250,000 acres are
mountain bog, and 1,575,000 acres are occupied by fiat
bogs, which occur over the central limestone plain of
the country and stretch away to the north-west. This
store of peat is an asset which may become valuable
when you shall have exhausted your coal beds some
170 years hence. We would naturally desire to realise
a portion of our assets at a much earlier date, as nearly
all the coal used in Ireland must be brought from the
eastern side of St. George's Channel. In this fact 1 think
you have some explanation of the depressed industrial
condition of the country, as manufactures involving the
use of much fuel can only flourish in Ireland if the margin
of profit be considerable ; where the margin is small and
competition keen (as in the greater industries) they must
go under in the struggle with manufacturers having cheaper
fuel at command. 1 grant at once that this is no adequate
explanation of the absence of man; chemical manufactures
which do not involve large consumption of fuel, but it is
the inevitable result in the cases to which my remarks
apply.
Peal alone, however well prepared, compares very
unfavourably with coal in several particulars : —
1. It is a very bulky fuel, in its ordinary' condition
occupying rather more than five times the space of an equal
weight of coal.
2. It contains from 15 to 25 per cent, of water and
seldom less than 10 per cent, of ash.
3. At least 2^ tons of average peat are required to perform
the same work as one ton of average Staffordshire coal iu
ordinary fireplaces or furnaces.
Hence the general use of ordinary peat is attended by
the disadvantages of requiring much greater storage room
than coal, of producing a light and troublesome ash, and
requiring more than 13 times the bulk of coal to produce
the same thermal effect. The last-mentioned consideration
practically precludes its use in ordinary furnaces where
heat of high intensity is required.
Now the force of the first objection to the use of peat,
that of bulk, cau be materially diminished by mechanical
compression. Many excellent examples of compressed peat
have been produced at various times, the most coal-like
product I have seen being that of Mr. Hodgson, of Derrylea,
who compressed thoroughly disintegrated and dried peat in
heated cylinders, and by partially carbonising under pressure
secured the cementation of the material. -Moreover, the
ash of such compressed peat was not so bulky as that of
the ordinary fuel.
I need scarcely say that the intensity of the heat obtain-
able with compressed peat is greater than with the loose
material, but the actual thermal effect is not much altered,
save in so far as the material is drier and therefore less heat
is lost in evaporating moisture.
Extended comparative trials of coal and of good dense
peat in steam engines has shown that the work done by one
ton of peat was not more than 45 per cent, that of one ton
of coal; hence if coal were 18s. per ton, peat could not
compete with it under the most favourable conditions unless
delivered at not more than 8s. per ton. Now the peat used
iu these trials did not contain more than 12 per cent, of
moisture, but as dug from the bog it seldom contains less
than 35 percent, of water, even when cut from a compara-
tively dry bog ; it must then be stacked and air-dried. The
present price of ordinary turf delivered at the bog is about
7s. per ton ; when to this is added the cost of handling this
bulky fuel, and carriage for 50 miles, the cost exceeds (5
per cent, of that of coal even at inland towns : hence there
is no real economy iu the use of peat of the common kind
in ordinary furnaces and grates instead of imported coal.
But the public are lead by promoters of peat manufac-
turing companies, and others who should know better, to
suppose that by certain processes of disintegration and
compression peat can be made to approach very closely in
574
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Julj 30, 1893.
fuel value to an equal weight of coal. There is no doubt
that a better looking and denser product can be obtained by
these means, and one which requires less storage room ; but
unless artificially cliicil as well, the actual heating effect of
the fuel is not materially altered. 1 have no doubt thai the
cost of winning and treating the rough peat could he much
reduced In th use of suitable labour-saving machinery;
hut all methods with which I am acquainted involving
artificial drying as well as mechanical compression, have
cosl so much that the product could not compete with coal
at the ordinary level of prices. As I have already said, the
Irish peat forms a valuable asset hut one not capable of
being realised on any considerable scale at present ; at least
when used as fuel in the ordinary way as a substitute for
rod But it is possible to so burn peat that it shall compare
much moie favourably with coal, and this solution of the
problem is obtained by converting tough peat into gas.
You doubtless remember that in 1S72 the cost of coal
advanced even beyond the panic prices which prevailed for
a week or two about the beginning of the present year. But
the coal famine of 187:2 lasted for a considerable time, and
serious efforts were then made in Ireland for the utilisation
of peat. It soon became evident that the continuance of
dear coal meant the suspension of several industries aud
their probable loss to the country ; hence, leaving to others
the attempts to convert peat into a suitable fuel for general
domestic use, I took up the industrial side of the problem.
I saw that the best chance for economically applying
peat for most manufacturing purposes lay in gasifying the
material ill a Siemens furnace, as two special and important
advantages must obviously be gained thereby: — 1. The
use of peat in the rough state without artificial drying.
-J. I lie avoidance of the injurious effects of abundant ash
by burning the peat-gas at some distance from its source,
and under such conditions that the comparative value of
eoal and tieat should he nearly in the proportion of their
percentages of carbon. I therefore moved the Royal
Dublin Society to appoint a committee of engineers and
other scientific men to have the value of peat tested in the
way proposed. The outcome was that the directors of the
Great Southern and Western Railway of Ireland, acting on
the recommendation of the able locomotive engineer, Alex-
ander Maedonncll. C.E., decided to erect a complete Siemens
regenerative gas furnace for working up scrap iron in their
engine factory at Iuchicore. This furnace was supplied
"lily with rough peat, often containing as much as 38 — 40 per
cent, of water, but no difficulty was found in keeping the
weldiug chamber at a bright white heat for months at a
stretch. The average consumption of fuel was 5'09 tons
of peat for each ton of iron forged from scrap to finished
work. Before the Siemens furnace was built the ordinary
air furnace fed with eoal was employed, and the average
consumption per ton of iron was 1 ■ 96 tons of coal. I need
scarcely say that peat is practically useless in such a
furnace. Therefore peat used in the gas furnace a- com-
pared with coal in the ordinan welding furnace not only
proved in practice to answer extremely well, but performed
'.'7 pel lent, of the work done by an equal weight of coal.
As the price of peat was about half that of coal at the
time, Mr. Maedonncll estimated that a saving of I/. 7*. 9d.
per ton of finished forgings was effected. If therefore the
eoal beds were exhausted we have a good substitute in peat
lor operations in which a very high temperature is required,
provided tin' fuel is used in the gas furnace or according to
some similar plan.*
The above remarks refer to work done 20 years ago.
Now, thanks to the valuable investigations of Mr. Ludwig
Mond, F.R.S., detailed in his Presidential Address of 1889,
the production of ammonia from peat along with gas
according to his method will probably pay for gasifying the
fuel ami materially facilitate the utilisation of peat.
Much to my surprise and regret this work remains the
sob- practical outcome of our efforts in the direction of
peat utilisation during the fuel Famine of 1 8 7 '_' , so far as
■ Ofcoursc Hie comparison is more favourable to coal when the
,,i. r i - used in ' I"' sie us furnace, as it is found that :i ton of iron
i ipiired ;oi:i\.-i,i f 8 tons of eoal, therefore the vvurK >i fij
pent was iiboul en |per cent, ol tlmt by coal under the same
• ■i hi fit
Ireland is concerned. Manufacturers now know bow
they can economically use peat for high temperature
operations, and Dr. Bindon Stoney, F.Ii.S., has suggested
that peat should be gasified at the bogs and carried
to convenient centres of industrial activity. This could
undoubtedly be done, especially if instead of " producer "
gas a fuel were manufactured approaching water-gas
in composition, aud such a gas of good calorific power
can be manufactured from peat. Thus, as in the case of
coal, peat could be made economically to provide light and
beat energy as well for domestic use as for manufacturing
purposes. Would that wc could apply even a small portion
of the eneigy stored up iti peat to stimulate those who
should be most active in utilising in tin best and most
economical way the abundant material almost at their
doors !
If, then, there are many and great advantages in convert-
ing our bulky solid fuels into gas and distributing them in
that form for heating purposes or supplying power by
means of gas engines, it is clear that such advantages must
be confined for the most part to town; or special manu-
facturing centres unless the gases are condensed to the
liquid form, and so rendered portable to considerable
distances ; hut nature has already done a great part of
this work for us in providing the wonderful material we
call
Petkoi.ki m.
I do not think " wonderful " is too strong an adjective
to apply to this material, whether we consider its nature,
speculate as to its probable origin, or attempt to measure
its value in the world's work : and in this, the concluding
section of my address, I propose to sketch in broad outline
the main points' of public interest which relate to this, the
most important of our liquid fuels. Fortunately our
Journal is rich in the technical literature relating to
petroleum, and has been the means of communicating
some admirable original papers t^n the subject, notably
those of Mr. Boverton Redwood on the Russian and
Galician centres of the oil industry, and Dr. Armstrong's
on the Pintsch and Keith's systems of converting rock oil
into permaneut gas.
As you well know, the general term petroleum "oil of
stone " or " rock-oil " — is applied to the fluid mixtures of
hydrocarhides, containing approximately 85 per cent, of
carbon and 15 per cent, of hydrogen, which are found at
many points on the earth's surfi either saturating the
soil or rising in springs of inflammable liquids. The
existence of these combustible natural oils or naphthas was
known before the present era, probably many centuries
before Christ, and various ancient historians mention their
use for illuminating purposes.
Down the centuries we find traces of the use of these
naturally occurring oils, especially in South-Kastcrn Europe,
and from very early times the naphtha of Balra,in Southern
Russia, was used lor illuminating purposes and as fuel.
More or less spasmodic efforts in the direction of utilisation
were made, nevertheless the petroleum industry was
virtually non-existent 50 years ago.
In examining the history of any industry it is interesting
to seek for the primary impulse which set the necessary
forces in motion, and I think in the case in question that
impulse was given not quite 50 years ago by a keen
observer and distinguished chemist, who is, I am happy to
say, still with us. In 1847 Sir Lyon (then Dr.) Playfair
recognised the nature of a dark oil met with in a Derby-
shire coal-mine, and at his instance the late Mr. James
Young produced from this material illuminating oils, as
well as solid paraffins. Although this particular source of
illuminating oils was soon exhausted, and Mr. Young had
to turn to other materials from which to distil paraffin,
the value of these as illuminauts had Income generally
known, and stimulated the search for natural springs.
No fresh ones of importance were discovered in these
islands, but iii 1858 Colonel Drake made his celebrated
discovery of petroleum in abundance at Titusville, Pennsyl
vania, U.S.A., and laid the foundation of the great
American petroleum industry, which developed with
surprising rapidity as new source- were recognised in other
States.
.Tui.y :w,i892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
57 S
L'he rate of growth of the industry is best shown by the
following statistics : —
We find from official reports that the total production of
« rude petroleum in the 1 inited States was in —
1859 ". barrelsol H gallons.
1869 K.21S
ts;:i 19,685.090
1889 M.v'ii, i
ts'.'n n -ul ■ 15,000,000
The Buccess of the Americans was followed b^ the
development of production in other countries where the
existence of oil bad long boon known, especially in Russia,
;ii Baku, and in the Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia,
just north of the Carpathian range, while Germany, distant
Japan, and Burmah contributed to the general result.
Vmerica and Russia are now the principal producers, the
Kus iia itput being for t —
1883 .
1890.
1891 .
iiboul 21,000,000 barrels.
'j5.iiun.iMii barrels.
I S| im ll ''I :il 30.000,0 "
The Galician production is at present relatively small,
iccording to Mr. Boverton Redwood, 533,000 barrels
for 1889 90, but according to I'izzola, for IH'.io, the output
was rTii.ooii barrels. As Mr. I',. Redw i states that he
his figures as considerably under the full output,
we may probably take the Austrian estimate as near the
truth.
Thus the world's production of crude petroleum may be
i stimati d at fully 7."i million barrel- per annum or upwards
of l l'\ BILLION TONS.
This amount docs not include asphalts (which are
probably petroleum residues from which the volatile liquids
have evaporated) ; nor does it include earth wax or ozokerite,
60 million pounds of which arc annually produced by
Austria.
The surprising extent to which the oil industry lias grown
in little more than 33 years naturally suggests the question
whether the supply will continue. Unfortunately no such
means of forming even an approximate judgment exist in
the case of rock oil as in that (>f coal. Petroleum, unlike
coal, has been found in nearly all geological formations,
though chiefly in the older sedimentary strata which are
all t destitute of organic remains. Its position in the
earth's crust cannot be localised and the probable amount
determined. Nor are the strata in which it is found neces-
sarily connected with its production, for, being a liquid, it
can gravitate from higher to lower districts. Moreover,
being lighter than water, the latter can, in rising through
porous strata, carry the oil nearer to the surface-. There-
fore, from cither ean-e, the oil may be found at a great
distance from its real source.
Ii is a fact, I believe, that the existing huge oil-producing
districts do not, taken as a whole, all'ord material indications
of diminished productiveness, notwithstanding the enormous
drain upon them. Particular wells become exhausted, but
new ones are bored and the output is maintained. This,
however, is a process which must "have its limits, even
though the oil-hearing strata arc known to underlie great
of country, and obviously cannot afford much real
help in deciding the question of duration of supply. Of
lather greater significance is the fact that rock oils, or such
petroleum residues as asphalt, bitumen, ozokerite, &c, have
been discovered in almost every country when carefully
sought, especially in the neighbourhood of the great
mountain ranges of the world, though the quantities found
vary greatly. This fact, so far as Europe is concerned,
is made very clear by means of a map which appeared at
pee 96 of the current volume of this Journal, illustrating
Mr. Boverton Redwood's admirable essay on the Galician
oilfields. The occurrence of petroleum at such widely
different points in the earth's surface as Pennsylvania,
I S.A., Baku, in Southern Russia, Trinidad, Galicia, Japan,
Canada, Sicily, Burmah, &c, indicates a large area from
which supplies may be obtained, and further, that stores
nf the material exist at points hitherto almost untouched.
1 think we may draw two conclusions from the fact of the
wide distribution of petroleum ; the first is that there is
ample provision for an abundant supply in the near future
at any rate ; the second conclusion is the equally obvious
one that these mixtures of liquid compounds of carbon and
hydrogen result from some process which is general in its
operation, and which is or has been most active near to
those great crumples of the earth- crust we call mountain
range-.
The views of geologists as to the nature of the general
process by which petroleum is formed are elaborately
discussed in the Eighth Report of the United States
Geological Survey, and the conclusions are there carefully
summarised (page 506). In substance they are as follow: —
That petroleum is derived from organic matter by a process
of slow distillation at comparatively low temperatures; that
the organic matter was not in all eases of vegetable origin,
but was in some instances derived from animal substances
iu contact with limestone; and, finally, that the stock of
petroleum in the rocks is practically complete. It follows,
of course, that the supply is exhaustible, but geologists do
not even guess at its duration.
In contrast with all this is Mendeleef's view that petro-
leum is not a product from organic material, but is chiefly
formed by the action of wafer at high temperatures on
carbide of iron, which he supposes to exist in abundance
within or below the earth'- crust. The cracks and fissures
caused by the upheaval of mountain chains permits water
to reach the heated carbide at great depths, and carbides of
hydrogen result in accordance with the general equation —
3Fe„Cn + 1 mll.o »;!•>,>, + C3„H3„
The hydrocarbides then distil up and condense within the
cooler sedimentary strata. The occurrence of petroleum in
active volcanic areas, as in Sicily and .Japan, is held to
accord with this hypothesis, which latter is also consistent
with the remarkable fact that rock oil is usually found in
the vicinity of mountains. But my chief reason for refer-
ring to this attractive hypothesis is that it permits us to
suppose the hydrocarbides arc still being formed within the
earth's shell, especially beneath the geologically modern
mountain chains, and that the supply of petroleum is prac-
tically inexhaustible. Whether that view can be sustained
we must leave further evidence to deeide, and now return
after this digression to the consideration of the material
itself.
The porous strata saturated with petroleum often lie at
considerable depths below the surface soil of the district,
and the oil is in many cases prevented from rising by a bed
or shell of almost impervious material. In boring tor the
oil this enclosing shell is penetrated and the result often i-
the ejection of a column of liquid rising as a fountain of
several hundred feet into the air. This violent expulsion of
petroleum is due in great part to the pressure of pent up
ga-es, and the crude liquid always contains some of these
gases iu solution. In some instances gas only issues, and
a' so-called "gas well" is obtained, from which are emitted
enormous volumes of marsh gas audits lower homolo<mes,
as well as hydrogen. Some of these American gas wells
afford from 10 to It million cubic feet per day, delivered at
a pressure of as much as 400 pounds to the inch. Such
gas is a fuel of high value and. as you know, has been
largely utilised for industrial and domestic purposes at such
great industrial centres as Pittsburg.
One million cubic feet of the natural gas obtained from
the Trentou limestone at Findlay, Ohio, are said to do the
same amount of work in heating as about 60 tons of
Pittsburg coal. Some of these gas wells have been
exhausted, but others have continued in full productiveness
for several years Although this natural gas is compressed
ami transported in cylinders to considerable distances, it
evidently must remain of almost exclusively local value;
not so the liquid petroleum which issues along with it or in
its immediate neighbourhood. This is the most portable of
all fuels obtainable in nature, and therefore is the most
convenient means by which light and heat can be trans-
mitted to all parts of the world — hence it is of greater
practical interest to us than the natural gas.
You are aware that the hydrocarbides of which the.
American petroleum consists chiefly belong to the saturated
576
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [July 30, 1892.
group C',I!j„ , 2, whereas those of Russian petroleum are
mainly benzenoid hydrooarbides of the general formula
C„H2„, isomeric with the olefiues, but really hydrogenised
aromatic compounds of the naphthene series. Petroleum
from both sources affords some of the lower homologues of
marsh-gas, hence in the process of refining crude petroleum
by distillation the first products consist largely of butane,
pentane, and hexane, which air separated and condensed
by pressure, the product being used for refrigerating
purposes owing to its high volatility. Between 80° and
120 American petroleum affords a spirit of specific gravity
about 0- 7.V, and above 130° the illuminating oils are obtained
whose gravities vary about 0' S, while the residue which
is not vaporised at 300° includes the heavier lubricating
oils, which are also admirably suited for use as fuel, and
arc cheaper than those generally used for lighting purposes.
During this process of refining by simple distillation there
is always more or less decomposition in progress, hydro-
carbides of high molecular weight being resolved into
simpler cms at a comparatively high temperature ; and
when crude petroleum or its constituents an' rapidly heated,
this resolution can he carried so far as to convert a large
proportion of the oil into permanent gas, valuable alike for
illuminating and heating purposes. Thus petroleum is a
fuel which can be permanently gasified with facility, ami is
no doubt wholly converted into gas just prior to combus-
tion in our common lamps.
Several methods are employed for the conversion of oil
into rich gas, and storing the latter for distribution through
tubes in the ordinary way. In one class of such processes
the oil alone is rapidly heated to a temperature of from
800° to 1,000° in iron retorts, as in the methods of Piutsch
and Keith, thoroughly described by Dr. Armstrong in
Vol. III. of our Journal. The yield of gas seldom exceeds
130 cubic feet p,i o;ill. hi . ;is liquid hydrocarbides of low
boiling points are condensed chiefly during the compression
of the gas into cylinders for use in railway carriages. The
gas is rich in carbon compounds, including methane,
ethylene, and crotonyiene, and its illuminating power, even
after compression, is seldom less than 15 caudles. I may
add that Mr. Ivison Macadam has given in Vol. VI. of our
Journal (page 199), a valuable series of observations on
the gas-producing power of various oils treated by a process
very similar iii plau to that of l'intsch.
Another mode of converting petroleum into gas includes
the use of steam, as in the process of Messrs. Kegels ,,f
W'atfonl, who inject the oil into red-hot retorts by means
of steam, the latter appearing to facilitate the permanent
change of the petroleum without the formation of much
carbon monoxide. The gas so produced is said to amount
to about Ho feet per gallon of heavy oil used, and has,
according to Mr. Rowan (this Journal,' Vol. VII.), the
following composition : —
Per Cent.
1 lyilnwn SI "81
Marsh-gas *8"17
llluminants 16-29
I'm ben ie oxide "''I
Nitrogen 5'06
' taygen < 0"'3
This gas is stated to have an illuminating power of fully
.'ill candles, and to lose little either by standing or by
carriage to considerable distances.
As such petroleum gas has about 3 • 5 times the illuminating
power of lll-candlc coal-gas, it follows that, so far as illumi-
nating purposes are concerned, the gas producible from one
gallon of oil by this process is equal to some 525 cubic feet
of coal-gas of 16-candle value. 1 shall later on refertothe
heating value of this petroleum gas, hut I have now justified
the statement with which this section commenced, viz., that
petroleum is virtually liquefied gas in a peculiarly portable
condition. Hence in all states petroleum can be used as
an illuniiliaiil as well as a fuel, whereas coal and peat can
only be used as illuminants in so far as they can afford
carburet ted gas.
let me now proceed to justify the further statement that
petroleum is the most concentrated and on the wdiole
the most portable of all the natural fuels met with in
considerable quantities.
Weight for weight the efficiency of liquid petroleum in
steam-raising is much greater than that of coal. The
estimates of relative value necessarily vary with different
portions of the crude material used, and with the quality of
coal employed in the comparative trials ; hence some of the
j statements of results are often rather vague. Thus M.
I d'AUest found that one pound of refined petroleum evapo-
rated 12 '02 pounds of water, while only 6' 5 pounds were
evaporated per pound of a rather poor steam coal. The
American results with crude petroleum and Pittsburg coal
gave respectively 1 5 and 7 • 2 pounds of water per pound of
fuel. Professor Unwiu has recently compared petroleum
with Welsh coal in steam-raising, the oil being injected by a
steam jet through a highly heated coil and then burned
perfectly with a clear name. In his trials with a not
particularly efficient boiler he found that 12" 1G pounds of
water were evaporated per pound of petroleum, and this
result he considers about 25 per cent, better than that
afforded by the steam coal. These results agree with those
of M. d'AUest so far as the effect of petroleum is con-
cerned, but the coals compared were different in value for
steam-raising. Hence for an average coal the proportion is
nearly three to two; in other words the practical heating
effect of one ton of coal can be obtained by the combustion
of only two-thirds of a ton of petroleum, while the com-
parison with the heavy oils would probably be still more in
favour of liquid fuel. Petroleum has another advantage
over coal in the matter of storage room, as one ton of the
liquid occupies only four-fifths of the space of the same
weight of coal, so that the bulk of the petroleum required to
perform the same work in heating as one ton of average
coal is little more than half that of the latter. It follows
that a steamer constructed to cany 1,000 tons of coal could,
if provided with suitable tanks, carry 1,200 tons of peine
leiiiu equal in fuel value to about 1,900 tons of coal. In
addition, the liquidity of petroleum permits it to be pumped
and conveyed long distances by gravitation in tubes so that
its transport ill hulk and in detail is easy. Therefore
petroleum is not only a much more concentrated fuel thau
coal, but it is eminently portable as well and convertible with
much greater facility into permanent gas. Against these
advantages must, however, he set the inflammability of
petroleum, and consequent greater risk of fire.
Now we have to consider the question of relative cost of
petroleum used as fuel in liquid or gaseous form as compared
with coal — the latter being our standard for reference as in
the case of peat. We have already seen that about two-
thirds of a ton of petroleum can do the same amount of
work in heating as one ton of coal ; therefore petroleum
when burned directly cannot economically replace coal unless
two-thirds of a ton of the liquid can he purchased for less
than the cost of one ton of coal. We know the cost of
ordinary lamp petroleum in these islands is at present far
beyond that limiting value; even the heavy oils wdiich are
not good enough for lamps, anil yet are too "thin" for
lubricants, only compare favourably with coal where the
latter has to be Carried long distances, and is therefore dear.
However, all practical difficulties having been overcome in
I lie use of these heavj oils for steam-raising, a comparatively
small advance in the general price of coal would at once
render them economical for industrial use as fuel.
Hut when we compare petroleum gas with ordinary coal
gas the comparison is much more favourable to the liquid
fuel ; unlike coal, petroleum is already more than half-way
on the road to conversion into gas. As you know, one ton
of coal affords about 9,500 cubic feet of 16-candle gas.
On the other hand one tjn of oil of sp. gr. 0"8S can afford
about 24,000 cubic feet of gas, having an average illuminating
power of GO caudles, or the equivalent of about 70,000 cubic
feet of 16-candle value, and this rich gas admits of pre-
paration on the small scale suited to country places, while
the retorts used In the production of the gas can be heated
by petroleum. The petroleum gas of some 60-candIc power
is said to be producible at about 6s. per 1,000 cubic Let.
If we were to assume that the calorific value of the gas is
directly proportional to its illuminating power, the cost
would correspond to about Is. Id. per 1,000 cubic feet of
16-candle coal -'gas. Hut the facts do not justify the
assumption, as the calorific value of methane is known to
July 3ii. isn.'.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
577
be greater than thai of the heavier carbides to which tlie
high illuminating power is due"; hence the comparison is
probably less favourahle to petroleum gas by about 25 per
cent., though further experimental evidence is wanting on
this point. However, even after this deduction, petroleum
gas i< the cheaper fuel as well as illaminant.
The necessary links between the elements of the trilogy
on coal, peat, ami petroleum are now, I think, sufficiently
evident. If we desire to use each fuel in such a way as to
devclnpe most economically and conveniently its store of
heat-energy, we must first partially or perfectly gasify it.
The newest member of the triad — petroleum — is the one
which lends itself most easily and completely to such treat-
ment, in consequence of its physical condition and chemical
characters. It is also the material that we must expect to
facilitate the production of cheap gaseous fuels from coal
and peat which shall at the same time possess sufficient
illuminating power for most purposes. Chemical industries
would probably benefit to a greater extent than others by
the supply of cheap fuel of the kind in question ; hence I
have ventured to tax your patience by dwelling on this topic
in your presence to day.
Sir John Evans moved a vote of thanks to the President,
and in doing so said that it was a very satisfactory thing
to preside over such a Society, numbering as it did some
2,800 members engaged in every variety of industry in
which chemistry played a part. To find a subject which
would be interesting to all was no easy matter, and they
might congratulate their President and themselves that in
selecting fuel he had dealt with a matter that affected all
both in comfort and purse. The subject of the address
was one of such supreme importance that he wondered it
bad not received more attention from manufacturers. If
England was to continue to be the most successful manu-
facturing nation, something must he done to secure further
economies in the production of steam power, and thej had
in the able address to which they had just listened many
hints to assist them in attaining that object. It was satis-
factory to find that in that sister country which he trusted
would long be united to ■ Great Britain there were such
valuable stores of fuel which eventually could be brought
into use. It was only, however, by unremitting study that
they could hope to find means tor rendering available those
latent powers for heat and light with which peat was
endowed. The third member of the President's "trilogy "
was a growth of quite recent times, and they could only
hope that the child which had risen with such surprising
rapidity would not dwindle away and perish ; that the
sources of petroleum would prove to be as inexhaustible
as they were mysterious. It was in the highest degree
probable that the advances in the use of petroleum which
had ben made during the last 20 years would continue to
even a greater degree during the next 20, and result in still
greater economics in its production. He had listened to
the address with great pleasure, and felt that the members
owed the President their best thanks for the admirable
way in which he had compiled and delivered it.
Mr. W. Thorp, in seconding the motion, said that when
the minds of men were so exercised with the " Irish
Question " it was a great source of relief to feel that in
their Societj they had no " Irish Question." Their relations
with their Irish brethren were thoroughly harmonious;
their President was an Irishman, and no one had been
more heartily welcomed than he.
Sir JOHN Evans then put the vote to the meeting, and it
was carried with great enthusiasm.
The President having briefly returned thanks —
Mr. R. Morris proposed that Messrs. Theobald Brothers
and Miall be re-elected auditors for the ensuing year at a
remuneration of ten guineas.
Mr. IIvvid Howard seconded tiie motion as one who
knew the admirable way in which those gentlemen did their
work.
The motion was then put, and was carried unanimously.
Mr. A. Ci. Bi.ox.vm then read the report of the scrutators,
from which it appeared that 106 voting papers hatl been
examined, one of which was spoilt, and that the result of
the voting was the election of Messrs. R. Forbes Carpenter,
I '. C Hutchinson, John Pattinson, A. G. Salamon, E. C. C.
Stanford, and Thos. Tyrer as ordinary members of Council,
and the confirmation of the nominations of the Council to
the offices of president, vice-president, &c.
The following is therefore the composition of the Council
for 1892—93 ;—
Presidt nt.
Sir Jehu Evan's, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c.
Vice-Presidents.
Sir Loxvthiuu Bell, Bart., F.R.S. Prof._ I._ Emerson Reynolds
Win. Crowder.
David Howard,
Dr. P. Hurter.
B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. W. II. Perkin, F.R.S.
M.D., II.Sc. F.R.S.
Jno. Spiller.
3.C. Stovenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Tiii-ucy.
A. H.Allen.
Arthur Boake.
1:. Forbes Carpenter.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
11. Grimshaw.
C. C. Hutchinson,
Ordinary Members of Council.
Prof. R. Meld. .hi, F.R.S.
John Pattinson.
Boverton Redwood,
A. Gordon Salamon.
E. C. C. Stanford.
Thos. T.vr. t.
Honorary Treasure r.
f.. Rider Cook.
ILni. For. Ian Seen tary.
Ludwig .M. iiel. F.R.S.
Mr. LddwiG Mono proposed the re-appointment of
Mr. Rider Cook as the representative of the Society on
the Hoard of the Imperial Institute. In doing so he said
that Mr. Cook had so discharged the functions of the
position during the past year that he was sure they could
not have a more fitting representative.
Mr. L. Archbutt seconded the motion, which was then
put and carried unanimously.
Mr. Henri Brunner, as chairman of the Liverpool
Section, had much pleasure in inviting the Society to hold
the next annual general meeting in that city. It was seven
years since the Society had been to Liverpool, and though
they might not be able to show the members anything very
new in the shape of chemical manufactures, they would do
their best to make the visit a pleasant if not a very
instructive one.
Mr. Boverton Redwood, in proposing that the next
annual meeting of the Society should be held in Liverpool,
said that there could not be a doubt as to the cordiality of
the reception they would meet with there ; and there were
so many obvious material advantages attaching to Liverpool
as a place of meeting that it was unnecessary for him to
say anything in support of the motion.
Professor Mku OLA seconded the motion.
After a few words from the President, the motion that
the invitation of the Liverpool Section to hold the
annual meeting of 1893 in that city was put ami carried
unanimously.
The President then said that but one duty remained
for him to perform before leaving the chair, to propose
that the hearty thanks of the Society be given to the
Drapers' Company for so kindly permitting the use of
their magnificent halls for the meeting that day. It was
very satisfactory, when one heard so much said against
some of the great city companies, to be able to turn to
records of good and useful work achieved by others ; and
the great Company who were their host that day had been
one of the most prominent in the movement for aiding
technical education. He therefore had much pleasure in
proposing that the Council be requested to convey to the
Drapers' Company the hearty thanks of the Society for the
hospitality extended to its members that day.
Mr. Rider Cook, in seconding the motion, said that in
his opinion there was a peculiar fitness in the Soeietj
meeting in the hall of one of the city guilds. They did
578
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30,1892.
not profess to be a scientific society in the pure sense ol
the term, most of them were manufacturers who availed
themselves of the help of science in their operations. The
city companies were beginning to realise that as they bore
the names of the great trading interests of the country
with which thej were once intimately associated, it was
their duty to justify their cxistenci by practically interesting
themselves in the great industries they represented. He
was glad to say that the Drapers' Company had given
ample proof that they appreciated this position ; and the
way they had received the Society that day showed, he
t'lought, that they were willing as representatives of com-
merce to shake hands with and encourage those who were
seeking to allj science more and more closely with the
trade and commerce of the country.
The vote was then put by the President and was carried
by acclamation.
Reception \m> Smoking Concert.
At 8 00 members and friends were received by
the President in the galleries of the Royal Institute of
Painters in Water Colours. The President was supported
by Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sit 1'. A. Abel. K.C.B.,
F.R.S., Mr. L.Mond, F.R.S., Mr. E. Rider Cook, Mr. E.
K. Muspratt, Colonel Gamble, Professors Campbell Brown,
Clowes, W. Foster, Henderson, and Ramsay, witli several
members of Council.
From 9 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. a capital selection of vocal and
instrumental music was performed under the direction of
Mr. .1 C. Butterfield, J'.I.C. l'.C.S.
The following programme was provided : —
i. "Strike che Lyre." . (
Messi Bai b Bryant, Campbell, and Butterfield.
"Nymphs vm' Shepherds." II. Para 11.
M ■ Ethel Winn.
S"l" (violin) .
(a. Rom ihce '
■■■'/,. "C iprice"
Mr. Percy Ould.
.ErsfcM.
!
Song.
"The Fi.i.iiii op Iges F. I:
w . . i: ,,ii\ Minim:.'.
"A i tiKO Song" Blumenthal.
Mr.Bdvvin t:>
- I'm S iiLOR Sighs .if. " B
Miss Emily Hinting and Mr. Kirkley Campbell.
)3 "NOVELLETTEN"
Messrs. Ould, ('. Zimmcniiaim. and Mi-s Adelaide Thomas.
Sons '"I'm Two Grenadiers ' Schumann!
Mr. J. C. Butterfield.
ig "Tine lluTiisi Land" Hatton.
Messrs. Barnby, Bryant, Campbell, and Butterfield.
Humorous Song.. "The Lai op the vert Lasi Minstrel."
Mr. Lovett King.
tM {"S-aSS«^ I "■■"■'"■
M -i . Barnby, Bryant, Campbell, and Butterfield.
Duet (i i ii 1 1 We- Two were Mating!"...^. U
Miss Emilj Hinting and Mr. J. C. Butterfield.
"Whes Love is Kind" Moore.
Miss Ethel Winn.
Solo (Pianoforte).." Rhapsodie Hongroise " (No. 8) Liszt.
Miss Adelaide Tbi
Song I : I < Dream" P. H. Coweii
Miss Emily Himing.
Song "ANNABEL!! I. II li.Lsslie.
Mr. Kirklej Campbell.
■I iMont " ]'■•
ili. ■ lann.
, ,, ! dial Fit mining.
"' IS, "LoVEtl Xi..iit Ckvntd.
"SnNSniNi ind Rain" Blumeniltal.
Mr. .1. i'. Hutti hi
..... "Tin: Poi i. \ ind the Choir Boy."
Mr. 1 i
SECOND DAY.— Thursday, July 21st.
The Visits to Works ox the Thames.
The members of the Society were conveyed by the
steamer "Mermaid" from Charing Cross Pier, in two
parties, one specially, so as to see other works, and the
second party to visit, first —
1. The Deptfosd Station of the London Electric
Supply Corporation.
The visitors were conducted round the work- or station
by Professor Fleming, F.K.S., the consulting electrician,
who explained all the details of the apparatus and process.
This great electric lighting station wa- designi d by
Mr. Ferrauti with the object of supplying a large area of the
Metropolis with alternating electric currents from a station
situated considerably outside the limits of the area to be
served. A site was selected by the Corporation on the
hanks of the Thames, not very far distant from Greenwich
Hospital, and here the station buildings were erected. The
building is a brick and stone structure, about 210 ft. long by
195 ft. in breadth. The engine and dynamo room is divided
into two bays, separated by a row of cast-iron columns. A
longitudinal girder is carried down both sides of each bay
ou the tops of these columns as well as ou the wall
buttresses, and support- the two large overhead travelling
cranes, each capable of lifting 50 tons. The roof.au iron
and glass structure, is inn ft. from the floor. The boiler-
room is designed to contain two tiers of Babcock and Wilcox
water-tube boilers. Of these the 24 boilers forming the
lower tier are already in place. At each end of the boiler-
room rises a smoke-stack, divided into four separate shafts
by partitions, and each batch of six boilers sends its furnace
gases into one quarter of the chimney. The height of the
shaft is 150 ft. The feed-water supply i- taken from a
large tank capable of holding 800,000 gallons of water. The
boilers are each nominally of 500 horse-power, and are
arranged in lour batches of six each. Beneath the boilers
is placed a forced draught engine to facilitate steam-
generation during sudden loads. A noteworthy feature of
the steam supply system is the multiple steam-pipe,
employed to obviate the lisks incurred by the use of single
Steam-piping of large diameter. Mr. Ferranti invented this
new safety steam-piping, and it consists of a knee pipe
formed of a bunch of smaller solid-drawn copper tubes.
At Deplford one multiple Ferranti pipe delivers steam to
a pair of 700 horse-power engines 130 ft. away from the
boilers, with a loss of not more than 5 per cent, of pressure.
All the steam-piping at the Deptford station is erected on
this system.
The steam-generating plant delivers steam to four engines,
two of 1,500 horse-power and two of 700 horse-power. They
are all compound Corliss engines. The fly-wheel of the
two smaller engines is 24 ft. in diameter and weighs 35
tons. It drives its associated dynamo by 17 ropes running
in grooves in the fly-wheel edge. The smaller engines an
horizontal ones, the larger ones, vertical engines, having a
fly-wheel 22 ft. in diameter and weighing 60 ten-. The
driving-power i- transmitted to the dynamo by 40 live-inch
ropes, running in grooves in the periphery of the fly-wheel.
The two 700 horse-power engines drive each a 625 horse-
power alternating-current dynamo, which generates current
at 2,400 volt-, and thi- pressure is raised to 10,000 wits by
means of step-up transformers. The fields are excited by
mean- of a Siemens direct-current dynamo, driven by rope
gearing from the dynamo-shaft, These exciters furnish
current at 100 volts up to 98 or 100 amperes, the maximum
exciting current required. The speed of the armature is
250 revolutions per minute. The two larger dynamos are
each of 1,250 horsepower, and generate current directly
at In, nun volts. In these machines an enormous grooved
pulley is the most striking feature. The armature is about
13 ft. in diameter. The exciting current is about 400
amperes at 50 volts. These armatures are driven at 208
revolutions a minute, and can furnish a maximum current
of Inn amperes at In. i volts, or sufficient to maintain
30,000 30- Watt lamps. The current is led out of one side
of the armature by a copper rod insulated in the interior of
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
570
the armature shafts by an ebonite tube. The other end of
the armature is in conducting connexion with the frame
of the machine. One pole of t lie machine is thus always
" to earth " and the other pole, or "live pole," is insulated
and sends current through the collector rings to the mains.
These mains run to the four distributing stations in London,
viz., Grosvenor, Trafalgar, Blackfriars, and I'imlico stations.
The approximate length of each main is six miles. The
object of i la "earthing" system above referred to, is to
prevent any sudden alteration of pressure on the inner or
live side of the main. If a dynamo has both poles insulated,
then assuming it to he giving a mean potential difference of
10,000 volts, each pole is alternately 5,000 volts above and
5,000 volts below the earth, in potential. If by any means
one pole of the dynamo is put to earth, the potential change
of the other pole will he altered, and will change from
10,00(1 volts above to 10,000 volts below the earth. Sudden
variations of pressure might thus take place over great
ranges due to accidental earthing of one side. This is
avoided by leaving one side permanently earthed.
In the sub-stations are [laced sets of the 150 horse-power
transformers, which can be connected as desired on the
high-tension side to one or other of the trunk mains which
enter the station. In these transformer chambers measuring
instruments show the current anil pressure on each side of
tin- transformers. The substations are fireproof chambers,
having channels in the Uoor to receive the incoming and
outgoing cables. The necessary switch gear is erected
against the walls and in the centre of the room.
To Professor Fleming indebtedness is due for the infor-
mation upon which the foregoing description is framed.
2. The Works os tiih Liniu: British Refrigerating
Co., Limited,
The visitors, in alternate parties, according to arrange-
ment, were shown over the works of this company a'
Shadwell, by the managing director, Mr. T. IS. Lightfoot,
Civ, who, with his representatives, courteously explained
to them the Linda lefrigerating process and its operation,
as illustrating a problem of chemical physics on a huge
scale successfully solved in the interests of trade industry.
The Linde ice-making plant consists of three parts, viz.,
the compressor, the condensor, and the ice generator, with
which is combined the refrigerator. The ammonia com-
pressor is a double-acting pump, an important feature of
which is the stuffing-box, which is specially constructed
SO as to prevent the escape of the ammonia vapour. In
the stuffing-box there are two systems of packing with a
space between them, and a small pump continually forces
a thin stream of oil over the piston-rod, which is thereby
kept perfectly as well as continuously lubricated. Thus,
leakage of ammonia is almost entirely avoided, and the value
of that which is lost is inappreciably small. To prevent any
of the sealing-liquid entering the condenser or refrigerator
coils, and so reducing their efficiency, a collecting vessel is
inserted in the delivery pipe from the compressor. The liquid
here collected is taken to a small rectifying apparatus, in
which the absorbed ammonia is separated from the oil, and
condensed into the suction pipe, whilst the rectified oil is
again used in the stuffing-box. Chemists like the use of
reliable colour indicators of the completion, or even con-
dition at certain states of a chemical reaction, and in the
present case of a physical process, a useful indicator is
found in the white coating of frost covering the suction
pipes. These suction pipes must always thus he covered,
and so he white, for correct working, whilst the delivery
pipes must he just hand-warm, these indicated criteria
testifying to proper economy in working the machinery.
The ammonia condenser consists of a number of wrought-
iron tubes, each welded into one single leugth. These
tubes are usually formed into helical coils of varying sizes,
placed one within the other in a cylindrical water-tank.
The compressed ammonia vapour enters these coils at tin-
top, and is condensed by the cooling action caused by the
circulation of cold water in the tank.
The liquid ammonia is then led hack to the refrigerator
through a regulating valve.
The ice generator adopted by the Linde Company consists
of a wrought-iron rectangular tank tilled with brine and
containing in its lower part the refrigerating coils, the ice
moulds being suspended in the brine. These moulds are
placed in suspended frames running on wheels upon
horizontal rails, and the frame-sy stems can be moved forwards
or backwards by suitable gearing. Moved forwards, the
moulds in their frames, arranged in parallel lines (one frame
of moulds succeeding another) — approach that end of the
tank at which the completely frozen moulds are taken out,
thus leaving a space at the opposite end of the tank where
the returned and empty moulds are re-charged with, the water
to be frozen, and can then reenter the refrigerating hath.
The process is thus continuous, and as regards the apparatus,
circulatory. When one row of moulds has reached the end
of the tank and is frozen up, it (the frame) is lifted from the
tank by means of a travelling crane and is for a brief period
lowered into a long narrow tank of warm water. Here the
ice becomes detached from the moulds, and on raising these
in their frame and tilting the latter, the blocks of ice slide
out upon a wooden platform. ( Inly one workman is required
for the whole of the water-charging and freezing operations.
lee produced from water without special precautions is
opaque more or less. To produce clear or " crystal " ice,
the water used must either be agitated during the freezing
process to expel all air, or distilled water must lie employed.
The latter is furnished at the Linde (' pain's works in the
boiler house, where an apparatus is at work for utilising the
exhaust steam from the engines, after being condensed and
filtered. The condeuser is of the surface type. In full
work about 60 tons of condensed water are produced per
24 hours.
The blocks of iee as furnished by the moulds weigh about
2 cwt. each for the larger set of moulds, and 1 cwt. each for
the smaller. The opaque ice in large blocks is chiefly
crushed, and in this condition the company sometimes
supplies to fishing-boats alone as much as 75 tons of
crushed ice per day.
The capacity of the plant is about 150 tons of ice in 24
hours, the equivalent of some 20 tons of which is used for
cooling air for cold storage.
3. The Union Oh. and Oil-cake .Mills, Limited.
After inspecting the Deptford Electric .Station and the
Linde lee Company's works, Shadwell, the visitors pro-
ceeded to the Globe Pier for the Union Oil and ( lake Mills,
Limited, at Rotherhithe, where they were met by the
director, Mr. Alan Lambert, who with his manager and
others, showed them the plant and processes. These pro-
cesses excited a great deal of attention and interest, and a
proportionately large share of gratitude is due to Mr Lam-
bert and his company for throwing open their doors so
unreservedly to the visitors.
The factory has been established for over SO years, and
is now capable of dealiug with from six to seven huudred
tous of seed per week. The processes include linseed and
cotton-seed crushing, oil-boiling and refining. The cotton
seed is imported from Egypt. The seed warehouses front
the River Thames, so that the seed is lauded direct from
the barges, and then distributed by hoists and elevators
to the several floors. In the warehouse there is storage
room for 1,5(10 to 2,000 tons of seed. The raw seed is
first passed through a set of chilled iron rollers, where
it is thoroughly broken up. It is then " picked up " by
elevators and passed into a kettle 'sufficiently heated to
allow of the oil being freely expressed in a subsequent
operation. The requisite quantity of meal to form a cake
is drawn from the kettle into a mould, from which it is
immediately passed into the hydraulic presses. The greater
part of the oil is thus expressed, leaving however a
sufficient residue in the meal to form a cake of the desired
composition. The sufficiently pressed cakes are now
removed, and after having their rough edges taken off by a
kind of shearing apparatus, they an- placed in racks to cool,
ami are then ready for the market.
Linseed Cake, as is well known, is the most valuable
artificial food for cattle.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
Cotton-seed Cuke is coining into increasing favour for
sheep and dairy farmers. These two articles further
I ess a hit high mannrial value, a point often overlooked
in estimating their value.
The oils, flowing from the presses, are pumped into large
tanks. ,,f which there i> a storage capacity for 501) tons.
\ ery different proportions of oil are obtained from the
two materials linseed and cotton seed, linseed furnishing
under the treatment sketched upwards of 40 per cent, of
oil, whilst cotton seed yields not more than from 24 to
25 per cent. It may also lie mentioned that besides the
lesser yield of oil from cotton seed, the trouble of difficult
and imperfect or rather wasteful decortication, andes] ialh
that of the colouring matter and tannin present, are a
constant source of worry to the cotton-oil extractor. The
tannin i- doubtless derived from the shells, and oil con
taining much of it, when stored in iron vessels, or otherwise
brought in contact with iron, is liable to turn a dark purple
colour i sec this Journal, 1885, 71!) — 721).
Boiled Oil. — The capacity of the plant for this product
is equal to an output of 100 to 120 tons per week. The
process is one of oxidation, for which each manufacturer
lias his own particular method, the chemical agents known
as " driers " being introduced, whilst the oil is meanwhile
raised to a high temperature.
Refined ( 'otten Oil. — The plant here is capable of turning
out 150 to 200 tons per week. The refining process
involves, broadly stated, the breaking up and removal of
the colouring matter contained in the crude oil, by means
of a treatment with alkali, followed by a settling process
(see this Journal, IH92, 619).
The crude oil, which is very dark owing to its containing
colouring and mucilaginous matters derived from the seed,
is filtered through rough filters made up of layers of
sawdust, cotton waste, and sacking, and transferred to vats
in which it is raised to a temperature of 100° F. An
aqueous solution of can-tie soda, of a strength of 16: R.,
is prepared, and some 4 or 5 per cent, of it allowed to
come in contact with the oil by distribution through a
sprinkler consisting of a pipe bent into the form of a circle
and disposed a few inches above the surface of the oil.
While the addition of the alkali is being made the oil is
agitated by means of a current of air, and full admixture
is thus obtained. The colouring matter and other im-
purities are soluble in caustic lye under these conditions.
It is owing to the treatment with caustic soda that cotton-
seed oil is. if freshlj refined, almost entirely free from fatty
acid, whereas other oils — like rape, for example — which
are refined by treatment with sulphuric acid, invariably
contain it in greater or less amount. There is no real
reason, other than the slight extra expense due in the first
case to the cost of alkali, and iu the second to the additional
shrinkage that the oil would undergo, why rape oil, whose
freedom from free fatty acid is important in regard to its
use in railway lamps, should not be washed with caustic
alkali after the regular refining process has been completed.
It i- also evident that a considerable economy might he
effected by substituting soda ash for caustic soda whenever
possible ; it seems reasonable to suppose that it would be
equally effective in removing free fatty acid, and it would
not tend to cause the partial saponification of the neutral
oil itself. The question of residuals in oil refining is of
importance, because when a refiner has to sell a residue
from the refining proces-. it is seldom that he can obtain
the market value calculated on the content of oily matter
that it possesses.
Erith was reached about 1.30 p.m., and here a sumptuous
lunch was given by < has. Beadle, Esq., at the wharf. A
vote of thanks for this generous hospitality was unanimously
accorded to Mr. Beadle. Mr. Tyrer then moved, and the
President warmly supported, a vote of thanks to the General
Secretary, Mr. Creswell, for his services in connection with
the meeting. One party then proceeded to the works of
Messrs. Easton and Anderson, and the other to the extensive
works of —
4. The Maxim-Xokukm-klih <ii\ v\i> AiniranuN
Company, Limited,
By the courtesy of the managing director. Captain H. D.
Acland, the members of the Society were enabled to inspect
the processes carried out in this remarkable factory, under
the guidance of the obliging superintendent, Mr. J. W.
Wainwright. But their very special thanks are also due to
Mr. Hiram Maxim, who kindly explained his remarkable
inventions to the visitors anil exhibited specimens of them.
The buildings ol tie- factory enclose an enormous space,
the main machinery block, measuring 400 ft. by 250 ft. ft
is divided into 14 bays of about "25 ft. span each, and in
this huge shop there are more than 700 machines of the
most modern pattern. The factory is divided into depart-
ments for gun building. shell, carriage, gun-fitting, sighting.
Nordenfelt machine guns and Maxim apparatus, the latter
being chiefly devoted to tlie Maxim guns. Outside the
shops is a furnace 50 ft. high, in which guns ate oil tem-
pered and hardened. Elsewhere are separate departments
for the manufacture of shells and fuses of all kinds, and
for the browning and annealing of shells, as also for the
browning and plating of the guns and their fittings. The
steel that i> used at Erith has a breaking strain of 40 tons
per square inch, with an elongation varying between 17 and
25 per cent, in a length of 2 in. It is interesting to note how
much of the work is done from the solid. There is a collec-
tion to be seen of all the forms of Maxim guns from the
tii-t to the latest and most improved, an interesting object-
lesson or study of one department of evolution. Con-
spicuous among the objects displayed iu the gun depart-
ment are arms of the larger calibres, fitted with the bcli-
eoidal breech mechanism lately introduced, and lending
itself to a greater rapidity of fire than is possible with the
old method. In the matterof functional capacity, the shops
can turnout 600 6-pounder Nordenfeldt guns per annum,
besides a number ranging up to 0-in. calibre, or from 700
to 1,000 Maxim guns of the English small-bore or Martini-
Henry rifle calibre. Shells can be supplied at the rate of
4,000 per week, and fuses to the extent of half a million per
annum.
The Maxim ;un tested by Government iu 18S7 was only
stipulated to fulfil the conditions that it was not to exceed
100 lb. in weight, was to fire 400 rounds in one miuute, 600
iu two, and 1,000 in four minutes. However, in a final test,
one of the guns tested fired off a maximum of 1,000 rounds
in one minute and a half ! To prevent overheating of the
weapon by such tapid firing, the barrel of the gun is
enclosed in a water-jacket. Even then it i- found that, after
600 consecutive rounds, the water begins to boil. This
water is in actual contact with the barrel for about two-
thirds of its length, and is automatically admitted from a
small cistern, into the barrel-casing, by the recoil of the
barrel, escaping eventually as steam at the end of the tube
near the muzzle of the gun. The gun lias a single barrel
arranged in such wise, that the slight recoil in its bearings
on firing acts on the feeding and firing gear, so as to load
and discharge the next round. Whilst the supply of cart-
ridges lasts therefore, the gun will fire round after round.
Simply by the force of the recoil the empty case i- extracted
and ejected, the next round brought into position, pus lied
home, and the gun cocked and then tired as the striker is
liberated. This automatic action renders it only necessary
to hold back the trigger, to continue the firing until all the
cartridges in the belt are exhausted. Thus the single man
in charge of the weapon can devote his whole attention to
aiming. A further point of the Maxim system is the fact
that the gun ceases to fire iu the event of a miss-tire.
Jamming is thus avoidable. The mechanism finally can
with ease be taken out, cleaned, and oiled by hand without
instruments. If necessary to abandon the gun, it i- also
possible to remove the breech-block containing nearlv the
whole of its mechanism, and carry it away off the field.
The function of the 6-pounder Nordenfelt quick-firing gun is
to pierce the unarmoured batteries or ends of vessels and
even to penetrate light armour plating.
It must be added that Mr. Maxim explained to the visitors
the mechanism of his remarkable guns, and himself illustrated
its perfections, by filing a great many rounds of blank
July .in. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
581
cartridge in an incredibly short space. of time. Iu answer to
a question by a visitor, Mr. Maxim said he knew no sub-
stance that could withstand the continued impact of even a
small 1 1 ■ ) • ■ j • of grease, fired from our of his guns. Be had
thus penetrated a plate of steel, and even one of platinum.
The historic collection of guns illustrating the different
stages in the development of the complete invention of the
Maxim gun as it now is, was also explained in an
interesting and racy manner by the distinguished inventor,
and he also referred to the event which fust suggested to his
mind the idea of utilising the recoil of a gun through the
reaction of a spring for discharging spent cartridge and
recharging the weapon. This was during the late American
war, when after repeatedly tiring a musket he found his
shoulder black and blue. He mentioned the idea of utilising
the recoil to his father, who discouraged it, but Maxim
persevered, with the results so well illustrated on this
present occasion.
Captain II. D. Acland furnished the following particulars
as t<> thr fulminates and explosive agents used for lusts,
shells. &c, in the Maxim-Nordenfell factory.
We are passing through a stage of transition, leaving
mechanically mixed and old-fashioned powders behind us,
and adopting chemical products which do the work required
with more certainty , economy, and efficiency. This change
will without doubt alter considerably the whole science of
artillery, and lead to corresponding and mechanical changes
in the nuns themselves. The fulminates used for fuses
eonsist of a mixture of fulminate of mercury, chlorate of
potash, ami sulphide of antimony in proportions determined
by a series of experiments according to the sensitiveness
required. Further experiments have then to be made to
determine the pressure to be applied to the compound to
form it into a cap of the necessary density without sacrificing
its sensitiveness.
The fuses are manufactured to -j-rr'irnth of an inch with
regard to their mechanical parts, are put together without
safety-pins or any other external protection against accident,
are absolutely safe to handle, and undergo all the rough
treatment in the services, and yet when fired are so sensitive
that the impact of a fj, in. metal plate will not fail to set
them in action and burst the shell.
The following powders are those we chiefly use : —
For shells, the strongest and best class of fine-grain
powders, and for gnus through the whole range of R. L. (i.
atal quick-firing orlj.F. powders, until we come to the
moulded or prismatic black and brown powders, whilst in
smokeless powders, after many trials, we find that Ballistite,
manufactured under Nobel's patents, of different sizes ot
grain and of different forms, has given by far the must
satisfactory results.
5. Messes. Easton and Anderson's Engineering
Works.
Besides possessing a most extensive ironworks, machine,
and guu factory at Erith, this firm has a process and
apparatus for the purification of water, iu which the scrap,
finely divided, or spongy iron may be usefully employed.
W. Anderson (Eng. Pat. 7665, May 13, 1884 ; this Journal,
1884, 529) patented this process in 1884. The water supply
of Antwerp is purified by it. The passage of the water
through the cistern or apparatus containing the finely
divided iron is continuous, and the meaus adopted for
ensuring the cleanliness of the metallic particles makes it
unnecessary to prolong the period of contact. Thus, the
maximum effect of purification on Antwerp water is pro-
duced in 3'5 minutes. The quantity of iron going into
solution amounts to 0-1 grain per gallon. More iron is
taken up by longer contact, but the purification is not
materially increased.
(I. 11. Ogston shows that the albuminoid ammonia in
waters is thus reduced to from one-half to one-third of the
amount originally present, and the nitrogenous matter
remaining behind entirely resists the further action of the
in. ii. Ogston has also shown that water so purified is
practically sterilised. As to the apparatus, a wrought-iron
revolving cylinder is used, and means of agitating or stirring
up the particles of metal are adopted, so that this metal
may continually, or frequently, suffer abrasion and so sur-
face cleansing. Operating with 15,000,000 gallons of water
per diem, the cost per million gallons is 9s. {Jd. ; also about
28 lb. of iron are used per million gallons of water purified.
For fuller details anil illustrations ste this Journal, 1885,
544 — 545. The visitors had now the advantage of a personal
inspection of the apparatus needed for this process, as well
as that of seeing an engineering works of such vast extent,
and possessing so many interesting examples of hydraulic
machinery, for which the firm is famous. In the foundries,
provision was made for running a special easting whilst the
visitors were present.
Tin: Dinner.
At 6.30 about 140 members and their friends left the
'"Mermaid," and adjourned to the ''Ship" at Greenwich
for the annual dinner.
The President, Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, F.R.S.,
occupied the Chair.
In proposing the first toast, " The Queen and the Royal
Family," the President said that Her Majesty hail in the
year gone by passed through one of the many sad ex-
periences of her somewhat chequered life. He was sure
that all present sympathised with her in that most recent
sorrow that had east a shadow on her later days, and would
delight in an opportunity of showing once more their
loyalty to her by expressing their wishes for her continued
health and happiness.
The toast having been loyally honoured, —
Mr. Ridfb Cook proposed "The Society of Chemical
Industry." In doing so he explained that he was taking
the part assigned to Sir Frederick Abel, who had telegraphed
that he was unable to attend in consequence of an attack of
neuralgia. He regretted Sir Frederick s absence on account
both of its cause and its effect, it being difficult to supply
the place of so accomplished an after-diuner speaker.
However, he accepted the responsibility which had been
cast upon him, partly because it would ill become him to
refuse any service which he could render to the Society, and
partly because the toast entrusted to him was one which he
could propose from the bottom of his heart. The Society
had now existed for eleven years, and had made a distinct
mark for the better upon the industry of the country. The
influence of its Journal alone had effected a vast amount of
good ; but he believed that the past record of the Society
was small as compared with what its future would be, if those
who were present not only drank to the toast, but tried to
work for the Society each in his own way. They had already
nearly 3,000 members, and there was no reason why that
number should not soon be doubled. Large numbers of the
manufacturers of this country were still jogging along in the
old-fashioned rule-of- thumb way, and had not thought of
calling to their aid all the resources of chemistry and
science. In proof of that he would mention that only last
autumn, while travelling, he happened upon a porcelain
factory of an interesting character, and sought per-
mission to see over it. Holding the positiou he did, he
ventured to ask that he might be shown over by the
chemist of the establishment. To his astonishment he
was told that they had " not got a chemist." The manager
explained that the reputation of the factory was so good
that they did not need such an assistant. Iu the course of
the inspection, he showed among other specimens kept iu
what was known as the " museum," a certain pot which he
said they had endeavoured to manufacture to meet German
competition, which specimen, however, was the only one
they had ever succeeded in getting of the exact colour
required. This gave him the opportunity of retorting " My
friend, you have advanced exactly the argument that I
should have wished to use to you in advising you to at
once start a laboratory aud become a member of the Society
of Chemical Industry. There is no such thing as chance
in dealing with substances and forces ; and if you had had
a chemist here he would in all probability have seized upon
the conditions which gave the colour you wanted in that
instance, and would have been able to reproduce it." While
:,8-2
THE JOURNAL Of THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1893.
that sort of thing unit on there was not only room for the
Society to exist but to expand j and if England was to hold
its own as a manufacturing country they must take care
that every manufacturer to whom chemical knowledge
would be of service was induced to open a laboratory and
bring science instead of rule of thu 1 1 1 • to bear upon his
work. Hariri"; saiil that there was room for the Society
to expand, he would take this opportunity of urging that the
time had come when they ought to have a bouse of their
own. He would like to see the money they had saved,
aided by some generous suhscriptions, devoted to that
purpose," and in that house he would like to see a room in
which could be exhibited diagrams, plans, models, &e. : and
in the house he would establish a registry office for the
purpose of bringing chemists who wanted situations into
connection with manufacturers who required chemists. Let
them with their eleven years of success hold up their beads
and go on. Let them get proper head-quarters, and make
use of them not only as a laboratory registry office, lint as
as a centre to which their country members could come and
make themselves comfortable. He was happy in the toast
entrusted to him, because he had to couple with it the name
of the President. Those who had had the privilege of
hearing the address he read yesterday, must have recognised
the fact that the Society was happy in having for its President
onetimes teachers and representatives of pure science and
sometimes manufacturers who were conducting their business
on scientific principles. In preparing that paper the President
seemed to have been carried away from the laboratory
and the lecture table and to speak from the point of view of a
manufacturer and a member of the Society. The paper itself
contained much that would set them all thinking; and it
would be strange if it did not result in many of them taking
out their old boilers and putting gasitiers in their places.
lie was glad to associate the name of Professor Emerson
Reynolds with the toast. He was sure they would drink it
with enthusiasm ; but he hoped that they would not be
content witli that, but would go away determined each one
to make the Society a greater one in the future than it was
that day.
The President, in responding, after thanking Mi. Cook
at.d the members present for the kind allusions to and
cordial n ption of himself, said that his chief duly was to
aeknow ledge heartily the response given to the toast of the
- t\ itself. The Society represented many great prin-
ciples, one of the most important id' which was the whole-
some principle of decentralisation. They had a general
body controlling the various Sections. Those Sections did
their work well, and each contributed to the sum total of
the- effect produced by the Society as a whole. Hut while
leaving each Section a certain amount of auton y,
they carried the principle of devolution a little further by
placing iu the hands of the Publication Committee the control
over matter to appear iu the Journal. His own experience bad
shown In in that the members of that ( lomnrittee did their duty
in the most thorough way. Hut the principle of devolution
..I carried further still. They hail admirable chairmen of
Sections in the general work of government ; they had
esc, II, nt secretaries of Sections who combined in the work
of government also. Hut while the principle of devolution
acted splendidly in those directions, it, like many other
good principles, broke down occasionally; and the par-
ticular way in which it seemed to him to break down was in
the selection of the President —speaking from his own
experience only for he considered that it had broken down
thoroughly in iiis own case. Put while it might be possible
for an individual President to lad, the Society itself never
did so, but was always ready I letohisaid. Mr. Cook
had given them from his own experience a remarkable
instance of the importance of a knowledge of chemistry in
connection with the porcelain manufacture, and that had
brought to his mind a similar and equally striking illustration.
lie happened on Oni casion to be iii the company of an
elderlj gentleman who was concerned in working a porcelain
manufactory. This gentleman, knowing that he had some-
thing to do with chemistry, began to talk in the usual way
about his business. He (Prof. Reynolds) commented
on tic beauty of many of his friend's products and par-
ticularly on 'that of a special glaze. His friend remaiked
that it had cost him a lot of money to produce it, and showed
great astonishment when he ( Prof. Reynolds) expressed his
surprise that it should have done so, as he presumed that
he had used a certain method which need not be an
expensive one. His friend said in astonishment, " How do
you know that ? It has cost me 20.000Z. to find out that
secret ! " To which of course he replied that he was sorry
to hear it, as he might have got it from him or almost any
chemist for In/. In illustrating the same point with greater
force, Mr. Rider Cook had thrown out a suggestion that
seemed to him a very practical one, namely, the idea of
extending the scope and usefulness of the Society. He
hoped that that suggestion would be realised. He would
not go further into the question then, but he might say that
the enthusiasm with which they had received the suggestion
gave him good reason to hope that Mr. Rider < ook's wishes
would be carried out.
Col. GAMBLE, in proposing the next toast, "Trade and
Commerce," said that he felt strongly that whoever under-
took to speak upon a matter which so closely affected
the hearths and homes of the members ought to be able
to say .something instructive upon the business of the
country, and he regretted therefore that it had not
been entrusted to a better qualified person, lie could not
say of himself, as it had been said of many, that when they
got into the troubles of pounds, shillings and pence they lost
their taste for scientific matters. He was as fond of chemistry
as anybody, but he found it difficult now to learn what was
new and to remember what lie had learnt, lie would not
attempt to say anything that might be construed into advice
as to what they should do in the future or comment upon
what had been done during the last 12 months in their
branch of the trade of the work]. His first knowledge of
chemical manufactures began 65 years ago. He did not
pretend that his chemical education began then, but at
that time he saw in his father's works the manufacture
of sulphuric acid as carried on by boys with iron spoons
and a mixture of nitrate of potash and sulphur. The
product was used for converting sulphate of alumina
into potash alum. That sulphuric acid was worth Is. Bd.
a pound in those days; he had known it since then to be
worth a great deal less than one farthing. At that time,
too, he bad seen common salt which had cost more than
302. a ton being weighed over by the exciseman as it was
put into the bleaching-powder still, where it was mixed with
manganese. The product of that decomposition was on the
one hand converted into sulphate of soda, which, he was
afraid, was sometimes sold as Epsom salts, and on the other
hand into bleaching powder of 21 per cent, of chlorine. This
latter was produced by spreading powdered lime upon
a wooden floor and inverting upon it a sheet-iron vessel of
about 12 ft. square and IS in. deep, so as to intermix the
chlorine and the dust. He believed it answered very well
for the bleaching-powder which was made in those days,
but it would not do now that they had to make it of 36 per
cent, strength. That bleaching-powder he bad seen sold
at Is. G</. a pound ; but he was sorry to say that he had
had to sell it at much below a penny per pound since. He
was a child ill those days and he was telling them what he
saw, not what he did. He had, however, made and -old
salt cake at 6/. per ton, and caustic soda at 20/. per ton,
and also at something like "I. He had passed through
these vicissitudes, but to have done so implied that old age,
which he must ask the members to take as an excuse for
his having nothing more interesting and instructive to say.
He was consoled to some extent by knowing that the
gentleman who was to respond to the toasl was free from
such complaints as he suffered from; at any rate such
illness a- he might have experienced had not prevented
him from keeping quite up to date in all matters relating
to chemical manufactures, lie was, iu fact, an example
of what a nc, facturing chemist ought to I.e. lie wished
that the toast le- had to give them had been " The Trade
and Commerce of this Empire ; " but he would follow
orders, for the trade and commerce of the whole world
was interesting to every man who believed in the progress
of his fellow creatures.
Mr. E. K. Mtst-KATT responded, and iu doing so remarked
that Mr. Tyrer had committed a mistake — the first in his
July 80, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
r.83
lii'i m asking two gentlemen of the same trade to propose
and respond to the same toast, for it was well known that
two of a trade never agree. lie was glad to say, however,
that the members of the alkali trade not only agreed but
had united, and lie hoped that the United Alkali Company
would do something to retain the commerce in chemical
products for this kingdom as against the world. There
could be no doubt that trade and commerce were intimately
related to chemistry, and that they were naturally dependent
one upon the other. If England was to retain its com-
mercial position it could only be by the application of
scientific knowledge to its industries. The very object of
the Society was to bring about a closer connection between
science and chemical industry, and it had already done very
much towards attaining that end. At the present moment,
owing to the Society's Journal, it was in the power of every
one connected with chemical industry to know what was
being done in other countries in that direction. Liebig had
said .50 years ago that the civilisation of the world might be
measured by the amount of soap consumed, and its industry
by the quantity of sulphuric acid produced. That was still
true to a great extent ; and he regretted to say that England
was not holding now the position it held 50 years ago in
relation to chemical industry. Englishmen had formidable
competitors, and the most formidable were the Germans,
the reason being that the Germans sooner than they had
recognised the necessity of scientific education. The United
Alkali Company recognised this fully, and were therefore
happy to have in their service members of the Society who
were among the most eminent technical chemists in the
world. They had erected at Widnes a very complete
chemical laboratory which would not only be worthy of the
great company to which it belonged, but would be an
example to all the other chemical industries of what should
be done if they were to hold their own in competition with
the test of the universe.
Mr. Lt/dwig Mond, in proposing " Our Visitors," said
that as the members were not only "industrious" but civil
chemists, he had no doubt that they would join most
heartily with him in drinking to the gentlemen who had
honoured the Society by their company that night. They
would do so the more heartily when he reminded them that
their visitors of to-night had in many cases been their hosts
throughout the day. Some of their hosts of the morning
were unfortunately unable to be present and had sent letters
expressing their deep regret thereat. Among these were
Mr. .Maxim, .Mr Wainwright, Capt. Acland, Dr. Anderson,
and Mr. Lambert, of the Union Oil Mills, all of whom he
was Mire they would include in the toast. The gentlemen
whose names he especially wished to associate with the
toast were Mr. Lightfoot of the Linde Pefrigerating Com-
pany, Mr. Charles lieadle, who had so sumptuously enter-
tained them at lunch that day, and his own personal friend,
Professor Eleming, who had so ably explained to them the
method by which London was, in future, to be lighted from
Deptford. It gave him special pleasure to couple Professor
Fleming's name with the toast because it gave him an
opportunity of expressing the admiration he felt for his
work generally, and more particularly for his excellent
treatise on the theory and practice of electric transformation,
a work which was highly valued, not only in England but
throughout Europe.
Professor Fleming, who responded, said that at that
late hour he felt inclined to imitate the example of a
brilliant after-dinner speaker who, when called on under
similar circumstances to reply to the toast of " Applied
Science " said that the only application of science which
seemed to him appropriate at the moment was the appli-
cation of the domestic lucifer to the bedroom candle. They .
might guess the author of the remark when he told them
that it called forth from a guest opposite, the lines : —
" O wise Sir Frederick, would that all could catch
Your striking brevity and find your match."
I lis duty was simple and he would do it as briefly as
possible. He and the friends whom he represented felt
deeply the hospitality that had been extended to them ;
such of them as had been in any degree instrumental in
adding to the pleasure of the Society during the day had
an additional reason for feeling pleased and gratified at
that moment. It had given him great pleasure to show the
members the works in which he was concerned, because he
felt sure that they took a deep interest in the question of
the application of electricity and fully recognised the
importance of the problems that still remained to be solved
conjointly by the chemist, the engineer, and the electrician.
Mr. Charles IIeadle expressed the pleasure which the
visit of the Society to Erith had given him. As an " out-
sider " he had the utmost admiration for the work which
the Society was doing and for the marvellous improvements
which the science it represented was effecting in all direc-
tions.
Mr. W. Thorp proposed " The Press." He was sure
that all the members of the Society felt grateful to the press
for the services it rendered to science and industry. The
days when it was looked upon with the feelings of suspicion
which were pourtrayed in Sir Walter Scott's " Ivanhoe " had
entirely passed away, and the press-man was now welcome
everywhere, and nowhere more' so than in the scientific
world. The Society's Journal was a new departure in
scientific work, a sort of daughter of the Chemical Society's
Journal, dealing as efficiently with technological matters as
the older journal did with questions of pure chemistry.
For that good work they were greatly indebted to their able
editor, Mr. Watson Smith, whose name he had great
pleasure in coupling with the toast.
Mr. Watson Smith, in replying, said that the absence of
the usual representatives of the press that evening enabled
him to speak in terms of unstinted praise of the kindness,
consideration and courtesy that had always been extended
to him as editor of the Society's Journal by the gentlemen
connected with other chemical journals in this and other
countries. Mr. Muspratt had referred to German compe-
tition ; but he thought be might say that at any rate so far
as technological and patent literature were concerned the
Journal of the Society held its own with German or any
other similar productions. Among other friends and
colleagues of the scientific press he would like to refer to
were Mr. George E. Davis, the first general secretary of the
Society and now editor of the Chemical Trade Journal ; to
Dr. Krause of the Chemiker Zeitung; Dr. Quesneville,
Dr. H. Kast, Professor Itemseu, Mr. Cawley, Mr. Perry
Nursey, Dr. Paul, Drs. Lehne, Jacobsen, and Fischer, and
the editors of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, the
Chemist and Druggist, with many more, to all of whom he was
indebted in one way or another. He could not conclude with-
out referring to his friend the general secretary, Mr. Charles
G. Cresswell, to whose ever ready help and sympathy he was
much indebted. Nor would he omit one other duty that
he felt he had never adequately discharged before, namely,
to express his gratitude to the admirable staff of abstractors
to whom the Society generally and himself in particular
owed so much. He was only representing the wishes of all
his colleagues in returning sincere thanks for the kind
sentiments expressed by Mr. Thorp in proposing the toast.
The President claimed the indulgence of the meeting
while he discharged a further pleasant duty, namely, to
propose a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Tyrer for the
extraordinary care that he had taken of them and for
the enormous amount of work that he had undertaken, not
only on behalf of the Society at large as Chairman of the
London Section and Member of Council, but in connection
with the present General Meeting. No one could have gone
through the programme without noting the vast amount of
thought which was compressed into an extremely small
compass. The proceedings so far had gone as smoothly as
they possibly could, and that was owing primarily to the
Organising Committee of the London Section, but especially
to the chairman of that committee.
The toast having been drunk with great enthusiasm and
musical honours —
Mr. Thomas Tyrer briefly responded, and in doing so
referred to the gratification which it afforded the London
Section to make such return as it could for the splendid
hospitality which had been extended to its members by
other Sections, notably at Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool,
584
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRT. [July so. 1892.
Nottingham, and last, but not least, at Dublin, the home of
their President. Referring to the remarks which had fallen
from the President early in the evening, he would poinl out
that it was in that Society that the lull advantages of Home
Rule under Imperial control wen- realised. Changes of
rulers occurred, but there was a consistent continuity of
policy, and the evidence adduced by the President, Mr.
Thorp, and the Editor clearly showed that the Society was
what he had always held it to be, a great Federation of
Powers all working to'one end. They had the entire British-
Qg world in association with them, as was proved by
i In Fact that their membership included nearly 300 Americans
ami a very large number of Europeans of all nationalities.
The pleasures of the evening were greatly enhanced by
a selection of vocal music tastefully rendered by Messrs.
Iiutterfield and ( lampbell, Mr. Tyrer kindly assisting them
as accompanist.
THIRD DAY.— Friday. .Tri.v 22nd.
Windsor and Clieveden Excursion.
A special train from Paddington (Great Western Railway)
at 9.50 a.m. conveyed a large party of visitors to Windsor.
On arrival, the company proceeded to visit the Royal State
apartments and Round Tower at Windsor Castle," opened
to the Society by permission of the Lord Chamberlain.
About 12 o'clock the visitors entered, and indeed well
filled St. George's Chapel, when a recital was given on the
grand organ by li. M. Ackermann, Esq., the deputy
organist, by permission of Dr. Walter Parratt, organist of
the Royal < 'Impels.
Programme or Mrsic.
Overture in C Adams.
Canralene in V> minor Guibnant.
Toccata and Fugue in I) minor "Bach.
Andante in D Silas.
The Nun's Hymn Wely.
Finale in D Lemmt
Luncheon was provided at 1 p.m. in the Town Hall,
kindly granted the Society for this purpose by the
Worshipful the Mayor of Windsor, .1. lirown, Esq.", who
joined them as their guest on this occasion. After luncheon
the Royal Stables beyond the Town Hall were inspected.
At 2.40 p.m. the visitors embarked at the quay in steam
launches (provided by Mr. J. Douglas, of Windsor) for
Clieveden, the seat of the Duke of Westminster, and so
famous for its magnificent woods. Tea was provided at 5.30
:ii the " ( ottage," ami about G.30 the steam launches com-
menced the return journey, conveying the visitors to
Maidenhead Bridge for Taplow Station, whence a special
train started with them about 8.30 p.m. for Paddington, thus
terminating one of the most enjoyable annual excursions
tin' Society has yet seen.
It would be ungrateful in connexion with this excursion
to forget the valuable assistance rendered in the arrange-
ments, ami the carrying of them out. by Mr. G. Sainty,
engineer to the Corporation waterworks.
aonrjon .taction.
Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House,
Chairman : Wm. Thorp.
Vice-Chairman : W. Crowder.
C. F. Cross.
A. G. Grei n.
D. Howard.
i !. C. Hutchinson.
W. K. -liner.
It. E. It. Newlands.
\V. Ramsay.
Commit fee:
F. «. A, lair Roberts.
A. Gordon Salamon.
G.N. Sink,...
F. Napier Sutton.
T. ]•;. Thorpe.
T. Tyrer.
Frank Wilson.
Hon. Local Secrctin-ir : John Heron,
Ellerdale, Cottenham Park, Wimbledon.
Meeting held Monday, 13/A June 1892.
MR. TIKIS. TYKER IN THE CHAIR.
THE PRODUCTION < >F OIL-GAS FROM RUSSIAN
PETROLEUM.
BY VIVIAN B. LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Ix April 1884 Professor II. E. Armstrong read a paper on
the " Manufacture of Gas from Oil," which was perhaps
one of the most suggestive and interesting papers ever
brought before this Society, as besides the description of
plant and processes, he also touched upon many points
bearing on the genesis of the gaseous and more volatile
hydrocarbons produced during the decomposition of the
heavier hydrocarbons forming our oils, and in the con-
cluding paragraph of that paper he proposed to consider in
a future communication the composition of oil-gas and the
temperature at which decomposition is effected. Eight
years have now elapsed, and the subject, which was then of
great theoretical interest, has now become one of the
greatest practical importance, as the increase in the price of
cannel coal has driven the gas managers of tbe country to
the serious consideration of how best to utilise the cheaper
oils for the enrichment of ordinary coal-gas of low
illuminating power, and until our knowledge of the changes
taking place during the conversion of liquid into gaseous
hydrocarbons is considerably increased, the attempt- to
utilise oil in place of cannel must to a great extent partake
of the character of haphazard experiments which may or
may not prove successful, and it is under these conditions
that I venture to bring this paper before you, hoping that
it may prove to be a link in the evidence concerning this
important subject.
In the paper before referred to, Professor Armstrong
gives the result of his analyses of the liquid deposited from
oil-gas under pressure which show it to be rich in such
beuzenoid hydrocarbons as benzene and toluene mixed with
hydrocarbons of the C»H«» and C„U.2n— = series, an
observation of great interest, as it shows that the vapours
of these compounds are present in the uncompressed oil-
gas ; but inasmuch as the deposition of nearly a gallon of
these liquid hydrocarbons from 1,000 cubic feet of the gas
only reduces its illuminating value from between 50 and 60
candle-power to 40, it is evidently important to gain an
insight into the nature of the hydrocarbons present not only
in the gas but also in the tarry residues which distil over
during the decomposition, whilst in order to trace the
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
585
decompositions taking place it is necessary to examine the
products Formed at lower temperatures than those usually
employed in the manufacture of oil gas.
In order to carry out the destructive distillation of the
oil For the earlier of those experiments I employed an iron
retort in in. long and 4 in, in diameter, the month of which
was closed by a flat iron ilisc Hanged on to it, and secured
by holts. Through the front disc passed the oil supply
pipe which led to within half an inch of the back of the
retort, whilst the gas was led away by a pipe passing
upwards from close to the month of the retort, to the vessel
in which the residue was condensed.
The furnace in which the retort was set, and also the disc
on front of retort, were provided with sight holes through
which the temperature of the side and interior of the retort
iiiiil.l he observed, whilst the retort itself was packed with
coarse iron turnings to give as large a heating surface as
possible,
The gases were led into small 10 cub. ft. gasometers, and
were analysed directly they were cold.
The method of analysis used for the gases was the one
described by me before this Society in April 1891. Carbon
dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen being first absorbed by
a SO per cent, sodic-hydrate solution; oxygen by alkaline
pyrogallate, and then the unsaturated hydrocarbons were
estimated by absorption with a solution of bromine in
potassic bromide. After absorption of bromine vapour the
carbon monoxide is absorbed by acid cuprous chloride, and
tin- residual gas is allowed to stand over prepared paraffin
oil with occasional agitation for at least 30 minutes so as to
absorb the higher members of the paraffin series, ethane,
butane, &c, and the remaining gas is exploded with oxygen
in order to estimate the remaining saturated hydrocarbons,
and hydrogen and nitrogen are estimated in the usual way.
In the tahles the hydrocarbons are given as saturated
and unsaturated, my experience being that at present it is
absolutely impossible to attempt any subdivision of these
hndies, and that where it has been attempted the results are
most misleading.
Tin- illuminating value of the gases was determined in an
Evans photometer, the burner, pressure, and rate of flow
liciiig carefully regulated to suit the quality of gas and
give the most perfect flame, the results being then calculated
to a consumption of five ce.bic feet per hour. With this
exception the testings and corrections were all made according
to the Gas Referees' instructions, standard candles being
used as the unit of light, and in order to render the total
illuminating power obtained from the oil clearer, the candle
power is also calculated to candle units per gallon of oil
used, and their equivalent in grains of sperm.
The form of apparatus used did not lend itself to direct
pyrometric determination of the temperatures employed,
and these were judged on the basis of l'ouillet's experi-
ments : —
Table of Temperatures. (Pouillet.)
Incipient red
Dull red
Incipient cherry.
Cherry red
Clear cherry
The oil experimented with was the so-called " Russian
distillate oil," a once-refined Russian petroleum which is
being used on a very large scale for carburetting water-gas
at the Gas Light and Coke Company's works at Beckton,
and the results are contained in the following table : —
Table I.
Oil used Russian "distillate oil."
Specific gravity O'SOl
Flash point HSi0 F. = 65" C.
525
977
7un
1,292
sill
1.172
Him
1,652
1,000
1,832
Temperature of retort
.vin C.
7110 C.
'.nnV 1*.
1.000° c
Cubic feet of gas per gallon .
12
00
72
8t
Percentage of residuals
.-,!!• 1
22 * 7
12-7
11-S
Illuminating power : —
In candle power, per 5 e.f.
.-, 1 ■ s
SO '7
.17-1
42*2
In candles per gallon ol
131-5
608' 1
M22-2
70S-H
In grains of sperm per
gallon.
The gas contains : —
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
15,782- I
Per
Cent.
89-13
73,008-0
Per
Cent.
36:56
98,668*8
Per
Cent.
30-55
85,075-2
Per
Cent.
22-111
Saturated hydrocarbons. . .
12 -u
49-45
53-07
54-83
13-58
0'052
0-20
ii-iisi
11-86
n-:;s
21-51
o-io
Distilling Points of hie Residues from Russian "Distillate Oil," Expressed in Percentages of
Original Residue. Temp. = °C.
Temperature.
100°—
110".
110°—
1211 .
121) —
125 .
125°-
1311°.
1S0°-
135°.
135°-
110'.
14(1°—
150°.
150°—
160°.
ion0—
170°.
170°-
180°.
180°—
190.°
190°—
2110".
Specific
Gravity.
Flash Toint.
1-6
5
9
3-3
1
3-3
5
1- 25
33
4
9-5
c-o
10
3-5
5
1
0-5
1-5
o-o
2-5
1
2-5
3-5
5
o
1
3
S
Nil
1-5
2
2
1
0-861
0-866
0-908
ll ".120
1-019
F.
19°
Residue afteer decom-
posing :it —
58°
700° C
Below 32:
Below 32-
40°
In ill-composing the oil at 500^ C, the gas was small in
quantity and white in colour, the hydrocarbons being
present almost eutirely as vapours, a large proportion of
which went forward with the gas and condensed in the
bolder, so that the 59 per cent, of residuals condensed
in the receiver do not represent the total condensible
hydrocarbons.
After condensation of the vapours, the gas only amounted
in J3 cubic feet, and contained the saturated and unsatu-
rated hydrocarbons in nearly equal proportions, whilst on
examining the tarry residuals it was found that the flash
point was considerably lower than that of the original oil,
and also that 11 per cent, distilled over below 200° C,
whilst with the original oil only 3-5 came over below that
temperature.
The retort and pipes were then cleaned and heated to
700° C, and on decomposing the oil at this temperature
the yield of gas was increased to CO cubic feet per gallon
586
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
of oil used, and was of a buff colour, hi the pas the
unsaturated hydrocarbons were 2- 5 per cent, hss in quantity
than in the former case, and there were 7 per cent, more
saturated hydrocarbons. On examining the residuals, the
effect of the increase in temperature was found to be most
arked, they bad decreased in quantity from 59 '1 per
ent. to 22 ■" per cent, of the original oil decomposed,
whilst the Hash point had fallen below the freezing point,
and 36-5 per cent, of the residual distilled below 200 C.
Nine per cent, of the residual distilled at 123' to 1 21 5 C,
whilst 9-5 per cent, distilled at a temperature of 140 I . to
150 C. At 900 C. the decomposition of the oil yielded
a still larger volume of gas, in which the percentage of
unsaturated hydrocarbons was the same as before, but
there was a large increase in the quantity of saturated
hydrocarbons and a slight increase also in the illuminating
value of the gas.
The residuals at this temperature fell to 12" 7 per cent,
of the oil used, and on fractionating them more than a per
cent, distilled at 100° C, and 5 per cent, at a little over
110° C.
On now raising the temperature to 1,000° C. another
increase took place in the volume of the gas, 84 cub. ft.
being obtained per gallon of oil decomposed, and the
illuminating power fell from 57 to 42. On analysing the
gas it was found that the percentage of saturated hydro-
carbons had slightly increased, whilst the percentage of
hydrogen had risen from 11 -86 to 21 "54 percent.; on the
other hand, the unsaturated hydrocarbons had fallen from
36 -5 to 22 per cent. The colour of the gas as it left the
retort had lost its rich chocolate brown colour and had
become " sooty " from separation of carbon, and this, as
well as the increase in hydrogen, showed that the tempera-
ture had been forced to a point at which some of the
hydrocarbons were entirely broken up, and that it has been
the unsaturated hydrocarbons which have been destroyed.
'1 he residuals collected from the gas made at this tem-
perature were of nearly the same volume as those obtained
by decomposing the oil at 800° C, but differed from it in
containing nothing with a lower boiling point than Mil ('.
to 150° C.
In these experiments the results, as far as yield of gas
and total illuminating value were concerned, were con-
siderably lower than the results I had obtained when
decomposing the same oil in larger retorts, and I therefore
made some further experiments to see how far the surface
in the retort affected the changes taking place.
For one experiment a retort was made by taking an iron
tube 4 ft. 6 in. in length ami 2 in. in diameter closed at
one end, and with an oil tube passing down tin- centre anil
terminating about 1 in. from the closed end, whilst the gas
was led away from the other. For the second experiment
a Patterson's oil retort 3 ft. 6 in. loDg and 9| in. in diameter,
with two oil tubes passing to the back, was employed, and a
temperature of 900D C. was used in each case.
In this way it was possible to tind out the conditions
under which the oil could be decomposed to the best
advantage, as the experiments already described gave the
cracking of the hydrocarbons with very little heating of the
gases after their formation, whilst the long, 2 in. in
diameter, tube retort gives an excess of heating by contact
with the red-hot side of the tube, and the large round
retort on account of its capacity enables us to trace the
effect of less contact with the sides of the retort, but a
longer baking in mass of the oil gases and vapours.
The results obtained are given in the following table in
which also, for the sake of contrast, the results obtained
in the short four-inch retort at 900 C. are also embodied : —
Table II.
The effect of size of retort upon the resulting gas and
residue oil used — Russian "distillate oil."
A.
B.
c.
1 in" < V
t'6" ■ '_"
3't;"x!U"
900 c
lino" 1'.
! i'.
72
W
98
12:7
1S-3
2IK2
Illuminating Value.
In candle power per 5 cubic feet
57-1
WO
49-0
s-,'2-2
846-4
H72-1
In grains of sperm per gallon
98,668-8
101,563-0
116,659-2
Composition of the Gas.
36-53
29-79
..; IG
63 "97
02-30
15-15
irSG
1-70
19-65
Distilling Points of the Residues obtained from the various Retorts in Percentages of
original p.ksi1u 1 1.
—
60°—
711 .
70°—
80°.
80 -
90°—
inn-'.
100°—
110°.
mi —
123°.
i2ir—
130°.
130=—
140°.
140D—
150 .
150 -
160°.
100°—
200°.
Flash Point.
Specific
Grai n.v.
B
,V0
8' 1
7-8
6-0
2-2
IT,
4-0
8-1
.VII
2'5
3-5
6-0
2-5
3-3
B-3
2-5
15-8
8-6
4-11
0-8
5-0
1-0
1-2
11-6
4'6
rn
1
1 Below ordinary
)- temperatures.
r 0-926
-i 0-980
I l'liu
Russian petroleum is widely different from the Peunsyl-
vanian product and has been shown by the researches of
Schutzenberger, Ionine, .Markownikoff, and Oglobini to
consist largely of hydrocarbons of CnH2» group — pseudo-
olefines or naphthenes, and with the exception of C13H\,6, a
complete scries from CSH16 to Ci5H;il, have been separated
from it.
When this oil is first cracked by contact with a heated
surface it decomposes, yielding both saturated and un-
saturated hydrocarbons, the latter containing homologues of
acetylene ; some of these hydrocarbons are gaseous, whilst
the remainder vary in their boiling point from 60 C. to
very high temperatures.
It is evident that an insight into the changes taking place
in the character of the hydrocarbons present can be best
arrived at by studying the action of heat upon the simpler
members of the chief groups of hydrocarbons, and this 1
have done in an extended series of experiments, the full
details of which I hope shortly to bring before the ( Ihemieal
Society.
From these experiments I rind that on heating ethylene
by passing through a heated narrow tube nothing happens
until a temperature of 800° C. is reached and then that
between 800° C. and 900" C. it breaks up into acetylene and
methane, probably according to the formula —
3 (C2H4) = 2 (C.,H.:) + 2 (CH4)
if the beat is kept acting upon these, the acetylene polyme-
rises to benzene, which can be condensed from the gas and
identified— 3 (C2HS) = C6H0.
July so, im] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
587
If the heat be now continued and raised to about 1,000° C,
Further polymerisation takes place with formation of still
higher bodies, amongst which crystals of naphthalene are
conspicuous, whilst at 1,100° C, these again break down
to acetylene which then decomposes into carbon and
hydrogen.
Methane, when heated to 900° C, practically undergoes no
change, but ethane at this temperature gives up hydrogen
and becomes ethylene, CjH6 = CUI, + 1L, the ethylene
so formed again decomposing into acetylene and methane.
Dr. Armstrong, in the paper which 1 have before alluded
to. raises the question of whether the benzenoid hydrocarbons
Found in the liquid condensed by pressure from the gas,
have been formed synthetically from simpler hydrocarbons
such as acetylene, or from corresponding paraffins which
have lost hydrogen, and he points out that although the
work of Berthelot and Thorpe and Dyson show conclusively
that benzene can be formed synthetically from acetylene,
yet the absence of this body and its bomologues from the
liquid deposited on compressing oil-gas, leads him to doubt
this being the method by which it is formed during the
decomposition of oil.
From my own experiments I have but little doubt that
the formation of benzene from the Russian petroleum is
due not to one action but to several. In the first place all
experimental evidence clearly shows that benzene is formed
from acetylene by polymerisation, and that this takes place
at temperatures existing in the oil-gas retort, but it is not
c mceivable that this action can do more than contribute its
share to the 20 per cent, of benzene to be found in some of
tlie oil-gas tar from the Russian oil. Then again, when the
original oil is decomposed, large quantities of the higher
paraffins are formed, and these by elimination of hydrogen
may yield benzene, and finally the higher pseudo defines of
which the Russian oil itself consists, probably partly break
down directly to benzene and paraffins in the same way that
the simplest member of the group (C2H4) yields acetylene
and marsh-gas.
The ease with which benzene can be obtained from
Russian petroleum is shown by the fact that not far from
Novogorod it is manufactured on a very large scale by
Messrs. riagosin aud Co., who obtain, according to Dr.
Dvorkovitch, 400 kilos, of 50 per cent, benzene aud 30 per
cent, of anthracene from 1,000 kilos, of oil.
In decomposing oil in retorts two distinct periods of
decomposition take place, first the breaking up of the oils
under the influence of heat, aud secondly the changes taking
piace in the first-formed products during their passage up
the heated retort.
Au examination of the constituents of the gases formed
during decomposition at a low heat in the short retort,
conditions which practically eliminate the secondary action,
gives a valuable indication of what is taking place, and we
find that in the gas made at 500° C, the saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons are in nearly equal proportions,
but that as the temperature rises the unsaturated hydro-
carbons gradually decrease in quantity whilst the saturated
hydrocarbons increase, as although the higher paraffins are
broken down by the heat they form methane, which is but
little acted upon, and also hydrogen, and it is this breaking
down of the richer hydrocarbons into a larger volume of
simpler ones which gives the great increase in volume found
at high temperatures and the consequent loss in illuminating
value.
On examining the residuals obtained by " cracking " the
oil iu the large Patterson retort it was found that the
original tar had a specific gravity of 0-944, and on frac-
tionally distilling it there were found certain temperatures
at which a far higher proportion came over than at others.
This can be showu best by taking the temperatures at the
ordinate and percentages at the abscissa' of the following
diagram.
This diagram shows, or at least strongly suggests, that
the large proportion of paraffins present in the portion
distilling between 60° and 150° C. consist of normal hexane
and hexylene which boil at 68" to 71 '5°, heptane and
heptylene boiling at 99 C, and nonane, which boils at from
136° to 138" C, whilst benzene is responsible for the large
distillate at So ('.
Tkmi'Ekature.
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 ISO
15
14
|
13
. 12
M 11
a !u
*S 9
be 8
§ 7
\
S 6
/
\
/
i
5
\
/
4
\
/
3
\
/
2
- --- ■
]
'
In order to determine the proportion of saturated aud
unsaturated hydrocarbons present, the distillates below
100° C. were mixed together and treated with diluted nitric
acid (half acid to half water), keeping the temperature low
until action ceases ; this converts the olenites into resinoid
bodies, from which the paraffins and benzene separate;
these were then drawn off, treated with strongest nitric acid
and strong sulphuric acid to convert the benzene into nitro-
benssol, this was then well washed, dried, aud distilled, the
result being : —
Per Cent,
defines 70
Benzene Ill
Paraffins 11
The fractions distilling between 100 to 150' C. had a
specific gravity of 0-809, and gave : —
Per Cent.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons la
Saturated hydrocarbons SI
from 150" to 260° C, sp. gr. = 0-956 :—
Unsaturated hydrocarbons 2u
Saturated hydrocarbons so
from 260" to 315° C, sp. gr. = 1-002 ;—
Unsaturated hydrocarbons 1-J
Sal urated hydrocarbons 88
showing that the higher the distilling point aud specific
gravity of the fraction, the greater is the percentage of
saturated hydrocarbons, whilst in the most volatile portion
of the residue the unsaturated hydrocarbons preponderate.
During the fractional distillation of the tar, large
quantities of naphthalene volatilised aud condensed in the
neck of the retort.
The observations of Atterbcrg and of Lcnty, who
employed a large surface of carbon in the cracking of oils,
as well as the work of Salzmann and Wichelhaus in the
same direction, point to the surface of the coke, or other
form of carbon used, exercising an important influence
upon the products of decomposition.
In order to ascertain if any such action could be detected
I took two iron tube retorts 4 ft. 6 in. long aud 2 in. iu
diameter, witlt oil tube passing down to within an inch of
the closed end ; one was [lacked with small pieces of coke
the size of peas whilst the other had nothing in it.
686
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 181)2.
These retorts were now fixed side by side in the same
furnace, and were heated to a temperature of 900!' C, and
1 1n results obtained are embodied in Table III.
These results certainly do not encourage the idea of
surface action playing a very important part in the cracking
of such hydrocarbons as constitute the Russian petroleums.
and the small increase in illuminating power would certainly
not compensate for the increased risk of choking in the
retort and the large addition to the amount of naphthalene
formed.
The increase in naphthalene is very marked, and this
same fact was observed by Atterberg (Her. 1878, 1222), who
passed wood tar through iron tubes packed with coke. At
a dull red heat little or no naphthalene was found, but at a
bright red heat it was present in large quantities in the
residuals.
In all experiments upon the decomposition of Russian
petroleum and in making oil-gas from it on a large scale,
great trouble is found in the ready deposition of carbon and
pitch which seems to form from it more readily than from
shale and American oils, and I imagine that it is upon this
that the formation of so large a proportion of saturated
hydrocarbons in the iesiduals depends, as without it one
could hardly imagine the residuals from an oil consisting
chiefly of members of the C«lh« group containing 70 to
S8 per cent, in the portion distilling above 100° C. of the
C« 11;,,+ „ series.
Table III.
Effect of Decomposing Oil in Presence of Red Hot
l ' uuson.
Oil used Russian "distillate oil."
Specific gravity 0'86i
Flashpoint 140' P.
I
Temperature
Cubic fuel of Lr;h per gallon ..
Percentage of residuals
Illuminating value :—
Candle power per •". cub. it.
Candles per gnllun of oil . .
Grains of sperm per gallon
The ^as contains
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons . .
Hydrogen
Without
Carbon.
With
Carbon.
900' C.
900 C.
92
92
13-3
23-3
4U-0
47-11
SIC 1
866-8
101,568
lui.Ols- l
29-79
29-69
62-80
58-66
1-7!)
TBI
Distilling Points of the Residues from Russian " Distillate Oil," decomposed with and without Caishdn
Percentages of Original Residue.
Without Carbon.
Temperature -" l '
7"
mi .
80°—
90 .
90°-
100 .
100°—
11(1 .
111)"—
12') .
120
130°.
130°—
140".
no -
l.Vl .
130"—
Mil'.
I'll)
17" .
170
ISO0.
180
100°.
Specific
Gravity.
Flash
Point,
|
6
1
2-6
2'5
2-5
■CO
1
5
1
0
1
2
0-09
Residue after decoin*
posing at B00 ' U.
B.O.T.
With Carbon.
(tesidtfe after decom-
posing at 800° C.
1
2-5
5
2
7
2-5
Naphthalene came off and choked the tub3
0-99
B.O.T,
When cracking the Russian oil by itself the best results
obtained were 98 cub. ft. of 48 G candle-power gas, equal
to 972-1 candles per gallon of oil, and this agrees very well
with the best results obtained in working in this way on a
big scale, but when the Russian "distillate" oil is decom-
posed in the presence of an inert gas, and is then exposed
to a high temperature for some time, a considerable increase
in the total amount of illuminating power obtainable from
the oil is observed. At Beckton this oil is used on a very
large scale for making carburetted water-gas, according to
the improved Lowe system, in which the oil is decomposed
in superheating chambers in presence of a rapid flow of
water-gas, which dilutes the nascent oil-gas and bears it
through a mass of red hot brickwork, which converts any
vapours into permanent gases, and the illuminating power
then obtained and the volume of the gas formed is con-
siderably higher, 1,200 candles per gallon of oil being
obtained instead of 972, an increase of over 23 per cent. ;
and this is due partly to the diluting influence of the water-
gas, which prevents the decomposition going too far, and
also to the breaking up of the benzene which otherwise
would have found its way into the residuals. An analysis
of the tar obtained from the carburetted water-gas plant at
Beckton, and which was given in a paper read by Messrs.
Paddon and Gouldei i at the May meeting of the Incorporated
Institution of Gas Engineers, shows that it contains over
76 per cent, of water, and on removing this only 1*19 per
cent, of benzene was found it) the concentrated residue.
In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to my
assistants for the great help they have given me in these
experiments.
Discussion.
Mr. T. I-'airley said that he had not any practical
experience iu the matter of oil-gas, but he had considerable
experience with ordinary coal-gas. He would like to ask
Professor Lewes if his notes supplied any information with
regard to the rate of flow of the oil into the retorts, coupled
with the amount of heating surface, and the temperature;
also whether experiments had been made to ascertain the
effect of varying the pressure in the retorts, as the products
obtained would probably vary with the pressure. If the
experiments were made under the ordinary conditions in
the coal-gas manufacture, the pressure in the retorts would
be nearly equal to or slightly less than that of the
atmosphere.
Mr. W visci\ Sin tii, referring to the question of acetylene
passing into benzene, and the latter, when heated to a high
temperature, being converted into naphthalene, would like
to ask the author of the paper if it was a well proved fact
that benzene does, on heating to a high temperature, decom-
pose so as to form naphthalene. He had always found
that benzene when passed through even red-hot tubes,
decomposed but slightly, and that slight decomposition
was such as to yield hydrogen gas and diphenyl. It might
be possible, however, that benzene, together with some
unsaturated hydrocarbon such as ethylene, at such a
temperature, might yield naphthalene in small quantity,
but not benzene alone (see Lunge's Goal Tar and Ammonia,
1.SS7, page IK)), lie could hardly conceive it possible that
if benzene decomposed at all under such conditions, it could
do so without forming diphenyl. lint supposing that
July so, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
589
naphthalene were formed, the temperature necessary for
Buofa formation would also be fully sufficient for a further
decomposition of a portion of such naphthalene with
elimination of hydrogen, to form small quantities of
dinaphthyl.
Mr. Bovketok Redwood said that the paper demanded
more consideration than he, for one, had been enabled to give
it daring the time which bad been occupied in its delivery.
There were, nevertheless, a few general remarks which lie
might be permitted to make without having fully digested
all that bad been put before the meeting. As to the
practical importance of the subject, there could not be two
opinions. AH those who had taken the trouble to consider
what bad been done in the United States in connexion with
tbc substitution of earburetted water-gas for coal gas,
would see that the time was approaching, and was within
measurable distance, when, to a very large extent, the
former would be brought into general use in this country.
The difficulty of obtaining cannel coal for carburetting was
an increasing one, and the labour trouble was, naturally, in
favour of such a change. Hearing in mind that in New
York, and in a large number of other cities in the United
States, the illuminating gas which is supplied is almost
entirely earburetted water-gas, it would be seen that such
a change was quite possible. Of course circumstances were
somewhat different in this country; and, perhaps, as one
who had taken special interest in the subject of petroleum,
lie bad expressed too confident a prediction of the change
in question. Still, he considered that the subject was
thoroughly deserving of careful consideration, and he
therefore thought that the members of the Society ought to
feel greatly indebted to Professor Lewes for having under-
taken its investigation. There was no doubt that much
of the work which had been done in England, both experi-
mental and practical, in relation to oil-gas, had been carried
out unsystematieally and unscientifically ; and, he might
say, even unintelligent!}'. He bad had, in past years, a
good deal of experience in the manufacture of oil-gas, and
he well knew the difficulties which must beset an investiga-
tion such as that which had been undertaken by Professor
Lewes. One great difficulty lay in generalising the results,
which depended on certain factors, and those factors might
be said to bold good only under the particular conditions
of the experiments. It was very difficult to conclude from
results obtained under certain conditions what results would
be obtained under other conditions, and accordingly a very
large number of experiments had to be made before
anything like a satisfactory generalisation of the subject
could be attempted. The theory which Professor Lewes
advanced with respect to the formation of benzene was at
any rate a convenient and pretty one, and there was
doubtless a good deal to be said in favour of it. With
reference to the conversion of the hydrocarbons comprising
the Kussiau distillate oil into benzene, he might remind
some of those present that he bad many years ago read in
that room a paper on the subject of the Russian Petroleum
Industry, in which be bad mentioned that, in St. Peters-
burg, he was enabled to witness experiments then being
carried on by Messrs. Nobel, in the conversion of petroleum
residues into benzene, anthracite and naphthalene. The
following are the details which were given on that occasion : —
The astatki (petroleum residuum) is decomposed in a
jiipola regenerative furnace, which has been patented by
Mr. Nobel, to whom I am indebted for the following
interesting particulars of the results obtained. The first
destructive distillation gives from 30 to 40 per cent, of tar,
containing from 15 to 17 per cent, of 50 per cent, benzol.
By a second destructive distillation of the heavy oils
remaining in the tar after the separation of the benzol, 70
per cent, of tar is obtained, containing from 7 to It) percent,
of 50 per cent, benzol, 16 per cent, of naphthalene, 2 to 3
percent, of dry " green grease " (or 30 per cent, anthracene),
and J I per cent, of pitch. There is also obtained in the
process 75 to 100 cubic feet per cubic foot of astatki of gas
having an illuminating power five times greater than that
of coal-gas. The regenerative furnace is first heated to
1,000 (', astatki be.ug, of course, used as the beating
agent, and when it has become cooled in the process of
decomposing the astatki it is again similarly heated, the
gas remaining in the furnace, and the coke deposited on the
health, being utilised as fuel. The furnace is stated to
remain in working order, without cleaning, for 12 months.
Undoubtedly, the hydrocarbons composing Russian oil lent
themselves to that change with very great facility, and the
oil in question was therefore very suitable for use in the
manufacture of oil-gas. On the other hand, be was not at
all clear, having in view bis past experience in the manu-
facture of oil-gas, and his more recent experience in the
conversion of the heavier liquid hydrocarbons into lighter
liquid hydrocarbons, that it was wise to attempt the direct
conversion of some of the heavier Russian oils into gas.
He confessed that he was not in a position to express his
views with much confidence, because he bad not experi-
mented in that direction to any large extent; but as far as
the experiments of Professor Dewar and himself had gone,
they had led him — he spoke only for himself — to the
conclusion that it might be desirable, in the use of the
heavy hydrocarbons as gas-oil, to effect their preliminary
conversion into lighter liquid hydrocarbons, which could be
more readily turned into gas. His experience had been
that one could more easily control the cracking of the
heavy liquid hydrocarbons into other liquid hydrocarbons
of a lower speefic gravity and higher volatility, and then the
conversion of these into gas, than the direct conversion of
the heavy hydrocarbons into gas. That was one aspect of
the subject which seemed to have been overlooked. He
believed that Professor Lewes would find it a fruitful field
for investigation. He would in conclusion express his
opinion that the paper might probably be characterised as
a practical and valuable contribution to their knowledge of
the subject.
Prof. William Foster, referring to the difference between
the paraffins and the olefins, said that about 20 years ago
Schorlemmer described American petroleum as consisting
chiefly of paraffins and the Russian petroleum as mainly
made up of non-saturated hydrocarbons. It was just
beginning to dawn upon those interested in the petroleum
industry that a large amount of work — which had been very
aptly described by Mr. Redwood — had been done without
any system or science ; and that Russian oil was the most
favourable for the purpose of carburetting gas, or for
illuminating purposes. At the time Schorlemmer wrote, the
facts to which he was now going to refer were not known.
He had the greatest respect for the work of Dr. Fraukland
and of his sor, Dr. Percy Fraukland, which, he believed, had
never been appreciated at its true worth even by those who
were most interested in the matters considered. It would
be within the recollection of some that a few years ago
Dr. Percy Frankland showed the relationship between the
lighting values of the paraffins. He first tried marsh-gas,
which practically is non-illuminating. He then took ethane
and propane, and be believed Frankland stopped there.
The curious point was that the olefin ethylene (C2H4)
gave him practically US 5 caudles per 5 cubic feet per
hour ; marsli-gas was put at 5 candles. Ethane (C,H6)
had an illuminating power of about 35 caudles, and the
illuminating power of propane (C2H8) was practically 53
candles. His (Prof. Foster's) point was that last year he
had an opportunity of experimenting with butylene (C,HS)
and found that the lighting value of that substance was
almost double that of ethylene. The extraordinary thing
was that gas engineers had not yet fully recognised that
ethylene (03H4) has a lighting value of practically double
that of ethane, and that a very large proportion of the con-
stituents of tbeAmerican petroleum is essentially a mixture
of paraffins. If gas engineers wished to obtain .1 given
lighting value they must put tin carbon \apour into the gas
in some form or other. By using equal volumes of ethylene
and ethane very dissimilar lighting values were obtained,
although equal weights of carbon vapour were consumed.
If it were true that the Russian oils were largely made up of
non-saturated hydrocarbons, be thought the tendency of
many of the experiments went to show the accuracy of the
principles enunciated by Frankland, so far as the paraffins
were concerned. He ventured to think that he bad filled
up a gap by showing the proportional relationship between
690
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTHY. [July 30, 1893.
the amounts of carbon in members of the olefin series
and their lighting values. He believed that be bail hit
upon a plan of estimating the lighting value of coal-
gas by ascertaining the amount of carbon vapour it
contained. The quantity of carbon vapour in the gas was
necessarily numerically related to the lighting value. The
results would be brought forward at the meetings of the
Gas Institute to be held in London this week.
Mr. W. J. A. Bdtteepjeld thought he was correct in
understanding from Professor Lewes that it was possible at a
certain temperature to form acetylene from naphthalene, but
he was not clear whether there was an intermediate forma-
tion of ethylene or not. In either case, he should like
Professor Lewes to tell the meeting what was the
temperature at which the transformation occurred, as
naphthalene was a residual product in gas-works, and it
would be quite easy to make a valuable illuminating gas
from it if the exact temperature at which acetylene coald
be formed from it were known. He was not quite clear on
another point, as the paper had been read rather too
quickly for him to take in anything but the drift, but he
thought 20 per cent, of benzene was stated to he found in
the residuum in certain instances. He presumed Professor
Lewes meant benzene and not hydrocarbons of the benzene
series. It was possible that 20 per cent, of hydrocarbons of
the benzene series might be found ; but he would like very
much to know the conditions under which 20 per cent, of
benzene was found in the residuum. As to the amount of
benzene in the residuum tar from carburetted water-gas, he
believed he was correct in stating that the author gave the
quantity as a little over 1 per cent. Was this in the
dehydrated residuum, and were there any paraffins accom-
panying it ? As far as his (Mr. Butterfield's) experience
of the residuum from carburetted water-gas went, there was
1 to 4, or even 5, per cent, of benzene (not merely hydro-
carbons of the benzene series') present ; but unfortunately
it was associated with large quantities of paraffins of the
same boiling point. It would also be very interesting to
him to kuow if there was any large proportion of anthracene
in the residuum from pure oil-gas, or carburetted water-gas,
as, if over 20 per cent, of benzene was obtainable from the
tar in addition to anthracene, it would almost be worth
while to make the gas for the sake of the by-products alone.
He would also like to know whether the yield of gas,
expressed, say, in candles per gallon, was not larger from a
heavier Russian oil than from that which Professor Lewes
had experimented. He thought Professor Lewes would
find that certain Russian distillate oils would give about
1,000 to 1,200 candles per gallon without admixture of
water-gas.
Professor LeWeb, in reply, said Mr. Fairley had asked for
data as to the rate of flow. It was manifest that with the
different sizes of the retorts employed in the experiments,
it would have been impossible to have used a constant rate
of flow. What he did, therefore, was in experiments a, b, c,
and d, which were all made in a retort of the same size,
to work with a rate of flow of two pints per hour. With
the large Patterson retort he worked with a flow of about
lj gallons an hour. The way in which the three experi-
ments at 900° C. were made comparable was by noticing the
colour of the gas. Anyone who had been engaged hi oil-
gas manufacture knew that a most valuable indication was
to be found in the colour of the gas. Wheu it was made,
say, at 500' C. it came off as a dead white vapour, much of
which again condensed, as was shown by the small yield of
gas obtained. When a temperature of 700° was reached
the gas came off a buff colour, which showed a better gas
was being made, and at a temperature of 900° (the best
temperature for the cracking) it became a rich chocolate
brown, and in the experiments made with retorts of various
sizes the rate of flow was regulated to give this colour. In
reply to Mr. Watson Smith's question as to the polymerising
of the acetylene and the formation of the naphthalene, he
had worked with v^ry narrow tubes, and had taken the
exact temperature of the gas as it passed through those
tubes. Under these conditions he found lie got acetylene
formed in the gas freely when a temperature of 800 I '. anil
upwards was reached, and that when the temperature rose
to 900° C, if he placed at the end of the tube through
which the gases passed a small receiving vessel, he obtained
a product which had the smell of benzene, and which could
not be identified by the aniline test. When the temperature
again rose he got smaller quantities of a far heavier sub-
stance, which was probably diphcnyl. He also found that
crystals of naphthalene began to appear, and if the tube
were heated to a higher temperature he did not get this, but
he simply got carbon and hydrogen. That simply meant
that if acetylene was being made at a temperature of 800 (
these changes took place, whereas if it was being made at a
higher temperature over 1,150° C. these hydrocarbon com-
pounds were not formed, but there was a direct decomposition
of the acetylene into carbon and hydrogen. He believed it
was a well-known fact that naphthalene could be produced
by beating the vapour of benzene, and this was probably
the source of its formation in this case. In reply to Mr.
Morrison's question as to the permanence of the gas, he
would say that a properly made oil-gas was far more
permanent than a coal-gas. If one took a coil of half-inch
compo. pipe, say, 120 ft. long made into a coil and immersed
in water at 0° C., and if through such a coil IG-candlc coal-
gas were passed, one could not read the illuminating power
of that gas on a photometer. If a well-made oil-gas of
45-candle illuminating power were taken, and it was passed
two or three times through the coil, it would be found that
there was only a loss of something like three or four caudles
out of the gas. But that, of course, was a properly made
gas. Low temperature gases would not do that. If oil-gases
were made at a lower temperature, it would be invariably
found that a quantity of paraffin vapours were obtained, aud
would condense on cooling. Mr. Butterfield's question with
reference to the 20 per cent, of benzene arose out of a
misconception of what he (Professor Lewes) intended to
infer. What he said was that 20 per cent, of the distillate
below 120° C. consisted of benzene ; 20 per cent, of benzene
was a quantity which was actually obtained in the produc
tion of benzene from Russian oil. The figures which he
quoted were 40 per cent, of 50 per cent, benzol. Mr.
Butterfield had stated that naphthalene was a residual
product in gas-works, and that it would be a matter of
little difficulty to make a valuable illuminating gas from it
if the exact temperature at which it could be converted
into acetylene were known. This, however, was not so, as
neither naphthalene or benzene could be decomposed by
heat into hydrocarbons valuable for illuminating purposes.
There was no doubt that with Russian petroleum a valuable
tar could be made, and that by properly working the
residuals it would be possible to get the enriching gases at
a very low rate. He had also been asked if it was not a
fact that by using a heavier oil a higher illuminating power
could be obtained. That was perfectly correct. If a crude
Russian petroleum were used an illuminating power of
1,000 caudles per gallon would be got, but the pitch and
carbon deposited during cracking is so great a nuisance that
it cannot be used under ordinary circumstances.
July SO, 1898.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
:,!M
NOTE ON THE ('(IMPOSITION OF A STRATUM
OF PEAT UNDERLYING THE LONDON CLAY.
BY WATSON SMITH, F.I.O., P.O.S., AND M. W. TRW l RS.
On the kind Invitation of Mr. Cairns, a former student of
Chemical Technology in University College, now engaged
as an engineer in the construction of the new Blackwall
Thames tunnel, we went to inspect a layer of peat, which
oeeiirs at a depth .if about 12 feet below the surface in the
cutting at Poplar, about 200 yards from the Thames. Ibis
peat was of distinct brown colour and darkened considerably
on exposure to air and light. It was very wet, and was
composed chiefly of branches and trunks of trees, twigs,
&e. It is about two feet thick, but is said to attain :^
thickness of six feet on the other side of the Thames.
The substance contained G9-5 per cent, of moisture,
leaving of dry carbonaceous matter 30- 5 percent. In the
sample taken, of course we avoided any considerable pieces
of wood.
The dry peat furnished on analysis 30 '08 per cent, of
ash, leaving 49'92 per cent, of carbonaceous matter.
The amount of wax or bitumen found by extraction with
benzene was 0-10 per cent, on the dry substance.
The composition of the ash (50-03 per cent.) will he a
matter of some interest. It was as follows: — Silica G2-48
per cent.; ferric oxide and alumina 21-26 per cent.;
carbonate of lime, &c, 16"2G per cent.
The silica existed chiefly as sand.
We should be inclined to regard this deposit as an
earthy brown coal in process of formation and development.
Every 100 parts of this peat contains about 30 parts of dry
Substance, half of which is ash aud half combustible
matter, and has no value as fuel.
It has geological interest as showing that, at a period
anterior to the formation of the London clay, an abundant
growth of trees and shrubs extended from some distance
inland, right down to the water's edge in this locality.
A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
SOLUBLE AND RESINOUS CONSTITUENTS
OF COALS. ( Continued from page 97.5, this Journal,
1891).
I-.V WAT80N SMITH, P.C.S., F.I.C., LECTURER IN CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, AND
I. i . CHORLEY.
The conclusion of the late Dr. Angus Smith was pointed
to in. my last communication on the above subject, where
after an examination of the resiuoid constituents extracted
from peat, he said it was his belief that the resinous
matter of peat had grown in the plants when fresh, and
was not a product of decomposition {lor. cit. p. 975).
A description was then given of the remarkable Miike
coal obtained from mines in the south-western part of the
Japanese Empirn and near the coast of Shimabara liay in
Kiushiu Island. It was shown that it contained 9'5 per
cent, of resinoid matters soluble in benzene and resembling
crude petroleum in general character, and the probability
was indicated that this bitumen, like the resins of peat,
was a residue of the waxes and resins which exister1 in the
original plants and trees forming the coal (loc. oil. p. 977).
Seeing, moreover, that the Miike coal contains an ash with
about 42i per cent, of lime, it was deemed probable that
it is really an advanced lignite and of tertiary and cretaceous
character.
Now if a tertiary, and, therefore, a younger coal, we have
at hand one reason for finding more of such soluble resinous
matter than can be found in the older fossils of the secondary
strata, the coal measures. F'or example, boghead, Lanca-
shire, Australian, and American cannels were examined,
all secondary fossils, and the amounts of soluble resinoids
found only varied between 0'6 aud 1'06 per cent.
.V tertiary coal, or lignite, will be one in which, other
things being equal, the resinoid matters will not have been
subjected to such extremes of heat and pressure probably,
aud certainly not for so great a length of time, and so may
be looked for in greater quantity in lignites than in true
coals. Nevertheless we are bound to confess that we are
unaware of any comparative experiments having yet been
made sufficing to establish this point as between lignites
and true coals, though Percy certainly mentions lignite
from New Zealand and Tasmania very rich in bitumen
(Percy's " Fuel," p. 317). It occurred to one of us that
it would be very interesting to analyse some other coals
from mines not far from the Miike mine, with a view of
effecting some comparison. Mr. Watanabe, of the firm of
Mitsui and Co., anticipated our wish by sending specimens
of two coals from mines situated to the north of the .Miike
mine, but in the same island of Kiushiu. The determinations
of the composition of these two coals, which we will term
A. and 15., were so interesting in view of the results with
the Miike coal, we felt impelled to bring them before this
Section of the Society without delay. We now give the
composition of the two coals in question (A. and B.) and
repeat that of the Miike coal : —
Carbon
Hyd loriii
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Moisture
Ash
Coke
Specific gravity
Calorific value
("Insoluble
Ash-; Ferric oxide mil
I alumina.
I Lime
Bitumen soluble in benzene.
Miike Coal.
Per Cent.
69- G6
5 "35
12-92
1-12
0-72
3-13
7- in
59
1-303
7.01U
'jII'.'j.'i
32-sil
2-92
11-57
PerCent.
7>'.is
4'20
12'68
1-53
nsii
2-27
IT 50
Per Cent.
7f22
.VSl
.vol
1-11
3-15
II V,2
;r i:,
lniriii;
58
1-257
7,125
52-50
U-10
15-38
1-18
on:.
1-269
7,010
14-94
20-91
42-38
9-50
No doubt you will observe a very remarkable thing in
connexion with the above analyses, viz., that as the lime
increases in quantity so also does the amount of bitumen
soluble in benzene. In other words the tertiary coal or
lignite of the cretaceous strata, the younger fossil, retains
most of these bituminoid residua, whilst the older fossil
retains least, the intermediate containing an intermediate
quantity.
These coals, too, are fairly comparable, for they all come
from the same island in Japan.
Is any argument to be drawn from the fact ? I think
there is, and we must remember that the resinoid matter of
the Japanese — the Miike — coal contained a considerable
amount of volatile constituents. The argument is simply
this, that we find these resins in the tertiary coals — the
lignites — because they are younger fossils and have not
undergone the extremes of age, prolonged pressure and
subterranean heat, that the secondary coals, or true j > i t
coals, have.
•v.'-j
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [July 30, wfta.
It is an interesting fact that, bo far as one can ascertain
at present, the waxes and bituminoid matters of peats,
lignites, and the true bituminous pit coals, though differing
in amounts in the lespective fossils, all seem to be much
alike in chemical character.
Schorlenimer's analysis of the peat waxes extracted by
the late Dr. Angus Smith showed that they contained a
considerable proportion of oils of hydrocarbon character,
like paraffin oils, and Schorlemmer was sure that solid
paraffins were also present. My examination of the resinoid
matters of the Miike coal gave results testifying to the same
thing, and the resinoids derived from the canuel coals
already referred to also bore evidence in the same direction.
Dr. K. Angus Smith and .Mr. Hinney have both made
observations proving that oil accumulates and flows from
the peat, and indeed it is probable that ozokerite is thus
formed. Finally, Dr. Angus Smith extracted resins from
peat and from mosses above the peat, and found them
similar. Here, then, is the chain of evidence pointing to
the strong probability that these soluble resinoids are the
slightly altered resins and oils originally contained in the
plants and trees from which either peat, lignite, or coal was
derived. Iu this Miike coal, so uniformly rich in resinoid
matter, we have probably original special flora, and special
circumstances since and during fossilisation for the preser-
vation of these matters. We are now extracting a large
quantity of this bitumen for special chemical investigation,
and are using a large Soxhlet's extractor of copper.
Bitumen soluble in Benzene contained in various
Coals.
Miike Coal, with
42*4 per Tent. Lime.
Japanese ( Joal A.,
with 15"4 per Cent,
Lime.
Japanese Coa] B.,
with 2*92 per Lent.
Lime.
ifoO
1-1S
Q'57
Boghead
Cannel,
Scotland.
Australian
Cannel.
American
Cannel.
Lancashire Cannels.
Hucknall
Cannel.
Tyldcsley
Canuel.
With Small Quantities of Lime in Ashes, like Coal B. (Japanese).
The increase of bitumen with increase of cretaceous
character, and probably more recent character of the coal,
is seen on reference to the above table, though more experi-
ments are to be tried in this direction as confirmatory of
the argument involved. Of course, in cases where the
intrusion of volcanic eruptions was evident, such as trap
-Ukes, &c, any such evidence could not be looked for.
ILumpool Section.
Uxivkksity College, Brow>*low Street.
Chairman : H. Brunner.
Vice-Chairman: E. Carey.
Committee :
.1. * lampbell Brown.
!■;. Carey.
\. C. Driffield.
J' s. ( '. I iamble.
C. L. Higgins.
P. Iluiter.
A. H. Knight.
E. K. Muspratt.
< r. Schack-Sommer.
A. Watt.
Hon. Treasurer : W 1*. Thompson.
Son. Local Secretary:
Dr. Chas. A. Kohn, University College, Liverpool.
iHanrheshT &rction.
Chairman : Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman : Kdw. Schunck.
Committee :
5. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
J. M. Irving.
E. Knecht.
Sir II. E.Eoscoe, M.P.
C. Truby.
lion. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
J. Angell.
G. H. Bailey.
F. H. Bowman.
K. P. Carpenter.
G. E. Davis.
H. Grimshaw.
Notiiesol Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
^rtoradtlr gwtioiL
Chairman: A. Allhuseu.
Vice-Chairman: John Pattinson.
Committee :
P. P. Bedson.
t;. T. Prance.
G. Gatheral.
T. W. Hogg.
John Morrison.
B. S. Proctor.
W. \V. Proctor.
W. L. Rennoldson.
W. A. Rowell.
T. W. Stuart.
John Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary and Treasurer:
Dr. J. T. Dunn, The School, Gafc
Noticesof Papers and Communications for the Meetings to lie
sent to the Local Secretary.
July so, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTliY.
&otcingl)am &frtion.
University College, Nottingham
F. J. It. r.nilla.
.]. B, Coleman.
0. H. Field.
H. Forth.
F. I>. Morale.
S. J. IVnlrn.s1.
Chairman : L. Archbutt,
I 'ia i 'ha irman : P. I How es.
Committi •■ :
H. J. Staples.
C. Taylor.
Sir John Turne.v.
G.J. Ward.
J.T. W i.
Tr<.'i.\ttrtr : J. M. C. Paton.
//'<«. Local Secretary •*
R. L. Wniteley, University College, Nottingham,
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
©orksbtre £>rction.
Chairman : Sir James Kitson, Bart , M V.
Vice-Chairman •" Dr. F. H. Bowman.
Committee :
A. II. Allen.
J. B Cohen.
T. Fan-Icy.
A. Hess.
ft. Hollidagr.
J. J. Hummel.
J. Lewkowitscli.
P. W. Richardson.
J as. Sharp.
G. W. S hitler.
G. Ward.
J. B. Wilkinson.
lion . Lorn1 Secretary :
II. R. Procters Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Notices of Papers and Communications should lie addressed lu
the liun. Local Secretary.
#UsfgoU) ana £>rotttsl) &rrt!'on.
Chairman; (J. A. Fawsitt.
Vice-Chairman; E. J. Mills
Committee :
G. Boilby.
W. J. Chrystal.
C.J. Kill-.
Wm. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
R. A. Inglis.
It, Irvine.
J. Falconer King
J. S. Macarthur.
T. P. Miller.
T. L. Patterson.
J. Pattison.
J. B. Beadman.
E. C. C. Stanford.
R. R. Tatloek.
G. Watson.
Hon. Secretary and Treasurer:
J, Stanley Muir, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
(^uituarirss.
PR0FESS0K CARL SCHORLEMMER, LL.B.,
F.R.S., &c.
Mbmber of the Society of Chemical Isdustuy.
Darmstadt, the birth-place and home of so many
chemists and pharmacists, was the place where Carl
Schorlemmer first saw the light. He was born on the
HOth September 1 s : ; 4 , and was of what is termed humble
birth, a circumstance which becomes lustrous when we
glance at the heading of this obituary notice and observe
the distinctions he has won by sheer hard work, supported
and fired by undoubted genius.
But whilst exalted in the science to which he was
devoted, and which was by no means confined to
chemistry and physics, he never forgot his old home
and its associations Or the rank of the people from which
he sprang, and the writer well recollects, in sorting out his
own letters in the < Iwens College letter-box, the regularity
with which every week end he came upon Professor
Schorlemmer's number of the " So,-inl Demokrat " with
the Zurich postmark upon it. Vet indeed Schor-
lemmer's was a gentle order of social democracy, most
concerned as to the amelioration of the lot of the pour
Bauernvolk of his Fatherland.
Turning to his career as a chemist, this opened iu
Giessen, where he chiefly studied, though he afterwards
went to Heidelberg. In 1858 he came to England first,
though for a brief period, as one of the laboratory
assistants of the late Dr. R. Angus Smith, and then as
private assistant to Professor Roscoe, now Sir Henry
E. Roscoe, MP., who had been shortly before appointed
to the Chair of ( Ihemistry at the Owens College. At
the time of Schorlemmer's advent there, W. Dittmar,
whose sudden death we had regretfully to chronicle
but a few months ago, was the college laboratory
and lecture assistant. This post he resigned in 1861,
and Schorlemmer was his successor. Then came the
opportunity of a certain amount of leisure for original
research, and none but those whose privilege it was
to be under his tuition know how ably he combined
the arduous duties of laboratory instruction with the
concentration of mind and skilfulness of hand needed
in such researches without either slackening iu the one
or failing in the other. His encyclopaedic knowledge
of his science, and even apparent contempt for reference
to books, by reason of the marvellous memory he
possessed, were matters at once of astonishment and
wondering comment amongst even the most advanced
of the chemical students.
What splendid use he made of the scant leisure for
quiet laboratory work at his disposal, every chemist
knows who remembers his Hist paper, published in 1802,
and it may indeed with truth be said that Schorlemmer's
discovery and clear proofs of the identity of the two
bodies then supposed distinct, dimethyl and ethyl
hydride, paved the way for those further advances in
organic chemistry subsequently made, which have prove i
of such wide-spread importance both in pure and
applied chemistry. During the 10 years following 186:i,
he carried on in the old laboratories in Quay Street,
Manchester, a series of researches which revolutionised
our ideas of the constitution of the hydrocarbons. The
Royal Society Catalogue gives the titles of some J2
papers, each marking some important step, and repre-
senting collectively the rungs of the ladder by which
he quietly but irresistibly climbed to the Fellowship
of that Society, to which lie was elected in 1S71, the
first occasion on which he appeared as a candidate. The
University of Glasgow later on distinguished him by
conferring upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. IJ\
this time Schorlemmer had gained a European reputation
ami had spread the tame of the Owens College
594
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
laboratories far and wide, for besides his original
researches, the publication of a book under the tit!.' of
the Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds, or Organic
Chemistry (of which a German edition appeared, and
still eigoys a high reputation in the Vaterland), con-
tributed to extern! his reputation as a teacher, author,
and investigator. It therefore seemed somewhat singular
that the college, for the repute of whose Chemical School
he l;a<l ihme so much, should continue to assign to such
a man the title of assistant, and should allow him no
voice in the academical management of the institution.
This state of things lasted, however, not long, and at the
urgent request of Sir Henry Eoscoe, a Chair of Organic
Chemistry was founded, and Dr. Schorlemmer was
appointed to fill it. As already hinted, Sehorlemmer's
scientific knowledge was not confined to chemistry, he
was an accomplished botanist, and. indeed, possessed an
extensive command of many branches of science. In the
meantime Kosene's Lessons in Elementary Chemistry
had obtained a world-wide fame, and the work had been
translated into almost every tongue. What more suitable
arrangement then, than that such forces should be united
in the joint authorship and compilation of a complete
text-book on the entire subject, both inorganic and
organic chemistry, bringing to bear also sufficient of the
history of chemistry to leaven the whole, and render it
really interesiiug reading, as well as suitable as a work of
reference ?
The reply to such a question was anticipated by the
decision arrived at that Professor Sir Henry K. Hoscoe
and Professor Schorlemmer should combine forces in
the production of a complete and systematic treatise on
inorganic and organic chemistry. This great work was
far advanced, one volume remaining to complete it, but,
alas, the span of life was too short. The oil had burnt
down, and was spent, the light, all too soon, had departed.
Thus the volume which was to complete the series will
remain unwritten. Of recent years Dr. Schorlemmer
was not able to leave his house in the evenings, and
confined himself more and more to his college and
literary work. Schorlemmer was not a brilliant lecturer,
and this in large measure owing to Sprachschwierig-
keiten, for these he never entirely conquered through
the persistency, probably, with which he conversed
whenever it was possible in bis Muttersprache : but
bis style of writing English, as witness bis elegant
little work, The Rise and Development of Organic
Chemistry, was most clear, simple, and forcible. He
was a most accomplished laboratory teacher, and those
whose good fortune it has been to work under, and
especially with, him, will not soon forget the peculiar
inspiration they received from bis earnest example and
bis untiring patience, united to a modesty rendered all the
more impressive by its failure to conceal the pre eminence
of the master mind.
Sehorlemmer's assistance and help were most readily
extended to the needy and struggling ones who might
apply to him, and if be found the cases meritorious and
deserving (and singularly quaint were his methods of
testing them), his kindness and solicitude never failed.
- \V. S.
A. NORMAN TATE, F.C.S., F.I.C.,
A VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL
INDl su;v.
It is with much regret that the somewhat sudden death
is announced of a mat) whose name has been so largely
identified with that of this Society, indeed from the very
birth of the latter. Since the beginning of the year
1883, he has served as a member of the Publication
( ' immittec of the Journal, and his services on the ( ouucil
of the Society were regarded as being of such value that
he was more recently elected a Vice-President. But
more particularly will Mr. A. Norman Tate's loss he
felt in connexion with the Liverpool Section of the
Society . of which he was the Vice-Chairman, and it
must be with a feeling of no little melancholy that his
colleagues reflect that his genial and kindly countenance
will no longer he seen among them. When we turn,
moreover, to page loG in the May issue of this Journal,
and refer to this the last record of the Committee of
the Liverpool Section containing his name as Yice-
Chainnan, but printed in italics, and thus signifying a
partial removal, it was little thought that be was so soon
to be taken, and in a more serious sense, from the wide-
circle of friends and colleagues, by the great remover,
Death.
A. Norman Tate was born on February 24th, 1837, at
Wells, in Somersetshire, He seems to have commenced
early, and with great assiduity, the study of chemistry
and pharmacy. Later on, he entered the laboratory of
I»i. Sheridan Muspratt, in Liverpool, and here he studied
general and analytical chemistry very thoroughly.
-Mr. Tate's name subsequently appeared with considerable
frequency in connexion with papers read before the
Chemical Society of London, the Royal Dublin Society,
&c. He then commenced a course of practical and
analytical experience in the laboratory of Messrs. John
Hutchinson and Co., alkali manufacturers, in Widnes,
which continued for about three years, when lie resolved
to set up in Liverpool as a consulting and analytical
chemist. When the importation of petroleum from
America was commenced, the oil being then regarded
as a novelty, Mr. Tate made it a particular object of
technological study, and soon became a recognised and
leading authority, — as witness his little book published
at that period, and entitled " Petroleum and its Pro-
ducts," which was soon translated both into French and
German. Mr. Tate showed evidence of ability in
chemical engineering, for he designed and erected plant
and apparatus for the production and refining of coal-
aud shale-oils, in Flintshire. In the examination of
fats, oils, ami waters, A. Norman Tate hail attained
considerable reputation for skill and accuracy. But the
greatest praise is due to Tate for his indefatigable labours
as a public man, and in benevolent schemes of various
kinds. His efforts to popularise the study of chemistry
are matters of common knowledge in Liverpool, and
even with his large and extending consulting analytical
practice, he yet found time to undertake the teaching of
chemistry in connexion with the Liverpool trade societies,
and the force of his example and precepts greatly
contributed to raise the Liverpool Science and Art
(lasses to become what they now are, a great power in
that city. Mr. A. Norman Tate, as honorary principal.
had the arrangement of these classes, and for some
years he himself taught chemistry, botany, physiology,
and general biology, four or five evenings per week,
5 thus occupied throughout the winter season when
usual business hours were over. This work had, in
short, become a labour of love.
In 1880 a public meeting was held in the Liverpool
Town Hall, and Mr. Tate was presented with a handsome
testimonial for work done in connexion with these and
other classes, notably the Birkenhead School of Science,
from which he received a second address.
Mr. A. Norman Tate founded a School of Technology
and Chemistry in Hackius-hey, and hence was obliged
to lay out large sums of money on a work of such public
spirited character, and more particularly as he con-
scientiously took steps to guard against interference with
the professional work of other Liverpool analysts. IK'
led a quiet retiring mode of life, and was eminently a
man of a genial spirit and kind heart. The cheer}
patience with which he bore his last illness was a
splendid as well as a touching proof of the peace and
serenity of mind which are the consequences of a good
life, which in A. Norman Tate's case certainly meant a
life lived mainly to benefit others.— W. S.
July so 1892.] THE JOU11NAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Journal ana $atrnl* Ittrraturr.
Claw. Page.
I. — General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 695
1 1.— Fuel, 0:is. and Light 598
I II.— Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 598
[V. — Colouring Mailers and Dyes 599
V— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 600
VL— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Stainine;, and
Bleaching cno
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 608
VTII. — Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 601
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars, and Cements.. 606
X.— Metallurgy 607
X I.— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 616
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture lilti
Mil.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, Sec 620
XI V.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 0-21
XT.— Manures, &c U25
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 626
XVII. — Brewing, "Wines, Spirits, &c 626
Will. — Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 029
X I X.— Paper. Pasteboard, Jfcc 881
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 681
X X I. — Photographic Materials and Processes ;:i i
XXI I.— Explosives, Matches, &c i\x,
XX I II.— Analytical Chemistry C.'K
I -GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and relating to the Method of effecting,
by Means of Centrifugal Force, the Reaction of Bodies of
different Densities on one another. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. From P. Marix, Paris. Eng. Pat. S47o,
May 1G, 1891.
The inventor, having studied the phenomena presented
when employing centrifugal separators in obtaining the
emulsion of skimmed milk with a small proportion of fatty
substances in the manufacture of cheese, has noticed the
different character of these emulsions according as the
proportions of the two mixtures are varied, or the conditions
of temperature, subdivision of parts, or rapidity of operation
are altered.
He has devised certain alterations and changes in the
centrifugal separators by means of which the above
conditions can be varied as required, the invention con-
sisting in producing by centrifugal force the juxta-position
of infinitesimal particles of the substances to be mixed, in
then effecting their mixture by causing them to run out
through the same orifice simultaneously and continuously
under the action of the centrifugal force, and in submitting
the substances, whether gaseous, liquid, or in the form of
powder, at any period of the process, to any further desired
physical, chemical, or mechanical reactions. Two types of
shapes of centrifugal vessels, arranged to meet certain
conditions, are outlined in the drawings, and there are nine
claims, and for a satisfactory comprehension of the patentees'
intention the full specification should be examined.— li.
* Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
Sd. — the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— lo
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of tin Patent Office Si el'e
amnion Buildings, Chancery Lane, London. W.C.
An Improved Means and Method of Closure for the
Regulation of Gaseous Pressures. E. J.Mills and C J.
Ellis, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 9187, June 1, 1801.
The inventors use an elastic material punctured by one or
more holes or slits, for closing bottles, casks, or vessels, the
material being of such width and thickness as to permit the
passage of gas at a specified pressure ; these punctures may-
be lubricated with a dry powdered lubricant. The application
of this invention to the stoppers of bottles, &c. is also
claimed. — .1. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Treatment of Water to
prepare it for Use in Steam Boilers and for other
purposes. R. M. Deeley and L. Archbutt, Derby. Eng.
Pat. 11,708, July 9, 1891.
The apparatus consists of an upper and a lower tank. The
upper receives the hard water and also the chemical solution
or milk of lime which may lie injected with the aid of steam
and air with the object of mixing the ingredients and stirring
up the precipitate. The softened water, after a period of
rest, is drawn off into the lower vessel by means of a hinged
pipe plaeed in the upper tank with floating end, so adjusted
that the water is drawn off a short distance below the
surface. Carbonic acid gas is drawn or forced down the
same pipe, the inner surface of which is crossed by ridges or
transverse ribs which cause the softened water in its descent
to be splashed into contact with the earbonating gases. The
admission of the mixture, the water, and the gas is regulated
automatically, and for treating large quantities of water
tanks with wells and tra jectors can be employed in accordance
with Eng. Pat. 1791 of 1889 (this Journal, 1890, 406).— B.
Improvement in Means or Apparatus for Drying or
Extracting Moisture from Vegetable, Animal, or other
Products or Materials. L. Gye, London. Eng. Pat.
12,401, July 21, 1891.
The drying or extracting of the moisture is accomplished
in chambers by currents of air, the air being agitated and
distributed by curtains or suspended diaphragms, and
controlled by adjustable blades or deflectors. The air may
previously be heated by a furnace as described in the
specification. — J. C. C.
Improved Apparatus for Distilling Water. J. Ivirkaldy,
London. Eng. Pat. 12,578, July 24, 1891.
The invention embraces the construction of portable
apparatus with either combined or separate evaporator and
condenser, the fuel employed being oil, though in some
forms of the apparatus block or slow burning fuel is used
or common combustibles.
The accompanying figure shows one of the arrangements
Improved Apparatus for Distilling Water.
596
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30,189?.
A is the vessel containing the water to be evaporated
supported by the outer ring C on legs D, attached to the
oil reservoir K from which the lamp wicks I project into
the conical funnel (). The flume heats the inner surface of
the combustion chamber B and finds its way out through
openings X whilst ;iir for combustion enters by W. The
wicks are regulated by the ordinary screws II.
The evaporating vessel is surmounted by a cold water
tank .1, held in position by the rim K and having two
conical bottom surfaces L & L'. The cone L has the
central valre scat R, on which fits the reversed valve V
carried on the hollow ball V by the spindle S which is guided
in the bracket T overhead. The ball floats in the recess 1>
of the heating chamber 15 and keeps the valve V closed
until the water level has been reduced by evaporation
sufficientlj for admitting a new supply from the tank above.
The rising vapour condenses on the under surface of L
aud collects in the space M, whence it is drawn through the
pipe i I. Further .supply of water for evaporation is
admitted through P and the overflow <i allows the surplus
to run off. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Charging Liquids with
Gases. .1. II. Minto, Anfield. Eng. Pat. 13,323, August
n, 1891.
The object ff the invention is a means of impregnating
a liquid with gas a little at the time, in proportion as the
liquid is drawn off. This is accomplished by employing
two vessels one above the other, separated by a perforated
[partition or rose and by leading a tube within from near
the bottom of the lower vessel to near the top of the upper.
The lower end of the tube dips into a shallow layer of
liquid in the lower vessel, whilst its upper end reaches
above that with which the upper vessel is filled, gas under
pressure being admitted into the vessels in any desirable
way. So long as the lower end of the tube remains
covered with liquid, that contained in the upper vessel i<
maintained at its existing level. But on the tube end
being uncovered through withdrawal of some of the liquid
the equilibrium is destroyed, and a new supply descends
through the perforations of the rose in a fine shower, readily
taking up the gas on its passage. — 1!.
Improvements in Funnels for Measuring Liquids. J.
Richardson, YVigau. Kug. Pat, 15,122, September 7,
1891.
Tins funnel has a valve in its lower part, operated by a
cranked lever kept in position by a spring, and extending
above the top of the funnel so as to be easily pressed by
the linger. The valve is rigidly attached to the lever and
works upon an india-rubber seat. The funnel may be
graduated inside so that any quantity of liquid may be
allowed to run out at will. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus for Mixing Liquids with
Liquids and Solids. S. II. Johnson and C. C. Hutchin-
son, Stratford. Eng. Pat. 5:!77, March 18, 1892.
Tub patentees suspend a disc to a vertical shaft within a
vessel containing liquid. Both above and below the disc
are attached concentric tubes which reach near to but not
close up to the disc, and are entirely immersed in the liquid.
The currents induced by the rotation of the shaft cause
the liquid to lie drawn towards the disc through both tubes,
and to be driven from the circumference of the disc in the
opposite direction, thereby producing effective stirring and
mixing. — B.
Improvements in Filtering Faucets. II. II. Luse, San
Francisco, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 7119, April 19, 1892.
The aperture in the plug of tliis lancet forms a chamber
which is divided vertically by a sheet of fine wire gauze or
perforated plate ; this filters the water from debris which
collects in the chamber, and may be removed by reversing
i he plug and allowing the water to carry it away. — J. t'. t'.
II.-FUEL, GAS, AND LIGHT.
On thi' Influence of Incandescent Elecbic Light on Paper
made from Wood-cellulose, and its Deterioration through
Exposure. J. Wiesner. Dingl. Polyt. J. 1S92, 284,
G7-69.
Tnrc author has already studied (this Journal, 1888, 44)
the influence of gas and that of the are-light on woody
fibre, and has shown that provided there is good ventilation
the former is preferable for libraries, the only objection to
its use being found in the slight deposit of soot which is
invariably deposited on all exposed surfaces, and which,
aided by a temperature of over 30° C, is liable — apart
from the light — to produce a slight yellowing of all varieties
of paper. He has now investigated the action of the
incandescent light and finds that after exposure of 352
hours to a light of 144-candle power no yellowing takes
place, whilst with gas light after 240 hours of 50-eandlc
power a slight degradation of tone is noticeable.' It is
to be observed that the action of light may proceed for
some time without producing any visible effect, but on
treating such paper with potash solution of such a strength
as only to give a faint yellow colour with unexposed
material, a brownish stain is developed. Incidentally he
mentions that whilst direct sunlight after a few hours
causes a chaDgc in paper made from wood pulp, blight
diffused daylight can only effect a similar change after
several days.
The tensile strain of the paper diminishes considerably
during the process of yellowing; various strips 45 mm.
long aud 15 wide being broken, 1st, before exposure, 2nd.
after attaining a pale yellow colour, and 3rd, when they had
turned brown. The average breaking weights of the three
samples were respectively: — 1st, 3,485 grm. ; 2nd, 2,8G5
grin. ; aud 3rd, 2,345 grm.
The author concludes, therefore, that although gas light
has little influence on paper, the incandescent electric light
is the best form of artificial illumination tor use in libraries,
&c — F. H. L.
Pyrogenic Hydrocarbons Formed in the Manufacture of
Compressed Gas. A. Iirochet. Compt. Ueud. 1892,
114, GUI— 603.
With the exception of normal hexyleue, described by
Williams, and erythrene which was obtained by Caventou,
no well-defined hydrocarbons have yet been isolated in a
pure condition from the light oil of compressed gas ; the
author finds that this oil may be regarded as an abundant
source of normal hydrocarbons, which can only he pre-
pared with difficulty by other methods. After having
collected the volatile products in bromine, and separated
large quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons by distillation,
he succeeded in isolating 20 gnus, of amylene, and 40 grms.
of hexylene from a litre of the crude oil. He also detected
the presence of other unsaturated hydrocarbons in the oil,
and found that they all contained a normal chain of carbon
atoms. — E. S. K.
PATENTS.
Improred Apparatus for Making Gas. N. Bourgoin and
H. Decorce, Paris. Eng. Pat. 578, January 12, 1891.
The new apparatus has for its object the instantaneous
production of a gas suitable for lighting, heating, or motive
power purposes. It consists essentially of a rotatory pump,
worked by a weight or other means, which forces air into
a bell regulator ; from the latter the air passes into a retort
heated by means of a gas jet, then, after having been
partly cooled in a condenser, through the carburettor, and
finally through a reservoir provided with vaporising sheets.
The condensed vapours pass from the condenser into the
reservoir mentioned above, and are then carried by a pipe
and caused to drop into the retort.
The advantage claimed is that all the heat absorbed
in the process of evaporation is returned to the carburettor
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
597
so that the apparatus works continuously and regularly,
.in I any accumulation of heavy hydrocarbon oil in the
reservoir i> avoided F. S. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Washing or Scruhfiing
Gas. .T. C. Chandler, Brixton. Eng. Pat. 10.91S,
June 26, 1891.
Instead of employing laths in the construction of the
washers or scrubbers previously described (Eng. Pat. 7691
of ISSS) the patentee uses boards, in which there are a
nnmber of saw-cuts or slits, for offering a large area of
wetted surface. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Magnesium Lights for Photographic and
Signalling Purposes. E. Hackh, Stuttgart, Germany,
Eng. Tat.' 7685, May £, 1891.
The object of this invention is to separate the particles of
magnesium powder in such a way as to allow of ready
access of air when the metal is burnt and so to assist
combustion. For this purpose long carded unspun wool
is soaked in a mixture of 2 parts of vegetable oil, 2 parts of
benzene, and 1 part of Venice turpentine. It is next
wrung out and allowed to partially dry and is then covered
with particles of the powder and dried. The metal-coated
wool is twisted into rope and is ready for combustion. If
the rope has been tightly twisted the combustion will be of
long duration anil the light less intense. If loosely twisted
a rapid combustion and intense light will be produced.
'I'hi' rope when used is coiled up ami supported on a wire
netting placed in a conical metal funnel. — II. K. T.
Improvements in Apparatus for Charging and Drawing
Gas Jlrtarts. J. Ruscoe, Hyde. " Eng. I'at. 84-79,
May 1G, 1891.
Tins patent relates simply to an improvement on the
apparatus previously described (Eng. Pat. 14,720 of 1890:
tbis.Iournal, 1891,995) ; direct acting rams or pistons worked
by fluid pressure are substituted for the wheels and gearing
previously employed in the apparatus for working the
moveable division plate for charging inclined gas retorts.
— F. S. Iv.
Improvements in the Setting and Heating of Retorts.
A. J. Boult, London. From A. Kliinne, Dortmund, and F.
Bredel, Milwaukee, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 9310, June 2, 1891.
Tiik retorts are set in an inclined position, and the fire-
chamber is provided with a suitable grate, partly or wholly
beneath the retort setting; the fuel is introduced into the
furnace through a door at the front side of the bench,
whilst the stoking or clinkering door is placed on the
opposite side. The object of this improvement is to do
away with excavation Or an elevated stage or floor on the
discharging or front side of the bench.
The retorts are provided with circumferential rings or
off-sets made in one piece with the retort ; when the retort
is placed in position, the surface of the ring rests horizontally
on the supports, and in this way sliding and side pressure
are prevented. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Fuel,
utilising Sewage therein. A. O. Jones, Harrogate.
Eng. Pat. 11,764, July 10, 1891.
Tin: sewage, is first strained through sieves to remove
foreign bodies, it is then filtered through a filtering bed of
peat, peat-moss, burnt clay, brick dust, garden mould,
forest mould or marsh mould, or a mixture of these. The
deposit is mixed with smudge or coal dust ami with
materials that will disinfect and fix its volatile con-
stituents ; the mixture is then moulded into blocks oi
briquettes, with or without the addition of a binding agent.
The blocks may be then coated with a similar mixture
containing carbolic acid. — J. C. ('.
Improvements in Hi/droearhon Oil Burners. S. Townsend
and P. E. Townsend, Luton, Bedfordshire. Eng I'at.
18,848, July 13, 1891.
This invention consists of an ordinary hydrocarbon burner,
above which are placed a series of metal cones, each
perforated with a slot corresponding with the wick tube
and separated from one another by means of gauze rims.
By this means a " light of pure combustion " is obtained.
The lamp may be used with or without a glass shade, and
is intended to be used in conjunction with Eng. Pat. 15,942
of November 5, 1888.— H. K. T.
Improvements in the Construction and Manufacture of
Pottery Ware Domestic Stores for Heating Purposes.
J. Salomon, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 2932, February 15, 1892.
Pottery ware stoves as usually constructed have the
shell open inside, causing a large amount of heat to pass
out of the chimney. In this invention the hot gases are
caused to pass up, down, and again up the stove before
issuing from the chimney. Further, air passages are made
in the outer shell of the stove, through which air from the
room passes, thereby becoming warmed, though without
passing through the combustion chamber or up the
chimney. The shell of these stoves is preferably con-
structed in two pieces, which may be either fitted or baked
together. — V. C.
Improvements in or relating to the Manufacture of Fuel-
Gas. A. J. Boult, London. From the Chicago Heat
Storage Company, Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 3995,
March 1, 1892.
In the manufacture of fuel-gas in the ordinary way, the
fresh fuel introduced into the producer is heated so quickly
that the hydrocarbon vapours escape before they have been
thoroughly gasified ; moreover the temperature of the
gases issuing from the producer is so high that the metal
conduits, &c. are destroyed. To get rid of these dis-
advantages, steam is caused to impinge on the top of the
incandescent fuel before introducing a fresh supply of coal ;
in this way the temperature of the upper parts of the fuel
is considerably lowered and a layer of ash is formed at the
surface, so that the fresh fuel is heated much more slowly
than would otherwise have been the ease, and the tempe-
rature of the escaping gas is also lowered. Steam, or a
tine spray of water, is also caused to play on the fresh
charges of coal before they are raised to incandescence, in
order to further retard the process of distillation.— F. S. K.
Improvements in Generating Electricity and Producing
Aii in a Luminous State, and in Apparatus therefor.
T. Duffy, San Francisco, I' S.A. Eng. Pat. 7253 April
14, 1892.
See under XI., page 619.
598
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY [July so, 1892
HI-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
The Formation of Solid Paraffin. II. Kast and S. Seidner.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 1892, 284, [6].
In the absence of any proof, it is almost universally con-
sidered that ozokerite is :i petroleum residue, formed by the
evaporation or distillation of the original oil. Zaloziecki
(Dingl. Polyt. .1. 1891, 280, 134 ; this Journal, 1891, 753)
holds that the solid substance was formed first from
animal fat, and that the oil is a more recent product. His
theory has much circumstantial evidence to support it, since
it allows of an explanation of the formation of petroleum
and ozokerite from animal fats, in a manner analogous to
that by which the conversion of peat into brown-coal, and
the latter into pit-coal, may be explained. The theory
receives further support in that it has never been possible to
obtain horn the oil any residue having the properties of
ozokerite, among other matters.
The authors have lately met with a residue known as
" amorphous paraffin," obtained by warming to a tempera-
ture of 120° for a long time American cylinder oil which has
been previously purified by filtration through animal
charcoal. In this wa3- a sticky substance separates out,
which, by repeated washing with petroleum spirit, may be
divided into a solid and a liquid portion. A similar residue
is present in nearly all American oils, separating out on
cooling in large masses. On the bottom of the tanks used
for storing the crude oil, a mud-like residuum is found,
consisting in great measure of the same substance, and
yielding on distillation large quantities of crystalline paraffin.
This amorphous paraffin closely resembles and is evidently
identical with, ozokerite, being obtained by repeated wash-
ing of the same colour as what is known as " half-bleached "
ozokerite from Boryslaw, its specific gravitj- being 0-915
at 18°, compared with 0- 845— 0-930 for the natural
product, and its solubility and melting points also agreeing
very closely. On ultimate analysis the artificial product
gives 85 "13 per cent, of carbon and 14-69 of hydrogen as
against 85-48, and 14-48 for the natural.
Hence there is no doubt that "ozokerite" exists as such
in American petroleum, and there is every probability that
it will be found also in that from other sources. This being
the case, the supposition that it is formed from the oil
by evaporation becomes strengthened ; and although the
fact remains that artificial petroleum residues differ very
considerably from the natural product, this may be explained
by the difference between the processes employed in the
i iboratory, and those by means of which nature has effected
the changes.
It is certainly more difficult to explain the presence of the
ozokerite in the crude oil by means of Zaloziecki's theory ;
it not being clear how the former could be converted into
the liquid oil, when it is incapable of being melted even
without some decomposition. Further study of the chemical
constitution of ozokerite is much needed to assist in answer
ing satisfactorily this difficult question. — F. H. L.
Sulphur Compounds in Petroleum. H. Kast and G. Lagai.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 1892, 284, 69—72.
With the exception of the product from Tegernsee, all
varieties of crude petroleum contain sulphur, usually in
amounts varying from 0*136 to 1 - 87 percent.; but in spite
of an assertion by Void (Dingl. Polyt. J. 1875, 216, 49) to
the contrary, it is always stated that" washing with sulphuric
acid is competent to remove this objectionable impurity.
Other processes have been devised for this purpose, but
owing to lack of exact knowledge as to the form in which
the sulphur exists in the natural product, they are all
purely empirical. Among others may be mentioned the
following : — Friedcl and Crafts (Jahresb. f. Chem. 1878,
1166) treat the oil with aluminium chloride; Faulbaum
i Hi: T. 36,765, 18S5) passes a stream of sulphurous arid gas
through the boiling oil to obtain decolonisation, as well
a- the removal of tin- sulphur; Kennedy's process (Eng.
Pat. 6018, 1887; this Journal, 1887, 503); Pitt and
Van Fleck (Eng. Pat. 3830, 1SSS; this Journal, isss.
129); Frasch (Amcr. Pat. :17S,-J16, 1888), who distils the
oil over lead oxide and washes the distillate with sulphuric
acid; Gordou (Atner. Pat. 451,724, 1891) also treats the
distillate with lead oxide, followed by solutiou of magnesium
sulphate, finishing with acid and alkali as usual; and
Kendall (Amer. Pat. 451,660, 1391) employs mercuric
chloride, removing the mercury by means of a suitable
sulphide, finally distilling the oil over caustic alkali.
Unfortunately, information as to the efficiency of the
processes is not to hand.
Mabery and Smith (Ber. 22,3303; this Journal, 1890,
275; and Amer. Chem. J. 13 232; this Journal, 1891,
629) are the first investigators who have studied the nature
of the original sulphur compounds existing in Ohio petroleum,
and they state that these substances are present in the form
of alkyl sulphides, thiophene compounds and mercaptans
being absent. From the acid sludge, these observers have
obtained unstable lead and calcium salts decomposed by
distillation with steam. Xo statement is made as to the
properties or composition of these salts, but it would seem
improbable that the acid exerts merely a solvent action on
the sulphides ; rather is it to be expected that sulphonic acids
are formed, whose lead or calcium salts are decomposed
during distillation.
To obtain further information on the subject the present
authors have repeated the experiments of Mabery ami Smith
on Alsatian petroleum, treating the acid removed after
treatment of the petroleum as they have described, but
evaporating the neutral liquor in raciio to a syrupy con-
sistence, and finishing on the water-bath. By the estimation
of the amount of calcium sulphate present in the dilute
liquid and of that precipitated during concentration, it was
shown that no decomposition took place. The resulting
salt, which would not crystallise either from water or dilute
alcohol, was dissolved in water and distilled in a current of
steam. Although the distillation was carried so far that the
salt separated out and began to decompose, no products
containing sulphur were found in the distillate, and the
same negative result was obtained when the distillation was
effected in presence of excess of sulphuric acid. A sample
of Ohio petroleum containing 1-0 percent, of sulphur, or
twice as much as that in the product used by Mabery and
Smith, was then tried, being washed with acid, 20 per cent,
soila and water. The purified oil had lost its unpleasant
alliaceous odour, and became transparent, but still contained
after drying 0-74 per cent, of sulphur. In fact, although
washing is competent to remove the unpleasant odour of the
crude oil, which odour is in all probability due to unsaturated
hydrocarbons, and not to sulphur compounds at all, a large
number of experiments on different oils indicate that whether
the oil is washed cold or warm (40° O), only about a quarter
of the total sulphur is removed. The acid was treated as
before, but again the calcium salts obtained yielded on
distillation with steam no oil containing sulphur. By treat-
ment of the salt with sulphuric acid, filtration and long
boiling of the filtrate with water, some alcohols were formed
which were converted into acids by oxidation.
Further experiments with ethyl sulphide (one of the
sulphides mentioned by Mabery and Smith, luc. cit.), show
that this substance, though easily soluble in acid, is, however,
dissolved, almost completely precipitated unchanged on
dilution with water, and if the liquid containing the small
amount still in solution be neutralised with barium hydrate,
neither in the precipitate nor in the filtrate is a soluble or
an insoluble barium sulphate discoverable. If the filtrate is
evaporated down, a small quantity of a brownish substance
is obtained which evidently consists of diethyl sulphone
(C2H5)2S02.
On treatment of their oily distillates with alcoholic
mercuric chloride, Mabery and Smith obtained crystalline
precipitates ; the present authors have only been able to
obtain a considerable turbidity in the solutions, but no
appreciable amount of precipitated product. On distillation
of the crude oil sulphuretted hydrogen was evolved at 150 ,
so the operation was repeated under a pressure of 45 mm.
up to the same temperature. The distillate and residue were
treated with sulphuric acid to obtain the calcium salts, but
Jul.v 30, 1892. J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
599
again with negative results ; they were then treated with
alcoholic mercuric chloride, when from the distillate a hrowu
tarry substance was obtained, which has not yet yielded a
product suitable for investigation, and from the residue a
white cheese-like precipitate separated. It was insoluble in
water, ether, petroleum ether, acetone, chloroform-benzene,
and carbon bisulphide. This substance is decomposed by
warming with hydrochloric acid, giving off sulphuretted
hydrogen, and when suspended in water may be decomposed
by sulphuretted hydrogeu. Distilled with steam it yields a
faint yellow oil of unpleasant smell, containing sulphur.
The corresponding compounds of ethyl sulphide and
mercaptan were prepared, but have no resemblance to this
substance.
Complete removal of the sulphur from the crude oil by
means of mercuric chlorjde is impossible, the od after
precipitation still containing 0'53 per cent, of sulphur.
The present authors also find that the compound of ethyl
sulphide with mercuric chloride melts without decomposition
at 90° as stated by Loir (Annalen 106, 234, cf. Mabery and
Smith, this Journal, 1890, '275). — F. II. L.
On the Reduction of Benzene-hexachloride with Regenera-
tion of Benzene. J. Meunier. Conipt. Rend. 114,
75-76.
It is usually assumed that the benzeue-hexachlorides are
derivatives of the hydrocarbon hexametbylene. The author
proves that this does not hold good for the a-hexachloride
which he has transformed by complete reduction into its
mother-substance, benzene CH,,, using as a reducing agent
zinc and acetic acid. The resulting benzene is perfectly
pure and is quite free from thiophen. — J. L.
Menthol. A. Berkeuheim. Ber. 25, 686
■See under XX., page G32.
An Examination of the Products obtained by the Dry
Distillation of Bran with Lime. Preliminary Com-
munication. \V. F. Lavcock and F. Klingeruann. Proc.
Chem. Soc. 1892 [114], 138.
Considerable quantities of bran and unslaked lime, in
the proportions of 1 to 2 by weight, were subjected to dry
distillation. The resulting distillate consisted of a black
oil floating on an aqueous solution. The aqueous solution
smells of herring-brine and contains large quantities of
ammonia. On boiling the solution, gases are evolved which
burn on ignition with a slightly luminous flame. Amines
and furfurau are probably present.
The oil, after repeated fractionation, was found to have
no constant boiling point. Analysis of different fractions
showed that they all contained about 4 per cent, of nitrogen.
— W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Treating and Purifying Paraffin Wax,
and in Apparatus therefor. N. A. C. Henderson,
Broxburn. Eng. Pat. 11,799, July 11, 1891.
The patentee describes in this speeilication some improve-
ments applicable to his patented " Sweating Apparatus "
(Eng. Pat. 1291, 1887; this Journal, 1888, 116). In the
first instance the temperature of 80° F.,to which the paraffin
is being exposed, is maintained for a longer time, in
order to drain off a larger amount of oil from the wax. The
inventor dispenses next with the cloth or felt, as it is liable
to become choked with impurities, and replaces it by a wire
gauze of suitable fineness. — J. L.
.1 Method of and Apparatus for Measuring Depth of
Water in Oil Tanks. B. Redwood, R. Redwood, and
H. Barringer, London. Eng. Pat. 14,030, August 19,
1891.
In order to ascertain whether at the bottom of petroleum
tanks there is any water, and what quantity thereof, the
patentees fix a strip of paper which is coated with a sub-
stance soluble in water but iusoluble in oil, to a suitable
frame, and allow this frame to sink to the bottom of the
petroleum vessel. Owing to the action of the water, if any
be present, the strip of paper will be altered and the extent
to which this alteration extends will give a measure of the
height of water in the tank. As a suitable material for
coating the paper a syrupy aqueous solution of citrate of
iron and ammonia is used. — J. L.
Improvements in the Treatment of Petroleum. J. G.
Cooper, Chatteris, Cambridgeshire. Eng. Pat. 19,418,
November 10, 1891.
This is a process which is claimed to render petroleum
"inexplosive and uninflammable," and consists in adding
2 lb. of copper sulphate to every 40 gallons of petroleum,
the whole being well stirred together and left for six hours,
when the liquid is ready for use. — H. K. T.
17 -COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
A Method for Determining the Number oj NH.Z Groups in
certain Organic Bases. R. Meldola and E. M. Hawkins.
Proc. Chem. Sec. 1892 [114], 133—134.
See under XXIIL, page 640.
Note on the Application of Alizarin Yellows, 2 G and R.
P. Werner. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1892, 198—199.
The so-called Alizarin yellows of the shade-marks 2 G and
R are azo-compounds (m- and p-nitrobenzene-azo-salicylic
acids respectively), which have the property of yielding
insoluble lakes with metallic oxides. Both dyes are
remarkably fast to acids, oxidising agents, soap, and light.
The 2 G dye gives on the chromium mordant an almost
pure yellow, and can replace with advantage Persian berries
and other natural yellow dyestuffs, the colouring power of
the commercial 20 per cent, paste being three times that of
Persian berry extract and eight times that of fustic extract.
— E. B.
PATENT.
The Manufacture of Basic Dyestuffs from Alpha-
naphtho-guinone-dichloroimide. J. Y. Johnson, London.
From the " Badische Anilin und Soda F'abrik," Ludwigs-
hafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,046, June 29, 1891.
(Second Edition.)
According to Eng. Pat. 4476 of 1888 (this Journal, 1889,
280), Nile blue is prepared by acting on the nitroso-derivative
of an alkylated 7«-amido-phenol with a-naphthylamine.
Dyestuffs of this class can be obtained by reacting with
dialkylated m-amido-phenols on a-naphthoquinone-dichlo-
roimide. The latter compound is obtained from 1-4
diamido-naphthalene by the action of hypochlorites in
presence of a mineral acid (Beilstein, Vol. 3, 1022). The
following is the method given for the preparation of Nile
blue according to this invention : — About 8 kilos, of
diethyl-?H-amiilophenol and 11 kilos, of a-naphthoquinone
dichloro-imide are mixed with about 30 kilos, of wood
spirit and warmed to 50° — 60° C. A reaction takes place
600
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 3U, 1892.
and shining green crystals of the colouring matter are
obtained. After cooling, the mixture is filtered and the
precipitate washed with wood spirit until the washings are of
a pure blue colour. The dyestuff is then in the form of its
hydrochloride and can be conyerted into its sulphate in the
manner described in the former patent. Pimethyl-m-
aruidophenol, dimethyl - o - amido -p - cresol, m - hydroxy-
diphcnylamine, or m-hydroxy-phecyluaphthylamine may
be substituted for the diethvl-m-amidophenol above men-
tioned.—T. A. L.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc,
The Specific Gravity of Silk. L. Viguon. Compt. Rend.
1892, 114, 603— 605.
The author maintains that his previous determinations of
the specific gravity of silk are correct. He also points out
that the method described by Chardonnet for determining
the specific gravity of silk is liable to give too high results,
because the silk absorbs some of the metallic compounds
from the solution of cadmium borotungstate ; the specific
gravity of solutions of this compound in which silk has been
immersed for a few hours is perceptibly diminished
(see p. 640).— F. S. K.
The Specific Gravity of Tattles. M. de Chardonnet
Compt. Rend. 114, 489.
See under XXIII., page 640.
YI.-DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
Dyeing and Printing with Gold Salts. E. Odenheimer.
Lehne's lather Zeitung, 1891—2, 205.
When textile fibres or fabrics are padded or printed with a
gold salt and then treated with a solution of a reducing
agent, gold is precipitated on the fibre in the form of a
beautiful grey colour which is fast towards acids, alkalis,
soap, and light. The reaction is accelerated by gentle heat
and by tin- presence of sunlight. According to the strength
of the gold solution and the character of the reducing agent
used, Mack-, red-, or blue-toned greys are produced. Thus
pyrogallol or hvdroquinone (quinol) give blue-greys, whilst
oxalic acid gives red-greys. The colouring power of the gold
silt- i- very gnat, and for light shades 001 per cent, of
gold solution suffices. When the fabric which has been dyed
or printed in grey is subjected to heat, as by passing
In i ween heated rollers, the colour is changed at the point of
contact with the roller into a beautiful red with metallic
reflection. Stronger greys give a purple, and weaker greys
a pink colouration. The temperature of formation of the
red lies between 100: and 110° C. The printing of gold
colours presents difficulties, as the gold solution is affected
in the cold by most of the thickening materials available.
The best thickener is gum Senegal. Thus a printing colour
ma\ lie made by adding 0-2 grm. sodium-gold chloride
dissolved in 4 cc. glycerin to 50 cc. gum Senegal thickening.
The fabric priuted with this mixture is then passed over a
heated plate (or treated with a solution of a reducing agent),
in oiiler to develop the colour. The high price of gold
salts is no bar to their use in dyeing, as the quantity used
is very minute. Thus, for the development of a beautiful
pearl-grey shade on half-silk the cost of gold is only about
three farthings per pound weight of material dyed.
— W. E. K.
The Prevention of the Weakening of the Fibre in Dis-
charge Indigo Prints. J. llullerus. Lehne's Earlier
Zeitung, 1891—2, 127. (This Journal, 1892, 33.)
The author recommends that the blue-dyed cloth be padded
in sodium silicate at 2° to 4° B. before the printing on of
the discharge colour, and that a neutral chromate be used
in making the discharge paste. The preservative action of
sodium silicate on the fibre is considered by the author to
be partly chemical and partly mechanical. He explains
Scheurer's failure to get satisfactory results from this
process to the fact that the latter used an acid chromale
discharge colour, the consequence being that the alkalinity'
of the silicate becomes partially or wholly neutralised before
the goods are passed through the discharge vat. — W, E. K.
The Solution of Chloride' of Antimony in .Saturated
Solutions of Sodium Chloride. H. Causse. Compt.
Eend. 1891," 113, 1042—1045.
Chloride of antimony (SbCl:1) in contact with water is
partially decomposed with formation of oxychloride, SbOCl,
and Ditte has proved that in the decomposition the general
laws of dissociation are obeyed. In this paper it is shown
that, without in the least interfering with the reaction
induced by the water, the hydrochloric acid used in dis-
solving the chloride of antimony may be substituted by such
a salt as sodium chloride, and a perfectly neutral solution is
thus obtained.
To a number of solutions of oxide of antimony in hydro-
chloric acid, sodium chloride in excess was added, and then
sodium carbonate solution gradually. The amount of
sodium carbonate to be added so as just to cause precipita-
tion was found to be just that amount necessary to neutralise
the excess of hydrochloric acid. The chloride of antimony
was thus kept in solution by the sodium chloride.- — \V. M. G.
On the Isomeric States of Chromic Sulphate. A. Recount.
Compt. Rend. 113, 1037 — 1040.
In a preceding paper (Comp. Rend. 113 [25], December 14,
1891) the author has shown that chromic sulphate, like the
chloride and bromide, may exist in the solid state in two
distinct isomeric modifications, viz., the green and the
vioh t sulphate, the latter being the normal variety. The
green salt is obtained by preparing the sulphate in presence
of a very small quantity of water.
This solid green sulphate must not ber confounded with
the non-crystallisable basic green sulphate, designated the
" modified sulphate '' by the author, and previously
described by him (Compt. Rend, of June 22nd, 1891) as
existing in a solution of the violet sulphate after boiling.
Three chromic hydrates appear to exist which are
respectively capable of combining with 6, 5, and 4 molecules
of a monobasic acid. They are represented by the
formula Cr»(OH)r„ Cr4O(OH)10 and Cr20(OH)4.
In this paper the author supplements the statements in
Ins previous communications, and discusses the constitution
and some reactions of the solid green sulphate, arriving at
the following conclusions : —
The solid green sulphate of chromium has the same compo-
sition as the violet sulphate, Cr2Os.3 S03. 11 HoO, but must
possess an entirely different constitution. It does not
behave like an ordinary salt since it will not take part in
double decomposition, and the presumption is that the chro-
mium is present in the form of a somewhat stable radicle.
This view is supported by the fact that when decomposed
by alkali, solutions of the green sulphate do not yield the
normal hydrate, but one which is capable of combining only
with 2 molecules of acid.
The solid green sulphate in solution is quite different
from the non-crystallisable modified sulphate already
referred to. Solutions of the solid green sulphate are
slowly transformed into the normal violet modification.
(See also Peligot, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3],14, 239, 1878.)
— W. M. G.
July so, 189.'.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
001
The Action of HypoeJdorous Acid on Wool. E. Lodge.
Jour. Soc Dy. and Col. 8, 60—64.
Mkhcer was the first to point out that wool, after treat-
ment with a solution of bleaching powder has a greatly
increased affinity for colouring matters, and the process has
long been in use by woollen printers, and to a limited extent
by dyers. Afterwards Lightfoot patented the above process
with a view to producing aniline black on wool ; but using
his quantities the wool acquires a brownish-yellow colour
and harsh feel. The author's experiments were made with
a view to ascertaining whether these drawbacks can be
overcome and the process made available in ordinary
dyeing.
Wool treated with a cold solution of 2 to 2j per cent, of
its weight of bleaching powder — acid being added to
liberate the HO . CI — is not discoloured but slightly bleached ;
if 3 per cent, be exceeded or the solution become hot the
brownish-yellow colour appears, but may be removed by
reducing agents, such as SO* or SnCL. The action of
chrome mordant and of colouring matters on wool thus
prepared is given in the following tables : —
TABLE I.
Mordanting with K2Cr.:Or.
10 (inns, of
(I.) Ordinary Wool.
(2.) Prepared Wool.
Grin.
0-3
firm.
03
K5('r=0;left in bath.
0 '18896
0-O7O0S
K,i I-.,! ): .m fibre (by
dill'erenee).
O'llOol
0-22992
Table II.
Results obtained with various colouring matters.
Mordant.
Dye.
Result
compared with
unprepared Wool.
K»Cr„0,
Loawood, Fustic, Alizarin.
Alizarin blue. Alizarin Cyanine
(J. Alizarin Bordeaux, Anthra-
cene brown, Anthracene
yellow.
Gainbine R
None Magenta, Safranine, Brilliant
green.
None i Benzopurpurin, Hessian purple,
Chrysauiine.
None .
None . . .
Induline, Naphthol yellow 8,
Naphthol black. Acid black.
Logwood, Fustic, GambineR ..
Alkali blue, Camwood, Vat
Indigo.
Considerable in-
crease ill depth.
Increase in depth
and much redder.
Very little change.
Very little change.
Great increase in
depth.
Poor result.
Good result.
More details with regard to the above will be found iu
the original paper.
In summing up the results it will be seen that dyes
requiring mordants give the best result on the prepared wool,
which may be accounted for by the increased amount of
mordant fixed. Then come those requiring acid to fix them,
e.g., induline, naphthol black, &c. Those dyed in neutral
baths are little influenced. The bad results obtained with
FeS04 mordant may be attributed to oxidation to ferric
salts, the latter not being good wool mordants.
Owing to our lack of knowledge as to the constitution
of wool, it is difficult to determine the chemical or physical
action of the HO. CI, but the author inclines to the opinion
that oxidation of the fibre takes place. It cannot be a
chlorination since other oxidising agents produce similar
results to those obtained with HO. CI. Probably the
reducing agent existing in wool is rendered inoperative by
the treatment, and quite possibly the fading of many
colours may be attributed to this reducing agent acting as
a carrier of atmospheric oxygen — an idea rendered more
probable from the fact that dyes when fixed with oxidising
mordants {e.ij. K2Cr<;07) are faster to light than when used
in conjunction with alum or tin. The author is now experi-
menting with hypochlorites of aluminium and tin with a
view to preparing and mordanting the wool in one opera-
tion.
Several of the author's statements are at variance with
the results of other experimenters, and require confirmation.
- W. M. G.
The Printing and Steaming of Woollen Tissue?. Oesterr.
Wollen- u. Leinen.-ind. 1892, 12, 62.
Woollen piece-goods are now printed exclusively by
roller, a thick blanket and soft thick back-cloth being
necessary for full impressions. After printing, the pieces
should be dried at a gradually increasing temperature, and
should be exposed to as little heat as possible after
becoming dry. For thickening the printing colours, gum
tragacanth paste, British gum, and soluble, natural gums
are employed. Examples of suitable printing mixtures are
given below.
Black. — For woollen muslins which have been or are
subsequently to be dyed pale shades of blue, rose, cream,
&c, the following mixture is employed : — 2,600 parts of
water ; 775 Naphthol black ; 45 Patent blue B ; 2,400 traga-
canth paste (1 : 60) ; 1,800 British gum ; 30O acetic acid at
6°B; 95 alum and 168 oxalic acid; the whole being well
boiled, then cooled, and whilst cooling mixed with 120 parts
of powdered sodium chlorate.
For printing on scarlet-dyed tissues, a mixture of
Naphthol black and Acid green is preferable to the above.
Bed. — Excellent bright reds are obtained with the various
brands of ponceaux. Ponceau 2R is mostly used, as in the
following recipe : — 1,550 parts of water ; 155 Poncean 2 K,
1,200 tragacanth paste (1:60); 950 British gum; 300
acetic acid at 6°B; 45 alum.
Azocarmiue, in spite of its sparing solubility, is very useful
for crimsons, yielding very even colours.
For dark reds, Azorubin, Amaranth and Amaranth B are
employed. These may be darkened into chocolates, browns,
or prunes by addition of various proportions of Naphthol
black. Pinks are produced with Erythrosra, Rosebengal,
and Rhodamine. The following recipe illustrates the
application of the last-named dye : — 28 parts of Rhodamine,
600 water; 1,200 tragacanth paste (1 : 60); and 650
white dextrin are boiled together and whilst hot mixed with
a solution of 42 parts of tartaric acid in 400 of water.
Orange. — Any acid orange dye may be used iu the same
manner as Ponceau 2 II.
Yellow. — All the yellow dyes available with the exception
of Tartraziu and Milling yellow, which are too expensive
for general use, possess the defect of staining the whites.
Tolerably good results, however, are obtained with Fast
yellow : a standard mixture is made with : — 2,800 parts of
water ; 450 Fast yellow R ; 2,200 tragacanth paste (1 : 60);
1,550 British gum; 775 acetic acid at 6°B; 45 alum; and
then reduced according to the shade required.
Latterly, Uranin (fluorescein) has found employment as
a brightening-colour. It is applied in the same way as
Rhodamine, and although much of it is removed from the
fibre on washing, it does not stain the white.
Brown. — Dark red shades of brown, namely, prune, puce,
&c, are satisfactorily obtained with mixtures of Amaranth
or of Amaranth B and Naphthol black. Yellow shades of
brown are difficult to obtain, the various Acid browns not
printing evenly. That of the Badische Co. can be employed
for small patterns but is quite unfit for ground colours.
Violet. — Acid violet and Formyl violet give good results.
The latter is very suitable for heliotropes.
Green. — Acid green is used along with tartaric acid.
For pale shades Malachite green is also employed.
Blue. — The dark blue grounds so much iu vogue are
obtainable with the following mixture : — 2,600 parts of
D 2
602
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LJulv 30, 1892.
water ; 325 Fast blue 2 B ; 1,400 tragacanth paste (1 :60) ;
1,750 British gum; 0,500 acetic acid at 6J B., which is
boiled and further mixed with 90 parts of stannous chloride
dissolved in 40O parts of water.
Bright blues are produced with Alkali blue or Patent
blue, both of which print very satisfactorily.
Steaming. — This must be carried out immediately after
printing. The goods are wrapped in folds of damp, un-
bleached calico and steamed for three-quarters to one hour,
as a rule without pressure. They are then washed in
running water, and, after squeezing out the excess of water,
passed through a thin paste of gum tragacanth and starch,
and then dried on a stentering-frame and finally hot pressed.
— E. B.
Progress in Wool Dyeing; a Lecture delivered before the
German Society for the Promotion of Industries.
O. X. Witt. Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 142—143.
A striking change in the industry of wool-dyeing is due
to the greatly increased employment of the so-called
Alizarin colouring matters. This has arisen from the
demand made of late years for a high degree of fastness of
dyed colours, combined with richness of shade, the majority
of artificial substantive dyes, although yielding full bright
colours, not being sufficiently fast. The group of Alizarin
colouring matters at present includes many dyestuffs which
are not derivatives of anthracene, and which resemble
alizarin only in their mode of application. Such are
Carbazol yellow and Wool yellow, which belong to the
class of azo-dyes, but which possess the property of com-
bining with the mordanting oxides of the iron group. The
members of the nitroso-class of colouring matters are also
included since they possess the same property. Several of
these, for example, the Gambins (nitrosonaphthols) and Fast
myrtle (dinitrosoresorcinol) are especially C3mtnendable,
on account of the fastness of the colours they yield. The
following compounds are all hydroxy-quinones : —
Alizarin, Alizarin S, ^ S, and 3 S (sulphonic acids of
alizarin, anthrapurpurin, and flavopurpuriu), Alizarin-
orange (i8-nitro alizarin), Alizarin-maroon (an amido-ali-
zarin), Alizarin-blue, Alizarin-indigo-blue, Alizarin-green
(hydroxy-derivatives of Alizarin-blue), Anthracene-brown
(authragallol), Galloflavin, Cocrulein, and Alizarin-black
(dihvdroxy - a-naphthaquinone). Of these, Alizarin-blue
and its allies, Cuerulein and Alizarin-black, owing to
their slight solubility, could not be employed for dyeing
until Brunck discovered a method of rendering them
soluble by treatment with sodium bisulphite. The bisulphite
compounds so produced are distinguished by the marks S,
S YV, fie. The Alizarin-blue colouring matters, as a result
of this discovery, are now largely employed, and rank
amongst the fastest known, surpassing indigo in their
resistance to light, washing, soaping, and particularly to
rubbing. Ccerulei'n and Alizarin-black are also exceedingly
fast. The above colouring matters are almost exclusively
applied on the chrome mordant.
The author, in conclusion, draws attention to the fact
that indigo and logwood are extensively employed in
Germanj- for dyeing military cloths, and recommends, as a
national economy, their speedy replacement for this purpose
by Alizarin-blue and Alizarin-black. — E. B.
Alizarin-black is at present too expensive to compete seri-
ously with logwood, the costs of dyeing black with these two
dyestuffs being in the ratio of 65 : 28. This, however, does
not prevent the first named dye from finding employment
in the production of compound shades, although for this
purpose also there are other artificial colouring matters at
the dyer's disposal which are quite as fast and at the same
time cheaper. It is further worthy of note that a logwood-
black dyed on an iron mordant is much faster to light than
one dyed on chrome. Anthracene brown is perhaps the one
dye of the group worthy of Witt's general praise. This
gives very even and fast shades. Wool-yellow, on the other
hand, is indisputably inferior to fustic in resistance to
light.
The writer agrees with O. X. Witt that a substitution of
the Alizarin colouring-matters for imported dyestuffs in
the dyeing of military goods is desirable, but not on the
ground of the greater fastness of colour in general obtain-
able with the former, but as a means of augmenting the
national wealth of Germany. — E. B.
Progress in Wool Dyeing. Chem. Zeit. 1892, 16, 203.
A criticism of the preceding paper of ( ). X. Witt. The
writer dissents from the opinion that "Alizarin-blue
surpasses indigo in its fastness to light, washing, soaping,
and especially rubbing," asserting that it is well known
that in pale shades the blue is only moderately fast,
particularly to light, and greatly inferior to indigo in this
respect, whilst in dark shades it becomes, on exposure,
darker and duller, whereas indigo retains its primitive
colour. Only to rubbing is Alizarin-blue faster than
indigo, but it has the advantage of penetrating the material
better and of giving better shades than the latter. As
n gards Alizarin, the fact that this colouring matter bleeds
in milling, is an obstacle to its employment for wool.
Progress in Wool Dyeing. O. X'. Witt. Chem. Zeit.
1892, 16, 251—252.
A reply to the anonymous writer of the preceding article.
The author states that he is aware that alizarin is of less
importance in wool dyeing than the other colouring matters
of the group, but that it is employed along with the others
for dyeing compound shades. It gives faster shades on
chrome than on alumina. The fact that several azo-dyes
yield brighter, cheaper, and equally fast colours, will for
most purposes prevent alizarin being largely employed for
wool. With respect to the relative costs of the Logwood
and Alizarin-blacks nothing was said by the author, who
does not deny the greater cost of the latter. He is also
unable to refute his critic's remarks as to the greater
stability towards light of the iron Logwood-black, but
points out that this has long ago been abandoned in favour
of the chrome Logwood-black, and that with regard to its
behaviour towards acids, the iron Logwood-black is almost
as sensitive as litmus paper, whereas Alizarin-black will
withstand without injury carbonisation with acids. The
author further alludes to the apparent inconsistency in his
critic's statement that Alizarin-blue in pale shades is
fugitive, whilst in dark shades it is faster than indigo.
— E. B.
The Reduction in Shade of Dyed Alizarin Colours.
E. Schnabel. Fiirber. Zeit. 1892, 186—189.
To render paler the colours of woollen materials which
have been too deeply dyed, the author recommends, in the
case of the so-called Alizarin colours, treatment with a
solution of potassium permanganate or with hydrogen
peroxide. The treatment with potassium permanganate is
effected by immersing the wool in a solution of 1 "25 per
cent, (of the weight of the material) of the salt, acidified
with 3 per cent, of sulphuric acid ; the wool being moved
about in this bath until the colour of the solution has
changed from purple to brownish-yellow, which requires
from 30 to 50 minutes, and then being treated in a separate
bath with a solution of 10 per cent, of sulphurous acid to
remove from it the brown deposit of manganese dioxide.
This treatment does not sensibly injure the wool, and,
provided the potassium permanganate is completely dis-
solved and the material properly immersed in the solution,
it does not produce any irregularity of shade. The hydrogen
peroxide is applied by diluting it with four volumes of
water, immersing the wool for four hours, and afterwards
slowly drying it. Ammonia may with advantage be added
to the bath, except in treating Alizarin-red, when it must
be omitted, as it alters the hue of the shade. Even when
the peroxide is employed in a concentrated state, the wool
is not injured, so that there is no possibility of impairing the
strength of the fibre by this latter process.
The author has carried out a series of experiments with
the object of measuring the diminution in intensity of shade
produced by each of the above two methods of treatment.
July 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
603
For this purpose a number of patterns was mordanted
with :t per cent, of potassium bichromate and 2*5 per cent.
of tartar and dyed with the various colouring matters
mentioned in the appended table. Portions of them were
then treated in the manner indicated above and compared
with portions kept for reference and with patterns similarly
mordanted hut dyed with different amounts of the same
colouring matters. The results are given below : —
Name of Dye
and quantity
Employed.
Effect of Treatmcnl
with Potassium
Permanganate.
Anthracene-bro^n n
(paste), in per
cent.
t ioerulein (paste),
10 percent.
Alizarin - black
S W (paste),
in per cent.
Alizarin - black
s R W (paste),
10 per cent.
Alizarin - grey G,
10 per cent.
Alizarin - preen
S \V (paste),
10 per cent.
Alizarin - orange
i paste), 10 per
eent.
Galloflavin (paste)
io per cent.
All'/, II LU - V: How
(paste), 10 per
cent.
All /.arm W 1!
(paste), 10 per
cent.
Alizarin S fpow-
ilcl'l, 2 percent.
Alizarin-blue S W
(paste), in per
cent .
Alizarin-blue "W X
t paste), lo per
cent.
Alizarin - blue
D X YV (paste).
10 per cent.
Alizarin-blue "W B
(paste), io per
cent.
Alizarin-blue WG
(paste), io per
cent.
Loses about 55 per
cent, of colour.
Becomes much paler
and yellower ; original
shade may be re-
obtained by dyeing
with % per cent, ol
Alizarin - blue S \V
(paste).
Is changed to a shade
obtainable with 3*6
per eent. of Alizarin-
black and 2'5 pel
ftattf r\( Aiitliii*ir»iiti»i.
cent, of Anthr
brown.
- per
•acene-
Affected similarly to
preceding dye.
Loses 20 per cent, and
becomes redder.
Loses 15 to 20 per cent,
Is rendered slightly
paler and yellower.
Loses its reddish hue
and is reduced about
20 per cent.
Becomes redder and
slightly duller.
Paler and much yel-
lower, resembling
shade obtained with
3 percent, of Alizarin
w B and 2 per eent.
of Alizarin S (pow-
der).
Is changed similarly
to preceding dye, but
to a less extent.
Loses 10 per cent.
Affected similarly to
preceding dye.
Loses 5 to 10 per cent.
Is not so much altered
as Alizarin-bine S \V ;
hue unaffected,
Loses 20 to 25 per cent.
Effecl of Treatment
with Hydrogen
Peroxide.
Loses about 60 per
cent, j shade becomes
yellower.
Becomes much' paler.
duller, and redder;
similar to shade ob-
tained with 8 percent,
of Ccerulei'n and 1 per
cent, of Anthracene*
brown.
I, oses 20 to 25 percent.
Loses 40 per cunt.
Become* paler and
redder, like shade
produced with 5 per
cent, of Alizarin-grev
R.
Loses about 20 percent,
and becomes rather
yellower.
Unaltered.
Is changed to
drab.
dull
Is changed to a buff-
yellow, like that ob-
tained with lo pei-
cent. of Galluilavin
w.
Unaltered.
Unaltered.
Loses about 20 per
cent. ; shade rendered
greyer.
Affected similarly to
preceding dya.
Loses about
cent, and
duller.
10 per
becomes
Is rendered much paler
and duller, similar to
shade obtained with
1 percent, of Alizarin-
black S \V, and 15 per
cent, of Alizarin-blue
SW.
Much paler and greyer;
shade resembles that
obtained with 3 per
cent, of Alizarin-blue
SW, and 2 to 2'5 per
eent. of Coerule'in.
Name of Dye,
and Quantity
Employed.
Effect of Treatment
with Potassium
Permanganate.
Effect of Treatment
with Hydrogen
Peroxide.
Alizarin - indico -
blue S M W
(paste), in per
cent.
Alizarin - indigo -
blueSW (paste)
10 per cent.
Oallein (paste),
in per cent.
Alizarin-blue It R,
10 per cent.
Alizarin - black-
blue, 10 per
cent.
Alizarin - oyanin
3 Ei extra (paste)
10 per cent.
A pale shade of
indigo similarly
treated.
Unaltered
Loses about 15 per eent .
Loses about IS per
cent, and becomes
greyer.
Is very little changed
Doses about 15 per cent.
Rendered very slightly
greener in hue.
Loses about 40 per
cent, and becomes
yellower and duller.
Loses \7> to 50 per cent,
and becomes greyer.
Is very little changed,
rather brighter.
Loses about 20 percent.
Loses about 15 per cent.
Is reduced about 25
per cent., but is not
altered in hue.
■ Loses about 40 per cent.
and becomes redder
and duller.
Is rendered only paler.
— E.B.
Note on the Application of Alizarin Yellows, 2 G and It.
P, Werner. Bull. Soc. Inst. Mulhouse, 1892, 198—199.
See under IV., page 599.
VII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
The Metallic Borates. H. Le Chatelier. Compt. Rend.
1891,113, 1034— 103G.
The author considers that the chemistry of the borates is
in a very unsatisfactory condition, since one finds indicated
in books no less than 1 1 proportions in which boric acid
can combine with bases.
The only borates of which the formula? have been
indisputably established are the two hydrates of boric acid
B:03-H20(BO(OH)) and B30:1.3 H20(B(OH)3).
Acid borates containing more than one equivalent of
add to one of base do not exist, anhydrous borates to
which such formula; have been attributed being mixtures.
The substances —
4 B203.3 MgO; 3 B203.2 MgO ; and 2 B,03SfO
are specially characterised as mixtures.
Hydrated acid borates all contain water which does not
volatilise in vacuo at 100° C , or even in some cases at
150° C. This cannot be taken to be water of crystallisation,
but must be considered as water of constitution, as in the
case of the phosphates.
The only borates of which the formula: can now be
considered established belong, therefore, to one of the
four types —
BsO,.3 M20 ; B„Os.2 M20 ; 2 B.A.3 M20; B203.MX>
— W. M. a.
PATENTS.
Improved Process or Means or Arrangements for the
Manufacture of Carbonic Acid Gas. 1). Kylands,
Barnsley, Yorkshire. Eng. Pat. 9575, June 5, 1891.
Bicarbonate of soda or any other suitable material from
which carbonic acid gas may be evolved by merely heating
is subjected to the action of heat in a series of retorts.
The evolved gas is either stored in gasometers, or pumped
(J04
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTET. [ July so, 1882.
into cylinders, or used directly. The residue is, of course,
much more valuable commercially than is that usually
obtained where the carbonic acid gas is generated by the
action of an acid.— T. L. B.
Improvements in the Treatment of Waste Liqours from
Metallurgical Processes to Obtain Sulphurous or
Sidphuric Acid and Lime. A. T. Hall, Hull. Eng.
Pat. 3947, June 11, 1891.
See under X., page 613.
Improvements in the Treatment of Wattle Liquors from
Metallurgical Processes to Obtain Sulphurous or
Sulphuric Acid and Oxide of Iron. A. T. Hall, Hull.
Eng. Pat. 9948, June 11, 1891.
See under X., page 613.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Potassium Carbonate.
A. Dupre, Westminster, Middlesex. From F. Dupre,
Stassfurt, Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,630, June 22, 1891.
163 parts of water together with 53 parts of sodium
carbonate and 42 parts of sodium bicarbonate are heated
together to 4o C, after which 50 parts of potassium
sulphate are added every quarter of an hour for six or
eight times, the temperature having been gradually raised
to 70° — 75° C. Finally the whole is filtered rapidly ; the
filtiate on cooling deposits some potassium sulphate and
sodium bicarbonate, leaving a solution of nearly pure
potassium carbonate, which now merely requires evapo-
ration. By using sodium carbonate alone instead of both
carbonate and bicarbonate, the solution of potassium
carbonate obtained is less pure. The potassium sodium
sulphate obtained as residue in the first operation is, for
the purpose of reconversion into potassium sulphate, treated
with a solutiou of potassium chloride. — T. L. B.
A -V< w or Improved Method or Process for the Production
of Alkaline I 'i/anides. P. E. de Lambilly, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 1032, January 19, 1892.
When ammonia gas is passed over a heated mixture of
carbonate of sodium, or of potassium, or of barium, aud
finely powdered charcoal, the corresponding cyanide of the
metal is obtained. The patentee works the process in two
stages ; first of all he passes ammonia over heated charcoal
for the purpose of obtaining ammonium cyanide, and this
is then passed over the mixture of sodium carbonate and
charcoal after heating this to redness. — T. L. B.
An Improved Process for the Purifieaiion of Brine.
C. G. Collins, Woodsburgh, King's County, 17. 8. A.
Eng. Pat. 4527, March 8, 1892.
The brine is treated simultaneously with oxygen and an
electric current having an electro-motive force not ex-
ceeding 2.V volts. The impurities are then removed
mechanically. A diagrammatic sketch is given. — T. L. B.
Method for Making Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydrate).
J. C. Odv. Millbrook, near Southampton. Eng. Pat.
5425, March 19, 1892.
To a solution of calcium phosphate is added a solution of
sulphate of soda. The clear solution of phosphate of soda
obtained is boiled with caustic lime whereby phosphate of
lime is precipitated and a solution of caustic soda obtained.
_T. L. B.
YIII.-GLASS, POTTEEY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
The Mirror and Plate-Glass Industry of Bohemia. Report
of the U.S. Consul at Prague. Board of Trade J., July
1892, 9—13.
The following account of the mirror aud plate-glass
industry of Bohemia is extracted from a recent report by
the United States Consul at Prague : —
For over 200 years the mirror-glass industry has been
established in Bohemia, just across the Bavarian frontier,
this location being selected on account of the good,
plentiful, and inexpensive supply of fuel guaranteed by the
surrounding forests. In fact, it is claimed that the first
impulse to the building of glass works was given by the
owners of forests, who thereby sought to render their
position more profitable.
In 1728 the Austrian Government started a mirror-glass
factory at Neuhaus; but the enterprise was a failure, in
spite of Governmental subventions, and was abandoned.
The production of large mirrors in France and the per-
fection of silvering by the quicksilver process had the effect
of stimulating the manufacture in Bohemia, and at the
beginning of the nineteenth century mirrors with a surface
of 3 square metres were turned out. The perfection of the
casting process restricted the manufacture in the Bohemian
glass works to the smaller sizes of blown or shfet gla^s.
To get an insight into the mirror-glass manufacture of
Bohemia it is essential first of all to take account of the
production of the crude or unwrought glass. Here a
distinction must he made between the production by the
blowing process and that by the casting or rolling process.
Blown or sheet mirror-glass is made by seven firms in
Bohemia, operating 20 glass furnaces, in which are 120
glass pots. One firm is engaged in the production of rolled
glass, operating one furnace with 12 glass pots. In
the refining process — i.e., grinding, smoothing, polishing,
and silvering — there are 10 firms engaged. As already
expluined, the unwrought glass is blown or rolled, and
mirror-glass is accordingly divided into sheet glass and
rolled glass. The rolled glass is called crystal glass in
commerce, and sheet glass sometimes thin mirror-glass,
The reason for this lies in the fact that sheet glass has a
thickness of only 5 millimetres, while rolled glass is often
over 10 millimetres thick.
In both processes the glass mixture is melted iu about
the same manner, and the purest and best materials are
used. The process in the factory from the moment when
the glass is run out of the glass pots is something after the
following description : —
The glass pots have to be refilled, and this is the work of
the smelter. The various component materials— crystal
sand, soda, calcite, charcoal, and powdered arsenic — are
mixed in the proper proportions acd placed iu the empty
glass pot, this filling being repeated after an interval of four
or five hours. After the smelter has put in the second
quantity, he heats the furnace to such a point that melting
begins in 12 or 14 hours. When the mixture is melted,
the smelter must see to it that it is clear aud free from air
bubbles, for which purpose he purifies the glass by subjecting
it to a more intense heat. This purifying is accomplished
generally in about eight hours. The glass being in a molten
condition, the finishing process begins. When the glass is
to be blown, a wait of 10 or 12 hours has to take place,
until the liquid glass has become thick enough for the
glass-blower to take it up on his blow pipe. On the other
baud, when glass is to be rolled, the contents of the glass
pot are poured on the casting table immediately after
melting and rolled at once, the fluidity of the glass being
an essential in this process.
In both the blowing and rolling processes of manufacturing
crude mirror-glass, the glass is unwrought and imperfectly
transparent. In order to even the rough surface, the grinding
apparatus is used, and, after being properly ground, the
polisher imparts the clear, shining surface to it. Both the
grinding and the polishing of mirror-glass is done by machi-
nery, while the smoothing is best done by hand ; but even
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
605
the smoothing process is effected by means of machinery in
the case of large-sized plates.
Grinding and Smoothing. — In the process of grinding,
a huge flat stone rests on a solidly constructed wooden
base, and on the top of this stone, a layer of burnt and
sifted gypsum is placed, when is then converted into a
pasty cement by adding water. This cement is spread
evenly on the stone, and the glass is laid upon it and
pressed firmly until it adheres to the gradually hardening
gypsum. A somewhat smaller stone, called the upper
stone, is similarly prepared, and another plate of glass laid
upon it, when the two stones are brought together so that
the glass surfaces touch each other. A twofold motion is
given to the upper stone — about its own axis and in a circle
from right to left. Sand and water are then poured
between the two glass surfaces, and the grinding begins by
setting the upper stone in motion, the power being supplied
by machinery. The first grinding begins, and the surface
of the glass gradually becomes smooth, the elevations in
the glass being reduced by the sand. As the two plates of
glass begin to show an even surface, finer sand is used, and
the so-called second grinding takes place. After one side
of the glass is ground, it is turned over and the reverse side
submitted to the same operation. The sand used has
seven different grains, from the coarsest to the finest.
When both surfaces have been made even in the manner
described, there is still too rough a surface to permit of
successful polishing, and they must be subjected to the
smoothing process. Here, again, one glass is laid upon
the other, and a cement of continually increasing fineness
used, the cement being applied to the moist and rough glass
surface, and the surfaces carefully rubbed together by
hand. After the smoothing process is finished the glass is
carefully examined and all flawless pieces given to the
polishers, while those containing flaws are cut up into
small sizes.
Polishing. — Polishing is done by specially-constructed
machinery, and is, properly speaking, an advanced stage of
smoothing. It differs from the smoothing process in that
the glass surfaces are not applied to each other, but a wooden
or iron surface, covered with cloth, is substituted, and
further, that a fine mixture of oxide of iron replaces the
harder cement. The polisher Axes the glass by means of
plaster or cement to a firm support, usually a flat stone,
and moistens the cloth-covered rubbing implement, which
receives a forward and backward motion by connexion with
mechanical apparatus. The polishing implement is kept in
motion until that portion of the glass over which it passes
has obtained a high polish, when the glass is moved so as
to expose another portion of its surface to the polisher.
When the entire surface is polished, and it contains no
flaws, it is ready for the silvering process. The large minor-
glasses are often put on the market, however, in the
polished condition, especially the large rolled plates which
are used for show windows.
In describing the foregoing different processes for pre-
paring mirror-glass, it remains to be said that a so-called
circular grinding apparatus has come into use lately in
Bohemia, especially in the grinding of rolled glass. This
apparatus is expensive, but it does the work at least five
times as rapidly as by the other process. For rolled glass
machinery is also used in the smoothing process, and a
circular polishing apparatus has been introduced. This
apparatus has been used in Bohemia only for rolled glass.
After the polishing it is only necessary to put a face on
the glass and it goes to the silverer, who gives the essential
qualities of the mirror to it. In Bohemia both quicksilver
and silver are used for this purpose. The quicksilver
process is really the application of an amalgam of tin to the
glass surface, the silver process the precipitation of nitrate
of silver on the glass. The quicksilver process is being
almost entirely replaced by the silver process in late years,
both on account of the greater facility of the process and
on account of the less injurious effect on the health of the
workmen, so that almost all of the mirrors now are silvered
ones.
The wages of glass-blowers, grinders, polishers, and
smoothers in Bohemia are calculated by the piece,
according to its size. In the rolled-glass manufacture the
workmen are paid monthly wages, the average monthly
wages being 50 florins. As compared with other countries
the wages paid are very low. The common day labourer
averages 50 kreutzers a day in the winter and 60 kreutzers
a day in the summer. A glass-blower can average from 200
to 250 florins a month under favourable conditions. lu
the glass refineries a workman earns from 20 to 50 florins
per month according to his employment. Skilled workmen
are paid from 1 to I- 50 florins per day, unless they work
by the piece. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Method of Manufacturing Glass
Bricks. H. 1). KitzPatriek, Glasgow. From M. Selireiber
and L. Oettinger, Berliu. Eng. Pat. -1 .">.;.">, March 8,
1891.
The glass bricks are intended to replace the glazed or
enamelled bricks as at present manufactured. The glazed
or enamelled bricks do not stand the effects of weather,
moisture entering through cracks in the glaze and ulti-
mately penetrating the body of the brick, with the result
that the glazing breaks ofl. Moreover, the glazing being
applied in a very thin coat is easily damaged, and it is
impossible subsequently to repair such damaged bricks.
The new bricks are made of glass or the front part is
made of glass backed by some other material. When
wholly of glass, the bricks are made hollow but of such
thickness as to be of sufficient strength. If it is desired to
have a coloured or ornamental face to the brick it is made
in a divided mould, the material for the front part being
run in and pressed first, the material for the back part,
being ruu in afterwards but whilst the front part is still
hot. The divided mould is also used when it is desired to
make the front part of the brick of better quality of glass.
— V. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Glass. T. C. J.
Thomas, Loudon. Eng. Pat. 798s, May 9, 1891.
The inventor was granted a patent (12,076,1886; this
Journal, 1888, 35), for eliminating impurities in the molten
grit by subjecting the material to the action of a blast of
oxygen.
The present invention consists iu heating the said blast
of oxygen, or of using heated atmospheric air instead of
oxygen. The latter is the cheaper method, though of
course a larger volume of gas has to be used. The air
or oxygen is heated by a hot blast stove or by an air
regenerator. — V. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Tanks or Boxes and
other Articles of Glass, and iu Mechanism or Appliances
to be used in the said Manufacture. J. Armstrong, West
Bromwich. Eng. Pal. 10,454, June 19, 1891.
The present patent relates to improvements in the invention
patented May 2, 1889, 7346.
According to the invention patented in 1889, tanks, &c.
are made by fusing together the edges of five plates
arranged in suitable positions. The uew furnaces now
employed are furnished with vertical and horizontal
openings for the introduction of the heating appliances and
pressing tools. A special swivelling mould has been intro-
duced, by means of which the different sides of the tank
or other article can be readily brought into position. For.
making cylindrical articles a roll or drum has been intro-
duced. The drum is furnished with a gripper. One of the
edges of the glass having been bound to the drum, a
complete rotation given to the said drum forms the giass
into a hollow cylinder. Lastly the bloiv-pipe used for
fusing together the edges of the several glass sheets or
plates carries with it a pressing roll, which, being applied
immediately after the blow-pipe, joins together the heated
and softened edges. — V. C.
GOG
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30,1892.
Improvements in and Connected with Kilns for Annealing
Plate Glass. \V. W. Pilkington, St. Helens. Eng. Pat.
10,661, June 23, 1891.
The object of this invention is to enable plates to be readily
deposited in the kiln, to permit of them having a con-
siderable period of repose before being moved into the
cooling-off leer or tunnel, and to provide improved means
of moving the plates through the leer. A chamber on wheels
is provided to receive the plates on leaving the casting table
in which they are conveyed to the compartments. Carriers
are provided in the leers by which the plates are transferred
from oue compartment to another. These carriers may be
constructed with two or more platforms. — V. C.
Art Improved Method of Producing Marbled Glass. C.
F. E. Grosse, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 7792, April 25, 1892.
Hitherto marbled glass has only been produced in smelting,
and the expense of this method has limited its application.
In this invention, instead of colouring the whole mass of
the glass, the surface only is coloured. Any colour may be
used, but preferably an opaque colour. When the blower
has brought the last charge to the pipe, and has worked the
mass regularly, a finely -ground flux is either sieved on or
blown on by means of a blower. The mass, now somewhat
cooled, is replaced in the furnace till the coloured flux has
fused. By proper manipulation the colour can be made to
assume the most varied forms. — V. C.
IX.-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Machines for making Bricks, files, and
Similar Articles from Plastic Clay or other Material.
S. Jefferies, Stroud. Eng. Pat. 9216, June 1, 1891.
The improvement consists in making the severance of the
stream of clay, as it issues from the brick-making machine,
automatic iustead of depending upon the attention of the
labourer in charge. For this purpose two devices are
described, the first consisting in mounting the cutting wires
on a frame capable of being traversed horizontally and
actuated by mechanism set in motion by the pressure of the
eud of the stream of clay on a stop at the end of the table
on which it travels. Iu the case of the second, the cutting
wires are not drawn through the stream of clay, but a
definite length of the latter is cut off by the first wire,
which alone makes the traversing motion referred to, and
the bar of clay thus measured out is thrust against the wires
which are stationary. — B. B.
Improvements in the Treatment of Stone, Brickwork.
Mortar, Plaster, or Stucco, and the like, for Preventing
Deterioration thereof. II. Aitken, Darroch. Eng. l'at.
11, 2(i'.l, July 1, 1891.
The patentee is of opinion that the decay of stone, brick-
work, plaster, stucco, and the like arises in great measure
from the attacks of living organisms, and accordingly
proposes to stop these ravages by treating the material to
be preserved with some substance inimical to low forms of
life. Such are mercuric chloride, potassium cyanide,
carbolic acid, paraffin oil, vinegar, naphthalene, and carbonic
oxide. These substances are introduced into the pores of
the material to be protected in a mauner to be determined
by their nature and that of the building material, by
applying them in solution, with or without heat or pressure.
If soluble or volatile, they may be prevented from escaping
by coating the surface of the material to which they have
been applied by some such substance as parattiu wax. In
general, the patentee prefers to use mercuric chloride in
aqueous solution, 1 part in 15 or 30 being suitable for walls,
and 1 in 500 for cement or stucco. Colouring or odorising
agents may be added to the preservatives to prevent their
accidental consumption by human beings or animals. — B. B.
An Improved Composition containing Coal Tar, Applicable
as a Preservative Composition or Cement for Building
or other Purposes. H. Seiling, Alden, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 14,948, September 4, 1891.
One kilo, of coal tar is mixed while hot with one quarter
of a litre of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1 • 5, and the product
mixed with one half to the whole of its weight of unburnt
powdered gypsum. The composition is said to stick to wet
surfaces, and to be useful for making walls and rooting
damp proof. — B. B.
The Manufacture of an Improved Compound for Coating
Walls or other Surfaces, and for Analogous Purposes.
X. Norwood. Denmark Hill. Eng. Pat. 21,374, December?,
1891.
The patent relates to a composition similar to that described
in Eng. Pat. 21,199 of 1891 (this Journal, 1892, 525), which
consists essentially of a mixture of glue and plaster of
Paris. In this case one hundredweight of whiting is mixed
with 5 to 8 lb. of glue without the addition of water, and
heated until the mass is rendered friable, when it may be
reduced to powder. Water may be added in the course of
preparation, if insufficient be present in the whiting and
glue to effect the desired blending. Half a pound to a
pound and a half of zinc sulphate may be added if
required. The product, which may be coloured by any
suitable means, is said to be usable with cold instead of hot
water. — B. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement
for Building Purposes, V. 1". I,. Smidth, Copenhagen,
Denmark. Eng. Pat. 6745, April 8, 1892.
Hydraulic cement is mixed with sand, gravel, or ballast,
and finely ground, constituting a mixture which the patentee
calls " sand cement." This composition is said to form an
efficient mortar when mixed with sand or other inert
aggregate in the same manner as undiluted cement, the
grinding causing the cement to be distributed very evenly
throughout the mass, and thus coat the sand particles more
perfectly. A dilution of as much as 16 parts of sand to
one of cement is said to be attainable without unduly
impairing the adhesive power of the cement. — B B.
Improvements in the Construction of Kilns fir Burning
Limestone, Cement, and other similar Materials.
J. Briggs, Clitheroe. Eng. Pat. 730S, April 16, 1892.
The kiln consists of an inverted truncated cone with a
domed roof, into which a conical hopper serves to convey
the limestone or other material to be burnt, mixed with a
small quantity of fuel. The bulk of the fuel is introduced
by side openings provided with cast-iron covers. The
burnt lime or cement is drawn off at the bottom by a door
provided for that purpose. In the construction of the kiln
a thickness of about 2 ft. of clay should be left behind the
brickwork, the result being that this eventually forms a
compact mass serving to support the walls of the kiln. — B. B.
Jul- 10,1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
607
Improvements in and in the Manufacture of Plaster for
Building Purposes. W. 1'. Thompson, Liverpool. From
L. 0. Roeser-Miiller and B. Deike, Munich, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 7502, April 20, 1892.
A " porous plaster " for building purposes is formed by
adding bicarbonate of soda alone or with a limited amount
of dilute acid to ordinary plaster of Paris. The following
is the prescription giveu. " For 1 cubic centimetre (sic)
of porous plaster: 500 grms. gypsum + 700 to 750 grins,
water, 23 grms. bicarbonate soda, 20 grms. sulphuric acid
5 per cent., 23 grms. bicarbonate soda, 15 grms. sulphuric
acid 5 per cent. In place of the acids, equivalent quantities
of salts (such as acid tartrates, acetate of alumina, &e.)
may bo employed." The composition is said to be light,
1 cubic metre weighing only 640 kilos., as against 1,230
kilos, for ordinary plaster of Paris also to be a bad conductor
of heat and sound, and to be unaffected by dry rot even when
it contains, as an alternative, wooden laths, osiers, rushes,
and the like organic material. — B. 1!.
An Improvement in the Art of Making Mortar. E. T.
Warner and J. F. Curry, Wilmington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
7850, April 2G, 1892.
The method applies to ordinary and not to hydraulic
mortar, and consists in the preparation of the lime by
admixture with water, and if necessary sifting or straining
and subsequent settling in a tank or reservoir until it
assumes a putty-like smoothness, and mixing with sand
in a mortar mixer. The mortar mixer may be of any
ordinary construction, but that illustrated and described
consists of a circular trough, rotated about a vertical axis
by toothed gearing, and provided with two stirring shafts
and a conical valve for permitting the discharge of the
mortar from the bottom of the pan when mixture is com-
plete. The chief claim is the thorough slaking of the
lime and the production of a homogeneous paste therefrom.
— B. B.
X.-METALLUKaY.
The Estimation of Slag in Wrought. Iron. A. E. Barrows
and T. Turner. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [113], 122— 123.
See under XXIII., page C36.
Temperatures Developed in Industrial Furnaces. H. Le
Chatelier. Compt. Rend. 114, 470 — 173.
A SERIES of determinations of the temperatures developed
in certain processes have been made by M. Le Chatelier
employing his recently improved pyrometric methods. The
scale of temperatures adopted was that of Violle, viz. : —
Melting points of
Gold.
its'
1,045"
Palladium.
1,500°
Platinum.
The following results were obtained : —
Melting point of white Swedish pig-iron 1,135°
grey cast iron 1,820
ingot iron (carbon = 0'1 per
cent.) 1,475
mild steel (carbon = 0*3 per
cent.) 1,453
„ ,, hard steel (carbon = 0*9 per
cent.) 1,410
Temperature of the flame from a Bessemer " Uobert "
converter : —
At the "boil" period 1,330°
At the finish 1,580
Bessemer steel and slags (after pouring) : —
Temperature of slag i,;>m)
„ of steel in the ladle 1,010
of stoel in the mould 1,580
„ of solidification of the scale 1,340
,, of reheating furnace 1,200
,, of ingot under the hammer 1,080
Siemens-Martin furnace with charge of mild steel : —
Temperature of the gaseous fuel on leaving
the producer 720°
,, of the gaseous fuel on entering
the regenerator 400
„ of the gaseous fuel on leaving
the regenerator 1,200
,. of the air on leaving the re-
generator i,o.)0
„ of waste gases going to the
chimney 300
„ of furnacewhenthechargemelts 1,420
„ of furnace during refining 1,500
of the tapped metal in the ladle
at the beginning 1,580
,. of the tapped metal in the ladle
at the finish 1,490
„ of the tapped metal in the mould 1,520
For ingot iron the temperatures are 50° higher, but the
same difference exists between the temperature of the metal
at the beginning and end of the tapping, indicating that the
bath is hotter in the centre than at the sides. In the
Siemens-Pernot furnaces the last portions of the tappings
are the hottest.
Siemens crucible steel-melting furnace : — ■
Temperature of the space between the
crucibles 1,600°
Rotary puddling furnace : —
Temperature of the east iron in the ladle 1.340°
.. „ „ furnace . 1,210
of the bloom at the end of the
operation 1,330
Blast furnace producing grey-pig for Bessemerising : —
Temperature of hearth in front of tuyere 1,930°
„ of charge on tapping first
portions 1,400
„ of charge on tapping last por-
tions 1,570
Crucible furnace for glass-making : —
Temperature of the furnace between crucibles 1,875°
„ of the glass in the crucibles
(luring fining 1,310
„ of the glass in the crucibles
during working 1,045
„ of windowglassduringspreading 600
Siemens glass-melting furnace : —
Temperature of furnace 1,400°
„ of melted glass 1,310
„ of buttles during annealing..., 585
Siemens furnace for illuminating gas heated by a
producer burning coke : —
Temperature of the furnace at the top 1,190°
„ ,. bottom... 1,045
of retort at close of distillation
1 m. from the tap 875
of retort at close of distillation
l'5m. from the tap 950
„ of waste gases going to the
chimney G80
Furnace for firing hard porcelain : —
Temperature at the finish 1,370°
Hard porcelains are fired at almost exactly the same
temperature in different localities, as Sevres, Bayeux, &c.
Hoffmann furnace for red bricks : — ■
Temperature of firing 1,100°
Electricity : —
Temperature of incandescent lamps 1 ,800°
r„,s
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Jui.v3u.is92.
This determination was made on a lamp in ordinary
working order. When hard pressed the temperature may
exceed 2,100°.
The author concludes by drawing attention to the abnormal
lowness of the temperatures given above, and suggests that
the higher values generally received are affected by one or
more of the following sources of error : — 1st, The selection
of the highest value from a number of determinations owing
to the feeling that the temperature of a body should be
proportional to its brilliancy and to the quantity of fuel cou-
sumed in heating it, which factors iu reality, however, increase
much more rapidly than the temperature. 2nd. The use of
a pyrometric method with the assumption that the specific
heat of iron is constant. 3rd. The fusion of platinum in
gases charged with particles of molten metal, and the
conversion of palladium into a spongy mas? by a temporar}*
oxidation or hydrogeuation. — S. B. A. A.
A Non-oxidising Process of Annealing. H. P. Jones.
Eng. and Mining J. 1892, 53, 83.
This paper records experiments on a non-oxidising process
for annealing iron and steel. The usual process of anneal-
ing consists in heating the metal to a red heat and then
allowing it to cool slowly. During this operation the metal
becomes oxidised and a scale is formed which is expensive
to remove. The new process consists iu heating the metal
in a retort which is filled with illuminating gas and is in
communication with a gas holder containing gas, by which
means allowance is made for the expansion and contraction
of the latter and for any slight leakage. The articles after
treatment are perfectly bright, and articles which have been
blued or oxidised can be rendered bright by this means. A
further great advantage is that the process is entirely
mechanical and requires no technical skill on the part of the
operator.
In order to obtain an idea of the value of the process,
specimens of metal produced by it were compared with
others obtained by heating in the open fire, and cooling iu
ashes, and also with specimens which had been annealed in
nitrogen, since it has been stated in connexion with non-
oxidising annealing processes that "nitrogen should be
perfectly harmless and efficient ; hydrogen and hydrogen-
bearing gases might be injurious ; carbonic acid would oxidise
the iron ; and even carbonic oxide would oxidise it slightly,
but perhaps so slightly that its effects would be wholly
removed in drawing." (H. M. Howe, Metallurgy of Steel,
18111, p. 225.) The specimens heated in coal-gas and
nitrogen respectively were placed in retorts which were
heated in the same tire and for the same length of time.
The experiments were made on steel wire turned down to
diameter of 0-156 and 0- 150 in., and the resulting specimens
were compared by determining their elongation. The
general results were that samples obtained with illuminating
gas were practically as good as those with nitrogen, the
percentage of elongation being generally slightly greater
with nitrogen than with illuminating gas, so that if the value
of the metal be taken as equal to the product of the per-
centage of elongation by breaking load, then the value
would be slightly greater with nitrogen than with illuminat-
ing gas. Specimens annealed iu the open fire gave elonga-
tions much below those of specimens annealed in either gas.
Representing the efficiency of metal annealed in nitrogen as
loo then that obtained with illuminating gas is 95, and that
of the ordinary process 86. — H. K. T.
The Uses and Applications of Aluminium. G. L. Adden-
brooke. Jour. Soc. Arts, 40, 661—668.
The author stated that the scope of this paper was limited
to pure aluminium, or to the metal alloyed with a few per
cents, only of other metals, and did not extend to so-called
" aluminium bronzes " containing only a few per cents, of
aluminium.
Three years ago the cost of the pure metal was about 60s.
per lb., when the Deville-Castner process was put into
operation, which was expected to produce it at about 20s.
per lb. But the more recently introduced electrolytic
methods have rapidly brought the price down. A year ago
the Pittsburg Reduction Co. announced that they were
prepared to supply it at 4s. 2d. per lb., and at present the
Aluminium Industry Co., of Neuhausen in Switzerland,
supply it of 99 per cent, guaranteed purity at 2s. per lb., a
cost bulk for bulk not much greater than that of copper.
The two patented processes under which most of the
aluminium at present produced is manufactured are those of
Hall and Heroult, which are almost identical. In both cases
alumina is dissolved in a flux of the fluorides of aluminium
and sodium. The fused mass is placed in an iron furnace
thickly lined with carbon, which forms the cathode of an
electric circuit. A large block of carbon carried on an
adjustable support so that it can be dipped into the cavity
of the furnace forms the anode. Two or more of these
furnaces are arranged iu series, the anode of the first being
connected with the cathode of the second, and so on.
Iu starting the plant the carbons are brought well down
into the furnaces and the current from a dynamo is turned
on. At first there is a good deal of resistance, but as the
materials in the furnace get warm this decreases, and the
anodes can be raised somewhat. Decomposition of the
alumina takes place at about a full red heat, the oxygen
partly unites with the carbon and is given off as carbouie
oxide, and partly escapes free, while the aluminium sinks to
the bottom and gradually accumulates. It is tapped off
periodically into moulds, and more material added, so that
the process is " continuous." Verj- little of the tiux is spent
in the operation, aud the furnaces are not expensive.
The four chief items of cost are the cost of the electric-
energy, of the materials used, wages and superintendence,
and interest, &c. on capital employed. In the Hall process
22 electric horse-power at a potential of 8 to 10 volts
produce 1 lb. of aluminium per hour for about 56 lb. of coal,
or, with coal at 10s. per ton, about 3d. for this item. The
alumina costs about 301. per ton, and yields about 50 per
cent, of its weight of metal, or say &d. per lb. for the
aluminium produced. The plant with all buildings and
accessories can be erected for 30/. per indicated horse-power
available, which would represent about 6/. per annum to be
spread over 300 lb. of aluminium per annum. Reckoning 20
per cent, for maintenance, interest, and profit, this represents
5d. per lb. We have thus for the three items specified
Is. 2d. per lb., so that adding the cost of labour and super-
intendence— which must vary greatly according to the scale
of working— the present price of 2s. per lb. cannot leave
much margin on the present small output, which for the
four principal works is estimated at only 2,600 lb. per day.
At the same time the present selling price is sufficiently near
the remunerative level to prevent any great advance except
by a reduction of output or an agreement among the
manufacturers.]
To get further cheapness there must be a larger produc-
tion aud demand, which " must come within a moderate
time." Future improvements are likely to be in the
direction of cheaper alumina or other salt of aluminium,
and more direct methods of applying heat, &c. in operating
the furnaces, which now utilise only 25 per cent, of the
energy produced.
The cast metal is now produced 99 per cent, pure, is rather
harder than copper, and works like it, but is somewhat brittle
instead of being extremely tough. An addition of 2 or 3
per cent, of silicon renders it harder and stronger, but
decreases its malleability.
Admixture with iron altogether spoils it ; a few per cents,
of copper, zinc, tin, or nickel, while improving some of its
qualifies, injure others, and the alloys do not stand remelt-
ing well. In fact no simple alloy seems to produce what is
wanted. The very white complex alloy made by the
Phoenix Engineering Co. seems to promise much better
results, being hard, fairly malleable, and improved by
remelting up to a certain point. It seems likely to be useful
for many purposes where a fair degree of strength and
rigidity is needed, together with lightness and incorrodibility.
The alloy with silver, and Professor Roberts-Austen's rose-
pink gold alloy are for obvious reasons not likely to have
any wide application.
Ingots of alumiuium for rolling should be as pure as
possible. They cau be rolled dowu to -nrffijth of an inch
July so. 1882.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
609
without annealing, when the}' are hard and springy, but can
be readily softened by heating to a temperature of about
400°. The annealed sheets have a wide range of application,
particularly for ornamentation and small vessels, as they
can be readily stamped and spun.
Aluminium can he beaten into foil ^ „,',„„ of an inch,
thick ; this has already almost supeiseded silver foil, as it
keeps its colour perfectly. Aluminium tubes solid-drawn
by the Mannesmaun process stand about one half the strain
of steel tubes, i.e., a tube 1 in. diameter and 40 mm. thick
stood a strain of 200 lb. before collapsing, the supports
being 1 ft. apart.
Objects made of aluminium stand sea air and sea-water
fairly well. The remarkable electrical conductivity of alu-
minium, about twice that of copper, weight for weight, may
cause it hereafter to replace that metal for electric mains.
The difficulties of soldering would seem to have largely
disappeared.
In the discussion the Chairman (Professor Roberts-
Austen) remarked that the reduction in the furnace was
due to the combined effect of heat and dissociation, so that
there was not much reason to expect an improved result
from the direct application of heat in place of the electric
current. He referred to the alloys of aluminium with the
precious metals, and mentioned some peculiarities in the
melting points of the alloys with gold, which pointed to
the fact that the union of the metals was very peculiar.
Mr. S. G. Gordon said that the Mannesmaun Company
had made large quantities of aluminium tubes, and found
no difficulty so long as the metal was pure.
Mr. B. H. Brough had used surveying instruments of
aluminium, but while much appreciating their lightness he
did not find they would stand rough usage.
Mr. C. W. Parker (Messrs. Balfour and Co.) said their
patented alloy of aluminium and tin was au excellent solder
for articles made of aluminium, and would stand hammering.
Mr. Walter T. Reid had found articles of aluminium very
readily corroded by sea-water and discoloured by the nitre
compounds of certain explosives.
Mr. Addeuhrooke, in reply, said he thought the materials
in the furnace might be advantageously heated before turning
on the electric current. The electrical resistance of perfectly
pure aluminium had not been accurately determined, but it
must be far less than copper. For surveying instruments the
aluminium should be in the form of a hard alloy. It was
better to solder without the use of a flux, and with an
aluminium bit. — J. H. C.
Progress of Steel -making in Austria - Hungary. G.
Brissou. Gen. Civil. Jan. 23, 1892, and Bull. Soc.
d'Eucouragement pour l'Ind. Nat. 1892, 53 — 55.
The principal iron ore deposits of Austria-Hungary and
the leading metallurgical establishments are briefly noticed.
The high-grade ores of Styria in the Alps and of Mora-
wit/, Sognaska, and Gyalar, in the Carpathians, contain
little phosphorus, and are often rich in manganese, so that
the " acid " Bessemer process is applicable, and has in fact
long been established.
The more phosphoric ores of Wucie, near Kladno in
Bohemia, though very advantageously situated in many
respects, have only come into use much more recently with
the adoption of the basic " Martin" process.
M. Kupelwieser, Professor of Metallurgy in the School
of Mines of Leoben (Styria) gives dates as follows :—
Fust working of the Bessemer converter (acid) 1803
First working of the Martin hearth (acid) 1869
First working of the Bessemer converter (basic) 187!)
First working of the Martin hearth (basic) 1880
Thus Austria-Hungary was among the first to use the
acid process, but very late iu adopting the basic process.
A detailed statement of the production by the various
processes for the past five years is given as follows : —
Converter.
Martin Hearth.
Year.
Acid.
Basic.
Total.
Acid.
Basic.
Total.
Total.
1880
111,122
105,830
216,001
29,062 13,941 43,003
250.91'-
1887
114,783
11S,:S7!I
238,162
22,508 18,522 00,030
299,192
18S3
1 19,220
130,127
2ss,:;l7
28,072 7.-.,7ni
101,106
;;o2,si3
1889
133,001
141,416
274. H7
83,921 106,174
1 12,093
416,512
1890
149,060
138,021
288.6S1
83,904 178,015
211,019
1 :9,601
The two forms of the acid process and the basic Bessemer
process show but little increase, while the basic Martin
process has advanced with extreme rapidity. The author
remarks that it is no longer emploved merely to obtain
"good products "from phosphoric ores ; but that it i? now
applied to yield " excellent products " from ores already
good.— J. H. C.
The Passive State of Iron and Steel. Part III. Thos.
Andrews. Proc. Royal Soc. 49, 481—488.
For Part II. of this research (abstract), see this Journal
1892, 527. Part III. now follows, and the article is
concluded.
Series V., Set 1. — llelatioe Passivity of Wrought-iron '
and various Steel Bars, and the Influence of Chemical
Composition and Physical Structure on their Passive
State in cold Nitric Acid.
The author is not aware that any previous experiments
have hitherto been made showing the relative passivity
of the various kinds of steel compared with wrought iron,
or the influence of the chemical composition and physical
structure of such metals on their passive condition in nitric
acid.
The passive state of iron or steel may have hitherto been
regarded by many as a sort of fixed property pertaining to
iron and steel alike, when immersed in cold, strong nitric
acid. The following experiments were made to investigate
if the passivity was of an universally static character, or
whether it varied with the chemical composition and general
physical structure of the metal, and, if so, to what extent.
For convenience, this part of the investigation was divided
into two parts, one portion of the observations, Set 1, being
made on drawn rods of metals of known chemical compo-
sition and structute, and the other, Set 2, of experiments
constituting a study of the relative passivity of various steel
and iron plates of known but varied composition, &c. The
experiments of Set 1 were made on bars of the various
steels selected from the author's standard samples. The
bars were cold drawn through a wortle, and were therefore
different iu physical structure to the rolled plates used in
the second series of the experiments. An idea of their
general properties will be obtained on reference to
Part II., Tables IV. and V. (this Journal, 1892,529). A
polished bar, 8{- iu. long, 0' 310 in. diameter, of the steel
to be tested was placed in the wooden stand W (Fig. 1),
along with a polished wrought-iron bar of equal size, aud
the pair were then immersed in 1± fluid ounce of nitric
acid 1-42 sp. gr., contained in the U-tuDe. the hars being
iu circuit with the galvanometer. The immersion was
continued for the periods stated, and with the electro-
chemical results given on Table VI.
The wrought-iron bars used in each experiment were cut
from one longer polished rod, so as to afford a fair
comparison of the relative passivity of the various steels,
compared with the wrought iron, and also with each other.
The results are the average of numerous experiments in
each case.
610
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 3H, IS! 2.
Table VI.
Time
Current between polished "passive" wrought- iron and
steel Inn's in cold nitric acid 1*42 sp. gr. Electro-
chemical position of the wrought-iron positive,' pi
where otherwise marked X (negative). E.MVF. in
volte
fioai
c ,m-
Column 1.
Column 2.
Coluini i 8.
Column 4.
mence-
ment of
Experi-
ment.
Soft Cast Steel
with
Wrought Iron.
Hard
Cast Steel
with
Wrought
Iron.
Soft Bessemer
Steel with
Wrought Iron.
Tungsten
Steel with
Wrought
Iron.
Sel
No. 1.
Set
Xo. 2.
Set
No. 3.
Set
No. 4.
Set
No. 6.
Set
X"". 0.
Seconds
0
o-ooo
80
0-013
0-022 X
0-004 N
0-017
0-016
0-070 N
Minutes
0'005
0-022 N
0-016 N
0-022
0-017
0-074 X
3
0-005 N
0-022 X
0'020 X
0-030
0-024
0-073 N
5
0-007 N
0-02S N
0-023 n
0-034
0-032
0-071 X
10
(I'Oll X
11-1121! X
0-022 N
0-034
0-034
0-070 N
20
0-012 N
(l- 112.-, X
0-020 N
0-031
0-031
0-C6S X
30
0-013 N
0-023 N
0-023 X
0-028
0-033
0-061 N
40
0-013 N
0-019 N
0-020 N
0-021
0-029
0-060 X
50
0-013 N
0-017 N
(1-01(1 X
0-023
0-026
0-039 N
Hours
0-013 N
inn ; N
0-019 N
0-020
0-024
0-036 X
1{
0-012 N
o-ou N
0-020 N
0-017
0-019
0-05S X
2
0-011 N
O-0OS N
0-020 N
0-014
o-oio
0-051 X
2i
0-007 N
0-005 N
0-019 N
0-1112
0-013
0-052 X
3
II Mil N
O'OOl N
0'018 N
0-012
0-013
0-052 X
3J
II-IKI2 X
o-ooo
o-oisx
0 " 111 1
0-1113
0-051 X
3*
0 000
o-ooi
0-017 N
o-ou
0-013
0-050 X
4
11-0112
0-004
0-016 N
o-ou
0-012
0-049 X
5
0'006
0-007
0-013 X
o-ou
O'Oll
0-049 N
7
n- on;
0-012
ir hoc X
o-ou
o-ou
0'048 X
12
O-037
0-018
0-006
0-012
o-ou
0-048 X
IS
0-052
II-02H
(I-IH7
0-018
0-012
IVII17 X
20
0-058
0-030
ll 023
0-013
0-013
0-017 X
22
irniU
0-083
0-1128
0-014
11-015
0-048 N
24
0-070
0-086
11-033
o-oio
0-065 X
20
iro7s
0-035
29
ll'OSo
ii 042
80
0-088
0-047
38
0-09S
'
0-058
40
0-1117
0-060
43
0-066
43
0-071
'
47
ii
"
Series V.,Skt 2. — Relative Passivity of Wrought-iron and
Various Steel Plates in cold Nitric Acid, sp. gr. 1 ■ 42.
In the following series of observations, the metals experi-
mented upon consisted of plates of rolled wrought iron,
rolled steels made by the Bessemer, Siemens-Martin, or
crucible east steel processes, and they were of the chemical
Fie. l.
■j>s&£
composition given on Table VII. Each plate was 3 iu.
square by J in. thick = total area of exposure, 19-5 sq. in.
including edges, brightly polished all over, and bad a long
thin strip left on the top side (see Fig. 2) for convenience
Fig. 2.
d>5
tuTusta-
3 — -U
n
of attaching to the galvanometer connexions. The whole
of the wiought-iron plates, used as elements -with the
various steel plates, were cut from one larger wrought-iron
plate and were thus practically of uniform composition,
thus ensuring an accurate comparison of the relative
passivity of the wrought iron compared with the different
types of steels, and at the same time indicating relatively
the influence of varied composition and structure on the
passivity of the different classes of steel under observation.
In each experiment, a polished wrought-iron plate and a
polished steel plate were firmly placed in two small holes
drilled through a thick plate-glass cover ; the cover
holding the two plates were then carefully placed closely
over a porcelain vessel containing 15 fluid ounces of nitric
acid, sp. gr. 1 ■ 42, the plates being fully immersed in the
acid, and the protruding shanks of the bars connected in
circuit with the galvanometer. The electro-chemical effects
observed were then taken in the usual manner, and the
results are given on Table VIII.
At the conclusion of each experiment on Table VIII.,
the nitric acid, though quite colourless at first, was found to
be of a yellowish-brown colour. A small deposit of fine
black carbonaceous-looking matter was noticed at the
bottom of the tank surrounding the wrought-iron bar in each
set of these experiments.
The liard Siemens-Martin steel plate and the wrought-
iron plate, instantly after withdrawal from the acid, showed
nearly their original bright polish, with the exception of a
few fine streaks or markings on the wrought-iron plate,
indicating that the latter metal had been rather more acted
upon than the steel plate, the hard Siemens-Martin steel
plate presenting a slightly dull-greyish aspect. Somewhat
similar results were observed on withdrawing the soft east
steel, hard east steel, soft Bessemer steel, and hard Bessemer
steel seiies of plates from the nitric acid.
The hard cast steel plate when taken out showed a dull
lustre much removed from its original bright polish, but
there were no other signs of its haviug been acted upon.
The wrought-iron plate connected with it was bright on
withdrawal from the liquid, and but very slightly marked.
July so, 1892.] THK JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
611
tablk vi r.
Chemical Analysis of the Wjkocght-Iron and Steel Plates used in the Experiments.
Description.
Combined
Curbon.
Silicon.
Sulphur. Phosphorus. Manganese.
Iron (by
difference) .
Total.
Per Cent. ! Per Cent.
Wrought ircn (Wortley best scrap).. None O'W-
Soft cast steel 0-too 0-074
liar,! cast steel V407' 0-121
Soft Bessemer steel 0-150 0-0l5
Bard Bessemer steel 0-510 0"088
Soft Siemens steel 0-J70 0-071
Bard Siemens steel .0-720 0-080
Per Cent.
o-o:n
0*025
0*056
0-111
0-113
0-117
0-102
Per Cent.
0-270
0-210
0-080
0-031
0'087
0-077
0-143
Per Cent.
0-104
0-1S1
0-300
0-540
0-153
0-627
1-239
Per Cent.
99-110
99-017
97-970
99-120
98-0J9
9S-93S
97-716
Per Cent.
100-000
100-000
100-000
100-000
ioo-ooo
100-000
100-000
* By combustion. The terms " soft " and " hard " relate only to difference of percentage of combined carbon, and not to their having
undergone annealing or hardening processes.
Table VI 1 I.
Time
from
com-
mence-
ment of
Experi-
ment.
Current between bright "passive" wrought-iron and
steel plates in cold nitric acid, 1"42 sp. gr. Electro-
chemical position of the w "ronght-iron positive, except
where otherwise marked X (negative). E.M.F. in Volt.
s ifl Hard Soft Hani Soft \ Bard
Cast <'ast Bessemer Bessemer Siemens ! Siemens
Steel, Steel, St-el, Steel Steel . Steel
with with with with with with
Wrought: Wrought Wrought Wrought Wrought Wrought
Iron, i Iron, l Iron. Iron. Iron. iron.
Minutes
1
5
15
SO
40
0-020
0-032
0-03S
O'lllll
0-04S
50
0-049
Bours
1
0-047
2
0-047
:;
0-043
4
0-047 |
6
0-048
G
0-050
8
0-038
9
0-1140
15
0-053
is
0-060
20
0-050
22
o-oio
24
0-03S
20
0-040
23
0-049
30
0-050
32
0-049
40
0-052
45
0-050
50
0-046
54
0-046
56
00
72
0-071
0-074
0-073
0-067
0-002
0-059
0-055
0-061
o-ooo
0-060
0-058
0-052
0-033
0'054
0-061
0-055
0-054
0-060
0-060
0-064
0-065
0-073
0-071
0-067
0-077
0-077
0-077
0-078
0-078
0-067
| 0'017X
I 0-005
0-013
0-012
0-012
o-oii
O'Oll
0-007
o-ooo
0-013
0-019
0-007 N
o-iill X
I o-onx
0-024N
0-030 X
0-038 N
0-028N
0-023 N
OOI7 X
0-013 K
0-017 X
0'028N
0-016 N
0-015 TJ
0-018 X
0-017 X
0-010 X
0-017 X
0-076
0-079
0-086
0-098
0-107
0-104
0-103
0-109
0-103
0-098
0-121
0-106
0-104
0-107
0-086
0-077
0-077
0-079
0-077
0-065
0-061
0-061
0-061
0-004
0-070
0-070
0-071
0-071
0-031
0-017
0024
0-038
o-ois
I 0-053
0-053
0-O31
0-013
0-065
0-C07N
0-022 X
0-037N
0-0S1 X
0-017 \
0-008N
0-007 N
0-007 X
0-007 N
0-065
0-064
o-otfl
0-064
0-064
o-noi
0061
0-062
o-oci
0'066
0 060
0-056
0-059
0-05S
O-055
0-056
0-058
o-ooi
o-oot
o-oot
0-062
0-066
0-070
0-084
0-090
0-088
0-086
General Remaiks.
A brief resume of some of the principal results and
conclusions arrived at by the author up to the present time
may now be given.
Firstly. — The experimental observations of Part I.,
Series I. (this Journal, 1890, 951), indicate that the
influence of magnetisation on the passive state of steel
rods in cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-42, is not very great, but
it was detectable with the delicate galvanometer and by the
sensitive electro-chemical method pursued by the author in
the investigation.
The effect of magnetisation is more marked in warm
nitric acid, and when the iron is in a powdered state, as
shown in the independent and separate experiments of
Messrs. Nichols and Franklin on passive powdered iron in
warm nitric acid, previously alluded to in Part I., by whom
it was shown that the temperature of transition from the
passive to the active state was very materially lowered by
powerful magnetism ; their experiments also indicate that
the passive state of powdered iron cannot be fully over-
come, even under strong magnetic influence, until a
temperature of about 51 D C. is reached.
Secondly. — The authors experiments of Part I., Series II.,
at higher temperatures, confirm those of Part I., and further
tend to demonstrate the influence of magnetisation in
somewhat lessening the passivity of steel, showing that
even previous to the critical temperature point of transition
from the passive to the active state, magnetised steel
bars were rather less passive in warm nitric acid than
uumagnetised ones.
Thirdly. — The results in Part II., Series III. (this
Journal, 1892, 527 — 529) show that the passivity of both
unmagnetised wrought iron and unmagnetised steel in
nitric acid sp. gr. 1 • 42 is considerably and proportionately
reduced as the temperature of the acid increases, until the
temperature point of transition from the passive to the
active state is reached at a temperature of about 195° i\,
and it was also found that the wrought iron was less passive
in the warm nitric acid than cast steel.
Fourthly. — The results of the observations of Part II.,
Series IV., indicate that Scheurer-Kestner was to some
extent in error in regarding the passivity of iron as not
dependent on the greater or less degree of saturation of the
acid. The author's experiments herein recorded have
shown that the passivity of the metals employed, viz.,
wrought iron, soft cast steei, hard cast steel, soft Bessemer
steel, and tungsten steel, was very materially increased with
the concentration of the nitric acid, and it was also observed
that wrought iron was much less passive in the nitric acid
of less concentration than most of the steels, the soft
Bessemer steel being found about equal in passivity to
the wrought iron under the conditions of experimentation.
A reference to Table III. shows that a considerable amount
of E.M.F. was developed between the different metals
in every instance, which is a circumstance of much interest
in connexion with the passive state of iron and steel.
(112
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July SO, 1692.
Fifthly. — The results obtained in Part III., Series V. and
VI., on the relative passivity of wrought iron and the
various steels, soft cast steel, hard cast steel, soft Bessemer
steel, hard Bessemer steel, soft Siemens steel and hard
Siemens steel, are of an important character, showing,
by the delicate electro-chemical method employed, the
powerful influence of difference in chemical composition
and physical structure, &c, on the passive state of the
metals. Generally throughout this series of experiments it
will be observed that the wrought iron was electro-positive
to the steels with a considerable E.M.F., amounting in
some cases to as high as one-tenth to one-seventh of a
volt, the wrought iron being thus shown to be less passive
than the steels. In the experiments on the wrought-iron
and various steel bars on Table VI., which in course of
their manufacture were drawn cold through a wortle, and
were hence in a different molecular condition to the plates
(which were rolled hot) experimented upon in Table VIII.,
it will be noticed that, in several instances with soft cast
steel and hard cast steel, the wrought iron did not assume
the electro-positive position until two or three hours after
immersion in the nitric acid. Subsequently the iron
assumed its normal position, and became during the
long remaining period of the observations electro-positive
to the steels, with a considerable and increasing E.M.F.,
showing that the wrought iron was becoming gradually
very much less passive than the steels. In the case of the
soft Bessemer and soft Siemens plates, Table VIII., we
have also a similar instance of these peculiar and temporary
interchanges and variations of relative passivity which are
not easily accounted for. In the case of the tungsten steel,
Table VI., the wrought iron was steadily in the electro-
negative position, hence in the latter instance showing the
wrought iron to be permanently more passive than the
tungsten steel.
A reference to the experiments on the wrought iron and
various steel plates, on Table VIII., shows that the E.M.F.
between the passive wrought iron and the various soft
steels, which contained less percentage of combined carbon,
in circuit in cold nitric acid sp. gr. 1 ■ 42, was very con-
siderably less than the E.M.F. under similar conditions
between the wrought-iron plates and the different hard
steels having a higher percentage of combined carbon.
The latter results, therefore, demonstrate the interesting
circumstance that steels of a higher percentage of combined
carbon are more passive than those of a lower percentage
of combined carbon. It will be observed that the wrought
iron was also electro-positive to most of the steels, whether
of a higher or lower percentage of combined carbon, which
shows that wrought iron may be regarded as generally less
passive than steels. — J. C. C.
when mixed with an equal weight of scale or " Blue
Billy" containing 70 per cent, of metallic iron will give the
following approximate analysis : —
Per Cent.
Silica U-0
Alumina ll'O
Lime 2o'0
Magnesia 3"8
Oxide of iron 40*0
a valuable self-fluxing ore. — S. B. A. A.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron and Steel, having
Reference to the Utilisation of Blast Furnace and other
Slags in Con junction with Finely Divided O-rides of
Iron. W. Hutchinson and F. W. Harbord, Wolver-
hampton. Eng. Pat. 2747, February 16, 1891.
The inventors prepare a self-fluxing ore by incorporating
" Blue Billy," hammer or roll scale, powdery ores or oxide
of manganese with molten blast furnace slags in suitable
proportions. The slags from the furnace or converter are
either run into a bogey, and a calculated quantity of the
powdery oxide rabbled in, or the oxides, if in large
quantities, may be heated on the bed of a furnace and the
slags added. A manganiferous iron can thus be obtained
by utilising cupola slags, ferro-, and spiegel furnace
slags, &c.
A Cleveland slag for example containing —
Per Cent.
Silica 27-6
Alumina 22'2
Lime 40'1
Magnesia 7'G
Other constituents 2' 5
Improvements in Apparatus and Appliances for the Rapid
Determination of Carbon in Steel. A. Tropenas,
Sheffield, and A. E. Wells, Rotherham. Eng. Pat. 2785,
February 16, 1891.
See under XXIII., page 636.
Improvements in Obtaining Gold, Silver, and Copper from
Ores. A. French, Stirling, and \V. Stewart, I.enzie.
Eng. Pat. 3278, February 24, 1891.
This process consists in furnacing the ores at a red heat
with small percentages of " nitre cake " (bisulphate of
soda), and common salt, leaching, and then treating by
ordinary methods. It is especially adapted for extracting
the precious metals from ores containing pyrrhotite and
other refractory sulphides, and it is applicable to ores con-
taining arsenic, antimony, tellurium, zinc, &c.
An ore containing 2^ to 6 per cent, of copper, some gold
and silver, and over 10 per cent, of sulphur, would first be
calcined, then pulverised and mixed with 2 to 3 per cent,
of nitre cake, and 1 to 2 per cent, of common salt, heated
for about an hour with a limited supply of air in a re-
verberatory furnace at a red heat and leached.
An ore containing little or no copper, but principally gold
and silver, would be mixed with 1| to 2h per cent, nitre
cake, and 1 i to 2\ per cent, of common salt, and heated for
40 to 70 minutes.— S. B. A. A.
Improvements in Processes and Appliances for the Manu-
facture of Iron and Steel. J. von Ehrenwerth, Leobeu,
Austria." Eng. Pat. 4384, March 11, 1891.
These improvements relate to an open-hearth reduction
process previously described by the inventor (Eng. Pat.
4386 of 1890; this Journal, 1890, 811) and consist in the
introduction of a preliminary reducing operation in furnaces
of special construction, resulting in the formation of spongy
iron, which is afterwards smelted in a highly carburised
iron bath according to the method of the previous patent.
Drawings and descriptions are given of live varieties of
vertical furnaces adapted respectively for the treatment of
granular or sandy ore, large ore or blocks, and for the
production of hot or cold iron sponge or of fluid iron
(double shaft furnace). They are all entirely or partially
heated by gaseous fuel and they possess, in common, the
feature that the waste gases resulting from the reduction
are utilised by their combination with a special supply of
air, for heating the ore before reduction, or for heating the
retorts or regenerators. — S. B. A. A.
iVeu) or Improved Machinery for use in Galvanising
Wrought or Cast Iron and Steel Pipes, liars, and
Hoops, and for other like Purposes, T. Joues, Xether-
ton. Eng. Pat. 5234, March 24, 1891.
This invention consists of an appliance for removing steel
pipes, bars, &c, from the galvanising bath and for plunging
them into a water tank. A gripper fitted on its carriage is
moved by an endless band on an inclined platform, the
lower end of which is situated immediately over the end of
the ziuc hath. When the tube has been drawn on to the
platform the motion of the endless baud is reversed and
the gripper loses its hold on the pipe, which accordingly
July 30.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
613
falls through a slot in the inclined platform into a tank of
water underneath. For the details of the mechanism, the
drawings and description in the specification must be
consulted. — S. B. A. A.
Improved Solder for Joining together Aluminium Pieces
or Pieces of Aluminium with other Metals. G. Wegner,
Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 6038, March 29, 1892.
Thk solder consists of 16 j parts lead, 100 of English tin,
and 9 of zinc. If the colour of this_is objectionable, for this
lead may be substituted about 100 parts of aluminium.
In either case the joint will bear hammering.
The aluminium pieces are first thoroughly cleaned, but
without tiles, polishing powder, soldering spirit, or sal-
ammoniac. They may then be warmed and the alloy is
placed upon the surface and a copper or forged iron
soldering bit applied, which effects at once the solution
of the alloy, so that the tinned surfaces have now a smooth
firmly-attached coating which can only be removed by heat.
This coating may be of any convenient thickness, but it is
noted that the soldering bit should only be used at a red
heat.— J. H. C.
Improved Processes for the Treatment of Silicated Nickel
Ores and Pyritic Ores of Nickel and Copper, or Nickel,
Copper, and Cobalt. H. L. Herrenschmidt, Kouen,
France. Eng. Pat. 7585, May 1, 1891.
This is a process for the treatment of silicated nickel ores
and pyritic ores of nickel and copper with or without
cobalt. The ores are first treated by known metallurgical
processes so as to obtain mattes containing 30 per cent,
of copper and 10 — 20 per cent, of nickel, the remaining
constituents being iron and sulphur. They are then
carefully roasted so as to convert the nickel and cobalt
into sulphates as completely as possible and the iron into
oxide ; and the product is then lixiviated so as to obtain a
liquor of a density of about 12° B. The sulphates are
next converted into chlorides by the addition of calcium
chloride and the iron removed by the addition of precipi-
tated hydrate or carbonate of copper. Or calcium carbonate
may be added and the liquid then boiled, when the iron
and some of the copper are precipitated.
In order to separate the nickel and copper in the pure
solution thns obtained, a portion of the liquor is precipitated
with milk of lime, the calcium chloride formed being reserved
for the first part of the process. The mixed precipitate of
nickel and copper hydrate so obtained is now cautiously
added to the rest of the liquor, with the result that copper
is precipitated in the place of nickel, which dissolves, so
that a pure solution of nickel is ultimately obtained. The
precipitate is similarly treated with fresh quantities of
liquor until it consists only of copper, any nickel and
copper liquor which is left over being precipitated with
lime and used as before.
Another method is to chloridise a portion only of the
liquor, which is then precipitated with lime and added
systematically to the rest of the liquor as before. Or the
ehloridising may be entirely omitted if sodium hydrate or
carbonate are used as precipitants instead of lime.
If the ore contains cobalt the same processes are used,
with the result that a solution of nickel and cobalt is
obtained on the one hand and precipitated copper hydrate
on the other. A mixture of air and chlorine is now blown
through a portion of the nickel and cobalt solution and a
mixed precipitate of nickel and cobalt peroxide is obtained.
This precipitate is next heated with the rest of the liquor
when the nickel of the precipitate is gradually replaced by
cobalt, so that the two metals can be separated by a
systematic treatment as before. — H. K. T.
Improvements in Manufacturing Nickel Alloys, h. Mond,
Northwich. Eng. Pat. 8083, May 11, 1891.
This invention is an extension of the method described
in Eng. Pat. 12,626 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 774) to
the manufacture of nickel alloys. It consists in passing
nickel carbonic oxide gas diluted with indifferent gases into
the molten metals with which it is desired to alloy the
nickel. In practice it is most advantageous to make direct
use of the mixture of gases obtained in the extraction of
nickel from its ores according to the method of the patent
mentioned. — 8. B. A. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Tin and Teme Plates.
J. H. Rogers, Llanelly. Eng. Pat. 9342, June 2, 1891.
The object of the invention is to expedite the annealing
of the plates, to reduce labour, and to save fuel. By
preference three furnaces are used, arranged in the arc
of a circle. During working one furnace is heated by gas
which enters with air at one end, whilst the products
of combustion are led away to the chimney at the other
end. The air for supporting the combustion having been
previously led through the furnace last heated is thereby
raised to a high temperature, and the heated products of
combustion are led through the third furnace before passing
to the chimney, so heating that and thus economising fuel.
—J. H. C.
An Improved Furnace for the Treatment of Refractory
Ores. C. J. Fauvel, London. Eng. Pat. 9708, June 8,
1891.
The powdered ores are automatically fed into the top of a
peculiarly constructed muffle or oxidising tower constructed
of brick and fitted internally with a series of inclined fire-
clay slabs. The muffle tower is heated by a furnace and
series of flues in such a way as to keep the products of
combustion always out of contact with the ore. A separate
air-heater is provided to aid the roasting of the ore, which
becomes completely " sweet-roasted " while falling from
one inclined slab to another. It is finally discharged
in a constant stream through a pipe which dips into rapidly
running cold water. The sulphurous vapours and the dust
particles are carried off through flues and gradually deposited
or condensed in a series of condensing chambers cooled by
circulation of cold water through metal tanks. Supple-
mentary furnaces and air-heating chambers are provided
near the outlet when necessary to maintain a sufficient
draught. — J. H. C.
Improvements in the Treatment of Waste Liquors from
Metallurgical Processes to obtain Sulphurous or Sul-
phuric Acid and Zinc. A. T. Hall, Hull. Eng. Pat.
9947, June 11, 1891.
A solution obtained by boiling alkali waste with lime is
added to the waste liquor of copper precipitation processes,
which contain salts of iron and zinc, and particularly
chlorides. The black precipitate of sulphides of iron and
zinc which is formed is roasted. The sulphurous acid given
off may be employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
and the residue in the furnace is smelted to obtain metallic
zinc. Soda ash or other alkaline material may be substi-
tuted for the solution of alkali waste.
The greater part of the iron should be precipitated first
by means of lime in the ordinary way. — J. H. C.
Improvements in the Treatment of Waste Liquors from
Metallurgical Processes to obtain Sulphurous or Sul-
phuric Acid and Oxide of Iron. A.. T. Hall, Hull.
Eng. Pat. 9948, June 11, 1891.
The waste chloride of iron or sulphide of iron liquors from
tin-plate or galvanising works are precipitated with a solution
or cream obtained by boiling alkali waste with about one-
tenth of its weight of lime. An excess of the reagent is to
be avoided. Soda ash or other alkaline material may be
substituted. The resulting black precipitate contains sul-
phide of iron, which is roasted, and the sulphurous acid
given off used for making sulphuric acid in the usual way.
The residue will be mainly oxide of iron, if no excess of
precipitant has been used. — J. H. C.
(311
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 3d, 1S02.
Improvements ninthly to the Manufacture of Metal Fibre
and to Apparatus therefor. A. Torkington, Kotherham.
Eng. Pat. 10,728, June 23, 1891.
According to this invention metal fibre is manufactured by
allowing the molten metal to flow out through a number of
fine apertures, and cooling the fallen metal by a draught of
air. A suitable apparatus consists of a tank (in which the
metal is raised to a temperature above its melting point),
connected with a side tube in which the metal can rise.
The side tube is closed below by a perforated cap.
— S. B. A. A.
A Process for the Extraction of Tin from Tin Slags or
Tin Refuse by Founders' Ashes, Copper Salts, Carbon-
aceous Matter, and Fluorspar or other suitable Fluxes,
F. H. Mason, London. Eng. Pat. 10,984, June 27, 1891.
The crushed tin slag is mixed with (1), founders' ashes or
other easily reducible cupreous substance containing about
three times as much copper as the tin present ; (2), anthra-
cite in quantity sufficient to reduce the whole of the tin and
copper present ; and (3) fluorspar, lime, or other suitable
fluxes.
This mixture is smelted in a low blast or in a reverberatory
furnace, and the alloy obtained is poled as may be necessary,
so as to remove any iron or other impurity and leave only a
tiu copper alloy known as bronze.— J. H. C.
Improvements in the Utilisation of Tin-Plate Scrap. F. W.
llarbord and W. Hutchinson, jun., Wolverhampton.
Eng. Pat. 11,190. July 1, 1891.
The tin-plate scrap is melted, preferably in a large cupola
furnace, with from 30 per cent, to 50 per cent, of cast or
pig iron ; roll-scale, puddlers' tap cinder, or other suitable
oxides and silicates of iron, or inanganiferous ores or low-
grade spiegel being added as required, and as much lime-
stone as necessary to make a basic slag. The resulting
metal is tapped into pig-beds or chills. By the use of flues
and dust chambers, or condensing chambers and scrubbers,
the greater part of the volatilised tin and lead oxides is
intercepted, and may be subsequently utilised by sifting,
treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid, and subsequent
smelting into a tin-lead alloy.
Old galvanised scrap may be treated in the same way, and
the zinc oxide similarly recovered from the flue dust.
—J. H. C.
A Process for Extraction of Metals from Ores and Minerals
containing them. J. Turton, London. Eng. Pat. 11,208,
July 1, 1891.
The ores are powdered, roasted if necessary, and treated
with a strong solution of nitrate of potash or soda, common
salt, and sulphuric acid, whereby the metals are dissolved.
To the clear solution zinc or other precipitant is added,
whereby many of the metals, including gold if it is present,
are precipitated in the form of a powder which can be treated
in any known manner. If there be silver in the mineral, it
will be found in the residue in the form of chloride.
—J. H. C.
Improvements in the Construction and Working of Smelting
and Melting Furnaces. L. Reuleaux, Liege. Eng. Pat.
11,247, July 2, 1891.
Tins is an arrangement for blowing in fuel and in some
instances powdered ore through the tuyeres of cupola
furnaces, with simultaneous charging of ores and fluxes or
metals and fuel in the ordinary way.
The fuel to be charged through the tuyeres is tipped into
a hopper, and thence pushed forward by a rotating shaft
provided with arms or teeth, and so caused to fall into a
revolving distributor resembling a bucket wheel, whose
object is to regulate the descent of the fuel and to prevent
an undue escape of gases. The fuel is then guided by a
suitable conduit into the branch blast pipe belonging to a
lower range of tuyeres, and is thence blown into the crucible
of the furnace through the tuyeres. A second series of
tuyeres, arranged at a slightly higher level, or some other
suitable arrangement of independent tuyeres, is provided
through which air alone is blown in so as to prevent
choking.
An arrangement for supplying compressed air in some of
the buckets of the distributors, so as to prevent loss of
blast, is also provided and described. — J. H. C.
Improvements in or Additions to Apparatus used for
Galvanising Sheets and Plates of Iron. T. Jones,
Dudley. Eng. Pat. 11,759, July 10, 1891.
This is a contrivance for scraping the surface of the plate
as it leaves the bath, so as to remove the superfluous coating
and to render that which remains more uniform. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Apparatus for producing Ferrofervie and
Ferric Oxides. A. Crosslev, Poutvpool. Eng. Pat.
12,813, July 28, 1891.
Instead of the series of trays mentioned in Pat. 8914,
1890 (see this Journai, 1891, 472) the author now prefers
to use a series of inclined tubes, which revolve at a suitable
rate, and down which the material to be oxidised passes.
The upper end of each tube is placed immediately below the
lower end of the one next above it, and the lower one is
inclined at the same angle in the opposite direction, but in
the same plane, as the one above. The material thus passes
automatically down each of the series of tubes. The tubes
are placed in a furnace. — J. W. L.
Improvements in and appertaining to Basic lined
Furnaces. J. H. Darby, Brymbo. Eng. Pat. 13,906,
August 18, 1891.
Ix furnaces with basic or neutral hearths and siliceous
brick sides, roof, and ends, the splashing of the slag and
basic dust fluxes away the acid portions of the furnace
lining, and reduces the life of the furnace. Accordiug to
the present invention this may be partially remedied in
open hearth steel furnaces by leaving a space of 2 or 3 in.
between the acid bricks composing the side walls of the
furnace (the parts most rapidly corroded) and the metal
casing, and ramming this space up with ground chrome ore
and tar, magnesia and tar, or any other suitable material
capable of withstanding the action of the basic slag, &c.
It will be found that when the inside casing of bricks is
fluxed away, the layer of refractory material will have
become dense and hard, and will protect the metal casing
from the heat for a long time. Other furnaces may he
treated in a similar manner. — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in the Reduction of Ores. J. T. King,
Liverpool. From T. S. Blair, jun., Alleghany, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 15,830, October 7, 1890.
This is an improved direct-reduction process, adapted to
the treatment of sesquioxides and magnetic oxide of iron,
for the production of a sponge which may be utilised in
the open-hearth process. The success of direct reducing
processes is in general dependent on («) the mechanical
condition of the ore as to permeability ; (4) the temperature,
rate of supply, pressure, and reducing power of the gases
used ; (c) the duration of the process. For satisfactory
working the ore should not be wet or pasty, nor contain
lumps more than 2 in. in diameter ; it should be charged
into a reducing chamber previously heated to a red heat,
the charge being, if necessary, introduced in several instal-
ments with short intervals between for heating up. The
temperature of the mass and of the gas supply should he a
fairly bright red heat, and the pressure and volume of gas
supplied should he sufficient to cause a current of gas to
flow through every part of the ore at the rate of 7\ ft. per
July so, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
615
second. If the escaping gases can be utilised as fuel the
supply of gas may be increased with advantage. Ordinary
producer-gas made from bituminous coal is a sufficiently
energetic reducing agent, and will, under the conditions
mentioned, perfectly reduce a charge of limonite in 40
minutes to 1 hour, open red ha>matite in 10 to 15 per cent,
longer time, according to the texture of the ore ; massive
hematite in 1 ' to 1 j hours, and magnetite in 1 ', to 2 hours.
If lime or limestoue be mixed with the fuel in the gas
producer, cyanogen will be generated in the lower part of
the producer, and will increase the reducing power of the
resulting gas.
Three forms of furnaces for different products, and a
contrivance for removing the sponge from the furnace
without oxidation are described and illustrated. The latter
consists of a cast-iron cylinder with perforated base, in
which tire reduction is conducted, and which can be bodily
removed from the furnace and cooled by passing a current
of cold gas through its interior. — S. B. A. A.
unproved Method or Means of Desulphurising Castings
or Alloys of certain Metals. P. Hossigneux, Paris.
Kng. Pat. 4 ITS. October 23, 1891.
Tiik process is applicable to castings or alloys of iron,
nickel, cobalt, and copper containing any two or more of
these metals combined together ; it enables the percentage
of sulphur in castings, i.e., in alloys containing carbon,
silicon, and sulphur, to be reduced to 0*01 percent.
It consists in introducing into these castings a certain
quantity of metallic manganese, aluminium, magnesium, and
sodium; these four metals, having a greater affinity for
sulphur than iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, attract the
sulphur and form a slag composed largely of metals and
sulphur, which collects on the surface of the molten metal.
The quantity of reagent is calculated so that the total
amount of sulphur may be changed into sulphate of
manganese, sulphate of alumina, sulphate of magnesia or
sulphate of sodium, a slight excess of the reagent being
always employed.
The reagent is added to the molten metal in a rever-
beratory furnace or in a Bessemer converter, and agitated
with it. When the slag has collected it is drawn off, and
the purified metal is run off separately. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Metallurgical Furnaces and Ovens.
V. G. Bates, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eug. Pat. 18,706,
October 29, 1891.
IN" this specification the construction of a furnace with a
number of novel features is described and illustrated. The
following are a few of its characteristics. It has two fire-
places at or near the front corners of the heating chamber,
and two outlets provided with dampers at or near the rear
corners, so that the products of combustion are first caused
to converge towards the centre of the furnace and then to
diverge towards its extremities ; the movements of the gases
are further controlled by two side exits. There is a third
fireplace at a lower level from which the products of
combustion circulate under the bed of the furnace, and are
then discharged over the side fireplaces. For other details
the specification must be consulted. — S. B. A. A.
Improvement in Furnaces. E. Kerr, Pittsburgh, U.S.A.
Kng. Pat. 19,464, November 10, 1891.
Tin- improvement relates more particularly to the con-
struction of cupola furnaces for melting masses of metal by
the agency of gaseous fuel. The improved furnace is con-
stricted internally at a point rather mote than half-way
down its length, and is thus divided into two chambers,
an upper melting chamber bounded below by a circular
ledge and communicating by the constricted opening with a
lower chamber or crucible. Gaseous fuel and air arc
supplied from concentric pipes at the summit of the melting
chamber, and it is arranged that complete combustion shall
take place at the top of this chamber. The metal is
stacked on the ledge in the melting chamber, and as it
melts it flows down into the crucible. The gases likewise
pass downwards into the crucible and out through suitable
ports into the stack.
A modification is described in which a number of fire
chambers or gas producers adjoin and communicate with
the melting chamber, which may further have a special ait-
supply to ensure perfect combustion. — S. B. A. A.
A Novel System of liegeneratative Gas Furnace for the
Reduction of Zinc Ores. E. Dor, Ampsin, Belgium.
Eng. Pat. 22,694, December 29, 1891.
According to the present invention, duplicate kilns, built
back to back and communicating with each other by a
passage below the retorts, are arranged with four regenera-
tive chambers at each end at the ground level. Gas and
air are introduced through ordinary Siemens sumps into
a series of channels under the furnaces, and then into two
pairs of regenerators from which the gas and air pass by
two openings into a chamber in the upper part of one of
the furnaces. Combustion commences at this point; the
gases now descend over the retorts and through the
common opening into the second furnace where they pass
upwards over the retorts and out through two openings
above into the regenerators, and by another system of
channels into a conduit connected with the chimney. When
the currents of gas and air are reversed, these pass through
the heated channels previously traversed by the waste
gases, but the connections are so arranged that the direction
of the currenr of burning gases within the furnaces suffers
no change. — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in the Casting and Tempering of Pure
Copper T. D. Bottome, Hoosick, N.Y., U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 2214, February 5, 1892.
This invention aims at producing tempered copper
castings free from the imperfections of ordinary copper
castings, by adding while iu a state of fusion about one-
thousandth part of sodium. For small quantities of copper
ten pounds or under, the coppei is melted in a crucible
under a cover of common salt. A drilled carbon rod
charged with sodium is then quickly pushed to the bottom
of the crucible, and the copper is thoroughly stirred with
the same rod. The copper is then poured in the ordinary
way. Instead of pure sodium an alloy of sodium and
copper may be used, which is prepared by grinding
precipitated powdered copper in an iron mortar with
sodium.
For larger quantities a mixture of equal parts of common
salt, bicarbonate of soda, and powered anthracite is pre-
pared : some of this is put into the crucible, then the copper
is added and is covered with some more of the mixture.
The pot is then covered, and when the copper is melted it
is stirred with a carbon rod for a minute or so, after which
it is ready for casting. Over-heating is to be avoided, and
it should not be poured at too high a temperature.
If the eastings are not sufficiently hard wlieu taken from
the mould, they should be re-heated quickly to redness, and
then placed in hot graphite dust to cool. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Metal Alloys. 3. B. Alzugaray, Loudon.
Eng. Pat. 2361, February 9, 1892.
The alloys are produced by fusing together aluminium and
antimony in the proportions required, or by fusing the
compounds of these metals with or without the admixture
of carbon. The aluminium may be added to the molten
antimony or vice versa.
One alloy obtained by melting antimony and stirring with
a rod of aluminium, or vice versa, contains about 18'37
per cent, of aluminium and 81' 63 per cent, of antimony,
and is when fully formed absolutely infusible at the highest
temperatures obtainable in Perrot's furnace. — J. H. C.
616
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ July so, 1892.
Improvements in a Compound for Carburising Metals.
S. H. Brown, Boston, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 6704, April 7,
1892.
Tin; "carburising compound" consists of 87 per cent, of
bone carbon, 8 per cent, calcined lime, 4 per cent, soda ash,
one-half per cent, sal-ammoniac,, and one-half per cent,
tungstic acid. Cyanide of silver may be substituted for the
tungstic acid with equally good results. For 100 lb. of
metal about 33 lb. of the mixture is generally employed.
The ingredients are placed with the iron to be carburised
in a retort, the carbon, lime, and tungstic acid being placed
in the hottest part of the retort, while the sal-ammoniac
is placed near the door. After a short heating to drive
off the air the retort is hermetically sealed. When the
metal is properly carburised it is removed from the retort
and plunged into water or other suitable bath. — J. H. C.
Improvements in and connected icith Crucible Furnaces.
E. A. Meiehsner, Chemnitz, Germany. Eng. Pat. 8299,
May 3, 1892.
A i;ei taxgular reverberatory chamber or muffle is placed
over the grate of a furnace in such a way that the products
of combustion may all pass into it by means of apertures
in the roof of the combustion chamber.
The metal to be treated, such as iron and charcoal, for
conversion into steel, is packed in a rectangular crucible or
chest, which is then exposed for a sufficient time in the
reverberatory chamber.
Sight holes are provided in the walls of the reverberator}'
chamber, and opposite to one of these is an aperture in the
crucible through which a tube is inserted for ascertaining
the degree of heat. Dampers are used when necessary for
controlling the heat. — J. H. C.
XI.-ELECTEO-CHEMISTEY AND ELECTEO-
METALLUEai.
PATENTS.
/: sfor the Separation of Copper, Nickel, am! Silver
from Mattes or Alloys containing the same, and the
Treatment of the Residues resulting therefrom. J. Strap,
Paris, Fiance. Eng. Pat. 4396, March 11, 1891.
Mattes containing nickel, copper, and silver are cast into
plates and constitute the anode of an electrolytic bath, the
cathode being formed of a thin sheet of copper. The bath
contains 150 to 250 grins, of copper sulphate per litre of
water according to the quantity of matter treated, and
5 per cent, of its volume of sulphuric acid. A current of
25 to 30 amperes is passed for a cathode having 1 square
metre of surface, the E.M.F. being i volt. Under these
conditions the nickel passes into solution as sulphate, and
remains in that condition ; the copper is gradually deposited
on the cathode and the silver and foreign matters form a
muddy deposit at the bottom of the bath. When there is
no more sulphate of copper in the bath, the solution of
nickel sulphate is cither crystallised out or the nickel is
recovered by electrolysis. — S. B. A. A.
Improvements in Galvanic /latteries. C. X. .Souther,
Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 18,097, .Maul: 23, 1891.
The improvement consists in using a zinc carbon couple,
the carbon being placed in the porous pot which is filled
with copper sulphate solution kept saturated by means of
added crystals of copper sulphate. The outer jar contains
water, in which zinc stands. — G. II. R.
.4 Method of Decorating Metal Articles with other Metals
depositr,/ thereon. 13. Krantz and H. Zeissler, London.
Eng. Pat. 8122, May 12, 1891.
According to this invention the metal article is first
coated with bitumen, as in zinc engraving, and the design is
printed thereon direct from a photographic negative, or it
is transferred in the ordinary way on to the bitumen
coating, which is then developed by turpentine. The
article is then placed in an etching bath composed as
follows by measure : nitric acid, 2 parts ; concentrated
sulphuric acid, 1 part; pure water, 3 parts. When etched
the article is taken out, well washed in water to remove
all traces of acid, and quickly dried in a warm place and
put in a depositing bath composed as follows by weight :
cream of tartar, 12 parts; carbonate of copper, 1 part;
water, 24 parts. The, bath for other metals is made by
replacing copper with the desired metal ; thus chloride of
gold or silver in the case of these metals, pure nickel for
nickel, or the usual electro plating solutions. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Extracting Metals and other Substances
front Ores or Minerals. H. Niewerth, Kemscheid, Ger-
many. Eng. Pat. 9219, June 1, 1891.
The invention applies particularly to the metals of the
alkalis and alkaline earths, and to such metalloids as
silicon. The method adopted is the continuous application
of frictional or induced electricity and heat to suitably
prepared materials out of contact with air. — J. H. C.
Improvements in or relating to the Negative Eh ments
(Positive Electrodes in charging Secondary Cells) of
Voltaic Batteries. I). G. FitzGerald, London. Eng.
Pat. 9629, June 6, 1891.
The object of this invention is to increase the efficient
working condition of the metallic supports of such elements,
and to obtain greater economy in the working of the battery
by obviating local action in the elements. This is effected
by coating the grid, or support, of lead, or lead alloy, with
gold or with platinum, or with platinum superposed upon
gold, which coating is preferably effected by electro-
deposition. The gilding solution preferred is one that can
be used cold, such as a solution of about six parts by weight
of cyanide of potassium in 160 parts of water, which should
contain less than one part by weight of gold as cyanide.
This solution can readily be made by the battery process ;
Roseleur's cold gilding solution also gives good results.
The best coating is obtained, however, by using a bath
containing 8 to 12 oz. of cyanide of potassium and 1 oz. of
gold to the gallon of water at a temperature of from 140° to
150° F.— G. H. B.
Improvements in or connected with Negative Elements
( Positive Electrodes in charging Secondary Cells) of
Voltaic Batteries. D. G. FitzGerald, London. Eng.
Pat. 9628, June 6, 1891.
According to this invention lead strips coated with gold
or platinum by electro-deposition are used instead of the
gold or platinum contact pieces hitherto employed with
lithanodc plates. The gilding bath is prepared as follows : —
16 parts by weight of cyanide of potassium are dissolved in
160 parts of water, raised to a temperature of 140 F. and
electrolysed between a fine gold anode of large surface, and
a cathode of small surface which may be of gold or any
other metal, such as copper, which is not attacked by the
cyanide solution. The electrolysis is continued until about
one part of gold has been dissolved ; the weight of metal in
solution being found by subtracting from the weight lost by
the anode the weight of gold recovered at the cathode.
The temperature of the bath should not be below 140° F.
For the deposition of platinum the bath preferred is made
by dissolving platinic chloride in a strong solution of
potassium cyanide. With this bath a platinum anode of
large surface should be used. — G. H. K.
JulySMBM.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
617
Improvements in the Production of Copper Tubes by
Elect roli/sis. A. Watt, Balham, Surrey. Eng. l'at.
9652, June 8, 1891.
According to this invention the copper is deposited on
rotating mandrels composed preferahly of type metal, or
some similar alio}- of low melting point. The mandrels are
immersed in the bath and the deposit is subjected, to the
friction of a fixed travelling brush or rubber while the
mandrel is revolving. — (i. II. It.
Apparatus for Supplying Depolarising or other Liquids
to a Series of Electric Batteries. V. Jeanty, Paris,
France. Eng. Pat. 9689, June 8, 1891.
The apparatus is composed of a main closed vessel con-
taining the liquid to be supplied to the series of batteries,
and of a distributing open vessel placed beneath the former
and connected therewith by a first pipe through which the
liquid descends from the upper to the lower vessel, and by
a second pipe which determines the flow of the liquid inter-
mittently. Through the bottom of the distributing vessel
are fitted short pipes by each of which the liquid is
distributed to the several elements of the battery placed
below. The liquid contained in the upper vessel is conveyed
intermittently to the distributing vessel from which it over-
flows through the short pipes to the respective elements.
The liquid conveyed to the separate elements is dischaiged
at the bottom by means of a vertical pipe, and the fresh
liquid having a greater relative density settles at the
bottom, whilst the exhausted liquid rises to the top and goes
to waste by an overflow pipe. — G. H. R.
An Improvement in Galvanic Batteries. W. J. Engledue,
Byfleet, Surrey. Eng. Pat. 9803, June 9, 1891.
The battery is provided with a cover which can be clamped
liquid-tight by means of an india-rubber ring or other
suitable washer, so that the battery may be inverted
without the electrolyte escaping; and only so much exciting
fluid is filled in as will cause a part, but not the whole, of
the electrodes to be immersed. When the light begins to
fall off the battery is inverted, thereby bringing the whole
of the electrodes into action and restoring the current. The
battery is specially intended for miner's and other portable
lamps.— G. H. E.
Improvements in the Treatment or Purification of Graphite
to Header it Suitable for Industrial Purposes. W. Luzi,
Leipzig, Saxony. Eng. Pat. 9922, June 11, 1891.
The graphite, either finely or coarsely powdered, is moistened
with concentrated nitric or sulphuric acids, or with both, or
with a solution of "oxygenous" salts (salts containing
oxygen) and then immediately calcined ; or it is heated for
some time with an acid solution of a bichromate or a per-
manganate, then separated and calcined : or it is mixed with
potassium chlorate and nitric acid, warmed, and then washed
and calcined, or fourthly, the graphite is heated for
some time with concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid, then
separated and calcined.
These processes are recommended as being much shorter
than those usually employed and productive of similarly
good results. — J. W. L.
An Improved Process for the Electrolytic Production of
Aluminium. L. Grabau, Hanover, Germany. Eng. Pat.
10,090, June 13, 1891.
The difficulties of manufacture due to the presence of
silicon and iron are avoided by using as the material for
electrolysis a mixture of aluminium fluoride with soda, or
other basic substance which can be easily obtained free
from these impurities. Cryolite is fused by the agency of
the current, and to this is added during electrolysis a
mixture of aluminium fluoride and soda in definite propor-
tions according to the quantity of aluminium to be separated.
The proportion between aluminium fluoride and soda may
be such that besides aluminium, sodium fluoride, or chiefly
cryolite (AUFI6 6 NaFl) is formed. Any proportion lying
between these two extreme cases, which may be represented
by the following formula.', may be employed : —
(1.) 2 A12F16 + 6NaX03 + 3 C =
4 Al + 12 NaFl + 9 CO,
(2.) 4 A12F16 + 6 Na.,C03 + 3 C =
4 Al + 2 (ALF]6 6 NaFl) + 9C02
Potash may be substituted for soda if the corresponding
potassium compounds are used. The positive electrode
must be carbon, the negative may be a metal such as
aluminium. — G. H. R.
An Improvement in Voltaic Batteries. P. Jablochkoff,
Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 10,082, June 13, 1891.
In carrying out this invention advantage is taken of the
power of absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere possessed
by carbon and other porous bodies, for oxidising the nitrous
vapours produced in the working of cells containing nitric
acid. One electrode is a more or less porous carbon
vessel closed at the bottom, filled with fragments of coke,
or preferably of peat charcoal, and closed at the top by a
porous lid. Around the lower part of this vessel and some
distance from its sides is placed the other electrode, which
consists of several thicknesses of zinc or iron plate, and
extends to about one-third the height of the carbon vessel.
The whole is enclosed in a basket or bag having a thick
lining of spongy material, such as peat, and is placed iu a
jar charged with a solution of nitrate of soda or potash.
Nitric acid, diluted so that it does not fume, is poured into
the inner vessel. When the cell is working the alkaline
nitrate is decomposed, while the nitric acid evolves nitrous
fumes which in rising through the upper part of the
carbonaceous material meet oxygen condensed there from
the atmosphere and become reconverted into nitric acid
which descends, the acid being thus continuously regenerated.
— G. H. R.
Improvements in and Relating to the Manufacture of Plates
for Electric Accumulators. C. Rousseau, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 11,004, June 27, 1891.
The invention consists in constructing plates by compressing
a paste composed of the oxide of carbonate, or some salt
of lead, into and on either side of a frame cut out of a lead
plate. The paste is mixed with a solution of chloride of
sodium, and hair or other suitable filament cut into lengths
of about one centimetre is added for the purpose of binding
it.— G. H. R.
Improvements in Thermo-Electric Batteries. P. Giraud,
Chantilly, France. Eng. Pat. 11,060, June 30, 1891.
According to this invention each element is formed of an
alloy the composition of which is varied according to the size
of the element, so that the electro-motive force may remain the
same without the internal resistance being increased. The
following are the three sizes of the electrodes which may
be most advantageously employed to suit different cases : —
A. Small size : — Length, 0-07 m. ; width, 0'02 m. ; height,
0-02 m.
B. Medium size: — Length, 0'07 m. ; width, 0-02 m. ;
height, 0'03 m.
C. Large size: — Length, 0-03 m. ; width, 0'03 m. ;
height, 0 05 m.
And the composition of the alloy to suit these three sizes
is respectively : —
Composition A.
Parts by
Weight.
Antimony 1,450
Zinc 000
Cadmium 50
Pure copper 80
Tin 40
Silicon 3
e2
618
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, ISM.
Composition is.
Part
Weight.
Antiun My MO
/ 7- I
< Sadmium
lopper 30
IS
Silicon i
Coiiposmo.v C.
Parts l>v
Weight.
Antimony
/
Cadmium 63
2
The other electrode of each element is preferably com-
posed of blades or plates of tinned iron or of pure nickel ;
they may, however, be made of iron iridiumised, platinised,
or nickeled on its surface, or of ferro-alumininm, and the
two electrodes are united by an autogenous joint formed by
casting the alloy.
The extremities to be heated are protected by metal cups
cemented to them by a pulp made preferably of silicate of
soda and asbestos powder, though silicate of potash may
be used. The different rows of sockets are separated from
one another, and the wall of the heating apparatus by
asbestos washers united to them by the same cement.
-G. H. E.
Improvements in and Relating to Galvanic Batteries.
G. G. M. llardingham, London. From J. K. Hard and
II. I Mimett, New York, CT.S.A. Eng. Pat. 11,560, July 7,
Tin- invention relates to dry batteries of the open circuit
the object being to provide the battery cell with a
gas outlet for the purpose of relieving it from exci
internal pressure while providing against the escape of the
electrolyte. The cell is provided with a stopper containing
an outlet for gas which is provided with a valve opening
outwardly. The invention is described with special reference
to the silver chloride cell. — G. II. K.
Improvements relating to the Coating of Articles
''/ allic Alloy by Electro-deposition. The London
Metallurgical Company, Limited, and S. O. Cowper-Coles,
London. Eng. Pat. 13,460, August 8, 1891.
Tiik electrolytic bath is prepared by dissolving cyanide of
zinc in cyanide of potassium in the proportions requisite to
form a double salt, and adding a smali I .■■■-- oi cyanide
of potassium. To this solution is added a small quantity of
the double cyanide of potassium ami silver. The anode
of a zinc silver alloy of approximately
ne composition as that which it is desired to deposit.
ge of zinc may be varied from 25 to 90 per
cent., and the bath may be used hot or cold. — G. II. B.
/ / H'j Vlu'id for Galvanic Zinc Carbon
and Method oj fi ( eful Products
the Spent Fluid > Batteries. M. Muthel,
3 . Eng. i'at. 19,617, November 12, 1891.
The improved exciting fluid is composed of chromic acid
and bisnlpha m, which when spent contains
sulphate of zinc and chrome ammonium alum. Tin- spenl
liquor is electrolysed between carbon or 1 to free
it from zinc, wbili g it neutral by the addition of
ammonia ; the fluid containing ammonia, chrome, alum, and
nium bisulphate is then evaporated, and tin- residue
calcined, whereby the ammonia i- driven oft and chromic
oxide i> obtained as a valuable by-product. The ammonia
can be utilised for neutralising the chrome lye formed in a
subsequent electrolysis. The exciting fluid may be modified
by the addition of free phosphoric acid or acid phosphates,
in which case all the chrome and zinc can be readily
precipitated out of the spent fluid as phosphoric acid
compounds by neutralising the fluid by means of ammonia.
The addition of chloride of iron increases the depolarising
power of the solution. — G. H. R.
An Improved Process for the Purification of Brine.
C. G. Collins, Woodsburgh, King's County, U.S.A.
Eng. I'at. 4527, March 8, 1892.
See under VII., page C04.
Improvements in Incandescent Electric Lamps. Y. S.
Smith, Pittsburgh, LF.S.A. Eng. Pat. 6083, March 29,
1892.
Thk object of this invention is to reduce the cost of the
lamps by substituting iron for the platinum leading in wires
generally employed. As a sufficiently close joint cannot be
produced by fitting the wires into openings previously
formed in the glass, it is necessary that the glass be formed
about or moulded upon the wires by fusing it. This can be
done in a glass blower's flame, but great care must be
exercised to guard against excessive heat, and exposing the
iron to the direct action of the flame, or the consequent
oxidation spoils the joint. The joint may be made perfectly
air-tight by coating the points where the wires enter the
jrlass with a cement formed of one part by weight litharge,
two parts red lead, five parts of the carbonate of lead, all
thoroughly mixed and worked into thick paste with boiled
linseed oil'.— G. H. R.
Improvements in and relating to Secondary Battel'
Accumulators. H. H. Lake, London. From W. Sleicher
and G. A. Mosher, Troy, U.S.A. Eng. I'at. 6112,
March 29, 1892.
Thk electrodes consist of rods of conducting material
which lie in a series of troughs supported on rectangular
both troughs and frames being made of insulating
materials. The rods pass through the side of the frame,
and are connected together by a single rod. The troughs
are filled with red lead, electrolytic lead, or other active
material, and the troughs so filled with the connecting
rods, form the electrodes. — G. II. B.
Improvements in Means and Apparatus for Separating
Gold, Silver, and other Metals from their Ores. G.S.
Atkins, London. Eng. I'at. 7069, April 12, 1892.
Tim- invention relates to an improvement in the apparatus
1 by the same author in En?. I'at. 12,295, of 1886
(this Journal, 1888, 120). In this apparatus crushed
or pulverised ore is subjected to electrolytic action in the
anode compartment of an electrolytic apparatus in such a
way that tie tarded in it- descent through the
compartment, so as to keep the particles of ore in motion
and in contact with the anode pole in the electrolytic Bolu-
tion for a sufficient time to allow the chemical action, sucb
a- oxidation, chlorination, Sec, to take place. The crushed
ore is then subjected to the action of mercury in an
amalgamating apparatus which is either connected directly
with the electrolytic compartment or may be separate from
it. The cathode i> formed of a cylindrical vessel of
or other suitable material, which is made in two halves
which ale bolted together by flange,-, SO that read}
may be bad to ii pole contained therein. The
anode pole consists of a broad-bladed screw composed of
carbon, lead, peroxide of lead, or any other suitable
material which is a conductor of electricity, but it is not
soluble in the clectrolyti I- It i- preferably con-
I in the manner described in a patent "ranted to the
author in 1889, Eng. Pat. 10,061 (.this Journal, 1890, 742).
— G. II. B.
July so, 1892,] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCEETT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
r,i9
Improvements in Genera/in;/ Electricity and Producing
Air in a Luminous State, and in Apparatus therefor.
T. Duffy.San Francisco, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 7253, April 14,
1892.
The inventor describes a method of obtaining light for
illuminating purposes by forcing or blowing air through or
between vibrating tongues or strips of magnetised metal,
and confining and carrying away through transparent
conductors the air which it is claimed has been rendered
luminous by its passage through the vibratory strips.
' — ;;. II. R.
Improvements in the Art of Producing Metallic Zinc.
P. C. f'hoate. New York, U.S.A. ' Eng. Pat. 7378,
April 19, 1892.
The zinc and other equally volatile constituents are sepa-
rated from the ore by decomposition and volatilisation in
the presence of free oxygen, thereby obtaining a condensed
oxidised zinc fume. This fame is subjected to a moderate
heal i:i order to expel its soluble constituents more volatile
than /.inc. The remaining product is then treated with an
acid solvent of the zinc in which lead is insoluble, such as
dilute sulphuric acid, and finally metallic zinc is obtained
from the solution thus formed by means of electrolysis.
— G. II. B,
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Process fur the Iiemaral of the Lint from Cotton-Seed.
W. L. Dudley. J. Analyt. and Appl. Chem. 6 [3],
1892.
Tin-: "sea-island" or "long-staple" cotton (Gossyvhum
Barbadense) and the Egyptian cotton have naked seed,
while the "upland" or "short-staple" cotton (G. Her-
baceutn) of the I nited States has seed encased in a mass of
fibre firmly adherent to the seed-coat.
Tlie seed crushed in England for the extraction of the oil
is largely the Egyptian, but in the 1 "nited States the great
source of the oil is the " upland " seed, as the " sea-island "
cotton grows over a very limited area. In consequence of
this hairy envelope which surrounds the American cotton-
seed, decortication is necessary previous to the expression of
the oil. The Egyptian and " sea-island" seed need only be
crushed, heated, and pressed.
Besides the expense of decorticating the American seed,
much " meat " is lost by becoming entangled in the hulls
and failing to separate: on this account the oil-yield is
lower by several gallons per ton than that from the naked
seed, and the yield of " cake " is less as it contains no hulls.
The American seed will not stand storage nor shipment well
(especially export), as moisture absorbed by the fibrous
envelope will enable fermentation to set in.
The process for the treatment of American seed is briefly
as follows : — It is (1) run through " linters," which remove
as much as possible the cotton which has been left on the
seed by the gin ; (2) decorticated by a machine which cuts
the seed-coat, whereupon the " meat "-and the " hulls " fall
apart ; (3) separated by passing through an inclined
revolving screen having meshes, which allow the " meat "
to fall through, while the "hulls" are retained and roll out
at the lower end; or by means of an air blast ; (4) the
" meat " is heated and pressed. The hulls are burned, and
the ash, rich in potash, has a market value.
All mechanical methods which have been devised to strip
the seed of its fibre, have proved unsuccessful, either from
imperfect performance or lack of speed.
The chemical process described below was devisetl some
time since (U.S. Pat. 344,951) by the author and N. W.
Terry. It has never been tried commercially, but its
success is perfect on a small scale.
The seeds after linting are subjected to the action of
Xi> and SO;., cither in the order named or mixed
together, enough air accompanying them to " regenerate "
the NO. This is probably best accomplished by causing
the seed to descend a chute slowly, through which a
current of Nj03 is ascending, and then to enter a chute
where S( >., and air are ascending; or they may descend
through a chute having an ascending current of N..( > , S( I ,,
and air. After a few seconds' exposure to these gases
under proper conditions, the fibre on the seed will have
changed very little in appearance, but its structure is so
completely destroyed that the slightest friction causes it
fall to an impalpable powder. The sei ds are left per-
fectly smooth and show no signs of corrosion. They have
a slight acid reaction on the outside, but the acid is speedily
removed by washing. The seed-coat is very hard, and is
impervious to the gases. No trace of acid has ever been
discovered in the interior. The seeds germinate very quickly
if planted. The acidity may also be removed by blowing
lime-dust on the seed us soon as it comes from the
" cleaner" which removes the disintegrated fibre ; or it may
be carried by a conveyer through lime water and then
through a dryer. The seed is now ready to be crushed and
pressed, or it nun be shipped and stored. — \V. S.
Changes in Lubricating Oils and their Adulterants on
keeping for a long time. Dr.Holde. Jlitth. d. KiJnigl.
teclm. Y'crsuchunst, Berlin, 1892, 10 [2], So— 90.
The author has subjected a number of vegetable and mineral
oils to the action of air for several months, and he has
afterwards determined : (1.) The viscosity according to
Englcr, at 20° C. (2.) Alterations of specific gravity.
(3.) Changes in acidity. (4.) The changes indicated by
altered iodine numbers. He thus discovered : — -
(1.) That the outflow (viscosity) had considerably
changed in vegetable oils, but had not changed much in the
case of mineral oils.
(2.) The specific gravity of vegetable oils had increased
more in proportion than was the case with mineral oils.
(3.) Notwithstanding the considerable amount of oxygen
absorbed by vegetable oils, the increase of acidity had not
been noticeable. Volatile organic acids are supposed to
have been formed.
(4.) The iodine numbers had considerably decreased,
whicli fact shows that under the influence of oxygen the
non-saturated compounds of oleic acid, &c. with glycerol
have been transformed into saturated compounds. — P. D.
Examination of Vegetable Lubricating Oils specially
regarding Qualitative Tests. Holde. JMitth. Konigl.
techn. Versuchsans. Berlin, 1891, 294.
See under XXIII., page 637.
A New Unsaturated Fatty Acid of the Series, C„ //„„_, 0;.
A. Aruaud. Compt. Rend. 114, 79—80.
The author has discovered iu the seeds of a Guatemalan
Picramnia, or Tariri, belorging to the family of the
Simarubess, the glyceride of a new fatty acid, C,3H3,02,
for which he proposes the name tariric acid. Its com-
position has been proved by elementary analysis of the acid
itself and of its potassium and silver salts, and, what is
more convincing, by the analysis of the potassium salt of
the dibromiuated acid, and of the tetrabrominated acid.
Tariric acid absorbs therefore four atoms of bromine, aud
is isomeric with stearolic acid, which Overbeck prepared
from oleic acid. The melting point of the new acid is
50'5'C— J. L.
.;-2n
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ July so, 1892.
Degras. R. Ruhsam. Jahresb. der Deutseh. Gerberschule
zu Freibergi. S. 1891—1892,3,3—17 (this Journal, 1891,
557, 1013).
See wnder XXI II., page 639.
PATENTS.
An Improved Compound for Cleansing Purposes. R.J.
Jordan, Deal, Kent. Eng. Pat. 10,516, June 20, 1891.
The composition of the patented cleansing compound is
5 lb. of chalk, 2 soda, \ fat, and from | to § oz. of oxalic
acid. — J. L.
Improvement in the Treatment and Purification of Soap
Makers' Spent Lye for Extracting Glycerin therefrom.
O. C. Hagemann, London. Eng.' Pat. 11,889, July 13,
1891.
This invention, part of which has been communicated to
the patentee by E. K. Mining, Chicago, U.S.A., consists in
the use of calcium chloride for purifying spent lyes. — .T. L.
Improvements in Apparatus for Smelling Tallow. H.
Pfutzner, Conuewitz - Leipzig, Germany. Eng. Pat.
13,189, August 4, 1891.
The patented apparatus consists in a jacketed stationary
drum, in the centre of which a moveable shaft is fixed.
This Bhaft bears a number of hollow stirrers or fingers
communicating with the shaft in such a way that hot water
may be passed through the shaft and the stirrers. The pieces
of fat are fed into the drum by means of a worm. The
molten tallow passes a sieve in the bottom of the apparatus,
and may be withdrawn by means of a tap. — J. L.
A New and Improved Liquid Polish for Cleaning Brass,
Steel, and all Kinds of Metal. J. King, Kiugston-upon-
Hull. Eng. Pat. 3571, February 23, 1892.
The invention consists in mixing together the following
substances" for the purposes named: — | oz. Castile soap,
^ oz. silversmith's rouge, 3 oz. lamp black, 1 oz. flour emery
powder, 7 oz. rotten stone, f of a gill turpentine, A pint
paraffin oil. £ of a gill methylated spirit, H oz. cream of
tartar. — J. L.
Improvements hi Soap or Washing Powder. R. Steward,
Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 7581, April 1, 1892.
The patent is claimed for a mixture of 32 parts of tallow
or other greases, 10 resin, 4 caustic soda, 24 water, 5 mineral
oil, 25 soda ash. — J. L.
Improvements in the Method of Extracting Stearine and
Oleine from Tallow, and Apparatus therefor. E. J. J.
B. Benoit and J. Soler y Vila, Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
6955, April 11, J 892.
The patentees melt the tallow in a wooden lead-lined vat,
provided with a perforated steam coil, and add to the molteu
mass 1- — -3 per cent, powdered oxide (sic) of manganese.
The tallow is run off into a second vat to be treated there
with 0 • 2 — 0 • 5 per cent, of cream of tartar. Finally the
tallow is run into a third vat, which is kept at a temperature
of about 30° C. in a hot chamber. The bottom of this vat
is pierced with holes, which are closed by rods. Adjustable
screws in the bottom of the vat enable these rods to be so
lifted that the olein separated from the crystalline stearin
may be run off. — J. L.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, YAKNISHES,
KESINS, INDIA-KTJBBEK, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of White Lead. \l. W.
White, Camberwell, Surrey. Eng. Pat. 6683, April 18,
1891.
This is an invention by which it is intended to give any
white lead deficient in covering power, as those obtained by
precipitation processes generally are, such body and
covering power as are found in white lead of the best
quality. For this purpose white lead is suspended in a weak
solution of lead acetate, and this mixture, at as high a
temperature as possible, is passed again and again over
surfaces of lead, air or any other oxidising medium being
at the same time admitted, until experience or analysis
shows the white lead to contain the true proportion of
chemical constituents. The apparatus in which this
operation is to be performed cannot be understood without
the drawings. — C. O. W.
An Improved Manufacture of Material applicable as a
Blacking, and for other Purposes. F. Kagou, Paris.
Fng. Pat. 8480, May 16, 1891.
The invention relates to a compound forming a base where-
with, by the addition of suitable colouring matter, blacking
and other similar products may be manufactured. The
compound is composed of the following ingredients : —
Tallow, 1 part ; ordinary pine rosin, 9 ; carbonate of soda,
6 ; water, 6. The tallow and rosin are first melted together
in a boiling pan, then the soda and water are added whilst
diligently stirring. The compound so obtained may also
lie used as a soap, wax substitute, or liuseed oil substitute.
— C. O. W.
Improvement in the Manufacture of Paints and Varnishes,
and in the Treatment of Materials in connection therewith,
H. Taylor, London. Eng. Pat. 3142, February 17, 1892.
The invention consists in the treatment of rosins, pitches,
bitumens, or gums in a melted state with from 5 to 10 per
cent, of fresh slaked lime. — C. O. W.
Improvements in Painting Creosoted Poles, and other
Articles. J. Hughes, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 5139,
March 16, 1892.
Telegraph and telephone poles and similar articles which
have been previously treated with creosote, are coated
with a solution of half a pound of shellac, and one to two
ounces of camphor in a gallon of methylated spirit. When
dry the poles are painted with a paint which must be mixed
without oil, the pigment being preferably mixed with gold
size and turpentine. — C. O. W.
Improvements in the Manufacture of White Lead and in
Apparatus therefor. W. H. James, London. Eng. Pat.
5287, March 17, 1892.
In carrying out this invention a mixture is prepared first
containing 65 per cent, lead carbonate, and 35 per cent,
hydroxide of lead, by mixing one part of litharge with
from one to one-and-a-half parts of water, and with from
one-tenth to one per cent, by weight of acetic acid, esti-
mated as glacial. This mixture is well agitated and
carbonic acid injected into it at a temperature of from
170° to 210° F. The white lead mixture so obtained,
together with the mother-liquor or with the addition of
water is slowly agitated, so as to allow the coarser particles
to settle, when the supernatant liquor containing the finely
divided white lead is separated from the coarser particles,
filtered and dried at a temperature of about 190° to 210° F.
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
621
The carbonic acid gas used when derived from lime
kilns is purified by treatment with chlorine and subsequent
washing in a scrubber. Or carbonic acid gas dissolved in
water under pressure may be used. The apparatus for
carbouating consists of a horizontal copper cylinder, fitted
with rotating heaters and an external trough connected
with the interior of the cylinder by means of perforations
arranged at such an angle that the carbonic acid enters
the cylinder and flows iu the same direction as the
revolving magma. A pump is used to force the gas into
the cylinder. For the filtration, iron filter-presses and
hydro-extractors are used, covered with sheet lead. The
drying chambers are provided with superposed endless
bauds, travelling in opposite directions, so that the white
lead being dried falls from band to band. — C. O. W.
A Process for Waterproofing all kinds of Skins, and
Rendering them more Durable. F. Kiegert, St. Joseph,
Mo., U.S.A. ling. Pat. 5689, March 23, 1892.
See under XIV., page 324.
XIY.-TAMING, LEATHER, QLUE, AND
SIZE.
Index of Plants capable of yielding Tanning Materials :
A prize essay. F. E. Mafat. Report on this Essay. R.
Geigy. Bull. Soc. Ind. deMulhouse, 1892, 128—193.
Algarobilla. The pods of different species of Prosopis,
containing GO — 65 per cent, of tannin ; imported from South
America, particularly Chili. — Leguminosae.
Arnica {Arnica montana. Linn.). This grows wild in
Switzerland and Germany ; its roots and flowers contain a
tannin. — Compositae.
Absinthe {Artemisia absinthum), originally an Eastern
plant, has long been grown in Europe ; its leaves contain a
tannin. — Composite.
" Armoise" (Wormwood; Artemesia vulgaris. Linn.).
Wild in Europe; its leaves contain a tannin. — Composite.
Alder (Betula alnus. Linn.). In Europe Alnus glutinosa
and Alnus Jirma, and in Japan Alnus firma, are indige-
nous. The bark, leaves, and fruit contain 13 — 15 per cent,
of tannin ; the 36 per cent, given by some authorities may
be doubted. The Japanese alder contains 25 per cent, of
tannin and colours the leather but little; the European
alder is used in Russia and gives a deep colour. —
Betulacex.
Aloes. Different species of Aquilaria ; abundant in
Eastern Asia. The tannins of these plants impart a peculiar
odour and a greenish-brown colour to the leather. —
Leguminosae (sic).
Aristolochia (Aristolochia rotunda. Linn.). Those species
which produce serpentary root are V'irginian ; the others
flourish in central France. The roots contain a tannin. —
Aristolochia;.
" Arbousier" (Arbutus unedo) grows in Europe; its
leaves are used for tanning in Asia-Minor and contain as
much as 36' 4 per cent, of tannin. — Ericaceae.
" Airellc-myrtille " (Vaccinium myrtillns. Linn.). This
plant, more commonly known as bilberry, is abundant in
France, Germany, and England. Its tannin is rapid in its
action and 3' 5 kilos, of the dried and ground plant will
make 1 kilo, of sole leather in a short time. The plant is
best pruned like sumac, the leaves are not affected by
moisture when gathered, which cannot be said of oak bark.
- — Ericaceae.
Alcornoque (Bowdichia virgilioides. Humboldt), is
South American ; the root, wood, bark, and leaves contain
tannin. — Leguminosa;.
Acacia. Various species of acacia yield the fruit or
pods known as balibabalah, cassia grains (" graine de
cassier "), bablah, neb-neb, and Indian pods ("goussesde
l'lnde). Bablahs were first imported into Europe in 1830
as a mordant ; the percentage of tannin in them is from
25 — 32, according to species. The exporting countries are
India, Egypt, Nubia, Syria, Arabia, Senegal, and Mauritius.
Acacia extract contains a strong free acid, a tannin
analogous to that of nut galls, and a large quantity of a
calcium salt. — Leguminosa'.
Artichoke (Cynara scolymus. Linn.) ; leaves and stem
are astringent. — Composite.
Aya-pana. This is from three species of Eupatorium,
viz : ayapana, dalea, and uromatisans, growing in Brazil,
Jamaica, and Cuba respectively ; the leaves are rich in
tannin.— Composita'.
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca. Linn.) contains tannin
in leaves and bark. — Rosaceae.
Almond (Amygdalus communis. Linn.) is indigenous in
Africa, and cultivated in the middle of France, Italy, and
Spain. Its leaves are astringent. — Rosaceae.
Agremonia cupatoria. Linn, has astringent leaves
and flowers ; it is wild in most European countries. —
Rosacea".
Andromeda. Several species grow in Lapland and North
America, where they are known as " sour-tree." The wood
contains 4 — 8 per cent, and the leaves 1 0 per cent, of tannin.
■ — Ericaceae.
Andira. Several species yield bark containing 8 — 10
per cent, of tannin ; they flourish in South America, Brazil,
Guiana, Santa-Fe-de-Bogota, Antilles, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica,
and Surinam. — Leguminosae.
Mahogany (Ccdrela odorata. Linn.) yields bark con-
taining tannin. — Cedrelace;e.
Birch contains a tannin in wood, bark, and leaves which
colours iron salts green. Davy gives 1 • 675 per cent, as the
tannin contents, Villon, 3 per cent., Fraas, 5-32 per cent. —
Betulaceoe.
Bcnnet (Geum urbanum. Linn.) is wild iu Central and
Southern Europe ; its roots, leaves, and flowers are astrin-
gent, and according to Tromsdorff contain 42 per cent, of
tannin free from gallic acid ; others, however, give 4 per
cent, in the whole plant. — Kosace;e.
" Bois jaune" (Morus tinctoria. Linn.), Old Fustic,
contains moritannic acid, which colours ferric salts green.
— Moraceae.
Bistort (Polygonum bistortd) contains in its roots, stem,
flowers, and leaves " bistortannic acid " and a yellow
colouring matter assimilable by hides ; it haunts the marshy
land of Southern France. — Polygonaeeae.
" Behen rouge" (Statice latifolia. Smith) grows in
Persia, the Caucasus, &c. Its roots are used in Southern
Russia as tan for skins, to which it imparts a dull, ochreous,
red colour. — Plumbaginacea;.
Buranhem (Chrysophyllum glycyphlocum. Cararetti)
furnishes the bark known as monesia or mohica, and
grows in Brazil, where an extract is exported for thera-
peutical purposes; Payeu gives 7-5 as the percentage of
tannin found in one sample. The tannin of this bark
colours leather deep brown. — Sapotaccae.
Briars (Erica arborea, #•<:.) of which there are about
400 species, grow chiefly in Southern Africa, and contain
tannin. — Ericaceae.
Star-Anise (Illicium anisatum. Linn.) from India,
China, and the Philippine Islands, contains tannin in its
fruit. — Magnoliaceae.
" Bois doux " (Inga vera, lfc.~) is a tree of Mexico,
Guadeloupe, and the Indies, where it is known as cooroo-
eoopully ; its wood and bark are tanniferous. — Leguminosae.
Bauhinia (Bauhinia variegata) grows in the Antilles
and Central America ; its wood and hark contain tannin.
Leguminosae.
Bearberry (Arbutus uva-ursi. Linn.) grows in France,
Italy, Spain, and Russia, and contain 14 per cent, of tannin
in its leaves, according to some authorities, and 36 '4 per
cent, according to others. — Ericaceae.
Box (Buxus sempervirens) contains a mean of 6 per
cent, tannin in wood and bark. — Euphorbiacea;.
622
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1893.
Bamboo (Bamhusa arundinacea. Retz) is Iuaian and
Chinese, ami is used in those countries for tanning skins. —
(iraminacere.
Bancoul (Croton moluccanum. Linn.) originally came
from the Moluccas, and is now in Ceylon, Reunion,
and Madagascar; in Tahiti it is used as a tan-stuff.
— Euphorbiacea;.
"JJois de natte" (Mimusops balatii) grows in South
America: it colours leather red. — Sapotaceae.
" Bois >h fer " (Sideroxylon cinerecum) is used for
tanning in Peru ; it imparts a red colour to the leather.
— Sapotacese.
Oak (guercus). Ihere are 70 — 80 species of oak, com-
prising 275 varieties, about half of which inhabit the old
world and half the new world. The hard oak dominates in
Europe, ami of its two varieties Quei'ctts pedunculata and
Quercus sessilifloi'a, the latter has the bark which is richer
in quercitannic acid. Of other oaks, the following are
given: — Q. tauza, 8 per cent, of tannin in its bark;
Q. cm-is (hairy-cupped oak"), 10 per cent, of tannin in
bark; Q. ilex (evergreen oak), 10 per cent, of tannin in
bark : (,>. suber (cork oak), 10 percent, of tannin in bark ;
Q. ballota, 10 per cent, of tannin in bark; (J. mirbe/ti,
12 per cent, of tannin in bark ; Q. coccifera (kermes oak),
15 per cent, of tannin in bark; Q. wyilops (valonia),
8 per cent, of tannin in bark ; (J. infectoria : (J. glomerata
(Russian oak). The above are African and European.
Of American oaks may be mentioned: — Q. tiVm (white
oak), 7 • 85 per cent, of tannin in bark ; Q. tinctoria (black
oak), 6 -47 per cent, of tannin in bark ; Q. rubra (red oak),
5'55 percent, of tannin in bark : 0- coccinea (scarlet oak).
7-78 per cent, of tannin in bark. It may be generally
stated that oak bark contains from 7 to 18 per cent, of
quercitannic acid, while the wood and leaves contain
5 — 7 per cent. A table showing the percentage of tannin
in different parts of the anatomy of oaks is given. —
Cupulifera .-.
Chestnut ( ( 'astanea vesca), abundant in southern Europe
and North America ; the wood contains 68 per cent, of
water when felled, 13 per cent, three months after felling,
the bark being left on, and 35 per cent, five months after
sawing and stripping. The wood and bark contain from
4 to 12 per cent, of tannin (casteneataunic acid). —
Cupulifera.
Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus. Linn.) is European and
North American ; the wood, bark, and leaves contain
2-084 per cent, of tannin. — Cupuliferae.
Cornelian cherry (Cornus mascula, dogwood) grows in
Europe, especially France ; its bark, leaves, and fruit contain
19 '9 per cent, of tannin according to Gassincourt, and 8 —
9 per cent, in the bark according to some other analysts. —
Cornaceae.
Hazel (Corylus avellana. Linn.) contains in wood, bark,
and leaves 2-916 per cent, of tannin. — Cupulifera.-.
//unlock (Conium maculatum) contains tannin in its
leaves. — 1 "mbellifene.
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua. Linn.) grows in Spain, Italy,
France, Algiers, and Egypt. Its fruit (St. John's bread)
contains 50 — 55 per cent, of tannin. — Leguminosa).
Cistus creticus grows in Spain, Crete, and Candia, and
has astringent leaves. — Cistacae.
Bignonia copaia, or Caroba, is grown in South America,
and is used as a tanning agent under the name Jacaranda ;
the tannin resides in its bark and leaves. — Bignoniacae.
Carob of Judsea (Pistacia terebintUus, Linn.) grows in
the Levant, and gives rise to horn-shaped galls which
contain 25 per cent, of tannin, and are called " caroubes."
— Anaeardiaeae.
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens. Linn.) contains tannin
in bark and cones. — ( oniferae.
" Contrayerca " (Dorstenia hrasiliensis) is Peruvian and
has astringent roots. — Moraceac.
' 'onocarpus arborea and C. racemosa. "West Indies and
Brazil ; its bark and fruit contain tannin. Its indigenous
name is " mangle." — Combretacc.r.
Catechu. The brownish red catechu of Bengal is the
exudation from the Acacia catechu. The Bombay brown
catechu is from the Areca catechu — the areca palm.
Gambier is the extract from the leaves of I'ncaria gambier.
To Bengal catechu have been ascribed of tannin 54 -5 per
cent. (Davy), 38-2 per cent. (Kenard), and 4S per cent.
(Villon). To Bombay catechu, 48-5 per cent. (Davy),
54-4 per cent. (Kenard), and 55 per cent. (Villon ). To
gambier, 58 percent. (Davy), 33 — 10 per cent. (Kenard),
and 65 - 79 per cent. (Villon). Catechuitanuic acid (mimo-
tannic acid) colours iron salts green.
Cinnamon (Lauras rinnamomum, &c.) The several
species of this plant contain tannin. — Lauracete.
Centaury (Erythr m centaurium), common in Europe, is
astringent. — t lelltianaca-.
(Joffee (Coffea ardbica and C. mauritana) contains
caft'eo-tanuie acid which colours iron salts green. — Rubiacea:.
( 'herry. Wild cherry (Ccrasus avium. Linn.) is in-
digenous in Europe and contains 10 pier cent, of tannin in
its bark. The other varieties also contain tannin. —
Rosacea:.
Service tree (Pyrus sorbus and /'. domestical contains
tannin in wood, bark, leaves, and fruit. — Rosacea'.
Ganaigre ( Rumex hymenoepalum. Linn.) grows wild in
the marshy lands of tin- south-east of the United States ; it*-
bulbs contain 20 — 24 per cent, of tannin. Most other
varieties of rumex also contain tannin. — Polygonac
Paraguay acacia {Cumpay) of South America contains
16 — 20 per cent, of " cumpatannic " acid. — Leguminosae.
Carapa yields a light, reddish, coarse-grained wood, and
its bark contains I — 8 per cent, of tannin. It is found in
Guiana. — Cedrelaceae.
Toothwort {Plumbago europsa. Linn.) contains
tannin in its roots. — Plumbaginaceac.
Divi-divi i Ctesalpinia coriarid) chiefly from Mexico and
Venezuela contain- ellagitannic acid to the extent of 30—
45 per cent. ; it imparts a reddish-brown colour to leather.
— -Leguminosae.
Dog-rose (Rosa canina. Linn.) has astringent leaves
and fruit. — Rosacea'.
Maple. — The many varieties of this plant contain tannin ;
16 per cent, is given by Kenard for the tannin in wood and
bark, but only 2 '28 per cent, as an average by Davy. —
Aceraceie.
Eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus resinifera) is used in New
Caledonia, where it grows, a, a tanning agent ; the tannin
in its leaves is estimated at 10 — 12 per cent. — Leguminosae.
Ebony ( Viospyros). The bark of some species contains
16 — 18 per cent, of taunin and is used in Peru, Brazil, and
Japan for tanning. — Ebenaceas.
Fustic, young (Rhus cotinus. Linn.) grows in Southern
Europe, and contains a tannin which colours iron salts
olive green. — Terebinthaceae.
Spir.ra (S. filipendula. Linn.) has astringent flowers
and roots. — Rosacea).
Fern. The varieties of Fili.r mas contain a tannin which
colours iron salts green aud is called " tilixitannic acid." —
Filices.
Strawberry (Frarjaria vesca. Linn.) The flowers and
roots are astringent. — Rosaceae.
Ash ( Fraxinus excelsior. Linn.) contain 3'324 percent,
of tannin in wood, bark, leaves, and sap, according to Davy.
— Oleaceae.
Pomegranate (Pnnica granalum). The bark of this tree
was used by the ancients as a tanning agent under the name
" malicorium " ; Davy attributes 18'8 percent, of tannin
to it. The shell of the fruit contains 22 — 25 per cent, of
tannin, and is used for tanning in Japan ; the wild pome-
granate contains 46 per cent, of tannin. — Granateae.
Budica bucera (eombretacea'), Globularia alypum (wild
senna), Teucrium (labiate), .PshKmb pomiferum (myrtaci ae )
Caryophyllus aromaticus (the clove tret — Myrtaceae), and
Geranium are astringent plants containing taunin.
Madder runt (Rubia tinctorium) contains rubitannic acid
and Galium verum (cheese rennet) contains gallotanuic
acid. — Rubiaci • -
" Gonahie" (Acacia andansonii), or redgum, yields very
tanniferous fruit, which is used as a tannage in West Africa.
— Leguminosae.
" Gonzalo aloes" (Astronium fra.rini folium) is used as
a tannage in South America, and called "gateodo " or cat-
wood. — Terebinthacea).
July 80. 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
023
Beach ( Fagus syloatica. Linn.) contains 2 per cent,
of tannin ; its bark is used in Persia for tannage.—
Cupulifera.
Hap (hamulus lupulus. Linn. — Oannabinaee;e) contains
•I per cent, of tannin.
" Icettc " (lal)iata'). ipecacuanha (rubiaeea1), jacaranda
(bignoneacea.1, — used in South America for tanning), and
buckthorn (rltamnus. — Jihamnacea1) are tanniferous. The
last named contains " ziziphotannic acid " in its bark, which
is used for tannage in Persia. Khaya (cedrelacca.1)
contains " kliayatannic acid."
Kino is the dried exudation or extract of several plants
of which the principal are: — Peterocarpus eriiiaccus
(Africa), Butea froudosa and B. superba (X. India),
Ptcrocarpusmursnpinm(\e.XvA), coccolaba urifcra( Jamaica ),
and Rhizophora mangle or mangrove (Mexico), whose leaves
contain IS — 20 per cent, of tannin ; the first four are
leguminosa;. Kino contains 45 — 55 per cent, of " cocco-
tannic acid."
Mastic ( Pistacia lentiscus. Linn). — The leaves and
bark contain 10 — 12 per cent, of tannin: used for tanning
buffalo skins in certain countries. — Terebinthacese.
ifamtbium vulgare, common horehouud, is astringent. —
Labiate.
Mango (Mangifera indica. — Tcrebinthaeeae) contains
tannin in bark and leaves (20 — 22 per cent.).
Mulberry (Minus nigra"). — The bark of some species is
used in Persia as a tannage. — Moraeea'.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis. Linn. — Myrtacea;) has
astringent bark, berries, and leaves. Celtis australia
t I'lmacea') contains G per cent, of tannin in its wood.
St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum. Linn. — Hyperi-
caeese) has astringent flowers. Malpighia altissime,
Antilles cherry, has tanniferous bark which is used as
tannage at Guadeloupe.
Mimosa. — The mimose.v include a great many varieties
of acacia ; the most valuable bark is from Tasmania ; the
Australian produce contains 25 per cent. (.-1. cyanophylla)
— 45 per cent. (A. pyenantha) of tannin ; A. sentis (6'32
per cent.) and A. binervata. (30'40 per cent.) are from
New South Wales.
Mi/rubolans, the fruits of several species of Terminalia
(eombretacea1) ; their contents of tannin are variously
given, 18-2 per cent, and 52 per cent, being the extremes ;
Loewe asserts the invariable presence of ellagic acid
(C„H10O10).
Galls are classified as European and Asiatic ; of the
latter there are Levant galls and Aleppo galls. The Levant
galls contain 77-42 per cent, of gallotanuic acid (Midler) ;
the Aleppo galls contain 60 — 6G per cent. (Fehling).
Villon gives the following for Aleppo and Levant galls : —
Iilack, 37 — 41 per cent.; green, 53 — 60 per cent.; white,
50 — 65 per cent. For Smyrna galls he gives : — Black,
33 — 37 per cent.; green, 53 — 60 per cent; white, 60 — 63
per cent. Renard gives 33 — 60 per cent, as a mean of all
three kinds. Mierzinsky gives 60 — 66 per cent, as a mean.
Of Euiopeau galls those of Morea and Istria are the best,
and have some 40 per cent, of gallotanuic acid ; Italian and
Hungarian galls follow, and those of Germany and France
are least important. French galls contain 9 — 10 per cent,
of tannin ; German galls, according to Villon, contain
18 — 19 per cent, of solubleand 13 — 14 per cent, of insoluble
tannin. Chinese and Japanese galls are from plants
belonging to the terebinthaeeic, viz., Rhus semialata in
China and Dystilium race/nosum in Japan ; 69 per cent, is the
mean of the many versions which have been given of the
tannin in Chinese galls. Hungarian galls or " knoppern "
are from oaks, and contain from 20 to 35 percent, of tannin.
Bassorah galls are from an oak and contain 57 per cent, of
L'allotannic acid according to Kathreiner, Kitner, and others.
Renard gives 27 per cent, and Villon 30 per cent., of which
3 per cent, is difficultly soluble. Bokhara galls are from
the Indian tamarisk (terebinthace;c) ; their percentage of
tannin has been variously given from 26 per cent, to 50 per
cent. Carob of Judaea, see above.
Water-lily (Ngmphre alba, N. lutea). The roots contain
tannin according to Morin, who called it " nuphartannic
acid." — Xymphacea;.
Walnut (Juglans regia. Jnglandacex), medlar (Mes-
pilus germanica. Rosacea;), and areca-nut (Areca catechu.
Linn. — Palmaceae), which is used in Japan for tanning,
arc all tanniferous.
Elm ( Vlmus campestris) contains 1 • 9 per cent, of tannin
1 in its bark according to Davy and, 7 —8 per cent, according
to Villon. — Moraeea-.
Nettles (I'rlica mens. [TrticaceaO and oliee (Olea
europea. Oleaeea;) are tanniferous.
Osier (Sali.c oiminnlis) contains 7 — 10 per cent, of
tannin in its bark, which is largely used in Northern Russia.
— Salicacca'.
Orange and citron barks are used in Persia for tannage.
Osyris leaves (Osyris compfessd) contain 17 per cent, of
tannin, called by Villon " osyristannie acid."
Onager (CEnothera biennis. Onagracea1) and Australian
yellow-wood (Oxleya xanthoxyla. ('cdralacc.c) are tanni-
ferous, the latter being used in the Transvaal. Of the
various species of poplar (Papains. Salicacea?) the Italian
contains 3 — 3 '125 per cent, of " salicitannic acid;" the
bark of the shaking poplar contains 5-80 percent, of tannin
in spriog (Midler).
Plantain (JPlantagd) is tanniferous, and pyrethrum
(Pyrethrum aut/icmis. Linn. ( lompositai !, which is wild
in Persia, Africa, &c, contains O- 55 per cent, of tannin in
its roots. Prunus spinosa (rosacea;) is wild in France,
and contains 3 '33 per cent, of tannin, llumc.r acutus.
(Linn. Polygonacae), potenlilla (rosacea1), periwinkle
(Vinca major. Apocynacea:), persicaria (polygonacese),
cals\foot ((inaphalium dioicum. Linn. Senecoideas), lion's
foot (Alchimilla vulgaris. Linn. Rosacea1), Potcrium
sanguisorba. Linn. (Kosacea1), Equisitum hyemale (rough
horsetail. Equisetaceie), and Lichen pulmonarius. Linn,
(lichenes) are minor tanniferous plants.
Persea gratissima or Lauras persea (lauraeea1), the
alligator pear of S. America, and plane ( platinacetc) yield
bark, and cocoa-nut palm (Cocas nucifera. Palmare, c)
yields wood, which are used as tannage in the native
countries of the respective trees.
Quebracho ( Aspidospermum quebracho) ( terebiuthacca;)
comes from nearly all the Eastern States of South America
(source of aspido-spermine) ; red quebracho contains 16 — 22
per cent, of " aspido-spertaunic acid," while white
quebracho only contains 10 — 11 per cent. The author
points out the advantages and disadvantages of quebracho
(cjuebr-colorado) as a tanning agent. At the Paris Exhibition
of 1867 leather tanned with quebracho was shown for the
first time in Europe, and in 1874 — 75 the utility of this wood
became recognised in France. In whatever form quebracho
wood is to be used exposure to air should be avoided as
much as possible ; a sample which had a titre of 20 per
cent, of tannin when freshly cut was found to contain only
16 per cent, after six months' storage.
Quillaia bark (rosacea;) is from Peru and Chili, and is
used in Germany for making an extract (for Saponin).
Cinchona (rubiacea1). Of this there are live varieties,
namely : Grey, red, yellow, wThite, and false. The tannin
of the bark is called " cinchotaunic acid."
Red rhatany (Krameria triandra. Polygalacea') grows
in Argentina, Brazil, Chili, and Alsace; its bark contains
" rhataniatannic acid." The dried extract is difficultly
distinguished from kino; the hark, however, contains
42 '5 per cent, of tannin while kino averages 50 per cent.
Rhubarb (Rheum p alma turn. Linn. Polygonacea;) con-
tains 9 per cent, of tannin in its roots : Blackberry (rubus
friiticosus. Rosacea;) contains about 7 per cent, of tannin
in its flowers and leaves ; Rose (rosacea;) and Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis. Labiata1) are tanniferous.
Pine. Under this heading the author includes the genus
Abies, Pimis and Lari.r of the coaifene. The bark of J 'inns
picea (Linn.) contains 6 — 7 per cent, of " tannocortepi-
tannic acid." Pinus canadensis (Linn.) is the hemlock
(white spruce) so much used as tannage in the United
States; the bark contains 8 — 10 per cent, of tannin. The
bark of Pinus allies (Linn.) contains 7 — 8 per cent, of
tannin. Villon found 25 per cent, of tannin in the inner
bark of Pinus alepensis, 3 or 4 per cent, in the outer bark,
and 7 per cent, in the cones. A table of percentages of
624
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ July 30, lsss.
tannin in pine of different ages, &c. is showu, and as a
mean of all pines the author gives 8 '25 per cent, of
" pinitannic acid."
Larch {Larix europaa) bark contains 1'66 per cent, of
tannin according to Daw, and 5 • 8 per cent, in springtime
according to Miiller. There is no tannin in the wood of
any of the conif.ii.
Scilla maritima (sea onion. Liliacea:) contains 20 — 25
per cent, of tannin in its bulb (squills).
Sorghum vulgare is tanniferous.
Sumac is from several species of rhus (terebenthacea1),
of which fihtts coriaria is the chief ; the others are given
in detail by the author, but complete lists of this common
tanning agent are fairly numerous (compare Procter's Test-
Book of Tanning). A table shows that the percentage of
tannin in various sumacs is from 10- — 28 • 2 per cent.
Tormentilla reptans and T. erecta (Rosacea?), wild in
the Alps and Pyrenees and employed as tannage in the
Faroe Islands, where they produce a red leather. They
contain tannin in the flowers and roots to the extent of 31
per cent, according to Bcnard (" tormentillo-tannic acid ")
and of 17 per cent, according to others.
Paraguay tea or mate ([Ilex paraguensis. Rutacea)
contains 7 per cent, of " yervamate-tannic acid." China
tea ( Thea chinensis. Ternotrceniiaceae) has been much
analysed; the mean maybe given as 26 '85 per cent, of
tannin in green tea and 26 ■ 12 per cent, in black tea.
Willow. The various species of salix (salicaceie) contain
tannin in the bark and leaves ; in the former it varies
greatly, 1-4 per cent, and 16 per cent, being given in a
table. The author urges that more attention be paid to
willow bark by tanners ; in Russia it has long been used.
Mountain ash (Pyrus aucuparia. Rosacea:) contains
5 — 7 per cent, of tannin in its bark, 3 '5 per cent, in its
wood, and some also in its leaves and fruit.
Simarouba amara (ltutacea1) is used in Guiana, Cayenne,
and Venezuela for tannage ; Salmi serrulata or Calamus
draco (Palmaceae) contains 15 per cent, of tannin (Villon) ;
Tamarindus indica, Linn, (leguminosa1) is used as tannage
in Venezuela ; Cassia auriculata or Turwar (Leguminosa1)
is employed in India.
Weinmannia macrostachia (Verbenacea:), a tropical plant
known as red tan, common lime (Tilia europaa. Tiliacc),
meadowsweet (Spina ulmaria. Rosacea;), Verbena offici-
nalis, or vervain (VerbenaeeBe), and veronica (Scrophulari-
acea:), are all tanniferous plants of well-known habitat.
Valonia, Quercus cegilops, Q. valonea (Cupulifera?).
These well-known acorn-cups contain from 25 to 45 per cent,
of tannin. The main varieties are Chamada, 33' 4 per cent.,
Chamadina, 35 • 4 per cent, and upwards, Babdista, 30 per
cent., and Chandra 27 per cent. Powdered valonia is poorer
in tannin than the cups, because before grinding they do
not completely separate bark and wood chips. A table
gives the percentages of tannin according to different autho-
rities.
In addition to the above index the author gives a list of
30 kinds of bark, six kinds of wood, and four plants which
are tanniferous. but have not been used ; they are nearly all
of tropical growth.
In conclusion, emphasis i- laid on the necessity for con-
sidering the quality of the tannin with reference to its
influence on the finished leather, as well as its available
quantity, in a tan-stuff before employing it as a tannage.
The report on this essay deals particularly with a portion
of it which is not here published. The essayist proposes to
utilise the waste of the industries which use wood for
cellulose production in Alsace by making tanning extracts
from it. The reporter points out that the cost of transport
and the low tannin value of such waste renders its employ-
ment as fuel far more profitable. — A. G. B.
PATENTS.
Improved Means far Preserving a Solution of Tannin anil
keeping it from Fermenting or changing into Gallic Acid.
W. Crowther and J. Crowther, Dewsbury, Yorkshire.
Eng. Pat. 9624, June 6, 1891.
The objects defined in the title are effected by keeping the
tannin liquor at or about 40= F. The source of eold is any
refrigerating machine, and the conductor is a brine solution
circulating through coils of pipes in the vessels or tanks
containing the liquor. The invention is applicable to any of
the trades or manufactures in which decoctions of tannin
are employed, but especially to the dyeing of cotton and
other vegetable fibres, and wool. An advantage of the
process is that in dyeing mixed fabrics the wool does not
absorb the tannin at this temperature to anything like the
same extent to which it does so at higher temperatures ;
thus more tannin is available for the cotton, and the
metallic salts used in the subsequent operation do not affect
the wool, which is consequently softer to the touch.
—A. G. B.
A Method of ami Means for rendering Leather and
Leather Goads Waterproof and more Durable.
I'. Riegert, St. Joseph, Missouri, t'S.A. Eng. Pat.
5687, March 23, 1892.
Five parts of yellow wax are melted, at a temperature of
about 85° — 90° C., in a vessel which can be closed. Two
parts of turpentine, benzine, or other spirit are then added
and the temperature maintained until the wax is dissolved.
The leather is immersed in this solution for 10 or 15
minutes, according to the thickness of the leather, and then
subjected to pressure or blows. — A. G. B.
Degras. R. Ruhsam. Jahresb. dor Deutsch. Gerberschule
zn Freiberg i. S., 1891—1892, 3, 3—17. (This Journal,
1891, 557, 1013.)
See under XXIII., page 639.
A Process for Waterproofing all kinds of Skins and
Rendering them mare Durable. F. Riegert, St. Joseph,
Mo., U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 5G89, March 23. 1892.
The skin is spread on a metal plate, kept at a temperature
of i(f — 50° C'., and to its " inner surface " is applied a
I solution of india-rubber in " benzine," such as is known in
France as "gomme du bresil"; this is well rubbed in and
| is followed by a dressing of " dubbing, grease, or oil of any
I suitable description " similarly applied. The skin is then
| allowed to dry for a short time and finally rubbed with
soap-powder. Skins that are rough on the inner side mast
be scraped or rubbed " so as to allow the india-rubber to
penetrate the pores more readily." — A. G. B.
Improvements in and in Apparatus for the Treatment nf
Liquid Gelatin or Glue for the ultimate Production of
Plates or Sheets of such. W. P. Thompson. From
F. A. Wolff, Heilbronn, Wurtemburg, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 6416, April 2, 1892.
The hot liquid gelatin flows from a reservoir on to an
endless band of oil-eloth the edges of which are slightly
turned up so as to form a channel. The band is slowly
moved forward by revolving pulleys over a series of guide
rollers, which keep it perfectly horizontal, and on its return
journey it is twice turned, similarly to a crossed belt, in
order that the gelatin may remain on the top surface; it is
prevented from returning by the guide rollers. This band
is enclosed in a box through channels in which cold air is
drawn or blown in such a manner that the gelatin may have
a thorough draught of air passing over its surface. A
scraper strips the gelatin from this baud on to another
endless revolving band on which the gelatin is cut up into
pieces of the required size by a revolving knife. The pieces
fall on to the drying frames, which also form an endless
revolving band. The whole apparatus is illustrated in the
specification. The thickness of the sheets is regulated by
the rate of flow of the gelatin on to the band. The time
necessary for turning out the pieces ready for drying
depends on their thickness; 10 — 20 minutes is said to be
sufficient. — A. G. B.
July 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
625
An Improved Process of Tanning Miles for making Kid-
leather. W. Zahu, Newark, Essex, New Jersey. Eng.
Pat. 7072, April 12, 1892.
100 lb. of well-prepared hides are immersed in a solution
composed of 5 lb. of bichromate of potash and 2 lb. of
common salt dissolved in 5 gals, of water, to which are
added 2j lb. of commercial hydrochloric acid. The hides
remain in this solution until they appear to be well soaked,
which generallj' means 3 — 5 hours, and are then pressed.
They are next treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, " either
alone or in conjunction with other compounds," as gas or in
solution. If the sulphuretted hydrogen be applied as gas,
the hides or skins are suspended in a chamber, or series of
chambers, through which the gas is passed, the finish of the
process being indicated by the change of the yellow colour
to bluish green. If it be applied in solution the skins are
immersed in a bath composed of 2 lb. of " yellow sulphuret
of potash of commerce " dissolved in 12 gals, of water ; to
this bath 4 lb. of dilute sulphuric acid (1 : 5) and, after a
time, another pound of sulphuret of potash are slowly
added. Alum may be used in this bath if desired. — A. G. B.
Improved Manufacture of Substitute for Leather. A. J.
Boult, London. From A. E. Ebert, Dresden-AItstadt,
Saxony. Eng. Pat. 7698, April 23, 1892.
The material to be manufactured, which should preferably
be hair-felt containing a small proportion of wool and free
from soluble matter, is singed by a hot-iron plate to remove
short hairs and immersed for 10 to 20 minutes, according
to thickness, in a vessel containing the molten impregnating
material and kept hot over a low tire. The pieces of felt
must be thoroughly dried before immersion and are best
handled on a wire frame. The impregnating bath is pre-
pared as follows : — " One part of ozokerite or cerasiu
(mineral wax) is melted, and to this are added two parts
of melted beef or mutton dripping. This mixture is diluted
by the addition of from C to 8 parts of varnish, so that it
acquires the consistency of a ' salve or pomade, whereupon
2 or :i parts of oxide of iron are added" ; the addition of
about \ per cent, of oxide of manganese is sometimes
advantageous. " This mixture is now mixed with 5 parts
of asphalt." Kesin oil may be added to increase the
fluidity of the bath if required, and turpentine oil has also
been found to be advantageous at times. After immersion
the pieces of felt are spread on a plate and the excess of
liquid pressed out by a roller. The sheets are then pressed
between sheets of metal covered with German or Frankfort
black and moistened with water to prevent adhesion.
Calendering between rollers, varnishing with asphalt
varnish, and burnishing with brushes conclude the manu-
facture of this leather substitute. — A. G. B.
Improvements in and Relating to Tanning Hides and
Skins. H. H. Lake, London. From Durio Brothers,
Turin, Italy. Eng. Pat. 8469, May 4, 1892.
Theory and custom have heretofore forbidden the use of
tannin liquors of a very high degree of concentration,
3° — 4° B. having been the maximum limit allowed.
According to the patentee, it is this that has rendered
nugatory the attempts which have been made to hasten the
tanning process by drumming or fulling. This invention
combines the use of a rotating drum with that of strong
tannin liquors. The drum, or fuller, preferred is a cask
6| ft. inner diameter and 6:V ft. length, capable of rotating
on its own axis ; these dimensions will serve for about
10 to 12 cwt. of hides or skins. The cask is filled to within
=j in. of the rotatory axis with a tannin liquor of about
V,\ II., made from any good extract; the hides or skins
(" which need not undergo any special preliminary prepara-
tion, except the ordinary unhairing, fleshing, and puring,
known by the name of river work ") are introduced, and the
cask closed and rotated at about HI revolutions per minute.
From time to time the rotation is stopped for proofing the
liquor, which is brought back according to requirement not
only to the initial density but to a slightly higher density
by the addition of fresh extract ; in this way the liquor
will be ready for a new batch of hides when the first is
tanned. Filtration after five or six operations, is, however,
recommended. " From 2 to 4 hours are sufficient " for the
tanning of small hides or skins, such as, for example, those
of sheep and the like, and from 20 to 30 hours are not
exceeded for the heavy and very thick bull or ox hides " ;
the time varies by reason of the quality of the hides.
When the proofing shows that no more tannin is being
absorbed, the hides are removed to another drum and
tumbled in " water with tannin liquor " to wash away
deposits which are likely to have been produced in the
strong liquors. — A. G. B.
XY.-MANURES, Etc.
The Results of Chemical Manuring. Chemical Trade J.,
1892, 11, 2.
A series of experiments have been made during the past
10 years by the East Suffolk Chamber of Agriculture, with
a view to gaining some reliable evidence as to the advisability
of manuring grass lands in accordance with the prevailing
customs. The trials were made at Saxmuudham on poor
heavy land, with a clay subsoil. The manures tried were
the following : —
Manure.
Quantity
per Acre.
Cost per
Acre.
Compound manure, containing potash,
phosphates, nitrogen, and magnesia.
Pure dissolved bones
Superphosphate
Gypsum
Lb.
424
496
1,044
Cwt.
32
s. d.
25 6
33 0
33 0
32 0
The following table shows the results for 1891, for 10
years, and the excess over unmanured plots on the average
of 10 years of all the experiments : —
1891.
Average of 10 Years 1882—91.
Manure.
Yield
per Acre.
Yield
per Acre.
Excess
over Un-
manured
Plot.
Value of
Excess.
Pure dissolved bones. . . .
Lb.
4,312
3,418
3,225
2,880
8,106
Lb.
4,277
3,608
3,014
3,387
3,198
Lb.
1,263
594
375
184
£ s. d.
2 5 0
110
0 13 0
0 6 6
It will thus be seen that the compound manure was the
only one which paid for its use. This compound was made
in the following proportions : —
Lb.
Superphosphate (containing 13'5 per cent, soluble
H3P04) 106
Muriate of potash 93
Nitrate of soda 26
Sulphate of ammonia 10
Sulphate of magnesium 63
Gypsum 106
This composition gives 14" 5 lb. of ammonia, 48 '5 lb.
of potash, and 14 • 5 lb. of phosphoric acid per acre. It
will be noticed also that this mixture is largely composed
626
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [July 30, isms.
of those chemical manures which in themselves were
apparent failures, showing that the fault does not lie with
the manures so much as with the want of judgment in their
application. In order to assure the reliability of these tesl -.
extensive meteorological observations were also made so as
to witness the effect of the weather upon the crops obtained.
The net profit in the case of the compound manure, after
allowing for the cost of the same, amounts to 1/, per acre.
XVI.-SUGAK, STAECH, GUM, Etc.
On the Formation of Dexlrins. P. Petit. Compt. Rend.
1892, 114, 76— 70.
The dcxtrins which are prepared by Payen's process
(heating starch moistened with a small quantity of nitric
acid, to 10CT — 140 C.) almost invariably reduce Fehling's
solution.
The author undertook to examine the influence of time
and of the quantity of acid employed, on starch in Payen's
process at a temperature of 125 C. The resulting product
might contain unattaeked starch, glucose, and dextrin, and
an estimation of these substances could be based on the
following facts which had been ascertained by using known
quantities of starch, glucose, and of a non-reducing dextrin.
1st. Water at 40 — 50° C. fully extracts glucose and dextrin,
and the starch collected on a weighed filter is recovered
completely. 2nd. The rotatory power of the solution is equal
to the sum of the rotatory powers of the glucose and of the
dextrin. 3rd. On fermenting the solution, sterilising it, and
adding yeast, it is found that the decrease of rotatory power
exactly corresponds to the quantity of glucose used. The
solution does not further reduce any Fehling's solution.
The author's results are given in the following table, in
which the quantity of substance reducing Fehling's solution
is expressed in percentages of glucose calculated on the
dextriu : —
Per-
centage
Time during which the Starch
was heated.
Una) •
Starch per
1 . rm. of
Dextrin.
of Acid.
1 Hour.
2 Hours.
3 Hours.
4 Hours.
11-2
3-9
5-06
8-6
2-8
0 o •;
0-3
7'2
5-3
8-«
3-0
0-002
0-5
7-3
6-07
4-2
:;■!
(mm
0-8
8-08
II- 3
4 .1
ill
Traces
i-ii
0-5
7-1
.VI
4-5
Traces
From these results the following conclusions are arrived
at. For the same quantity of acid the reducing power
decreases when the time of heating increases ; whilst for
the same length of period of heating the reducing power
increases with the amount of acid used. Other experiments
showed that for the same amount of acid the reducing
power decreased the quicker the higher the temperature
rose, and further that this reducing power decreased more
rapidly when, for the same quantity of acid and the same
length of time, the temperature rose more. These obser-
vations explain why some commercial products of dextrin
are practically non-reducing ; for the manufacturers heat
the starch for 60 to 70 hours.
The variations of the rotatory power give analogous
results.
The examination of the dextrins by fermenting them
showed that all dextrins prepared by Payen's process contain,
besides small quantities of glucose, a quantity of a non-
fermentable substance which reduces Fehling's solution.
The author conjectures that this substance is a product of
the oxidation of the starch by nitric acid and has the
properties of an aldehyde. — J. L.
I i fetation of the Vine. L. Poos and F. Thomas.
Compt. Rend. 1892, 114, 593.
See under XVII.,
, page 627.
PATENTS.
Improvements In the Treatment of Saccharine Solution':
which have been Boiled to the Granular Stole. J.C.
Mewburn, London. From " The Maschinenfabrik Greven-
broich," Grevenbroich. Germany. Kng. Pat. 8510, May
19, 1891.
Instead of using the syrup (and smaller crystals) which
pass through the centrifugal machine for boiling into inferior
products as heretofore, it is run into the vacuum pan at the
end of the next granulation. The mixture so obtained is
cooled and crystallised either in barrels, vessels, or vats
provided with agitators ; the surplus; syrup after the sub-
sidence of its fine crystals or crystal meal is drawn off, and
is subsequently boiled as second product. — A. P. h.
Improvements in Apparatus for and a Method of Manu-
facturing Sugar. K. Urokhoff, Aix-la-Chapelle, Ger-
many. Eng. Pat. 6160, March 30, 1892.
Tins invention relates more especially to improvements in
apparatus of the kind described in the specification of the
Patents Xo. 13,084, Sept. 10, 1888 (this .journal, 1889, Slii)
and No. 7517, May 4, 1889 (this Journal 1890, 529).
Instead of an elevated \essel for the cleare or refining liquor,
a pump is used in conjunction with an air vessel and valve
to keep the pressure constant. Instead of the usual round
mould basket a removable octagonal mould basket is used.
—A. L. S.
XVII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
On the Use of Hydrofluoric Acid and Fluorides in Dis-
tilleries as proposed by Effront. Report by Camille
Vincent. Ilul. Ssoc. d'Eucouragement Iud. Nat. 6 [72],
G42— 045.
The transformation of starchy matters into alcohol is, as is
well known, only a partial one and as a rule only 80 per
cent, of the available starch is used up ; about 3 per cent,
escape the saccharification altogether; moreover, during the
fermentation of the worts various organic acids and other
products are formed.
Pasteur lias established the fact that in every normal
alcoholic fermentation about 7 per cent, of the fermentable
matter yields glycerol and succinic acid, or serves to repro-
duce yeast ; it therefore follows that about 15 per cent, of
the available starch is lost to the distiller, as it is partly
chaDged by the lactic and butyric ferments, or else is found
in the fermented products in the form of dextrin, because
the diastase has been more or less coagulated by the said
organic acids.
The injurious ferments do not limit their action to the
weakening of the diastase and the destruction of a portion
of the maltose ; they also affect the vitality of the yeast, and
therefore cause a great loss of alcohol. To counteract the
effect of these ferments by conducting the mashing at a
somewhat high temperature the endeavour has been made to
paralyse their action, but the desired result has not been
obtained because the temperature had to he raised so high
that the diastase suffered complete alteration.
It has also been attempted to stop abnormal fermentation
by the use of mineral acids, but without avail.
M. Fffront has for some time paid particular attention to
the action of hydrofluoric acid and soluble fluorides ou the
worts, and has obtained such satisfactory results that the
process based upon this action has already come into
practical use.
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
627
Kn miit's researches demonstrate the energetic action of
hydrofluoric acid on the injurious ferments.
The author has for instance found that in a wort sub-
ji i u il to lactic fermentation, 0'200 grin, of hydrochloric
acid or 0'300 grin, of sulphuric acid per 100 cc, is required
to completely stop the further growth of the ferment, whilst
an addition of only 0'025 grin, of hydrofluoric acid suffices.
Even an addition of only 0'003 grm. of this acid reduces the
production of the lactic acid to oue-fourth, while about
()• 060 grm. of hydrochloric acid is required for the same
purpose. Similar results have been obtained with the
butyric ferment.
0'012 grm. of the acid added to 100 cc. of an infusion of
malt did not, apparently, stop the action of the diastase,
although considerably paralysing the lactic and butyric
ferments.
Effront has also discovered that the use of hydrofluoric
acid allows of the mashing being carried on at a much lower
temperature than is ordinarily necessary (50° — 60° C.) At
that temperature the production of maltose is supposed to
be at its maximum. But the product obtained is evidently
only expressed by the difference between the starchy matter
rendered soluble by the action of the diastase and the
portion changed by the lactic and butyric ferments. Now,
by paralysing these ferments, Effront is enabled to carry
on the mashing at a much lower temperature (30° C), and
he has succeeded in converting 96 per cent, of the available
starch into maltose.
He has also observed that yeast cultivated in presence of
hydrofluoric acid or ammonium fluoride, is more active than
the usual article. It is evident from these facts that the
proportion of malt and yeast may be reduced without
diminishing the rendcment of the alcohol.
The mashing and fermentation processes proposed by
Effront have been practically tested in the distillery of
Messrs. Maquet and Clement, and have resulted in a
remarkable increase in the production of alcohol.
Numerous works in Bavaria, Italy, and Spain have also
adopted the new process. — L. de K.
A New Enzyme. Glucose, li. Geduld. Wochenschrift fur
Brauerie, 8, 620.
1. Cutase exists in ungerminated grain, partly in a
soluble and partly in an insoluble form. It also exists in
germinated grain in an insoluble form. 2. Glucase does
not liquefy starch paste, and only slightly acts on soluble
starch. 3. Digested at 50° C°. with the different dextrins,
it converts them all into dextrose. Whether intermediate
dextrins are formed has not yet with certainty been
determined. 4. Glucase acts most vigorously on maltose
which it converts into dextrose. — A. L. S.
On the Volatilisation of Alcohol during Fermentation.
E. Kiss. Zeits. fiir Spiritusind. 14, 118.
The author has investigated the loss of alcohol during the
primary fermentation, and he finds that this loss amounts
to about 1 per cent, on the product. No doubt the loss of
alcohol from storage casks is still greater.— A. L. S.
Iso-maltose and its Importance in Brewing. C. J. Lintuer.
Zeits. ges. Brauw. 1892, 15, 6-
Isu maltose is prepared by the action of diastase on malt
at 72 C. for four hours. After removing the excess of
maltose a syrup remains, from which pure iso-maltose, quite
free from dextriu, is precipitated in a flocculent form on
treatment with absolute alcohol. The product begins to
fuse together at 65° C. and at 85° C. it carbonises partially ;
at200°C. it melts completely, undergoing further decom-
position. It has a sweet taste and a rotatory power [a]"
= 139°, that of maltose being 140 '4°. Its reducing power is
about 84 per cent, of that of maltose; diastase com. its it
completely into maltose. The author is of opinion that the
aroma emitted in kiln-drying is essentially due to the
presence of iso-maltose and points out that this aroma is
most marked under conditions favourable to the production
of iso-maltose. Iso-maltose is an important constituent of
beer and forms 25 — 30 per cent of beer extract. The decoction
method is especially favourable for producing beer rich in
iso-maltose, as this is formed in quantity at a temperature of
65° — 70° C. and in presence of not too great an excess of
diastase. A dextrin having a rotatory power [o]D=200°
is formed together with maltose and iso-maltose in the
decomposition of starch by diastase, which three products
only are obtained in all cases. Hence in the opinion of
the author the amyloins or malto-dextrins obtained by
Brown and Morris (this Journal, 1891, 265,) may be
mixtures of iso-maltose and this dextrin and not simple
bodies (this Journal, 1890, 533).— C. A. K.
The Use of Hydrofluoric Acid and its Sails in the Distilla-
tion of Alcohol. L. N. Schishkoff. Journ. of Russ. Chem.
Soc. 1892, 24, 137.
Experiments have proved that the use of compositions
containing hydrofluoric acid and fluorides in due proportions
give extraordinary results in the manufacture of spirit,
and considerably cheapen its production. It is also
possible to obtain spirit of a much better quality. The
author ascribes to the fluorides antiseptic properties, in
consequence of which the formation of a too large quantity
of butyric and acetic bacteria is preventible. By the use of
6 grms. of hydrofluoric acid of 30 per cent, strength to one
hectolitre of must, a very slow but steady fermenting
operation is secured. — P. D.
Determination of the Extractive Matters in Brandy.
Z'jits. fiir Spiritusind. 14, 215.
Sec under XXIII., page 638.
The Fermentation of Arabinose by Bacillus ethaceticus.
P. F. Frankland and J. MacGregor. Proc. Chem. Soc.
1892 [114], 132.
The products are qualitatively the same as were obtained
in the fermentations of glycerol by the same organism,
consisting of ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, and traces of succinic acid, together with another
acid not identified. When, however, the fermentation is
conducted in a space closed by a mercury seal instead of
cotton wool, a notable proportion of formic acid also occurs
amongst the products. When the fermentation is conducted
in a closed space, the products are formed approximately
in the proportions 3 CsH60 : 3 C2H402 : 4 CH.Ov
In the fermentations conducted in flasks plugged only
with cotton wool, on the other hand the alcohol and
acetic acid were in the proportion 2 C;H0O : 3 G,H402. It
appears therefore that in the fermentation of arabinose by
Bacillus ethaceticus the proportion of acetic acid to alcohol
is greater thau in that of dextrose, and still greater than
in that of manuitol and glycerol, but less thau in that of
glyceric acid.— W. S.
Vegetation of the Vine. L. lloos and E. Thomas. Compt.
Kend. 1892, 114, 593.
From a study of the changes which take place in the vine
Aramon, between the periods of flowering and maturity the
authors arrive at the following conclusions : — 1. During the
first ten or twelve weeks of vegetation a saccharose is
present in the leaves, the stem, and even in the grape,
contrary to the opinion of Petit. (2.) This saccharose
disappears from these parts during the fourth month of
vegetation, and they then contain a mixture of sugars con-
sisting largely of dextrose. (3.) The increase in the
quautity of sugar in absolute value does not correspond
with a diminution of acidity, as is the case with regard to
the percentage value ; it is not, therefore, correct in every
case to say that the acidity diminishes in proportion as the
iij>
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July SO, 1898.
plant advances to maturit3\ (4.) The diminution of acidity,
in absolute value, takes place at the time when the levulose
in the fruit is rapidly increasing in quantity ; at this period
also the polarimetric rotation begins to pass to the left until,
at the time of maturity, it is practically the same as that of
invert sugar. — F. 8. K.
The Hydrolytic Functions of Yeast. Part I. J. O'Sullivan.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [113], 124—125.
It is generally stated, on the authority of Berthelot, that
the water in which yeast has been washed possesses, like
yeast itself, the power of hydrolysing cane sugar, and that
the active substance can be precipitated from the solution
by means of alcohol. In the present communication it is
shown that healthy yeast yields none of its invertase to
water in which it is washed : and that when it is placed in
contact with sugar, hydrolysis is effected solely under the
immediate influence of the plasma of the cell, no invertase
leaving the cell while hydrolysis is taking place.
After describing his mode of obtaining a health}- yeast,
the author gives an account of the difficulty met with in
removing the cells from the liquid in which they were
suspended ; although bright liquids, free from organisms,
were obtained by adding aluminium hydrate, finings, or
gypsum, before filtering, such substances were found to
retard the activity of the invertase, and therefore could not
be used. Ultimately the object was obtained by shaking
up the yeast and water with filter-paper pulp before
filtering.
A detailed account is given of experiments carried out
under various conditions, which show that water which had
been in contact with highly active yeast for various times
had no hydrolytic power, although on the condition of a
mere trace of invertase, the solution at once became active.
The author, therefore, concludes that the resolution of cane
sugar under the influence of yeast is entirely due to zyniic
hydrolysis. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Method of and in Apparatus for
Drying and Evaporating, suitable for Use in Breweries,
Distilleries, Sugar and Starch Manufactories, and in
other Industries. H. Hencke, Darmstadt, German}-.
Eng. Pat. 6587, April 16, 1891.
A number of different machines are described, consisting
of rotating cylinders and combinations of several of these.
They are heated by hot air or steam. The specification is
accompanied by a number of drawings and a detailed
description of the apparatus. — A. L. S.
An Improved Means mid Mithod of Closure for the Hegu-
lation of Gaseous Pressure. E. J. Mills and C. J. Ellis,
Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 9187, June 1, 1891.
See under I., page 595.
Improvements in the Process of and Apparatus for Effect-
ing the Extraction of Hops irith the Simultaneous
Production of a Fine Extract. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. From .1. F. Theurer, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 9763, June 9, 1891.
The hops to be used in the brewing are boiled with a small
quantity of wort in a closed vessel furnished with stirrers.
The wort is run off through a perforated false bottom into a
cooling vessel and the residual hops boiled iu the copper
with the remainder of the wort. — A. L. s.
An Improved Method of and Means for Manufacturing
Beer and Ale. P. M. Justice, London. From A. \V.
Killings, Xew York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 10,135, June 15,
1891.
This invention aims at the employment of raw grain in
conjunction with malt for preparing the wort. The mash
tub used is cylindrical and provided with stirrers and
jacketed, so that the contents may be either heated or
cooled.
The mashing is performed as follows :— Water at 120 F.
having been led into the tub, the ground raw grain with
from 1 to 25 per cent, of malt is added. The temperature
is gradually raised to 146" F., the material being kept well
stirred, and after 15 — 20 minutes is rapidly raised to
200° F., at which point it is kept until the grain is
thoroughly gelatinised. The mixture is then cooled to
160° F., and the remainder of the malt added. The dis-
charge valve is then opened and the mash rapidly discharged
into the filtering tub, from which after standing 30 — 40
minutes, it is drawn off in the usual manner. — A. L. S.
Xav or Improved Means for the Preservation of Hops.
M. A. Adams and C. S. Meacham, Maidstone, Kent.
Eng. Pat. 11,123, June 30, 1891.
The hops are packed in metal cylinders or other suitable
vessels, which can be hermetically closed.
After the hops have remained the proper time in these
vessels, the air is removed by a current of carbonic acid,
sulphurous acid or other suitable gas or vapour, and the
cases are sealed up. — A. L. S.
Improvements in /having. A. (Jmbeck, Barmen, Rhenish
Prussia, Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,511, October 27, 1891.
According to the inventor a large quantity of starch is
left in the spent grain, as produced by the usual method of
brewing. In order to dissolve this starch, the mash is
boiled with common salt. To prevent the loss of the volatile
ingredients of hops during the boiling process, the inventor
recommends that the hops be first distilled and the distillate
be added to the cooled wort. — A. L. S.
Improvements in Relation to the Production of Colour
Malt. C. Hof, London. From L. Riibsam, Bamberg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 2.3,049, November 27, 1891.
The malt is soaked in water, and after 25 to 30 hours is
placed in a closed cylinder or roaster and heated to
60° — 70= C. for 2 hours ; the temperature is then raised to
95° — 100J, whereby the roasting is effected.
It is claimed that the coloured malt thus produced
\ telds a better extract than that prepared in the usual wav.
—A. L. S.
Improvements in the Process of Manufacturing Beer, Ale,
Wine, Cider, or the like. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool,
Manchester, and London. From C. F. Lawton, Kochester,
Xew York State, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 3010, February 16,
1892.
AiK is passed through the fermenting liquor ; this is to
kill all the ferment germs which may be present, except
yeast and the acetic ferment. If the acetic ferment
increases to any extent, the current of air is replaced by
a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen obtained by
the partial combustion of coke. The effect of the passage
of this mixture through the fermenting liquor is to kill the
acetic ferment, whilst it leaves the yeast unharmed. This
treatment is said to give a beer of great stability and with
a minimum of labour. — A. L. S.
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
629
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for
Manufacturing Beer, Ale, Wine, Cider, or the like.
YV. P. Thompson, Liverpool, Manchester, and Loudon.
From C. F. Lawtou, Rochester, New York State, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 3011, February 16, 1892.
The hot boiled wort is collected in a closed vat and cooled
by injecting into it sterilised air. Yeast is added when the
wort has been cooled to the proper temperature. During
the progress of the fermentation air is injected from time
to time. There is an arrangement for skimming the barm
as it rises to the surface. A detailed description of the
apparatus is given in the specification. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the manufacture of Seer. A. J. Boult,
London. From The Pfaudler Vacuum Fermentation
Company, Rochester, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4682,
March 9, 1892.
Tins invention relates to the production of lager beer.
The primary and secondary fermentation are both con-
ducted in closed vats, from which the gaseous products are
removed as fast as they are produced ; thus the whole of
the fermentation takes place in a complete or partial
vacuum. If required, a little air is injected at the bottom
of the vat.
By this means the time for the manufacture of lager beer
is said to be very much shortened. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Seer. A. J. Boult,
Loudon. From The Pfaudler Vacuum Fermentation
Company, Rochester, New Y'ork, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4688,
March 9, 1892.
This invention relates to the treatment of the beer subse-
quent to the ripening stage, which has been manufactured
according to the above company's process.
The carbonic acid pumped out of the fermenting vessels
is stored in a gasholder, and the finished beer after filtration
is saturated with the gas and led into cask by a special
apparatus described iu detail in the specification. — A. L. S.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OP FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
(A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Closing J'essels for the
Preservation of Alimentary and other Substances.
G. Bathgate, London. Eng. Pat. 6266, April 13, 1891.
In this specification improved forms of apparatus for corking
or stoppering bottles or jars, combined with a vacuum pump
for simultaneously exhausting them, are described/ The
bottle or jar is inserted by its neck into an aperture provided
at the lower portion of the stoppering chamber, and the
union is rendered air-tight by suitable packing, e.g., the
nek of the vessel may be surrounded by an india-rubber
cushion. (See below.) The stoppering chamber is con-
nected by an aperture with the chamber of an air-pump.
The stoppering rod and the piston rod of the air-pump are
interdependent, and both are controlled by an irregular cog-
wheel, which is manipulated by a lever. On pulling the
level forward the piston rod is raised, the vacuum chamber,
and thence also the stoppering chamber, being exhausted.
The cogs on the wheel are so arranged that on continuing
to pull the lever they act upon a set of cogs on the stopper-
ing rod so that the latter is depressed and the cork or
stopper inserted. In certain cases the above-mentioned
cog-wheel also controls the plug of a three-way cock,
connecting the stoppering chamber with the vacuum cham-
ber and also with the atmosphere ; it is so arranged that
when the cork or stopper is inserted the plug of the cock
has been turned into such a position that the stoppering
chamber is in communication with the atmosphere, thereby
rendering it easier to remove the bottle. An air-filter of
antiseptic material may also be used in the passage leading
from the stoppering chamber to the atmosphere. The
three-way cock may be automatically operated as follows : —
Upon an extended part of the plug of the cock a cam path
is formed in which a projecting screw, secured in a bearing
carried by a rod, engages. The rod is then operated by the
cog-wheel so that the teeth which produce its movement are
independent of those producing the movements of the
stoppering and piston rods. For screw-stoppered bottles, a
crown wheel is used in conjunction with the cog-wheel to
impart the necessary rotatory motion. In order to hermeti-
cally seal the joint between the neck "of the vessel to be
stoppered and the stoppering chamber, and to admit a
vessel whose head is of greater dimensions than its neck,
an elastic cushion divided preferably into four parts may be
used. — A. R. L.
Improvements in and relating to Means and Appliances for
Testing and Recording the Characteristics or Properties
of Flour and Dough. J. Hogarth, Kirkcaldy. Eng.
Pat. 6784, April 20, 1891.
The inventor describes at some length various improve-
ments upon and relating to the appliances used in his
system of testing and recording the properties of flour and
dough described in a former patent (Eng. Pat. 16,389,
October 17, 1889). For details of this invention the
original specification must be consulted. — J. C. C.
Improvements in the Treatment of Common Salt intended
to be used for Curing Food, such as Meat, Game, Fish,
and Poultry. A. Collingridge. From V. Coinet and
A. Jones, Paris. Eng. Pat. 10,415, June 19, 1891.
The process consists essentially in passing the vapours
obtained from the destructive distillation of peat or wood
into a chamber containing salt until the latter is thoroughly
impregnated with them. If no apparatus is at hand for the
distillation of wood, 5 — 15 per cent, of commercial pyro-
ligneous acid is added to the salt. The latter may be
employed forthwith for the curing process, which it is
claimed is thus perfected in a much shorter space of time.
—J. W. L.
An Improvement in the Manufacture of Wheaten Flour.
J. Amos, Waverley, New South Wales. Eng. Pat.
10,601, June 22, 1891.
The roller milling method of manufacturing wheaten flour,
which is displacing the older stone process, has certain
disadvantages as compared with the latter. In the first
place, the separated bran-flour contains much gluten, but
being of inferior quality it cannot be mixed with the
" straight grade " flour. Secondly, as the germ is merely
flattened during grinding, only a very minute portion of it
finds its way into the finished flour. In this way, therefore,
the purest product is deprived of a portion of those sub-
stances on which its flavour and baking qualities depend.
Another point is that the period of maturing — between
grinding and dressing — which it is customary to allow in
the case of stone flour, but which is omitted in the case of
roller milling flour, contributes distinctly to the superiority
of the former. The present invention is intended to over-
come these faults, and at the same time avoid the troublesome
and expensive process of maturing the bulk of the flour.
It consists in separating, at an early stage of the manufac-
ture, the germs and the products rich in gluten (bran flour)
either together or separately, and " ageing " the same.
For this purpose flour is added, and in order to hasten the
630
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
extraction of the oil and flavouring matter from the germs
the mixture may be heated, but not above 1 38° F. The
mixture is afterwards packed into sacks and allowed to
cool and mature. The " aged " product is finally carefully
dressed and purified and mixed with " straight grade " flour
in order to improve the same. It is claimed that by this
process it is necessary to store only 5 — 10 per cent, of the
output of a mill to improve the whole product practically
to the same extent as it was improved under the old process
by the storage of the whole product. — H. T. P.
A New or Improved Device to be used when Boiling Milk.
H. D. Fitzpatrick, Glasgow. From E. Teschner, Berlin,
Germany. EDg. Pat. 2565, February 10, 1892.
A hollow frustrum of a cone, the wide end of which is cut
out to a wave-like form, is introduced, the wide end down-
wards, into the milk to be boiled, a smaller frustrum of
more acute angle being placed over the top of the first. As
soon as the boiling point is reached that portion of the milk
contained within the larger frustrum rises, the tapered form
of the latter forcing it to the top whence it bubbles over the
rim of the smaller frustrum and is returned to the main
portion before this attains a high level. It is claimed that
as the milk is spread into a thin film, it is deprived of air,
thus rendering it more digestible, and enabling it to be kept
longer ; also that the milk is prevented from boiling over.
—A. II. L.
Improvements in or Applicable to Apparatus for Sterilising
Milk and other Fluids. G. F. Redfern, London. From
G. H. Xeuhass, J. F. H. Gronwald.and F. H. C. Oehl-
mann. Eug. Pat. 3470. February 22, 1892.
Tin- is an arrangement for exhausting the gase- from, and
rendering homogeneous, milk and other fluids, and is to be
combined with an ordinary sterilising apparatus or with an
improved apparatus. For details of this invention the
original specification must be consulted. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus for Purifying, Sterilising, and
Filtering Water, and Rendering the same fit for Potable
Purposes. S. L. West, Washington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
5589, March 22, 1892.
Tin- invention consists in a drinking water distributing
system or sterilised water service apparatus applied to the
ordinary water supply and heating system in common use.
By means of this apparatus all water passing through the
system is heated to 2123 P., cooled, -and filtered. For
details of the apparatus the original specification mu.-t be
consulted. — J. C. C.
;, in or Relating to the Preservation of Meal
and Fatty Matters. J. Faleimagne, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 3725, March 23, 1892.
Tins is a method based on the transformation of carbonate
of lime or soda into sulphite under the influence of sulphurous
acid fumes produced by burning sulphur. A special
apparatus is described in detail in the specification, in which
the fumes from burning sulphur are drawn through a layer
of alkaline carbonate into a chamber containing the meats,
&c— J. C. C.
An Improvement in lie Manufacture of Malt Bread,
Biscuits, Confectionery, and nth. r Articles nf Diet.
W. Crawford, London. Eng. Pat. 6841, April 9, 1892.
In order to produce bread, confectionery. &e., of a " highly
digestible and nutritive nature," the inventor employs
the following ingredients: 2 lb. "I Hour, 2 lb. of wheat
meal, \ lb. of fine maize meal. \ lb. of rice flour, 5 oz. of
extract of malt. | oz. of compressed yeast, ;j oz. of salt,
j pints of water, and \ pint of lime water. The yeast and
malt extract are dissolved in the wati i previously heated to
90° F., the wheat meal, maize meal, and rice flour are then
stirred in and the mixture is allowed to ferment for two
hours in a warm place. The lime water and salt are then
added and dough is made with the remaining flour. The
dough is allowed to " prove " for half an hour ; it is then
moulded in any desired way, proved for another 20 minutes
and finally baked in an oven not too hot. If desired, all
wheat meal or all Hour may be employed, and the quantity
of malt extract may be varied ; otherwise the above
instructions must be adhered to. — H. T. P.
(B.-)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Sewage, and in Obtain-
ing certain useful Products thereby. A. Hossaek and
H'. C. Hull, London. Eug. Pat. 10,563, June 20, 1891.
In carrying out this process, town sewage is mixed by
means of suitable apparatus with sufficient milk of lime to
saturate the water in the sewage. At the same time a
quantity of finely pulverised slack coal is added to the
mass in order to accelerate the precipitation of the sludge.
The mixture is allowed to settle in shallow tanks, the
supernatant liquid is run off, and the sludge is then placed
in deep tanks so that the remaining water may separate as
completely as possible. The liquid separating at this
stage is mixed with lime and employed in treating a fresh
portion of sewage. The sludge is moulded into blocks
which are dried and used for the production of illuminating
gas. tar, ammonia, &c. The residue of carbon obtained
may be used for the manufacture of water-gas, whilst the
ash finally remaining may be employed as a fertiliser. The
liquid obtained in the first operation is treated with a
current of carbonic acid gas. The resulting precipitate of
calcium carbonate may be used in glass-making, &c., or
river mud may be added to the liquid during the treatment
with carbonic acid. In this case, the sludge of mud and
chalk forms a valuable stock for the manufacture of
Portland cement. Finally, if desired, the liquid, after
precipitation of the lime, may be filtered through peat-
charcoal, prepared preferably from peat Titter, which will
remove any remaining injurious substances. The charcoal
may afterwards be mixed with the before - mentioned
sludge and worked up for illuminating gas. — H. T. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Drawing off Liquid
from Sewage Tanks. V. Bird, London. Eng. Pat.
10,865, June 25, 1891.
Tins invention consists in a valve and mechanism whereby
the rise or fall of a pivoted floating draw-off tube is caused
to open or close a throttle Valve suddenly, by the aid of
tumbler weights which are acted upon by arms attached
to the draw-off tube.. — J. C. C.
Improvement/) in the Treatment of Sewagi Sludge. W. ]'..
Adeney, Dublin. Eng. Pat. 10,929, June 26, 1891.
The liquor is first allowed to settle, the clear liquor is then
purified by manganate or permanganate of potash or soda
in such a maimer that the manganese is recovered as
oxyhydrate ; tin- is added to the sludge in small quantities
and exposed to the air in thin layers: the oxyhydrate is
reduced by the micro-organisms to manganous hydrate
which in turn absorbs oxygen and returns to oxyhydrate,
acting as a carrier of oxygen for the micro-organism, and
preventing the formation of putrefaction products, and
offensive odours in consequence. — .1. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus foi Treating Sewage. \V. H.
Mumis, London. From A. I-'. Black, Maiden, Massa-
chusetts, I" S.A. Eng. Pat. 12.025. July 15, 1891.
A' CORDLNG to this process, ili>' sewage water to be treated
is discharged over a distributing grill, beneath which are
Jui.vo... 18U2.3 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
631
arranged a number of superimposed horizontal sieve-belts
made of wire gauze, the whole being surrounded by a metal
outer ease. A trough-like shape is imparted to the belts
by making them travel over convex pulleys. The sewage
passes successively in the form of spray through the grill,
and the belts which sift out the coarser suspended particles,
the liquid being at the same time exposed to the purifying
action of a blast of air entering at the lower part of the
outer case. The foul gases given off by the sewage are
exhausted from the apparatus by means of a fan and
rendered innocuous by being passed through a furnace ;
whilst the solid particles adhering to the belts are brushed
off the latter by means of rotating brushes fixed at one end
of the outer case, and discharged through suitable chutes
into a drying reservoir. The liquid portion of the sewage
finally falls on a tram of filtering ears, each containing
sand spread on a perforated bottom. The ears run con-
tinuously on a circular track, a segment of which passes
uuderneath the sieve-belts, whilst the remainder of the
track traverses a depositing field, from which the filtered
sewage may be conveyed to a river, &c. — H. T. P.
(<7.)— DISINFECTANTS.
PATENTS.
Improved Manufacture of Disinfecting Powder. T. H.
Williams, Derby. Kug. Pat. 9491, June 4, 1891.
Baulky which has been used for brewing purposes, after
being dried, is ground in an edge-runner mill or other
suitable apparatus, and then mixed by the aid of the same
mill with 10 — 20 per cent, of carbolic acid so as to form a
practically dry powder. Sanitas, eucalyptus, creosote, or
other such substances may be used in place of carbolic acid.
—J. c. c.
Improved Manufacture of Disinfecting Powder. T. H.
Williams, Derby. Eng. Pat. 9492, June 4, 1891.
Hops which have been used for brewing purposes, after
being dried, are ground in an edge-runner mill or other
suitable apparatus, and then mixed by the aid of the same
mill with 10 — 20 per cent, of carbolic acid so as to form a
practically dry powder. Sanitas, eucalyptus, creosote or
other such substance may be used in place of carbolic acid.
—J. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus fur Use in Disinfecting by
M< ans <>f Antiseptic Liquids. C. Herscher, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 2549, February 9, 1892.
This invention relates to an apparatus for distributing an
antiseptic liquid in the form of a fine spray, for the purpose
of disinfecting clothes, furniture, the walls of houses, ships,
&c. It consists of a cylindrical closed vessel mounted
vertically on wheels or on a truck for the sake of portability.
A horizontal partition divides the cylinder into two com-
partments which communicate by means of a short pipe.
The lower compartment is fitted with an inlet funnel and an
outlet tap and is intended to hold the antiseptic liquid.
The upper chamber is provided with an air-pump by means
of wrhich air may be forced into the apparatus. Two taps
are fitted on the top of the cylinder, which communicate
respectively with the upper and lower chambers of the
apparatus. The said taps are joined by means of rubber
tubing to the " atomiser" or "pulveriser," which is simply
a jet from which the air and liquid under pressure may issue
simultaneously. In operation, air is compressed into the
cylinder, and the above taps being opened, the air and
antiseptic fluid are forced through the atomiser, resulting in
the distribution of the liquid in a fine spray or cloud.
— H. T. P.
XIX -PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
On the Influence of Incandescent Electric Light on Paper
made from Wood-Cellulose and its Deterioration through
Exposure. J. Wiesner. Dingl. Polyt. J. 1892, 284,
G7— 69.
See under II., page 596.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS.
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
New Syuthethis of Tartaric Acid. P. Genvresse. Cotupt.
Rend. 1892, 114, 555—557.
Glyoxylic acid (a constituent of unripe grapes, gooseberries,
&c.) is converted into racemic acid by the action of nascent
hydrogen, in accordance with the equation —
COOH COOH
I I
COII CH.OH
+ HS= |
((ill CH.OH
I !
CO. OH CO. OH
Zinc dust in dilute acetic acid solution is employed as the
reducing agent, the product of the reaction being first
worked up to calcium racemate, from which the free acid
is prepared. The physical properties and analyses both of
the calcium salt and of the free acid are in full accord with
the recognised data. The author expresses the opinion that
the tartaric acid found in nature may have been formed in
an analogous manner.. — C. A. K.
The Preparation of Quinine-di-methiodide from Cuprehie
E.Grimaux and A. Armand. Compt. Rend. 1892,114,
548—549.
Hess has expressed the opinion that the formation of
quinine-di-methiodide by the action of methyl iodide in
presence of sodium on cupreine, as described by the authors
(this Journal, 1891, 723 and 770), is partially due to their
having employed impure cupreine, as he himself was only
able to convert one-third of the cupreine employed into the
quinine dimethiodide (this Journal, 1892, 177). A repeti-
tion of the experiment, however, shows that with cupreine
quite free from quinine, a yield in one case of 78 per cent,
and in a second of 83 per cent, of the theoretical amount
was obtained, thus disproving the above assertion. The
cupreine unacted upon was recovered from the mother-
liquors. — C. A. 1C.
Homologues of Quinine. E. Grimaux and A. Aruaud.
Compt. Rend. 1892, 114, 672—673.
Tin: method described by the authors of the preparation of
quinine homologues from cupreine, the alkaloid base of
Quina cuprea (this Journal, 1891, 723 and 770), has been
applied to obtain propyl, iso-propyl, and amyl-cupreines.
Quinopropyline, C1gHo1.N;,O.0.C3H-, forms a charac-
teristic basic sulphate, which crystallises in needles con-
taining 1| mols.of water of crystallisation. The dehydrated
salt melts at 223° — 224° C, and has a rotatory power
[a]„ = 229 '5° at 22° C. The free base is precipitated
as a white powder from the cold aqueous solution of the
sulphate, by ammonia, in a hydrated; condition, melting
below 100° C. The dehydrated base melts at 164° C.
The basic sulphate dissolves in 454 parts of water at
13° O.
Quino-isopropyline—
CH:i
C^HjiNXKO— CH
\
CH,
632
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ July so, 1S92.
also forms a basic sulphate, closely resembling that of
its isomeride. It contains one molecule of water of crystal-
lisation, has the same rotatory power as the normal propyl
salt, and dissolves in 367 parts of water at 10 C, The free
base melts at 154 C.
Quinamyline, C„H;iX;.O.U.C5Hn, is amorphous, and
melts at 166-5° — 167° C. The normal sulphate does not
crystallise, but the basic sulphate forms long needles
containing 2 mols. of water of crystallisation. It is with
difficulty soluble in water, requiring 4,170 parts of water at
11-.V C. The above bases all fluoresce in dilute sulphuric
acid solution. — C. A. K.
The Secondary Alkaloids of Belladonna. ¥.. Merck.
Jahresber. von. E. Merck. Darmstadt, January 1892.
Atkopamine, belladonine, hyoscine, and their decompo-
sition products, tropine, pseudo-tropine and tropic, atropic,
and isotropic acids, have been found in the mother-liquors
obtained after the separation of atropine from the belladonna
extract. In addition to these the author has shown the
presence of apo-tropine, which was obtained by Pesci by
the action of nitric acid on atropine. It is a crystalline
body, melting at 60D — 62: C, and appears to be identical
with the atropamine isolated by Hess. It is decomposed
by alcoholic potash into tropine and atropic acid. The
supposed new base, boiling at 242° C, obtained by Laden-
burg and Koth from belladonna extract is shown to be no
other than pseudo-tropine. — C. A. K.
The Alkaloids of Belladonna Extract. L. van Itallie.
Apoth. Zeit. 1892, 7, 27.
Ti ik extract from belladonna was found to consist almost
entirely of hyoscy amine. The object of the experiments
was to discover whether any atropine might be formed
from hyoscyamine during the extraction or subsequent
treatment. This does not appear to be the case. — C. A. K.
Active Principle of the Boragini :i . F. Schlagdenhauffen
and E. Eeeb. PharniV Post. 1892, 25, T.
Hi i user isolated an alkaloid Cynoglossine from several
plants belonging to the Boragineie. The author has
obtained the same product from Cynoglossum rulgare and
from Beliotropum europium. The alkaloid contains
nitrogen, gives the alkaloid reactions, and is coloured
yellow by sulphuric acid, the colour gradually passing into
peach-red. Buchner states that the physiological action of
the base is akin to that of curare, but the author finds that
it lias quite a different action. — C. A. K.
Terpene hydrate from Eucalyptus Oil. E. Merck.
Jahresber. von E. Merck, Darmstadt. January 1892.
Oil of turpentine when allowed to stand with nitric acid and
alcohol at the ordinary temperature of the air for some
time, is known to yield terpene hydrate, which can be
crystallised from alcohol. The same hydrate is obtained
under analogous conditions from eucalpytus oils — both from
Ol. eucalypt. globuli and from Ol. eucalypt. australc, of
commerce. In the former case the formation of the hydrate
is undoubtedly due to the presence of pinene in the oil, but
in the latter its origin is obscure. It cannot be owing to
the presence of cineol, because pure cineol was found by
the author not to yield terpene hydrate when treated as
above. — C. A. K.
An Alcohol of Antipyrine. J. W. Briihl.
395—397.
Ber. 25. 1892,
It has been previously shown that by the simultaneous
action of sodium and carbonic anhydride under suitable
conditions, certain ketones are readily converted into the
corresponding alcohols and carboxylic acids ; camphor, for
example, yields borneol, C10Hl;.OH, and camphoearboxylic
acid, C1(1H15O.COOH, in theoretical quantities, whilst
menthon, C10H,8< ). under similar conditions, is converted
into the alcohol, menthol, CK,H19.OH, and the dicarboxylic
acid, C1(lH,60(COOH)o.
Attempts to prepare analogous derivatives of antipyrine
which, according to Knorr, is a ketone-like substance of the
constitution —
C'H3
I
(11 .(
/"\
CH — CO
by treatment with sodium and carbonic anhydride, have
been successful only as regards the alcohol. When anti-
pyrine (3 mols.) is dissolved in toluene, the solution mixed
with sodium (4 atoms), in the form of wire, and gradually
heated to boiling, while a stream of carbonic anhydride is
passed into it, the colour changes to red, small quantities of
methylamine are evolved, and the sodium dissolves, a
yellow substance being produced ; on adding ice-cold water
the product passes into solution, but after a short time
crystals are deposited. When the separation of crystals is
at an end, the liquid is decanted, and the product purified
by recrystallisation from dilute alcohol. It has the com-
position, CuH,jX.,0, and is, therefore, a dehydroantipyrine,
or antipyrine alcohol. It melts at 144" — 145°, is colourless
when pure, and is readily soluble in hot alcohol, acetone,
benzene, chloroform, and ethylacetate, but only sparingly
in water, light petroleum, and ether. — F. .s. K.
Menthol. A. Berkenheim. Ber. 25, 685—698.
Menthol is proved to belong to the naphtheue group, found
in Bussian petroleum. This proof was obtained by converting
it by reduction, &c, into a hydrocarbon, CulHa„ which, in
all it> physical properties as well as chemical behaviour, is
shown to be identical with already known naphthenes. In
view of the researches of other chemists who have found
that menthol is reducible to cymene, the naphthene obtained
by the author must contain a ring composed of six carbon
atoms.
The fact is pointed out of the considerably higher specific
gravity of the naphthenes as compared with the paraffins
and defines. The connexion with the terpenes is plain from
the convertibility of terpene hydrate into an alcohol closely
related to menthol, viz., C1(IH .:,f I. Besides this a simple
reduction of menthol to a hydrocarbon, C,0H16, has been
effected. This hydrocarbon possesses the character of a
terpene, forming an addition bromine compound, uniting
with a halogen-hydrogen molecule directly, and oxidising
easily on exposure to the air, &c. It has yet to be dis-
covered if this hydrocarbon is one of the already known
terpenes, or a new one. — W. S.
Investigation of Terpenes, Src. J. W. Briihl. Ber. 25,
1796.
See under Will., page 638.
Condensation of Chloral and Buti/lchloral with Paraldehyde
and Ketones. W. Konigs. Ber. 25, 792— 802.
See under XXIII., page 640.
July 30, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
633
Corydaline II. J. J. Dobbie and A. Lauder, l'roc.
Chem. Soc. [113], 123— 124.
In confirmation of the formula proposed in their first paper
(this Journal, 1892, 264), the authors give the results of
analyses of the bromhydride and ethylsulphate —
(CjjHmNO^CjHjHSOj + HjO)
The alkaloid examined by the authors is identical with
that obtained b}' Aldermann from the roots of Corydalis
cava, by extracting with alcohol and exhausting the alcoholic
solution with benzene. The two alkaloids agree in compo-
sition, in solubility, in melting point, in their action on
polarised light (dextro-rotatory), and in the character of
the salts which they form. On the other hand, it is quite
distinct from hydroberberine, with which Aldermann believed
his alkaloid to be identical or, at least, isomeric.
When treated with concentrated solution of hydrogen
iodide, one molecular weight of corydaline gives four
molecular proportions of methyl iodide and the iodhydride
of a iii-w alkaloid which has the formula C13H21N()j. HI.
The alkaloid is obtained from this salt by the addition of
ammonia or potassium hydroxide, and dissolves in excess
of either agent. It possesses powerful reducing properties,
and dissolves in alcohol, forming a deep red-coloured
solution. The conclusion that the four oxygen atoms in
corydaline are united to methyl groups is confirmed. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Manufacture of an Iodine Derivative of Phenacetin.
W. F. Riedel, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 8584, May 19, 1891.
Wn ex a solution of phenacetin in water, alcohol, or glacial
acetic acid is mixed with a solution of iodine in potassium
iodide or other suitable solvent and a mineral acid added to
the mixture, a chocolate-coloured crystalline powder is
precipitated, having the composition C20H25N2O4Ib. The
product appears to contain 2 molecules of phenacetin to
3 atoms of iodine. It is almost insoluble in water, readily
soluble in alcohol and in glacial acetic acid, and melts at
130° C. with decomposition. The solutions decompose on
boiling with evolution of iodine. Recrystallised from glacial
acetic acid large oblong crystals are obtained having
a greenish-red lustre. The name " Iodophenin " is proposed
for the new compound, which, owing to the ease with which
it givee oil' iodine is applicable for therapeutic purposes.
— C. A. K.
.4 New and more Economical Method for the Production
of Nitrous Oxide. Watson Smith and W. Elmore,
London. Eng. Pat. 9023, May 27, 1891.
Nitrous oxide is prepared by heating in a suitable retort
17 parts of cammercial sodium nitrate or 20 parts of
potassium nitrate with 13 — 14 parts of ammonium sulphate,
the nitrous oxide evolved being purified in any suitable
manner.
To free the gas from any alkaline or acid matters, it is
passed through weak acid and alkaline solutions. The
materials, which should be dry, may be previously mixed,
or the nitrate may be fused by itself and the ammonium
sulphate added gradually. But the former method is
preferred. The temperature should be maintained at about
230° C. during the greater part of the reaction, and then
finally raised to 300° C— J. W. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Iso-Eugenol and
Poly-Iso-Eugenol. J. Y. Johnson, London. From F.
von Heyden, Nachfolger, Radebeul, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 9450, June 4, 1891.
When eugenol is heated with a concentrated solution of
caustic potash to a sufficiently high temperature, it is
readily converted into iso-eugenol, although previous
observers, working with dilute solutions of alkali, found
that the change did not occur. As a solvent for the
alkali, methyl or ethyl alcohol, \vater, or hydrocarbons can
be employed, and the temperature to which the mixture
must be heated depends upon the degree of concentration
of the alkaline solution, being between 1C5° C. and 125° C.
in the case of alcoholic solutions, and between 115° C. and
150° C. for aqueous solutions. The iso-eugenol is separated
from the products of the reaction by the addition of acid,
and can be purified either by converting it into a salt and
separating it again by addition of acid or by recrystallising
it from a suitable solvent at a low temperature. The pure
product melts at 33" C, and boils between 264° C. and
265° C. The caustic potash in the above reaction cannot
be replaced by caustic soda, but a mixture of the two
alkalis in varying proportions can be employed. Iso-
eugenol is readily polymerised by small quantities of mineral
acids, acid chlorides, or metallic haloids, poly-iso-eugenol
being formed. This body crystallises from alcohol in
colourless, odourless needles melting at 177c C. — C. A. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Obtaining or Separating
Oxygen from Atmospheric Air. J. H. Parkinson,
Stretford, Lancashire. Eng. Pat. 9457, June 4, 1891.
The specification relates to the apparatus used for the
separation of oxygen from atmospheric air by forcing or
drawing purified atmospheric air through heated oxygen-
absorbing material, especially permanganates, and subse-
quently drawing off the absorbed oxygen by reducing the
pressure, according to the process already patented (Eng.
Pat. 14,925, 1890; this Journal, 1891, 947).
The apparatus is designed with the object of making the
process a continuous one, and consists essentially in the
construction and arrangement of retorts, valves, and
regulating apparatus. Full details, together with drawings,
are included in the specification. — C. A. K.
Manufacture of Meta-Amido-Benzaldehyde and of Salts
thereof. O. Imray, London. From The " Farbwerke
vormals Meister, Lucius, and Pruning," Hoechst-on-
Main, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,049, June 29, 1891.
The bisulphite compound of meta-nitrobenzaldehyde is
converted into the corresponding meta-amidobenzaldehyde
compound by any of the usual reducing agents. When
dilute sulphuric acid and zinc are employed the acid is
gradually added whilst the mixture is kept at a temperature
of 30° — 40° C. When the addition of acid is completed,
the temperature is raised to 50J C. and the heating continued
until the decomposition is complete. The solution is then
filtered and the filtrate accurately neutralised by soda,
when a flocculent yellowish precipitate of an internal
condensation product of meta-amidobenzaldehyde is ob-
tained, which yields the salts of the aldehyde when treated
with mineral acids. This is filtered off, washed, and dried.
The free aldehyde cannot be isolated ; when liberated from
its salts, it passes over into a non-oxygenised base, having
the composition C;H5N. With mineral acids it regenerates
the salts of meta-amidobenzaldehyde, and when heated
with mineral acids in presence of tertiary bases, meta-
amido-tetra-alkyl-diamido-triphenyl-methanes result.
Ferrous sulphate and soda or other alkali are employed
in preference to zinc and acid for the reduction of the
nitrobenzaldehyde bisulphite. — C. A. K.
p 2
GU
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
New Gold Compounds for Photographic Purposes, Sfc.
ISrit. Jour. Phot. 39, 354.
M. P. Meboter has prepared several new neutral gold
salts, viz., auro-phosphates, auro-acetates, auro-succinates
Sec., by neutralising gold chloride with alkaline phosphates,
acetates, &c. The'auro-phosphate in water only, forms a
toning bath giving rich violet - black tones. M. Mercier
also lias brought out a new developer called Fluoreal, the
base being presumably para-amidophenol, and is coloured
by the addition of fluorescein, to prevent veiling during
development. In conjunction with this, caustic lithia and
anhydrous sulphite of soda are used, the latter being much
more stable in the anhydrous state, besides dissolving very
rapidly. — J. C. C.
Metol and Amidol. Amateur Photographer, 15, 453, 459.
From the Photographische Correspondenz.
These are two new developers ; the first is a salt of mono-
methyl- para-amido-meta-cresol, and is used in connexion
with sodium sulphite and an alkaline carbonate. Bromide
may be used as a restrainer. Metol and sulphite alone may
be used as a developer for chloride and chloro-bromide
plates. The second developer, discovered by Hauff and
liogisch, is diamidophenol, and is used in conjunction with
neutral sodium sulphite only, alkalis colouring the solution
an intense blue-green. As a restrainer, bromide of potas-
sium is preferably used. — J. C. C.
The Action of Light on Silver Chloride. H. B. Baker.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [113], 120—122.
The small loss in weight which silver chloride undergoes on
exposure to light has led the author to investigate whether
0x3 gen is absorbed at the same time that chlorine is evolved,
Robert Hunt having long ago stated that such an absorption
docs take place. In the first experiments, silver chloride
was exposed to light in a bulb connected with a long tube
standing over potassium hydrate solution : a very noticeable
absorption took place. Similar experiments with oxygen,
instead of air, gave similar results, showing that oxygen
was the gas absorbed. Attempts were then made to find in
what proportions the elements silver, chlorine, and oxygen
were combined in the darkened substance, but so little of
the dark substance was produced (less than O'l grin, in
50 grins, of unaltered chloride) that a direct analysis was
found to be impossible, and an indirect _ method was
adopted.
In the first experiments to ascertain the formula, the
evolved chlorine was absorbed by potassium iodide, and the
iodine which it liberated was determined ; the silver was
determined by treating the blackened chloride with strong
ammonia and weighing the residual metal ; and the oxygen
by treating the dark substance with pure chlorine and
measuring the oxygen evolved. The results giving the
foi inula AgjClO.
It was found that the thoroughly-dried darkened sub-
stance, tree from oxygen, gave an amount of water when
reduced in pure hydrogen which corresponded to an amount
of oxygen differing from that determined by other methods
by less than 1 per cent.
if the darkened substance be really an oxychloiidc, it
should not be produced in absence of oxygen. This was
found to be the case, no darkening being observed in a
vacuum or in carbon dioxide. Likewise no darkening was
produced when silver chloride was exposed under pure dry
carbon tetrachloride. It is to be noted, however, that
carbon tetrachloride, unless carefully purified, contains
substances, such as alcohol, carbon bisulphide, &c, which
cause reduction of silver chloride ami the deposition of
black silver or silver sulphide, which darkening has hitherto
been confounded with the darkening which lakes place
in air.
Lastly, when darkened silver chloride is boiled with pure
potassium chloride, the whole dissolves, silver chloride
being found in the solution together with potash. The
production of alkali seems to prove that oxygen is present
in the darkened substance in the combined state. — J. C. C.
PATENTS.
Improved Meani or Apparatus for Producing Artificial
Light for Photographic and other Purposes. .1. Y.
Johnson, London. From P. Nadar, Paris, France. Eng.
Pat. 3042, February 111, 1891.
This apparatus consists of a chamber containing powdered
magnesium through which a central tube passes. The lower
end of the tube is placed over an air jet which forces the
magnesium powder upwards through the tube into the centre
of a spirit flame, where it is burnt, any ignited particles
which fall back being caught in a water-trough. The air-jet
is produced continuously or intermittently by means of a
rubber ball or by other means. Instead of a spirit flame,
an annular Bunsen flame may be used and other substances
thau magnesium may be burnt, such as powdered zinc in a
jet of oxygen gas. Another arrangement is described for
producing a large area of flame, in which the air current
carrying magnesium is projected into the centre of a flame
produced from a trough of burning spirit, the whole
arrangement being placed under a hood. — H. K. T.
Process for Producing Coloured Photographs. V. Mathieu,
London. Eng. Pat. 6342, April 1, 1892.
The negative is rendered orthoehromatic by the introduction
of colour screens. The print is made upon albumenised
paper sensitised in a 15 per cent, silver bath, and is toned
with gold, fixed, &c. It is then coated on the back with
alcohol to coagulate the albumen, and with one or more
coats of white Venetian turpentine mixed with alcohol or
essence of turpentine in order to render it transparent. The
print is then dried in a stove described in the specification.
After the application of a light varnish of isinglass or gum
arable solution, the necessary colours are applied to the
hack of the print, which may be then mounted and varnished
with copal varnish or otherwise treated. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Letter-press and Lithographic Processes
based upon Photography. E. Albert, Schwabiug, Ger-
many. Eng. Pat. G571, April 16, 1891.
These improvements consist in the use of tints which have
gradations in tone in the dark lines or line waves, which
tints may either be produced mechanically, or by photo-
graphy from an ordinary tint by giving the lens a parallel
displacement during exposure, thus producing a gradation
in intensity in the line ; or the same result ma}7 be attained
by displacing the tint or even the sensitive plate during the
exposure of the picture. — J. C. C.
Improvements in the Methods of Producing 'Pico or more
Coloured Prints. E. Albert, Schwabing, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 6634, April 17, 1891.
The inventor claims printing from printing surfaces drawn
or produced by photography by means of screens or tints
so placed that the direction of the lines forming the tint for
each colour varies by an angle of about 30° or 60°. By this
means disturbing designs or patterns are avoided. — J.C. C.
Improvements in Magnesium Lights for Photographic and
Signalling Purposes. E. Haekh, Stuttgart, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 7635, May 2, 1891.
See under II., page 59".
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
035
Method of and Apparatus for Reproducing Photographs.
B. Krantz and H. Zeissler, London. Eng. Pat. 7785,
.May 5, 1891.
From a negative, with or without a grained plate inter-
posed, a print is taken, which is transferred by exposure to
light, to a piece of calico having on one side a sensitised
film of gelatin, this is theu high etched with glycerin and
ammonia, and mounted on a block of wood which may be
used as a hand stamp, or it is mounted on a self-inking
arrangement with a parallel motion, described by the
iuveutors.— J. C. C,
Improvements in or Connected with the Preparation of
Lithographic Stones for Half-Tone and Colour Printing.
B. Krantz and H. Zeissler, London. Eng. Pat. 8120,
May 12, 1891.
Tin: improvements consist of printing from a negative on
paper sensitised with a special composition (for the details
of which the specification must be consulted), transferring
this print lo the stone by means of a bath of ammonia
solution, and fixing with a solution of gall nuts in water, and
lining; the picture is then etched up by a solution of nitric
acid. — J. C. C.
Improved Method of Photo-Etching on Zinc and Copper.
IS. Krantz and H. Zeissler, London. Eng. Pat, H121,
May 12, 1891.
A tin plate is first coated with lamp-black and then with
Chinese white ; it is then ruled through the white only, so
as to show black lines. I'pon this an image is thrown by a
magic lantern, of the picture required, a photographic
negative is then taken of this image, from which a print is
taken on a zinc or copper plate sensitised with bitumen.
This is developed with turpentine, and then etched in a
particular manner described in detail in the specification.
Iu place of photographing the image on the ruled plate, a
print may be taken from a combination of an ordinary
negative aud one of the ruled plate, and finished as
described. — J. C. C.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
PATENT.
Improved Manner and Apparatus for Nitrating Cotton,
Cellulose, Straw, and similar Substances. J. Selwig and
li. Lange, Brunswick, Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,747,
June 24, 1891.
Thb patentees have devised a " centrifugal nitrating appa-
ratus," consisting of a perforated revolving basket of a
centrifugal machine arranged inside the nitrating vat. The
cotton is thus practically nitrated in the centrifugal machine,
and after allowing the acid to run off the nitro-cellulose can
be dried by centrifugal force. — W. M.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
. 1 PPA I! A Tl N.
Azolitmin paper. 1!. Dietal. Pharm. Zeit. 1892, 37, 7.
Azolitmin paper, which is a specially sensitive indicator,
both for acids and for bases, is prepared as follows: —
50 grms. of litmus are digested with 1 litre of water for
12 hours, and the operation repeated with a second litre of
water. The united filtrates are mixed with 100 grms. of
sand and hydrochloric acid added, till the carbon dioxide
is completely expelled and the solution turned red. The
whole is theu evaporated to dryness and heated until the
hydrochloric acid is expelled. The residue is ground to a
fine powder which is well washed, first with hot aud then
with cold water until the filtrate is no longer coloured.
The washed product is kept in stoppered bottles protected
from the light, after gentle drying between filter paper. To
prepare the paper 10 grms. of the azolitmin saud are treated
with 100 grms. of hot water, 15 grms. of ammonium chloride
added, and the solution filtered after allowing to stand for
a short time. The blue solution turns red-violet on being
allowed to evaporate spontaneously, owing to the loss of
ammonia, in which state it can be employed as a test for
bases. — ('. A. K.
A New Condenser for Laboratory Use. F. Evers. Ber.
1891, 24, 3950—3951.
The apparatus described by the author consists practically
of a Liebig's condenser iu which the inner tube has been
considerably widened and provided with au additional aud
internal cooling space.
Owing to the large cooling surface thus provided, this
form of condenser is very efficient and requires but little
cooling water. A condenser 30 cm. in length will serve to
condense the vapours of liquids, boiling as low as 32° C.
without appreciable loss. The apparatus is very suitable
for the fractional distillation of liquids of low boiling point.
— H. T. P.
PATENTS.
Determining the
Fletcher, Enfield,
Improvements in Instruments its. tl fo
Specific Gravities of' Liquids. E. \\. x-ieici
Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 12,3G3, July 21, 1891.
The improvement cousists in having a thermometer
attached to hydrometers, so that the temperature of the
liquid can he ascertained at the moment of taking its specific
gravity.— ('. A. K.
Improvements in and connected with Tubes and other
Receptacles for Storing and Immersing Hydrometer*
and the like. ' F. W. Fletcher, Enfield. Eng. Pat. 12,465,
July 22, 1891.
The tube or receptacle has a cushion at the bottom upon
which the hydrometer rests, and in the cover there is a
perforated diaphragm through which the stem of the hydro-
meter passes, and presses against an elastic spring or
cushion in the top. The tube may be used as an immersion
tube after removal of the cover.— J. C. C.
Improvements in Assay or Chemical Ralances. C. F.
Betting, Wehlheiden, C'assel, Germany. Eng. Pat. 2117,
February 3, 1852.
The improvements consist of a mechanical arrangement
whereby the weights can be applied to and removed from
the balance without opening the case. The mechanism
consists essentially of a series of levers adapted to carry
the weights and to place them on the pans as required.
636
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892.
through the medium of cams worked by knobs placed
outside the case. Full descriptive details aud diagrams are
given in the specification. — C. A. K.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Analysis of Antimony Ores. A. Carnot. Compt. Kend.
1892,114, 587—590.
Owing to the unavoidable loss of metal which occurs in
the estimation of antimony in its ores in the dry way the
author employed the following methods and found them to
be more satisfactory : —
1. Sulphide Ores.— A quantity of the ore (2—5 grms.)
containing about 1 grin, of antimony as far as can be
roughly estimated, is warmed with 50—60 cc. of concen-
trated hydrochloric acid as long as any visible action takes
place, and the solution is then decanted on to a filter; this
treatment is twice repeated, a few drops of nitric acid being
added the second time. The filtrate and washings are then
diluted with an equal volume of water, the antimony
precipitated with tin at 80°— 90°, the precipitate washed by
deeantation with dilute hydrochloric acid, thrown on to a
tared filter, washed with warm water and alcohol succes-
sively, dried at 100°, aud weighed. The results are correct
to within about 1 per cent.
2. Oxidised Ores.— In the case of ores containing both
oxide and sulphide of antimony, and which are sometimes
only attacked by concentrated hydrochloric acid with great
difficulty, the finely-divided substance (2 to 5 grms.) is first
heated just below 300° in a stream of hydrogen sulphide
for about an hour ; the quantity of antimony which remains
undissolved by hydrochloric acid after this treatment is
quite insignificant.' The subsequent analysis is carried out
as described above.
The presence of iron, or of zinc, does not affect the
results ; lead, if present, is partly precipitated with the
antimony, aud on warming the precipitated metal with
yellow sodium sulphide there remains an insoluble residue
of lead sulphide.— F. S. It.
The Determination nf Iron and Aluminium in Presence of
Phosphoric Arid. ' W. H. Krug. Journ. Anal, and Appl.
('hem. 1891, 5, 671.
Tiik author has examined the methods of Glaser, Jones,
Jones-Stutzer and Vogel's modification of the same, and
McElroy, and considers that of the last named chemist the
most satisfactory on account of its being more accurate
whilst not less rapid than the others. It is as follows : —
100 cc. (corresponding to 1 grm. of substance) of a nitric acid
solution of the substance are placed in a 500 cc. flask and
treated with ammonium molybdate to precipitate tne phos-
phoric acid, a little ammonium nitrate being added to
promote the precipitation. The mixture is allowed to stand
for several hours and the flask then filled to the mark.
Two portions of 200 cc. each are then withdrawn and pre-
cipitated at a low temperature with ammonia, a small
quantity of ammonium nitrate being added for the purpose
of keeping the mixture cool. The precipitate of aluminium
aud ferric hydrates obtained in this manner is readily-
soluble in acids. It is filtered and washed and dissolved
in dilute nitric acid, and again precipitated in the cold with
ammonia for the purpose of removing any traces of
molybdic anhydride which may be present, and is then
washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. The weighed precipi-
tate is finally fused with potassium hydrogen sulphate, and
the iron determined volumetrically in the usual way.
The first filtrate from the precipitate of ferric aud alumi-
nium hydrates contains any calcium and magnesium which
may be present. These may be separated by successive
precipitation at a low temperature with ammonium oxalate
and ammonium phosphate, the low temperature being
necessary to prevent co-precipitation of molybdic anhydride.
— E. B.
The Estimation of Slag in Wrought Iron. A. E. Barrows
and T. Turner. Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892 [113], 122—123.
It is known that in puddling cast iron comparatively rich in
non-metallic elements the yield of puddled bar is greater
than with less impure materials, but the loss on reheating
and rolling into finished iron is also greater. It has been
contended that this difference is due to intermingled slag.
The authors prepared four samples of iron, viz., best bar,
best sheet from the same bar, common bar and common
sheet from the same. Pig iron of known composition was
used; the yield of common puddled bar was t j - 5 per cent,
greater than the other, but the loss in reheating was also
1 ■ 5 per cent, greater, leaving a balance of 5 per cent, in
favour of the common iron. The composition of the
samples was as follows : —
Best.
Common.
Bar.
Sheet.
Bar.
Sheet.
0-060
0-22S
0'178
0-035
0-16S
0-175
0-(H5
0-275
0-58!l
0-032
0-221
0'390
These results show that the silicon is equally, and very
slightly, reduced in each case, while the phosphorus was
much reduced in common iron and but scarcely affected in
best. This does not favour the view that much more slag
is removed in one case than the other.
By dissolving the iron in a cold solution of sodium copper
chloride, the authors have obtained the following values : —
Best.
( 'ommon.
Bar.
Sheet.
Bar.
Sheet.
Slag per cent
3 -S3
2 Tin
3-85
8-85
1'25 pe
r cent.
l'OO percent.
This method requires to be further examined and checked
by other processes before the results can be accepted, but
they are, at least, a fairly close approximation to the truth.
Though the chlorine process (Chem. Soc. J. Trans. 45,
265) is not suited for slags containing iron, it appears to be
correct for cast-iron analysis, since the slag from the blast
furnace seldom contains more than a trace of iron.
The authors conclude that for practical purposes the
weight of slag in best and common iron may be taken as
identical, aud that on reheating and rolling each loses about
the same weight of slag. The additional loss noticed on
reheating impure iron is due chiefly to the elimination of
phosphorus, probably in the form of ferrous phosphate.
— W. S.
PATENT.
Improvements in Apparatus and Appliances for the Rapid
Determination of Carbon in Steel. A. Tropenas,
Sheffield, and A. E. Wells, Rotherham. Eng. Pat. 2785,
February 16, 1891.
The inventors have found that after the boiling period in
the Bessemer and allied pneumatic processes, the percentage
of carbonic anhydride in the converter gases ;it any
moment maintains a perfectly definite relation with the
percentage of carbon in the metal at the time. It is there-
fore proposed to estimate the percentage of carbon iu the
metal by withdrawing a definite quantity of the gases and
determining the amount of carbonic anhydride present.
The apparatus used consists of a test tube connected on the
one hand with a supply of lime water, solution of lead
salts, litmus or other indicator, and on the other hand with
a tube through which gases can be driven or drawn over
from the converter. A quantity of the indicator is admitted
into the test tube, the gas allowed to pass in for a given
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
637
period, say 10 seconds, and the test tube compared with a
series of carefully prepared standards. A modification of
this method consists in drawing off 100 ce. of the gases
(by connecting the pipe with a burette filled with water
and allowing the latter to flow out) and forcing this through
some indicator as before. In a further modification, the
burette rilled with gas is connected with a vessel containing
a dilute solution of caustic potash, and the amount of
carbonic anhydride determined from the rise of the solution
in the tube.
Jt is stated that with suitable apparatus an observation
can be made in 10 to 20 seconds. — S. B. A. A.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
Colorimttric Determination of Vanillin. F. Moerk. Amer.
J. Pharm. 1891, 63, 572.
To prepare the vanillin solution it must first be decolourised
if necessary by means of lead hydrate, prepared by adding
caustic potash to a solution of lead nitrate containing a
drop of phenolphthalein until a distinct red colouration
appears. The precipitate thus ohtaiued is washed with
water and made up to 100 cc. To carry out the test 2 cc.
of the vanilla extract are treated with 50 cc. of water, 20 ce.
of the lead hydrate added and the whole made up to 100 cc.
The solution is filtered after standing a few minutes, and
50 cc. are treated with an excess of bromine water ; a 1 per
cent, solution of ferrous sulphate is then added until the
maximum intensity of colour is obtained, when the whole
is made up to 100 cc, allowed to stand sometime, and then
filtered. The colouration obtained is compared with that
given by standards containing from 0-002 — 0-005 grm. of
vanillin in 100 cc. The method is reliable if the vanilla
extract is uot coloured ; if it is, a yellow tinge always
remains even after the treatment with lead hydrate, which
decreases the accuracy of the test. The smell of the
vanillin is quite destroyed in this reaction, whilst that of
eumarin remains : the test therefore serves as a means of
detecting small quantities of eumarin in the extract.
— C. A. K.
Examination of Vegetable Lubricating Oils speeiallg
regarding Qualitative Tests. Holde. Jlitth. Konigl.
teebn. Yersuehsans. Berlin, 1891, 294.
The author has critically examined the various colour
reactions which are in vogue for the testing of vegetable
oils. He obtained the following results : — (The samples of
oil used were sufficiently pure, as confirmed by their iodine
anil saponification values, and by their physical properties.)
Tests for Rape Oil. — The presence of rape-oil — say in
olive oil - was considered as proved when sulphur had been
found in the saponified oil (black precipitate with lead
solution), the assumption being made, that all oils extracted
from the seeds of Crucifene contained sulphur. The author
found — as before him Schweissinger— that there are in
commerce rape oils which are free from sulphur. Schaedler
has already stated that cold-expressed rape oils do not
eontaiu sulphur. On the other hand due regard must be
had to the fact that oils extracted from the seeds by means
of carbon bisulphide may retain small quantities of sulphur
from the latter.
Schneider's reaction, which is stated to detect the presence
of even 2 per cent, of rape oil in olive oil (dissolve one volume
of the oil in two volumes of ether and add 20 — 30 drops of
a saturated alcoholic solution of silver nitrate ; the lower
layer becomes brownish and at last black if the quantity of
rape oil present is large, but, if small, distinctly brown after
12 hours' standing) had not been found to answer in the
hands of the author on examining pure rape oil, even after
six hours only a dirty green sediment being obtained. It
should be remembered that cotton oil gives colourations
similar to those mentioned by Schneider.
The author examined next the test proposed by Yillavechia
and Fabris (this Journal, 1891, 390) who recommend the
saponification of 10 cc. of the oil with alcoholic potash and
the addition of 2 cc. of a silver nitrate solution followed by
one of 10 cc. of nitric acid (1:3). On shaking the mixture
a brown ring is stated to appear between the two layers if
rape oil be present, whilst pure olive oil gives no reaction.
The author, however, obtained black rings with pure olive
oil and also with two samples of rape oil. This test must,
therefore, be also considered as valueless.
Test for Cotton Oil. — The author examined the following
reactions: — (a.) Bechi's test (this Journal, 1888, 135). One
sample of cotton oil gave the brown colour of Bechi's test,
whilst another sample and likewise a pure olive oil gave a
yellow colour. A mixture of pure olive oil and 30 per
cent, of the cotton oil showing the brown colour, gave, on
testing, no longer the brown colour. Although the samples
of cotton oil used by the author were old ones, and may
consequently have undergone some alteration as far as
regards the silver-reducing substances, he does not hesitate
to condemn Bechi's test as valueless. (6.) Bechi's test as
modified by Villavechia and Fabris has also to be rejected,
(c.) Milliau's test (this Journal, 1888, 593) seemed at first
to be a reliable one. But on heating a sample of cotton oil
to 240° C. it was found that no reduction of silver takes
place, an observation which detracts greatly from the value
of Milliau's test, (d.) Hirschsohn's test. This test is based
on the reduction of a gold chloride solution by cotton oil.
But Moerch already has stated that a number of other oils
give the same red colour ; the author adds to Moerch's list :
hemp oil. Besides, cotton oil heated to 240° C. no longer
reduces the gold chloride solution, (e.) Nitric acid test.
Nitric acid of 1-37 sp. gr. was not found to give charac-
teristic reactions. Therefore nitric acid of 1 "41 sp. gr. was
tried. Pure cotton oils gave deep reddish-brown coloura-
tions, whilst olive oils became yellow. But a pure, refined
rape oil gave also the brown colour. In mixtures of olive
oil and cotton oil 20 per cent, of the latter could be detected ;
an admixture of 10 per cent, could not be ascertained.
Therefore the nitric acid test is also useless.
Test for Sesame Oil. — Bauduin's test was found to be
thoroughly reliable and capable of indicating even 0-5 per
cent, sesame oil. Sesame oil heated to 200° C. showed the
colour just as well as a not heated sample. The author uses
Bauduin's test in the following manner : — Take a lump of
beet sugar of the size of a pea and shake it with 2 cc. of
hydrochloric acid of sp.gr. 1-19 until the greatest part of
the sugar is dissolved. Add an equal volume of oil and
shake violently. Allow to stand ; when sesame oil is
present the aqueous layer will be found coloured red. The
colour has to be observed at once, as later on the liquid
becomes dark brown.
Test for Drying Oils. — Larger quantities of drying oils
in olive oil, &c. may be easily detected by the so-called
quantitative reactions. The colour reactions recommended
in text-books have been found to be valueless.
Bridle's Test for Seed Oils.— (This Journal, 1888, 457.)
The author rejects this test altogether.
Test for Train Oil.— (This Journal, 1891, 729.)
Test for Mineral Oils.— (This Journal, 1889, 735.) It
was noticed that in the presence of small quantities of
mineral oils the latter may be redissolved on adding larger
quantities of water ; therefore the turbidity appearing on the
first addition of water has to be considered as characteristic.
Test for Rosin Oil The test described by the author
(this Journal, 1890, 418) is considered as satisfactory.
It will thus be clear that all the colour tests which have
been proposed for the examination of mixtures of fatty oils
— with the exception of the test for sesame oil — are value-
less.— J. L.
Detection of Rosin Oils in Essence of Turpentine.
M. Zune. Compt. Rend. 114, 490.
The author has examined the various products derived
from the crude turpentine of the Landes, Gironde, &c, and
finds that for the detection of rosin oil in the essence of
turpentine it is sufficient to submit the sample to a fractional
distillation, collecting the first three-fourths separately and
then determining the refractive indices of the four portions.
If the essence is pure the difference between the indices of
638
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30, 1892,
the first and last fourth should not exceed 0' 00400 and
will generally fall below 0-00350, whilst the presence of
1 per cent, only of rosin oil would raise the difference to at
least 0-00600. If there is 4 per cent, or more of adultera-
tion it is readily recognised by the simple determination of
the refractive index of the essence, but where the slightest
doubt exists it is advisable to resort to distillation.
— S. IS. A. A.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Investigation of Terpenes mid thru- Derivatives. .1. W.
Briihl. Her. 25, 1796—1813.
A research in its details of purely scientific value. A
deduction of some technical and general interest is, that
camphoric acid is not as has been supposed, a mono- but a
true bibasic acid.
In the titration of this acid (Friedel, Corupt. Pend. 113,
December 14, 1891) phenolphthalein is the best indicator.
Gorallin (with camphoric acid yellow, with alkalis red) can
be used successfully. — W. S.
New and Simple Method for Estimating the Quantity of
Rosin-Size contained in Paper. W. Herzberg. Mitfhl.
aus d. Kouigl. tech. Yersuchs. zu Berlin, 189a, 10 [2],
80—85.
The author proposes to place a portion of the paper to be \
examined on a watch glass and to pour upon it four to six
drops of ether. After 15 or 20 seconds the ether evaporates,
and in case auy appreciable amount of size is contained in
the paper, a slight stain surrounded by an edge of a some-
what darker colour is observed uuder direct light. In
different sorts of paper the shape of the stain, as also the
form of its surrounding edge, may differ. To discover the
amount of rosin in paper the latter is to be treated with
absolute alcohol. On adding water to the alcohol in case
any rosin was present iu the paper, the fluid will become
turbid or milky. According to the degree of turbidity or
milkiness of the fluid measured by a standard, the amount
of rosin may he determined. — P. D.
Determination of the Extractive Matters in Brand;/.
Zeits. fur Spiritusind. 14, 215.
As, according to the German excise laws, all brandy
containing more than 3 per cent, of extract is considered a
liqueur, the accurate determination of the extract is of
importance.
An amount of about 100 grms. of the liquor to be tested
is evaporated to about one-third to one-fourth of its bulk.
When all the alcohol has been expelled, indicated by the
odour, the residue is made up to about the original volume.
The specific gravity of the solution indicates the amount of
extract. — A. L. S.
On the Quantitative Determination of the Fibres Used in
Paper Making. W. Herzberg. Konigl. tech. Yersuchs.
z.Berlin, 10, 1892 [1], 7.
The microscope is well adapted for the recognition of the
fibres in a paper, since by its aid the smallest difference in
their anatomic structure can be observed with certainty.
Up to the present time all attempts further to develop these
characteristics have been more or less failures, especially
those methods which depend entirely upon colour reactions.
All such reactions can only facilitate the separation of
fibres into groups, and it must be insisted on that no* colour
reactions can be considered as absolutely characteristic of
* Mechanical wood-pulp may be taken as an exception to tins
rule, as when coloured it can be recognised under the microscope
with the greatest ease, and also after treatment with various
reagents (this Journal. 1890, 1068),
one definite fibre (Mittheilungen, 1887, Sonderheft III. 1).
Nor is it probable that the recognition of fibres could
ever be certain if alone based on such a reaction. Fibres
from the same source in consequence of variations in the
conditions of manufacture do not all give the same reactions,
and this method will not bear close investigation. The
qualitative examination of fibres in consequence of the
similarity of the structure is not without difficulties. These
become still greater when it is necessary for a quantitative
determination to be made. Cellulose (C6H1(l05), regardless
of its origin, gives almost the same reactions with all
reagents.
In counexion with the difficulties of determination it may-
be remarked that the Prussian Government make as
standardfor normal paper Class II., 25 per cent, oj cellulose.
At the time of inakimi this standard not very much work
had been done in the direction of accurate quantitative fibre
determination, but iu consequence the subject had to receive
attention.
It has been observed that in the course of repulping
paper by treating with dilute caustic soda to remove resin,
&c., and shaking with garnets, preparatory to a micro-
scopical examination, that whilst part of the fibres sink,
part remain floating on the surface. However, an examina-
tion showed no difference between the fibres that floated
and those that sank, so that their behaviour cannot be
attributed to any actual differences in specific gravity, but
is probably purely mechanical, and caused by air bubbles
being attached to the floating fibres.
Further proof that specific gravity had nothing to do
with the matter was obtained by employing various
saturated solutions (sodium and barium chloride), but in
every case the result was as has been described. Further
attempts were made to separate fibres by their different
capacities of absorption. Fibres may be placed for a few
hours iu a solution of barium chloride, there washed, and
allowed to stand some time in dilute sulphuric acid, thus
forming insoluble barium sulphate in the fibres themselves,
it was hoped that by this means it would be found possible
to make a separation of the variously loaded fibres, and by
using liquids of varying gravities. Although the fibres were
treated with all sorts of solutions aud preeipitants they were
found to have no more tendency to separate than before
treatment. Separation was tried by means of a cupra-
ammonium solution, a well-known solvent for cellulose,
although it was exceedingly improbable that by this means
an accurate quantitative determination could be made ; it
was, however, thought possible that whilst pure cellulose,
such as cotton, would be rapidly dissolved, the impurer
forms might be scarcely affected. Experiment showed that
this was not the case, and that as a qualitative method it
was untrustworthy.
That the fibres could be approximately determined iu the
field of the microscope was certain, but the question was
whether the results so obtained were sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes.
The characteristics of part of the fibres in finished papers,
linen, or cottou, are often so destroyed in processes of
manufacture that it is impossible with certainty to trace
their origin.
The case is different with chemically purified cellulose
(esparto, straw, wood, &c), which require little treatment
in the beating engine, and are found, fibres, cells, &c. iu a
good state of preservation in paper.
In making a preparation for examination it is advisable to
take tiny pieces of paper from various sheets and to pay
special attention to the even distribution of the fibres over
the object glass.
The determination may be made either by counting the
various fibres in a series of microscopic fields or by com-
paring the appearance of the preparations to be examined
with those of known fibre contents. Of course, to ensure
reliable results in either case, the average of a large number
of observations must be taken. In measuring fibres and
particles of fibres it is well to take as unit for calculation
the diameter or radius of the field of observation.
If 50 observations of a paper gave 7 linen fibres to 5 cotton,
the approximate per cent, value would be 58 per cent, linen,
12 per cent, cotton.
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
639
A mixture was made of 50 per cent, linen and 50 per cent,
wood cellulose fibres, and 100 observations made and tbe
fibres counted. The result showed that the average found
was equivalent to -15 per cent, complete linen and 56-5 per
cent, wood cellulose fibres, allowing an average error of
1-70 a maximum of 2'7 per cent., and a probable error of
1 per cent.
It is obvious that direct calculation of the fibres will not
give the true proportions by weight, and that the result
would have to be multiplied by a coefficient found by
experiment. Thus the method would be both uncertain and
tedious.
A new method of valuation is proposed and it is made to
include the loading of the fibres. In the table given only
the pure fibres however are taken into consideration. To
facilitate matters and for the sake of comparison a series of
mixtures of known fibre-content were tested. The fibres
were still counted under the microscope, but certain
numerical cheeks and allowances were made. Very minute
and lengthy details, illustrated by numerous tables, are
given, and for these the original must be consulted. They
show the limits of accuracy and error in making these
micro-chemical examinations. The examination may be
simplified by using a solution of 1 • 15 grms. iodine and
2 gnus, potassium iodide in 20 grms. of water, to which
2 cc. of glycerol have been added.
The fibres by their colour may be separated at a glance,
cotton, linen, hemp, &c, being dark brown, straw, wood, and
esparto cellulose, nearly colourless, mechanical wood, jute,
and other lignified fibres, orange.
The modified method of microscopical valuation of papers
will be introduced into the Government laboratory in Berlin,
and from January 1893, notice is given to paper makers
that paper said to belong to Class II. will be expected only
to contain 25 per cent, wood-, straw-, or esparto cellulose.
—P. N. E.
Degras. R. Kuhsam. Jahresb. der Deutseh. Gerbersehule
zu Freiberg in Sachsen. 1891 — 1892, 3, 3—17. (This
Journal, 1891, 557, 1013.)
The proper degras (iloellon) is the oil expressed in luke-
warm water from chamois leather in the final stage of
tanning. Inasmuch as the whole process consists in oiling
the skins, stocking them, allowing them to heat in heaps,
and repeating the last two operations as often as is judged
necessary, it is obvious that the excess of oil finally
expressed must most reasonably be regarded as an alter-
ation product of the cod- oil originally used.
The high estimation in which degras has always been
held as a currying agent has caused many imitations to
find their way into the market, and much of the research
which has been expended on this substance during the
last few years has been for the purpose of detecting and
valuing these spurious specimens. A summary of the
leading opinions as to the constitution of degras will be
found in this Journal, 1891, 557 ; the author of the present
paper calls attention especially to the " degras former "
first isolated by Jean and found by him to exist in small
quantity in the original cod-oil (threat), but in much larger
quantity in the degras. This resinous substance is insoluble
in petroleum ether, and Simand has pronounced no degras
to be genuine and pure unless it contains at least 12 per
cent, of " degras-former " when the moisture is 20 per cent.
An analytical method can be based on this statement.
The samples 1 — 9 in the following table are French
artificial degras.* No. 10 is called an " emulsion-fat ; "
No. 1 1 is a genuine degras obtained in the chamois leather
process from the cod oil No. 12.
The water was determined by heating 2 — 3 grms. of the
sample in a weighed platinum crucible with a Runsen
burner until an empyreumatic odour indicated the complete
dehydration of the fat.
The iodine absorptions were determined as usual, the
insoluble fatty acids being first freed from " degras-former "
by solution in petroleum ether. It will be noted that the
iodine absorption of Ihe genuine degras is much higher
than that of the artificial samples, so that this should serve
as an indication of quality ; doubtless it is the presence of
fats of low iodine absorption, such as tallow, yolk, and
cocoa-nut oil, that lowers the ahsorption of the artificial
degras.
* Kunst degras is thus rendered ; it would appear that by
this term the author means degras obtained in the currying
process as opposed to that obtained in chamois-leather making;
to this latter he subsequently refers as Mocllon. — A.-G. B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Water
pei-
Cent.
Iodine Absorption
Per Cent.
Acid
No.
Saponi-
fication
No.
Ether
No.
(difference
bi 't ween
Band 7).
Con-
st:ill[
Acid
No.
Constant
Saponifi-
cation
No.
Constant
Ether
No.
(difference
between
9 and 10).
Acetyl
Acid
No.
Acetyl
Saponifi-
cation
No.
Acetyl
No. (dif-
ference
bet worn
12 and 13).
True
Acetyl
No. (dif-
No. of
Sample.
Degras
| Vnh.v-
drous.J
In- Acetyl-
soluble ised
ference
between
14 and 11).
Patty
Acids.
Fatty
Acids.
Mgrms
of At
. of KOI
ihydrous
1 per Grin.
D6gras.
Mgrms
0
. of KOH
f Fatty A
per Grin,
cids.
Mg
i
puis, of K
Vcetylisec
OH per Grm. of
Fatty Acids.
1
Wl
71-7
70-5
73-1
37-7
185-5
224-3
38-S
1S1-0
280-0
99-0
60-2
2
l-'-'.i
0f2
5s-i;
52-7
7-2-7
110-4
37-7
1028
131-5
28-7
92-0
164-7
72-1
43-4
3
12-4
77-4
75-4
SHI -4
40-2
110-7
70-5
129-6
172-9
13-4
128-9
196-1
67-2
23-8
•1
Ij-'.I
78-4
70-2
6li-6
50'1
13f8
84-7
162-9
198- 7
30-8
157-0
237-0
80-0
49-2
5
M'4
77- S
78-5
70-2
52-7
137-4
84-7
163-5
185-9
22-4
160-9
227-0
Olj'l
43-7
i;
11-5
76-1!
70-5
75-7
04-9
108-8
43-9
175-8
229-6
53-8
171-0
2S2'5
111-5
57-7
7
13-9
96-7
95-9
88-9.
..
..
..
182-5
215'fi
33-1
178-7
212-4
33-7
0-6
8
17'3
83-7
virt
102-7
28-9
100-8
71-9
90-7
197-1
100-4
92-8
175-4
82-6
..
9
1(5 -0
80-9
52-0
141-2
89-2
..
••
..
10
5'3
74'4
79-3
73-0
5fl
125-2
71-1
179-5
210-2
30-7
180-1
217-0
36-9
6'2
11
..
127-7
1423
127-4
..
103-8
..
180-8
212-2
31-4
176-8
228-3
51-5
20-1
12
••
126'7
106-0
101-9
••
180-0
••
159-3
213-2
53-9
158-2
215-7
57-5
3-7
Mean of
1— la
••
78'5
77-fi
77-7
50-4
121-2
70-8
ISO'S
(except
No. 8).
195-5
(except
No. 8).
35-2
(except
No. 8).
149-2
221-3
72-1
••
640
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 80, 1893.
The " acid number " (col. 6) is the amount of KOH
required to neutralise the original sample of degras, while
the " saponification number" (col. 7) is the amount
required to saponify the original sample. The difference
between these two is the "ether number " (col. 8) or amount
of K( )H consumed in actual saponification. The genuine
degras has a saponification number lower than the original
cod oil, but higher than the artificial degras ; the latter
nearly always contains mineral oil.
The " constant acid number " (col. 9) represents the
amount of KOH neutralised by the fatty acids of the degras
in the cold, the " constant saponification number" (col. 10)
being the amount neutralised by heating the fatty acids
with the KOH, in the same way as for the saponification of
the fac. The difference " consjant ether number " (col. 11)
represents the amount of KOH expended in eouverting any
lactones which the degras may contain into potassium
salts of the corresponding hydroxy fatty acids ; for such
lactones —
{e.g., C3H6< | )
are unaffected by cold alkalis, but capable of neutralising hot
alkalis(being converted for example into C1H„(OH)C<)OK)
(Compare Benedikt, Analyse der Fette nnd Wachsarten
2, 142.)
" The acetyl acid number "(col 12) is the amount of
K( )H neutralised in the cold by the acetylised fatty acids.
The acetylisation is effected by boiling with acetic anhydride
(Benedikt, loe. eft.) and converts any hydroxy acids into
derivatives which contain acetyl in place of the hydroxyl-
hydrogen. These acetyl derivatives are not decomposed by
cold KOH, and the " acetyl acid number " would be identical
with the " constant acid number " save for the higher
molecular weight resulting from the introduction of acetyl.
The " acetyl saponification number " (col. 13) is the amount
of KOH requisite for the neutralisation of the acetylised
acids when the process is conducted as for ordinary
saponification at the boiling point ; under these conditions
the acetyl-derivatives are converted into potassium acetate
and potassium salts of the hydroxy acids. The difference
between the " acetyl saponification number " and the
"acetyl acid number" is the " acetyl number" (col. 14) ;
this however, includes the " constant ether number," (for
the lactones consume hot, but not cold KOH), and is not
a measure of the hydroxy acids present ; nor can the exact
amount of KOH consumed in de-acetylising the acids be
found by subtracting the " constant ether number" from
the " acetyl number," because the molecular weight of the
acetylised acids is higher, and introduces a proportional
error. Thus the " true acetyl number " (col. 1 5) is only
the closest approximation to a measure of the hydroxy acids
in the original fat that can be obtained. The numbers in
this column are, however, comparable among themselves,
and show that genuine degras has a higher content of
hydroxy acids than its parent cod oil, a result which is
contrary to the statement of Weiss.
Fahrion (this Journal, 1891, 557.) regards the"degras-
former " as a mixture of hydroxy fatty acids and gives its
iodine absorption as 65"9. The author found the iodine
absorption of the " degras-former " from sample 1 to be
78'8 ; he hopes to throw light on its constitution by
determining its " constant ether number " and " acetyl
number." — A. G. B.
The Specific Gravity of Textiles. M. de Chardonnet.
Compt. Kend. 114, 489.
For the exact determination of the specific gravity of silk
the author cuts a small skein into pieces not more than
1 mm. in length ; these are suspended in a dilute solution of
borotungstate of cadmium of approximately the required
density, the air is then exhausted, the materials shaken up,
air admitted, and the exhaustion, &e. repeated for several
hours in succession. When the fibres are thoroughly
saturated, either water or a concentrated solution of the
borotungstate is added until the fibres remain suspended in
the liquid ; the latter is then allowed to stand for some time.
the density again adjusted if necessary by the addition of
either of the ingredients, and the specific gravity of the
liquid taken with the usual precautions.
In this way the author finds the specific gravity of raw
silk to be 1-6G and of scoured silk 1-43.— S. B. A. A.
A Method for Determining the Number of NU3 Groups
in Certain Organic Bases. K. Meldola and E. M.
Hawkins. Troc. C'hem. Soc. 1892 [114], 133—134.
In the course of an investigation upon which the authors
are still engaged, the question has arisen as to whether a
certain base contains two XH» groups, or one NH3 and one
NH group. The ordinary methods of acetylating, diazotis-
ing, the formation of azo-derivatives, &c, having given
ambiguous results, the authors have made experiments
to ascertain whether in such cases the azomide could be
formed by Griess's method (action of ammonia on the
diazo-perbromide), as the determination of nitrogen in the
pure product would leave no doubt as to the number of
NH2 groups which had been diazotised. As a test case
they have started with the symmetrical p-diamido-azobenzene
(;))XH.:.Cf,H4.K:.C',,H,.XH.:(;<): this base is not easy to
prepare in quantity by the methods usually described, and
it was only after many experiments that they found the
method patented by the Soc. Anon, des Mat. Color, de St.
Denis (Eng. Pat. 1579, January 29, 1820) to be the most
direct although the yield it affords is not very large.
According to this method diazotised paranitraniline is
combined with /3-naphtholdisulphonic acid in alkaline
solution (the G- and R-salts need not be separated), and
the purified colouring matter is reduced by boiling with
caustic soda and grape sugar. The base thus prepared
was purified, diazotised in the presence of hydrochloric
acid and converted into the tetrazoperbromide in the usual
way. The latter, which forms an orange cr3'stalline powder,
was allowed to remain for some hours in contact with cold
dilute ammonia. The product after several crystallisations
from alcohol forms lustrous silvery scales, melting sharply
at 142°. A little above this temperature it explodes.
Analysis confirms the formula — ■
N
l>N
/ \
N:N<
N
The substance is readily soluble in benzene, slightly
soluble in petroleum, and crystallises beautifully from hot
glacial acetic acid. Nitric acid or sodium nitrite added to
the acetic acid solution produces an evanescent magenta-
red colouration. The compound is easily reduced both by
acid and alkaline reducing agents to paraphenylenediamine ;
the authors were unable to convert it into a diphenyl base
by means of cold stannous chloride. — W. S.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
Condensations of Chloral and Hut i/lchloral with Paralde-
hyde and Ketones. \V. Kiinigs. Ber. 25, 792—802.
Although chloral itself is not found in the vegetable
kingdom, yet the hydroxyl compound corresponding to it
viz., glyoxylic acid, has been proved by Brunner (Her. 19,
595) to exist in certain plant juices. Brunner and Chuard
ftnd that glyoxylic acid occurs in plants, especially in the
green portions thereof, during certain stages of development.
Thus, the acid has been discovered in unripe grapes,
apples, plums, currants, and in large proportions in green
o-ooseberries, as well as in the leaves of these plants. But
this acid was found to have disappeared in the ripe
fruits.
Brunner and Chuard point out that this gradual diminu-
tion of the glyoxylic acid in the fruit-ripening process, is
not improbably of significance in the formation of the fruit-
acids.
Garzarolli has prepared inactive malic acid synthetically
from chloral and malouic acid. Similarly — in part at least
— this widely-diffused acid could, it is considered, be formed
July so, 18920 THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
641
in plants, by the union or conjunction of one molecule of
glyoxylic acid with one mol. of malonic acid, with the
elimination of carbonic acid.
Malonic acid has only so far been discovered in the beet-
root by Lippmaun (Her. 14, 1183.) Very possibly it is
formed there by the condensation of 1 mol. of formaldehyde
with 2 mols. of formic acid.
Since glyoxylic acid as well as glycollie acid occur in
unripe grapes (Erlenmeyer, Jahresb. der Chem. 1866, 373),
anil since both acids gradually disappear during the ripening
of the grapes, it may probably be assumed that both these
acids condense to form tartaric acid —
C02H.CH: (OH), + HCHOH.C02H =
H.,0 + COjH.CHOH.COoH
Again, von Miller and Spadz (Ber. 18, 3402), and also
Einhorn (Annalen, 246, 161), carried out reactions running
very smoothly by warming chloral with a- and 7-methyl-
pyridines or methylquinolines. By exchanging chlorine for
hydroxyl they obtained lactic and acrylic acids of the
pyridine or quinoline series, which possess great interest
because of their close relationship to many of the vegeto-
alkaloids.— YV\ S.
Some Well-defined Alloys of Sodium. Joannis. Compt.
Rend. 1892, 114, 585.
A.n alloy of the composition PbNa is obtained, mixed,
however, with sodamide, when lead is added to excess of
sodanimouium, and the powder produced in this way washed,
in absence of air, with anhydrous liquid ammonia until
the latter is no longer coloured blue; it rapidly oxidises
on exposure to the air, and it is decomposed by water.
An alloy of lead and potassium, having the composition
Pb2K, can be prepared in a similar manner, and as the
potassium is very readily soluble in anhydrous liquid
ammonia the alloy is easily obtained in a pure condition.
The alloy of the composition BiXa:(, obtained by treating
bismuth with excess of sodammonium, is a dark bluish
granular substance, it is spontaneously iuiiammable in the
air, and is decomposed by water.
The alloy of the composition 8bXa^ prepared in like
manner, is a black compound which takes fire on exposure
to the air, and is decomposed by water. — F. S. K.
$eh) 3Soofesu
Chemisoh Tech.msches Repertorium. Uebersichtlich
geordnete Mittheilungen der neuesten Erfindungen,
Fortsehritte und Verbesserungen auf dem Gebiete der
Technischen und Industriellen Chemie mit Hinweis auf
Maschinen, Apparate und Literatur. Herausgegeben von
Dr. Emil Jacobsen. 1891. Zweites Halbjahr, erste
Halfte. Mit in der Text gedruckten Illustrationen.
Berlin. 1892. R. Gaertner's Verlagsbuchhandluug.
Hermann Heyfelder, S.YV. Schiinebergerstrasse, 26.
London : H. Grevel & Co., 33, King Street, Covent
Garden.
This Quarterly Journal of Applied Chemistry in this the
third issue for 1891, treats of the following branches : —
Building Materials, Cements, Artificial Stone, Colouring
Matters, Dyeing and Calico Printing, &c. Fats, Oils,
Illuminating and Heating Materials. Fermented Liquors.
Tanning, Preparation of Leather and Glue. Textiles. Glass
and Earthenware. Wood and Horn. India-rubber.
Cements, Adhesives, &c. Lakes, Varnishes, and Paints.
Metals. The text of this number is plentifully and well
illustrated with wood engravings. The Abstracts of German
Chemical Patents regularly appearing in this quarterly
journal, form a valuable feature of the work.
Handworterbuch per Pharmacik. Praktisches Hand-
bach fiir Apotheker, Aertzte, Medicinbeamte, und
Drogisten. Herausgegeben vou A. Brestowski. Zwei
Bande. Wien und Leipsic : Wilhelm Braumiiller,
K. U. K. Hof- und Universitats-BuchhSndler. 1892.
London: H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent
Garden.
This Dictionary of Pharmacy, issued in parts, large 8vo.,
has reached the issue of the third number. The work
is to be completed in about 24 such numbers, the price
of each being 2-40 marks, or about 2s. 4|-<j. The
third number commences with page 161, and ends with
page 240. (See this Journal, 1892, 374, Vol. 1). It com-
mences with an article descriptive of Asimine, the alkaloid
of the seeds of Asimina triloba. The mode of dealing with
the subject is typical of that adopted throughout the work,
with all the substances described. First, general statements
and formula', with occurrence, if a natural product, or Mode
of Preparation if an artificially prepared product. Then
follow Properties, next Reactions, and finally, Uses.
Part III. closes on page 240 with an uncompleted article,
to be completed in Part IV., on " Bernsteinol." oil of amber.
Cratie Report*
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
{From the Board of Trade Journal.)
Italy.
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff.
Note.— Quintal = 220-4 lb. avoirdupois. Lire = 9^d.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the Italian Customs tariff have recently been
given by the Italian Customs authorities : —
Cuproina (a drug). — Category 43rf. Duty, 2 lire per
quintal.
Hipnal (a drug). — Category 336. Duty, 12 lire per
quintal.
Iodopyrine. — Category 334. Duty, 12 lire per quintal.
Phosphate of sodium. — Category 51t. Duty, 4 lire per
quintal.
Basic sulphate of iron. — Category 43c. Duty, 2 lire per
quintal.
Customs Tariff of Portugal.
Comparative Statement showing the Customs duties now
levied and those previously in force in Portugal.
Note. — An addition of 7 per cent, was imposed upon all articles in
the first column, not subject to conventional duties, 1 per cent,
being added by law nf July 1889. and a further 6 per cent, by law
of 30th July 1890.
Tariff
No.
Articles.
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
Class I.— Animals, Living.
Reis.
Reis.
Class II.— Haw Material
for Use in Industry
and Commerce.
Animal Products.
12
14
Animal residues and products
not otherwise specified ....
Gelatin, glue, and isinglass. . .
2 % ad val.
Per Kilog.
liO
,3%«'/ <;,!.
Per Kilog.
70
26
Animal oils and fats (except
lard, grease, and margarine)
10
10
27
2-7
6
642
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July SO, 1892.
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Tariff
No.
Articles.
Class II.— Raw Material
foe Use ix Industry
J\']i commerce — cowt.
Animal Products— eont.
nicies and skins, cowhides . . .
„ tanned with bark, includ-
ing sole leather
,, tanned, otherwise than
with bark, varnished
and raoroecoed
„ tanned, otherwise than
with bark, not elsewhere
specified
„ in the rough, or prepared
for hats
Kid. without distinction of
colour or finish, and for
whatever use
Vegetable Products.
Camphor, refined
Caoutchouc, gutta-percha,
ebonite, &c. rough or pre-
pared
Charcoal
Halt and yeast
Oils, "arergelim" and "men-
dobi," and any other that
may serve as substitutes
for oils and oils used for
food purposes
„ cotton seed
.. palm nut. concrete
„ sweet almond
„ fixed, liquid, not other-
wise specified in
„ vegetable, concrete
„ essential, turpentine
„ „ not otherwise
specified
Woods, roots, and barks used
for colouring or dyeing
purposes, in block or in
powder
Resins, gums, and resinous
gums
Oleaginous seeds, not other-
wise specified, including
Manearra and coprah
Vegetable juices and ma-
terials, not otherwise spe-
cified
Mineral Products.
Mineral waters (including
the tare)
Tar and pitch (mineral)
Cement and gypsum
Lime and " Pozzolana "
Coal
Coke and briquettes
Sulphur
Ice
Mineral products, not other-
wise specified, unwrought..
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Reis.
Per Kilog.
S5
Duties vary
355
Duties vary
Unties vary
8G0
100
Hi -5
0-3
5
50
800
IT,
50
1-6
1-8
700
07
1-7
0-5
7 " ad vol.
Per Kilog.
25
Duties vary
> Duties vary
325
325
339*4
ieo
Duties vary
Duties now
in force.
Reis.
Per Kiloe.
120
300
500
10
3,000
200
200
200
120
7"
40
5
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Per lOOKilogs.
7% ad vol.
Per Kilog.
50
Per Ton.
100
Per Kilog.
3-5
1-5
345
mo
330
l,ft00
1(10
Tariff
No.
Articles.
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
9S
104
105
106
1»7
108
109
110
in
112
113
119
126
127
128
131
132
133
134
135
Class II.— Raw Material
for Use in Industry
AND luMMER. K .■•ml.
Mineral Products— cont.
Mineral ores, lead
Mineral ores, not specified , . .
[Mineral oils for lighting pur-
poses, including all oils
from which a produtt
airing light can be obtained,
crudt . /air. . or rejliu </, and
tin ir rt sidues)
[Mineral substances, and
their products, not other-
wise sjh riji, d)
Mineral oils, light, for illumi-
nating purposes
Mineral oils, medium
Mineral oils, heavy, for lubri-
cating machines, and
mineral substances and
their products, not other-
wise specified
Class and crystal, broken....
Metals.
Antimony ore, plain or sul-
phuretted
Lead, crude or in pigs
„ hammered or in \* ire . .
Lead alloyed with antimony. .
Copper, pure, brass, bronze.
and similar alloys, ham-
mered or rolled, to be used
in manufacture
Copper, pure, brass, bronze,
and similar alloys, in wire. .
Copper, pure, brass, bronze,
and similar alloys, ham-
mered or rolled, in pigs or in
the metal
Tin. nn wrought
„ hammered or in wire
„ in blocks for soldering
purposes
Quicksilver
Platinum, in a porous state or
in dust
„ hammered or in wire
Zinc, cast, rolled, crude, or in
the metal
Metals, not otherwise dis-
tinguished, crude
Clieniical Products.
Acids, acetic, pyroligneous,
indicating 6 degs.
I{eaume.'s areometer
,, arsenic
„ nitric
„ hydrochloric and sul-
phuric
Alkalis, caustic, solid or liquid
Nitrate of potash (saltpetre).
Reis.
■1 fid rat.
2 % ad vol.
Per Kilog.
62
■J ' ad val.
Per Kilos.
4'9
Duties vary
Dutii s \ ary
2'4
35
80
Reis.
Per Kilog.
1,500
500
67
60
5
10
10
Duties \.ii\v
5
Duties vary
1
Duties vary
40
6-6
80
177
15
Free
Free
6,000
6,500
Duties vary
2
4-4
5
0-7
1
1-4
I
30
30
1
2
10
10
35
15
July so, 1892] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
643
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Tariff
No.
Articles.
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
Class II.— Raw Material
for Use is Industry
ii'D Commerce— cont.
Reis
Reis.
13G
Chemical Products— cont.
Per Kilo:.'.
837'5
0-8
2"4
Per Kilog.
137
138
2
139
Bromine, iodine, and phos-
16'S
15
140
Carbonute of potash, unrefined
7
7
141
„ „ refined..
55
25
142
0-8
1
113
„ „ crystallised
15
10
144
0'6
10
1
145
10
140
Salts of quinine, chlorhydrate,
sulphate, tannate, or vale-
5
2 000
147
Sulphate of soda, of potash of
148
All other chemical products
not otherwise distinguished
3Liscellaneous Products.
12 7„ ad val.
13% ad val.
lin
Acids, fatty, and refined.
Per Kilog.
00
Per Kilog.
CO
ISO
Chemical manures for agricul-
0-3
C3
151
Shreds. fragments, and rags
to be pulped for pap^r
making, and pulp in what-
ever state and of whatever
quality for the manufacture
o-s
1
152
Wax. animal, vegetable, or
mineral. crude (gross
20
22
153
Colours and ilyes, in the dust
or as stone, not prepared
Put ies vary
7
154
Dye extracts, in whatever
Duties vary
3
156
Paste for rollers nf typographic
Duties vary
200
157
Lampblack (gross weight) ..
Duties vary
100
•15,000
7 «d vat.
Per Kilog.
150
159
ICO
Substances intended for use
for medicine or for perfu-
mery, not otherwise distill-
7 °J0 ad vat.
Per Kilog.
1C0
Oi.vss III.— Yarns. Tissues,
Felts, and Manufac-
tures THEREOF.
Class IV.— Food Products.
319
Beverages.
Per Decalitre
780
218
Per Decalitre
840
322
400
By decree of 20th August 18S9.
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Tariff
No.
329
330
340
347
353
354
309
375
376
384
438
441
442
453
454
455
456
457
458
Articles.
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
Class IV.— Food Products
— cont.
Farinaceous Substances.
Starch, in powder or feeula . .
in pieces, or prepared,
in powder
Colonial Produc.
Sugar, refined by the Portu-
guese method, and sugar
superior to No. 20, Dutch
standard
Sugar, not otherwise specified
Molasses and similar products
Miscellaneous.
Oil, olive (gross weight)
Lard, and melted grease
Class V.— Apparatus, &c.
Apparatus of copper for dis-
tilling and concentrating
purposes
Charcoal, in grains, tablets,
and sticks
Sensitive plates for photo-
graphy
Instruments and apparatus
for use in chemical labora-
tories (except those of glass
or earthenware)
Class VI— Miscellaneous
Manufactures.
Hides and leather, manufac-
tured, not otherwise speci-
fied
Caoutchouc and gutta-percha,
manufactured
Do., combs
Do., tubes and threads
Manufactures of Mineral
Products.
Earthenware and fine stone
ware
Common stone ware
Stone, porcelain wares
Bricks, tiles, mosaics, &c,
glazed, painted, or orna-
mented
Minerals, worked up, not
otherwise distinguished. . . .
Ceramic products, manufac-
tured, not otherwise speci-
fied
Glass, common, black or dark
blue, in bottles or demijohns
of any size, common glass,
chestnut colour or dark
yellow, in bottles or demi-
johns holding not less than
7 decilitres ; and common
glass of any other colour
(except white) in bottles
and demijohns holding not
less than 1 litre
Reis.
Per Kilog.
60
90
135
110
23
Reis.
Per Kilog.
65
50
Duties vary
27% ad val.
Per Kilog.
25
145
120
CO
Per Decalitre
7o0
Per Kilog.
100 200
150
100
1
100
30
1.200
500
COO
220
2,000
20
25
200
10
:j ° „ .i,/ col.
Per Kilog.
2
20
20 % ad val.
Per Kilog.
4
(SU
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July SO, 1892.
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Articles.
Class VI.— Miscellaneous
Manufactures— eont.
Ma n vfact u res of Mi neral
Products— -cont.
Glass, common, of whatever
colour (except white), in
vessels, &o., not otherwise
specified
Glass, in plates, polished,
opaque
Glass, in plates, polished,
i ransparent
Glass, manufactured, lamp
chimneys
Glass, hi plates, not polished,
and all other manufactures
of glass, not otherwise
specified
Metal Manufactures.
Lead, manufactured
Copper, pure ; brass, bronze,
and similar alloys (taps or
ypiggots and valve)
Do.t do. (in tubes)
Do., do. (all other, not other-
wise distinguished)
Tin, manufactured
Metals, not otherwise specified
'/iiif, in sheets
„ manufactured
Paper,
Paper for writing, white or
coloured, in whatever con-
condition
{Packing paper)
Paper for printing, common
(ordinary paper for jour-
nals), including also albu-
minised paper, paper for
lithographing, and sensi-
tised paper for photography
Envelopes and paper bags ...
Miscellaneous.
Glue, liquid (including tare) .
„ dried or in paste
Dynamite and gunpowder —
Miners' fuses
Fuses not otherwise specified
Fireworks (gross weight)
Shoe blacking
Hatches
Medicines: pills and extracts,
&c
„ globules (in-
cluding tare) ..
„ pastilles (in-
cluding tare) . . .
„ simple or com-
pounded (in-
cluding tare)...
Oilcloth for flooring
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
Reis.
Per Ki log.
20
27 % ad vol.
17 7o Q& V&1-
Per Kilog.
110
Duties a
ary
800
10
5
231)
400
CO
200
Pay :is copper
■100
27
80
00
400
120
18
IS
120
10
150
10
20
250
270
4-2
5
300
350
00
160
SO
150
SO
1,200
300
2,000
••
5,0110
••
1,200
300
000
05
150
Reis.
Per Kilog.
100
Per Met.
Quintal.
2, W0
3,0110
Per Kilog.
200
300
25
200
Customs Tariff of Portugal — continued.
Turill
No.
Articles.
Duties of
Tariff of 1887.
Duties now
in force.
Class IV. — Miscellaneous
Reis.
Reis.
Manufactures— cont.
Miscellaneous— cont.
573
Oilcloth not otherwise speci-
fied
Per Kilog.
500
500
Per Kilog.
700
574
1,000
575
Perfumery of all sorts (in-
220
350
1,000
570
Gunpowder in cartridges (in-
500
578
Soap
50
00
579
„ balls {including tare) . .
220
500
683
Ink (for writing) (including
tare)
50
100
584
Dyes, prepared, liquid or in
paste, exceeding 100 kilos.
80
5S5
Dyes, prepared, liquid or in
paste, less than 100 kilos.
Duties vary
Per Kilog.
80
590
Candles of every description .
Per Kilog.
120
591
Varnishes made with alcohol
30
■400
692
„ all other, not dis-
30
200
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
The Petroleum Trade of the Caucasus.
Aassib Effendi, Turkish Consul-General at Tiflis, has
just addressed to his Government a very interesting report
on the petroleum trade of the Caucasus. Extracts from
this report are given by the Journal de hi Chambre de
Commerce de Constantinople for the 11th June, in which
the following passages occur : — ■
It is Muce 1873 that the petroleum industry has entered
into its phase of progress and of development by reason
of the decision taken by the Government to throw it open
to private enterprise, by selling the petroleum lands, divided
into lots of 10 square deciatines each, to private persons.
At that time the lands sold contained no more than 221
wells.
The celebrated springs of Balakhani are situated 20 kilo-
metres distant from Baku, on a bare and arid plateau
swept by the winds, at an elevation of about 60 metres
above the level of the Caspian Sea. The appearance of
this place is very dull and wretched.
The petroleum lands occupy an area of about 8 kiloms. ;
Balakhani and Gourakhani are connected by a railway with
the town of Baku.
In the opinion of well-informed persons the whole of this
region is of volcanic origin.
At the present time Balakhani and Sabountchi possess
more than 1,000 wells, some of them newly bored, producing
in 24 hours as much as 400,000 pouds.
From 1873, when the production was only about
4,000,000 pouds, to 1882, when it was 50,000.000 pouds,
the progress of this industry was constant. But on selling
the petroleum lands as mentioned above, the Government
July 3o, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
645
levied taxes on the products of distillation. It was to
receive 25 copecks per poud of the distilled products, and
for this purpose special regulations were drawn up, according
to which these taxes were collected for the time taken to
distil the petroleum in stills of a certain volume. This
system did not fail to bring about the result that might
have been expected. All the small merchants endeavoured
to accelerate distillation in order to produce a greater
proportion of products within a given time, no matter what
the quality might be. The petroleum decomposed and
produced lires and explosions, and every effort was made
to over-ride the law by paying a tax of only two or three
copecks instead of 25 copecks per poud. By reason of this
deplorable state of affairs, more than half of the 200 Baku
works closed their establishments, whilst the remaining
ones were put to considerable loss by reason of the
engagements entered into.
The price of kerosene fell to an enormous extent and
the naphtha trade entered into a terrible crisis, and it was
at this time that the Government came to the aid of the
industry by abolishing the taxes.
As a result of this action the producers bestowed their
attention on the quality of the merchandise; improvements
and machines of every kind were introduced, and among
these works that of M. Nobel occupied the front rank. The
house of Nobel Brothers was the first to introduce into the
naphtha industry all the technical and scientific methods
applicable to this branch. It started at Baku in 1874 ; the
following year it purchased a small business and undertook
the production of petroleum on a small scale. At this
rime the conveyance of petroleum to Baku was effected by
means of carts and leather bottles. M. Nobel endeavoured
to show the absurdity of this primitive method of transport,
and i eeommended that pipes should be constructed, but the
majority of the merchants rejected the proposal. This
gentlemen then constructed the first pipe at his own cost
and demonstrated the utility of it to his colleagues, several
of whom very soon imitated his example, and Baku has
to-day a dozen lines of pipes, each of which cost more than
100,000 roubles. The Nobel house did not shrink before
any difficulty ; it brought specialists from America and
utilised their knowledge, and in a short time it was at the
head of the petroleum industry. Another innovation carried
out was as follows : — The petroleum was shipped in barrels,
a system which had many drawbacks ; the proposition
made by Nobel to the Kavkaz and Mercury Navigation
Company of the Caspian and the Volga, to build tank -boats
intended for the exclusive conveyance of the petroleum
having been also rejected, the firm of Nobel constructed
several of these vessels at their own expense. This
innovation, of which even the Americans had not yet thought,
was accepted by the two petroleum-producing countries,
and the tank-boats, the number of which is constantly
increasing, are to be found on all the waters of the civilised
world.
Up to 1887 the Nobel house, owing to the millions at its
disposal and the impulse given by it to the naphtha trade,
had almost eclipsed all the other houses in competition with
it; but when in 1887 the Rothschild house of Paris took a
part in the Russian petroleum industry, Nobel took a
secondary place. Since that time, owing to the competition
brought about by the participation of Rothschild in this
trade, the extraction of naphtha and its derivatives has
increased in enormous proportions, as the following figures
go to show : —
Years.
Raw Naphtha.
Petroleum.
Pouds.
Pouds.
1887
165,000,000
±1,000,000
1888
192,000,000
50,240,000
1889
205,000,000
61,485,242
1890
239,000,000
68,379,049
The petroleum exported from Uaku from 1888 to 1890
inclusively is distributed as follows : —
\ears.
Batouui. ,
Persia.
Russia.
Total.
1888
Pouds.
28,415,123
Pouds,
265,321
Pouds.
21,559,005
Pouds.
50.240,000
1889
37,060,594
385,447
24,039,201
61,185,242
1890
41,198,743 !
312,465
23,867,S-W
68,379,049
The following gives the quantity of other derivatives of
naphtha for the same years : —
Lubricating
Oil.
Benzine, Gasoline,
and other
Derivatives.
Residues.
1888
Pouds.
2,576,000
Pouds.
Pouds.
61,846,000
1889
3,350,000
303,000
88,886,000
1890
4,518,000
522,000
96,906,000
The quantity of petroleum exported to foreign countries
by way of Batoum, for the same period of three years, is
distributed as follows : —
1888, 22,540,352 pouds ; 1889, 29,383,595 pouds; 1890,
36,211,83S pouds.
The following is a statement of the foreign countries to
which petroleum was exported in 1890, as well as of the
quantity for each : —
Austria, 6,489,000 pouds ; England, 7,870,000 ; Belgium,
2,095,000; Germany, 422,000 ; Netherlands, 562,000 ; Italy,
1,740,000; Portugal, 16,000; France and Algeria, 194,000;
Danubian States, 592,000; Greece, 2,242,000; Turkey,
2,583,000; Malta, 82,000; Philippine Islands, 431,000;
India, 3,080,000 ; China, 2,474,000 ; Japan, 2,482,000 ; and
Indo-Chiua, 3,131,000 pouds.
The quantity of raw naphtha and its derivatives exported
from Baku from 1888 to 1890 is distributed as follows : —
1888, 6,007,607 pouds to foreign countries and 367,417
pouds to Russia ; 1889, 7,073,011 pouds and 461,879 pouds ;
1890, 6,212,667 pouds and 426,853 pouds.
The following statistical data are for the year 1891, during
which the naphtha industry has realised further enormous
progress : —
In that year there were exported 9,839,352 pouds of raw-
naphtha, 72,S85,331 pouds of lamp oil, 6,187,966 pouds of
lubricating oil ; total, 187,141,870 pouds.
Of this quantity there were conveyed by sea 9,239,291
pouds of naphtha, 25,784,700 pouds of lamp oil, 917,120
pouds of lubricating oil, and 89,787,466 pouds of naphtha
residues; by railway, 600,061 pouds of naphtha, 47,100,631
pouds of lamp oil, 5,270,846 pouds of lubricating oil, and
8,441,155 pouds of residues.
The petroleum was distributed as follows : — 25,236,502
pouds for the interior of Russia, 219,641 pouds for the
different regions of Transcaucasia, 328,557 pouds for
Persia, 46,204,273 pouds for Batoum, and 896,358 pouds
for different localities situated along the track of the
railway.
The total of the naphtha extracted during the year 1891
was 289,575,400 pouds.
China.
Formosa Camphor.
In 1891 there was a slight improvement in the export of
camphor from Tainau, in Southern Formosa. It reached
2,524 cwt., as against 904 cwt. in 1890. The Government
monopoly is said to be abolished, but the heavy tax imposed
in order to defray the expenses of frontier defence prevents
foreigners here competing successfully with the Government
farm. The expenses of transport, too, are heavier than in
6-io
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
LJul.v 30,18112
the north of the island, and it does not seem probahle that
there will be any great development of the camphor trade
here unless the tax is abolished or reduced. There has been
very little trouble from savages in the centre of the island ;
indeed there has only been one instance of the savages
attacking camphor distillers during the last live years. In
the north, apparently, the distillers have not been so
fortunate.
Opium.
Mr. Pelham Warren gives an intelligent criticism of the
condition of the opium business at Tainau in his report
dated March 29th, 1892. The import of Indian opium is on
the decrease, and Persian is increasing. One reason for the
decrease of the Indian is because it is much dearer than
Persian ; another is the uncertainty iu regard to the weight
of the drug contained in each chest. There ought to be
1 20 catties, but the weight varies from 1 1 6 to 1 1 0 . Although
Persian opium is not so good as Indian, it is being steadily
improved to suit Chinese taste. After it has been once
smoked, the ashes, if the opium is of the best quality, can
be used mixed with fresh opium some six or seven times,
whereas Benares cannot be thus used more than once. The
smoke of Persian opium is milder, and in consequence more
suitable to a tropical climate, and this opium can be smoked
alone. Unless some change is made in the Indian opium to
suit popular taste there is no chance of its recovering its
position in the Formosa markets that it once held. Native
opium is imported from T'ung-an, about 20 miles from
Aruoy, and also from Wenchow and T'aichow, and is, as a
rule, smuggled in junks. It is made into square cakes, and,
being very soft, is usually squeezed into large bamboo
pipes, and thus evades search.
Persia.
The city of Meshed, in Eastern Persia, is the centre of a
district in which British and Russian traders are now
struggling for supremacy. Much of the trade of the province
of Khorassan (of which Meshed is the capital) is still done
through Bombay and the Persian Gulf ports, about 280,000/.
worth of goods coming that way in 1890 — 91, against
210,000/. worth imported from Russian territory by way of
the Transcaspian railway, Astrabad, and Merv, or Bokhara.
The trade with Afghanistan is dwindling to nothing, as the
Ameer is doing everything he can to stop the importation of
Indian goods through his dominions.
The number of British traders in Meshed during the year
1890 — 91 was 11. The number is slowly on the increase.
They are all men of substance, doing a large trade with
Bukhara and Samarkand and other places in Russian
Central Asia.
Drugs,
The chief articles of export were 47,316/. worth of opium,
which goes mostly to China, though the Russians are also
beginning to take a gnat deal, and 5,612/. worth of
asafoetida, all of which goes to India.
Gum Tragttcauth.
Gum tragacanth was scarce throughout Persia in 1891,
bence only a small quantity was brought to market at
Burudjird during the summer, and prices were high.
Arrivals also took place from the Bakhtiari mountains, but
tin- gum from those parts is all of second and third quality,
nearly all of which is bought by Persian merchants and
forwarded to Kermanshah.
The Opium Industry.
The opium industry, although introduced into Persia at
a relatively recent date, has largely developed within recent
rears. In 1870 there were exported 800 boxes of 150 lb.
each, and now the production is distributed in the following
manner :— Ispahan, 2,300 boxes; Yard, 4,000; Kerman,
500 : Khorassan, 3,000; Chiraz, 1,200 ; Kermanshah, 300 ;
Bururjird, 500 : other districts, 1,200; total, 13,000 boxes,
of which 3,000 are consumed in the country. The product
is prepared differently according as it is destined for
Europe or China. That whiqh is sent to Europe is as pure
as possible ; each box contains 90 kilos, of opium. For
China, on the contrary, raw opinion is sent which has to
bear an addition of from 10 to 12 per cent, of oil ; consign-
ments are made in boxes weighing 62 kilos., and in blocks
of 1 kilog. each. The Hotz and Ziegler houses, as well as
the Commercial Company of the Persian Gulf, at Ispahan,
analyse their opium and guarantee 10 per cent, of morphine ;
certain consignments yield 12 per cent, and even more.
Persian opium is, therefore, by no means inferior to the
Turkish product of the same quality. — Chemist and
Druggist.
The German Chemical Industry.
Our Consul at Frankfort-on-the-Main, iu a report on the
industrial condition of Germany, gives the following table
of figures relating to the exportation of drugs and chemicals
from Germany : —
Quantity.
Articles.
1891.
1890.
1889.
Met. Cntnrs.
Bssential oils ! 2,546
Soda calcined 853,303
Potassium 110,93 1
Alkaloids , 584
Quinine 1,869
Chloride of potassium. 769,962
Iodide of potassium. .. 977
Sulphate of potash 301,888
Mineral waters 335,632
Salicylic acid I 2,170
Saltpetre 96,629
Hydrochloric acid.... 103,123
Tartaric acid 7,769
Met. Cntnrs,
3,652
270,510
106.2S1
501
1,565
670.CS0
1,062
193.133
363,629
2,440
101,349
80.562
10,211
Met. Cntnrs.
2,200
195,274
115,759
372
1,716
7.". 1,587
1,076
21S 178
304,773
2,375
81,017
62,018
15,982
These figures, the Consul says, show that the increases
in the exports of this year are generally in the important,
and the decreases in the less important articles. The
opinion, therefore, formed of the trade in general of the
chemical industry for this j'ear will not be an unfavourable
one. Germany's chemical industry takes a high place, and
its products are forwarded to almost all countries of the
world. The reason for this extension is to be found in the
high theoretical talents of the German people and the
excellent schools, which, year by year, furnish a body of
educated chemists to advance the trade of the country.
The Potash Salts.
One branch of the chemical industry is worthy of special
attention — namely, the potassic salts. This industry has
formed a syndicate which publishes accounts every year,
and thus facilitates inspection of the course of business.
Of chloride of potassium (80 per cent.) the sales were,
in —
Mel. Centners.
1891 1,341,639
1890 1,265,526
1889 I'-':: iv
July 30, 1862.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
647
These quantities were distributed as follows :
ism.
1890.
1889.
Met. Cntnrs.
187,988
Met. I 'uiin-s.
106,120
Met. Cntnrs,
146,882
31!','
556,700
296,000
123,100
138,in"i
110,000
Scotland
si 500
91, i
18,000
151,000
15i, i
107,000
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Canadian Mineral Statistics fob 1891.
The following is extracted from the Canadian Go^iir
for the 23rd June : —
The Dominion Geological Survey Department has issued
a summary of Canada's mineral production during 1891.
The list of metals is headed by nickel, of which 4,626,627
Hi. were marketed, fetching about 555,195/. Then follow
9,529,076 lb. of copper, worth 247,756/.; 01,040 oz. of
gold, worth 185,097/. ; 415,493 oz. of silver, worth 81,436/. ;
68,979 tons of iron ore, worth 30,401/. ; and 588,665 lb. of
lead, worth 5,121/., besides platinum valued at 2,000/. and
122. worth of antimony ore. The whole of the metallic
products were valued at about 1,107,000/. Taking the
non-metallic substances in order of value, it appears that
3,400,479 tons of coal were marketed, bringing 1,558,431/.
Bricks made a poor second — 173,808,000, worth 209,462/.
Then come 755,298 barrels of petroleum, 200,909/. ; 9,000
tons of asbestos", 200,000/. ; 187,685 cubic yards of building
stone, 141,74"/.; pottery valued at 51,768/.; 1,829,894
bushels of lime, 50,243/.; 45,460/. worth of drain pipes ;
65,362 tons of pyrites, 39,217/. ; 203,545 tons of gypsum,
38,419/.; 57,084 tons of coke, 35,118/.; 23,588 tons of
phosphate, 32,338/. ; 45,021 tons of salt, 32,235/. ; 11,779,000
tiles, 28,1 59/. ; 22,624/. worth of terra-eotta ; 93,779 barrels
The total amount of sales in muriate of potassium (90 per
cent.) were : —
Met. Centners.
ls:n i7'.',--"i
1890 129,471
1889 02.213
America is also the largest consumer of this salt, then
follow Germany, the United Kingdom, and France.
Kit
The total sales of kieserite in 1S71 were 285,591 centners ;
in 1890, 320,048 centners; and in 1889, 318,239 centners.
Of these quantities the United Kingdom took, respectively,
251,154, 281, 93S, and 253,172 centners. Several products,
of which kieserite is one, are almost exclusively manufactured
in Germany for foreign countries.
With regard to the general condition of the industry, the
Consul remarks : " The Frankfort quinine factory records a
further increase in its production. The consumption of
quinine is increasing in almost all parts of the world. In
glycerin, cocaine, strychnine, and other pharmaceutical
preparations (of which the factory in question is one of the
chief producers in Europe), the demand throughout the
year was very active, although mostly at reduced prices.
The coal-tar colour industry, too, had another good year.
In 1891 awhole series of new medicines produced from coal-
tar were introduced before due examination of their merits
or demerits. It is supposed that the public will sooner or
Inter object to being experimented upon chiefly for the
benefit of manufacturers." — Ibid.
of cement, 21,817/.; and smaller quantities of arsenic,
felspar, fireclay, flagstones, granite, graphite, grindstones,
magnesia, mica (14,302/.), mineral paints, mineral waters
(10,813/.), moulding sand and soapstone, and 11,900/.
worth of sand and gravel exported, making a total of
2,766,553/. in the non-metallic list. Adding 116,427/. for
products not yet returned, these being chiefly building
materials, the whole mineral production of Canada last year
is valued at four millions sterling.
Beet-Sioah Industry in Spain.
The Bulletin du Musee Commercial says that for some
years past great efforts have been made in Spain to develop
the manufacture of beet sugar. The Belgian Consul at
Madrid writes that the authorities of Aragon (comite
d'initiative) have just granted to all agriculturists engaged in
cultivating the sugar-beet in 1893 an advance of 100 francs,
as well as the manures required for cultivation. The
Bulletin adds that this measure must have the effect of
encouraging the establishment of new factories, and con-
sequently orders for building and other material may shortly
be looked for.
Quicksilver in Russia.
The nature of the sunken pits and mounds found in
Ekaterinoslav and Bachmut, so long a mystery, has been
made known through the enterprise of Messrs. Auerbach
and Co. According to Gliickauf there was no mention in
Russian history of the people who worked them or of the
metal extracted, but it is supposed that they were worked
by the people of South Russia 1,000 years ago. Upon
investigation a bed of sandstone, impregnated with cinnabar,
was found interstratified with beds of carboniferous forma-
tion. In 1887, 12,000 tons of ore were raised, giving
employment to 125 men. This ore was treated by two
cupolas and two reverberatory furnaces, 85 men being
employed. Two thousand two hundred tons treated in the
reverberatory furnaces yielded 20' tons of quicksilver;
9,000 tons treated in the cupolas yielded 42-3 tons, being a
little over one-half per cent, of metal. — Engineering and
Mining Journal.
Nickel Coinage.
The increased cheapness of nickel owing to the large
output of the Canadian mines is leading to a more extended
use of this valuable metal. Only lately it was mentioned
that the French Government proposed to use 400 tons in
nickel coinage. Austria, it seems, is about to follow her
example.
At a recent meeting of the Austro-Hungarian Parliament,
says Oberbergrath Ernst, in the Oest. Zeits. fur Berg und
Huttenwesen, it was proposed to issue 10 and 20 farthing
pieces of pure nickel, and 1 ami 2 farthing pieces of bronze.
A fter mentioning several alloys that have been tried and found
wanting, among others the " paekfong," containing 6 per
cent, silver, coined in Switzerland in 1860, he instances an
alloy of 25 per cent, nickel and 75 per cent, copper as ene
which experiments have proved with one exception to be
suitable for small coin. This alloy is cheap, durable, and
hard to counterfeit. Its hardness, compared with that of
copper, is 3 to 2. It can only be coined with powerful and
well-constructed machinery, and the impression is sharp ami
clear. The one fault to be found with it is that while bright
when new, it soon becomes dull, and gives the offensive
odour characteristic of copper. With the exception of
Germany, all the large countries have ceased to coin this
alloy.
Nickel is especially suitable for small coins on account of
its cheapness, durability, sharpness of the impression, and,
most important of all, its lasting brightness, but until a
process for manufacturing pure nickel was devised at the
Berndorfer Metallfabrik, the metal could not be coined on
account of its brittleness. In 1880 — 81 Switzerland com-
menced the coinage of 20 rappen pieces of pure nickel, the
dies being furnished by Krupp, of Bemdorf. Krupp also
furnished the plates for Mexico and Servia for their copper-
nickel coins.
643
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jul.v 30,1892.
He further adds that, while the former coinage of copper 42,000,000 crowns in 10 and 20 heller pieces will recpuire
nickel in Switzerland, Mexico, Servia, &c. took but 200,000 not less than 1,050,000 kilos, of pure nickel, and that of
kilogrammes of nickel, the proposed coinage iu Austria of | Hungary about 450,000 kilos. — Ibid.
Imports jLND Exports of Colours through the German Customs, 18S8 — 1891,
Lehne's Fiirber Zeitung, 1891 — 2, p. 209.
Import (I.).
Imports niul Exports in
1
Imports from
and Exports to
Great Britain.
— —
Export (E.).
1S88.
1SS0.
1890.
1891.
1891.
c J-
I E.
Kilos.
15,780
5,616
Kilos.
19,850
7,140
Kilos.
20076
7,330
Kilos.
12,658
5,556
Kilos.
3,560
63
f h
I E.
331*
514*
682
891
Gil
909
463
70S
18
31
1 K.
521,045
80,196
508,104
95,168
528,806
107,008
471,914
97,449
3,694
2,019
f L
I E.
70,313
11,015
66,909
10,624
65,293
20,717
12.931
11,574
1,015
110
I E.
66,525
11,345
83,086
14,890
60.162
13.S05
30,323
12,056
2,126
912
f L
I E.
50,923
14.S17
45,491
16, SMI
16,856
15,819
17, Hs
15,601
1,971
1,310
f L
1 E.
5,077
3,282
3.821
2,633
2,495
2,359
2,466
1 070
113
f 1
1,110
350
E01
557
772
501
039
327
369
f L
I E.
53
50
20
112
13
25
•IS
8
f L
I E.
0.332
1,1 S3
10,249
1,896
1 1,263
3,401
8,434
1,709
262
••
1 E.
68,739
11,196
72,867
1 1,963
73,500
22,072
64,268
18,705
12,2ill
956
I E.
7,335
3,214
3,974
2,568
8,809
2,540
4,4-41
2,005
371
267
1 E.
280
67,322
2C7
77.026
1S1
79,055
7S5
81,685
173
27,001
I E.
6,427
60.060
6,979
60,710
6,211
72.707
6,881
86,818
95 4
18,194
f L
I E.
178*
2,501*
121
1,203
186
4,626
220
1.71s
77
661
f L
I E.
171
l,87E
2S6
2,238
227
2,209
258
2,010
154
720
Red-lead
; 1
3,835
65,91 1
3,921
60,404
4,492
58,299
4,291
56,874
3,044
14,604
{ i
131
5,666
417
1.176
1.1121
5, 1 1 1
1,661
6,
2,
1,567
{ ::
.-,70
53,273
611
52,882
601
:.2 583
574
41,010
11
10.305
I l
l E.
62,206
91,325
60,!
86,688
73.0G7
83,959
59,189
85,445
8,96 1
3,931
The numbers are from the second half-year of 1888 only.
-W. K. K.
July so, 1893.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
649
Met.u.iaki.k u. ami Chemical Production of Italy in 1890,
I'riiiliii'ts.
No. nf
Eatablish.
ments.
No. of
Workmen.
1830.
1889.
Tons.
Value.
Tons.
Value.
Cast iron
Iron
Steel
G i
Silver
Lead
Copper and alloys.
Ki rcury
Antimony
Sea salt
Urine salt
Refined sulphur ..
Ground Bulphur ..
Asphalt
Petroleum
Boracio acid
Boras
Coal
Charcoal
Alum
Sulphate
Alumina
12
828
3
1
10
8
1
78
14
25
4
i
10
15
2:t
13.799
157
550
1,291
50
30
2,061
his
225
900
115
41
197
516
Q9Q
Total 1890.
Total 1889.
Difference 1890.
11,316
176 371
107,676
Kg. 206
Kg. 84,428
17,768
6,406
Kg. 419,226
1S2
442,010
9,879
49,337
66,328
10,802
350
1,874
950
559,300
16,750
1,294
2,553
Dols.
425,781
9,709,728
5,821,481
108,836
1,164,432
1.137,152
2,404,366
583,994
54,716
897,851
.-.7,799
987,108
1,226.063
30,594
12.01m
int. hio
114,000
3,363,040
301 ,10(1
26,272
58,430
13,473
181,623
157,899
Kg. 215r»5V„
Kg. 33,685
18,135
6,901
Kg. 3S5.500
195
420,625
10,014
53,310
54,105
None
None
2,173
506,700
13,750
1,380
2,667
Do Is.
424,619
10,06S,080
7,035,167
113,969
1,205,150
1,235,220
2,449,200
454,890
56,013
529,790
54.02S
991,717
1,077,814
247,200
3,068,686
234,500
30,110
61,248
521
518
21,018
24,622
28,762,752
29.139,517
• 3,604
376,765
The New Tanning School in Fbeiberg in Saxony.
/•'. //. Ilttenlt in. Jahresb. der Deutsch. Gerberschule :u
Freiberg in Sdchsen, 1891—92, 3, 18—24.
Thi- is a description of the new tanning school which lias
been established at Freiberg in Saxony. The curriculum
aims at teaching the students tanning in all its branches,
thus giving him a more catholic knowledge than he could
obtain in an ordinary tannery. Measurement is the
dominant principle, and the student is made to note the
weight, size, and strength of all raw materials, by-products,
and finished goods ; the water-supply is continually tested.
—A. G. B.
Russian Soda.
By a revision of the railway transport rates for the
conveyance of soda, resulting in their reduction on all
the Russian lines, the Government hopes, according to the
Journal of the Minister of Finance, to promote the Russian
soda industry, particularly as regards the manufacture of
caustic soda, and, in time, to exclude the foreign product
from the Russian markets. This action has been taken in
consequence of representations made to the Railway
Department by representatives of this industry, urging the
necessity of a reduction in the railway rates for soda, which
were such as made it impossible to compete with the
foreign material.
— Engineering and Mining Journal.
The imports of foreign soda into Russia, distinguishing
the chief ports of entry, were as follows in 1889 and
1890:—
Caustic Soda.
Crystallised and other
Soda.
1889.
1890.
1889. 1890.
St. Petersburg ..
Tons.
7,028
2, 395
209
1.752
5,853
Tons.
6,685
2,861
112
Tons.
3,973
450
2,105
Tons.
3,182
273
2,105
1,015
5,068
Alexaudrovo ....
Other ports
5,545 4,320
Total imports
17.232
16,762 11,700
11,668
The railway transport statistics show that in 1889, out of
45,112 tons of soda conveyed on all Russian lines, only
4,741 tons were imported, and out of the 28,430 tons of
caustic and crystal soda imported in 1890, only about 17 per
cent, were imported by rail, the remainder having been
G 2
650
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [July 30,1392.
used either at the ports and stations of entry or in their
neighbourhood. These facts, in the opinion of the Russian
Government, show that the competition with foreign soda
mast as fai as possible be minimised, both in the interests
of the native soda industry and of the railways, which,
under a reduced transport tariff, would convey the soda
much greater distances, viz., from the seats of production
at I.isichansk on the Donetz line, in the province of
Vetaterinoslav, and Beregniaki, a town on the upper Kama,
in the Government of Perm. The sole representatives of
this industry in Russia are the firm of Messrs. Linhunoff,
Solvay, and Co., whose works are situated at the places
named, and who, when the question of reducing the
railway transport rates was being discussed, stated that
they could manufacture sufficient soda to supply the demands
of the whole Empire. The new tariff rates for soda which
came into force on the 1st ultimo, place Russian soda at a
considerable advantage as compared with the imported
article, which has to pay Customs duty at the rate of 90
copecks (gold) per poud (about Si. lOd. a cwt.) of caustic
soda, and 55 copecks (gold) per poud (about 5s. 5d. a cwt.)
of crystal soda. The new transport rates, moreover, are
higher for the former than the latter.— Industries.
Russian Industries.
The illustration given herewith, reproduced from a recent
Foreign Office report, represents the Trans-Caucasia district
of Russia. The map shows the towns where an export
trade is carried on, and indicates the staple industries or
productions of the various districts.
T U R x e r
N ASIA
Map of Trans-Caucasia showing the Productions of the Various Districts,
rn
According to the new regulation for the supply of
Portland cement in Russia, this material is to he made
either from calcareous marl or a mixture containing clay
and chalk, by burning until friable, and then grinding to
a fine powder. The hydraulic modulus, or ratio of the
sum of the parts by weight of Call and I K..( I + Xa20)
to that of the parts by weight of SiOc, Al ,< >~ and F.^u,,
ought not to fall below 1-7 nor to exceed 2 '2 for Portland
cement.
i ai) + Na,0 + Kg() _1.9tn9.9
SiOj + A1203+ F. ii '
The percentage of sulphuric acid and magnesia should
not be greater than 1*75 to 3 in Portland cements ready
for use, and the specific gravity must not be less than
3-05. The cement should not set in less than one hour,
or take longer than eight hours. A sieve with 4,900
meshes per sq. cm. should not pass less than 50 percent.,
and one with 900 meshes per sq. cm. should pass all but
15 per cent, of residue. The cement after seven days'
setting should be able to show a limit of elasticity of
20 kilos, per sq. cm., and after 28 days 25 kilos, per
sc|. cm. A test piece prepared with 3 parts sand and one
cement, should he able to stand after seven days, 5 kilos.,
and after 28 days 8 kilos, per sq. cm.
During June last 183,379 tons of coal and coke, &c.
were imported into Russia from Great Britain, as against
253,434 tons in June 1891. The Warsaw Coal Mining
Company has declared a dividend of 6 per cent, for the
past year.
Iu June last Russia exported to Great Britain 128,150
cwt. of jute and 21,634 cwt. of hemp, as compared with
155,33f> and 21,187 cwt. respectively in dune 1891. The
Carl Scheibler Cotton Manufacturing Company of Lodz has
declared a dividend of 7 per cent, for the past financial
year.
The imports from Great Britain of alkali in June last
amounted to 23,448 cwt., as compared with 67,573 cwt.
in June 1891. The balance sheet of the Russian branch
establishment of the Baden Aniline and Soda Manufacturing
Company at Butirki, near Moscow, shows a profit for the
past year of 129,951) roubles, after allowing 5 per cent,
interest on the capital employed and providing appropri-
ations for the depreciation and suspense accounts.
The important fishing industry of the River Volga is
suffering from the effect of petroleum shipments, and will
probably be entirely destroyed. The petroleum is intro-
duced into the river from the innumerable boats, lighters,
and lank-vessels engaged in the petroleum industry on the
July 80,1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
651
Caspian Sea and the Volga. The quantity of petroleum
curried from Baku to Astrachan and to further points on
the river is very large, and several millorj poods of petroleum
find their way every year into the river during transhipment,
&c. The fish suffer greatly from this, the more so as the
vegetation along the river is also destroyed by the effects
of the petroleum. It has, therefore, been advocated that
"wooden vessels and lighters should not he allowed to carry
petroleum, and that all the waste or unclean petroleum
should he removed from the vessels without being allowed
to pass into the river, — Industries.
Articles of Interest to Technologists and
Manufacturers.
The following articles in the Board of Trade Journal
for July will repay perusal : —
" Obstacles to British Foreign Trade "...
" The Spanish Sherry Trade' "
•■ Tanning Industry in the United States"
" Customs Duties on the Importation of Hops
'; The Working of Salt Marshes in France'
" Coffee Adulterants in Canada "
p-
6
p-
14
p.
19
p-
47
p-
81
p-
93
Nitrate of Soda.
Shipments, Consumption, Stocks, and Prices, front 1885 to 1892.
1
1885.
18S7.
1SS9.
1891.
1S92.
Shipments from South
*i\ months ending 80t
Do. for t lie 12 months e
Afloat lor Europe on 301
Stocks in United Kiugd
American ports to all parts for tin'
Tons
177,000
166,
104,000
1
i
j- 22,000
60,000
73,000
220,000
100,000
33S.O00
45,000
483,000
186,00 i
10s. 6d.
233,000
507.000
125,000
10,000
10,000
•68,000
243,000
•92,000
355,000
55,000
502,000
145,000
Vs.
357,1100
.,j:;.ono
17s.
18,000
92,000
73,
859,000
100,000
546,000
60,
706,000
288,000
8s. e„l.
254,000
946,000
131,000
20,000
120,01)0
90,000
550,000
118,000
721,000
90,000
029,000
270,000
8s. 4&d.
402,000
iding 30th
180,000
oni ports :—
—
1SS5. ' lss7.
1889.
1691.
1S92.
12,000
8,300
0,700
3.2S0
2,800
3,950
7.IIOO
2,500
8,500
11,000
6,300
8,700
8,000
1,700
7,300
17,000
Stocks in Continental ports on 30 1
Consumption in United Kingdom
Tons
)er Cwt.
107,000
for the six months ending
84,000
Do. in Continent do
Do. in United King
Do. in Continent do
Do. in United State
Ho. i,i the World d
Visible supply on SOth
Europe and Stocks in
London Spot juice on 3(
493,000
lorn for the 12 month
111.000
646,000
s do. do
100,000
800,0011
Tune (including the quantity afloat for
304,000
Bs. 3.'.
Inclusive of 10,000 tons exported to the Continent.
W. Mo.ntoomeiiy & Co.
BOARV OF TRADE RETURNS.
Summary of Imports.
Metals
Chemicals and dyestulls
Oils
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports ....
Month ending SOth June
1891.
£
2,195,346
596,909
059,166
3,903,939
36,850,124
1892.
£
2,086,635
482,081)
541,983
3,6S5,785
32,S 11,854
Summary of ExrORTs.
Month ending 30th June
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
4,225,594
761,104
2,886,133
£
2,698,953
017,32,8
2,287,367
21,434,399
18,070,318
652
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 30
Imports of
Metals for Month ending 3oth Jink.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper : —
12,613
4,790
£
90,748
£
40,457
14,015
17,393
363,482
412,608
TJnwrought .,
• »
4,137
2,832
233.07S
132,377
Iron : —
. „
292,338
8,575
246,21 1
7,549
237.2S2
89,956
182,102
Bolt, bar, &c. .
73,714
Steel, unwrought
. „
638
783
6,155
7,032
Lead, pig and sheet „
15,896
16,312
205,232
178,335
Pyrites
. ,,
50,133
54,770
86,825
96,376
1,002,100
2,077,050
98,324
180,933
Value £
metals
30.5S2
4,74',l
33,121
5,554
139,615
104,781
540,267
162,310
124,628
Other articles ...
139,864
Total value of
..
2,195,346
2,036,635
Imports of Chemicaxs and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 30th June.
Imports of Raw
Industries for
Materials for Non-Textile
Month ending 30th June.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian .
Cwt.
7,113
7,024
£
15,091
£
15,371
Lb.
286,459
204,409
42,326
28,254
Cwt.
26,898
17,275
329,245
101,846
Gum :—
4,SSS
4,318
12,944
12,598
••
10,514
4,382
7,275
3,121
36,843
47,036
27,339
Gutta-percha ...
44,439
Hides, raw:—
„
41,445
28,422
111,728
84,291
Wet
M
48,375
42,313
114,525
87,161
815
741
39,549
34,317
Manure :—
Tons
Cwt.
Tons
2,162
4,772
56,269
3,019
3,722
3,820
20,552
2.572
10,713
22,522
80,812
30,505
32,930
n;,vs:;
32,060
24,854
„
20,803
16,286
100,521
70,301
l'ulp of wood ....
„
16,756
15,749
81,836
79,873
Cwt.
269,487
143,259
69,118
33,693
Tallow and stearin „
143,6155
150,365
ls.-,.iN2
189,214
Barrels
3,018
5,496
2,394
2,949
Wood :—
230,281
500,518
228,457
635,582
13,954
442,356
1,166,35a
61,285
429,672
1,327,778
43,487
Staves
„
18,435
Tons
4,302
2,072
40,258
17,067
Other articles....
Value £
••
••
930,785
S79,40S
Total value
••
••
3,963,939
3.685,785
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
7,549
7,356
£
4,810
£
4,973
Bark (tanners, Ac.) „
53,948
84,048
27,190
13,920
58,830
16,788
17,7Hi
12,559
..
..
121,153
123,926
545
431
3,35!
2,s;2
Cutch and gambler Tons
1,902
1,717
47,093
86,696
Dyes:—
. ,
20,878
20.322
..
..
31,239
16,464
..
2,687
201
1,107
960
28,902
16,191
Nitrate of soda.... „
168,224
'.'1 363
74,515
35,587
Nitrate of potish . „
16,318
20,886
15,047
18,651
1,021
2, 168
21,808
:-
Other articles. . . Value £
Total valuo of chemicals
••
■•
185,490
••
••
596,909
482,080
Imports of Oils for Month ending 30th June.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
55,216
1,958
92,238
8,779,812
1,401
3,434
27,117
17.711
2,315
81,748
983,857
986
3,008
85,823
£
81,654
78,837
109,150
174,976
36,769
73,436
38,185
66,150
£
10,947
84,181
92,288
161,682
25,928
54,107
39.734
68,776
OMier articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
■•
659,166
541.9S3
Extorts of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
30th June.
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 57,100/. were imported
as gainst 77,7611. in June 1891.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Other articles ... „
518,884
134,915
28,738
390,425
88,418
2S.2S7
£
196,831
46,618
177.313
88,996
251,316
£
150,956
39,367
165,484
71.CH
216,880
761,104
647,328
July 3o, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
653
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) fob
Month ending 30th Jink.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
9,795
C0.915
27,798
25,311
8%895
5,252
7,531
15,057
10,471
81,233
24,697
13,971
215,34s
4,857
10,351
14,073
£
14,290
169,993
On.520
71,234
20S.55S
1 11,783
8,063,000
73.734
31,079
220,983
36,110
15,032
80,970
£
41,347
200.15S
75,564
35,255
183,988
104,192
1,813,407
58,296
21,288
24,177
51,651
Copper :—
(inwrought „
Wrought „
Mixed metal ,
Plated wares... Value £
Telegraph wires, Ac. „
Other articles . . Value £
70.203
••
••
4,225,501
2,698,953
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 30th June.
Articles.
Gunpowder Lb.
Military stores . . Value £
Candles Lb.
Caoutchouc Value £
Cement Tons
Products of coal Value £
Earthenware ... „
Stoneware
Glass:—
Plate Sq.Ft.
Flint Cwt.
Bottles ,
Other kinds
Leather : —
Unwrought .... ,,
Wrought Value £
Seed oil Tons
Floorcloth Sq.Tds.
Painters' materials Val. £
Paper Cwt.
Rags Tons
Soap Cwt.
Total value
Quantities.
1891.
1,401,500
1,399,100
62,785
233,401
8,801
63,772
20,558
13,438
5,533
1,637,400
90,141
5,234
50,690
1892.
732,300
1,370,900
39,043
172,525
9,815
62,113
15,173
10,721
4,937
1,339,100
76,071
4,361
39,572
Values.
1391.
£
31,004
87,510
28,615
102,357
124.510
152,699
101,212
15,342
1S.156
20,604
30,547
17,499
119,314
28,262
125,975
70,909
143,646
i 5 4,607
35,963
61,887
2,886,133
£
19,378
72,987
25,817
91,355
71,880
89,175
131,601
13,343
10,020
20,90S
30,099
13,120
101,723
21,931
97,200
59,262
143,437
129,392
30,147
45,424
2,287,367
iMont&lp Patent £tst*
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
11,694. F. W. Scott, E. G. Scott, and F. W. Scott, jun.
Improvements in or connected with evaporating apparatus.
June 22.
11.704. H. E. Newton. — From E. A. Ashcroft and
J. Howell, New South Wales. An improved mode of and
apparatus for generating steam by the aid of molten slag
from smelting and other furnaces. Complete Specification.
June 22.
11.705. E. J. Barbier. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for distilling, separating, and concentrating
acids of mixed liquids, and for treating substances in
solution. June 22.
12,798. F. D. Marshall and E. Blum. Improvements in
means or apparatus for effecting the turning or stirring of
oxide of iron, lime, or other matters. July 12.
13,035. R. Haddau.— From W. Dun- and A. Custodis,
Germany. Improvements in means for measuring the
density of gases and like purposes. July 15.
13,103. F. W. Scott, E. G. Scott, and F. W. Scott, jun.
Improvements in or connected with evaporating or
concentrating apparatus. July 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
11,353. W. O. Taylor. The oxidising retort furnace.
June 29.
11,640. A. G. Southby and F. D. Blyth. Apparatus for
making ice, refrigerating, evaporating, and desiccating.
July 6.
11,691. J. A. Hurley. — From A. T. Lagniez. Apparatus
for the automatic regulation of pressures and temperatures.
July 20.
12,053. L. Damaze. Apparatus for measuring tempe-
ratures and pressures. July 6.
14,640. O. Intze. Gas-holders. July 6.
1892.
9538. H. Hirzel. Still columns. June 29.
11,296. W. J. Mirrlees and D. Ballingall. Apparatus
for evaporating, concentrating, and distilling liquids.
July 20.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
1 1,465. W. D. A. Bost and T. F. Haldane. Improvements
in the manufacture of fire-lighters. June 20.
11,504. L. Chapman. Improvements in and apparatus
for obtaining oxygen and nitrogen from atmospheric air.
June 20.
654
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[July 3m, 189?.
11,800. J. Scott and II. Daiwen. An incombustible
composition for " gas-fire " bodies and other article-.
June 24.
1 1,809. S. Marcus and E. F. Botbe. Improvements in
air and gas carburating apparatus. June 24.
11,910. J. T. Holmes. Improvements in tire-lighters.
June 27.
12,387! A. V. Newton. — From A. Noble, France.
Improvements in the production of oxygen gas. July 4.
12,390. S. Pitt. — From C. Heinzerling, Germany. Process
for the separation and recovery of benzol, alcohol, ether,
and other easily volatile substances from air or other gas.
July 4.
12,421. W. Young and A. Bell. Improvements in the
decomposition of mineral oils for the production of
illuminating gas. July 5.
12,441. H. H. Lake. — From W. H. Harris, United
States. Improvements relating to the manufacture of gas,
July 5.
12.6G4. The Automatic Coal-Gas Retort Co., Lira. An
improved apparatus for charging inclined gas retorts.
July 9.
12,716. A. Noteman. An improved process of and
apparatus for making heating and illuminating gas.
Complete Specification. July 11.
12,702. F. A. Frb. Improvements in the combustion of
carbonaceous fuel. Complete Specification. .Inly 12.
12,781. D. Westlake. Improvements in the method of
anil materials for agglomerating small coal, peat, or other
material for compression into blocks or briquettes.
July 12.
12,924. The Northern Counties Hydro-Oxygen Gas Co.,
Lirn., and P. B. \Y*. Goble. Improvements in apparatus
for manufacturing oil gas. July 14.
13,007. J. W. Armstrong. Improvements in apparatus
for supplying fuel to gas producers. July 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
7337a. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of alkylated naphthylamine sulpho acids. Filed
June 20. Date claimed April 16, 1892.
11,302. J. R. Geigy. Production of yellow to orange
colouring matters. June 20.
11,522. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture of dihydroxynapbthaleue sulpho acids. June 20.
11,533. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture of new
colouring matters. Complete Specification. June 20.
11,865. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture and pro-
duction of naphthalene sulpho acids. June 2 5.
11,876. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture and pro-
duction of new basic colouring mattsrs. June 25.
12,296. Read, Holliday and Sons, Lim., and J. Turner.
Improvements in the production of azo colouring matters.
July 2.
12.579. 15. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the manu-
facture and production of authra-quinone derivatives.
July 7.
12.580. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture and pro-
duction of new alizarin derivatives. July 7.
12,720. J. R. Geigy. Production of blue triphenyl-
methane colouring matters or dyes. July 11.
13,029. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of blue mordant dyeing colouring matters. July 15.
1891.
11,710. J. II. R. Dinsmore. Improvements in the manu-
facture of gas for illuminating and heating purposes, and in
or connected with apparatus therefor. July 13.
15,552. 1!. On- and R. M. Sutherland. See Class III.
1569. J. Tennant, J.
Candles. July 20.
1892.
Tennant, and
\V. R. Tennant.
Complete Specifications Accepted,
1891.
14,72). J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Manufacture and production of
new dyes related to the rhodamine series. June 29.
15.143. J.A.Hewitt. — From L. Cassella and Co. Manu-
facture of blue dyestuffs. July 13.
15,494. The Clayton Aniline Co., Lim., and J. Hall.
Manufacture and production of colouring matters. June 29.
15,725. 8. Pitt. — From L. Cassella and Co. Manufacture
of colouring matters from amidonaphtholsulphonic acids.
July 20.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,287. L. Ungues. Apparatus for distillation of fatty-
acids and other substances. July 13.
15,552. It. Orr and R. M. Sutherland. Retorts for
distilling shale and like minerals, and for dealing with the
resulting products. July 13.
20,753. F. II. Pickles and R. II. Pickles. Purification
of pyrolignites. July 6.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
11,581. W. E. Heys.— From E. F. Dranez, H. P. ,7.
Vassart, and J. IT. S. M. Delattre, France. Improvements
in the method of and apparatus for removing fatty matters
and other impurities from wool and similar textile materials.
June 21.
11,994. T. J. Hutchinson and R. B. Hardman. An
improved process for the recovery of the cloth from
damaged waterproofed fabrics. June 28.
13,008. F. Fleming. Improvements in linoleum or
oilcloth, and in the manufacture of same. July 15.
July so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
655
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,831. F. Lelmer. Manufacture of artificial and mixed
silk threads, aud apparatus therefor. June 29.
12,679. F. V. M. Raabe. Manufacture of yarn from
certaiu vegetable waste fibres. June 29.
12,081. W. E. Gedge. — From F. Mommer and Co.
Process and apparatus for treating textile fibres in bobbins
with a liquor. July 13.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, TAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
11,479. J. Grime. Improvements in vats for use in the
dyeing of indigo blues. June 20.
11,529. B. Willeox. — From The Farbcnfabriken vormals
F. Layer aud Co., Germany. Improvements in dyeing
and printing with azo dyestuffs. June 20.
11.914. W. Crippin and C. O. Weber. Improvements in
the bleaching of cotton and other fibrous materials in the
raw or manufactured or partly manufactured state.
June 27.
11.915. W. Crippin and C. O. Weber. Improvements in
the dyeing of alizarine red ou cotton and other fibrous
materials in the raw, manufactured, or partly manufactured
state. June 27.
11.916. W. Crippin and C. O. Weber. Improvements in
the dyeing of aniline black on cotton and other fibrous
materials in the raw or manufactured or partly manu-
factured state. June 27.
12,921. Read, Holliday, and Sons, Limited, aud H. Bind-
Bchadler. Improvements in the production of an indigo
vat or bath employed in the dyeing with indigo. July 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,955. W. J. S. Grawitz. Improvements in dyeing and
printing textile fibres with aniline and its homologues or
derivatives. June 29.
14,657. E. Gessler. Process and apparatus for the
treatment of textile fibres with liquids aud vapours or gases.
July 6.
17,082. H. H. Lake.— From K. Oehler. Dyeing or
printing woollen and other goods. July 20.
18,588. G. Young and W. Crippin. Construction of
hollow perforated skewers employed for dyeing and other-
wise treating cops of yarn or thread, and their arrangement
in connexion with the parts on which they are to be used.
July 6.
1892.
7555. C. Schmirch. Method and apparatus for effecting
the oxidation of aniline black in the process of dyeing cotton
thread or wool on bobbins and cops. June 29.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
11,828. A. T. Hall and G. C. Robinson. Improvements
in the treatment of waste liquors from metallurgical pro-
cesses to obtain zinc or its compounds. June 24.
11,889. P. Romer. Improvements in the process for the
production of potassium carbonate from potassium sulphate.
June 25.
12,155. H. S. Ellworthy. Improvements in the manu-
facture of carbonic acid gas. June 30.
12,275. G. W. Sharp. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of caustic soda or potash. July 2.
12,294. H. W. Wallis. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of chlorine. July 2.
12,726. E. J. Barbier. Improvements in the manufacture
of sulphuric acids. July 11.
12,878. H. W. Wallis. Improvements in the manufacture
of chlorine. July 13.
12,884. E. Kucheumeister. Improvements in the manu-
facture of vinegar and in apparatus therefor. Complete
■Specification. July 13.
12,977. O. A. Burghardt. See Class XI.
12,985. J. H. Kidd. The manufacture of ferric-chloride
from "waste products." July 15.
13,047. H. W. Wallis. Improvements in the manufacture
of chlorine. July 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,512. R. E. Chatfield.
July 20.
Manufacture of nitric acid
1892.
88. H. H. Lake. — From E. B. Cutten. Production of
soda aud chlorine and apparatus therefor. July 6.
89. H. H. Lake— From E. B. Cutten. Production of
liquid chlorine and apparatus therefor. July 6.
9884. W. P. Thompson.— From A. L. Lawton and W. S.
Dodge. Manufacture of salt (chloride of sodium). Juue29.
10,851. A. MacNab. Manufacture of bay salt. July 13.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
11,462. H. Lockwood. The manufacture of sewage
sludge into bricks, pots, tiles, and drain pipes, and sanitary
ware. June 20.
12,585. H. Forester. An improved mode or method of
decorating china aud earthenware articles. July 8.
12,939. H. Doulton and J. Slater. Improvements in
treating vitreous substances for making metallic connexions
thereto. July 14.
13,067. E. J. Tompkinson. Improvements in the manu-
facture or modes of making pottery articles. July 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,637. B. A. Spaull. Manufacture of glass bottles and
the like, and apparatus therefor. July 6.
13,354. H. Lane and A. Chamberlain. Annealing fur-
naces. July 13.
65(5
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMlCAE INDUSTRY.
[July S'J, lS9i
14.91S. J. P. Guv. Manufacture of earthenware article.*,
such as tiles and brick*, and machinery or apparatus
therefor. July 13.
15.067. A. Cay. Manufacture of certain kinds of
articles of glass, and machinery or apparatus to be em-
ployed in the said manufacture. July 6.
An improved firebrick or compound.
IX— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
11.765. W. Webster. Improved treatment of the solid
deposit or sludge from sewage for the application thereof to
the manufacture of cement and other purposes. June 23.
11.766. W. H. Talbot and C. H. Venning. A process for
hardening and preserving natural and artificial stone and
other like building material. June 23.
12,174. O. Terp. Improvements in the manufacture of
artificial stone and hard compositions applicable to building
and paving purposes, to moulds for cement castings, to
safes, and to other articles and purposes. Complete
Specification. June 30.
12.331. H. H. Lake. From L. Enricht, United States.
An improved manufacture of artificial stone or cement.
July 2.
12.332. H. tl. Lake. Erom L. Enricht, United S
An improved manufactuie of artificial stone or cement.
July 2.
12,490. W. Smith. Improvements in the construction of
fireproof floors. July 6.
12,512. J. Salkeld. Improvements in the construction of
fireproof floors, ceilings, and other parts of buildings.
July 6.
12,756. W. P. Thompson. — From La Societe Anony-
medes Constructions Economiques, Belgium. Improvements
in the manufacture of artificial stone and other similar
building materials. July 12.
12,913. H. Faija.
Julv 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1991.
15,101. E. Lodge and E. Jury. A new or improved
chemical treatment or application for cleaning stone,
marble, granite, and the like. July 20.
15,509. G. Dolenz. Process for the manufacture of
artificial stone and marble. July 13.
1892.
8292. G. M Graham. Artificial stone blocks. July 20.
9332. A. J. Boult.— From J. A. Chanter. Pavements.
June 29.
10,196. P. A. II. Wehner. Manufacture of artificial
wood. July 13.
11,170. G. W.Parker. Construction of floors, ceilings,
and roofs of buildings : also applicable to the construction
of side walks and pavements. July 20.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
S612a. E. H. Saniter. Improvements in or relating to
the purification of iron. Filed June 27. Date applied for
January 21, 1S92, being date of application in Belgium.
11,552. C. M. Pielsticker. Improvements in the method
of extracting gold and silver from ores. June 21.
11,606. F. Siemens. An improvement in the manufac-
ture of iron and steel. June 21.
11,662. T. I. Williams. Improvements in the tinning
machine for coating metal plates or sheets with tin or other
metal or alloy. June 22.
11,82'*. A. T. Hall and G. C. Robinson. See Chi*- VII.
ll.s.54. W. L. Wise.— From A. E. Woolf, United States.
Improvements in separating metals from their ores and in
apparatus therefor. June 25.
12,343. J. Nicholas. Improved means of extracting
copper, gold, silver, and other metals from ore*. &c.
July 4.
12.491. J. David. Improvements in treating rich
argentiferous blende and other ores. July 6.
12.492. J. David. Improvements in extracting silver
and certain ba*e metal* from ores or compounds containing
the same. July 6.
12,554. C. M. Piebiticker. Improvements in the extrac-
tion of gold and silver from ores. July 7 .
12,641. J. C. Montgomerie. Improvements in the
extraction of gold and silver from ores or compounds
containing the same, and in apparatus applicable for use in
the treatment of such materials bv means of solvents.
July 8.
12.719. H. J. Allison.— From P. A. Emanuel, United
State*. Process of making aluminium. July 11.
12.733. C. D. Abel.— From Wirth and Co., Germany.
Process for the production of metallic antimony. July 1 1 .
12.776. R. E. B. Crompton. Improvements in regulating
temperatures in manufacturing metals, and in means or
apparatus employed therein. July 12.
- - ». M. Hillas and R. Squire. Improvements in the
method of and apparatus for hardening and tempering steel
wire. July 14.
12.920. W.Wright and J. B. Hamond. Improvements
in the treatment of zinc and other ores and in the recovery
of by-products. July 14.
12,936. D. Earnshaw and C. C. Cooper. A new system
of moulding for casting metals or anv other compositions.
July 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11.177. E. Polte. Spinning metal. June 29.
13,354. H. Lane and A. Chamberlain. Annealing fur-
naces. July 13.
13.714. M. Macnaberg and J. Cliff. Construction of
sted-making furnaces. July 6.
.5,142. W. I!. Lake. — From G. F. Simonds. Hardening
and tempering steel, and apparatus therefor. July 13.
16,348. J. J. Shedlock and T. Denny. Process and
apparatus for extraction of metals from ores. June 29.
19,992. S. Ward. W. Guest, and W. Miller. Manufac-
ture of semi-divided bars of steel, and the like. July 6.
1S92.
2498. S. H. Brown and M. McBarron. Annealing
metal*. Julv 13.
Julv SO, 1392.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
657
.1. Woodcock, J. Stnitb, W. M. Mackey. Pre-
paring ores, oxides, and compounds of iron for smelting.
July 20.
5651. H. II. Lake. — From H. F. Brown. Ore-roasting
furnaces. July 6.
SS34. E. W. Cooke. An alloy. July S.
9522. J. K. Filassier and J. Faun'. Metallurgical fur-
naces for steel-making or cementation purposes. June 29.
9523. J. E. Filassier and J. Faun'. Manufacture of
cast steel. June 29.
9859. J. C. Fraley. Process for rendering iron, steel,
and similar metals homogeneous. June 29.
XI.— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
11,532. W. A. Boese. Improvements in secondary or
storage batteries. June 20.
11,835. E. J. Finot. Improvements in the proces- and
apparatus for tanning hides and skins with electrolytic
action. June 24.
12,300. J. B. Lee. Improvements in the construction of
secondary batteries for electrical storage purposes. Com-
plete Specification. July 2.
12,381. E. B. Bright and M. Bailey. Improvements in
the manufacture of plates for storage batteries or accumu-
lators and the accessories thereto. July 4.
12,731. Siemens Bros, and Co., Limited. — From Siemens
and Halske, Germany. Improvements in electrolytic
extraction of zinc. July 11.
12,977. C. A. Burghardt. Improvements in the electro-
lytic production of caustic soda or canstic potash. July 1 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
1 1,108. T. Coad. Electric primary batteries. July 6.
15,050. E. A. Le Soeur. Electrolysis. July 13.
15,407. G. Cohen. Galvanic batteries. July 20.
17,426. E. Andreoli. Apparatus for generating ozone by
electricity. July G.
1892.
6007. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. Cells for eleetro-
lysing chloride solutions. July 20.
9346. C. Kellner. Apparatus for the production of
chlorine and alkalis by eleetrolytis. July 20.
9347. C. Kellner. Process for the separation of the
alkali obtained by etectrolytical decomposition of halogen
compounds from the electrolyte which has not been
decomposed. Julv 20.
9379. G. D. Burton. Heating and working metal bars
by electricity. July 6.
9380. G. D. Burton. Mechanism for converting electric
currents, and method of applying the same to the working
of metals. June 29.
9541. F. Schmalhaus. Electric accumulator or secondary
battery. June 29.
10,85u. H. Weymersch.
July 13.
Primary voltaic batteries.
11,147. H. H. Llovd.
July 20.
11,154. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L
of welding metals electrically. July 20.
Secondary or storage batteries.
Coffin. Method
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
11,691. H. L. Sharp, jun., and J. R.C'auston. Tasmanian
oils. June 22.
12,974. G. D. Macdougald and J. Sturrock. Improved
process or means for marking soap cakes or bars with an
indelible colour. Complete Specification. July 14.
13,081. W. P. Thompson. — From F. Hlawaty and
A. Kanitz, Austria. Improvements in in or relating to the
manufacture of washing soap. Complete Specification.
July 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
14,902. J. Cathrein. Method and means for manufac-
turing soap. July 20.
16,034. R. Hutchison. Manufactureof ubricants. July 13.
1892.
10,765. W. P. Thompson.— From YV. B. Brittiugham.
Detergent compounds. July 13.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
11,937. R. Michell. The manufacture of anti-fouling
and non-corrosive composition paint. June 27.
12,175. O. Terp. Improvements in enamel paints for
resisting damp, fire, and atmospheric influences, and in
imitation mosaic and other articles made therewith. Com-
plete Specification. June 30.
12,447. T. H. Cobley. Improvements in the manufacture
of metallic lead paint, lead colours, and other lead products
from ores and substances containing lead. July 5.
15,518. A. J. Boult — From R. Lelievre, France. An
improved compound for cleaning wood-work, removing paint,
or the like. July 6.
12,631. T. S. Lemon. Improvements in the manufacture
of india-rubber and substitutes for india-rubber for insulating
and other purposes. July 8.
12,728. P. Lehmann. Improvements relating to com-
pounds suitable as protective coatings or paints for iron and
steel. Complete Specification. July 11.
12,732. L.Pflug. Improvements in protective paints or
compositions for ships. July 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
10,822. C. N. Jackson. A compound preparation to be
used as a substitute for gutta-percha and similar products
for insulating and waterproofing purposes. June 29.
658
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [ July so, i«».
12,895. A. Gutensohu. Method and appliances for the
production of litharge from metallic lead. July 6.
1892.
9135. F. I). Mott. An elastic or resilient covering for
ships' bottoms. June 29.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Application.
11,521. L. Hunk. New or improved manufacture of
material suitable for use as a substitute for whalebone.
June 20.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
9889. L. Thery. Manufacture of artificial chamois
leather. June 29.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
12,432. J. T. Knowles. — From L. Buroni and P.
Marchand, Italy. A composition for fixing ammoniacal
nitrogen used in agriculture. Complete Specification.
July 5.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
11.072. W. Hannah and F. Curtis. Improvements in
the method of manufacturing sugar into cubes or other
forms, and in means or apparatus to be emplojed therein.
June 28.
12,586. T. Bayley. Improvements in the manufacture of
dextrin. July 8.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
14,575. A. Schneller and W. J. Wisse. Refining sugar
juice or molasses. July 20.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
11,481. I). II. Croll. Improvements in brewing. June 20.
11,604. (1. E. Jacquemin. Improvements in and relating
to the manufacture of beer. June 21.
11,638. R. C. Scott. Improvements in treating or
ageing spirit. June 21.
11,784. F. Chavauty. New or improved manufacture of
grape and other fruit wine. June 23.
12,214. J. Mosler, M. Schiiffer, and A. Sachs. A process
for the production of sugar-colour from brewery and
distillery refuse. Complete Specification. July 1.
12,413. B. J. B. Mills.— From The Universal Carbonating
Co., United States. Improvements in methods and appa-
ratus for carbonating beer. Complete Specification. July 5.
12,645. R. II. Leaker. Improved apparatus for aerating
and cooling wort. July 9.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,729. O. Perrier. Distilling and rectifying alcohol or
other liquids, and apparatus employed therein. July 13.
14,658. F. J. Money. Malt mashing apparatus. July 6.
15,467. S. A. Croxford. Method and apparatus for
straining brewers' wort. July 13.
1892.
6555. G. M. Johnson and E. de Cock. Method of treating
beer for improving its qualities and colour. June 29.
8290. H. Gehrke. Apparatus for filtering beer and other
alcoholic and gaseous liquids. July 13.
9538. H. Hirzel. Still columns. June 29.
10,305. B. J. B.Mills.— From The Universal Carbonating
Co. Apparatus for impregnating beer with carbonic acid.
July 6.
10,442. W. P. Thompson. — From L. Schmied. Manufac-
ture of colouring malt. July 6.
10,496. J. Barton. Method and apparatus for mashing
and brewing ale, beer, wiues, and other fermented liquors.
July 6.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
11,988. J. Y. Johnson.— From H. Salzer, United States.
Improvements in means for preserving meat and the like.
Complete Specification. June 28.
12,632. A. Bernstein. Improvements in the treatment of
milk. July 8.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
11,402. 11. Lockwood. SeeClass VIII.
11,724. J.W.Lodge. An improved complete continuous
and automatic process and means to be employed in drying,
absorbing, deodorising, pulverising, separating, storing,
bagging, and weighing wet pulpy and pasty manure as
produced and prepared by mixing, grinding, and blending
together human and animal excreta and urine, animal
garbage, market and town refuse, spent bark, spent dye-
woods, stable litter, sewage sludge, and other refuse.
June 23.
11,765. W. Webster.
11,989. C. G.Collins.
See Class IX.
An improved process of purifying
water. Complete Specification. June 28.
12,268, S. H. Johnson and C. C. Hutchinson. Improve-
ments in the preparation of sewage sludge for pressing.
July 2.
July 80, 1883.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
659
C. — Disinfectants.
12,392. A. S. Chinnock, W. tfairley, ('. E. McLaren, and
I'. Miiks. A new compound suitable for the purification
of sewage anil other polluted liquors. July 4.
12,433. K. O. Storr. New medical compound for dis-
infecting and fumigating purposes. July 5. Post-dated
1st March and re-numbered 12,433.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
13,212. 1). Tallerman. Preparation of cattle foods.
.Tune 29.
16.787. A. Cornaz. Milk sterilisers. July 13.
1892.
3102. S. Pitt. — From J. Mariosa. Process for the preser-
vation of meat. July 13.
10.788. H. Bates, jun. Production of an alimentary
product from Indian corn and maize. July 20.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
14,181. W. D. Scott-Monerieff. Treatment of sewerage
and other contaminated liquids. June 29.
15,172. K. S. Brownlow. Apparatus for purifying water
or other liquids. July 13.
15,391. F. P. Candy. Oxidation of sewage and impure
waters and of material for use in the treatment of such
sewage and impure waters. July 20.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
13,139. T. McMurray. New or improved compounds to
be used for disinfecting, deodorising germicide, sanitary,
manuring, and like purposes. July 20.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9139. A. J. Boult.— From E. Rocca. Cellulose manu-
facture. July G.
14,973. A. Schlumberger. Process for producing paper
safe against forgery. July 13.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS, ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
12,166. C. D. Abel. — From C. F. Boehringer and Sohne,
Germany. .Manufacture of lactyl derivatives of methyl-
aniline, etbylaniline, paranisidine, and paraphenetidine.
June 30.
12,241. J. H. Payne. The improved solidification of
herbal solutions, sauces, and similar dietetic materials
July 1.
12,406. W. Kottgen.— From B. Munsberg, Germany.
Process for the extraction of the bitter principle contained
in lupines, and for the removal of the poisonous matter
contained therein. . July 6.
12,660. C. Lowe. Improvements in the manufacture of
derivatives of acetic acid. Complete Specification. July 9.
12,811. J. C. Mewburn.— From J. B. F. Rigaud, France.
Process of preparing double salts of quinine. July 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,957. W. Ma.jert. Manufacture of piperazine or
spermine. June 29.
12,729. B. Haseloff. Process for the production of a
palatable kola-nut powder. July 20.
13,613. A. Baur. Manufacture of artificial musk.
June 29.
XXI.— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
11,867. G. T. Teasdale-Buckell. Improvements in the
production of coloured pictures or like representations by
the aid of photography, and in means or apparatus employed
therein. June 25.
12,097. F. J. Smith. Improvements in or connected
witli the production of images or pictures, or impressions
on photographically sensitive surfaces, or ou such surfaces
after they have been exposed to light. June 29.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
11,265. E. Thomas. Methods of employing materials
that are sensitive to radiant energy, such as light. July 6.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
12,415. W. E. Gedge.— From the Tinted States Smoke-
less Powder Co., United States. An improved explosive
compound. Complete Specification. July 5.
12,452. J, A. C. de Latouche. Improvements in military
and sporting ammunition. July 5.
12,744. II. J.Allison. — From A. C. Rand, United States.
Improvements in explosive compounds. Complete Specifi-
catiou. July 12.
660
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Jiih 30,1393.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,038. H. de Mosenthal, A. G. SalamOD.and .T. .1. Hood.
Explosives. July 6.
13,507. W. H. A. Kitchen and J. G. A. Kitchen.
Manufacture of explosives. June 29.
XXIII.— ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
14,r,;i7.. E. de Pass. From E. Gossart. Method of
analysing alcohols and other liquids or liqueriable bodies,
and apparatus therefor. July 6.
Printed and Published by Etre and Spottiswoodf, East Harding Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OP THE
Society of Chemical 3nousttf ;
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOE ALL INTEEESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTUEES.
No. 8.— Vol. XL]
AUGUST 31, 1892.
r
Non-Members 30/- per annum; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
Cfje £>ortetp of Cbtmtral Jnbustrp,
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 1881—1882.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L.. F.R.S 18S2— 1883.
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1883—1884.
W. H. I'erkin. Ph.D., F.R.S 1884—1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1836.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prof. James Dewar. F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F.R S 18S8— 1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 18S9— 1890.
E. Rider Cook 1890-1891.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 1891—1892.
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S, So.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Win. Crowder.
David Howard.
Dr. P. Hurter.
B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. W. II. Perkin, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
.Tolin Spiller.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E.Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Turney.
A. II. Allen.
Arthur Boake,
I;. Forbes Carpenter.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
II. Grimshaw.
Christopher C. Butchinson.
Ordinary Members of Council :
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinsoo,
Boverton Redwood.
.\. * lord 'ii Salamon,
E [ward C. Cortis Stanford.
Thos. Tyrer.
"With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer :
E. Rider Cook East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E,
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. T. Dent.
fihas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percj Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron,
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Publication Committee :
The President.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. ('. Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond. F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. I'erkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H.R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors:
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX.. X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gcn.Chem.
D. Bendut III.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos.Bernays.M.I.C.E I.
E. J. Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount . i xif 'xill
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV., XV.
J. C.Chorley I., XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII.
P. Dvorkowitsch.il., III.. IV..
XII., XVIII., XXIII.
Dr. P. Xorman Evans XIX.
W.M.Gardner V..VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. JoneF, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, } II. and
D.Sc 5 Gen. Chem.
ChaphAbf.°.hn:.}Gen-Chem-
L.deKoningh XVIII„XXIII.
T. A.Lawsou, Ph.D. . IV.
J. Walter Leather, ") Yv
Ph.D jAV-
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII., XXI.
J. Lewkowitsch.") TIT VTT
Ph.D i m- xn-
A. R. Ling IV., XVI.
D.A.Louis IX., X., XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H.S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII.. X.
V.^} XVI., XVII.
G.H.Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists.
H. Sehlichter-Ph.D.. V..XV.
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II.. III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K. Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XI 1 1.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, Loudon, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Eider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, «t ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which ease no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
ii<>2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Aug. 31,18112.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Dickson, Jno., l/o Dale Street ; 54, lirovra Street, Broomie-
law, Glasgow.
Duncan, A. W., Journals to 99, Heaton Moor Road, near
Stockport.
Herman, D., Fccleston Park, Prescot (not Preston),
Lancashire.
Laiug, John, l/o Grange Road ; 3, Mentone Terrace,
Edinburgh.
Manningtou, H. T., l,o Pentre ; Grove House, Halkyn
Street, Flint, North Wales.
Miller, W. M., I/o Glasgow ; Pin. De Willem, Demerara,
British Guiana.
Reed, Albert E., l/o Pelham Road ; Selwood, Overcliffe,
Gravesend.
Tompkins, II. K., 1 <i Bromley; 12, Besshorough Street,
London, S.W.
Warren, Eiske, l/o Boston ; e/o Baring Bros, and Co.,
8, Bishopsgate Street Within, E.G.
Warren, J. D.. I/o High Holborn; 7. Essex Road, Acton,
W.
Webb, S. <;., l/o Widnes; The Baldwin Fertilizer Co.,
Port Royal, S.C., U.S.A.
Wingham, A., l/o Brixton ; c/o H. G. Graves, 5, Robert
Street, Adelphi, W.C.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REQUIRED.
Feodossieff, ('apt. G, l/o 11, Great Masterskaia, St.
Fetersburgh.
Isaac, F. W. Player, l/o Freshford Manor, near Bath.
Jackson, W., l/o Sydenham Avenue, Sefton Park, Liver-
pool.
Lee, .1. Edw., l/o Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
ERRATUM IN BALLOT LIST.
Mr. A. Gordon Salamon was erroneously described a- a
" Consulting Gas Chemist," it should have been " Consult-
ing Brewers' Chemist."
Communtratton.
NOTES OX THE ASSAY OF TIN ORES, CONCEN-
TRATES, &c, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO THE REDUCTION OF "BLACK TIN" BY
POTASSIUM CYANIDE.
BY HORACE W. KEXXIE AND W. H. DERRICK.
As is well known the assay of tin ores either by the wet or
dry process offers peculiar difficulties arising from (1) the
absolute insolubility of the only commercial ore of tin,
viz., eassiterite ; (2) the peculiar similarity of this mineral
to many others frequently associated with it ; (3) the
volatility of metallic tin when in a state of fusion, and at
the same time its affinity for silica, which is almost
invariably present in the ores from which the metal has to
reduced.
The simplest, and at the same time almost universal,
method of valuing tin ores in the rough state, is by the use
of the vanning shovel. This method is based upon the fact
that eassiterite is of very high specific gravity, and taking
advantage of this, the operator is enabled, on the vanning
shovel, by operations purely mechanical, to wash away the
lighter minerals and so leave the eassiterite more or less
pure and in a state fit for weighing.
Where the percentage of eassiterite is the object sought,
we have proved that this process, when carefully conducted,
is capable of giving most accurate and concordant results,
as in our experiments on the subject we have almost
invariably been able to get independent results differing at
most by a fractional part of a grain per cent. As tin ores
an- invariably valued by the percentage of contained free
eassiterite, this process is well adapted to the purpose. The
weak points are, that being a mechanical process, it is too
dependent not only upon the dexterity and skill, but the
judgment and impartiality of the operator, whilst, at the
same time, even although the correct percentage of
eassiterite may be found, the crystals of eassiterite obtained
vary in their purity, some containing considerable pro-
portions of iron and silica ; thus, even a thoroughly
accurate estimation of the eassiterite in an ore by this
process gives but an approximate estimate of the true
percentage of metallic tin.
When it is necessary, as, for instance, in a smelting
works, to assay concentrated ores for the contained metallic
tin, various methods are adopted, perhaps the oldest and
best known being the Cornish process, a very good descrip-
tion of which has been given by Mr. A. K. Barnett in
Beringers Manual of Assaying.
In this process the metal is reduced from the ore by
fusion in a crucible with from one-sixth to one-fifth its
weight of powdered anthracite, a high temperature being
used. The bulk of the tin collects into a button, while at
the same time there remain numberless prills, mixed with
the unconsumed anthracite and fixed to the side of the
crucible. These prills are collected on the vanning shovel,
added to the main button, and the whole subjected to a
process of refining, by melting at as low a temperature as
possible in an iron ladle and recasting in a mould ; this last
detail is necessary, owing to the fact that a portion of iron
is reduced with the tin, no precaution being taken to
separate iron and other impurities in the oxide chemically,
before reducing. This process has many inherent weak
points, the chief being the extreme difficulty of collecting
all the prills, the loss of tin by volatilisation in reducing
(there being no appreciable amount of slag formed to act
as a protecting cover), and the oxidation while refining.
In spite of these drawbacks, this process is capable in
skilled hands of affording results of a fair approximation
to accuracy, more especially when modified as in some of
our- experiments to be described later cm.
( In referring to the various handbooks of assaying which
have been published during the Inst 30 or 40 years, it is rather
A.1.L-. si, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
663
surprising to find how little attention seems to have been given
to the subject of tin. For anything approaching to accurate
results the only resource was a somewhat complicated
wet assay. The three favourite methods of performing this
being (1) by disintegration of a weighed portion of the ore
by fusion with caustic potash in a silver crucible (solution
of the meta-stannate of potash formed and separation of the
tin by one of the ordinary reactions) ; (2) by reduction of
the oxide in a current of hydrogen at red heat ; (3) by
fusion of the ore with six times its weight of a mixture of
potassium carbonate and sulphur in a carefully closed
crucible at a high temperature ; solution of the sulphides
of tin and potash formed in water (the sulphides of iron,
copper, lead, &c, remaiuing as insoluble residues) ; preci-
pitation by HC1 of the tin as sulphide, which is then
collected, dried, and converted into biuoxide by a slow
and very careful oxidation in a porcelain crucible over a
blow-pipe lamp, or in the muffle. Of these three methods
the last will give with care most accurate results, the
drawbacks being (1) that only a small portion of the ore
can be used, viz., 7 to 10 grains, with which weight it is
impossible to get a fair sample ; (2) that it is by no
means an easy process and at the same time is a some-
what leugthy operation. It is, however, a most useful
process when a complete analysis of the ore has to be
made, as all the metals present are obtained in a state
favouring easy separation and estimation. The following
analyses were made by us by this process for the purpose
of ascertaining the impurities present in a sample of
commercial oxide of tin : —
Stannic nxiile*
Ferric uxidc. .
Silica
tlO'DU
7-30
2'Tu
100-00
* = Metallic tin 70"92 per cent.
II.
stannic oxide* 89'75
Ferric oxide S'SO
Silica 1'15
100-00
* = Metallic tin 70'7O per cent.
A diict estimation of the metallic tin in this ore by
reduction with KCy (as described later on) gave 70 '75 per
cent, tin, as compared with 70 '81 per cent., the mean of the
two above experiments.
We now come to the process with which this paper is
chiefly concerned, viz., the dry assay of tin ores by reduction
with potassium cyanide.
This method was brought into notice by Mitchell, in his
celebrated manual of assaying, aud his formula, simple
and somewhat vague as it is, has been copied in almost
every modern treatise on assaying.
This formula as usually given, runs as follows: — Bam
into the bottom of a 3 oz. crucible a g-in. layer of KCy, add
the charge consisting of 100 grains of ore mixed with four to
five times its weight of powdered KCy, heat at a moderate
temperature for 10 minutes, remove the crucible, tap it
gently, and when cool extract the button of tin from it.
At first sight this appears delightfully simple, but its
very simplicity leaves many open points where serious
errors may and will creep in. For although it is well
known that tin is easily reduced from its oxide by fusion
with KCy, so also are many other metals, including copper,
iron, lead, zinc, and antimony, and as most ores of tin
except the very purest contain some or all of these associated
metals, so certainly will the tin reduced from such ores by
the foregoing process be contaminated with these metals.
Aud again, in describing his process Mitchell gives no
special precaution as to the KCy used, whereas this is a
most important point, there being so many grades of KCy
differing so greatly in their relative purities and reducing
powers, that the selection of a suitable quality demands
careful consideration.
A good deal of light was thrown upon this method of
assaying by Professor H. O. Hofman in his articles on the
Dry Assay of Tin Ores which appeared in the Technology
Quarterly, 3, 112—143, and 3, 261—280 (see this Journal,
1890, 899 and 1154). These articles were evidently the
result of long and careful research, and made clear many
points which had previously been uninvestigated. The
results of his experiments as to the reduction of tin from
its ores by KCy under all sorts of varying conditions are
very instructive — (1) especially with regard to differences
of temperature during the assays ; (2) the effect upon
the assay of various impurities likely to be found in the
ore ; (3) the effect of impurities so often existing in the
various samples of cyanide.
In our early experience we carefully worked out the
various points brought forward by Hofman, and derived
very great assistance from his suggestions, but we were
gradually forced to the opiuiou that there was still much to
be learned on this subject. This being so, we decided to
make an exhaustive series of experiments, and believe we
have so far eliminated the possible sources of error from
this method of assaying as to render it possible to obtain
results thereby, rivalling in accuracy such as might be
obtained by a wet assay. Before actually detailing any
of our own experiments we wish to draw attention to a
few apparently inconsistent statements made by Hofman
in the earlier portions of his papers. For instance, in
describing the nature of the ores upon which his experi-
ments were made, he says : " The cassiterite occurring in
the Black Hills tin ore is quite pure, as is shown by the
following analysis : —
Stream tin from Nigger Hill.. 92*0 per cent. SnO^
„ „ „ „ .. 93-0 „ ,.
„ Southern Hill 92"8
Now the average of these analyses is 92-8 per cent., thus
leaving a margin of 7 • 2 per cent, of impurities. This seems
hardly to agree with the assertion that the ores were quite
pure. Judging from samples of stream tin we have
examined we should consider the above percentage to
indicate a somewhat low quality for stream tin. The
various samples of stream tin which have come under our
notice show an average of about 96 '4 per cent, of Sn02,
whilst one sample in particular which was taken in the
rough by one of the writers from a bed only a few yards
distant from the laboratory aud panned out in an ordi-
nary prospecting dish, showed after a careful duplicate
assay 78'5 per cent, of metallic tin = 99'62 per cent.
Sn02. This specimen consisted of large clear crystals of
cassiterite which ground up to a pale buff-coloured powder,
aud might fairly be described as practically pure.
Hofman says that he used stream tin from the Nigger
Hill as a basis for his experiments, and gives a long account
of his elaborate method of purification before reduction,
including '■ careful aud gradual pulverisation, calcination,
&c, washing in boiling aqua regia (the latter, as he says,
to remove all soluble metallic compounds, iron, &c), the
ore being then washed with hot water and panned out
irrespective of loss of fine tin which floated off with the
tailings, giving them a chocolate brown colour * after which
the only impurities visible under the microscope were a few
particles of garnet and quartz. This was followed by
further pulverisation aud sampling." The purified residue
thus obtained he used in all the reductions he goes on to
describe. He gives the result of an analysis of this concen-
trated sample as follows : —
Per Cent.
Sn02 86*24
Ye,Oi 2-1,2
Mn203, CaO.MgO 1--16
Insoluble 9*39
' Italics arc our own.
E 2
66i
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug si. 1892.
The percentage of oxide thus shown is = 67 • 84 of metallic
tin. A careful study of these details as given by Hofmau
reveals some apparent contradictions. For instance, after
first pulverising and roasting the ore, he boiled in aqua
regia and panned out the residue, remarking that the
panning was carried on irrespective of the loss of some
fine tin which floated off with the tailings, giving them a
chocolate brown colour. Now we have examined some
hundreds of samples of tin ore of every possible variety,
and never once have we found that after pulverising and
boiling in aqua regia, was there a residue of chocolate-
brown colour, much less any tin of this colour. We have
always found that oxide of tin after being freed from its
coating of iron by washing with acids is of a colour varying
from white to a pale buff, and we have no hesitation in
giving our opinion that if there was any residue of a chocolate-
brown colour it must have been due to compounds of
iron which had not been properly dissolved out. We
have never had the slightest difficulty, no matter how
impure the original black tin, in obtaining a residue after
pulverising and dissolving in aqua regia, consisting chiefly
of SuO-, and SiOo with traces of other insoluble minerals,
the whole being entirely free from anything approaching a
brown or red colour ; and further, we easily succeeded by
a short treatment on the vanning shovel in gettiDg rid of
the associated impurities and obtaining a residue of very
nearly pure Sn02 of creamy white colour, and this without
the slightest appreciable loss of tin.
Another strange point is that the main object of Hofman's
experiments was, as he says, to discover the best method of
estimating the tin in tin ores by the dry process : and yet,
as we have remarked, he, in describing his mere preliminary
treatment of even a favourable specimen of ore, has to
admit that he loses tin before he can get it in a state
suitable for the assay proper. This of course would
entirely neutralise the practical value of any subsequent
reductions however accurate.
A- a prelude to a description of our own experiments we
may remark that they were made in the laboratories of some
of the largest mining companies in the Malay Peninsula,
where although we often lacked the refinements of elaborate
apparatus, &c., which are of course unobtainable in a place
so far away from civilisation ; we had the advantage of a
close acquaintance with ores of tin of every imaginable
description, both free and combined in all proportions with
other minerals and averaging in produce from mere traces
to almost cent, per cent.
The work which is necessary with the ores found in
these mines is two kinds, viz. : (1.) The assay and valuation
of lode stuff, crude ores, &c., for purely local purposes,
such as testing the produce of the various lodes, the
payment of tributors, checking the battery returns, &c. ;
and (2) the assay of the dressed ores when ready for the
market.
For the first of these purposes a knowledge of the
percentage of oxide of tin contained in the various samples
is all that is required. To obtain this there is no method
which for rapidity and accuracy can at all compare with
vanning on the shove] when proper precautions are used.
Lieal skill in the use of the vanning shovel can only be
acquired by long and careful practice and no amount of
theoretical instruction is of much avail. The process has
often been described and the best description with which
we have met will be found in Beringer's Text-Book of
Assaying in the chapter on "Tin." Vanning is much more
difficult than panning With the gold pan, but at the same
time we have proved most conclusively that for the above
purpose it gives far better results. We may remark that
contrary to the usual practice we always carefully pulverised
our samples before vanning sutheicntly fine to pass a GO
sieve, or even for ores in which the tin is low in quality
and intimately associated with iron, a 90 sieve, the only
exception being in cases where it is required to estimate
simply the proportion of free eassiterite. We have
amined a very large number of tin ore samples by this
process and have found results to lie entirely concordant
and satisfactory, t hie great advantage is that this method
is applicable to ores of every grade, the only variation
being that we used 200 grains with ores up to about
30 per cent, and 100 grains when the ores are richer than
this.
For the second object, viz. the valuation of the com-
mercial oxide of tin, it is necessary to estimate the
percentage of contained metal. Having already pointed
out the impracticability of wet assays for this purpose, the
only resource is the dry process, and it was on finding the
unsatisfactory nature of the various dry processes as
commonly performed that led, as we have before men-
tioned, to our undertaking the lengthy series of experiments
of which this paper is the outcome.
Leaving out of consideration the Cornish process of
assay and its modifications on account of its many draw-
backs (as mentioned in the early part of this paper), we
now propose to give a description of our experiments in
connection with the KCy assay.
1. Method as described by Mitchell : —
In this 100 grains of the dried and pulverised oxide
were taken and mixed with 500 grains KCy ami
introduced into a London crucible of suitable size, into
the bottom of which a layer of KCy had been previously
rammed. A covering of about 50 grains KCy was
put on top and a close-fitting crucible cover over all. The
whole was then fused iu the wind furnace, allowing 10 to
12 minutes of full red heat from the commencement of
fusion, the button of tin obtained beiog weighed when
cool. A few of the results thus obtained are shown iu the
following table : —
Table No. 1.
Grains
obtained.
Per Cent.
1 1 i.i ins
ned.
Per Cent.
1
56"7
50-7
7
00-2
<'i;-2
2
<;■:■:
62-7
s
70-0
7>i'll
3
67'5
07 '3
9
57'8
:.7's
4
r,i 'ii
61-0
1(1
iij'7
tii-7
5
-.Til
57-0
11
57 0
57 "0
fi
66-2
66'2
VI
55*0
oo'O
The samples Xos. 1 to 8 in this table were a high quality
oxide with an average percentage of tin as found by wet
assay of about 69j per cent.; the samples 'J to 12 were
oxides containing rather more iron and silica with an
average percentage as shown by wet assay of about
G6 per cent. It is at once seen that besides being generally
much too low the assays varied in the most extraordinary
manner among themselves, the latter fact being partly
explained when we remember that the samples contained
all the original iron and silica of the ores. It is well known
on the one hand that iron when present is reduced with
the tin by KCy, the amount so reduced being directly
proportioned to the temperature used in the assay ; on the
other hand silica, which has a great affinity for tin. tends
to form silicates of tin and potash, which enter into the
>lag ; thus we see that there is iron tending to increase the
apparent percentage of tin and silica tending to decrease it.
At a low temperature the silica prevents the reduction of
some of the tin. and on nereasing the temperature to
obviate this, iron begins to be reduced with the tin, so that,
plainly, unless it were possible so to proportion the amount
of silica present with the iron as to be exactly sufficient
to form a neutral slag of silicate of iron, and at the same
time to judge the temperature so exactly that the silica
would tend to combine with the iron and not with the tin,
there must still by this process be inconcordaut results
varying from accuracy according to the impurities present,
aud* from one another according to the temperature used.
In order to obviate these difficulties, the process wis
modified as follows : —
250 grains of a carefully pulverised sample having
been boiled for half an hour with 3 oz. HC1 and i oz.
1 1 N( I, the residue is allowed to settle, tin- acid decanted
Aug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP' THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
065
off, and the oxide again washed by careful deeantation
with water ; the residue thus obtained is of a light buff
colour, and is entirely freed from oxide of iron, pyrites,
manganese, and other metals ; wolfram, if present, is easily
dissolved out by NH4HO. To get rid of the silica, the oxide
is washed out on to a vanning shovel previously wetted to
prevent particles of the fine tin from floating, and then
using a very small quantity of water, a quick circular
motion is given to the shovel, gradually slowing down
until the whole of the oxide is seen to he collected into
the centre of the shovel ; the silica present is then found
as a pure white powder oi: top of the tin, from which it is
easily distinguished by its difference of tint. The silica is
easily and neatly got rid of, in one operatiou, by altering
the motion of the shovel so as to cause the water gently to
carry the lighter silica to one side, and so off the edge of
the shovel, and this is effected without disturbing the heavy
oxide of tin ill the least.
The resulting purified oxide is dried on the shovel,
brushed into a water-glass, and weighed, and the per-
centage noted.
A hundred grains of this oxide is then taken (in duplicate
for safety) and reduced with KCy as described in the
previous process. By multiplying the weight of the button
of tin obtained by the percentage of clean oxide already
found, the actual percentage of tin in the ore is indicated.
A lew of the results obtained by this modified process are
shown in Table No. 2: —
Table No. 2.
—
Percentage of
Cleaned Oxide
obtained.
Percentage of
Metal found in
Clean Oxide
Actual Per-
centage oi Metal
in the Ore.
,
37-9
71-7
G3-0
8
92 '1
70'(l
01-5
'.I
92 '0
72-0
06-2
11)
S2-7
72-0
59-5
11
SS--4
73'0
i:4 -5
12
511-7
7o'G
Wo
Table No. 3.
In the foregoing table Nos. 7, 8, 9 were high quality
black tin, 10 and 11a coarser quality with more iron, and
Xo. 12 a partly dressed oxide very coarse and impure.
It will be seen that, taking the cleaned oxide as a basis,
the percentage of tin obtained from it in Nos. 7, 9, 10, and
1 1 was fairly close, and that the actual percentage of tin
thus indicated in the ore, as shown in the third column,
varied directly with the percentage of clean oxide as shown
in column 1. These assays, however, were still much too
low as regards the actual percentage of tin in the ore, but
at the same time they were very useful as giving a foothold
for further research.
The buttons of metal were found to be very different to
those obtained by the first process, being very soft, silvery
and malleable, and entirely free from any impurity.
It was further found that the cleaning of the oxide on the
■-hovel as described did not involve the slightest loss of
tin, as the washings on being collected were found to be
entirely free from any trace of SnC)2.
In the next method tried, the sample was prepared and
cleaned as just described, and reduced in a similar manner
with KCy, using at the same time an admixture of 5 grains
powdered charcoal, the idea being, if possible, to increase
the reducing power.
It was noticed that during fusion of the charges, con-
siderable effervescence took place, and the charges had a
tendency to boil over the sides of the pot, necessitating a
very careful and somewhat slow fusion. Table No. 3 shows
some results obtained in this manner.
Percentage of
cleaned Oxide
obtained.
Percentage of
Metal found in
cleaned Oxide.
72-1
72 -.1
72-.1
72-7
72'6
7:i-l
72-5
73-2
73-1
73-0
73 '5
74-0
73-5
7 ; :.
72*0
72T,
72-6
72-G
72-«
72-5
72-7
;:;-u
72-7
72-2
Actual Per-
centage of Metal
in the Ore.
66-40
66-44 R*
66-41 lit
66-45 l;
G0-3D D
117-23 11
(16-41 D
117 -85 14
I17-S4 1)
68-83 I;
68-58 D
63-03 R
07-99 R
67-90 1)
60-4GR
63-07 R
113-16 D
62-73 R
02-73 D
G3-51 11
01-09 R
63-03 D
*"R"H. \V. Rennie.
t ' D " W. H. Derrick.
In the above table Nos. 13 to 19 were samples of high
class black tin similar to those previously referred to, while
Nos. 21 to 24 were of a similar character to the lower
quality oxide also previously mentioned. Each number
represents a separate individual sample of ore, and the chief
thing this table shows is the remarkable uniformity in the
percentage of metal found in the cleaned oxide, showing
conclusively that the process we use for cleaning the
samples before reduction leaves in all cases a cleaned residue
of uniform quality. It will be noticed here, as in Table No. 2,
that the actual percentage of metal in the ore varies directly
with the amount of cleaned oxide obtained. In spite,
however, of the closeness of the percentages of tin thus
indicated in the cleaned oxide as obtained from the various
samples we conld not but feel sure that there was a loss of
tin in each case, although it was plainly an uniform loss.
The average percentage of metal found in the cleaned oxides
was 72 ■ 8, whereas taking chemicallj- pure SnO; at 78 ■ 8 per
cent, tin we concluded that our cleaned oxide ouyht to show
from 76- 5 to 77 per cent, of tin. This too was borne out by
a chemical analysis.
The close agreement of our results among themselves (as
evidenced by column 2), together with our minutely careful
method of working, prohibited us from believing that the
lowness of the results could be due to any error in the
manipulation, and as a last resource we were forced to throw
the blame on our materials.
First of all we often noticed that the rough sides of the
London crucibles we used were very apt to retain large
numbers of minute prills of tin which were thus prevented
from joining the button, and were as a rule too fine to attempt
to collect ; secondly we had doubts as to the efficiency of the
KCy we had been using, although it had been supplied by
666
THE JOUKNAIi OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31, 1892.
a first class wholesale house as pure pulverised cyanide of
potassium. A chemical examination of this pure cyanide
revealed the fact that it consisted largely of carbonate of
potash, together with some cyanide, being however free
from sulphates. The actual percentage of free cyanide
present was roughly determined by titrating a solution of the
sample with an ammoniacal solution of copper and com-
paring it with a standard solution of pure crjstallised
cyanide. We were somewhat astonished to find that the
percentage of effective cyanide present, as shown by a
duplicate assay, was under SO per cent.
This of course explained matters, and we at once took
steps to obtain a supply of pure cyanide (guaranteed 98 per
cent.). In our first experiments with this we preceded in a
similar manner to the last described method, only using the
new pure cyanide in place of the old — with a little charcoal
added as before. The following table (No. 4) shows a few
of the results thus obtained : —
Table No. 4.
Percei 1 1
Cleaned Oxide
obtained.
Percentage of
Metal found in
Cleaned Oxide.
Actual Per-
centage of Metal
in the Ore.
f 70-2H
67 "9* R
i
89"16
I 7011
67-fiOR
25
I
C 75-80
67-69 D
S9-3IJ
]
(. 76-00
K7-S7 I>
The above assays were all on one sample of medium
quality ore, each of the writers working in duplicate.
It is worthy of notice that in the first two assays the
oxide was cleaned somewhat more thoroughly, thus giving
a rather lower percentage of cleaned oxide, proportionately
richer in tin, than the two assays shown last, the ultimate
actual percentage of tin in the ore being practically identical.
The average percentage of tin found in the cleaned oxide
was 76-04. an increase of 3-24 per cent, on the last
table.
We may note that we were here still using the London
crucibles and reducing in a wind furnace, and our next
advance was to try and obviate some of the disadvantages
thus involved. (1.) Such as the tendency of the rough pots
to retain tin. (2.) The difficulty of judging the temperature
in the furnace. (3.) The dust of the fire. (4.') The risk of
the crucibles upsetting, and so, if possible, to obtain better
results still. To this end we discarded the rough Loudon
crucibles, and the use of the wind furnace, the method we
adopted being as follows : — Having first cleaned the ore as
in our former experiments we took a small, fine-grained clay
crucible (such as is sometimes used for scorifying silver
ores with lead in an open furnace), the crucible being about
3 in. high and 2', in. in diameter; into the bottom of this
we rammed a layer of third pulverised cyanide, then
introduced the charge of 50 grains of the cleaned oxide, mixed
with 300 grains of pure dried KCy, a covering of dry KCy
being placed on top while the addition of charcoal was
discarded as unnecessary. The pot was closely covered
ami introduced into a muffle previously heated to redness.
The charge soon fusing the crucible was kept at a cherry-red
heat for 10 minutes, then slightly shaken, to wash down any
prills of tin which might be adhering to the sides of the
crucible, and the heat increased to a bright red for another
live minutes, making a total of 15 minutes from time of
complete fusion. The pot was allowed to cool and the
button of tin extracted and weighed. The result of a few
of thi' assays done in this manner arc shown in Table 5.
In this table Nos. 26 to 31 were samples of high quality
black tin. Nos. 32 to 38 medium quality ore, the impurities
being chiefly iron, silica, and various insoluble silicates,
while .No. 3!l was a specimen which has been previously
referred to. of perfectly clean crystals of stream tin
eassiterite.
Table Xo. 5.
Percentaee of Percentage of Actual Per-
Cleaned Oxide Metal found in centageoi Metal
obtained. Cleaned Oxide. in the Ore.
(
{
94-90
94-70
76-0
70 4
72 12 II
72-35 D
27
1
9J-30
9f30
70-4
70-4
72-05 D
72-05 R
2s
93-10
70 0
70-76 R
29
f
I
91-70
91'20
7i-.li
70-II
G9-69 R
69-81 li
30
l
91-00
91-60
77-0
TT-ii
70-53 R
711-531)
SI
90-00
76-5
68*85 R
32
S9-10
704
68-12 D*
33
*:, ;im
{
76-0
7.VS
OS-32 R
68-15 B
.",1
89-00
1
77'H
77-0
69-00 U
69-00 D
35
{
Ss'j;,
88-30
77-2
77-11
68-13 R
08-00 D
Sli
SS'SII
70-8
cs -20 it
37
73-20
78-50
76-4
76'0
55-92 R
55-80 I)
88
i
T.Vsii
75 -SO
70 -d
76-8
58-00 R
58-21 D
39
1
100-00
Hill' III
7s-5
7S-.-.
7S-50 R
78-50 D
* Same sample as No. 25.
This method fulfilled our best anticipations and proved
to be wonderfully simple to manipulate, the charges being
small, the heat easy to regulate, with a total fredom from
dust and dirt. A few of the results are somewhat lower
than others, and it was always found in such cases either
that the heat had been too great and so caused bubbling, or
too low, in which latter case the small globule of hard green
slag, which is always formed by- the combination with potash
of the traces of silica invariably present in the oxide,
however clean, had remained mixed with innumerable small
prills of metal and so prevented a clean button from forming.
It was found on the other hand that the best results were
obtained when the heat had been just sufficient to cause
this green slag to collect into a globule and rise to the
surface of the fused charge, and yet not so high as to cause
any loss by boiling. The average percentage of tin found
in the cleaned oxides (the true test of the efficiency of the
process) was 76-31, being 27 per cent, higher than that
indicated by the previous table, and on taking six of the
most favourable results we find an average of 77-03; and
on calculating the actual percentage of tin in the ores by-
multiplying this figure with the percentage of cleaned oxide
found, the results shown are strictly accurate, agreeing
exactly with the chemical analysis of the ore. Further
proof of the fact that there is no loss of tin by this process
is given by the two assays of sample Xo. 39. This was
a eassiterite as perfectly pure as possible, the only foreign
matter present being a small trace of silica.
The duplicate assays we made on this for our own satis-
faction give as shown 78-5 per cent, of metallic tin,
absolutely pure, and taking chemically pure SnCX, at7S-S
per cent., we have a margin allowing for the trace of silica
present and any loss in manipulation, of only 0-3 per cent.
Au?. 31. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
667
This we consider to be proof positive of the value of our
process, and we doubt if any other known dry assay save
the dry assay of sold by eupellation is capable of affording
equally trustworthy results. We have recently had occasion
to make a very large number of assays by this process and
have always found it most satisfactory.
Before closing this paper we think it would be useful to
draw attention to a few details of manipulation which are so
essential that we have adopted them as maxims to be
carefully observed in order to obtain the best results.
Make certaiu that the KCy is pure and use it finely
powdered and thoroughly dry, taking care also that the ore,
the spatula used, the paper on which the charge is mixed,
and the crucible itself, are also all quite dry, to ensure
which it is advisable to somewhat heat them.
Avoid crucibles with a rough interior surface.
With regard to temperature of assay introduce the
crucibles into the muffle when at a red heat, so that the
charges shall fuse quickly. From time of fusion leave for
about 10 minutes, shake the pots gently in order to wash
down any prills adhering to the sides, then increase heat for
further ti\ e minutes in order to cause the clobule of silicious
slag to separate from the metal and rise to the surface. As
Boon as this is seen to be the case withdraw the crucibles.
\\ Inn the crucibles have so far cooled that the whole
contents have solidified, remove covers and fill up gradually
with hot water. The pure white alkaline slag dissolves very
readily when treated in this manner, leaving the button of
tin at the bottom, of a silvery white colour, perfectly clean,
and ready for weighing. A further advantage of this method
of extracting the button is, that should there be any prills
of tin, they are left in a state favourable for easy collection.
In closing, we may remark that this process is also well
adapted to the assay of lead ores, whether sulphides, oxides,
or carbonates, and in experiments on such we have ourselves
recently made, with slight modifications of the process, we
have found it to give most excellent results.
Sicurnal anil patent* literature*
Clasi. Page.
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 667
II.— Fuel, Gas, and Light 669
III.— Destructive Distinction, Tar Products, ic ii"l
IV.— Colouring Blatters and Dyes 672
V.— Textiles: Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 680
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 180
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 681
VIII. — Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 687
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars and Cements. . 688
X.— Metallurgy 889
XL— Electro-Cheraistry and Electro-Metallurgy 698
X II.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 696
XIII.— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, &c 696
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 197
XV.— Manures, &c 698
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 699
XVIL— Brewing, Wines, Spirits, 4c 699
XVIII.— Chemistry of Poods, Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 701
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, &c —
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 705
XXI.--Photographic Materials and Processes 7»x
XXII.— Explosives, Matches, &c 70s
XXII I.— Analytical Chemistry 70SI
* Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
HJ.— the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
I.-GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
The Product ion of the Spheroidal State in Boilers.
A. Witz. Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 411—414.
Among the suggested causes of boiler explosions, there
is one which is based on the peculiar phenomena discovered
by Leidenfrost and called by Boutigny the spheroidal state.
This is frequently put forward as an explanation of boiler
explosions which occur when the level of the water within
a boiler has been allowed to fall below its normal height.
It is assumed that when the bottom of the boiler has been
allowed to get red hot, the water remains in the spheroidal
state and there is scarcely any production of steam ; but
that as soon as the temperature of the metal falls below
170° C, the water again comes into actual contact with it, an
enormous quantity of steam is generated, and an explosion
results. On these assumptions the commonly accepted
theory (Boutigny's) is based. It has been accepted
without discussion and it appears to be confirmed by certain
well-known lecture experiments. Thus a miniature boiler
explosion can be produced in a small copper flask, the end
of the spheriodal state being marked by the blowing out of
a cork. But it has never been proved that the same actions
take place on a large scale where the volume of water is
considerable and its mass great in comparison with that of
the metal. In order to submit this to the test of experiment,
the author began by determining the rate of evaporation
under the conditions of the classical lecture experiment,
before and after the spheroidal state.
The experiments were carried on in a large iron spoon, heated
at first in a mercury bath and finally over a naked flame.
In each experiment 40 grms. of water were introduced and
the time required for its complete evaporation noted. The
following are the results : — ■
Temperature of the
Metal.
Time required for
Vaporisation.
°C.
141
Min.
2
Sees.
0
194
0
38
243
1)
25
260
0
22
320
(I
20
Cherry red
10
20
This is in complete accord with the statements of the
physical text-books ; the rate of evaporation increases
to a maximum which is followed by a sudden and notable
drop ; the rate at 320° C. being 31 times as great as at a red
heat.
Experiments were next made with an upright cylindrical
boiler provided with a flat circular bottom (3 dcm. in
diameter and 12 cm. thick) and kept constantly supplied
with water to a depth of 8 cm. The boiler was heated from
below, at first by Bunsen burners and finally (as giving the
highest temperature) by a coke fire with forced blast. The
supply of water being continually renewed, the bottom of
the boiler never became red hot in spite of the intensity of
the heat. The water boiled vigorously, and the rate of
evaporation (expressed in kilos, per square metre per hour)
increased continuously with the intensity of the heat from
63-3 to 433 5.
The supply of water was now stopped ; the contents of
the boiler evaporated completely and its bottom became red
hot. It was now in the condition of an ordinary boiler
which has became overheated owing to an insufficient
supply of water. It is evident that the practical test of the
correctness of the current theory comes in at this point.
If on admitting water into the red-hot boiler the spheroidal
state is produced, this will be shown by a marked reduction
iu the rate of evaporation (in the proportion of 31 to 1 or
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. Si, 1S92.
thereabouts) : if there is no such reduction it may be
regarded as conclusive proof that the water, is not in the
spheroidal state.
On admitting water at 14° into the boiler (heated by seven
Bunseu burners, a blowpipe flame and a oxyhydrogen jet) it
was found that the rate of evaporation (expressed in the
same units) was not reduced but was increased to G62" 8.
In a further experiment in which the boiler was still more
intensely heated by a coke fire, water at a temperature of
90° was introduced; here the rate of evaporation reached
the enormous figure of 994. In both cases a red heat was
maintained. The author concludes that in actual practice
Mater iloes not assume the spheroidal state in a red hot
iron boiler, but that under these conditions the rate of
evaporation reaches a figure which is so high as to merit
the careful attention of engineers. — D. E. J.
PATENTS
Improved Method of, and Apparatus for Effecting the
( 'ondensation and Purification of Steam and other
Condensible Vapours. E. Thcisen, Sinzig-on-the-Khine,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,299, June 17, 1891.
I,- order to avoid using the water resulting from the
condensation of steam in a surface coudenser attached
to a steam engine from entering the boiler as feed-water,
whereby it is liable to carry with it a considerable quantity
of oil and other impurities, the inventor proposes to
re-evaporate the said water by effecting with it the conden-
sation of steam in a second surface condenser, aided by
an air blast. He then condenses the re-evaporated water,
thereby entirely freeing it from impurities and obtaining a
perfectly pure supply for the boiler. — B.
Improved Apparatus for Mixing Liquids for Flushing or
other Purposes. J. J. Adler, Ajmere, Rajputana, East
India. Eng. Pat. 14,173, August's-', 1891.
Tins invention relates to a contrivance for the mixing of
liquids in any desired proportion at the moment of their
discharge under pressure from their respective receptacles.
( )ne of the discharge pipes of the liquids is closed by a
spring valve, the stem of which carries a blade or disc
acted upon by the rush of the liquid from the second pipe,
whereby the said valve is opened in opposition to the action
of its spring. The speed of the liquid issuing from the
second pipe, the size and leverage of the disc, and the
strength of the spring, are factors in determining the
relative quantities of the liquids intended to be mixed. — B.
Apparatus for Regulating the Supply of Volatile Liquids
in Refrigerating Machinery. T. B. Lightfoot, London.
From the Gesellschaft fiir Linde's Eismaschinen, Wies-
baden, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7712, April 23, 1892.
Wini refrigerating machinery worked by the vaporisation
of volatile liquids it i- usual to regulate the quantity of
volatile liquid flowing from the condenser to the vaporising
apparatus by means of a valve adjusted and set for the
passage of a determined quantity of the liquid in a constant
stream. A great disadvantage arises from this regulating
arrangement ou account of the small quantity of refrige-
rating medium generally required, which necessitates the
opening through the valve to be of very slight sectional
area, causing frequent partial or complete obstruction
through the lodgment or deposit of solid particles or
impurities. The object of the present invention is to
obviate this defect by causing the liquid to he admitted
intermittently instead of in a constant stream, thereby
(haling with larger quantities in a smaller space of time.
The valve or cock in this case is actuated automatically by
the engine at fixed intervals, and in order to allow for
variation in the quantity of liquid to be ejected at each
revolution or reciprocation, a moveable piston is fitted into
the plug which can be regulated by hand so as to leave a
larger or smaller space for the reception of liquid within
the plug. — B.
Apparatus for Effecting the Interchange of Hi at and
Moisture by Means of Liquid Spray and Air-Currents.
T. B. Lightfoot, London. From the Gesellshaft fiir
Linde's Eismaschinen, Wiesbaden, Germany. Eng. Pat.
7713, April 23, 1892.
Instead of using metallic surfaces perforated with fine
holes for producing liquid spray, which holes are liable to
be stopped up by the deposit of solid impurities, the
inventor proposes to perforate the metal with long narrow
slits preferably arranged in the circumference of a tube,
allowing the liquid to issue in fan-like shape and to fall in
thin sheets likely to split and to break up into drops, which
action can be assisted by air currents. And he further
causes thin blades of metal to protrude through the slits
and be moved to travel to and fro periodically by
mechanical means, in order to keep the slits free from
deposit. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Purifying II aler for
Boiler and other Technical Purposes. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. From A. Pennell, Kansas City, Missouri,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8833, May 10, 1892.
1 The impure or hard water, mixed with the ingredients for
purification or softening enters the side of a circular tank
in a tangential direction, imparting rotary motion to the
contents. The tank has a conical bottom on which the
impurities collect, the inlet pipe being situated sufficiently
high above the bottom to prevent the stirring up of the
deposit, which is drawn off from time to time through a
central opening. The purified water is stated to rise to the
top of the tank, and leaves it by an overflow pipe. — B.
An Improved Continuously - Operating Centrifugal
Machine. I. v. Szczeniowsky and G. v. Piontkowski,
Podohien, Russia. Eng. Pat. 928b', May 16, 1^92.
The inventors construct a continuously- operating centri-
fugal machine by using a conical drum with perforated
sides. The upper edge of the drum is surrounded by a
short cylindrical perforated part, which rotates with the
drum but is prevented from moving in a vertical direction,
whilst the drum itself can be raised or lowered as required,
thereby causing its upper edge to be surrounded by a short
lrum with vertical sides of more or less height. According
as the height is greater or less, the material pushed outward
and upwards on the inclined sides of the rotating conical
drum forms a rim above of dried material of more or less
thickness, which reacts on the ascending material and
causes it to be retained under the action of the centrifugal
force for a longer or shorter time. There are devices for
raising and depressing the drum, for regulating the thick-
ness of the material on its admission to the drum, for
adjusting the issue of vapour or liquid required for mixing
with the material on its passage along the sides of the
drum, for collecting the liquids and vapour thrown off
during the operation as well as the dried material itself. — B.
Improvements in Still Columns. H. Hirzel, Leipzig,
Plagwitz, Germany. Eng. Pat, 9538, May 19, 1892.
In Still column shelves, as usually constructed with the inlet
and overflow pipes placed diametrically opposite to each
other, the wash, in its passage from one to the other,
frequently flows only along one side of the shelves, resulting
in a decreased ^efficiency of the apparatus. The improve-
ment consists in placing the iulet and outlet pipes closely
together, but with a partition between them. By this
means the wash is compelled to travel right round the
central " bell" or " bonnet," and conies into contact with
the whole of the vapour escaping underneath the latter.
-II. T. P.
Aus.31.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
669
II.— FUEL. GAS. AND LIGHT.
Tito Flameh ss ( 'ombusfion of Coal-Gas. F. Parmentier.
Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 744— 74fi.
A PLATINUM crucible is heated iu a Buusen burner and the
gas is turned oil' when the platinum is red hot. It is
turned on again as soon as the crucible has cooled below a
red heat. Thereupon the crucible again becomes hot and
incandescent. Sometimes the gaseous mixture re-ignites.
These facts are well known, but the re-ignition appears
to be a phenomenon of an uncertain and capricious nature.
Tlie author has endeavoured to determine under what
conditions it takes places. He first tried a fine wire (made
either from compressed or fused platinum) and found that
when treated as above described it always became raised,
at first to a dull red, and then a bright red heat. When
the wire was held at one-half the height of the flame, and
outside the zone where the blue cone appears in the usual
Same, re-ignition always occurs, and takes place suddenly.
Wires of larger diameter were next tried, and it was found
that as the thickness increased so also did the difficulty of
producing ignition ; with the larger sizes the temperatures
obtained did not exceed a dull red heat. But if the wires,
instead of being held over the burner, are rolled in spirals,
vivid incandescence and ignition are again obtained. When
a wire has lost its polish by long use or frequent heating,
it does not so readily produce ignition. Platinum gauze,
such as is used in apparatus for fractional distillation, very
rapidly becomes red hot ; then the gaseous mixture ignites
above the gauze, and soon after the flame " catches down "
to the burner. Spongy platinum becomes hot under the
above circumstances, but it scarcely becomes red hot, and
it does not cause ignition.
Platinum crucibles, such as are used iu analysis, were
next tried. Well-polished crucibles, and especially small
ones, easily produced iguition. With larger crucibles
ignition was only obtained with difficulty, and not at all
when the capacity exceeded 50 cc. Nor did it occur with
crucibles which were dirty or had lost their polish. This
the author attributes to the fact that polished platinum has
a lower emissive power, and therefore loses heat less
readily.
It frequently happens that after ignition has been obtained
several times, the next attempt fails, even with the same
piece of platinum and under the same circumstances. The
platinum becomes red hot, but does not set the mixture on
fire. This happens frequently when the air in the room is
undisturbed and the observer remains quiet. Under these
circumstances ignition generally follows the slightest dis-
turbance— any motion of the observer, a breath of air, or
the shutting of a door. A parallel to this curious fact may
lie observed by holding a light near the orifice of a burner,
but not quite near enough to set fire to the gas issuing
from it. If the current of gas be stopped for an instant,
or even slightly checked, ignition at once occurs. — D. E. J.
The Conversion of Sensible Seat into Chemical Energy
in llie Production of Semi Water-Gas and Carbon
Dioxide Proditeer-Gas. A. Naumaun. Ber. 25, 1892,
55G— 562.
Three methods exist for the conversion of coal into gas
for heating purposes, the first being the production of
ordinary coal-gas by destructive distillation; the second
that of water-gas by the action of steam upon heated coal ;
whilst the third consists in the formation of producer-gas
from coal and a limited quantity of air. Of these, coal-gas
is too costly for any but small uses, only a portion of the
total energy available being utilised. With regard to the
others, their adoption depends on the thermo-chemical
relations to be observed in their manufacture.
The formation of water-gas is an endothermie reaction,
thus —
(1-)
H.,0 (liquid) + C = H. f CO - 38,770 cal.
The preparation of producer-gas is, on the other hand,
exothermic —
(2.)
C + O + 53 '6 parts by vol. of nitrogen =
CO + 53 parts by vol. of nitrogen + 29.690 cal.
" — , '
Producer gas.
The amount of heat here recorded causes the theoretical
j temperature of producer-gas at the moment of its for-
mation to be 2,169" O, assuming that the specific heat of
its constituents is the same at high as at ordinary tempera-
tures. This heat of formation (29,690 eal.) thus represented
is utilised, if the gas be consumed on the spot as fast as it
is produced, but is lost if the gas be conveyed to any
distance, or stored and let cool to the ordinary temperature
of the air, 15° O, the amount of heat then available being
only that evolved by the combustion of the carbon monoxide
in the gas, that is 67,960 cal. Out of a total of 97,650 cal.,
| therefore, only 67,960 cal. would in this latter case be
available, corresponding to a waste of 30-4 per cent, of the
theoretical quantity.
Two methods exist by which this loss may be avoided.
Either sufficient water may be introduced into the producer
to form water gas at the expense of the sensible heat, or
carbon dioxide may be led in and reduced to carbon
monoxide by the same means. The product of the first
process may be termed semi water-gas, and that of the
second carbon dioxide producer - gas. The relative
advantages of these plans is determined by the following
considerations : — The thermal changes that occur in the
generation of water-gas and produeer-£"as have been
indicated in equations (1) and (2). Those proper to the
formation of water-gas from water in the state of gas
instead of in the liquid condition, and of carbon monoxide
from carbon dioxide, are given below : —
(3.)
HX> (gaseous at 15" C.) + C = H, + CO - 27,970
cal.
Water-gas.
(4-)
C02 + C = 2 CO - 38,270 cal.
The composition of an ideal generator-gas is 34 '3 per
cent, of CO and 6 j • 7 per cent, of N by volume. When
the heat of formation of this is utilised to the utmost by
the first method given above, i.e., by the introduction of
water, gaseous or liquid, the resulting semi water-gas has
the composition —
From Liquid H.O
at 15° C.
From Gaseous
H20 at 15° C.
Per Cent, by Vol.
65 '55
34-45
57-9
42-1
10O-OO
100-0
Equivalent to—
17-2
39-7
43-1
2fl
40-9
38-0
160 -0
100-0
670
TI1K JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aub.si.18K.
( arbon dioxide producer-gas made uuder the same con-
ditions of perfect utilisation of the sensible heat has the
composition —
Vols, per Cent.
Producer-gas 65-3
Additional carl ion monoxide 3t'7
lOO'ii
Equivalent to—
Carlton monoxide 57'1
Nitrogen 42'".'
1(H) '0
The thermal values of producer-gas, water-gas, semi
water-gas from liquid water (at 15° C.) and from gaseous
water (at 15 C.I. and of carbon dioxide producer-ga- are
exhibited in the following table : —
Heat of
combustion
of 1 litre,
the water
produced
being
supposed
gaseous
at 15° C.
No. of Heat
units given
calculated pr0llucts of
Temperature combustion
of Flame. «g^
, in cooling
1°C.
Producer-gas
Carbon dioxide pro-
ducer-gas.
Semi water-gas from
liquid water at 15° C.
Semi water-gas frou.
us waterat 153C.
Water-gas
Cal.
0-6487
0-7101
0-7016
0-73U3
0-1)931
In actual practice, Dowson gas, formed by blowing steam
into a producer, represents a commercial variety of semi
water-gas. The following are examples of its composition : —
Hydrogen
I arbon monoxide
Methane
Ethylene
Carbon dioxide . . .
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Vols.
per
Cent.
18-73
17
Z5-05
23
0-31
2
0-31
• •
tt'57
0
18-98
o-
0'0S
By this method therefore a gas is made consisting partly of
semi water-gas and partly of carbon dioxide producer-gas ;
it has the disadvantage that large quantities of nitrogen are
introduced into the producer.
The paper concludes with a table giving the weights of
the various products of combustion of 1 litre of each of the
four types of fuel-gas which have been discussed : —
Carbon
Dioxide.
Nitrogen.
Water.
Gruis.
Producer-gas.
0-6762
0-806
Semi-water gas from gaseous
water at 15 ' .
Carbon dioxide producer-gas 1-125
Water-gas.
1-061
1-6474
1-965
1-909
3 it 17
— B. B.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method for the Solidification of Mineral
Oils. W. and W. F. S. Chenhall, Bristol. " Eng. Pat.
4146, March 12, 1891.
Thk solidification is effected by heating 600 parts of oils or
volatile and inflammable fluids with 300 parts of fused or
dissolved soda, 10 parts of dissolved chloride of lime, and
90 parts of resin, until the mixture becomes solid, after
which the mass is pressed into such form, shape, and size
as niav be required for burning, package, and transport.
— U. B.
Improvements relating to the Treatment of Veal.
E. Kischgitz, London. Eng. Pat. 10,452, June 19, 1891.
Two processes are here described for preserving peat from
deterioration.
In one process the peat is thoroughly ground in a
disintegrator, and then well mixed with an aqueous solution
of hydrate of lime, free from carbonate ; the fluid mixture
is then run through channels to the drying ground, and
when it has solidified, it is cut into blocks. The object of
adding the lime-water is to neutralise the acids present in
the peat ; the lime also combines with the silica and
alumina to form a protective petrification. When the peat
is poor in mineral constituents, a small quantity of some
silicate, such as potassium silicate, is mixed with the lime-
water, and sometimes a little potassium permanganate is
added to accelerate the setting of the coating solution.
Peat treated in this way does not require to be compressed
into bricks by machinery, and when thoroughly dried it
ignites readily, and gives a bright and large flame.
In the second process the acids in the peat are neutralised
by the addition of soda, potash, ferrous sulphate, or other
suitable substance. — F. S. K.
The discrepancy between these results and those
indicated above as representing the theoretical composition
is elucidated by the consideration that the ideal semi water-
gas is assumed to be produced from pure carbon, whereas
coal is used commercially, and further, that if the conversion
of the carbon dioxide, shown in the foregoing analyses, into
carbon monoxide, were effected, the volume of the latter
gas would be double that of the former, considerably raising
the total percentage.
Another method, differing to some extent in principle
from those which have been described, for utilising the
sensible heat of a gas-producer pure and simple, is that
adopted in the new Siemens furnace (Eng. Pat. 4644 of
1889, see this Journal, 1890, 1119) in which not only is
steam blown into the producer, but a portion of the products
of combustion are returned from the furnace to the pro-
ducer, their sensible heat being thus rendered available.
Improvements in or connected with the Manufacture ■;/'
Illuminating Gas. J. H. Fergusson, Liverpool. Eng.
Pat. 13,431, August 8, 1891.
Is order to obtain a richer gas and a higher " make " from
any given coal, the following process is adopted : — The coal
is carbonised in the usual manner at a high temperature
and the gas passed into the hydraulic main, the dip-pipes
being closed with a liquid seal. The gas, and the uncon-
densed tarry vapours, are then passed through ducts or
channels, which are at a comparatively low temperature,
and in which the eondensible vapours are converted into a
permanent gas ; the temperature of these ducts is controlled
by suitable dampers, the outlet being kept much cooler
than the inlet. Tar may also be advantageously introduced
into the ducts. — F. S. K.
Aug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
671
Improvements in the Purification of Gas. W. L. Wise,
London. From Solvay and Co., Brussels. Eng. Pat.
13,550, August 11, 1891.
It is well known that it is difficult, with the ordinary
materials, to entirely remove the last traces of carbon
dioxide from coal-gas, and that in consequence the
illuminating power of the gas is appreciably diminished.
According to this patent the gas, purified in the usual
manner, is passed through a purifier containing ferrite of
soda, which absorbs even the slightest trace of carbon
dioxide ; the purifying material is prepared as described in
former patents (Eng. Pat. 4364, 1892, and Eng. Pat. 1974,
1887), and when exhausted it can be revivified by heating
it at a temperature above 700J C. in a suitable retort.
Ferrite of soda also absorbs sulphuretted hydrogen, but
the spent material in this case cannot be readily revivified.
—It. S. K.
iVeto or Improved Processes for the Manufacture of Gas
from Water Vapour, and for Purification and Separa-
tion of Mixed Gases. A. Longsdon, London. Eng.
Pat. 8426, May 4, 1892.
One of the greatest objections to the use of water-gas for
domestic purposes is its poisonous nature, which is due to
the presence of carbon monoxide. By impregnating the
carbonaceous material with a solution of potassium car-
bonate before it is raised to incandescence and treated with
steam, the temperature at which the decomposition takes
place can be kept as low as possible ; under these conditions
the reaction which takes place can be represented by the
equation —
C + 2 H20 = CO, + 4 H
and the gas produced is almost free from carbon monoxide.
The analysis of the raw gas obtained in this way from
peat coke gave the following result : —
1'ir Cent.
Carbonic acid gas 1!6"4
Carbonic oxide 1 ' -
Hydrogen 62"0
Hydrocarbon gas 2"3
Nitrogen 6'6
( >xygen 1 ' 5
This gas has a high calorific value, and when freed from
carbon dioxide, consists chiefly of hydrogen. For absorbing
the carbon dioxide from the crude gas, purifiers containing
some moistened carbonaceous material impregnated with
potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate are employed.
This material readily absorbs carbon dioxide, and when
saturated the bicarbonate which has been formed can be
readily decomposed, and the carbon dioxide recovered and
used for industrial purposes.
Lime, heated to a red heat in a suitable retort, may also
be employed for removing the carbon dioxide from the
crude water-gas ; when the lime is spent the carbon dioxide
is expelled by means of a current of steam. — P. S. K.
Improvements in Coke- Extinguishing or Quenching and
Loading Apparatus. F. J. Collin, Dortmund, Germany.
Eng. l'at. 8767, May 9, 1892.
In quenching coke by means of water-jets, as is usually
done, the doors and side walls of the furnaces are damaged,
and some of the coke burns away before the damping
operation commences.
According to this patent the coke is received by a
travelling band or apron, the speed of which can be
regulated at will, and is immediately carried, first through
;i water reservoir, in which it is quenched, and then to the
point of discharge or delivery. — F. S. K.
Ill— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Contributions to the Chemistry of Brown-Coal Tar.
F. Heusler. Ber. 25, 1892, 1665.
In text-books the statement is frequently met with that the
brown-coal tar oils consist essentially of aliphatic hydro-
carbons belonging to the saturated and to the ethylene
series. These statements are merely the consequence of
reasoning by analogy, for the scanty literature on these oils
hardly affords sufficient evidence for such conclusions.
Nor do they accord with the fact that brown-coal seams
are, as a rule, associated with large quantities of fossil
resins which, on distillation, yield oils the nature of which
points to their relationship to the aromatic hydrocarbons
and especially the terpenes.
The oils which form the subject of the following notes
were obtained from the well-known Riebeck'sche Montan-
u-erke. Not only the commercial distillates were examined,
but also the lowest boiling fractions, which in practice are
allowed to escape as vapour.
The distillates were washed with dilute acid and alkali, to
remove all basic and phenoloid substances. They were
then fractionated by means of steam, carefully dried by
potash, and at last repeatedly fractionated in copper stills.
Both Linnemann's and Norton-Otten's dephlegmators were
used, the latter yielding better results than the former.
Mere fractionation seemed unlikely to yield pure substances,
since above 180 ' a partial decomposition of the hydrocarbons
appeared to occur.
The following methods were therefore resorted to : —
1. Method of Partial Oxidation.
Wagner's process of oxidation of non-saturated hydro-
carbons by means of an alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate (this Journal, 1892, 135) was thought of
for separating the saturated hydrocarbons from the non-
saturated ones, the latter becoming changed into glycols.
Before, however, Wagner's method was followed, the author
tried partial oxidation by means of permanganate in an
acid solution. The oxidation of the fractionated oils mixed
with sulphuric acid seems to take place readily at first, but
at last a stage is reached when the permanganate is only
slowly decolourised. At this moment the further addition of
permanganate is discontinued and the unattacked hydro-
carbons are conveniently separated by distillation in a
current of steam. There remains in the distillation-flask a
resinous mass, whilst the hydrocarbons entirely differ in
their behaviour from the original tar oils. In the first
instance they are free from the peculiar, disagreeable smell
of the brown-coal tar oils ; next, their boiling point is found
to have considerably decreased. Whilst the lower boiling
crude oils are most violently acted on by nitric acid, the
hydrocarbons left after the oxidation, as specified, may be
easily oxidised — just like coal-tar hydrocarbons — yielding
a heavy oil which is partly soluble in caustic soda with an
intense reddish-brown colour. The insoluble part consists
of the nitro-derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons.
2. Method op Partial Brominatiox.
The crude oils were dissolved in absolute ether and
bromine was added until an evolution of hydrobromic acid
was noticeable. It may be assumed that at this moment
all the non-saturated substances had directly absorbed
bromine, and that a substitution in the molecule of the
saturated substances had commenced to take place. On
evaporating the ether and distilling in a current of steam,
at first a light oil was obtained ; later on a heavy oil — the
bromo-addition product of the non-saturated hydrocarbons
— passed over. The light oils are essentially a mixture of
aromatic and saturated aliphatic Irydrocarbons.
3. Action of Sulphuric Acid of vartino Strengths.
Concentrated sulphuric acid acts on the brown-eoal tar
oils with evolution of large quantities of sulphurous acid.
A diluted acid, 1 owever (two parts of B O V and one
part of water), dissolves certain substances from the oil,
672
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si. 1893.
without giving rise to the formation of sulphurous acid. The
author washed the tar oils twice with sulphuric acid. After
siphoning off the acid solutioD, the residual oily layer wiis
washed and distilled. The oils thus obtained had a lower
boiling point than the original oils, and behaved towards
nitric acid just like the oils recovered by the oxidation
process. On shaking them with concentrated sulphuric
acid at the ordinary temperature, sulphurous acid is
evolved ; on cooling, however, the liberation of sulphurous
acid may be prevented. The remaining oils (after the
washing" with concentrated sulphuric acid) seemed to
consist of aromatic and saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons.
The substances soluble in acid yielded, on being subjected
to dry distillation, large quantities of sulphurous acid. The
author reserves the study of this reaction for further
research : the possible presence of substances related to the
thiophens is, however, hinted at.
Quantitative Estimation of the Aromatic Hydrocarbons
belonging to the Benzene Series. — The hydrocarbons
obtained bv the processes 1 and 3 were examined more
closelv. An acid-washed fraction, boiling from 80° — 93° C,
was nitrated, and the resulting nitrobenzene identified by
transforming it into dinitrobenzene. This fraction was
found to contain about 34 per cent, of benzene which is,
in the author's opinion, certainly too low. The nitric acid
solution from which the nitrobenzene had been separated
contained solid fatty acids, the greater part of which
consisted of oxalic acid. A fraction of oils boiling between
100° and 110° — obtained by the first process— contained 45
per cent, of toluene, estimated by the crystallised dinitro-
toluene. m-Xylene and mesitylene were found in higher
boiling fractions and identified by the trinitro-m-xylene and
the trinitromesitylene. The fraction of oils, boiling from
135= — 140° C., contained about 30 per cent, of aromatic
hydrocarbons. The author concludes that the percentage
of aromatic hydrocarbons of the benzene scries decreases
with the rising of the boiling points.
Quantitative Estimation of the Aliphatic Saturated
Hydrocarbons. — A careful examination of the oils unacted
upon by nitric acid showed, on subjecting them to
elementary analysis, that Markownikow's naphthenes were
completely absent. The following table gives the percentages
of saturated hydrocarbons in the' oils which had been
previously oxidised by means of permanganate.
Fraction.
Boiling Point.
Saturated Hydrocarbons.
I.
: n -100
Per Cent
li'50
II.
135—140
17-25
111.
iin-n.->
is -oo
IV.
115—150
19-75
V.
150—155
i0-25
VI.
155— 1«0
21- .Ml
The amount of saturated hydrocarbons increases as the
boiling point rises.
Tirpenes could not be detected in the brown-coal tar
oils although the author carefully searched for them, using
the methods suggested in Wallach's researches on the ter-
peues. The author especially looked for pinene and
dipentene (this Journal, 18811, 959; 1891, 788), but, as
stated, in vain.
Indene and Cumarone. which have been shown to be
present in coal-tar oils (this Journal, 1890, 275 ; 1891,38)
were also absent.
Naphthalene, however, was found in a fraction boiling
from 180°— 240" and identified by means of its picrate,
from which pure naphthalene was isolated. The percentage
of this hvdrocarbon amounted to at least 4 or 5 per cent.
The author continues these researches and predicts that
they will throw important light on the nature of the hydro-
carbons of the brown-coal tar oils. — J. L.
H -COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
On the Rate of Decomposition of Diazo-Compounds.
Hausser and Muller. Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 760—763.
The authors have found that the rate of decomposition of
metadiazosulphobenzene, C6H4(S( l,)(X:) 1:3, depends upon
the concentration, whereas that of the corresponding para-
compound is independent of the concentration. The rate
of decomposition of the latter is only about one-fourth
that of its isomer. It thus appears that the diazo-moleeule
is more stable when the para-position with respect to it is
occupied by the radicle SOa. In order to test whether this
relative stability is due to the particular radicle SO:i, or to
the fact that it occupies the para-position, they have studied
the rate of decomposition of methylsulphodiazobenzene,
Cr,H3(C'H,)(S( I i(\.;) 1:2:4, in which the para-position,
relatively to X.,, is occupied by the methyl group. They
find that in this compound also the para-position appears
to confer the same properties ; the rate of decomposition
is slow and is independent of the concentration. — D. K. J.
Oxazine Dyes. B. Mohlau. Ber. 25, 1892, 1055— 10GG.
In the first part of the paper the author suggests a rational
system of nomenclature for the oxazine dyes. These com-
pounds may be classed in two groups, which stand in the
same relation to one another as the indamines to the indo-
phenols. The members of the group which correspond with
the indamines may be collectively named quinoxazines, as
they may be regarded as derived from one of the two
chromogens —
/\
and
XII ()
Phenoquinoxazine or
qumoxazine.
NH O
X;i]>htuaquinoxazine
The following commercial dyes belong to this group : —
Gallocyanine, Prune, Meldola's blue, Muscarine, and Nile
blue.
The members of the second group, which correspond
with the indophenols may be termed quinoxazones, and
regarded as derived from the as yet unknown chromogen —
N
O O
Phenoquinoxazone or quinoxazone.
To this group belong resorufine and its derivatives, such
as resorcinol blue ; also resorufamine, orcirufine, and
orcirufamine.
In the second part of the paper the author describes two
new quinoxazone dyes which are formed by the oxidation
of dialkyl derivatives of metahydroxyparamido-aniline.
N itrosodimethyhnetamidophenol hydrochloride —
C8H,„S.,0:. 1IC1,
prepared by treating dimethylmetamidophenol with hydro
chloric acid and sodium nitrite as described in the patent
(No. 45,268) of the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik, is a
crystalline compound soluble in water with a yellowish-red
colouration. The free base, CsHi0N2O2, melts at 169°, and
is readily soluble in hot, but only sparingly in cold water ;
it combines with alumina forming a brownish-yellow, with
chromium sesquioxide forming a yellowish-brown, and with
Auk. 31,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
673
ferric oxide forming a light-brown lake ; these lakes can be
fixed on vegetable fibres, and the two last-named are fairly
stable with regard to soap.
Nitroaodiethylmetamidophenol hydrochloride —
C10HHN2O;, HC1,
can be prepared in a similar manner ; it is a yellow crystalline
compound. The free base is readily soluble in hot water ;
it forms with the oxides of aluminium, chromium, and iron
respectively brownish-yellow, brown, and yellowish-brown
lakes, that containing chromium being stable as regards
soap, whereas the iron lake is only moderately stable and
the aluminium compound unstable.
Asymmetrical dimethyl Jiamidoquino.razone —
NH,
O
N
O
N(CH3)2
is prepared by dissolving 13 parts of nitrosodimethylamido-
phenol in 1 30 parts of water.and adding to the warm solution
a mixture of 20 parts of stannous chloride and 20 parts of
32 per cent, hydrochloric acid; the solution, which
now contains the hydrochloride of metahydroxyparamido-
dimethylaniline, is cooled with ice, mixed with a slight
excess of soda, and a current of air passed for several
hours until oxidation is complete ; as the dye is decom-
posed by alkalis it should not be left too long in the
solution. It is purified by recrystallisation from alcohol,
from which it separates in rhombic crystals melting at
223° ; it is only sparingly soluble in water, yielding a blue
solution. In an acetic acid bath it dyes silk a violet shade
which shows a brownish-red fluorescence ; its solution in
excess of a dilute mineral acid is orange-red, in concentrated
sulphuric acid bluish-violet.
Vimcthylamidoqnino.razone —
X
o
0
N(CH3),
is formed when an ice-cold solution of the preceding
compound is treated with amyl nitrite and concentrated
sulphuric acid in alcoholic solution, the mixture kept for
half an hour, and then boiled until the evolution of nitrogen
is at an end ; the product is poured into water, the filtered
solution saturated with ammonia, and the precipitated base
reerystallised from dilute alcohol. It forms almost black
lustrous crystals, melts above 250°, and imparts to silk in
a boiling water-bath a beautiful carmine-red colour and a
vermilion fluorescence. Dimethylamidoquinoxazone can
also be prepared by heating resorcinol with 1 • 1 parts of
dimethylmetamidophenol and 4 parts of concentrated
sulphuric acid on the water-hath until a reaction sets in ;
the product is mixed with water, the filtered solution
saturated with ammonia, and the precipitate purified as
already described. The yield is better by this method than
by the preceding one.
Asymmetrical diethyldiamidoquinoxazone, C16H,-N302,
can he obtained from nitrosodiethylmetamidophenol just as
described in the case of the corresponding dimethyl-
derivative ; it forms lustrous yellow crystals, melts at 211°,
ami dissolves in boiling water with a violet-blue colouration ;
ii> an acetic acid bath it dyes silk a violet-blue shade which
shows a brownish-red fluorescence.
Solutions of this base and of the corresponding dimethyl-
derivative show very characteristic absorption spectra, and
are iu most cases fluorescent. — F. S. K.
Synthesis of Dehydrothiotoluidine. L. Gattermann and
(I. Neuherg. Her. 25, 1*92, 1081 — 1085. (Compare
Pfitzinger and Gattermann, this Journal 1889, 008, and
Green, 1889, 383.)
The constitution of dehydrothiotoluidine has been already
determined by Pfitzinger and Gattermann (Joe cit.), but
owing to the increasing commercial importance not only
of primuline itself, but also of other aromatic bases
containing sulphur, it seemed desirable to obtain some
further proof that the constitution assigned to dehydrothio-
toluidine is correct. This the authors have succeeded iu
doing by synthesising dehydrothiotoluidine in the following
manner : —
Paranitrobenztoluide, X( >o.C6H4.CO.NH.CcH,.CrI3, is
first prepared by the action of paranitiobenzoic chloride on
paratoluidiue ; it crystallises in yellow needles and melts at
197°. This compound is then converted into tiie dichloride,
Xi >...< ;H4.CC12.NH.C61T4.CI13, with the aid of phosphorus
pentachloride, and from the dichloride thionitrobenztoluide
can be obtained by the action oi hydrogen sulphide in dry
benzene solution, but the yield is small. On oxidising the
thiamide with potassium ferricyanide in alkaliue solution
it is converted into nitrodehydrothiotoluidine —
/S\n
N02.C6rT
c.ci;H,.cir;,
from which dehydrothiotoluidine can be obtained by
reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid.
Dehydrothiotoluidine can also be obtained by treating the
dichloride mentioned above with paratoluidiue to convert
it into the amidine —
,N.CCH4.CH3
N02CGH4.C^
XNH.C|1H,.CH:)
and heating the latter with carbon bisulphide at 200', when
it is converted into the thiamide. — 1<\ 8. K.
Juloles. W. Kaiser and A. Reissert. Ber. 25, 1892,
1190—1192.
When ethyl ethylacetoaeetate is boiled with tetrahydro-
quinoline there is formed a crystalline substance which
the authors name Keto-ethylmethyljuloline. On treating
this substance with phosphorus pentachloride it yields au
indigo-blue dye containing chlorine, which is probably an
analogue of julole violet (compare Reissert, Ber. 25, 121) ;
the dye is readily decomposed with separation of hydrogen
chloride, being converted into a compound having a similar
shade, and which is insoluble in water. — F. S. K.
The Manufacture of Tetrabromofluorescein. C. Miihl-
hauser. Dingl. I'olyt. J. 284, 1892, 21—23 and 4G — 47.
(See also this Journal, 1887, 283.)
Fluorescein is dissolved by means of caustic soda in the
steam- jacketed pan A, and bromine is dissolved in a similar
pun Aa (see Figs. 1 and 2).
The resulting solutions are allowed to cool and aie then
siphoned into the wooden vat B, and diluted with water.
Hydrochloric acid is run in from the barrel C, the whole is
boiled with open steam, diluted and allowed to settle. The
liquor is run off into the vat E, and after one or two wash-
ings the colour is finally brought on to the filtering trough
D, where it is drained. The liquor in E is allowed to stand
for about 12 hours and is then filtered through D.,. The
colour in D2 passing on to the succeeding batch, that "from I)
being dried on the trays F. To obtain a soluble product
several methods are adopted. Either gaseous ammonia is
passed over the material (see previous abstract) or if is
dissolved in caustic soda and the solution obtained evapo-
rated ; or else the product is dissolved in alcoholic soda
and the sodium salt subsequently crystallised out. The
last-mentioned method gives the purest product and is
carried out as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The tretrabromo-
rluoresce'in is dissolved in warm alcoholic soda in the
674
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si, uu.
Fig. 1.
y~ !
The Manli uti be of Tetrabkomofldorhsck'in.
Fig. 3.
iwr
Fig. 4.
l'j W ion Mini facturf. ok Tetrabromofltjorbsi l l\.
tns.sx.X89a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
075
copper pun G provided with water-jacket and the solution
thus obtained is run into the wooden vat H, where it cools.
The sodium salt separates out in crystalline condition and
tlic alcoholic molten liquor is then siphoned off into the
trough h, whence it. flows to the pressure cylinder K to be
forced to the rectifying apparatus. The crystals obtained
ia the vats are drained on canvas filters.
lu the preceding method of manufacture, bromiuation
was performed without the aid of alcohol ; in brominating
however, in presence of alcohol, the plan sketched in Figs.
3 and 4 is used.
The whole plant consists of three parts (1) brominating
cylinders, (2) apparatus for recovery of alcohol, (3) plant
for transforming the product into a soluble salt. The
necessary quantity of spirit is fed into three or more of
the enamelled east-iron pots A in the following manner ;
K; is a wrought-iron stock tank from which the spirit is
run to the measuring vessel M whence it is forced to the
pots A. Fluorescein is stirred in and bromine is added with
continual stirring. After the whole has stood for several
days the alcoholic liquor is run by aid of the troughs a to
the cylinder B. A second quality of product is obtained
from this liquor by adding water aud then filtering through
the filter-press (.', the liquor running finally to D.
The colour in the pots A is washed with fresh alcohol,
the washings running by way of a to B, whence the liquid
is forced by air pressure to D. The eosin in the pots is
transferred to woollen filters, and then pressed and the cakes
dried o'> enamelled plates on the water-bath. The dried eosin
is then converted into the ammonium salt by passing dry
ammonia over it. The ammonia is obtained from the pan
O, then dried by caustic soda in P and passed over the
rosin spread upon wooden trays contained in Q. A specially
good product is got by transforming tetrabromofluorescein
into the sodium salt.
The acid alcoholic liquors in D are neutralised with milk
of lime aud forced through d to the rectifying apparatus,
where it is worked up to 96 — 97 per cent, spirit. G is the
dephlegmator, H the condenser ; L serves for regulating the
pressure, and I for parting of the distillates ; first runnings
pass into K, 96 — 97 per cent. ■ product to K2 and final
distillate to K:i. After the distillation is completed, the
bromide residues are run into R, whence they are forced to
the bromine regeneration apparatus. — T. L. B.
The Manufacture of Fluorescein. Otto Miihlhauser.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 283, 1892, 182.
In a former paper (Dingl. Polyt. J. 263, 49 ; this Journal,
1887, p. 2S3) the author described two methods for the
manufacture of the mother-substance of the eosins. He
describes now the plant employed in this process, which latter
essentially consists in the treatment of phthalic acid and
resorcinol, with or without zinc chloride, at a temperature
of ISO C. The melt so obtained is purified by dissolving it
in caustic soda, re-precipitating with hydrochloric acid, aud
subsequently drying the well-washed precipitate.
1. The melt is produced in a pan a, which is heated in
an oil-bath b. The whole arrangement is heated in the
furnace A (sec Figs. 1 and 3).
Fig. In.
Fig. 3.
Plant for Preparation of Fluorescein.
2. The melt is dissolved in the apparatus B (Fig. 3), which
is provided with a large aperture for working, and can be
closed air-tight. Pipe 6 is in connexion with an air-
compressor, and serves to force the contents of the apparatus
over into C. Above the manhole of the apparatus steam and
water connexions are arranged.
3. C is a filter-box for the filtration of the alkaline
fluorescein solution.
4. D is a vat for the reception of the filtrate, and precipi-
tation of the fluorescein.
5. E is a filter-box for the filtration of the contents of D.
6. F are drying-pans for the precipitated and washed
fluorescein. The pans are constructed on the principle of a
water-bath which is heated by steam.
This plant is calculated for an output of 36 kilos, of
fluorescein per day. — C. 0. W.
The Manufacture oj Eosin soluble in Alcohol (Ethyleosin)
Otto Miillhiiuser. Dingl. Polyt. J. 283, 1892, '210.
In a former paper (Dingl. Polyt. J. 263, 49 and 99; this
Journal, 1887, p. 283) for the manufacture of tetrabromo-
ethyl-fluorescein, which is the eosin soluble in alcohol of
commerce, the bromination aud etherification are performed
in one operation by the treatment ot a hot solution of
fluorescein in alcohol with bromine. The apparatus employed
for the process is represented in Figs. 1 and 2, and consists
essentially of a steam-jacketed pan A and a condenser B.
The inside of the pan A (Fig. 2) and also the agitator a
are enamelled, and the lid of the pan is provided with the
connections b aud c, manhole, the stuffing-box e for the
agitator, and a gauge-glass. On the bottom of the steam-
jacket A' an outlet i for the waste steam is provided. The
Fig. 1.
676
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31, ism:
lead coil of the condenser B is connected with pan A by
means of the copper elbow k and the brass tap /. On the
top of the condenser the glass bottle D, provided with a
glass tap, is so arranged that the bromine contained in the
bottle can be introduced iuto the pan A through the glass
tube m and the brass tap n. Beneath the overflow of the
lead coil the jug E is placed.
In working with this plant, the pan A (Figs. 1 and 2) is
first charged with the required quantity of alcohol ; then the
agitator is started, and the fluorescein added through the
manhole, which is then closed. As soon as the alcohol is
boiling, the bromine contained in the glass bottle D is added,
when a violent reaction takes place. Should any liquid be
ejected from the end of the coil, it will be caught in the jug
shown in Fig. 2. As soon as all the bromine has been added,
the taps / and n are closed, and the mass heated for some
time under a pressure of li atmospheres (23 lb.). The
whole is then left to eoo!, subsequently the lid is removed,
the supernatant acid alcohol siphoned off into the jars C
(Fig. I), and the remaining eosin acid thrown on to asbestos
filters. The cake of eosin acid so obtained is washed in
Fig. 2.
succession with alcohol and water in the enamelled pan D
(Fig. 1 ), filtered again, pressed, and dried on the steam pan I.
In order to render the eosin-acid soluble, it is suspended in the
pan F in a mixture of water and alcohol, heated to boiling,
and the necessary quantity of caustic potash, which is
contained in the bottle x, added to it. After a few days'
standing the apparatus is opened, the mother- liquor
siphoned off into the jars G, the green crystals thrown on a
filter, pressed, washed again with water in the pan H,
filtered and pressed again, and eventually dried on (he
strain pans I. — C. 0. W.
Apparatus for the Mantjpactdre of Ethvi.-eosix.
Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Ammonium
Sails. Otto Muhlb&uscr. Dingl. Po'lyt. J. 283, 1892, 2:'.4.
The eosin acids can be converted into ammonium salts by
passing over them a dry current of ammonia, and in a similar
manner the ammonium salts of many other acids may he
obtained. The acids employed must be perfectly dry. very
finely powdered, and remain in this condition at the tempe-
ratures at which the reaction takes place. The apparatus
used consists of three parts.
1. The ammonia still A with manhole a and flu
The still A is fixed in a furnace, and by means of the
pipes c connected with the drier B.
2. The drier 1! is provided with a manhole through which
it is filled with the drying material, which consists of caustic
soda in lumps. The wet gas enters the drier at d, and the
dried gas passes at /into the pipe g, which conveys it to the
box C. ('n the bottom of the drier a tap is provided,
through which the liquid caustic soda is drawn off from
time to time.
3. The box C contains 30 frames covered with cloth. The
oox is provided with a tight-fitting door i", containing a
number of holes intended for drawing samples. These
holes are closed with stoppers.
When the drier B is filled with lumps of caustic soda, the
dry acid to be converted into an ammonium salt is spread
upon the frames of the box C and the door of the latter
closed. The ammonia still A is then filled with a mixture
of milk of lime and powdered sal-ammoniae. the lid put on,
and the fire lighted. The slow current of gaseous ammonia
is dried in B and absorbed in C, and the operation in C
interrupted as soon as the samples drawn are found to be
completely converted into ammonium salts. — C. 0. W.
Section. Flrtjln n
Apparatus fob rai Preparation ofAmmonh i Salts.
Aug. 81. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
677
The Manufacture of Iod-Eosin. Otto Miihlhiiuser.
Dingl, Polyt. J. 283, 1892, 258.
The iodising of the fluorescein is curried out very much in
the same way as the hromination, hut instead of hydro-
chloric acid acetic acid is used for completing the reaction.
The fluorescein is dissolved in the water-jacketed pan A,
whilst in a similar pan A' (see plan) the iodine is dissolved in
caustic soda, and the two solutions arc mixed in a vat 15.
On addition of acetic acid, iod-eosin is precipitated. The
supernatant liquor is siphoned off and the precipitate
collected on a filter C. In I) all the mother-liquors from
the precipitate are collected.
2 J * 5
)
i
r /t 5 o
For refining purposes the precipitated product is dissolved
in a pan V in an insufficient quantity of alkali, when the
pan is closed air-tight, and the contents, hy means of com-
pressed air, are pressed through the filter-press G into H.
The eosin is now again precipitated with dilute hydrochloric
acid, boiled, diluted with water, the supernatant liquor run
oft', and the precipitate collected on the woollen filter ,/.
The filter-residue is subsequently dried in the diving pans
K 1 to -1. After drying the eosiu-acid is passed through a
fine sieve, spread on frames, and in the box X exposed to a
dry current of gaseous ammonia. This is evolved in L,
M being the drying cylinder.
From the mother-liquor contained in the wooden vat 1)
the iodine is recovered by adding, for every 24 kilos, of
iodine used, 45 kilos, of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. I '84, and
a solution of 7 kilos, of bichromate of soda in 42 litres of
water. The iodine is obtained in the shape of a greyish-
black precipitate. After the precipitate has settled the
supernatant liquor is run off and the iodine collected on the
filter E. The iodine so obtained is washed on the filter,
then pressed, and subsequently returned again into the
circle of operations. Six kilos, cf fluorescein require 24 kilos,
of pure iodine ; with the recovered iodine from a previous
operation only 9i kilos, of fresh iodine are required.
_____ — C. O. W.
Formation of Allocinnamic Acid from Phenylpropiolic
Arid. C. Liebermann and W. Schmolz. lier. 25, 1892,
900—951.
The authors have obtained allocinnamic acid almost
quantitatively from the " new " bromocinnamic acid of
Michael and Browne (Ber. 19, 1378, and 20, 552)— one of
the hydrobromic acid addition compounds of phenylpro-
piolic acid — by boiling the same with zinc filings (2 parts)
and absolute alcohol (lOparts). To isolate it, the alcoholic
solution which contains it, apparently along with a small
quantity of isocinnamic acid, partially in the form of zinc
salt, was poured from the unattacked zinc, diluted with two
volumes of water and evaporated on the water-bath to
dispel the alcohol ; the acid was then liberated with hydro-
Si
chloric acid and extracted with ether, the ethereal solution
evaporated, and the residue, which on cooling set to a mass
of crystals of melting point 57°, purified by (1) conversion
into the easily-soluble calcium salt; (2J crystallisation
from light petroleum ; (3) fractional precipitation from
benzene by aniline (the aniline salt of allocinnamic acid
melts at 833, and that of phenylpropiolic acid, which is less
soluble in benzene, at 130°, whilst hydrocinnamic acid is
not precipitated from benzene by aniline); and (4) decom-
position of the aniline salt. The purified acid melted at G8°,
and possessed the composition and characteristic properties
of allocinnamic acid. The phenylpropiolic acid hydro-
bromide used in the above experiment reduces alkaline
solutions of potassium permanganate without forma-
tion of benzaldehyde, and must, accordingly, have its
bromine atom attached to a /3-carbon atom (Erlenmeyer,
Ber. 23, 8130). The authors, however, reserve their views
as to the constitution of allocinnamic acid until they have
determined the action of zinc on an alcoholic solution of the
second hydrobromic acid addition compound of phenylpro-
piolic acid described by Michael and Browne {loc. cit.~).
— E. B.
Anisolines, a Class of New Dycsluffs. M. P. iUonnet.
Bull. Soc. Ch'im. 7- 8 [14], 523—527.
In 1882 the first phthalein was prepared, derived from an
amidophenol. Phthalic anhydride was for this purpose
treated with wi-hydroxydiphenylaniine —
/CO. /NHC,;ir-,
C(iH ./ >0 + 2C1,If1<
\r.n/ \qh
C< i
Cr,H,( \o
\ X / C.H, <
NHC„II,
NC6H /
NKrHC6H3
Diphenylated Phthalein.
II, i
678
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. 81, ;««.
This phthalein is a violet colouring matter, soluble in
alcohol. Its sulphonate is soluble in water. More recently
the rhodamiues were discovered, and these are simply
formed upon the above type, and are derivatives of the di-
alkylised m-amidophenols and di-alkylised amido-cresols.
The general formula representing them at the moment of
formation is thus exhibited —
3C6H 4< >0 + 2C6H /
\ CO / x (
-on
,co
C6H4(\o NR'
Nc6h3> J[c^\coonh
-"* K'
Rhodamine Pbthalate.
From this it will be observed that in this rhodamine
structure there is an internal anhydride formed at the
expense of two phenolic groups. The work of Baeyer has
proved that fluorescein under the influence of an aqueous
alkaline solution fixes one molecule of water upon the oxygen
atom of the anhydride so as to reproduce the phenolic
hydroxyls. These two newly-formed hydroxyls then
promptly exchange their hydrogen atoms for the alkaline
metal. The mode of formation of the anisolines is a
further proof of the correctness of this interpretation of
the constitution of the phthalei'us. The anisolines are
theoretically formed when we replace in the rhodamines the
phenolic metallic groups by some simple alcoholic radicles,
methyl, ethyl, amyl, &c, or substituted ones like benzyl,
&c.
By the action of phthalic anhydride on anisolated m- i
amidophenol, the corresponding anisolines are not obtainable.
But the case is different if after the reaction giving birth to
the rhodamine, this latter be transformed into its potassium
salt. In this case the two metallic atoms will be replaceable
by two alcoholic radicles. Thus then, the formation of the
anisolines means the destruction of this inner anhydride.
To illustrate the transformation of a rhodamine into an
anisoline, the simplest case is taken, that of the derivatives
of the di-ethyl-/H-amido-phenol. The preparation of the
potassium salt is effected by dissolving at the boiling point
100 gnus, of rhodamine hydrochloride in 500 gnus, of
water. This solution is then poured into another, also
boiling, of 50 grms. of caustic potash dissolved in 200 grms.
of water. The potassium salt is at once precipitated in the
crystalline state, and less soluble hot than cold. It filters
rapidly. Dried at 100°, it is anhydrous and forms a red
powder ; dried at a low temperature, it contains 2 mols. of
water, and consists of beautiful small crystals with a beetle- ;
green reflex. The transformation into anisoline is effected
thus: — 10 grins, of the potassium salt dried at 100" are
dissolved in 30 grms. of strong alcohol, the whole introduced ]
into a glass tube, the latter cooled, 5 grms. of pure chloride ■
of ethyl are added, and the tube sealed. The chloride can !
be replaced by an equivalent quantity of either bromide or '
iodide. The tube is now heated for four hours at 120° C.
The product of the reaction is then poured into about 300
gnr.s. of water, heated to loo3 for about a quarter of an hour
to expel alcohol and ethyl chloride in excess, and then treated ,
with 5 grms. of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The
solution of anisoline hydrochloride obtained is then filtered
off and precipitated with common salt in sufficient quantity.
< in cooling, the hydrochloride is deposited at the bottom of
the vessel in a syrupy state. It is finally collected,
drained, dried OD the water-bath, and pulverised, when it
appears as a green metallic iridescent powder, very soluble
in cold water, and less in warm. Anisoline is formed
thus —
/CO
C6H4< \0
- /^"s \OK
/C3HS
N '
C«Ha / \(',IL
\C6H3/0K/C2H5
+ 2 C,H,C1 =
Potassium Salt of Bhodamine.
CO
X S C2H5
<• C2H,
C°H<\>°CH /
C / \ 0C*Hs
Xn<c:h:
+ 2 KC'l
Anisoline.
If benzylated anisolines are required, the temperature
employed should be 140° C. The sulphonated derivatives
are very easily formed.
The benzylated diethyl-»i-amidophenolphthalein sulphonic
acid is thus prepared. The phthale'in in the state of base
is treated cold in a glass balloon or bolt-head with two parts
of ordinary sulphuric acid ; the solution completed, little by
little four parts of fuming acid with 20 per cent, of anhydride
are added. The temperature is then gradually raised until
a small sample of the mixture is perfectly soluble in a
solution of caustic soda. This is usually effected by using
a temperature of about 50°, and in no case is it necessary to
pass 80° 0. When the contents of the balloon are quite
cool, they are poured into an excess of ice, and treated with
chalk to absorb free acid. The sulphate of lime separated
on filtration is several times washed. The solutions are
reduced by evaporation, filtered hot, treated v.ith carbonate
of soda or potash, according to the salt desired, evaporated
to dryness, after previous separation by filtering from
calcium carbonate.
The sodium salt is a powder of a bright rose colour.
Generally, the anisolines produce on dyeing shades of a
more violet hue than those of the rhodamines from which
they are derived.
They dye all textile fibres a magnificent violet red, and
especially cotton, without the intervention of mordants.
The resistance of the anisolines to light is superior to that
of the greater portion of the aniline colours. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters.
II. H. Lake, London. From Kalle and Co., Biebrich-on-
the-Rhine, Germany. Fng. Pat. 12,589, July 24, 1891.
Certain products of the reaction of fuming sulphuric acid
on phenylrosinduline are described in Eng. Pat. 15,259 of
1888 (this Journal, 1889, 877). According to the present
invention, valuable products are obtained from the same
base by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid. By
heating 1 part of phenylrosinduline with 10— 20 parts of
concentrated sulphuric acid to 150° — 170° C. the disulphonic
acid mentioned in Claim II. of the above patent is pro-
duced. On further heating, this disulphonic acid is
converted into a new disulphonic acid distinguished by the
prefix (3. It is very easily soluble in water aisd alcohol,
and dyes wool a bluer shade than the disulphonic acid
previously known. The salts of the new disulphonic acid
when heated with water under pressure give a monosul-
phonic acid of rosindone of the formula C,,H13N2OS03H,
whereas the disulphonic acid hitherto known, when treated
in the same way, yields rosindone, C2jHI4N20. By further
heating the mixture of phenylrosinduline and concentrated
sulphuric acid a sulphonic acid is obtained, which is not
precipitated from its aqueous solution by mineral acids in
which reaction it differs from the ^-disulphonic aeid. The
method given for the preparation of the 0-disulphouie aeid
is as follows : — A mixture of 1 kilo, of phenylrosinduline
and 15 kilos, of concentrated sulphuric acid is heated for
about 12 hours to 170° C, until a sample precipitated with
Aug. 31,1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
679
water and filtered is easily soluble in pure cold water. The
melt is 1 hen poured into 7. "i litres of water, the precipitate
filtered ofl and dissolved in alcohol, when any ct-disulphonic
acid present remains undissolved. The alcoholic solution is
then evaporated to crystallisation. The 0-disulphonic acid
gives a bright-green solution with concentrated sulphuric
acid, thus showing a similar reaction to the sulphonic acids
of phenylrosindulme already known. It appears to resemble
the trisulphonie acid of Ger. Pat. B. 11,280 of April 9,
1891, but is somewhat less soluble. For practical purposes
it is unnecessary to separate the acids as above. After
pouring the melt into water, salt is added to produce the
sodium salt, and the dyestuff thug separated is filter-pressed
and dried.— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Azo-Colours. Read,
Hoiliday, and Sons, Limited, Huddersfield, and A. G.
Brookes, London. Kng. Pat. 11,395, July 4, 1891.
l!KX/.KNK-Azo-a-NArHTHYi,AMi.\E, or one of its homologues,
such as o-tolueue-azo-a-naphthylamine, or a sulphonic acid
of the same, is capable of combining with a tetrazo-com*
pound (one molecular proportion of each) to form an
intermediate compound which will combine with a phenol
or amine or their sulphonic or carboxylic acids to form new
dyestuffs. The following proportions are given for the
formation of a dark blue colouring matter, which dyes
unmordauted cotton from a neutral bath containing salt : —
34*9 lb. of benzene-azo-a-naphthylamiue sodium mono-
sulphonate are dissolved in 200 gallons of water and mixed
with 100 gallons of a paste containing 39' 2 lb. of tetrazo-
stilbene-disulphonic acid. After stirring for about six hours,
a solution of 14 o lb. of o-naphthylamine and 14' 5 lb. of
li\ drochloric acid of 22° B. in 100 gallons of water is added,
and the whole, during constant agitation, is slowly treated
with 20 lb. of sodium carbonate in 20 gallons of water.
This operation takes about six hours and the stirring is then
continued for 12 hours more. The dyestuff can then be
precipitated with salt, filter-pressed, and dried. As the
colouring matters contain an amido group they can be
diazotised and will then combine with phenols or amines, &c.
to form new dyestuffs, and this operation can be carried out
on the fibre by passing the fabric dyed with the colouring
matter through a bath containing nitrous acid, and after
washing it, impregnating the fibre with a solution of an
amine or a phenol, or a sulphonic or caiboxylic acid of the
same.^T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of New Sulpho- Acids,
and of Xcic Colouring Matters therefrom. J. Y. John-
son, London. From the " Badische Anilin hnd Soda
Fabrik," Ludwigshafeu, Germany. Eng. Pat. 14,294,
August 24, 1891. (Second Edition.)
These colouring matters are produced by the action of
diazo compounds on sulphonic acids of LI' dihydroxy-
naphthalene which has already been employed in the forma-
tion of dyestuffs (Eng. Pat. 6874 of 1890; this Journal,
1891,249). About lo kilos, of 1- 1' dihydroxynaphthalene
are slowly added to 40 kilos, of concentrated sulphuric acid,
containing 95 per cent. H2S04, at about 10° — 15 C. The
temperature is then raised to 50° for about 45 — 50 minutes,
or until a sample dissolves to a clear solution in water.
After cooling the melt it is poured into 200 litres of ice
water and neutralised with a saturated solution of barium
hydrate. The barium sulphate is filtered off and well
washed with hot water. The filtrates, which should only
be slightly alkaline, are then boiled down to about 260 kilos.
and the solution allowed to cool, when the barium salt of a
sulphonic acid crystallises out. This is called barium
salt I. The filtrate, together with the washings of the
first crystallisation, is further evaporated to about 50 kilos,
when a barium salt II. is obtained on cooling. The ruother-
licpior contains a barium salt III. All these barium salts
can he converted in the well known manner into their sodium
salts by dissolving them in boiling water and adding the
necessary quantity of sodium carbonate or sulphate. The
sulphonic acids from the barium salts I [. ami III. an' of
value for the production of azo dyes, and are known respec
tively as 1-1' dihydroxynaphthalene disulphonic acid V,
and LI' dihydroxynaphthalene disulphonic acid It. In
order to produce a colouring matter from the former acid,
a solution of its sodium salt is titrated with diazobenzene
chloride in presence of acetic acid, and the strength of the
solution so adjusted that it contains about 20 per cent, of
Y acid. 1G0 kilos, of this solution are mixed with 35
kilos, of sodium acetate and diazobenzene chloride
solution added. The deep red solution deposits crystals
on standing, but if too dilute it is advisable to raise it
to the boil and add salt when the dyestuff crystallises out
on cooling. In place of sodium acetate, the combination
may be performed iu presence of 14 kilos, of calcined soda,
but care must be taken to avoid an excess of the diazo
compound. The colouring matter is precipitated with salt,
fiber-pressed and dried, forming a brownish-red powder
which dyts wool a bluish-red colour from an acid bath.
The dyestuff from the disulphonic acid R gives a bluer
shade of red.— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Colouring Matters. The Clayton Aniline Company,
Limited, and J. Hall, Clayton, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
15,494, September 12, 1891.
If one molecular proportion of a diazo compound be com-
bined with one molecular proportion of m-pheuylene or
m-toluylene diamine a chrysoidiue is formed. According to
the present invention m-phenylene diamine is capable of com-
bining with three molecules either of the same or of different
diazo compounds, with the formation of brown colouring
matters. The first or second or both molecular propor-
tions of the diazo compounds should be in the form of
sulphonic acids in order to give useful compounds. A
colouring matter giving brown shades on wool is produced
as follows : — 91 kilos, of m-phenylene diamine hydrochloride
are dissolved in water, made alkaline with sodium carbonate
and treated with the diazo solution from 158 kilos, of sodium
naphthionate dissolved in water, 100 kilos, of hydrochloric
acid and 35 kilos, of sodium nitrite. After stirring for about
24 hours a solution of diazo-toluene chloride (from 53 kilos,
of o-toluidine) is run in, and after a further stirring for 24
hours the same quantity of diazotoluene chloride is added.
The solution is kept alkaline the whole time by the addition
of sodium carbonate or caustic soda. The solution, after
standing another day, is finally boiled up and the colouring
matter salted out, filter-pressed and dried. By substituting
for the second portion of o-toluidine a solution of tetrazo-
diphenylchloride (from 46 kilos, of benzidine) a colouring
matter is obtained which dyes unmordanted cotton brown.
— T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colours, specially
applicable for Colouring Photographs. A. J. Iloult,
London. From C. H. W. Brims, Halberstadt, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 3791, February 26, 1892.
110 GEMS, of borax are dissolved in 1,250 grms. of water.
This solution is mixed with 1 kilo, of pure casein, heated
near boiling point, and after skimmiug off any impurities
which will have risen to the top, a few minutes boiling, and
afterwards cooling in a water-bath finishes the operation.
The liquid so obtained is thoroughly mixed with the
desired colouring matter. — C. O. W.
C 2
680
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug.Sl, 1892.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc VI.-
Origin. L. Vignon.
129—131.
Rotatory Power of Silks of Variou
Compt. Rend. il4, 1892
As the author has shown, the principal constituents of the
sill; of Bombyx Mori, examined in caustic soda and hydro-
chloric acid, show a considerable action on polarised light.
The present article consists of a number of tables of results
obtained with other silks, viz., Bombyx Yamma-Mai ;
Bomby c Dori, < Ihina, Japan, Madagascar, Bagdad (this
Journal, 1892, -127).— T. L. B.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Silk and
Mind Threads, and iii Apparatus therefor. V. Lehner,
iugsburg, Germany. Kng. Pat. 11,831, July 11, 1891.
A son thin of collodion in ether-alcohol with addition of
acetate of soda or salts of ammonia, is kept in a tank
provided with a gauge glass and carrying on the bottom a
tube which terminates in a thin glass tube. By mean- of
very slight pressure the collodion solution is pressed
through these tubes which terminate in a vessel containing
turpentine, juniper oil, benzoin, benzol, petroleum hydro-
carbons, or bisulphide of carbon, so that the thread, after
emanating from the nozzle of the tube passes through these
liquids. The ether-alcohol and " vegetable acid " which is in
the collodion are dissolved by these liquids, and the remain-
ing collodion is drawn into a silky thread. A certain
number of the threads meet and pass through or over an
eye or gatherer, and when a mixed thread is to be made
they are here mixed with other threads coining from bobbins.
The gathered threads are twisted by a flyer as in spinning,
and afterwards wound upon drums. — C. (I. \V.
.-In Apparatus for Testing the Strength of Cotton, Wool,
and other Fibres- in the Raw or Unmanufactured State.
E. Appenzeller, Alost, Belgium, and E. i'illeul, Alsace,
Germany Eng. Pat. 13,967, August 19, 1891.
The apparatus which forms the subject of this invention
consists of two parts, the first of which is a gauge, serving
to obtain small bundles or bunches of the fibre to be tested,
of a determined sectional area and in the form of a tlat
wick. The second part consists of two vices with special
corrugated jaws, in which the two ends of the above wick
can be firmly secured. Attached to one of these vices is
a weighted platform, bearing upon the bunch of fibres
under test, weight being gradually added to the platform
until the bunch bleaks, when the breaking strain can be
readily ascertained. — C. O. W.
Impiorcd Process and Apparatus for the Treatment of
Tattle Fibres with Liquids and Vapours or Gases.
V.. < iesslcr, Met/.iugeu, Wurtemberg. Eng. Pat. 14,657,
August 29, 1891.
The invention relates to a process and apparatus for
subjecting textile or spun fibres to the action of circulating
currents of liquids, vapours, or gases. The apparatus
consists of a vessel of circular or polygonal cross-section,
and provided with a lid and perforated bottom, and a
conical flange below the lid. By means of this flange the
vessel can be fitted air-tight in a chamber. The top of
the lid of the vi --,■]> ,• uries :( pipe, which can be connected
with a suitable pump. The goods to be treated or dyed
are plaeed in these vessels, anil alter the latter has been
connected with the pump the gases or liquors required are
forced through the materials contained in the vessels.
When the operation is complete, the pump is stopped and
the vessels are placed in a hydro-extractor. The final
drying is effected by placing the vessels again in a chamber
and forcing a current of hot air through them. — C. O. W.
-DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
Th Dyeing of Leather. Leather Trades Circular and
Rev. 25, 1892, 590— 591.
See under XIV., page G97.
PATENTS.
An Improved Solution for Use in the Dyeing of Silk
Fabrics, Yarns, and Threads. E. 11. Truman, Notting-
ham. Eng. Pat. 111,438, Juue 19, 1891.
The discolouration to which dyed silk is liable when
exposed to a damp atmosphere or a low temperature, is
prevented by the addition to the dye-bath of -=~ to TTT',77f
part of mercuric chloride, " increasing or decreasing the
proportion of mercury according to the requirements of
the material operated upon and the condition of the water
used."— E. B.
Improvements in the Dyeing and Treatment of Cotton and
other Textile Materials. E. and G. E. Sutcliffc, Halifax.
Eng. Pat. 10,678, June 23, 1891.
The mechanism employed for distributing the dye-liquor
in the apparatus described in Eng. Pat. 8270 of 1890 (this
Journal, 1891, 696), is replaced by a cylindrical or poly-
gonal wheel orframe, divided by partitions into compartments
for the reception of the material to be dyed, and mounted
on a perforated, hollow shaft, through which the dye-liquor
is directly discharged into the material.
Claims arc further made for a combination of mechanism
for successively conveying the raw cotton, &c. to the
dyeing machine, dyeing, conveying to a hydro-extractor,
hydro-extracting, drying, and scutching. — E. li.
Improvements in tin' Manufacture of Extracts from Log-
wood and oilier Dyewoods, also in Preparing Dyewoods
for use in Dyeing. W. 11. Espeut, London. Eng. Pat.
11,472, July 6, 1891.
l.ni.u hod and other dyewoods are powdered with rough
grindstones, against which they are pressed. The powdered
wood is carried by a stream of water into a receiving
cisteru, from which the "woody matter with a sufficient
quantity of water is taken to other cisterns in which it is
stored and allowed to ferment if desired." It is then
ready for use in dyeing. An extract may be prepared by
" diffusing" in succession several quantities of the fermented
wood with hot water, and when the liquor so produced is
sufficiently concentrated, evaporating it down in a vacuum.
— E. B.
Improvements in Machines for Printing Sarees, Scarves,
Shawls, anil /he like. S. and J. Knowles, Tottington.
Eng. Pat. 7184, April II, 1892.
This invention relates to machines for printing headings
or patterns intermittently, and has for its object the pro-
vision of means for arresting the rotation of the printing
rollers whenever they are out of contact with the fabric
on the impression cylinder and recommencing their rotation
in exact register when they resume printing. — E. II.
A.ug.si,i892J THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
681
VII.-ACIDS. ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Twenty-Eighth Animal Report on Alkali, If c. Works by
the Chief Inspector. Proceedings during the Year 1891,
presented to the Local Government Hoard and to the
Secretary for Scotland. 1802. (id.
The number of works registered under the Alkali and
other Works Regulation Act docs not vary much from
ye.ar to year, hi England and Ireland dining lS'Jl there
were registered 113 alkali works and 7'JS other works,
making a total of 911, Adding to these, 16 alkali works
and 121 other registered works in Scotland the total for
the United Kingdom is 1,048, as against 1,034 in lS'JO
(see 27th Annual Report by Chief Inspector, this Journal
1891, 635).
Tables showing the number of works and also the
number of separate processes under inspection are given,
and then follows an interesting sketch, which indicates the
nature of aa inspector's duties when making his visit to
one of the larger chemical works, and describes the rational*
of the method adopted for finding the acidity of the mixed
gases passing from tines and chimneys.
The following table shows the average results of the
inspectors' tests of escaping gases.
Table of Average Amount of Acid Gases escaping fob i m a District.
Dist. I.
Ireland.
Hydrochloric avid in chii
gases. Grains per cubic foot
Hydrochloric acid. Amount
escaping compared with that
produced. Per cent
Arid gases escaping from sul-
phuric acid chambers given
as sot. Grains per cubic
I
Acidity ef chimneys given as
SOa. Grains per cubic foot. .
Acidity of gases from manure
works given as S03. Grains
. r oubio toot
2-260
r:;sii
O'S
0-173
Dist. II.
North of
Distill.
Cheshire,
X. Wales.
Sub-Disf.
and part wid_.s
• 2K
r mi
0-560
0-120
0-050
1-040
1-250
0'UIO
0-360
0-103
2-390
1-380
0-640
6-590
Dist. IV.
East
Lan-
cashire
and
York-
shire.
Dist.V
South
Mid-
land.
Dist. VI.
s,,utli- Sub-Dist.
West of yjj
England
Average.
0-06S
1-420
1-130
0-5111
0-420
0-093
8-690
1-200
0-430
0-320
and
South
V, ales.
l-.-i-.o
row
li-.'li'i
Eastern
Counties. 1891.
0-101
2' 177
1-220
0-S70
1890 1SS9.
0-081 0-090
2-1S2 1-950
1-320 1-280
0'7ll0 0-700
0-266 i 0-326 0'307
1-370
0-715
0-349
The figures in the above table are obtained by taking
the average of the tests in each work and again averaging
these t" show the general result in each district : a final
average of these results is then made which when compared
with previous years may be taken as an indication of
the progress or otherwise made in the country generally.
It is seen that there is great uniformity in the averages
for the three years given. The detailed reports of the
various inspectors which are given in the Appendix show
that the limits of acidity fixed by the Act are very
rarely exceeded. The limit fixed for the amount of hydro-
chloric acid allowed to escape in the mixed gases of a flue
or chimney is 0*2 grain per cubic foot of gases or 200 grains
per 1,000 cubic feet, and the table shows that on the average
actually only 81 grains per 1,000 cubic feet escapes. The
limit fixed for the total amount of hydrochloric acid
escaping compared with that produced is 6 per cent. ; the
proportion on the average that actually escapes is less than
half this limit.
An increase in the general acidity of the chimney gases
has doubtless been in part caused by a new regulation
compelling the combustion of sulphuretted hydrogen
coming from Clans kilns, and the consequent formation of
sulphurous acid. This increase of acid is not apparent in
the last table, because the acid gas does not often pass into
the chimneys connected with the salt-cake department of
the works, and it is these which are represented in the
table.
In passing sulphuretted hydrogen mixed with a limited
amount "1" air through a layer of heated oxide of iron, as
in the Clans kiln, although the principal reaction taking
place results in the oxidation of the hydrogen and deposition
of sulphur, there is also a secondary reaction taking place
simultaneously which reverses the process, and the sulphur
vapour and water vapour react and form sulphuretted
hydrogen and sulphurous acid. These gases when allowed
to escape into the air were a great source of nuisance to
the neighbourhood owing to the offensive smell of the
sulphuretted hydrogen. Many plans have been tried to
remedy this defect in the Chauce-Claus process, but none
has been completely successful. The chief inspector found
it therefore necessary to insist that in no case should
sulphuretted hydrogen be discharged into the air, even if
recourse must be had to the unsatisfactory plan of burning
it in a fire. This method has been adopted in all but two
of the works. The loss of sulphur due to this cause still
goes on and in this way as much as from 10 to 15 per cent,
of the sulphur in the tank waste is lost, probably amounting
to not less than 4,000 tons a year. Much of the sulphurous
acid thus generated may be arrested by absorption in a
tower packed with limestone, down which water percolates.
This plan has been put in operation at Messrs. Chance's
works at Oldbury.
As in former reports some interesting statistics are given
which illustrate the extent of the operations carried on in
the various classes of work under inspection.
Salt decomposed in the Leblanc and ammonia-soda
processes (including Scotland) : —
—
1891.
1S90.
1SS9.
Leblanc process
Aninioiija-soda
Tons.
567,863
278,528
Tolls.
602,769
252,260
Tons.
584,203
219.279
Total
816,391
S55.029
SH-..IS2
It is seen that the ammonia- soda process still continues
to gain ground against the older Leblanc process. A new
amuionia-so<la work is in course of erection in Cheshire.
682
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si. 1892.
Amount of sulphate of ammonia produced in the United
Kingdom : —
1891.
L890.
1889.
pks
.
Tons.
107.950
Tons.
103,138
Toil-.
100,711
lion works -
- - -
6,290
B,0W
6,1 1.'.
Shale works
26,600
•Jt.TSl)
Coke and carbonising
works
2.766
2.795
Total
143,606
134,257
183,604
A considerable interest attaches to these figures as show-
ing a great advance in the utilisation of what were once
waste products. At present no commercially efficient
process is known by which ammonia and its compounds can
be made by the direct union of hydrogen and nitrogen.
1 ntil a recent date urine was the chief source of ammonia,
and men not yet old can remember the urine tubs stationed
at the street coiners and behind the mill doors of Leeds and
other woollen manufacturing towns. In the putrid urine
thus collected was found the ammonia needed in the treat-
ment of wool and its preparation for the loom. Now,
almost the whole of the ammonia made is collected during
the distillation of coal, a small quantity being obtained
during the distillation of bones and other animal matter.
The " ammonia-water " of gas-works yields our chief supply,
next comes the distillation of paraffin oil shale, and follow-
ing this rank the gases from blast-furnaees in which coal is
used for smelting iron ores. Irstead of allowing these
gases to burn wastefully at the tops of the furnaces, as was
formerly done, they are now conveyed in pipes to the boiler
furnaces, where they arc burnt to generate steam for the
blowing-engines, &c, and to the heating stoves, where the
heat of their combustion is utilised in beating the blast.
" In so doing great inconvenience was experienced from the
tar and liquor which tended to clog the pipes, so that a
system of definite condensing and collecting of these
matters had to be arranged. It was then found that this
tar anil ammonia had considerable value, and warranted the
erection of large plant to collect them more completely.
Great expense was incurred to this end. In one of the
Scotch iron works as much as 18 miles of 3-in. iron con-
densing pipes are in use, together with mechanical scrubbers
For separating the tar and ammonia from the gas before it
is burnt. In some of the more extensive iron works as
large a capital as 70.000Z. has been expended in the erection
of apparatus for the eollect'ou and manipulation of the tar
and ammonia. To such an extent has this been found pro-
fitable that there are cases where more of the capital invested
in an iron-smelting work is devoted to the collection and
treatment of the tar and ammonia than to the production of
the iron itself, and more profit is yielded by the former
than by the latter, so that it may he said that a strange
inversion has taken place, and that in some cases iron has
become the by-product of an iron-smelting work, yielding
the place of the main product to the ammonia, &c.
•' The following figures will bear out this statement : —
" Taking first Scotland. The number of blast furnaces at
work is 77. Of these 57 are provided with condensing,
scrubbing, and distilling apparatus for collecting the tar,
ammonia, &c. I am informed that a blast-furnace of
medium size costs, with its plant of blowing-engines and the
like, about 7, sou/., and that the expenditure on the ammonia
plant is in excess of this ; so that in Scotland at present the
apparatus for collecting the ammonia, tar, &c. from the
rases of the iron blast-furnaces has cost over 444,600/. A
joodlv sum for collecting that which was formerly thrown
away! And this must be on the increase, for if the outlay
has proved remunerative when applied to 57 out of the 77
es, one may expect tin- application to be still further
extended.
" Iu England the tar and ammonia are saved in only one
i the iron-smelting works. It is there applied to the gas
coming from three Furnaces, at a cosl of 12.000Z. per furnace,
which is an expenditure greater than that incurred in
Scotland. The resulting profit has fully justified the outlay.
The sulphate of ammonia produced is probably quite
sufficient to pay for the interest on capital expended, while
the naphtha, oils, and pitch obtained from the tar, bring up
the profit account to a satisfactory figure."
The chief use for ammonia is agricultural, and there need
be no fear that if the collection of ammonia were to become
more general its price would decline and the process become
unprofitable, because the demand for sulphate of ammonia
as a manure is practically unlimited.
'I'tink Waste of the Alkali Works. — At Widnes alone,
500 acres of land are covered to a depth of 1 2 feet by heaps
of old waste — ten million tons, all of which when fresh
contained 15 per cent, of sulphur in a recoverable form. In
its present state, owing to oxidation that has taken place, it
is no longer according to our present knowledge commercially
available. But in dealing with fresh waste, the Chance-
Claus process has been largely and successfully applied.
" To say that the process is not perfect would be true but
ungenerous. It is the best hitherto proposed and has already
proved a great boon alike to the manufacturers and the
public. Already 80,000 tons of sulphur have been extracted
from the tank waste at a cost which leaves a profit to the
manufacturer. The present rate of production is about
000 tons a week and is fast increasing. The sulphur made
is of the purest. 1 believe I may claim that the remarks
marie in my report for 1889 in anticipation of this large
production have been verified ; it has not brought down the
price of sulphur, on the contrary, the price during the past
year has been more than maintained. Doubtless the extra
supply has been felt by the Sicilian producers. The amount
sent here from Sicily has diminished. The recovered
sulphur finds a ready market at home, and large quantities
are exported to the United States and elsewhere." The
desulphurised waste has still to be disposed of, but as
after-treatment by the Chance process it consists chiefly of
carbonate of lime, it can be deposited without fear of causing
a nuisance. Attempts are being made to use the material in
cement making.
In section fi, Alkali Act, it is declared that "alkali waste
shall not be deposited or discharged without the best
practicable means being used for effectually preventing any
nuisance arising therefrom." In view of the success of the
Chance method of treating the waste, the chief inspector
thinks the time has now come when all producers of tank
waste shall be called upon to desulphurise the waste, and
when the depositing of uutreated waste shall be considered
an offence under the Alkali Act. In response to a letter
addressed to the directors of the United Alkali Company,
who are now the largest producers of tank waste, the chief
inspector has received an assurance that the whole of the
waste made at St. Helens shall be brought under treatment
within six months, and that at Widnes it will all be under
treatment by the end of 1892.
Chlorine. — No change has been made in the method of
producing chlorine for making bleaching powder and chlorate
of potash, but two works are in course of erection for making
chlorine from hydrochloric acid by decomposing it with
nitric acid instead of binoxide of manganese. The one work
is being built in Ayrshire where the process patented by
W. Donald (see this Journal, 1887, 822 ; 1890, 1130) will
be carried out, and the other work is in Cheshire, where the
process patented by G. E. and A. B. Davis (this Journal,
1891, 463 and 546) will be operated. Should either of these
processes prove successful it would give additional support
to the Leblanc soda industry, because nearly the whole of
the chlorine of the hydrochloric acid would be liberated
instead of only one-half, as is the case when binoxide of
manganese is used as the oxidising agent.
"Waste Pickle of Galvanising, Src. Works. — In order to
cleanse the sheets or other articles of iron before immersing
them in a bath of melted tin or zinc they are dipped iu a
bath of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid to remove the coating
of oxide which would prevent the cohesion of the metal.
The solution of ferrous sulphate or chloride thus obtained
was until recently allowed to flow away. Now it has
1m come common to allow the sulphate of iron to crystallise
Aug. 31, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
683
from the pickling liquor and to use the acid mother-liquor
over again in the pickling vats, with a further addition of
sulphuric acid. Another process devised by T. Turner, of
i lit Mason College, Birmingham, applies to the treatment of
pickle containing chloride of iron. The acid liquor is made
to How slowly on the heated bed of a reverberatory furnace
with access of air, when it is decomposed with the liberation
of hydrochloric acid and formation of ferric oxide which
can be used as a colour or as a fettling in puddling furnaces.
The hydrochloric acid is condensed in towers and used over
again in the pickling vats.
Nuisance from Chemical Works. — Complaints, especially
in the Widnes district, are still made of offensive odours.
At Widnes the old heaps of waste have been causing a
considerable nuisance. Means have been taken by repairing
the banks and covering them with a thick layer of inert
material to diminish the nuisance. It is pointed out that the
injury to vegetation in the neighbourhoods of both Widnes
and St. Helens is due chiefly to the sulphurous acid in the
coal smoke, and the following figures which refer to
St. Helens show the quantity of acid gas annually discharged
into the air. It is nearly all sulphurous or sulphuric acid.
The hydrochloric acid from alkali works is taken as its
equivalent of sulphur acids and added to the rest. The coal
burnt is chiefly slack containing about li per cent, of
sulphur.
Tons Sulphur
per Annum.
From copper and lead works 11,48(K
From kIuss works 7,5c)n S 19,313
From polishing powder furnai os 333-
From coal, burnt (14 per cent, of 1,010,000) lo.OOii
From Chance-Claus process 620
From -sulphuric acid chambers 173 ) r^_
From alkali works 402 ->
36,108
Taking this sulphur as being burnt to sulphurous acid it
amounts to 72,216 tons per annum. It will be seen that
only about 1-| per cent, of the whole comes under the
supervision of the Alkali Act.
Comparing St. Helens with London, the comparison is
much in favour of the latter. In London about 1,250,000
tons of coal, containing about 1 per cent, of sulphur,
are burnt per annum, and nearly all burnt in household
tires. In regarding the effect upon vegetation, however,
the summer consumption must be taken, and this may be
put at one-fifth the yearly consumption. The summer
acidity is represented therefore by 1 per cent, of one-fifth
part of the yearly consumption, or 2,500 tons of sulphur.
This amount is spread over an area of about 15 miles square
or 225 square miles, which gives a little over 11 tons per
square mile during the summer months and 44 tons during
the winter. At St. Helens the area is over only three
square miles, so that there is there 12,036 tons of sulphur
per square mile as against 11 tons iu London.
Prosecutions under the Act. — There have been only three,
two of which were for non-registration, and the third was
the Northwich Gas Company for allowing the escape of
sulphuretted hydrogen from the oxide of iron purifier.
Influenza. — It having been asserted that workers in
chemical works enjoyed a greater immunity from influenza
during the epidemic of last year than other people, some
statistics have been collected, and a comparison drawn so
far as the figures allow between the men actually engaged
in chemical processes and those employed as outside
labourers, artizans, or at steam boilers. A table is given
showing the number of cases, also whether severe or slight,
and the number of men employed in each description of
work. On the whole it appears that the average number of
cases among the labourers and artizan class was 16-35 per
cent., as against 9 '08 per cent, among the chemical
workers. The figures given in the table seem to point to
some protection from influenza in the case of men employed
in chemical works.
In the Appendix, the separate reports of the district
inspectors are given, which contain much valuable detail,
for which readers must be referred to the originals.
Scotch Works. — There is a separate report for Scotland.
The number of works registered during the year was 137,
of which 16 are alkali works, and 120 are other works,
comprising in all 180 different processes under inspection.
Two alkali works were closed by the United Alkali Com-
pany during the year, and two new ones are in course of
erection, one on the old lines of the Leblanc process, while
at the other chlorine will be made, as already mentioned in
the report for England and Ireland, by the oxidation of
hydrochloric acid with nitric acid by Donald's process,
instead of with binoxide of manganese.
No prosecutions under the Act for escapes of acid have
been found necessary, the times when the legal limits wero
exceeded being very few, and due to accidental causes that
were speedily remedied.
The consumption of brimstone for making the higher
qualities of sulphuric acid has been greatly restricted by
the high priee of brimstone, and acid made from pyrites
and afterwards purified from arsenic by sulphuretted
hydrogen, or from pyrites containing little or no arsenic
is being more largely manufactured, and is gradually
displacing acid made from brimstone.
Chemical Manure Works. — Of these there are 17 in
Scotland. The acid vapours arising from the decomposition
of mineral phosphates by sulphuric acid, consisting largely
of fluorine compounds, are condensed and washed in high
towers, and the average of the year's working shows that
92 '6 per cent, of the acid is thus removed and prevented
from passing into the air. In many cases, too, the con-
densation of the fcetid vapours arising from the steaming of
bones, drying of fish, &c., and the burning of the residual
gases has been recommended. — H. S. 1'.
file Boric Acid and Borax Industry. Scheuer. /.cits. f.
ang. Chem. 1892, 241—248.
In 1870 Germany took up the borax and boric acid industry,
and now produces enough of these articles to cover the
home consumption. The consequent fall in the priee of
borax has been from 120 marks to 60 marks per J 00 kilos.,
the latter figure being maintained by the German Borax
Union.
Borax and boric acid are most extensively used for
enamelling metal vessels, and to illustrate this application
the author quotes the following recipes for the purpose :-
First Coat. — (1.) Free from lead: Quartz 9, soda 3 \,
botax 7, stannic oxide 2, zinc oxide 1, magnesia 2.
(2.) Containing lead : Silica 30, borax 16, lead oxide 4,
ammonia-soda 5, saltpetre 11. (3.) Easily fusible:
Borax 22, quartz 36, white lead 5, soda 2, magnesia 1.
Glaze. — (1.) Quartz 20, borax 12, white lead 4, soda 6,
stannic oxide 13, ammonium carbonate 3, saltpetre 5,
magnesia 3 ; 4 — 6 parts of magnesia and as much silica are
added during the milling. (2.) Free from lead : Felspar 20,
quartz 4, borax 21, stannic oxide 13, saltpetre 4, ammonium
carbonate 1, magnesia 2i, soda 7.
Other applications of boric acid and borax are: — (1) iu
glaze for porcelain ; (2) for optical glass ■ (3) for fluxius;
metals ; (4) in the laundry, in the form of " brilliant starch,"
a mixture of rice-starch and borax ; (5) for stiffening (?)
the wicks of stearin caudles; (0) as a preservative, par-
ticularly for fish, which are best pickled in a solution of
boric acid, and submitted to a pressure of six atmospheres,
wherebj- 2 grins, of the acid are absorbed per kilo, of fish ;
(7) in medicine; (8) for making Guiguet's green, and golden
varnish for metals, the latter being a mixture of boric acid,
picric acid, and shellac; (9) for preserving skins for the
tanner ; (10) in the form of manganese borate as a siccative
for oils : 2 kilos, of finely-powdered manganese borate are
heated to 200" in 10 kilos, of linseed oil with constant
stirring, and the mixture poured in a thin stream into
1 ,000 kilos, of linseed oil heated to just below "boiling"
and kept at that temperature for 20 minutes; (11) in
calico-printing borax is used as a substitute for cow-dung ;
,;s|
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[All'.'. 31, 1S92.
(12) as a substitute for gum arabic a mixture of borax ami
in is employed.
The sources of refined boric acid aud borax are (1)
natural boric acid ; (2) natural borax or tincal; (3) bcro-
natrocalcite (Chili borate of lime); (4) Pandermite from
Asia Minor (Turkish boracite) ; (5) Stassfurtite (Stassfurt
boracite).
The establishment of artificial lagunes ir_ 1818 aud
artificial soffioni in 1854 placed the manufacture of natural
boric acid on a sound footing ; the export from Tuscany
was Too tons in 1840, 2,000 in 1860,2,225 in 1870, and
3,500 in 1887. California^ boric acid vies with the Tuscan
article in purity, as the following analyse- will show: —
-
II '.
1
XH3
V i i
K.n
i :aO
MgO
IV. ' 1 :i'! 1
CI
H.SO,
BiO,
Crystallised
Boric Acid.
li'lti
45*29
0-22
1*23
1-01
ii'Ti
0'4
e-17
0-83
0*15
0*28
0-07
(V06
ii-:. 7
7-01
1-00
16-47
50-87
-:::i
!)0-ll
Thibet borax was originally refined in Venice, Holland,
ami France; it lias now been well-nigh eclipsed by
Californian borax. For a description of the Californian
borax deposits see Hake, this Journal, 1889, 851. The
output from the Californian deposits in 1889 was 8,946,174
lb., and in 1890 it was 12,000,000 lb. (See also this
Journal, 1S89, 590.)
Chili borate of lime — boronatro-caleite and ulcxite, occurs
in white fibrous nodule-, sometimes as large a- the fist :
the composition of the pure mineral is —
XaoB/L + 2CaB407 + 18 B30
and the commonest impurities are calcium sulphate and
sodium chloride ; details as to the occurrence of this mineral
will be found in this Journal, 1888, 748. It was exported
from Chili in 1883 to the extent of 3,000 tons ; in 18S7
Hamburg absorbed 6,000 tons, of value 1,300,910 marks,
from i hili, and 600 tons, of value 158,610 marks, from the
Argentine. In Hamburg 100 kilos, of borate of lime, con-
taining 40 per cent, of anhydrous boric acid, cost- 28 marks,
being valued at 35 pf. (sic) per 1 percent, per 100 kilos. In
Liverpool the market price per ton is also regulated on a
basis of 40 per cent. The following analyses are quoted as
illustrative of German and English custom in reporting on
the value of this mineral: the first table is German, the
second English : —
Gi km vn Analysis.
English Analysis.
^ ■»■ » ■•■»■ SSSS2
Water
S;im«I
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine
Ferric oxide arid alumi™
!
Magnesia
Sod i
* Boric acid
O equivalent ti > CI
19-86
16-14
21-02
5-35
W41
0-82
0-28
14-76
9*64
12*!«
S-23
0-24
0-55
2-35
12-31
16-3S
13-41
10-19
0-iH
15 91
9-!l
88*M
21-17
102-17
1112-311
100-73
217
2-30
0-73
1 0 lii'-im
•Equivalenl to:—
Crystallised borie acid .
-tallised borai
67-30 70-20 S8-S4
103-79 108-13
Inn Toi -
es G. V.
2ii0 Tons
..... 1
95 Tons
exG.P.
Biborate of lime
Biborate of soda
Sulphate of lime
Calcium chloride
Magnesium chloride
Sodium chloride
Alumina and ferric oxide
Insoluble
Water
Anhydrous boric acid
23-31
25 -ii
1-02
:;-...;
1-26
11-20
0-60
5-90
26-80
23-43
25-2.J
1-63
3-13
1-28
12-00
0-50
1*99
27-27
24 19
2515
1-73
4-IIII
1-02
W18
0-90
393
28-56
1 15 100-08
33-07 32-78
99*98
;v ...
Turkish boracite, pandermite (Ca^B^O,, + 4 11,(1) is
mark, ted in the form of thick white fragments ; it is
tolerably haul, thus differing from the borocalcite of Iquique
(Call, ( I- 4- 6 1L<>), which consists of soft, snow-white,
crystalline needles. Pandermite was discovered in 1869 ;
in 1890, 15,024 heetokilos., and in 1891, 16,835 hectokilos.
were imported into France. Of the following commercial
analyses, No. I is of an earlier date than No. II. : —
1.
Borie acul I0'S95
Lime 27 "222
Magnesia ii- 2 lu
Calcium carbi mate 6'818
Calcium sulphate 1*462
Calcium silicate T.'ii-
Sodium chloride 0' 139
Maprnesinm chloride hum;
Water 18-060
Residue 3-27"
100*000
ir.
Boric acid 15*27
Lime 39*78
Magnesia 0*57
Sulphuric acid 211
Silica 2-47
oxide ii .;.
W. Or 1-2H
100*00
Stassfurt boraciti (stassfurtite) occurs in the salt mines
is roundish-white nodules, from the size of a barley-corn to
Aug.si.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
685
that of a bead, imbedded in the salt ; its composition is
approximately expressed by the formula —
2Mg3B8Ol5 + MgCla.
Pinnoite and kaliborite accompany
analyses are given : —
it. The following
Boric aoid
Magm sia
Magnesium ohlorido .
Magnesium sulphate
Ferric oxide
l nsolublo matter . . ■
Water
55-27
W43
23-03
23-58
18-24
12 '43
ii'iii:
• •
iv.-j!
0-5S
»■ ."it
0-Gt
7-83
7-31,
100-00
100-00
The output in kilos, was 199,000 in 1883 j 170,897 iu
1888, and 120,842 in 1SS9; the value in marks per 100
kilos, of the washed and dried mineral was 114 iu 1870;
90 in 1882; 70 in 188:!; and 40 in 1890.
The refining of Tuscan boric acid iseit'ected by dissolving
the crude acid in water heated by open steam, until the
grai ity of the solution is 6° — S" B., and continuing the heat,
after the addition of powdered, freshly-ignited animal
charcoal, until a filtered sample appears quite colourless.
The clarified liquor is then cooled in wooden crystallising
vats.
It is very difficult to obtain refined boric acid from the
low grade boronatrocalcite of Maricunga, but the Ascotau
mineral is profitably worked by grinding and decomposing
it with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, while it is kept well
stirred in water heated with open steam ; the crystallisation
takes place in wooden vats, l'andermite may be similarly
treated after it has been finely pulverised. Stassfurtite is
decomposed in the same way, save that sulphuric acid is
preferable, inasmuch as it conduces to a better coloured
product, and to the recovery of magnesium sulphate from
the mother-liquor; well washed and dried boracite yields
80 per cent, of its weight of crystallised acid.
The large leafy crystals of boric acid, affected by some,
are obtained by allowing a nearly saturated, hot solution to
eool in earthenware vessels of some 1 50 litres capacity, kept
covered and surrounded with non-conducting material in a
place free from vibration; the crystallisation takes from
8 to 12 days.
Prior to 187o nearly all European borax was made from
boracic arid ; the process is a very simple one when the
following conditions tire observed: — (1.) Borax crystallises
best when -nine 5 parts of soda crystal per 100 parts of
crystallised borax an: added in excess. (2.) If the excess
of soda be too great the neutral borate (NaBO.,+ 4 HaO) will
crystallise. (3.) If the hot liquor exceed the gravity
24— liS B. octahedral borax (Xa.Jij >7 + 5 H20) will
crystallise. (4.) The best crystals can only be obtained
by cooling the hot solution, of the correct strength, very
slowly in large vats of at least a cubic metres capacity.
Finely powdered borax is either made from the detritus of
borax crystals, or b\ agitating the borax liquor in small
crystallising vessels.
The preparation of borax from boronatrocalcite has been
described by Witting (this Journal, 1888, 748).
The manufacture of borax from paudermite by beating it
with soda has not been accomplished, probably because the
lime and boric acid therein are not in the right proportions
for conversion into borax. An English Patent (No. 2526,
February 17, 1890) deals with this point. (See this
Journal, 1891, 367.)— A. G. 15.
Negrier*s Method of < Concentrating Sulphuric Acid. Eng.
and Mining .1.. 1892 August 0, 12:!.
The high price of platinum has caused a good deal of
trouble among the firms iu Europe who manufacture highly
concentrated sulphuric acid of 66° B. Up to the present
time platinum vessels were used for containing the acid
during concentration, as this metal is capable of resisting
the attacks of the acid better than any other material.
During the last year or two the continuously advancing
price of platinum has made it necessary to find some sub-
stitute. The most practicable of the new processes is that of
M. Negrier, who employs a series of specially-made porcelain
dishes. These dishes are placed in a row, each a little
lower than the other, and they are arranged inside an oven,
the interior of which is kept steadily at a temperature of
145"— 1495 C. The acid at 58°— 60° B. coming from the
chambers enters the first dish in the oven, and passes
gradually down the series of dishes, and finally leaves the
oven at a concentration of 66° B. In a plant already
erected by M. Negrier there are four ovens, each containing
two sets of eight dishes. Each oven produces 1,250 kilos,
of concentrated acid a day, with a consumption of 24 kilos,
of fuel per 100 kilos, of concentrated acid. Only five
porcelain dishes out of 64 were broken in a month, and as
each one cost about a dollar, the item of repairs and
renewals is small enough compared with the interest on
capital represented by the use of platinum retorts. The
ability of the workman to avoid breakages of dishes and
damages to the ovens are the chief points that affect the
practicability of this process, but with a little practice
economical results are obtained. On an average, one
workman is able to turn out 10 tons a da}". The porcelain
dishes are manufactured in Limoges, France.
Kretzschmat- (Chem. Zeit. 16, 418) recommends the
process highly, but he adds that the space required for the
plant is much greater than that required for platinum
apparatus, and superintendence is more irksome (this
Journal, 1891, 4G and 639). — W. S.
The Solubility of Tricalcium and Bicalcium Phosphates
in Solutions of Phosphoric Acid. II. Gausse. Compt.
loud. H4, 1892, 414—417.
Six solutions (numbered 1 to 6) of orthophosphoric acid
were prepared, all having a volume of 100 cc.,and containing
respectively 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 grins, of orthophos-
phoric acid, H3PO4. Whenever this strength was exceeded
(whichever phosphate was being examined) monocalcium
phosphate was deposited.
Solubility of Tricalcium Phosphate, — The six solutions
were saturated by adding tricalcium phosphate iu slight
excess and allowing to stand for 24 hours. They were then
filtered and the calcium was estimated as oxalate, and the
phosphoric acid determined by titration with a solution of
uranium. The following results were obtained : —
Solution.
Anhydrous Phosphate
dissolved.
Monocalcium Phosphate
formed.
1
3-S.<
8-05
>>
VUS
III .V.I
»
9- la
19-79
4
12-511
24-57
5
13-70
81-44
1;
15-111
:;i- (2
A comparison of these numbers shows that the largest
proportion of the tricalcium phosphate is converted into
monocalcium phosphate in solution No. 2, which contains
10 per cent, of phosphoric acid.
Solubility of" Bicalcium Phosphate." — In the same way
the author prepared and examined six saturated solutions of
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. n. issa,
" bicalciuin phosphate " (corresponding 10 the formula
CaHP04 + HoO), with the following results :—
Solution.
Anhydrous Bicalciuin Monocalcium Phosphate
Phosphate dissolved. | Formed.
Nip.
1-30
7-G0
0
;-i.-,
vi-.w
:i
9-30
16'00
V
IV86
_■(!• pi
u
LS-40
zs-oo
6
15-10
2G-00
In this case the amount of monocalcium phosphate
formed is greatest in solution 1, which contains only
5 per cent, of orthophosphoric acid. — D. K. J.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Production of Caustic Alkali and
Chlorine. F. M. Lyte, London. Eng. Pat. 8692,
May 21, 1891.
It is now proposed to decompose sodium nitrate with ferric
oxide, instead of calcium carbonate, as suggested in a
previous patent (Eng. Pat. 5352 ; this Journal, 1891, 1006).
An Improved Method of Recovering Carbonic Acid Gas
from Lime Kilns and Furnaces, and Apparatus in con-
nection therewith. W. Walker, London. Lug. Pat. 9561,
June 5, 1891.
It is proposed to absorb the carbonic acid contained in
lime kiln or flue gases in sodium carbonate, with or without
the aid of pressure, and allowing the indifferent gases to
escape. The temperature is theu raised and a vacuum
applied, when carbonic acid is given off from the bicarbonate
and sodium carbonate reformed, which may be used for a
fresh operation.
The apparatus consists of a series of spherical cast-iron
retorts made in halves. The gas enters at the top and
finds exit at the bottom of each retort, after having passed
through a layer of sodium carbonate spread over a filter
cloth, the edges of which are held tightly between the
flanges of the hemispheres. The filter cloth is also
supported by a perforated shelf placed on a coil of steam-
piping. The outlet of the last retort dips into a column of
water.
In working the process, the weak carbonic acid from the
above sources is washed and passed through the apparatus
until sufficient has been absorbed. The nitrogen which
tills the apparatus is then replaced with pure carbonic acid
from a gasholder, and the temperature of the retorts raised
to 17(i E. by admitting steam or hot water in the coil of
piping. The bicarbonate is hereby decomposed and pure
carbonic acid given off, and is drawn off by means of an
aspirator. When the evolution of carbonic acid ceases, the
temperature is reduced to 70J F. by causing cold water to
circulate through the coil of piping, and the sodium
carbonate hydrated (in which state it absorbs carbonic
acid more readily) by admitting into the retorts a spray of
water.
Potassium carbonate may be used in lieu of sodium
carbonate. The carbonic acid produced in either case may
be compressed in cylinders for sale. — II. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Carbonic Acid Gas
and Apparatus for Use therein, and in Tubes for con-
taining Carbonic Acid Gas.. D. Rylands, Stairfoot.
Eng. Pat. 9732, June 9, 1891.
The improvements refer to the production of pure car-
bonic acid from limestone or chalk in closed retorts, by
applying to the same " the proper heat " and a partial
vacuum. Fine or rough limestone may be used ; a thin
layer of the former is charged in a horizontal or a somewhat
inclined retort, whilst the rough limestone is preferably
charged in vertical retorts provided with a charging door on
top, and discharging doors on the bottom. The carbonic
acid evolved is scrubbed and then compressed in steel or
glass tubes. — H. A.
Improvements in obtaining Chromates and Bichromates
of Potash and Soda. T. Goodall. Glasgow. From S.
Peacock, Bridgeton, U.S.A., and H. A. Gait, Philadelphia,
U.S.A. Eng.' Pat. 11,311, July 3, 1891.
In the calcination of chrome ore with potash salts, as much
as 15 per cent, of the latter are volatilised or mecha-
nically lost. This may be avoided by not using the potash
salts until after the calcining stage. Thus 500 parts of
chrome ore are roasted with a mixture of 500 parts of
caustic lime and 60 parts of soda ash. The resulting
mixture of calcium and sodium chromate separated with
water, and the residue of calcium chromate decomposed by
repeated boiling with the required quantity of a solution of
potassium sulphate or a mixture of the same with sodium
sulphate. In an alternate method, the calcined material
may be converted into soluble bichromates by treatment
with carbonic acid gas. — H. A.
Improvements in tin Manufacture of Anhydrous Chloride
of Magnesium, and the Apparatus used therein. T. H.
Bell, Middlesbrough. From T. Schloesing, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 11,469, July 6, 1891.
In a previous patent (Eng. Pat. 11,821, this Journal, 1888,
626) it was proposed to concentrate a magnesium chloride
solution to form "chloride of magnesium in grains." t.,
dehydrate this by heating in a current of hydrochloric arid
gas, and finally decompose it by means of heat and a
current of air. It is now found of advantage to finish off
the concentration of a magnesium chloride solution in a
covered cast-iron pan provided with a mechanical stirrer.
The combustion gases from an adjacent furnace pass over
the charge, entering through opening- pierced in the top of
the rim and leaving by holes on the opposite side.
The complete dehydration of the " magnesium chloride in
grains " so formed is effected at a dull red heat in a series
of, say, three horizontal cast-iron cylinders placed vertically
over one another and provided with spiral blades for the
forwarding of the material, which enters the top cylinder
and passes by means of spacious bends into the cylinder
below, leaving at the lowest cylinder. In the same time
hydrochloric acid gas passes through the cylinders and the
bends in the opposite direction to that of the material.
— H. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Chlorine, and i'l the
Apparatus used therein. T. II. Bell, Middlesbrough.
From T. Schloesing, Paris. Eng. Pat. 11,470, July 6,
1891.
I'm- i- an apparatus for carrying out the operations
described in the preceding patent. A gas retort is provided,
with an earthenware grid a short distance from the bottom,
which carries a charge of granulated magnesium chloride..
The retort is heated to redness, and a;r is admitted on the
surface of the charge, which is oxidised, chlorine being
evolved, and, being heavier than the residual nitrogen,
descends and leaves by a lateral opening below the grid.
When using " magnesium chloride in grains," and admitting
steam instead of air, hydrochloric acid will he formed,
which, being heavier, descends in the wa\ described before.
Aur. 81, 1898.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
687
The same apparatus may be used for dehydrating " magne-
sium chloride in grain!-," by introducing hydrochloric acid
gas from below the grid; the aqueous vapours formed being
the lighter of the two, the gases will assume an upward flow.
—II. A.
Improvements relating to the Refining of Sulphur and the
Distillation '>/' Sulph \ir and other Ores, mid to Apparatus
therefor. 1>. L. I.abois, Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
11,484, July 6, 1891.
The material to be treated is introduced into one or more
retorts which are open at both ends. One of the extremities
terminates at the front of the furnace in which the retorts
are placed, and the other in a small chamber provided
between the retort and a condenser which is continually
cooled. After charging the retorts and closing them at the
front of the furnace, they are heated by means of a
furnace receiving a blast or preferably by the gases from
a "gasogene supplied with a blast," so that the burnt
gases shall pass to the interior of the retort rather than
to the outlet, by reason of the porosity of the products
vaporised therein. By this arrangement the loss by
escape during the distillation is materially reduced. More-
over, for augmenting the preponderance of the external
pressure over that in the interior of the retort, the distilled
products are carried over by means of an exhausting
apparatus used with the condenser. For entirely preventing
escapes, the retorts are made of two walls, the inner wall
consisting of cast iron and the outer wall of refractory
material, which not merely precludes the flame impinging
against the iron, the refractory material serving as a screen,
but also prevents any considerable loss of vapour in case
of serious damage done to one of the walls.
The apparatus is said to present the following advantages: —
(I.) Great diminution of the loss caused by filtration of the
vapours through the walls of the retorts. (2.) Continuous
distillation due to the arrangement of the channels of the
retorts with the condensing chambers enabling the bottom
of the retorts to be hermetically sealed, thus effecting a
complete isolation of the retorts from the condensers and
rendering it possible to carry out the process in the con-
densers without any necessity for previously cooling the
retorts; in fact the temperature of the latter may be fully
maim lined. In the case of refining, the operation is made
continuous by an arrangement of upper melting vessels, and
in the case of working sulphur ores by providing, at the
head of the retorts, vertical channels descending into pits
for collecting the spent residues without access of air below
the ground of the works, and without having to remove
them from the furnace. (3.) A larije output and facility of
conducting the working of the furnace obtained by the
general arrangement and by the appropriate distribution of
the retorts; ami (4.) Continuous condensation obtained by
cooling in a metallic receptacle which is constantly
sprinkled. — II. B.
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY.
EARTHENWARE.
AND
if excessive, the glass is sulphurous. The solution, in the
case of silicate of soda, blackens lead salts. But it is a fact
that has for long attracted the attention of the author, that
the quantity of carbon necessary considerably exceeds that
indicated by the above equation. There are theoretically
required for 100 parts of sodium sulphate, for example,
4 '22 parts of carbon, and threefold this proportion may
he used in practice without the formation of sulphide of
sodium, and it is necessary to employ more than double the
theoretical proportion named in order to ensure the complete
decomposition of the sodium sulphate. The author has
studied the reaction in analysing the gases produced.
As the result of numerous experiments he finds that, the
sulphur of the sulphate of sodium is in the first instance
liberated as sulphur vapour, mixed with much carbon
dioxide and a small quantity of carbonic oxide. Even in
presence of a large excess of oxidising material (sulphate),
the proportion of carbonic oxide is an important factor,
forming one-sixth part of the total gaseous products. It is
probable that this carbonic oxide is the final consequence of
a decomposition giviug rise to sulphurous acid, which latter
is itself decomposed by carbon at a high temperature.
Berthelot has shown in 1883 that by this latter reaction
oxysulphide of carbon is formed, and that the heat trans-
forms this into carbonic oxide. The following rationale is
given of the reactions taking place in the preparation of a
silicate : —
Silica partially decomposes the sodium sulphate, SO:!
being set free, and as quickly decomposed and transformed
into S02 and O. The carbon, in reacting upon the first
products of the decomposition, forms with them a mixture
of sulphur, C02 and CO. It had been formerly concluded
with regard to SO.,, among the gaseous products emitted
from glass-works, that this was au immediate product of the
decomposition of sodium sulphate. However, it is only the
final product, the result of the contact of sulphur vapour
with the combustion gases, i.e , with an oxidising atmo-
sphere. Thus the formation of silicate of soda is translated
as follows : —
3 Xa.,SOj + 6 SiO., f5C = 3S+4 CO., + CO +
3'(Na.:O.2Si02)3
and this is an equation which requires 14 '8 of carbon for
100 of sodium sulphate, and furnishes a gas containing
25 per cent, of CO, but it is only an approximate formula.
The presence of sulphide of sodium in the silicate or the
glass prepared with too large a quantity of carbon is pro-
bably due to a secondary reaction. In introducing into the
mixture too large a quantity of powdered charcoal, the
contact between the sulphate and the sdica is rendered less
immediate ; the phenomena of reduction are certainly
accelerated, and there are formed here and there small
quantities of sulphide of sodium, which resist the action of
the silica, for the quantity of sulphur formed is not in exact
accord with the excess of carbon ; it increases in a much
smaller ratio — J. C. C.
Action of Carbon on Sodium Sulphate in Presence of
Silica. Scheurer-Kestner. Compt. Bend. 114, 1892,
117—120.
It is generally admitted that the reactions taking place in
the manufacture of glass or soluble silicates, when alkaline
sulphates, carbon, and silica are heated together, may be
represented by the following equation : —
2 HoS04 + C = S02 + C02 + 2 BO
The proportion of the carbonaceous reducing agent is of
great importance. If insufficient, the glass is incompletely
formed, containing portions of alkaline sulphate enclosed ;
The Decomposition of Sulphur Dioxide at High Tempera-
tures by Carbon. Scheurer-Kestner. Compt. Bend. 1892,
114, 296—298.
Experiments in this direction were carried out on account
of results obtained in the analyses of gases evolved in the
manufacture of glass or silicates of the alkalis (see preceding
abstract). The question was discussed for temperatures not
above a red heat by Berthelot (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.
[">] 1883, 554), when it was shown that carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, carbon bisulphide, and carbon oxysulphide
were formed. In the present ease, however, the experiments
were performed at a white heat, with the result that only-
sulphur and the oxides of carbon could be noticed as pro-
ducts, the reaction being sufficiently accurately represented
by the equation —
2 SO., + 3 C = 2 CO + CO. x 2 S
— T. I.. B.
CSS
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. 81, 1892.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Kilns for Heating and Burning Pottery
and the Hie. T. Severn, Heanor, Derbyshire. Eng. Pat.
11,617, July 8, 1891.
The object of the invention is to economise fuel and to
effect more perfect combustion, and relates to kilns in which
the fire-holes run longitudinally. Separate chambers or
flues are built parallel with the fire-holes, with which they
communicate, and introduce atmospheric air in quantities
regulated by dampers. The air is supplied at the tops of
the lire-holes. — V. ( '.
Improvements in Plate Glass, in the Art of Rolling same,
mifl in Machinery therefor. E. Walsh, jun., St. Louis,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 9428, May 18, 1892.
Tut: usual practice in producing plate glass is to roll on a
plane surface with a plane roller. Corrugations or other
particular forms of surface are given by using a second
roller whilst the material is still in a semi-fluid condition,
the surface of the roller having the reverse configuration of
that which is imparted to the plate. The second surface of
the plate is left flat.
In this invention a plate is produced similarly surfaced on
both sides in one operation, For a corrugated plate the bed
is longitudinally grooved, and the roller is grooved round its
circumference. The two systems of grooves work together
as male and female parts. The roller can be accurately
adjusted laterally and vertically. The greatest advantage
possessed by plates formed in the new way is that they can
be properly annealed, which is impossible with plates flat
on one side ard corrugated on the other. They are also,
weight 1'')'' weight, much stronger. — V. ( '.
IX.-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement
and Similar Malt rials, and in Apparatus therefor.
T. H. Lodge, Normauby. Eng. Tat. 11,618, July S,
1891.
Tin: apparatus consists of a kiln with a dividing arch, in
which are set gas retorts, the product of which is used for
heating and lighting purposes, or for the production of
power in the works, or for supplementing the supply of
In. I to the kiln, as well as for lighting the drying chamber
when its contents are to be raked out. The coal is fed into
the retorts by a scoop, and withdrawn in like manner.
The scoop used for removing the coke and transferring it
to the kiln is made of two sheets of metal separated by
slag wool, which may be " caused to absorb water for
cooling purposes." The hot gases from the kiln pass over
a " pp. -heating incline," upon which the dried slurry is
deposited from a hopper. It is perforated and provided
with a flue conveying the gas to drying vaults and floors
charged from the top of the drying chamber by slurry
pipes, the slurry being allowed to flow front one plate to
another until the chamber is tilled. The dried slurry is
raked by hand out on to a floor, whence it is transferred to
the hopper mentioned above. The distribution of the slurry
in the kiln is effected by the dividing arch, portions of
slurry being raked from the " pre heating " incline -o that
they fall on the nearei or further side of the division as
desired. A draught through the kiln is prodll I by a fan
(with a water-cooled spindle) driven by a gas engine and
provided with a governor, or by a steam jet. Over-hearing
of the drying chambers i- prevented by the use of a fusible
wire supporting a weight and covered with wet slurry, so
arranged that on the slurry becoming dry and allowing the
wTire to fuse, the weight is released and the damper closed.
The explosion of any mixture of air and gas in the gas
flues on starting the kilu may be prevented by displacing
the air with carbon dioxide. — Ii. II.
Improved Process of Manufacturing Hydraulic Cement.
{'•. Williams, Winnipeg, Canada. Eng. I'at. 13,016,
July 31, 1891.
Cm. it M carbonate is calcined to caustic lime and put into
a steam-tight tank, into which steam, generated in a boiler
containing a solution of 1 part of silicate of soda in 100
parts of water, is admitted at a pressure of at least 20 lb.
to the square inch. Instead of cauticising the carbonate of
lime, it may b ..■ treated direct with a solution of silicate of
soda instead of with steam from a solution of that sub-
stance. In either case the strength of the solution may he
varied. The boiler containing silicate of soda solution
may serve a double purpose, the steam being led away for
the first method of treatment, and the solutiou for the second.
The product is mixed with clay or similar material containing
alumina and silex, and a thin paste composed of calcium
chloride, 1 part; quicklime, 10 parts; and warm water,
1 j(j parts added. The resulting mass is moulded, dried, and
burnt.— 1!. B.
An Improved Process and Apparatus for Producing
Hydraulic Mortar. C. Bloemendal, Berlin, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 13,616, August 12, 1891.
Tin: precess consists essentially in mixing hydraulic cement
and sand in a closed vessel, with water from which air has
been expelled, under conditions whereby the air entangled
in the cement and sand is driven out during the process "I
mixing. The apparatus patented for this purpose consists
of a cylindrical vessel with conical bottom and slightly
domed top, in which the cement and sand are placed, and
into which water that has been previously boiled is intro-
duced, and then pressure exerted by a pump. A stirrer
brings about the admixture of the contents of the vessel. The
stirrer has a hollow shaft carrying hollow blades provided with
filtering faces through which the water and residual air arc-
forced by the pressure produced by the pump, over into a
reservoir, in which they are separated, and whence the water
is again drawn and put into circulation. By repeated use
of the same water, it becomes saturated with the soluble
constituents of the mortar, and lixiviation is prevented.
— IS. 1!.
Improved Process of Producing Imitation of Tt rra-i 'otta.
W. Schienning, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 13,738,
August 14, 1891.
" Tkui: \-t o i r v chips, ordinary bricks, fireproof bricks,
clinkers, &c. in powdered form," coarse or fine, according
to the size of the articles to be made, are mixed with
" burnt powdered gypsum and burnt slaked lime and
water," made into a mortar and moulded. The process c.f
hardening may be hastened by adding " burnt powdered or
effloresced lime." The articles are impregnated with baryta
water to convert the calcium sulphate into the barium salt,
the bme formed uniting with carbonic acid which may be
that naturally present in the air or may be introduced as
"smoke-gases," or by treatment with a solution of
ammonium or potassium carbonate. Ornamental articles
not subject to rough usage may be moulded without
pressure, in which case the moulds may be made of wax,
glutinous substances, gutta-percha, and the like. The
proportions of the ingredients may be varied according to
the purpose in view. — 1>. 11.
Aos.31,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
i;s<)
Improvements in and relating to the Construction of Bricks.
C. Borrger, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8352, May
::, L892.
The bricks are provided with projections and depressions
to form bands between each adjacent pair of surfaces. The
projections may be in the form of studs or ribs, and
corresponding depressions or grooves, which are arranged
equi-distant from each other; those nearest the sides
or ends of the brick are at a distance from the edge
equal to one-half the distance between adjacent projections
or depressions, so that the bricks may be laid upon each
other lengthwise or transversely without affecting the
precision with which the projections aud depressions fit
into each other. The use of grooves can be adopted to
allow of the withdrawal of a brick without disturbing its
neighbour. The form of brick patented is especially
adapted for furnace linings, as displacement during use is
prevented by the system of bonding adopted. — B. 1!.
X.-METALLURGY.
Iron and Steel Institute.
The President (Sir Frederick Abel), during the delivery of
his address (26th May 1892), bore witness to the extra-
ordinary rapidity with which steei had to so large an extent
superseded iron during the last 25 years. He said that in
1867 only 160,000 tons of Bessemer steel were produced
in the United Kingdom, while open-hearth steel was not
then a staple product. In 1890 more than 2,000,000 tons
of Bessemer steel and 1,250,000 tons of open- hearth steel
were made.
A paper on " Experiments with Basic Steel " was then
read by Mr. W. H. White, C.B., F.R.S., Director of Naval
Construction, in which the author gave a summary of the
results of an inquiry which had been carried on by the
Admiralty during the last six years as to the quality of
basic steel. The tests made up to 1887 on rolled steel were
recorded in the paper read before the Institution of Naval
Architects by the author in that year. He then suggested
that experiments on rivetted work wen- desirable, as the
rivetted specimens of Bessemer steel supplied up to then
Had not been at all equal to those of open-hearth steel,
although under tensile, percussive, and forge tests, as well
as in capacity for welding and comparative loss of strength
consequent on punching, the steels were equal.
The first series of experiments recorded in the present
paper was made with Bessemer basic steel, but the results
were not satisfactory. Subsequent experiments were made
with open-hearth basic steel, and the results were as
satisfactory as those previously obtained with acid open-
hearth steel, there being no loss of ultimate tensile strength
per square inch of sectional area of plate when rivets with
countersunk points were used. The Admiralty had there-
fore decided to admit basic open-hearth steel for ship-work
on the same terms as acid open hearth steel.
The results for the different kinds of steel were given by
Mr. Whjte in a tabular form.
Mr. P. Gilchrist, in complimenting the author of the
paper, said that ordinary pig iron was often used iu making
Bteel, and when this was the case the steel was not of first-
rate quality, whether the acid or basic process were
Used.
Mr. Arthur Cooper said that the facts contained in the
paper wire fully continued by the experiments on basic
steel undertaken for Lloyd's. He was sure the Admiralty
would have no cause to regret their decision.
Mr. Riley thought that the present favourable position
of the mild steel manufacture in England was largely due
to tile sympathetic attitude maintained by Mr. White as
representing the Admiralty, and by Mr. Martell as repre-
senting Lloyd's. On the whole he thought basic open-
hearth steel was more likely to be of good quality thar>
basic Bessemer steel, although the opinions he had
expressed in 18S5 were now somewhat modified.
Sir Arthur Hickman, who was a maker of basic steel by
both processes, said that to secure perfect certainty and
uniformity of product he should give the preference to
Bessemer steel.
Col. Dyer remarked on the importance of registering the
exact parts of the ingot from which the samples tested were
taken, and especially when oxygen was present.
Mr. Edward Riley agreed with the last speaker, and
mentioned a case of bad horse-shoe nails wdiere he found
5 per cent, of the nails were quite free from carbon, the
result of too long annealing in a covered pan.
Mr. Martell acknowledged Mr. Riley's appreciative
remarks, aud spoke of Mr. White's beneficent influence at
the Admiralty iu making known the valuable experiences
acquired at the public expense. He had never known
any steel made from Cleveland pig by either the
Bessemer or open-hearth acid process which would stand
the tests required by Lloyd's. Yet he had known good
" angles " for shipbuilding made from material containing
1"5 per cent, of phosphorus by the open-hearth basic
process, and he saw no reason why " plates " should not
turn out equally satisfactory.
Sir Lowthian Bell said that by the acid process the great
difficulty was to get out the last traces of the phosphorus,
but there was no such difficulty when the basic process
was used. He also spoke of the great value of a close
touch between users and producers.
Mr. Hardisty said that, so far as his experience went,
basic was superior to acid steel. More than half that
produced at Sir Lowthian Bell's works was supplied to the
Indian State railwa3's, for which very severe tests were
lequired.
Mr. Ellis thought it somewhat invidious to institute
comparisons between acid and basic open-hearth and
Bessemer steels, as each material was specially suitable for
some purpose.
Mr. Wrightson remarked that the Admiralty tests
called especially for steel of great tensile strength, but for
bridge building a milder steel of greater ductility was
often still more suitable.
Mr. White, in reply, said that his former chief, Sir
Nathaniel Barnaby, had always thought that nothing but
good could come from consultations between the Admiralty,
as steel users, and the producers. Experiments had been
made on plates as much as 1 iu. thick, and on basic steel
made from pig iron containing as much as 2'7 of phos-
phorus. In answer to Col. Dyer, he could not say from what
part of the ingot the steel for the samples tested came, but
all the samples were taken from similar parts of the plates.
With reference to Mr. Wrightson's remarks he could only
say that the requirements for ships and for bridges were
very different.
The next paper read was by Col. H. Dyer " On the
Production of Pure Iron and Steel."
The author described some attempts to produce pure
iron and steel in the basic furnace, with results which
approached so nearly to a solution as to afford hope that
success was not far distant.
In experimenting on the production of pure iron, the
best results were obtained from a charge of 50 to 80 per
cent, of good scrap, the remainder being good Swedish
pig, worked very quickly. Analysis of the product gave
the following results . —
Combined carbon Trace
Silicon 0-006
Manganese Trace
Phosphorus Trace
Sulphur 0'015
With the greatest care only small forgings could be
made, so that no satisfactory mechanical tests had been
made.
A second series of experiments was undertaken to ascer-
tain whether a steel with a high percentage of carbon and
a low percentage of phosphorus could be produced ftom
ordinary scrap steel in the basic furnace. A layer of
690
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 81, 1892.
coarsely broken limestone was placed on the hearth of
an ordinary basic Siemens furnace, and on this a layer
of coke. A charge of scrap steel was then placed on top
of the coke, and the whole melted down as quickly as
possible. To the melted charge manganiferous ore and
limestone were added as required. A good furnace
working well required about 9 cwt. of coke to 14 tons of
metal. The coke reduced the oxide of iron formed in
melting, and carbonised tne steel. Nine different qualities
of steel were produced from as many consecutive charges,
and these contained from oil to 05 per cent, of com-
bined carbon. The breaking strengths ranged from
22*7 to 45*3 tons per square inch, and the elongation
from 4 4 to 14 '5 per cent. The paper contained a tabular
statement of analyses, and of the results of the various
tests. The author thought that if carbonaceous material
free from sulphur could be obtained, the sulphur in the
metal might be decreased or altogether eliminated.
Mr. Edward Riley said he had often made practically
pure iron by the basic process, e.g., a metal containing
99 -9 per cent, of iron and hardly any phosphorus or
carbon. At Seraing some thousands of tons of steel
were produced by the basic process from hematite iron, in
which the phosphorus was as low as 0-01 per cent.
Mr. Snelus said he had often advised Sheffield manu-
facturers to make iron by the basic process from English
hematite rather than pay high prices for Swedish
material.
Sir Lowthian Bell pointed out that pure iron meant iron
in which there was not a trace of anything else. The
electricians at the Post Office had been in search of that
material for 10 years. For telephonic purposes it was
desirable to obtain iron without a trace of carbon.
Mr. Snelus said that Col. Dyer had stated that his pure
iron could not be worked. He thought this was due to
the presence of oxide of irou, which was very difficult to
estimate accurately, and had so far proved very difficult to
remove when present. He was at present making experi-
ments on this point, and hoped shortly to place the results
before the Institute.
The secretary then read a communication from
Mr. Powell, the general manager of the Newton Works,
who had succeeded in making a bar of pure iron by the
basic process, but was not sanguine as to success on a
practical scale. The red-shortness, which was probably due
to the presence of oxide of iron, could be remedied
by adding steel. He recommended a basic lining for
ladles.
A communication from Mr. Alex. Tucker was also read,
in which he gave results of analyses of steel made in basic
converters by the Staffordshire Steel Company. In some
cases the phosphorus was as low as 0"04 per cent.,
and the sulphur O'l per cent. This metal worked
perfectly.
The president remarked that Colonel Dyer's results
seemed to be of great importance, and that he had induced
Dr. Hopkinson to inquire into the magnetic properties
of the iron, which seemed to be of a remarkable
character.
Mr. Hardisty gave particulars of his attempts to make
a very soft steel for telegraphic wires. The metal produced
had a tensile strength of 20-9 tons per square inch, with
an elongation of 36 per cent. The limit of elasticity was
very high, about 16*4 tons per square inch, or over
mi per cent, of the breaking stress. He had obtained steel
containing only O'l per cent, of phosphorus, commencing
with 0-5 per cent. He recommended a basic lining for the
ladles as Mr. Powell did. He thought steel, such as he
had sometimes made, having a breaking strength of
40 tons per square inch and an elongation of 18 per cent.,
compared favourably with Colonel Dyer's pure iron.
Col. Dyer, in reply to the discussion, said that where
a large quantity of oxide was present it increased the
deleterious action of the other impurities in a marked
degree. — J. II. C.
Action of Carbonic Oxide on Iron and Manganese.
Guntz. Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 1 15—117.
Slwimku first observed that a considerable quantity of
carbon is separated on passing carbonic oxide over oxide
of iron at a temperature below that at which glass softens.
Sehutzenberger has since pointed out, contrary to the
opinion of Gruner, that with pure iron the decomposition
of carbonic oxide can be effected without material formation
of carbon dioxide. The author has recently been engaged
on work requiring the electrolytic preparation of amalgams,
and from these amalgams pure metals have been obtained
which have been subjected to the action of carbonic oxide.
In the case of iron, carbon began to separate when a dull
red heat was attained ; a very small quantity of carbon
dioxide was formed ; at the same time the iron seemed to
absorb carbonic oxide. More satisfactory results were
obtained with manganese. The metal was heated at about
400° in a glass tube, through which a current of carbonic
oxide was being passed. After a while action begins
between the manganese and the gas, and heating may be
discontinued. The carbonic oxide seems to be totally
absorbed. The reaction which takes place, according to the
author, is the following : Mn + CO = MuO + C. From
analogy it would seem as though the reaction, in the case
of iron, might be represented thus : Fe + CO = FeO + C.
The completeness of the reaction in the case of manganese
is accounted for by the resistance of the oxide of manganese
to reduction by carbonic oxide at all temperatures, and in
this it differs from iron.
At high temperatures the suboxides of iron and
manganese when heated with carbon give the metal and
carbonic oxide, that is to say the action is the reverse of
that taking place at about 500' C. The reaction here
considered is held by the author to explain how in one
particular zone of the blast furnace the iron encountering
carbonic oxide is oxidised with separation of carbon, and
how in another zone this oxide of iron is reduced by
carbonic oxide with formation of carbonic acid, and how
in passing through the furnace the iron takes up carbon
from the finely-divided material with which it is in contact.
— T. L. B.
The Preparation and Estimation of Pure Platinum.
F. Mylius and F. Foerster. Ber. 25, 1892, 065—686.
The authors having recounted the known methods devised
by Deville and Stas for the analysis and purification of
the metals of the platinum group, and having substantiated
the accuracy of the separations of the metals on which
they depend, comment on certain disadvantages that these
processes possess. They have devised a method by which
the platinum may be volatilised from other metals
present in small quantity, and with this object in view
they have investigated the volatility of such metals as
are likely to be present, as well as that of platinum
itself when heated in a current of chlorine mixed with
carbon monoxide. The formation of volatile compounds
of platinum under these conditions has been lately investi-
gated anew by Pullinger (J. Chem. Soc. 1891, 598), and
by the authors themselves, and its applicability was tried
by them in the following manner: — Five to 10 grms. of
platinum, preferably in the form of " sponge," contained
in a porcelain boat, was heated in a thin walled tube drawu
out to a long neck at one end and attached to an apparatus
for generating chlorine and to a gas-holder filled with a
mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide produced
by the action of sulphuric acid upon oxalic acid. The
further end was closed by a cork and carried a tube dipping
into caustic soda to absorb objectionable fumes. The part
of the tube containing the boat was heated to about 238° C.
At first chlorine alone was passed over the metal under
treatment, and afterwards a mixture of chlorine and carbon
monoxide. Excess of the former was found to be inadvis.
able, as dark coloured sparingly volatile products were
formed, which however were easily sublimed by subsequent
treatment with carbon monoxide. Ten grms. of platinum
could be volatilised in this way in six or eight hours. The
process was found to be unsuited for the analysis of
platinum alloys, as the presence of about one per cent.
iBB.Si.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
691
of iridium caused the distillation to proceed very slowly,
ami considerable quantities of platinum remained in the
residue. With sensibly pure platinum, however, no such
difficult; occurs, and even thin sheet can be used. The
platinum can be easily recovered from the sublimed com-
pounds with chlorine and carbon monoxide by solution in
strong hydrochloric acid and decomposition of this solution
by the addition of water. The determination of the platinum
by this method is not to be recommended, but it may be
indirectly estimated by the loss in weight of the contents
of the boat. The behaviour of the metals likely to be
present in platinum of commercial purity was then
ascertained. Iridium gave a sublimate strongly resembling
that yielded by platinum, and separation of a trace of
iridium from a large quantity of platinum could not be
effected: Palladium alone gave no sublimate, but vola-
tilised in the presence of an excess of platinum, only
a trace being left in the non-volatile residue. Hhodium
was not appreciably volatile ; 1 mgrm. could be recognised
in 10 grms. of platinum. Ruthenium, osmium, and gold
were all volatile. Silver, copper, lead, and zinc were non-
volatile, while iron easily sublimed. The method was
ili.r. tore shown to be available for tin: metals rhodium,
silver, copper, lead, and zinc. The process can be used to
supplement the Deville-Stas method, in the following way : —
Theaqua regia solution of platinum containing rhodium and
lead obtained in the course of the standard method, is
freed as far as possible from excess of acid, neutralised
with ammonia, excess of formic acid added together with
some ammonium acetate, made up to 500 cc, heated on the
water-bath to 70° — 80° C. until the carbon dioxide which
is freely evolved at the beginning slackens somewhat, and
then boiled in conjunction with a vertical condenser
for 24 — 30 hours. The precipitated metal is washed with
dilute hydrochloric acid and dried over sulphuric acid
and caustic potash The dried metal is heated cautiously
in hydrogen, weighed, and treated by the carbon
monoxide and chlorine process already in outline de-
scribed. The non-volatile residue is extracted with nitric
acid to remove the lead, while the rhodium is separated
from the small quantity of platinum remaining in the
boat, by fusion with bisulphate of potash. Small amounts
of impurities in platinum are therefore best deter-
mined by the following method: — Three distinct portions
are taken ; the first is tested for palladium, iridium,
and ruthenium by the ordinary lead method of Deville
and Stas ; a second portion is dissolved in aqua regia
and the filtrate examined for iron after the reduction
of the platinum by means of formic acid ; the third is
volatilised by the new carbon monoxide and chlorine
method, and rhodium, silver, copper, and lead looked for
in the residue. The following quantities can be detected
if lo n;rms. of platinum be used for each operation :
iridium, 0-003; ruthenium, 0-005 ; ruodium, 0004;
palladium, 0-01 ; iron, O'OOl; copper, 0-002; silver,
0'002 ; lead, 0-002 percent, respectively.
Preparation of Pure Platinum. — Commercial platinum
is not even approximately pure. Appended are two
analyses, the first of a platinum crucible, the second of a
sample of " purified" platinum : —
Platinum
Crucible.
" Purified "
Platinum.
Per Cent.
96-90
2-B6
(1-211
Trace
II-U2
0-20
Per Cent.
99-28
n\>2
o-is
0-04
o-oo
0-U7
*99 -SS
yj-'M
The need for pure platinum for the preparation of standard
weights and measures made from a platiuutn-iridiuni alloy
of known composition, was the first cause that led to a
serious attempt being made to purify platinum beyond
the limits here indicated, and success in this direction has
been achieved by the well-known firm of Johnson and
Matthey, who use the lead process of Deville and Stas. The
authors have detected in the purest samples from this firm
0-01 per cent, of rhodium and 0-01 per cent, of silver, both
impurities being among the list of those for the detection of
which the carbon monoxide and chlorine method is
especially suitable. Lately W. O. Heriius has engaged in '.he
production of pure platinum, which is stated to be preferable
to the English material, as no lead is used in the process of
purification. A sample examined by the authors contained
only a trace of iridium, not quantitatively determinable,
and no detectable amount of palladium or rhodium. The
amount of iron present did not exceed 0*001 per cent.
Finkener's method for purifying platiuum was adopted.
It consists essentially in the conversion of the platinum into
the double sodium chloiide salt and the recrystallisation of
this salt from a solution made alkaline with soda. The solu-
tion of platinic chloride, freed from oxides of nitrogen, was
evaporated with the calculated amount of sodium chloride
(free from iron) to dryness, and well stirred while cooling.
The mother-liquor was removed from the crystals, and the
latter were washed with a strong solution of sodium chloride
aud dissolved in a 1 per cent, soda solution. A very small
quantity of a dark precipitate containing iridium remained.
The salt separated by the cooling of the filtered solution
was repeatedly recrystallised from slightly alkaline solution
without the formation of any similar precipitate. The
purified salt thus obtained was dehydrated at 120° C, and
reduced in hydrogen at a low temperature, the resulting
platinum sponge washed repeatedly with water, dried and
ignited, the ignited metal being also washed with dilute
hydrochloric acid, dilute hydrofluoric acid, aud again with
water.
With regard to the purity of the platinum thus prepared,
it appeared probable that the maximum limit for the total
quantity of foreign matter was 0-01 per cent., that is to
say, there was present 99-99 per cent, of platinum. The
conclusion arrived at by this investigation is that platinum
is a metal which can be brought to a high state of purity
with ease and certainty. — B. B.
1 99 '68 in original.
Chemistry of Thomas-Slag. M. A. von Reis. Zeits. f.
ang. Chein. 1892, 229—231.
Thomas-slag leaves the steel works either in blocks or
slabs, the former being produced by allowing the liquid
slag to solidify in the truck, the latter by pouring the slag.
The essential difference between these two methods is in
the rate of cooling ; the blocks have cooled slowly
and seem to be thereby rendered far more friable than the
slabs, which are much harder, having been cooled quickly,
frequently with the aid of a sprinkling. This difference in
hardness is a very real one to the slag-miller ; the blocks
can often be crumbled in some parts of their surfaces
between the fingers, while the energy necessary to mill the
slabs is very costly. The blocks, however, are not uniform
in texture ; if allowed to spontaneously crumble, as they do
in time, they disintegrate to a more or less coarse powder
containing hard smooth nodules, which are difficult to grind.
The author has sought a chemical explanation for this
physical difference between block- and slab-slag. Slags
from four steel works were analysed, and of these,
descriptions and analyses are given below —
I. From works A. — Slab ; dark brown, thick, hard, and
difficultly milled.
II. From works A. — Block ; grey, schistose, friable, and
easily milled.
III. From works B. — Block ;
easily milled.
IV. From works C. — Block ;
and not very easily milled.
V. From works 1). — Slab; dark brown, thick, hard, and
difficultly milled.
slate-grey, compact, and
grey, compact, blistered,
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 81, 1892,
\ 1. Prom works D. — Block; brown, thick, hard, and
difficultly milled.
VII. From works D Block; grey, friable, and easily
milled.
Sample.
Mil.
1'n
\ i
FejOj
FeO
MnO
CaO
MgO
Milling Quality.
1.
6*77
16-92
1-68
0 96
10-77
7-16
51-00
3-01
Difficult.
II.
10- 11
11-75
1-58
10-41
10-55
W91
31-00
2-08
Easy.
III.
6-69
17-75
5-70
10-65
7-71
43-42
2-115
Easy.
IV.
1-88
19-25
i'.Y.i
.-,•11
12-49
6-23
48-17
2-3S
>,"i t very easy.
V.
8-07
18-48
1- 10
3-45
10-13
9-35
i.;-7u
2-03
Difficult.
VI.
6'00
I8"39
1-37
2-87
11-43
7-28
•Mi' 77
1-57
Difficult.
VII.
7-117
22-50
0-89
5-27
6-49
7-S1
17-36
1-67
Easy.
From this table it will be seen that the general chemical
composition of the slag has little or no influence on its
physical properties, hut the proportion of Fe2(>, to FeO
seems to he connected with the milling quality of the slag.
The following are the ratios of Fe.,0:, to FeO (columns .5
and 6) in the above samples, given in the same order:
1 : 11-2, 1 : 1-0, 1 : 1-9, 1 :2-5, 1 :30, 1 :4-0, 1:1-2. If
these ratios be compared with the milling qualities, it will he
noted that when Fe203:FeO < 1 : 3, the slag is easily
milled, but when it exceeds this the milling is more
difficult.
For additional evidence as to the influence of the ratio
I 'ei i : I'd I, four blocks were fractionally analysed : —
Block 1. — This consisted of about 25 per cent, of brown
haul slag (I.), the remainder being brown hard nodules (II.)
embedded in a grey schistose, friable slag (III.) ; the
analyses show that whereas the acid radicles in the different
parts are constant, and have no apparent effect on the
milling qualities, the ratio of Fe203 to FeO varies and has
considerable influence : —
SiOo
P»06
■ i
FeO
i e ii.iI'.'O
Milling Quality.
I.
9-18
21- 7(1
Bi
9-20
1 : .'I'll
Difficult.
II.
934
21-35
2 '40
9 '93
1 : t'l
Difficult,
111.
9-02
22-00
S'l.'i
4'jt
1 II'.-,
Easy.
Blocks 2, •''., and I. were analysed in strata :-
Block -2. Superficial layer
Second layer
Third lav. r (verj friable)
Fourth layer (compact, brown; block proper)
Blu.ck8. Brown, brittle crust trom the cover
Superficial layer
„ Sen, ml layer
„ Third layer
Compai k
Block I. s I'ficial layer
„ Second layer
„ Compact, brown block
Thin layer from between the block and the wall
ol the i
IV j I
10-80
8-80
8-30
2-00
7-22
6-36
7-82
19-50
5'80
15-0
21 -!i
I'.M
FcjOa : FeO Killing Quality.
£*37
1 : 0-2
Easy.
.-S3
1 : 0-2
Easy.
0-21
1 : 0-03
Vn'i easy.
9 07
1 :3-5
Difficult.
7-12
1 : 10
Easy.
10-05
1 : 1-5
Easy.
11-00
1 : 1-5
Easy,
0-32
1 : 0-02
Very easy.
11- It
1 : 2-1)
Easy.
s-s
1 : IIT.
Easy.
0-22
1 : n-lll
A ery rasy.
l.Vs
1 : 3-0
Moderately easy.
385
1 : 0-17
Very easy.
Some nodules remaining on a heap of slag which had
been formed in the early days of the Thomas process were
found to be exceedingly hard and difficult to mill; they
were elipsoidal in shape and some 10 to 15 cm. long. An
analysis of two of them gave:— (1) Fe.,( >., 1-43, FeO 18-38,
l-'ei'i :FeO 1 : 13, (2) Fe.( >, 1;75, FeO 10-20, Fe2< >, : Fe< '
1 :9-3.
It is pretty evident that the larger the quantity of ferric
oxide in the slag, the more easily the slag is milled; but
this only applies to slowly cooled blocks ; in the rapidly
cooled slabs the ferric oxide, when present, has much less
influence. The authoi surmises that in liquid slag there
exist, besides phosphates and silicates, calcium ferrate and
manganate : during the cooling of the slag these compounds
decompose more or less complete!) according to the time
occupied, and if this be very short they may not decompose
at all before the slag is solid ; the decomposition results in
the liberation of ferric and manganese oxides which
disseminate through the molten slag and prevent it from
setting so hard as it otherwise would ; this dissemination
will lie less perfect if the slag be quickly cooled, and a
harder product will result. That this explanation is
probably correct, is evidenced by the fact that difficultly
milled slags leave little or no residue when treated with
dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part of HC'l of sp. gr. 1 • 19 + 5
parts of H..< I), whereas the softer samples leave a residue
which consists almost entirely of ferric oxide, and is
proportional to the ease with which they have been milled.
—A. G. B.
Aug.Si,i892J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTF.Y.
693
On Certain Ternary Alloys. Part VI. C. R. Alder
Wright. Proc'. Roy. Soc. 1892.
I\ this paper are described the results of experiments made
with ternary mixtures of molten metals containing aluminium
as the lighter " immiscible " metal, lead (or bismuth) as the
heavier one, and tin (or silver) as the "solvent" metal,
the observations being made in precisely the same way
as those previously described (this Journal, 1 80l>, 944 :
1892, 245). Incidentally it is mentioned that the aluminium
now obtainable commercially in quantity is considerably
purer than that supplied at some eight times the price
upwards of four 3rears ago, when the experiments were first
commenced; in 1887 — 88 so-called 99 per cent, aluminium
invariably contained much more than 1 per cent, of matter
not aluminium (at least so far as numerous samples were
concerned obtained by the author from different makers for
the purpose of the investigation) ; silicon and iron are still
the chief impurities, the former existing in conditions closely
analogous to those observed in the case of carbon in cast
iron, &c. ; i.e. partly dissolved in the aluminium (when
fused) apparently in the amorphous form, and partly
undissolved in the graphitoidal form. On solution in
diluted aqua regia the former variety of silicon becomes
oxidised and more or less completely dissolved in the acid
fluid, whilst the latter is mostly unattacked and undissolved;
much as the dissolved amorphous carbon in cast iron, &c. is
volatilised in combination with hydrogen in solution in
hydrochloric acid, whilst the undissolved admixed graphi-
toidal carbou remains unaffected by the acid.
The " critical curves " obtained at the temperature of
about 800° C. with the ternary mixtures aluminium-lead-tin
and aluminium-bismuth-tin and at near 870° C. with the
mixtures aluminium-lead-silver and aluminium-bismuth-
silver are described and graphically represented ; on com-
parison with the four corresponding curves where zinc
replaces aluminium, it is noticeable that in every case the
curve obtained with aluminium as light immiscible metal is
situated outside the corresponding curve where zinc was
used, notwithstanding that a somewhat higher temperature
was employed ; whilst the curve obtained with bismuth as
heavier immiscible metal invariably lies inside the corre-
sponding curve where lead is used, the temperature
conditions being the same. The examination of the general
contours of the curves and the directions of slope, &c, of the
tie-lines lead to the conclusion that whereas zinc and silver
form definite compounds, AgZn5 and Ag4Zn5, the formation
of which produces peculiar bulges (inwards and outwards)
at certain portions of the critical curves when these two
metals are present, no such results are traceable in the ease
of aluminium and silver. On the other hand, the configura-
tions of the tie-lines with zinc-lead-tin and aluminium-lead-
tiu alloys are alike, but different from those observed in all
other cases, leading to the inference that the cause is the
tendency towards the formation of certain definite com-
pounds, Pb3Sn on the one hand and Zn ,Sn and Al4Sn on the
other.
The positions of the " limiting points," or vanishing
points of the systems of tie-lines deduced in the four cases,
are such as to show that whilst the proportions in which the
two immiscible metals are present at the limiting point is
always pretty close to that indicating some definite atomic
ratio, jet this ratio differs widely with the nature of the
" solvent " metal ; thus with the four combinations the
atomic ratios were approximately those indicated by the
formuhc —
Aluminium-lead-tin Al-Pbg
Aluminium-lead-silver AU'b,
Aluminiuni-liisiuutli-tin AJi0Bi
Aluminium-bismutb-silver AlBis
All four aluminium-containing alloys are freely oxidisable
when molten ; even when the atmosphere surrounding the
crucible is rendered reducing as far as possible, and access
of air prevented as much as practicable by directing a jet of
coal gas into the crucible, a notable amount of oxidation
takes place during the admixture of the metals by vigorous
stirring ; the effect of this is that the mixtures " flour "
considerably, so that a large portion of the metals originally
used is lost, being pulverised and left behind with the scoria;
in the mixing crucible, when the fluid mixture is poured off
into long, narrow, clay test-tubes, in which the mass is kept
molten for some eight hours. — C. K. A. W.
Note on the Density of Nickel and Iron. J. Hopkinson.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, 302, 121 — 122.
Ix Proc. Roy. Sec. 12, December 1889, January 1G, 1890,
and May 1, 1890, the author described certain properties of
alloys of nickel and iron containing respectively 22 per cent,
and 25 per cent, of nickel. In addition to the curious
properties already described, the author has discovered that
these alloys are about 2 per cent, less dense when in the
maguetisable than when in the non-magnetisable state.
Two rings were tested containing respectively 25 per cent,
and 22 per cent, of nickel with the following results, the
densities being given without correction in relation to the
density of water at the then temperature : —
Nickel.
Nickel.
25 Per Cent.
22 Per Cent.
Density.
Temperature.
Density.
Temperature.
After heating, non-
8-15
15-1
8-13
16-5
lnagnetisaole.
After cooling, mag*
7 "99
H'E
7-90
15'6
netisable.
After heating again,
S'15
ls-i)
s-12
18-2
non-magnetisable.
After cooling again,
7-H7
22-0
T'Jo
21*8
magnetisable.
The rings were each time cooled from 100° C. to 110° C.
by carbonic acid and ether in vacuo. — G. H. R.
Note on the Analysis of Slay of Metallic Appearance
from the Manufacture of Phosphorus in Electrical
Furnaces. J. C. Chorley. Chem. News, 63, 301.
See under XXIII., paye 711.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Ferro Bronze and
other Alloys. J. E. Bott, Eyam, Derbyshire. Eng. Pat.
795, January 15, 1891.
The rationale of this process consists in heating iron
sulphide with zinc, whereby an iron-zinc alloy is produced
at a low temperature and with small loss of zinc, and then
fusing this alloy with copper to form ferro-bronze. The iron
sulphide is produced by placing iron rods in molten sulphur,
the product being tapped from the bottom of the crucible m
fast as it is formed. If it is required for the ultimate
production of a ferro-bronze which can be rolled or forged,
wrought iron is used, but if a hard tenacious ferro-bronze
is required, suitable for bearings, propellers, Sec. titanic iron
or sand is made use of. If still denser ferro-bronze is
required tungsten or chrome ore, with or without wrought
iron, is employed. The next stage is the production of
ferro-zinc, ferro-titauie zinc, ferro -chromic zinc, ferro-
manganic-chromic zinc, or ferro-tungstic zinc by fusing the
above simple or compound sulphides with metallic zinc in a
covered iron crucible. Lastly the ferro-zincs so produced
are fused with copper to produce ferro-bronzes as stated
above. By this process the difficulty of introducing iron
into copper is avoided and the proportion of the latter
element may be greatly decreased with the production of
stronger and more ductile alloys. — II. K. T.
694
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug si.un.
Improvements Relating to the Treatment of Sulphur Ores,
Crude Sulphur, Ozokerites, Hear., Oils of Petroleum,
and other Materials for Extracting, Purifying, or
Refining Purposes, and to Apparatus for Use therein.
L. Labois, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 9781, Juue 9, 1891.
The inventor proposes to extract by centrifugal action or
removal of the liquid with the aid of high-pressure steam,
substances which can be separated in the liquid state by
elevation of the temperature of the gangues, ores, or raw
materials in general which contain them. — D. B.
Improvements in Alloys and Compositions for Use in
Covering or Coating Surfaces of Iron and Steel, and the
Surfaces of other Materials, in order to prevent Corrosion
and Fouling thereof when submerged. J. O. Day, Black-
heath. Eng. Pat. 9417, June 3, 1891.
This invention is an improvement on a previous one
(Eng. Pat. 16,107, October 10, 1890), which consisted
in the production of alloys by melting together zinc and
antimony or zinc and copper, or zinc, antimony and copper,
these alloys being then pulverised, mixed with a fluid
medium and used as an anti-fouling composition. The
present invention relates to the production of similar alloys
by melting lead with zinc and antimony or zinc and copper
or zinc and antimony and copper or simply substituting
lead for zinc in the alloys mentioned in the first patent, the
alloys being afterwards pulverised and used as before.
In substituting lead for zinc the weight of the lead
must be three times that of the substituted zinc if the
galvanic relationship of the alloy to iron or steel is to be
maintained the same. Eor instance an alloy of —
Parts.
Zinc 30
Lead 15
Antimony 100
will have the same galvanic relationship to iron or steel as
an alloy of —
Parts,
Zinc 35
Antimony lun
— H. K. T.
An Improved Method of forming Magnetic Oxide (Fe^Oi)
upon the Surface of Wrought or Cast Iron. P. H.
Bertrand, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 10,144, June 15,
1891.
Tins invention relates to a method for producing a layer of
magnetic oxide of iron upon articles of wrought or cast iron
or steel for the purpose of preserving the same, and consists
in coating the iron or steel by electro-deposition with some
metal or alloy which is capable of being volatilised at a
temperature of 1,000° C, such as copper, bronze, brass,
nickel, gold, &c, and then introducing it into a furnace
heated to 1,000° or less according to the volatility of the
covering metal. The iron becomes oxidised, but only to
the magnetic oxide stage, and the metallic coating volatilises,
the operation being completed in four or five minutes.
Instead of coating by electrolysis the articles may be simply
scratched with a wire brush made of any of the above
metals.- 11. K. T.
Improvements in or Connected with the Production of
Purple Ore,Ilriel.s, or Blocks, suitable for Use in Blast
or Equivalent Furnaces for the Production of Iron, and
for other Purposes, H. Bird, Plymouth. Eng. Pat.
10,420, June 19, 1891.
Tins is a process and apparatus for converting "purple
ore," the residue left after the wet extraction of copper from
burnt cupreous sulphur ores, into blocks or briquettes to be
used for the production of iron. The ore after removal
from the tanks is left for 24 hours and is then ground in a
mill to a slurry which is tipped into moulds supported on a
floor heated from below by steam. When the blocks so
produced are sufficiently dry they are placed in a kiln, and
heated to a red or white heat for 46 hours and then allowed
to cool, when they are ready for use. Drawings are given
describing the moulds, drying floors, and kilns. The latter
may be of the Hoffman description or two down draught
Staffordshire kilns may be used so arranged that the waste
heat from one may be used to dry fresh bricks contained in
the other. If free acid exist in the ore after washing a
little lime may be added before forming the briquettes, and
manganese ore may be incorporated if the briquettes are to
be used for making steel. In this process as usually carried
out neither water nor other matter is added, hence the
amount of rtater to be evaporated and consequent con-
sumption of fuel is small. — H. If. T.
An Improved Method and Appliances for the Production
of Litharge from Metallic Lead. A. Gutensohn, Londou.
Eng. Pat. 12,895, July 29, 1891.
The litharge is produced by injecting air or furnace-gas
under the surface of molten lead which is contained in a
peculiarly formed crucible having a tall conical hood, air or
steam being also forced upon the surface of the litharge so
produced. A by-product of finely-divided metallic lead
collects on the inner surface of the hood. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Treating Lead for Purifying it, and for
obtaining Litharge, or for Separating Lead from the
Precious Metals contained in it. B. Rosing, Friedrichs-
hutte, Upper Silesia. Eng. Pat. 13,068, August 1, 1891.
The molten lead contained in a vessel having a basic lining
is oxidised by means of a blast of air or oxygen. The first
portions of the litharge so produced will contain most of the
oxidisable impurities contained in the original lead.
By continuing the blowing the major portion of the lead
may be oxidised, so leaving any precious metals which may
be present in a concentrated state. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Carburising Fluid Iron or Steel. J. E.
Stead, Middlesbro'-on-Tees. Eng. Pat. 13,888, August 18,
1891.
The improvement consists in forcing carbon beneath the
surface of the molten metal, which is gradually absorbed
thereby.— J. H. C.
Improvements In the Treatment of certain Mattes or Ores
for the Separation of Nickel and Cobalt from Copper.
H. L. Herrenschmidt, Petit Quevilly, pres Rouen, France.
Eng. Pat. 14,290, August 24, 1891.
The mattes are crushed, and a portion being roasted, the
metals therein are brought into solution as sulphates or
chlorides in the ordinary way. These solutions are then
made to act upon the unroasted portion of crushed matte,
by which means the whole of the copper may be precipi-
tated as metallic copper, while the whole of the cobalt, nickel,
and iron go into solution. The iron is then precipitated,
preferably by a solution containing persalt of nickel or
persalt of cobalt, thus producing a liquor practically free
from iron. The nickel and cobalt are then separated by the
ordinary methods.
When the original matte contains no cobalt, the solution,
after precipitating the copper, may be evaporated to dryness
and the residue calcined, by which means only the salts of
iron are decomposed. The nickel salt may then be separated
by lixiviation with water. — J. H. C.
'.,,-.,!!, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
695
Improvements in the Burning of Pressed Slocks of Purple
Ore. and in Apparatus and Kilns therefor. T. H. J.
Eskuchen and H. A. Haarmann, Osnabriick, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 15,44-1, September 11, 1891.
Tins invention relates to a furnace for burning purple ore,
and consists of an arched kiln furnished at one end with
fire-bars for burning coke, the products of combustion
passing through the briquettes of purple ore to the chimney
at the further end. Beneath the furnace are brickwork
channels or flues into which are admitted combustible gases
(blast-furnace or similar gases) and air, and the burning
gases which are produced issue into the furnace behind the
tire-bars, and pass, together with the hot gases from the
coke, through the briquettes to the chimne}-. At starting
only the coke fires are used until the ore is dry ; the gas and
air are then turned on and the combined heating by coke
and gas continued until the ore is burnt, that is to say, for
several days. — H. K. T.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Briquettes of Purple
Ore. T. H. J. Kskuchen and H. A. Haarmann, Osna-
briick, Germany. Eng. Pat. 15,482, September 12, 1891.
Tin: invention consists in the addition of furnace-dust from
blast-furnaces as a binding material in making the briquettes.
—J. H. C.
A Proecss and Apparatus for Extraction of Metals from
Ores. J. J. Sbedlock and T. Denny, London. Eng. Pat.
16,348, September 26, 1891.
The process consists in subjecting the pulverised ore to
violent agitation by jets of air or steam while it is heated by
jets of gas ; and in grinding it in presence of a fluid amal-
gamating or alloying metal, which may be either mercury
or molten lead or other suitable alloy. — J. H. C.
An Alloy. E. W. Cooke, Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8834,
May 10, 1892.
Tiik alloy consists of steel, aluminium, and copper,- at least
25 per cent, being steel, and the aluminium being in excess
of the copper. The steel is melted under a suitable cover
or flux, and the other components are then added. The
alloy is of exceedingly fine and hard grain, and will cut the
hardest steel or glass without any tempering. — J. H. C.
Improvements in or relating to the Manufacture of Cast
Steel. J. E. Eilassier and J. Faure, Paris. Eng. Pat.
9523, May 18, 1892.
Thk improvements consist in melting, preferably in a
crucible, scrap steel, with or without the addition of scrap
iron, with magnetic iron ore containing titanium. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Metallurgical Furnaces for Steel-making
or Cementation Purposes. J. E. Filassier and J. Faure,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 9.522, May 19, 1892.
The substances to be treated are uniformly heated to a high
tempeiature in a closed receptacle or muffle out of contact
with air or with combustion products. The muffle is prefer-
ably made rectangular and of fireclay, in tongued and
grooved sections or panels, so that it is capable of being
taken to pieces. It is heated from below by one or more
fireplaces. Openings are provided for the insertion of a
pyrometer.— J. H. C.
Process for Rendering Iron, Steel, and similar Metals
Homogeneous. J. C. Fraley, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 9859, May 24, 1892.
The metals are exposed while in a heated condition within
a magnetic field, which is repeatedly varied while they are
cooling. The magnetic field may be suitably produced by a
coil of wire which is covered with an insulating coating of
refractory material, and which is in circuit with a storage
battery or other suitable source of electricity. The metal
to be acted upon is placed within the coil, and w-hile the
temperature is still high the current is varied by means of
an alternator or other suitable contrivance. — I. H. ('.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURCY.
Simultaneous Electrolytic Deposition of Copper and
Antimony. W. Hampe. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 417—
418.
All samples of electrolytic copper examined by the author
contained small quantities of antimony, varying from 0-007
to 0'02 per cent. It would thus seem as though the two
were simultaneously deposited, and consequently laboratory
experiments in this direction were made. A sample of
copper sulphate containing 25 '09 per cent, of copper and
0-0083 per cent, of antimony was electrolysed by a current
from six Meidinger-Pincus cells, and a sample of copper
was produced containing 0-C07 per cent, of antimony;
furthermore, an alloy of copper and antimony was treated
with nitric acid, and the solution and residue so obtained
were evaporated together with concentrated sulphuric acid
until fuming took place ; water and 20 cc. of nitric acid
were now added, and the residue of antimonic acid was
filtered off. Electrolysis was effected with the result that
with 45-275 grms. of copper there was deposited 0-009 grm.
of antimony, that is, the metal deposited contained 0-0198
per cent, of antimony. The original alloy contained 99-44
per cent, of copper, 0-529 per cent, of antimony, and a
minute quantity of iron. — T. L. B.
A Study of the Plante Lead-Sulphuric Acid-Lead
Peroxide Cell, from a Chemical Stand-point. Part I.
G. H. Robertson. Communicated by H. E. Armstroug.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, 302, 105—108.
The investigation, the results of which are recorded in this
paper, was instituted at Dr. Armstrong's suggestion, as
McLeod's observations on the electrolysis of sulphuric acid
solutions led to the supposition that the changes occurring
in the acid were probably less simple than was commonly
supposed. This supposition was verified. The first section
of the paper deals with the nature of the lead salt formed
during discharge. In the second section the electrolyte is
dealt with, and after referring to the work of Berthelot,
Richarz, Sehone, Traube, and others, on the electrolysis of
sulphuric acid solutions, the author describes experiments
made to test the effect of the addition of sodium sulphate
to the electrolyte as recommended by Mr. Barber Starkey,
as it seemed probable it had a catalytic action on the
" peroxides " always found in electrolysed acid of the
strength used in batteries.
In conclusion, the author points out : —
That neither chemical nor electrical tests give any ground
for supposing that any other sulphate rhan the ordinary-
white PbS04 is concerned in the interactions occurring in
the cell ;
That were the sudden lowering of E.M.F. caused by a
change in the nature of the chemical compounds formed on
the plates, it is ver}' difficult to account for the very rapid
recovery of the E.M.P. exhibited by an apparently discharged
cell ;
l) 2
«96
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [An*, si, 1898,
That peroxide.-; are found in appreciable quantities in the
electrolyte during charge and discharge ;
That their influence must not be neglected in considering
the behaviour of the Plante cell ;
And that it is to the electrolyte, rather than to the plates,
that attention must be directed if any considerable improve-
ment is to be effected. — G. H. R.
A Study of the Lead-Sulphuric Acid-Lead Peroxide Cell,
from a Chemical Stand-point. Tart II. A Discussion
of the Chemical Changes occurring in the Cell. H. E.
Armstrong and G. H. Robertson, l'roc. Roy. Soc. 50,
302, 108.
The authors arrive in this paper at the following con-
clusions : —
1. That the cooling observed in the Plante cell can only
be explained as resulting from the dissociation of the
dilute sulphuric acid ;
2. That the observed loss in efficiency cannot be due to
temperature changes, as these arise through actions
occurring out of circuit.
3. That it is difficult from a comparison of calculated
with observed values of the E.JI.F. to arrive at any final
conclusion as to the exact changes which take place in the
cell. On the assumption that sulphating occurs at both
plates in circuit and under the influence of H~S()4, the
calculated value is considerably too high, while, if sulphating
occur onlv at the lead plate, the value calculated is far too
low.— G. II. R.
Note on the Density of Nickel and Iron. J. Hopkinson.
Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, 302, 121—122.
See under X , page G93.
Some Separations by Electrolysis. E. F. Smith and D. L.
Wallace. Ber. 25, 1892, 775—782.
This paper contains an account of work done at the
University of Pennsylvania in continuation of the authors
experiments on electrolysis which have already been pub-
lished (Ann. Chem. Fharni. 13, 417, and Proc. Chem. Soc.
Fr. Inst. 3, 20), which showed that a perfect separation
could be effected by the electrolysis of a solution of the
double cyanide of gold. The experiments recorded were
undertaken in order to determine the effect of the presence
of an excess of potassium cyanide. The temperature was
found to have an important bearing on the rate of deposition
of the gold, and the authors reserve the study of this for a
future investigation.
In the case of arsenic, the presence of a large quantity of
potassium cyanide hinders the deposition of the gold, and
on increasing the strength of the current arsenic is deposited
with it. If, however, the solution is in about the following
proportions, viz., 10 cc. chloride of gold solution (= 0- 1240
prm. gold), 10 cc. arsenic solution ( = 0- 1000 grm. arsenic),
and 0-75 grm. potassium cyanide in 150 cc. water, results
accurate enough for all ordinary analyses are obtained, and
the deposit is free from arsenic.
Similar results were obtaiued in the case of molybdenum,
and of tungsten, if the tuugstic acid was first dissolved in
potassium hydrate and then added to the gold solution.
The separation of gold from osmium, and of the latter metal
from cadmium, silver, and mercury, is also readily effected
in a corresponding solution ; but in the case of cadmium, if
very accurate results are required, the amount of cyanide of
potassium must be reduced. Since the deposition of gold
was found to be checked by the addition of caustic potash
to the batii, while that of silver was unaffected, this appeared
to afford a means of separating these two metals, but
experiment showed that they plated out together from a
mixed solution. In the case of cadmium and nickel,
however, the addition of caustic potash enables a separation
to be effected electrolytically. The electrolysis of a solution
of gold in ammonium sulphide gave too low results, and an
attempt to separate gold from tin in a similar solution failed.
The currents employed are described as liberating from 1'8
to 2 cc. of mixed gases per minute, but the temperature
and pressure are not stated. — G. H. R.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Testing of Boiled Linseed Oil. W. Fahrion. Zeits. f .
ang. Chem. 1892, 171.
Lixsekd oil ought to contain as little of the fatty hydroxy
acids as possible in order to dry quickly. The boiling of lin-
seed oil induces polymerisation, oxidation means the form-
ation of hydros}- acids, therefore in either case the iodine
equivalent will be lower than in the natural oil. Poly-
merised linseed oils possess a degree of stickiness which is
entirely absent in oxidised oils, and whereas the latter
easily emulsif}- in water, this property is entirely absent
in the former. This property of the linseed oil to poly-
merise is not only perceptible in boiled oils, but is also
found in the ease of oils standing for some time, and is, in
fact, to be met with in all oils containing unsaturated fatty
acids. Therefore the age will have to be taken into account
in the estimation of the iodine-absorption of oils containing
large quantities of unsaturated fatty acids. — C. O. W.
The Valuation of Feeding Stuffs and Foods. E. Kinch.
Trans. Surveyors' Inst. 24, 1891-92, 297—344.
See under XVIII., page 701.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES.
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements Relating to the Manufacture of White Lead
and to Apparatus for Use therein. L. Labois, Paris,
France. Eng. Pat. 9526, June 5, 1891.
Tins invention is based upon the observation that the first
fraction of the precipitate of white lead obtained in
the Clichy process is in covering power and all other
respects practicaHy equal to white lead produced by the
Dutch process. Accordingly the inventor proposes to
interrupt the treatment of the solution of tribasie lead
acetate with carbonic acid at the moment when the solution
ceases to be rich enough to give a white lead with good body.
For the carding out of this process the inventor uses a
special turbine in which the whole process of precipitation
and of resaturation of the lead liquor can be carried on
almost continuously. — C. O. W.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Treatment of I arnish,
Oils, ami Hie like, and in Apparatus therefor.
O. Hageman, Sydenham Hill, and T. C. Palmer, London.
Eng. Pat. 10,837, June 25, 1891.
This invention relates to the clarification of varnishes, oils,
and similar products, and also to their separation in a
clear state from the sediments forming in them, and known
as foots or bottoms. This clarification or separation is
effected by treating the above-named products or residues
in a centrifugal machine, when the impurities form a layer
against the peripheral wall of the machine, leaving the clear
oil or varnish in the centre, whence it can be drawn off in
the usual manner.— C. O. W.
\n si.1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
697
A Compound Preparation to be used as a Substitute for
Gutta-Percha and similar Products foi Insulating and
Waterproofing Purposes. C.N.Jackson, Uornsey liise,
Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 10,822, June 2.5, 1891.
I'iikik parts of bitumen and one pari of hard paraffin wax
are combined in a vulcaniser, or other convenient apparatus,
at a temperature of from 300° to 400" F. Four parts of
the resulting combinatiou and one part of india-rubber are
then treated together in a masticator at a temperature not
exceeding 220° 1'., until converted into a perfectly homo-
geneous mars, which, after being formed into rolls or sheets,
is ready for subsequent use. — C. O. W.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Pigments.
G. W. Scolley, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 6516,
April 5, 1892.
This invention refers to the production of red pigments
from burnt pyrites, commonly known as blue billy. For
this purpose the burnt pyrites is heated with sulphate of
ammonia, or any other salt containing oxygen, and which
can be decomposed by heat or any substance containing
free or combined oxygen. Also the " blue billy " may be
converted into sulphate of iron, which, on decomposition
by hint yields a red pigment, and the acid driven off may
be reconverted into sulphuric acid. If the conversion of
the blue billy into a pigment is effected by means of
sulphate of ammonia, the free ammonia which is dis-
engaged in trie first instance may be recovered and
recombined with the sulphuric acid which is subsequently
given off.-C. O. W.
XIY.-TAMING, LEATHER, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
The Dyeing of Leather. Leather Trades Circular and
Rev. 25, 1892, 590—591.
The tendency of leather to fix the aniliue colours without
the aid of mordants, renders these dyes particularly appli-
cable in leather dyeing. Fine-grain leather cannot stand
treatment with alcoholic solutions, so that the aqueous
dyes are preferable, and if alcoholic solutions have to be
used they should be diluted to the verge of precipitation.
Acid colours are more important than basic. Tanned
leather must generally be bleached by drawing it several
times through a strong, warm, sumac decoction, or leaving
it immersed therein for a few hours. Dyes which do not
take uniformly on the leather must be mordanted ; in
nearly all cases they are best applied by painting them on.
The most important of the saline mordants, in this branch
are the different soaps. A good, hard, white, soda-soap
is generally the best, Castille being recommended.
When the skin has been painted it is rinsed with cold
water while upon the table, and well stretched with a
brass slicker ; another coat of the dye is applied, and again
washed off with cold water ; the skin is then rubbed until
the water runs off clean. Colours that require to be
darkened are brushed over with -a solution of Salzburg
vitriol (ferroso-cupric sulphate), a mixture of ferrous and
cupric sulphates, 25' 3 grms. of which are dissolved in
:i litres of water. The skin is finally washed with clean water,
and dried.
Dark brown. — Eight parts of fustic, one part of logwood,
two parts of Brazil wood, one part of Sanders, and | part
of quercitron are boiled with soft water for one hour and
strained through linen. The vitriol treatment serves to
darken the shade ; for light brown this is omitted and the
skin primed with dilute potash.
Olive brown. — Two parts of Hungarian fustic, one part
of quercitron, and J part of logwood are boiled, and the
solution applied upon a strong potash priming; vitriol
treatment follows.
' 'utch brown. — A decoction of | kilo, cutch, 60 grms. of
copper sulphate, and 40 litres of water is applied upon a
feeble priming.
Chestnut brown. — The moistened leather is primed with
a solution of one kilo, of copper acetate in 50 litres of water,
slicked out and then painted with a solution of yellow
prussiate of potash in feebly acid water.
' 'hocolate brown. — lirazil wood (li parts) is boiled with
water (45 parts) for two hours, and a little iron acetate
added, according to shade.
Red. — Cochineal in a linen bag is boiled with water
containing about 2 per cent, of aqua ammonia.
Alizarin red. — A feeble flesh colour is produced by
brushing the leather with a solution of alizarin in diluto
soda, and then rinsing with soap water.
Scarlet. — Zaffer extract, diluted with 60 parts of water
containing one part of tartar, is painted on a feeble annatto
bottom.
Ordinary red. — A decoction of sanders wood is used upon
a feeble priming of alum free from iron.
Dark green. — Quercitron (four parts) and logwood (one
part) upon a strong priming of vitriol.
Light olive green. — A decoction of fustic (one kilo.),
archil (j kilo.), and water (20 litres) is painted on a
light bottom of Prussian blue. For picric green an
aqueous solution of picric acid is substituted for the fustic
and archil.
Lemon yellow. — Turmeric (one part) is digested in
alcohol (four parts) for 24 hours, diluted with water and
applied upon a feeble potash bottom.
Barberry yellow.-" One kilo, of barberry-root, 30 kilos, of
water, and 200 grms. of iron-free alum.
Orange. — A red priming is given by Brazil wood and
fustic applied to impart the yellow. Seventy-five of the
former to 25 of the latter produce a red orange, equal parts
an ordinary orange, and 25 to 75 a yellow orange.
Chrome yellow. — " The dye is first applied with a solution
of 30 grms. red chromate of potash in one-half litre of
water, and is next fixed by 30 grms. acetate of lead in
one-half litre of water."— A. G. B.
PATENTS.
A New Plastic Composition and the Process for Manu-
facturing the Same. J. Menzies, London. Eng. Pat.
9434, June 3, 1891.
This is a composition which can be used for the manufac-
ture of power-loom pickers and shuttles, toys, statuettes,
soles and heels for boots and shoes, and for electrical
insulating purposes. The composition is made from equal
parts of the solid residuum obtained on the distillation of
heavy petroleum and another product, being the last product
obtained in tar distilling, known as roofer's wax. In place
of the latter compound an equal quantity of para rubber or
gutta-percha can be used. To this mixture, when in the
heated liquid state, shreds of^. leather, wool, cotton, or other
fibrous material, together with carbon or plumbago arc
added, and at any suitable stage of the process the com-
pound may be coloured by the addition of aniline dyes or
pigments. These substances, being mixed in a suitable
vessel, are, while warm, put into moulds or dies, and pressed
or formed into desired shapes, or are rolled into sheets.
—CO. \V.
698
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[An-. 31, 1892.
Improvements iu orrelqting to the Manufacture of Artificial
Chamois Leather. L. thiry, Brussels. Eng. Pat, 8889,
May 24, 1892.
The hides or skins are suspended in a " drying and
fermentation chamber " with double walls ; this chamber is
tightly closed and provided with an arrangement for
permanently heating it, preferably by steam. After a time
the skins are removed and spread out on the floor of the
factory for them to absorb moisture. They are then rolled,
treated with oil in a fulling machine and again placed in
the fermentation chamber. This series of operations is
repeated several times. " It will be found that in six or
seven days the toughest sheepskin will have thoroughly
acquired the nature of chamois leather." The speed of the
process is due to the fact that fermentation sets in from
the first day in the drying chamber, and to promote this
there should be no opening in the chamber which would
permit an escape of vapour. — A. G. B.
XV.-MANUKES, Etc.
The Solubibility of Tricalcium and Bicalcium Phosphate
in Solutions "/' Phosphoric Acid. H. Gausse. Compt.
Bend. 114, 414—417.
Sec under VII., page 685.
Natural Phosphates. J. L. Wills. Ottawa Naturalist,
May, 1892, 1—16.
In- Ottawa the term phosphates usually implies apatite,
but in the present paper natural phosphates generally are
discussed. The demand for phosphates as manure is of
comparatively recent date ; crushed bones were not employed
until the beginning of the century and then only on account
of their organic constituents. As regards the relative
importance of guano and mineral phosphates, the former
has reached its period of greatest importance both as to
quality and amount, and will ultimately have to give way to
mineral phosphates. Bird guano is very liable to change
under ordinary atmospheric conditions, as its composition
clearly shows ; thus, a deposit of it on limestone gradually
loses its nitrogen, and becomes more and more phosphatic,
the under-lying rock becoming eventually converted into
more or less pure calcium phosphate, according to the
purity or otherwise of the limestone. Such was the
origin of the Aruba rock phosphates. Other sources of
phosphates are bones ; those of birds contain the most
phosphoric acid ; those of animals less, and those of fishes
and amphibia the least. The shell remains of certain
shell-fish consist chiefly of calcium phosphate.
Guanos. — Nitrogenous guanos occur in Peru, Ichaboe,
Patagonia, and Falkland Islands; phosphatic guanos include
those of the Pacific Islands, Sidney, Phoenix, Starbruck,
Baker, Rowland, Jam's Enderbury, Maiden, Lacepede, and
Arbrohlos Islands. Some of the deposits are more or less
exhausted, whilst new islands are from time to time worked.
Bat guano is sometimes sent to market as a rich manure ; it
has a characteristic dark-brown colour and contains the
undigested part of beetles' wings, &c. It is found in Cuba
and in North Borneo.
Bone Beds occur in nearly all sedimentary strata, but in
especially large quantities in the Peruvian system: they
have, however, contributed but little to commercial supplies
of phosphates except those of Bordeaux, Carolina, Florida,
and Sombrero.
Shell Beds have existed from the Cambrian age. The
Silurian Lingula beds have already been mentioned as a
probable abundant source of phosphates. Specimens were
obtained from the Dutch West Indies containing 75 to
80 per cent, of tribasie calcium phosphate, and sometimes
exhibiting a mass of shells of recent origin.
Coprolites. — This term, which should be applied only to
the fossil exuvia: of animals, now includes many rolled or
gravelly products, chiefly found in the Cretaceous formation.
In England they have been worked to a large extent in
Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire, where they appear
between the chalk and the subjacent Jurassic system. The
commercial products contain 45 to 55 per cent, of calcium
phosphate. The Suffolk coprolites occur in the Tertiary,
and are poorer in calcium phosphate and more ferruginous.
Deposits occur also at.Bellegarde, on the Swiss frontier, and
at Montpellier and Avignon.
Nodular, Concretionary, and Arenaceous Phosphates,
by far the most important of natural phosphatic reserves,
include the S. Carolina deposits, the deposits of the Somme,
Ardennes, and Meuse, and the Belgian fields of Mons and
Liege. So-called Bordeaux phosphates are in reality from
the region of Quercy. The Russian deposits, between the
rivers Desna and Don, are nodular. The Nassau or Lahn
concretions in the clay are Tertiary, and are generally believed
to be of animal origin ; they attain to 60 — 75 per cent, of
calcium phosphate, but are too ferruginous. The Belgian
(Ciply) deposits which have yielded over 150,000 tons per
annum are nodular, although the grains are sometimes so
fine as to be considered arenaceous. The deposits dis-
covered at Amiens in 1886 'are arenaceous, and contain
05 to 80 per cent, of phosphate ; the yearly production
amounts to 200,000 tons.
Conglomerates and Breccias occur in the Cambridgeshire
coprolite fields, in the Ardennes, and in Belgium (Ciply) j
sometimes the cementing material is the phosphatic element,
sometimes the enclosed fragments are the valuable portions.
Phosphatic Limestone and Marl are found iu most strata
from the Silurian to recent times. The formation of phos-
phatic limestone from the action of the air and water on
guano deposits on limestone has already been referred to.
The value of the phosphate is increased by the solvent
action of water containing carbonic acid which removes
more carbonate than phosphate. A new field has recently
been opened up in the department of the Pas de Calais,
and seems to he of the same nature as that of the Somme.
Apatite does not occur in workable deposits before the
Laurentiau system. In Ontario and Quebec apatite is found
bedded in the pyroxenic rocks, and has tine veins of
posterior origin. In Norway, where deposits were discovered
in 1854, they occur in similar rocks to the Canadian.
Brogger and Rensch suppose the deposits to be of eruptive
origin, inasmuch as the surrounding rocks are free from
phosphoric acid, hut the question is very doubtful. Owing
to the peculiarity of the occurrence of the mineral in veins
in hard rock, and to the fact that a cheap mode of extract-
ing has not yet been worked out, the Canadian industry
has not yet progressed to the same extent as many other
phosphatic fields, but future demands are certain to
increase. — N. H. J. M.
Manufacture of Superphosphate from Ferruginous Phos-
phate. O. Jaehne. Zeits. f.ang. Chem. 1892, 231 — 232.
In view of Schucht's remarks (this Journal, 1892, 255), the
author publishes this account of the manufacture of super-
phosphate by his method (this Journal, 1891, 649). 100
hectokilos. of ground coprolite containing 45-8 per cent, of
calcium phosphate (21 per cent. P205), 10 per cent, of
calcium carbonate, 16 per cent, of ferric oxide, 1 per cent,
of alumina, 20 per cent, of silica, and 7-2 per cent, of other
matters, were mixed with 150 hectokilos. of sodium
bisulphate (the residue from the nitric acid works, contain-
ing some 30 per cent, of "free S03 "), and 60 hectokilos. of
water. The calcium sulphate was filtered off iu a press, and
the liquor evaporated in vacuo, whereby 131 hectokilos.
of the damp, yellow, soluble " superphosphate salt " were
obtained. This dried up by itself and contained 14-5 per
cent, of P2Oa. The calcium sulphate weighed 100 hecto-
kilos. and contained 0-3 per cent, of soluble P.,0- ; it was
Au-.3i,i8»2.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
(599
washed and the washings used for the manufacture of a
further batch. If the calcium sulphate is mixed with the
" superphosphate salt " a product containing 8'3 per cent,
of PjOj, and applicable as an absorbent foi farmyard
manure, is obtained. By replacing a portion of the sodium
bisulphatc with sulphuric acid, it is possible to obtain a
richer " superphosphate salt " ; but 17 per cent, of P.,05 is
the limit beyond which the salt remains pasty. The salt
consists of sodium sulphate, monocalcium phosphate, and
phosphoric acid. — A. Gr. B. .
PATENT.
Improvements in and in the Method of Manufacture of
Fertilities. T. NL Smith, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
Kng. Pat. 8859, May 10, 1892.
Antmax substances, such as leather scrap, hair, bones,
muscles, aud horn are placed on a perforated false bottom in
a boiler containing a small quantity of water underneath this
bottom. The proportion of water used must vary with the
amount contained in the animal substances ; as an example,
50 galls, of water were sufficient for 2.000 lb. of hair con-
taining G per cent, of moisture. The boiler is surrounded
by superheated steam passed into the jacket at a pressure
of GO to 80 lb. per sq. in. After some 20 or 30 minutes
the substances will have become thoroughly softened, and
when turned out will cool to a hard but friable mass, which
can be readily distributed, and contains all the fertilising
constituents which it originally possessed. — A. G. B.
XVI.-SUGAB, STAKCH, GUM, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Sugar
and in Apparatus therefor or connected therewith. R.
Harvey, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 11,874, July 13, 1891.
The usual process for obtaining refined sugar from the
concentrated syrup is to allow the latter to cool and crystallise
and then separate the crj'stals from the mother liquor by
centrifugal machines or simple drainers.
Instead of this the inventor runs the concentrated syrup
into a steam-jacketed pan which is provided with rotatory
agitators and scrapers. As the syrup is dried by the heat
the agitators aud scrapers granulate it, and a dry granular
sugar is obtained without the production of any syrup.
The specification contains a detailed description of the
apparatus to be employed, and suggestions for fitting up a
complete sugar refinery. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Process and Means for Manufacturing
Crystallised Sugar in Refineries. T. Drost, Breslau,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 13,260, Aug. 5, 1891.
The inventor avoids the waste of pure sugar involved in the
process of refining raw sugar by means of " steam " or
" clear casing," by employing in a particular manner,
refinery syrup of 90° — 93° purity. Such syrup is produced
in all refineries during the ordinary course of operations.
According to this invention the said syrup is boiled down in
a vacuum pan until it has a density of 1*15 — 1'325 (57° —
66° Balling) so that it will neither deposit nor dissolve
sugar-crystals at the temperature at which it is to be used.
The raw sugar to be treated is first mixed with low-grade
syrup and thoroughly " jigged " in a centrifugal machine.
The resulting product is then cased with 8 — 10 percent, of
its weight of the above concentrated syrup, care being
employed that the casiug syrup be not higher in temperature
than that in the space of the casing vessel ; and that the
syrup be finally centrifugalled out of the sugar as com-
pletely as possible. By this process loss of crystal sugar by
solution in the centrifugal machine is avoided, and a finished
product of at least 99 -5 polarisation is obtained; whilst on
the score of cheapness and convenience the method is said
to offer distinct advantages. — H. T. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of Yeast.
K. Schlagenhaufer and J. Blumer, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 9344, May 17, 1892.
This process, which has reference to the production of
pressed yeast, differs from the ordinary process in so far
that only the sugars, &c. but not the starch contained in the
raw materials employed, are utilised. For this purpose the
grain, &c. after milling, is systematically extracted with
water, or spent wash, or water containing a trace of acid or
alkali, preferably at a temperature of 10° — 15° C., and in
no case exceeding 50° C. until the extract is sufficiently
concentrated (sp. gr. 1-02— r 04). The starch thus
remains unacted upon, and after filtration from the liquid,
may be used for the production of pure starch, glucose, &c.
The liquid containing the sugars, &c. is sterilised by heating
to 65° — 130° C, filtered to remove the coagulated albu-
minoids, aud then pitched with a small quantity of yeast,
and fermented at 25° — 35° C. The yeast crop obtained is
finally washed and pressed in the usual way. By this
method the conversion of large quantities of starch into
alcohol and the recovery of the latter by distillation are
avoided ; and it is claimed that the yeast produced is of
great purity, aud possessed of excellent keeping properties.
— H. T. P.
XVII.-BREWING. WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
A Ferment Producing Amyl Alcohol from Starch. L.
Perdrix. Zeits. f. Spiritusiud. 14, 177.
The bacillus in question was obtained from Paris drinking-
water. It grows only out of contact with air, and is easily
cultivated in an atmosphere of hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
or nitrogen, the most favourable temperature being 35° C.,
and the maximum limit 43° C. Under favourable con-
ditions it forms spores, which remain for 10 days at a
temperature of 50°, and 10 minutes at a temperature of 80°
without perishing.
Bacillus Amylozymiens ferment the sugars, and has
considerable action on starch materials, but none on
cellulose and calcium lactate, wherein it differs from
Pasteur's Vibrio Butyricus and from Van Tieghem's Amylo-
bacter. It produces acids, and the action becomes a
complete one if the acid be kept neutralised. The author,
from analyses made by him, considers the following
equation to represent the fermentation of glucose : —
46 C6H1206 + 18 H20 =
112 H2 + 94 C02 + 15 CH3COOH + 38 C3H-COOH
Furthermore, analyses showed that during the first three
days acetic and butyric acids are formed, but from the
third to the ninth day the fermentation resembled the
butyric fermentation. With saccharose both acids are
produced for five days, after which only butyric acid is
formed.
Similar results were obtained with lactose. The bacillus
transforms starch into a sugar akin to glucose, aud, on
neutralising the acid formed, it ferments this sugar, whereby
are obtained ethyl and amyl alcohols. The sugar may be
directly converted into alcohol by the aid of yeast, without
previously killing off the bacillus. From 1 kilo, of
potatoes 105 — 110 cc. of alcohol can be obtained, so that
by simultaneous action of bacillus and yeast it is possible
to obtain 90 per cent, of the theoretical amount of alcohol
700
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31,1892.
from starch. Owing to the fact that some amyl alcohol is
formed from starch by the action of this bacillus, the
author hazards the opinion that such a bacillus as this may
account. for the presence of amyl alcohol in commercial
alcohol.— T. L. 11.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus Employed in the Brewing of
Beer. T. White, Rotherham, Yorkshire, and J. Lee,
Barnsley, Yorkshire. Eng. Pat. 11,237, July 2, 1891.
This is an apparatus for extracting the "essence" from
malt, hops, or other ingredients, and mixing it with water.
— J.C. C.
An Improved Mode of Manufacturing Yeast. A.Walker,
Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 12,606, July 24, 1891.
A wort is prepared by making a mixture of 50 per cent.
or more of green malt and the remainder of some raw
grain, preferably rye or maize. The green malt and soaked
grain is crushed between rollers and mashed at 144 ]■'.
The resulting wort is slightly acidified and collected iu the
fermenting vessels at a specific gravity of 1 ■ 033 and a
temperature of 8G° F. ; it is pitched with yeast at the rate
of 2 lb. per 100 lb. grain, and the temperature kept con-
stant by attemperators. Throughout the fermentation, air
is pumped through the liquor until fermentation has nearly
ceased ; the yeast is then allowed to deposit, and is washed,
and pressed.
The fermented liquor and the 3reast washings are
distilled.
If peated malt whiskey is to be obtained, the green malt
is previously exposed to the smoke of peat. — A. L. S.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Manufacture or
Brewing of Beer. V. Denamur, Ghent, Belgium. Eng.
Pat. 12,659, July 25, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a boiler, in which the wort is
boiled, and provided with an arrangement for injecting air
into the boiling wort; a refrigerator, by means of which
the wort is cooled by passing through a tube immersed in a
vessel of cold water ; a fermenting vessel provided with
a skimming apparatus and a perforated tube for injecting
sterilised air ; and a yeast receiver.
The different vessels are connected together with suitable
tubing, and they are all provided with covers, which are
kept hermetically sealed ; air filters are placed on these
where required, so that only filtered air is allowed access to
the wort or beer at any stage.
The operations of brewing are carried out in the usual
manner, the principal feature of the invention being the
canying out of the whole process in closed vessels. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Preparation of Cattle Foods. 1).
Tallermau, Dublin. Eng. Pat. 13,212, August 5, 1891.
By this process it is intended to convert brewers' grains
and distillers' wash into a cattle food possessing good
keeping qualities and, by reason of its compactness, suitable
for economical transport. To this end, the grains, first
dried as much as possible by great pressure, are minced or
chopped up by suitable machinery and spread out to dry
on wire gauze trays arranged in a chamber through which
hot air is passed. When dry, the grains are ground to
powder, more or less fine, as may be required. The wash
and the liquor squeezed from the grains are filtered through
canvas bags, and the solid matters thus separated are
submitted to moderate pressure to remove the surplus
water. A mixture is then made of —
G5 parts of the dried grains powder,
20 parts of the solid residuum from wash,
S parts of bone meal,
5 parts of finely-chopped fat,
2 parts of ground saltpetre,
The whole is thoroughly blended, and moulded into flat
cakes, which are rendered compact by hydraulic pressure,
and finally dried in an oven if necessary. — H. T. P.
A Machine for the Preparation of Brewers' Finings, and
the Combination of Gelatinous and Saccharine Suit-
stances. B. Brooks, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 14,529,
August 28, 1891.
The machine consists of a series of graduated sieves of a
semi-cylindrical shape placed one above the other and
enclosed in a wooden case.
Revolving shafts work in the axes of the sieves, and to
these shafts brushes are fastened which press against the
sides of the sieves.
The upper sieve has the coarsest mesh. The materials
to be compounded are fed into the uppermost sieve and the
brush shafts being revolved they are forced through the
sieves and reduced to the proper degree of fineness.
Eor the preparation of finings for beer the inventor finds
that two sieves are sufficient, the upper one being made of
No. 9 and the lower one of No. 4i perforated copper.
—A. L. S.
Method of and Apparatus for Producing Clear Wort.
G. Sobotka, New York, U.S.A., and A. Kliemetschek,
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 5059, March 15,
1892.
A mash is prepared in the customary manner and after
standing the usual time is forced into a filter-press. The
clear wort runs over a refrigerator into the fermenting vessel,
the pressed grains are discharged into a special vessel,
mixed with hot water and pumped into a second filter-press,
the pressings from this are run into the mash tub and
mixed with the next mash : the pressed grains are used as
a cattle food. — A. L. S.
Improved Mel/mil of or Menus for Treating Beer for
Improving its Qualities and Colour. G. M. Johnson
and E. de Cock, Brussels, Belgium. Eng. Pat. 6555,
April 5, 1892.
This invention relates to the manufacture of ferruginous
beer. Eor this purpose some salt of iron is dissolved in the
beer which will not impair its colour or flavour. Hypophos-
phite of iron is the most suitable, and is preferably added to
the finished beer, the colour and flavour of which it is said
to improve, apart from the valuable medicinal properties it
eonfers. The amount of iron salt employed may range from
a mere trace to 25 to 80 mgrms. per litre, or even more iu
the case of strong beers. — II. T. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production if Yeast.
K. Sehlagenhaufer and J. Blumer, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 9344, May 17, 1892.
See under XVII., page 790.
luB.si,i89aj THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
701
XYIII.-CHEMISTRY OF POODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
(^.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
The Froteids of the Corn or Maize Knurl. R. H. Chit-
tenden and T. B. Osborne. Amer. Chem. J. 13, Nos. 7
and 8; 14, No. 1.
The maize kernel conlains several distinct proteids, of which
tin ire are three globulins, one or more albumins, and an
alcohol-soluble proteid.
The globulin, obtained by extracting the maize-kernel
with 10 per cent, sodium chloride solution, and separating
by dialysis, or by precipitation with ammonium sulphate,
followed by dialysis, is a mixture of two or more different
globulins. It can be approximately separated into two
constituents by fractional heat-coagulation, or by " recrystal-
lUation" from warm dilute salt solution ; in the former
process a small amount of proteose-like bodies is formed,
presumably by hydrolysis of the less resistant globulin.
These two globulins are a myosiu-lilce body and a vitellin-
like body. They exist as such in the maize kernel, and are
not mere cleavage products of the substance extracted by
10 per cent, salt solution.
The myosiu-like globulin contains about 16' 8 percent, of
nitrogen and 1*2 per cent, of sulphur, agreeing closely in
composition with animal myosin. Its coagulating point
(in 10 per cent, salt solution) is, however, about 70°.
The vitellin-like globulin contains about 18 "1 percent,
of nitrogen and 0'85 per cent, of sulphur, agreeing closely
with the generally accepted composition of phyto-viteliin. It
is, however, almost non-coagulable by heat when dissolved
in dilute salt solution, except in the presence of acetic acid.
It is more soluble in warm salt solutions than in cold, and
when separated from the former by cooling, or on dialysis,
almost invariably appears in the form of small spheroids.
Direct extraction of finely powdered corn meal with
water yields a dilute salt solution which dissolves the
myosin-like globulin, leaving the bulk of the vitellin-like
substance undissolved. The character of the salts present
in the kernel probably plays an important part in this
separation ; from the solution the myosin can be separated
iu a fairly pure state by the usual methods. Extraction of
the residue from the aqueous treatment, with 10 per cent, salt
solution dissolves the vitellin-like globulin, which can be
separated from the solution by the customary methods.
The third globulin in the maize-kernel is characterised by
extreme solubility in very dilute salt solutions, especially
phosphate and sulphates, which it separates only by
prolonged dialysis. It coagulates in a 10 per cent, salt
solution at about 62°,and contains 15 '2 per cent, of nitrogen
and 1 • 26 per cent, of sulphur.
By long continued action of water, and also of strong
salt solutions, the last-mentioned globulin and the myosin-
like globulin are changed into insoluble modifications,
soluble, however, in 0*5 per cent, sodium carbonate solu-
tion, from which they are precipitated by neutralisation,
apparently as albuminates. These modifications are charac-
terised by a relatively high content of carbon.
An aqueous or sodium chloride extract of corn meal
contains, besides the globulins, two albumin-like substances,
more or less coagulable by heat, but unlike iu composition.
After the globulins and the albumins have been entirely
removed from the extracts, a certain amount of proteose
can be detected, but this is mainly, if not wholly, an artificial
product of the hydrolysis of one or more of the preceding
substances.
Especially noteworthy is the presence in the maize-kernel
of a peculiar proteid called maize-librin or zeiu, soluble in
warm dilute alcohol but. not in water. It has a high content
of carbon, resists the action of dilute alkalis, and is easily
converted into an insoluble modification when warmed with
water or very weak alcohol. The soluble and insoluble form
are identical in composition and respond to the ordinary
proteid reactions. — A. G. B.
The Valuation of Feeding Stuffs and Foods. E. Kiuch.
Trans. Surveyors' Inst. 24, 1891—92, 297—344.
The author attempts to find out what determinable factors
are at present available for use in valuing a food, in the
same sense as that in which a manure is valued, viz. : — By
the unit value and the availability of its constituents.
The following table (Table I.) shows the consumption of
oil-cakes and oil-seeds in this country, as estimated by
subtracting exports from imports. There is practically no
export of oil-cake and cottonseed, so the numbers given
are imports only. By far the predominating proportion of
these cakes and seeds is used as cattle food, the remainder
being applied as manure. The table does not, however,
represent all the imported cattle food, inasmuch as a con-
siderable quantity of the imported cereals and leguminous
seeds is also used for cattle.
The following percentages of the above cakes and seeds
came in 1890 from the countries mentioned: — Oil-cake.
U.S.A. 77-9, Russia 9-1, France 4-6, Germany 2-8,
India 1*9, Sweden, Egypt, Spain, and Brazil, each less
than 1. Cotton-seed. Egypt 90, Brazil 5, Turkey and
U.S.A. each over 1. Linseed. India 50-5, Russia 41 • G,
Argentine 3-5, Holland and Turkey each more than 1.
Seeds unenumerated. India 59 * 9, Russia 15- 9, Germany 10,
Holland 0 9, Turkey 1-6. Rape seed. India 55-3.
Russia 31 • 1, Roumania 5'4, Belgium 3 • 1, Germany 2 '. 6,
France 1 '4.
After reviewing the general composition, digestibility and
albuminoid ratios of various feeding stuffs in a series of
tables, which, although not entirely new, are carefully
brought up to date, the author proceeds to discuss the
possibility of arriving at a definite " food-unit " as a basis
for the valuation desired, confining himself to the food of
farm animals.
By general consent only the nitrogenous matter, the fat
and the carbohydrates (including digestible fibre) are to be
given a monetary value in a food, the other constituents,
although by no means useless, being generally present in
sufficient quantity in all foods, or being so easily supplied as
to be of very minor importance monetarily. The functions
fulfilled by digested fat and digested carbohydrates in the
animal body are much the same, and the relative value
of their constituents is fairly accurately determined
by physiological and calorimetric experiments. It is
otherwise with the albuminoids, which are incapable of
comparison as far as flesh-forming capacities are concerned,
although comparable with fat and carbohydrates in respect
of their heating and fat-yielding values ; even in the latter
case their after-, or manurial value complicates the matter.
Table I.
—
Oil-cake.
Cotton Seed.
Linseed.
Rape Seed.
Seeds un-
enumerated, for
expressing Oil.
Nuts and Kernels
for expressing
1886
Tons.
296,480
Tons.
251,613
Quarters.
1,891,117
Quarters.
301,491
Quarters.
72,877
Tons.
1887
264,849
275,627
2,223,017
361,555
47,652
..
1888
257.7 is
257,172
8,337.113
218,252
61,539
1669
255JUS
277,891
2,028,282
386,482
56,1111
1890
282,01(5
314,050
1,836,938
185,607
16,801
22,551
702
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Auk. si, 1892.
Physiologically albuminoids might he valued at 6 — 7
times as much as carbohydrates, for the albuminoid ratio of
an adult's food is ItC or 7, that is, one part of albuminoid
will enable 6 or 7 parts of carbohydrates to carry on their
functions in the animal. Commercially this is not the
proportional value.
Market values of the separate ingredients are no criteria.
Thus in the case of oils the pure article has an enhanced
value on account of its industrial uses, and of the cost of
production ; notwithstanding this, a comparison of the
prices of cakes rich in oil ami poor in oil, other things being
balanced, shows that the extra amount of oil in the rich
cake costs more than if it were purchased in the free state.
Starch in potatoes at 48s. per ton costs about Id. alb.;
crude sugar is sometimes as low in price as this, though
generally higher. Albuminoids can hardly be said to be
marketed in a separate state; calculating the value of the
nitrogen in them when nitrate of soda is 9/. a ton, the
amount in one lb. would be worth nearly Id., but allowing
50 per cent, as the manurial value this is reduced to ^d.
The most recently obtained results for the so-called
isodynamic values, or quantities which can produce the same
amount of heat or of energy, of some of the chief food
constituents are: — Fat 100, cane sugar and gum 235, grape
sugar 255, starch .229, milk sugar 243, muscle 213 — 235,
cellulose 267, bread 336, asparagin 469. Taking the heat-
producing power of starch as unity, these numbers become — ■
Starch 1, fat 2-29, muscle 0'97, cane sugar 0-97, milk
sugar 0-94, glucose 0-90, cellulose (about) 0' 86, asparagin
0 • 49. Generally and broadly, when consumed in the animal
one grm. of fat produces 93 calories, and one grm. of
albuminoids or one grm. of carbohydrates (starch) 1-1
calories.
Except for the facts that fat might have a slightly
enhanced value owing to its being more condensed than
carbohydrates, aud that it possibly has some special value,
as the experiments of Cooke seem to show (Jour. Royal
Agric. Soe. 1890 [2] 35, 407), the ratio between the market
prices for these two constituents should undoubtedly
approximate to that between their physiological values,
1 :2-29 ; the author has adopted the ratio 1 : 2-5.
The following numbers show the ratios between the values
assigned to the three food constituents by different persons
at different times, sometimes by contemplation and some-
times by calculation over the market values : —
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Albumi-
noids.
Grouven and Schultze, in grain
and its products, and in roots.
Grouven and Schultze, in oil-cakes.
Grouven and Schultze. in green
f Is.
Grouvenand Schultze, in hay and 1
straw.
Wolff, in 1874 1
Ycrsuchs-Stationen, in crude foods, 1
L891.
Wolff, in digestible matters, 1891 . . 1
Korng, calculated 1874-79, in men's 1
food.
Konig. calculated in 1379-80, in 1
men's food.
Konig, in vegetable foods, about... 1
Wolff, Indiana Experiment station. l
On digestible constituents. 1889.
Jenkins, in 18S9, on total eon- 1
slituents.
I ier, in 1S90, on total con- l
st it uents.
Connecticut station in cereal pro-
ducts and in cotton and Linseed
meals, calculated 1888.
Ditto, ditto, 1890
3-3
3-3
1-3
rs
2'5
5
2
3
3-7
2—3
3-7
J.-37
2-5
f3
2
1'7
1-3
6
5
3
3
3-5
4-5
3-7
1-136
2-5
1-7
The difference in the last two eases was probably due to
rise in the price of starchy cereals, and fall in that of
nitrogenous oil-cake meals, in 1890.
The ratios 1:5:5 applied to crude constituents are used
at some of the German stations in estimating compensation
to be allowed when n food is not up to sample.
The author has made a calculation by the method of
least squares in which the composition and market price of
26 articles of food were taken into consideration. Weights
were given to each equation to endeavour to approximate
to the relative amount of cousumptiou of the article
concerned. The foods used were 6 linseed cakes to which
a total weight of 15 was given ; 4 decorticated cotton cakes
with a weight of 8 ; 2 undecorticated cakes with a weight
of 10; 10 miscellaneous cakes and seeds, namely : — rape,
hemp, cocoanut, palm-kernel, and earth-nut cakes, rice
meal, a mixed cake, locust beans, cotton seeds and linseed,
each with a weight of 1 ; beans, with a weight of 8 ; peas,
with a weight of 4 ; barley and oats, each with a weight
of 10; and maize with a weight of 20. Three series of
results were calculated and the following figures represent
the cost in shillings of a unit of digestible albuminoids (x),
digestible fat (y), and digestible carbohydrates (z),
respectively in each series : —
(1.) When the cakes and seeds had a total weight
of 43, the cereals of 40, and the pulses a weight of
12, x = 2-58,# = 3-06, z, 1-56.
(2.) When the cakes, oil seeds, and legumes only are
calculated from, ,r = 2-02, # = 3-58, z = l-59.
(3.) When cereals only are considered, x = 2-83, y =
7-76,z=l-21.
The author points out that one reason why others have
obtained such variable results by this method, is that care
has not been taken to give each of the separate original
equations its proper relative weight. The weights here
given are by no means perfect, through lack of statistics.
The numbers apply to the more concentrated foods only,
inasmuch as coarse fodders have been omitted. The
market price of concentrated food is more largely controlled
by the amount of fat than by other constituents.
As a mean result of his calculations, the author adopts
as the ratios for the values of the digestible constituents,
1 : 25 : 2'5 = carbohydrates : fat : albuminoids and amides ;
the inclusion of the amides causes a slight error, which
however, is counterbalanced by the exclusion of the manurial
value of the undigested nitrogen. The value per pound and
per unit of each of the considered constituents are on this
basis : —
Per Lb.
Per Unit per
Ton.
a.
Digestible carbohydrates
Digestible fat If
Digestible albuminoids and amides i»
1-24
8-11
311
The following table (Table II.) is calculated with these
figures.
The ordinary numbers in columns 3, 4, 5, and 6, give
the crude composition, those in brackets show the digestible
composition. The figures in brackets in column 8, are the
number of " food units " in the food ; these are obtained by
multiplying the percentage of digestible albuminoids and
amides by 2J, and the percentage of fat by 2^ and adding
these to the percentages of digestible carbohydrates and
fibre. To obtain the estimated value in shillings of the
food per ton, the food units must be multiplied by 1 -24.
The table shows that on the values of the food con-
stituents which are taken, these food constituents can be
purchased more cheaply in some foods than in others ; it
must be remembered, however, that certain considerations,
such as palatability, portability, flavour and mechanical
condition, which have a very real influence on the application
of a food, cannot possibly be reduced to figures. The
table only serves to decide what food is cheaper ceteris
[Kir tints.
A few remarks on the manure value of food in relation to
the compensation tables of Lawes aud Gilbert (Jour. Roy.
Agric. Soc. [2J 21, 591) conclude the paper.
The discussion contains no remarks of value; objection was
taken by Dr. Voelcker to the omission of ash constituents
in the calculation.
Ahr.81,1888J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
703
Table II.
Water.
Albumi-
noids.
Oil.
Soluble
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fibre.
Ash.
Price
July 31st,
1891.
Cost per
-Fond Unit"
per Ton.
11*80
31-00
(27 :;
14-07
(13-2)
29-57
(25-0)
7*17
(3*1)
5-00
£ s. d.
9 :, 0
(130)
s.
1*48
11-11
30*13
(25-9)
12-71
(11*5)
30*36
(24*31
7-37
(3-2)
5-28
8 7 0
(121)
1*38
11-15
2.-J-30
(21-7)
12-07
(11-4)
35-01
(28*4)
9-13
(4-0)
5*81
8 2 6
(115)
l'll
11*18
32*44
(27-8)
11-97
(10-8)
30-13
(14-3)
8*40
(3-7)
5-03
8 0 0
(124*5)
1-28
18*04
30-57
(20-3)
12-02
(10-8)
31-99
(25-6)
6-74
12-91
5-01
7 12 0
(121)
1-20
18*24
30-57
(26*3)
15*86
(14*2)
28*44
(22-7)
0-21
(2-0)
5*68
8 5 0
(126*5)
1'34
10-H2
86-83
(31*0)
8-54
(7-7)
31-80
I2.VH
7-05
(3-0)
.V30
6 :2 6
(125)
1*06
10*96
31-01
(26-6)
8-02
(7-2)
38*85
(30*8)
0-18
(2-7)
5-28
6 10 0
(118)
1-10
18*96
2:! -23
(17-4)
5-51
(4-9)
31-70
(17-1)
20-71
(2-0)
4- SO
1 17 0
(75*3)
1-29
13*48
27-17
5-18
28-85
19-05
5-40
4 17 6
(SI)
1-20
7*93
48*61
(37-0)
11-74
(10-3)
20-33
(25-0)
7-20
3-19
7 5 0
(143)
1-01
6*24
(6*20
(38*4)
11-03
(9-7)
27-35
(25-9)
2-90
7-28
7 7 0
(146)
1-01
7*84
42-05
(35-7)
10-20
(14-3)
24-34
(23-0)
0-57
2*90
7 15 0
(148)
1-05
11-80
48*94
(37*4)
12-10
(io-«)
25-49
(21-2)
5-27
6*40
6 17 6
1141)
0-90
9-55
22*87
(18*8)
21-30
(19-1J
24-03
(12-3)
10-85
(3-3)
5-30
6 10 0
(110)
1*18
111- |v
13-00
84*66
(27-9)
31-02
(21-7)
8-05
(6-8)
6*44
(5-4)
29-35
(20-2)
9-01
(0*8)
7*38
8-08
6 5 0
(124)
6 0 0
1-02
(9-4)
(0-3)
(83*5)
1*43
8-40
20*87
(15-5)
11-36
(11*3)
40-61
(32-5)
12-97
(8-0)
6*29
6 15 0
(W5)
1-25
9-12
15*60
(14*2)
12-50
(11-3)
35-45
(31-9)
23-69
(17-7)
8*74
5 15 0
(113)
1-02
0-75
48 -0C
(43*7)
io-io
(8-7)
21-74
(20-2)
4-85
(0-8)
5-50
:, 17 o
(151)
0-78
6 12 6
1-29
to
7 10 o
to
1-44
9-88
18*90
(10-7)
10-12
(8-9)
56-07
(56-0)
6-20
(4-1)
3-77
6 17 6
(99)
1-19
14-65
7-03
(4-7)
1-08
(0-5)
68-02
(64-0)
6*34
(4-7)
2-88
6 10 0
(82)
1-58
-t
(8*2)
(2:0)
(55-8)
••
•*
6 5 0
(81)
1*53
•*
(H>:i)
(5:0)
(42*1)
(2*0)
••
0 15 0
(S4-3)
1*60
(7*5)
(4*8)
(65*8)
(i'-s)
••
o o o
(96-8)
l-.-io
•*
(19*0)
(32*0)
(10:8)
(4:2)
••
11 10 0
(142-5)
1*61
*•
(19*9)
(i:5)
(■18-8)
(4*2)
••
7 12 0
(107)
1*42
••
(22:4)
(i:D
(42-7)
(ITS)
••
7 0 o
(97)
1-44
-A. G. B.
701
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. 81, 1892.
First Report to the Water Research Committee of the
Royal Society on the Present State of our Knowledge
concerning the Bacteriology of Water, with especial
reference to the Vitality of Pathogenic Schizomycetes in
Water. P. F. Frankland and M. Ward. Proc. Royal
Soc. 51, 183—279.
After detailing and discussing exhaustively all the more
important work which has been done in connexion with
the bacteriology of water, the following points are noticed
especially in the summary. Natural waters vary in com-
position very greatly, and the usual method of classifying
them into river- water, spring and well-water, distilled water,
&c. is not sufficiently accurate when considering them
from the bacteriological standpoint. The sehizomycete is
a very small organism and requires correspondingly minute
amounts of food ; also that it is a very delicate organism,
and is a variable factor itself, possessed of a variable
organisation.
In bacteriological research work the matter is still more
complicated when a given sehizomycete is turned into a
water already peopled by other species ; " the whole teaching
of bacteriology shows that the competing organisms cannot
exist side by side without affecting the welfare of each."
The water itself, the dissolved gases, the suspended and
dissolved substances, the temperature all certainly influence
the micro-organisms present, and certain rays of light and
mechanical disturbances very possibly do so likewise. In
the course of any practical inquiry, distilled water is hardly
a suitable medium to operate in, since it is unknown in
nature. When operating in sterilised water, most of the
authors are unanimous that pathogenic germs enjoy a
longer existence than in the same water before sterili-
sation.
The sterilisation of waters may be conducted, (1) by
heat, (2) by filtration. The former method causes
certainly material changes in the composition of the water,
e.g., precipitation of dissolved substances, explosion of
gases, and change or destruction of organic matters.
Whilst filtration dors not cause such material alterations
as the above, the proportions of dissolved gases are
certainly altered.
Referring to the results obtained by different authors,
the following notes are made: — (1.) The numerical results
obtained by means of the gelatin-plate culture are generally
too low. (2.) Too high a temperature has frequently been
employed. (3.) Many of the results are vitiated through
the introduction into the waters of concentrated food with
the organisms at the time of infection. (4.) Experiments
with distilled water are of little practical value, but
pathogenic organisms appear to live a shorter time in this
medium than in ordinary water. (5.) Results obtained
liv operating in either sterile or unsterile water should be
confirmed by different investigators attacking the problem
in different ways before they are received as .conclusive,
(6.) Both mineral waters, as well as snow, hail, and ice
may become means of conveying pathogenic organisms.
(7.) The periods through which pathogenic organisms may
exist in waters depend on a great variety of circum-
Stances ; but in all ordinary waters they die out, sooner
or later.
Regarding specific forms the following notes are
made : —
Spirillum choleric asiaticje has been shown to live and
multiply in drinking waters ; the results as to its length
of life in such media are very conflicting, some observers
having found it dead at the end of two days, whereas
others have found it alive at the end of a year. The
points of agreement between different observers are that
it can live in waters, ami that, as a rule, it is not very-
resistant towards the competing forms.
Bacillus typhosus appears to have a greater resisting
power than the cholera spirillum, and most observers
record that it may remain active for three months.
Bacillus anthracis. The vegetative rodlets of this
organism are less able to hold their own than the spores.
The spores of anthrax may undoubtedly live in sterile
water for months without injury, provided the temperature
he not too high.
The Streptococcus of erysipelas appears to be remarkably
susceptible to immersion in water, being immediately
destroyed in distilled water, and survived only five days
in sterile sewage and drinking water.
Micrococcus tetrageners maintains itself for some days
in various waters.
Bacillus tuberculosis may live for 100 or more days in
river water.
Staphylococcus pyogenes aurefus is said to live more thau
19 days in river water.
The bacillus of glanders may live more thau 50 days ;
the micrococcus of fowl-cholera, 30 days ; the bacillus of
swine-plague, 17 days; and that of mouse-septica'mia,
20 days in water. — J. W. L.
PATENT.
Improvements in the Preparation of Cattle Foods.
1>. Tallerman, Dublin. Eng. Pat. 13,212, August 5, 1891.
See under XVII., page 700.
(5.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
Absorption of Carbon Monoxide by Blood. N. Greliaut.
Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 309—310.
Experiments are described in which dogs are made to
breathe air containing carbon monoxide, the proportions of
carbon monoxide subsequently separated from the blood
agreeing perfectly with the composition of the atmosphere
breathed. Erom his results the author affirms that carbon
monoxide is dissolved by the blood in obedience to the law
of Dalton. The use to which the method has been put is
for the estimation of carbon monoxide in the case of the
air in coaches heated by stoves fed with charcoal briquettes.
— T. L. B.
PATENTS.
An Improved Means for or Appertaining to Fumigating
and Disinfecting Dwelling-houses, Assembly Rooms,
Hospitals, Churches, Theatres, Ships, and the like, as
veil as for Extinguishing Fires (herein : applicable also
for Smoking and Curing Fish, Hams, and other Fond.
J. Robertson, Loudon. Eng. Pat. 10,129, June 15, 1891.
A portable iron stove is provided with an evaporating or
burning pan, in which is placed the chemical or substances
to be evaporated or burnt, and is connected with a fan, by
means of which air is drawn through the apparatus and the
evolved, gases driven through a hose or flue to the place
where they are to he utilised. — E. H. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Blue Bleaching
Materials for Washing Purposes. T. H. Rees and
W. P. Blackhaui, London. Eng. Pat. 13,041, August 1,
1891.
The invention relates to the manufacture of blue or
bleaching materials in cakes, or cubes, or cylinders with
hollow centres, or with a hole of any suitable size, diameter,
or shape through the centre, whereby the drying or
dissolving surface for use of the cakes or cubes is almost
doubled. The inventors also propose to fill the cavities in
the centre of the cakes or cubes with antiseptic or disin-
fecting materials. — C. 0. AY.
Improvements in Apparatus for Treating Foul Air and
Noxious Vapours or Gases. J. Makinson, St. Helens,
Eng. Pat. 14,038, August 19, 1891.
Tins apparatus is simply a furnace constructed to burn the
most convenient sort of fuel, connected with a high chimney
shaft, and with its ashpit, which may be closed by a door,
Aug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
705
in communication with the sewers, or other places where
the noxious gases are collected. The tines delivering the
gases into the furnace are lifted with dampers for regulating
the supply, and the most convenient method of erecting the
whole plant is shown in detail in the two sheets of drawings
accompanying the specification. — F. H. L.
Improvements in or relating to the Treatment of
" Sewerage" and Other Contaminated Liquids. W. 1).
Scott-Monerieff, London. Eng. Pat. 14,181, August 22,
1891.
The liquid is purified hy upward percolation through a
suitable filtering medium which is supported on a grating
fixed in a tank, the latter being provided with a blow-off
cock to remove the deposit when necessary. — F. II. L.
(C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
Action of Boric Acid on Germination. J. Morel. Compt.
Rend. 114, 1892, 131—133.
■See under XX., page 707.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Terpenes and their Derivatives. J. W.Briihl. Ber. 25,
1892, 517—551.
The paper deals with the composition of Oil of laurel.
The sample examined was a thick oil of a greenish-yellow
colour, having an acid reaction and boiling between 175°
and 275° C. When treated with alkali and carbon dioxide
successively, and then distilled, lauric acid together with a
phenoloi'd substance, the nature of which was not deter-
mined, were obtained, but no eugenol could be detected.
After treatment with potash and then sodium, a mobile,
colourless, neutral oil results, boiling between 167° and
171° C. This consists of cineol, C10HlsO, pincne, CmH,,;, in
small quantity, and other hydrocarbons. The optical
properties of the oil point also to its being a mixture, and
are therefore in accordance with Wallach's observations
that the oil does not contain a special terpene of boiling
point 171° C, as stated by Gladstone (J. Chem. Soc. 1861,
17, 5 and 18).
Laurel oil also contains other bodies in addition to the
above, of a ketonic or alcoholic nature, which form solid
compounds with sodium, decomposable by water. These
were not investigated. — C. A. K.
Bromide of Potassium. II. Helbing and F. W. Pas9more.
Helbing's Pharm. Record, 7, 1892.
The authors have examined various brands of potassium
bromide and conclude that there exists in commerce at the
present time potassium bromide of foreign origin that
does not comply with the requirements of the British
Pharmacopoeia, the samples tested containing from 4 '52
to 5 '96 per cent, of KCI, whilst specimens of English
manufacture contained only 0- 13 per cent, of KCI. The
authors estimated the bromide with standard silver solution,
which method they state as being the most practical and
reliable for the determination of the amount of chloride
present, due attention being paid to the possible presence
of other substances that may affect the result. — J. C. C.
Nicotine. A. Pinner and R. Wolll'enstein. Her. 25, 1892,
1428—1433.
When oxynicotine (this Journal, 1891, 381 and 569) is
heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid at 140° for
8 — 10 hours it yields, together with resinous products, an
oily base of the composition C10H,,N2O, which the authors
name pseudonicotinc oxide. This compound is volatile with
steam, seems to be very sensitive to light, and is readily
soluble in water; its hydrochloride, CH)HuN.,0, 2 HC1 is
crystalline, melts at 192°, and is very readily soluble in
water ; its platiuochloride crystallises in needle ml
decomposes at about 120°.
Dekydronicotine, C10HisNa, is formed when pseudo-
nicotine oxide is distilled under the ordinary atmospheric
pressure ; it is an oil, does not turn red on exposure to the
air, and is only sparingly soluble in water. Its physiological
action is just as powerful as that of nicotine ; pseudo-
nicotine oxide, on the other hand, has only about r.yh of the
effect of nicotine.
When oxynicotine is heated with a saturated solution of
barium hydroxide at 140° it is converted into nicotine, a
resinous compound and traces of ammonia being also
produced. — F. S. K.
Russian Peppermint Oil and Menthylamine. G. Andres
and A. Andreef. Ber. 25, 1892, 609—622.
The authors have examined large qantities of Russian oil
of peppermint with reference to the contained hydrocarbons
which have been but little investigated.
The oil was fractionated repeatedly and heated with
metallic sodium, six fractions boiling between 168° and
175° being finally obtained, of which the highest (173° —
175°) was the chief product. This is a terpene, C,i>Hlf„
and resembles tavo-liinonene, except that its specific
rotatory power is considerably too low. The fraction of
boiling point 170° — 173' also contains kevo-limonene mixed
with an isomeric hydrocarbon. The lower fractions contain
terpenes mixed with hydrocarbons, having the formula
C|„Hlg, which have not been isolated. No evidence was
obtained of the presence of naphthenes. The fractions
200°— 205° and 205Q— 210° contain menthone (C10HlsO)
and varying quantities of menthol. The quantity of total
hydrocarbons in the oil does not exceed 17 per cent., and
the results obtained with oil prepared both from dried and
fresh plants were similar. A quantitative determination of
the menthol in the oil is not possible, since it cannot be
completely separated from the oil by freezing, even after
fractionation.
Menthylamine is obtained, contrary to the statement ot
Beckmann, by reducing the oxime of menthol with sodium
iu alcoholic solution. The product boils at 204° C, has
a smell similar to that of conine, and a specific rotatory
power [o]„ = — 33 '6°. Dextro-menthoxime may be
similarly converted into a menthylamine which resembles
the above in proporties, but appears to be a mixture of the
kevo- and dextro-compounds. — C. A. K.
Pseudopelletierine. G. Ciamician and P. Silber. Ber. 25,
1892, 1G01- 1G04.
The authors' investigations on pseudopelletierine lead them
to confirm most of its discoverer's — Tanret's — observations
(Compt. Rend. 86, 1270) 87, 358 ; and 88, 716). They,
however, find that it is best extracted from the crude extract
of pomegranate-peel by means of petroleum, from which
medium it crystallises in anhydrous prismatic tablets of the
composition C,,H15NO. It melts at IS'"1 (Tanret gives 46°J,
boils at 246J according to Tanret, but is volatile at the
ordinary temperatures. It is readily soluble in water, alcohol,
ether, and chloroform, but less so in light petroleum ; it is
a strong base, and its solution in 25 per cent, potash
becomes turbid when warmed A series of salts is described,
and also certain reactions. — I). A. L.
Tut;
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31, 1892.
Oxygen Compounds obtained from Ethereal Oils. F. W.
Semmler and F. Tiemann. Ber. 25, 1892, 1180—1188.
The authors are of the opinion that the specific odours of
many ethereal oils are not entirely due to the presence of
terpenes or allied compounds, but that certain of them
contain also alcohols, ethereal salts, aldehydes, and ketones
of the fatty series which influence their smell to a very
considerable extent. Indian geranium oil, for example,
has been shown to contain an unsaturated fatty alcohol —
geraniol — of the composition C„,HlsO, which, on oxidation,
is converted into the corresponding aldehyde, geranial or
eitral, C',,,11 ,,,<>, a compound occurring in various essential
oil- ( -ee Semmler, this Journal, 1891, 157, 269, and 382).
Two samples of oil of bergamot, obtained from Sehimmel
and Co. and from Jlerlino respectively, were carefully
examined and found to be practically identical in properties ;
the specific gravity is 0*8782 at 12°, and refractive power
nn = 1-4681. On repeated fractional distillation under a
pressure of about 15 mm. the oil is resolved into the
following constituents : —
Limonene About 40 per cent.
Dipentene 10 „
Linalool , -~> „
Linalool acetate 20 ,
Bergapten 5
Linalool, C10HlsO, is an unsaturated fatty alcohol of
sp. "t. 0-8712 at 20r ; it is lrevo-rotatory, and its refractive
power is nv = 1-4641.
Linalool acetate, C10Hi7O . COCH,,, has a very charac-
teristic smell, like that of oil of bergamot, and its specific
gravity is 0-8951 at 20°; it is lsevo rotatory, and on
hydrolysis it is converted into linalool and acetic acid.
It must not be presumed that an oil having the same
odour as oil of bergamot would be obtained by mixing the
above-named constituents in the proper proportions, because
it is very probable that the odour of the natural oil is
influenced by the presence of traces of other compounds
which have not yet been isolated.
" Petitgrain oil," of French and of South American
origin, was also investigated: the crude oil is dark yellow
in colour, and its specific gravity is 0-8891 at 20°. Its
principal constituent is an oil of sp. gr. 0-8988 at 20°,
which boils at 10^° — 106° under a pressure of 15 mm., and
which the authors name Aurantiol acetate ,- this compound
orms about 70 per cent, of the crude oil, has a peculiar
characteristic odour, and on hydrolysis is decomposed into
acetic acid and an unsaturated fatty alcohol of the com-
position C10HlsO, which is named Aurantiol. This alcohol
boils at 93° — 95° under a pressure of 15 mm., has a specific
gravity of 0-8691 at 20', and its refractive power is
«„ = 1-4682; it is hevo-rotatory and combines with four
atoms of bromine. In addition to aurantiol acetate
"petitgrain oil" contains limonene, a sesqui-terpene, and
compounds containing oxygen which have a not incon-
siderable influence on the smell of the natural oil.
Oil of lavender of English origin contains limonene and
a sesqui-terpene in small quantities, but its principal con-
stituent is an unsaturated fatty alcohol — Lavendol, C10HlsO
■ — which can be isolated by fractional distillation under a
pressure of 15 mm. Lavendol boils at 85° — 91° under a
pressure of 1 5 mm., is hevo-rotatory , arid has a characteristic
odour; its specific gravity is 0-8672 at 20°, and its refractive
power ?iD = 1-4651. Lavendol acetate, CWH170 .CO .CH3,
also occurs in oil of lavender, of which it forms about
10 per cent.; it boils at 97° — 105° under a pressure of
15 mm., is la-vo-rotatory, and has a specific gravity of
0-8972 at 20°. The natural oil doubtless contains other
oxygen compounds which influence its odour.
Linalool, aurantiol, and lavendol have all the same
composition as geraniol, and also smell like the last-named
compound ; whether the fcur substances are identical or
not remains to be ascertained. — F. S. K.
A Xitro-Ui riratire of Antipyrine. E. Jandrier. Compt.
Rend. 114, 1892, 303—304.
Ox addition of nitric acid to a solution of antipyrine in
sulphuric acid nitro- and nitroso-derivatives are formed.
Xitro-antipyrine may be prepared in the following manner :
— 4 grms. of antipyrine are dissolved in 40 gnus, of mono-
hydrated sulphuric acid ; to the cooled mixture about
3 grms. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1 ■ 35) are added. Separation
of the nitro-compound follows on pouring the whole slowly
into water kept at a temperature below 10° C. Xitro-
antipyrine is a straw-coloured crystalline substance melting
at 260° C. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble only in
hot alcohol ; it may be most conveniently recrystallised
from glacial acetic acid. Reduction with zinc and acetic
acid gives the corresponding amido-compound. — T. L. B.
Nitro-Atropine. A. Einhorn and L. Fischer. Ber. 25,
1892, 1390—1391.
Atropine when treated with a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acids is converted into an oily mononitro-com-
pound, which was isolated by means of its hydrochloride,
which forms a crystalline compound with difficulty soluble
in alcohol. It decomposes at 235D C. The nitro group is
contained in the benzene ring of the acid radicle of atropine
(tropic acid) and is in the para-position as shown by
decomposition with hydrochloric acid, and subsequent
oxidation, when 1 : 4 nitrobenzoic acid is formed. — C. A. K.
ii-Tropin and some ^-Tropeins. C. Liebermann and L.
Limpach. Ber. 25, 1892, 927—939.
Pskudo- or \|/-tropine as previously described (this Journal,
1891, 944 and 102.3) crystallises from benzene in well-
defined rhombic prisms. It forms a hygroscopic sulphate,
and yields tropidine on reduction. The tropeins described
are those of mandelic and of tropic acid. The former is
best prepared by the repeated evaporation of a solution
containing molecular proportions of Atropine and of
mandelic acid. It forms a thick oil and yields a number of
characteristic salts, which are described. A solution of the
acetate was found not to exert any mydriatic action.
Tropyl-4<-tropeine, similarly prepared, is a thick oil, having
a strongly alkaline reaction and a specific rotatory power
[a]n = — 4-93. It is decomposed by baryta water into
^-tropine and tropic acid, and hence is isomeric with atropine.
Of its salts the hydrochloride and double gold and platinic
chlorides are characteristic ; the hydrochloride has no
mydriatic action, but like atropine it acts as a heart-poison.
The relation of this i|/-atropine to Ladenburg's hyoscine is
discussed. The remainder of the paper deals with the
nature of Ladenburg's tropide which is formed together
with ^-atropine in the above reaction. The authors show
that its formula is ClsH1604 and not CgHgOo from a
molecular weight determination by Raoult's method.
— C. A. K.
P-methylamido-crotonanilide mid its Relation to Antipyrine.
L. Knorr and H. Taufkireh. Ber. 25, 1892, 768.
The " antipyrine alcohol " described by Briihl (Ber. 1892,
25, 395) is, according to the authors' investigations,
j8-methylamidocrotonanilidc —
CH3 kh.CE,
c^=CH.CO.NHC,,H5
and not an antipyrine derivative. A full account of the
experimental evidence on which this conclusion rests is
given, together with a suggestion that the sodium salt of
the so-called alcohol prepared by Briihl is in reality a
complex carbonate of the above anilide. — C. A. K.
Aug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
707
The Action of Hypochlorous Arid mi Tropine. A. Einliorn
and L. Fischer. Ber. 25, 1892, 1391—1394.
Hi POOHLOROUS acid acts upou tropine to form a crystalline
compound, C?H6NCI30, which melts at 111° C, and which
readily gives up the chlorine atom to form a slightly basic
body, C?H7NC140. The latter melts at 108". The reaction
is undoubtedly a complex one, the carbon atom being
liberated from the tropine molecule. — C. A. K.
The Untie Acids nnd Borax Industry. Scheuer. Zeits.
f. ang. Chem. 1892, 241—248.
See under VII., page 083.
Action of Boric Acid on Germination. J. Morel. Compt.
Rend. 114, 1892, 131—133.
Ax injurious action of boric acid on beans was pointed out
by Peligot (Compt. Kend. 83, 686).
The present memoir deals with the action of various
strengths of the solution on beans and on wheat, and the
conclusions come to are that boric acid has the effect of
delaying, or of completely preventing germination, according
to duration of contact and strength of solution used;
furthermore the action on grain and seeds of different kinds
varies ; for instance, wheat resists the action of the wash
much better than does the bean. Borax acts in a similar
manner to boric acid. It seems most probable that even
very dilute solutions of boric acid will completely arrest the
development of various fungoid growths and experiments
are in progress with the object of deciding this question.
Should the author's expectations be realised, then boric
acid might rank with sulphate of copper as a preventative
mildew and similar growths. — T. L. B.
The Nitration of Butultoluene- and Butylxylene-sulphonic
Acids. E. Noelting. Ber. 25, 1892, 785—792.
A- Kelbe and l'.aur have stated (Ber. 16, 2560), butyl-
toluene is sulphonated with moderate ease by concen-
trated sulphuric acid at a temperature not exceeding 50°.
It is, however, more rapidly attacked by fuming sulphuric
acid containing 15 per cent, of anhydride. To isolate the
sulphonic acid, conversion into its lead salt is not necessary,
as the acid separates on the addition of a little water to its
sulphuric acid solution. The crystalline mass obtained in
this way was drained, washed with water, and dried on
porcelain. A portion of it was nitrated with 6 to 8 parts of
nitric acid (85 per cent.) at the ordinary temperature, the
mixture being allowed to stand for some time. Another
portion was heated on the water-bath with fuming nitric
acid. In both cases a mixture of dinitrobutyltoluene sul-
phonic acid and trinitrobutyltoluene resulted, the proportion
of the latter being greater in the case where heat was
applied. Dinitrobutyltoluene sulphonic acid is easily soluble
in water and odourless. Its sodium salt crystallises with
3 H„0 in large plates. Its barium salt, with 7 H;U in white
plates, which are sparingly soluble in cold water, but easily
so in hot, and freely in alcohol. In the pure state it is free
from smell, but even after several recrystallisations from
water, it retains a slight smell of musk, which can be
removed only by repeated washing with ether. (See
Discussion, A. G. Green; this Journal, 1892, 308). When
heated on the water-bath with concentrated nitric acid,
barium sulphate is precipitated, and trinitrobutyltoluene
formed, this change taking place very readily and being
indicated by the powerful musk-like odour which is
developed. As the constitution of butyltoluene sulphonic
acid, according to an unpublished research of A. Baur, is
CHa : C(CH3)a : HS03 = 1 : 3 : 6 in the benzene nucleus, the
constitution of dinitrobutyltoluenesulphonic acid is shown
to be such that the HSO:], CH3, NO;, and C(CH;1)S groups
hold the relative positions —
CH3 : NOo : C(CH:1):1 : X0_, : HSOa - 1:2:3:4:6
(This Journal 1892, 30G.)
The last-named compound, the author further finds, may
be conveniently prepared by directly nitrating the sulphonic
acid by the addition of a mixture of fuming nitric and
sulphuric acids to its solution in sulphuric acid.
Dinitrobutyl-m-xylene sulphonic acid closely resembles
its above-mentioned lower homologue. The assertion of
F. Valentiner, Eng. Pat. 15,187 of 1890 (this Journal,
1891, 571), that this compound and its salts possess an
odour of musk is, therefore, erroneous. The odour is due,
as in the case of the incompletely-purified dinitrobutyl-
toluene sulphonic acid and its salts, to traces of the trinitro-
derivative. The barium salt of the dinitroxylene compound
is easily soluble in water, less so in absolute alcohol. The
sodium salt is exceedingly soluble in alcohol, less so in
water, and crystallises in beautiful silvery plates.
Valentiner (Joe. eit.) has observed a simultaneous forma-
tion of tertiary-butylxylene and its sulphonic acid by the
action of sulphuric acid on a mixture of isobutyl alcohol
and m-xylene. The author finds that this reaction takes
place even at a temperature below 45°, sulphuric acid thus
producing the same intra-molecular change as aluminium
chloride. Tertiary-butyl-m-xylene is also obtained, accord-
ing to Goldschmidt's method, by heating a mixture of
m-xylene, isobutyl alcohol, and zinc chloride. But of these
three methods of preparation that with aluminium chloride
is by far the most profitable. (See also this Journal, 1891,
1024, and 1892, 306.)— E. B.
Testing of Chloroform. C. Traub. Zeits. f. ang. Chem.
1892, 192.
See under XXIII., page 712.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Peroxide of Bamum
and Peroxide of Hydrogen. T. Brochocki, Paris. Eng.
Pat. 10,476, June 19, 1891.
Barium peroxide is prepared from the sulphate, which is
first converted into the sulphide by reduction with carbon.
The sulphate is mixed with carbon and tar, pressed
into small balls or briquettes, and heated in a suitable
furnace. Carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide is evolved,
according to the quantity of carbon added, which are
collected in separate gas-holders and employed for sub-
sequent operations. The barium sulphide is lixiviated,
the solution filtered and treated with carbon dioxide in a
suitable vessel, when sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, and
barium carbonate precipitated. The former is either burned
with air and the sulphur collected, or else employed to
decompose barium sulphate according to the equation
BaS< >4 + 2 H2S = BaS + S02 + 2 H.,C> + S. The barium
carbonate is washed, dried, mixed with carbon and tar, and
pressed into briquettes, which are heated in a current of
carbon monoxide, whereby anhydrous baryta is formed and
carbon dioxide evolved. This product is finally converted
into the peroxide by passing a current of purified air over
it at a temperature of about 600° C. By decomposing the
peroxide with carbon dioxide, hydrogen pei'oxide is formed,
together with barium carbonate, which latter is then ready
for reconversion into the oxide.
A specially-constructed furnace, consisting of three sets
of chambers, each set comprising a cooling, calcining, and
heating chamber, placed one above the other, is employed
for the working of the process, the whole of which takes
place out of contact with the air. — C. A. K.
708
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si, lKffi
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Pharmaceutical Compounds. B. 'Willcox, London.
From Farbcnfabrikeu vormals F. Baever and Co., Elber-
feld, Germany. Eng. Vat. 11,833, July 11, 1891.
The invention relates to new products which can advan-
tageously be employed as substitutes for salol, and which
avoid the detrimental effects produced in Fome cases by
salol owing to its being decomposed in the system into
phenol and salicylic acid. The new preparations are acetyl-
amido-salol and the corresponding cresol derivatives. Acetyl-
aniido-salol is prepared by the action of para-nitro-phenol
on salicylic acid in presence of a dehydrating agent, and the
resulting nitro-phenyl-salicylate yields the corresponding
amido-compound on reduction. This treated with acetic
anhydride or acetyl chloride in glacial acetic acid solution
forms para-acetylamido salicylate, a crystalline compound
melting at 187° C.
In a similar manner the acetylamido-phenyl-cresol ear-
buxylates are obtained from ortho-, meta-, and para-cresol
carboxylic acids respectively as the starting points. They
are all crystalline bodies ; the ortho-compound melts at
181° C, the meta at 198" C, and the para at 167° C.
— C. A. K.
An Improved Anaesthetic and Hypnotic. J. F. von Meving,
Halle a/Salle, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,844, July 11, 1891.
The amylene previously tried as an anaesthetic consists of a
mixture of hydrocarbons prepared from fusel oil by the
action of water-abstracting agents (ZnCU, &c), which
mixture was found to be unreliable in its action. The
patentee finds that the product prepared from tertiary amyl
alcohol in a similar manner is a reliable and good anaesthetic
and hypnotic. This product — trimethylethylene —
(CH;1)2.C = CH.CII, ;
boils at 38° C. It may be employed either in the pure state
or mixed with alcohol or with ether. — C. A. K,
XXI.-PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
Quantitative Determination of Silver and Gold by Menus
of Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride. A. Lainer. Dingl.
l'olyt'. .1. 284, 1892, 17—19.
See xinder XXIII., page 710.
PATENT.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colours, specially
applicable for Colouring Photographs. A. J. Iloult,
London. From C. H. W. Brans, Halberstadt, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 3791, February 2G, 1892.
See under IV., page C79.
XXII -EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
The Higher Nitric Ethers of Starch. O. Miihlhauser.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 73, 137—143.
The author gives a short history of the discovery and work
done on nitro-starch, and says that it is only recently, by
means of a process devised by the " Actiengesellschaft
Dynamit Nobel," that it has been possible to manufacture it
economically, and thus make it available as an explosive for
military purposes. The product prepared by this process
has the following composition : — Cr,H30:1(N03)2.
The author succeeded in preparing two bodies of the
composition— CfiH;>., Cv>, (NO;,V;, and C^O^NO,*);,.
The starch molecule must consequently be taken twice as
large, viz., C^HouO,,,, and the higher members regarded as —
Per Cent. X.
Tetra-nitro starch— C,aHj606(ONOs)4 nil
Penta-nitro-starch— dsB ,< > ' o n ( > , i . i2*75
Hexa-nitro-starch— C,2H, ,04(ONOs)6 1414
That no nitro-compounds, but true ethers (esters) of
nitrie acid are formed, is proved : —
1st. In that the substances on treatment with sulphuric
acid, separate NO.H. The 0 . N02 residue appears thus to
be replaced by the sulphuric acid residue.
2nd. On treatment with aqueous ferrous chloride nitric
oxide and soluble starch are regenerated.
3rd. On shaking with sulphuric acid over mercury, all
nitrogen is split off in the form of NO.
The body prepared by the process above referred to will
be taken as tetra-nitro-starch.
This process is carried out as follows : — Potato starch is
dried at 100°; then ground and dissolved in nitric acid of
1*501 sp. gr. in a suitable vessel made of lead, and provided
with two jackets cooled by water. A screw agitator causes
the acid to circulate. The starch is introduced through an
opening in the cover of the combined agitator and digestor
in the proportion of 10 kilos, of starch to 100 kilos, of acid,
the temperature being maintained between 20° and 25°.
This solution is then led to a precipitating apparatus,
which is also surrounded with a cooling jacket, and pro-
vided with a double-perforated bottom, between which is
placed guu-cotton to act as a filter. This vessel is filled
with spent nitro - sulphuric acid from the nitro - glycerin
manufacture, and the solution of starch in nitric acid is
sprayed into it through an ejector worked by compressed
air, whereby the nitro-starch is precipitated in the form of a
fine-grained powder. 500 kilos, of spent nitro-sulphuric acid
are required to precipitate 100 kilos, of starch solution.
The nitro-starch collects on the gun-cotton filter, when
the acid solution is run and drained off through the tap at
the bottom of the vessel, and below the filter. It is then
further freed from acid by pressure and washing till a
neutral reaction is attained, and afterwards it is treated and
let stand for 24 hours in contact with 5 per cent, soda
solution. The product is then ground until a "milk" is
formed, which is filter-pressed and washed with water, and
lastly treated with a solution of aniline, so that the pressed
cake, which contains about 33 per cent, of water, shall
contain 1 per cent, of aniline.
Nitro-starch prepared by the author on the same lines in
the laboratory contained 10*96 and 1 1 * 09 per cent, of N.
It is a snow-white powder, which becomes electrified on
rubbing, and is very stable and soluble even in the cold in
nitroglycerin.
The author also prepared a tetra-nitro-starch containing
10*58 and 10*50 per cent, of nitrogen by pouring into
water a solution of starch in nitric acid, which had stood
for several days. The body thus produced had all the
properties of that prepared by the other process.
Penta-nitro-starch is produced along with some tetra-
nitro-starch by adding 20 grms. of rice starch dried at 100°,
to a mixture of 100 grins, of nitric acid sp. gr. 1*501, and
300 grins, sulphuric acid sp. gr. 1*8. After standing for
one hour, the mass is discharged into a large quantity of
water, and then washed with water and soda solution. The
yield was 147*5 per cent. This body was heated with
Una. SI, 1898.]
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
709
ether-alcohol, then the ether was distilled off, the penta-
nitro-starch thus became precipitated, the tetra-compound
remaining dissolved in the alcohol. The portion insoluble
in alcohol contained 1 2 ■ 7 1" and 12*98 percent, of nitrogen,
and was thus penta-nitro-starch. The other portion
contained 10* i."> of nitrogen.
Hexa-nitro-atarch is the chief product when 40 grms.
of dry starch, arc treated with 100 grins, of nitric acid,
s|>. gr. 1*501, and allowed to stand for 24 hours, and then
220 grins, of this solution are poured into 600 cc. of
sulphuric acid of 66° B. The white powder thus produced
contained 1.3*52, 13*23, and 13-22 per cent, of nitrogen,
and therefore consisted principally of penta- and In -cu nitro-
starch.
The experiments showed that the bodies prepared by
precipitating the nitro-starch by strong sulphuric acid were
less stable than those precipitated by water or weak
sulphuric acid, the author being of opinion that possibly in
the former case a sulpho-group may be formed, which in
small quantity might occasion this instability. The
following table shows the behaviour of bodies prepared in
different ways under various conditions : —
Made from
Ignition
Point.
Stability.
PerCent. 96 Perl i al
N. Alcohol.
Ether.
Ether- Acetic
Alcohol, ' Uther.
I
1 part nitric, 2 parts sulphuric acid (containing
7o per cent, of water),
i part nitric acid, water
1 part nitric niil, " putts loncentrated sulphuric
ii ill.
i rl ci i intrated sulphuric
acid.
I part nitricaoid, :> parts concentrated sulphuric
acid.
i
175
17"
l:. 2
121
155
Stable
Stable
Unstable
Unstable
Unstable
11-112
10-54
1-2-S7
12-50
13-52
Soluble
Soluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Insoluble Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
The author recommends the production of a smokeless
powder by moistening 6 grins, of nitro-jute (this Journal,
1892, 214), and 2 grms. of nitro-starch with acetic ether,
and working into a uniform mixture, and then drying at
jo — (JO0. This product contained 11*54 per cent, of
nitrogen, and was very stable. — W. M.
"Safety" Matches. B. Schultze. Dingl. 1'olyt. J. 283,
1892, 274—284.
Tiik author has examined ami compared 18 different kinds
of so-called safety matches of Swedish and German manu-
facture, especially in regard to the readiness with which
they could be ignited by friction on different surfaces, and
he also investigated the glowing and falling off of the heads
after the flame had been extinguished. The results are
given in extensive tables, which along with the text in the
original, should be consulted by those who are specially
interested in this matter.
The author's experiments show that the claim, on all the
different boxes examined, that the matches " ignite only on
the box" is quite unfounded. — \V M.
An Improvement in the Manufacture of Explosives for
Ammunition. F. A. Abel, London, and J. Dewar,
Cambridge. Eng. Pat. 5614, April 2, 188'J. (Second
Edition.)
Tnis invention relates to means of treating blasting gelatin
whether it be simple or compounded with substances which
are sometimes added to it, such as nitrates of hydrocarbons
.if a non-volatile character, in such a manner as to render
it available for ammunition.
Blasting gelatin manufactured in the ordinary way but
with a greater percentage of soluble nitro-cellulose and
with a volatile solvent such as acetone or acetic ether
sufficient to give it the consistence of a moderately thick
jelly, or ordinary blasting gelatin with the addition of
soluble nitrocellulose and solvent to bring it to a like con-
dition, is pressed through holes in a plate so as to form a
number of wires, which at first are soft and pliable but
become toughened by evaporation of the solvent. — W. M.
XXIII.-ANALTTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPAUATUS.
On the Measurement of High Temperatures. II, Becquerel.
Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 390—392.
Tins is a reply to certain remarks made by M. Le Chatelier
on the researches of II. E. Becquerel (pere). These
researches related to the measurement of high temperatures
and the relative intensity of the light emitted by incan-
descent bodies (e.g., platinum) at these temperatures. The
author points out that Le Chatelier's optical measureme uts
give results which in reality differ only very slightly from
those obtained by his father and by Violle. As to the
measurements of temperatures above 1,200° made by E.
Becquerel, it is certainly true that they were based upon a
hypothetical extrapolation. So also the numbers above
1,200 obtained by Violle were based upon extrapolation;
but the probability of its correctness was increased by his
experiments on iridium. It is at least possible that similar
results by this method of calculation, deduced from the
behaviour of a platinum-palladium couple may be more
inaccurate than results obtained by extrapolation from the
law of variation of the specific heat of platinum. — D. E. J.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
Absorption of Carbon Mono.ride by lUood. N. Grchant.
Compt. Kend. 114, 1892, 309—310.
See under XVIII., page 704.
Action of Ammonium Chloride at its Dissociation Tempe-
rature on Silicates. E. A. Schneider and F. W. Clarke.
Her. 25, 1892, 883—886.
The authors have previously investigated the action of dry
hydrogen chloride gas on a number of natural silicates
(Amer. J. Sci. 1891,40.303; 42, 242). The results of
heating a finely-divided mixture of the silicate (1 grm.)
with ammonium chloride (10 grms.) at a temperature at
which the latter salt rapidly volatilises, are now given. After
heating, the residue is extracted with water and the solution
analysed. In some cases it is necessary to heat several
times with ammonium chloride before extracting with water.
710
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31,1892.
Very slight action occurs with such minerals :is olivine and
waluewite (a variety of xanthophyllite) ; in the cases of
linochlor, unci leuchtenbergite, the action is
considerable, and the authors suppo these silicates
contain the group Mg.OH, the presence of which they
consider may be detected by this process.
Natrolite, wollastonite, and pectolite are considerably
acted on by ammonium chloride ; little action occurs in the
case or prehnite. Lazulite and turquoise are scarcely
affected, whilst dufrenite is energetically attacked, a
considerable quantity of ferric chloride being produced.
— W. J. P.
solution must he heated: at ordinary temperatures neutral
gold solutions give a precipitate of gold even in the dark,
but the action is considerably hastened b\ exposure i<> sun-
light.— T. L. 15.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Quantitative Separation of Metals of th( Hydrogen
Sulphide Group in a Current of Bromine Vapour.
P. Jannasch and P. Etz. Ber. 25, 1«92, 736—741.
Wood's metal (1 grm.) containing bismuth, lead, tin, and
cadmium, is dissolved in dilute aqua regia, the solution
evaporated to dryness, and the residue completely dis-
solved in water with addition of hydrochloric acid,
and by the aid of heat. The metals are then preci-
pitated in the hot solution by hydrrgen sulphide, the
precipitate filtered, washed, and dried on a tared filter at
100°. The mixture of sulphides is then transferred to a
glass tube, and continuously heated in a current of bromine
vapour as previously described by the authors. (Ber. 1891,
24, 3746, and 1892, 25, 124). The bromides of tin and
bismuth distil, leaving lead and cadmium bromides in the
boat ; the latter, after cooling, is withdrawn from the tube,
its contents treated with chlorine water, and separated as
lead sulphate and cadmium carbonate in the usual manner.
The volatilised bromides of tin and bismuth are collected in
nitric acid, evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated
to redness to expel the sulphuric acid. The bismuth is
then extracted by nitric acid, separated if necessary from
the small amount of silica derived from the vessels employed,
and precipitated as carbonate ; the residual stannic oxide
may be at once weighed.
The above process give- good results, hut the following
i> equally accurate and much quicker: — The alloy is cut
int. i small pieces, mixed with excess of sulphur, placed in a
large porcelain boat, and heated in a current of carbon
dioxide ; the conversion into sulphide is complete, and
after distillation of the excess of sulphur, bromine vapour
is passed over the mixed sulphides, and the separation
effected as above described. — W. J. P.
Quantitative Determination of Silver and Cold by Means
of Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride. A. Lainer. Dingl.
Polyt". J. 284, 1S'.<2, 17 — 19.
llvunoxyr.AMixi: is useful not only for the determination of
silver and gold, but also for recovery of t ese metals from
exhausted photographic liquors. In presence of excess of
caustic potash, silver is precipitated completely by hydroxj 1-
amine. The most difficult solution to deal with is a
cyanide solution, a considerable excess of caustic potash
being necessary. In this case, furthermore, the first filtrate
should be evaporated down with more hydroxylamine, in
order to get the last traces of silver precipitated. Where
the silver is to be separated from other heavy metals, it is
best first of all to precipitate as chloride. With regard to
1ion of organic matter, it is shown that citric acid
in no way interferes with the quantitative precipitation.
Like silver, also gold is quantitatively precipitated by
addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride followed by
caustic potash. Thiosulpbate solutions precipitate quite
well, hut in cyanide solutions precipitation docs not take
place. In the case of gold salts it is to be noted that
hydroxylamine hydrochloride i- capable of throwing down
all the gold even without the aid of caustic alkali, but the
On the Estimation of Fluorine. Ad. Carnot. Compl
Rend. 114, 1892, 750—753.
The estimation of fluorine is seldom attempted in analyses
illy when silicates are present) on account of the
difficulties which it presents, iletho is have been gii en by
several eminent analysts (Berzelius Kose, Fresenius,
Wohler) but they are complicated and require the observ-
ance of minute precautions before accurate results can be
secured. The method suggested by the author has been
applied to substances containing fluorine which can be
attacked by concentrated sulphuric acid ; it is easily carried
out and enables the analysist to estimate not only the
fluorine but also the silicon present with satisfactory
accuracy. The method (like others already known ) is
based on setting free the fluorine in the form of u
silicon fluoride : its novelty lies in the mode of estimating
the gas evolved. Instead of calculating it from the
difference of two weighings (Wohler and Fresenius) or from
the weight of calcium fluoride obtained after a toilsome
separation of the silica (Berzelius, Rose, Lasne) the author
passes the silicon fluoride into a strong solution of pure
potassium fluoride with which it forms a precipitate of
fiuosilicate of potassium, from the weight of which the
fluorine and if necessary the silica can be determined. The
reaction is expressed by the equation —
SiF.
2 KF=K SiF,
ami the method is carried out as follows : —
The mixture of fluoride and silicate is treated with
concentrated sulphuric acid in a small flask of 150 cc.
capacity. A slow current of air or carbonic acid (carefully
dried by passing through sulphuric acid) is led in by a tube
reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask. The gas
evolved is conducted by a bent tube to the bottom of a
second flask containing a little mercury at the bottom, and
above the mercury 20 cc. of a solution of pure potassium
fluoride. Beyond this is an aspirator for regulating the
current. The end of the tube should dip 2 or 3 mm. below
the surface of the mercury so as not to be wetted by the
aqueous solution. Every care should be taken to thoroughly
dry the apparatus beforehand, so as to avoid any decom-
position of the silicon fluoride by moisture.
It is advisable to use for analysis such a quantity of the
substance as will not contain more than about 0-l grm. of
fluorine; thus about 0- 2 grm. of rich fluorides (fluorspar,
cryolite, &c.) should be taken and up to 2 grms. or even
more of substances containing a smaller proportion of
fluorine (natural phosphates, bones, &c). The substance
is intimately mixed in an agate mortar with fine calcined
quartz in such proportion that the mixture contains at least
10 parts of silica to one of fluorine.
The apparatus being set up and well dried, the current
of gas is stopped, the mixture introduced and 40 cc. of
pure sulphuric acid added ; the current of gas is then
re-established and the flask warmed over an iron plate ;
the temperature inside should be near 160', but should
never exceed this. The flask should be slightly shaken
from time to time. The evolution of gas usually ceases in
an hour and a half or two hours. The solution of potassium
fluoride now contains a gelatinous precipitate which is
scarcely visible. The tubes are removed without delay and
tin aqueous solution decanted. The flask and mercury
are washed several times with small quantities of water
which are added to the solution ; the volume of the whole
should not exceed 100 cc. An equal volume of 90 per
cent, alcohol is added and the precipitate is allowed to
settle. After decanting the supernatant liquid and replacing
it by dilute alcohol the precipitate is collected on a weighed
filter and further washed with dilute alcohol. It is dried at
100° until the weight is constant and from this the amount
of fluorine and silica can be calculated. (line part of
KsSiF, contains 0*3451 of fluorine.)
AnR.3i.iasj THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
711
It is of importance that the re-agents employed shiuld
In' Free from ftuoriuc. This can generally t»- secured in the
of sulphuric acid and calcined quartz; but both can
be tested by a blank experiment. Tin- fluoride of potassium
Bhould be free from fhiosilicate ; tliis can be tested l>y
dissolving 2 grms. of t lie salt in 100 cc. of water and adding
an equal volume of alcohol. If no precipitate is apparent
after standing for 24 hours the sample is satisfactory.
In the analysis of a fluoride containing silica the same
method may be adopted provided that the walls of the
Bask are not sen9ibly attacked. The silicated fluoride
should be mixed with a large excess of finely-divided
quart/ and pure calcined silica; the mixture is calcined
and accurately weighed. The silica has now to be
. Btimated in two parts. A small portion is found with the
fluorine in the precipitate of fhiosilicate of potassium.
(Hue part of KoSiFn contains 0-1271 of Si, or 02815 of
Si( I.,). The rest remains in the state of silica in the
residue which lias been treated with sulphuric acid and ran
I1 estimated in the usual way. From this latter the
amount of silica added must of course he deducted. — D. E. J.
Estimation of Sulphur in Coal. A. Grittner. Zeits. f.
ang. Cbern. 1892, 170.
The combustible sulphur in coal can be estimated by
Sailer's method, which has been modified by Dammer
and Presenilis, but the method is rather tedious. The
author adopts the form of combustion tube, also suggested
by Salter, which is drawn out narrow in the middle.
By introducing a current of oxygen from the hinder
part of the combustion tube towards the narrowed part
in the middle, and another current just quick enough
to carry away the products of the combustion from the
front of tlie tube, the combustion proceeds much quicker.
The narrow, drawn-out part of the combustion tube ought
to be red hot, the exit end must he just warm enough to
prevent sulphuric acid from condensing. Ths author
recommends the use of permanganate of potash instead of
bromine in the absorption apparatus.
Auother good method for the determination of the com-
bustible sulphur is to estimate the total sulphur according
to Kschka (this Journal 1889, 361, 364), and the sulphur
in the ash by oxidising with bromine in the presence of
hydrochloric acid, then concentrating on the water-bath,
filtering and washing. In the filtrate iron and alumina are
precipitated according to Lunge's method, and in the filtrate
from this precipitate the sulphuric acid is estimated in the
usual way. The difference between these two estimations
represents the sulphuric acid corresponding to the com-
bustible sulphur.— C. O. W.
Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in Sulphates. E. Stolle.
/.its. f. ang. Chem. 1892, 234 — 235.
A KNOWN weight of the substance is dissolved in a 500 cc.
Bask, anil a solution of barium chromate in hydrochloric
acid, prepared as described below, is run in from a burette
in sufficient quantity to precipitate all the sulphuric acid,
care being taken to avoid a large excess. The liquid is
now made ammoniacal, whereby all the barium which
remains in solution is precipitated as neutral barium
chromate, and only so much ammonium chromate is formed
as corresponds to the quantity of barium which has been
precipitated as sulphate. The liquid is made up to the
mark with water, filtered, and an aliquot portion of the
filtrate acidified with sulphuric acid and titrated with a
standard solution of a ferrous salt, potassium ferricyanide
being used as an indicator. The process is best conducted
at the ordinary temperature, and is applicable to all
sulphates which are soluble in water or hydrochloric acid,
and are without action on chromic acid. The solution of
bariam chromate is prepared by adding a slight excess of
potassium chromate solution to barium chloride solution,
tating the excess of chromic acid with a couple of
drops of barium chloride, washing the barium chromate by
decantation with hot water and dissolving it in dilute
hydrochloric acid; the solution is finally diluted tosp.gr.
J I '06. Thr adoption of this method entails the use of only
' one standard solution, namely, that of the ferrous salt,
whereas Precht's original method (Zeits. Anal. ('hem. 12
521) requires three. (Compare this Journal, 1892, 548.)
—A. G. B.
Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in Sulphates. A. v. Asboth.
Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 922.
The author points out that Stolle's method (preceding
abstract) if useless as he describes it, inasmuch as a
hydrochloric acid solution of barium chromate gradually
evolves chlorine, the chromic acid doubtless becoming
chromium chloride, and more barium chloride being formed
than should be present according to the equation —
2 ISaC'iO, + 2 IIC'l = BaC'r.O. + BaCU + H20
When such a solution was used 24 hours after it had been
made it indicated only 87 per cent, of KoSO., in a pure
sample of potassium sulphate, showing that less ammonium
chromate went into solution than should have been the
case (compare preceding abstract). When ammonia was
added to the barium chromate solution and the precipitate
filtered, barium chloride was found in the filtrate. The
author suggests the possibility of preparing the barium
chromate solution immediately before each determination.
—A. G. B.
Estimation of Potassium as Perchlorale. W. Wense.
Zeits. f. ang. Chem. 1892, 233—234.
The author has previously pointed out (Zeits. f. ang. Chem.
1891, 691) that the perchlorate method becomes an ex-
cellent one if a small quantity of perchloric acid is added
to the alcohol which is used for separating the potassium
perchlorates from the other perchlorates. In order to
facilitate the washing the perchlorate should be obtained
in a granular form ; this is best effected by warming the
concentrated solution on the water-bath before adding the
perchloric acid, which should then be dropped in to the
extent of about 1^ — 1 ',' times as much as is equivalent to
the potassium supposed to be present. Much free acid
should be first eliminated by evaporation to dryness.
When these precautions are observed the precipitates of
10 — 12 analyses can be filtered and washed in an hour,
and four hours will suffice for 13 — 14 determinations.
The precipitation of sulphuric acid, when the determination
is being made on such substances as carnallite residues, can
be avoided by evaporating with sufficient perchloric acid to
decompose all the chlorides, washing with alcohol, dis-
solving in hot water, evaporating to dryness, igniting and
estimating the potassium chloride with silver solution.
The method is cheaper than the platinum process ; for
5,000 potash determinations some 20 kilos, of potassium
chlorate and the same amount of sulphuric acid would be
sufficient, even if all the perchloric acid were thrown away
after it had been used. — A. G. B.
Note on the Analysis of Slat/ of Metallic Appearance
from the Manufacture of Phosphorus in Electrical
Furnaces. J. C. Chorley. Chem. News, 65, 301.
The process of manufacture in which this slag is formed
may be briefly described as follows : — The materials, con-
sisting of redonda phosphate (native phosphate of alnmina),
some form of calcium phosphate, carbon, and sand are
first heated in an auxiliary furnace, and are then fed into
the electrical furnace, built of firebrick in the form of a
rectangular trough. An alternating current of about
5,000 amperes with an E.M.F. of 50 — 60 volts is em-
ployed (this Journal, 1891, 544). Owing to the intense
local heat, most of the oxygen combines with the carbon
present and phosphorus distils over. Two distinct kinds
of slag are formed, that largest in quantity being chiefly
silicate of lime and alumina, whilst the other, containing
iron, silicon, and phosphorus is distributed throughout the
mass in more or less globular buttons. Three separate
E 2
712
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si, lm
samples of this latter slag were obtained at different
tappings; all were steel-grey in colour, very hard and
brittle, and breaking with a metallic fracture; it appeared
quite homogeneous, but did not exhibit any crystalline
form under the microscope. When examined in the state
of very fine powder with a one-fifth objective, a few
particles of transparent matter were observed, evidently
silica. The slap is extremely stable ; it i~ easily fusible
with the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, a little oxidation takes
place. Hydrochloric and nitric acids, dilute or con-
centrate d at !00", have little or no action upon it. After
being heated to 100° with aqua regia for 30 hours, very
little action could be detected. With hydrofluoric acid it
is practically unaltered.
With dilute sulphuric acid a similar restdt was obtained ;
hut long boiling with concentrated sulphuric acid decom-
poses it partially. Direct fusion in a platinum crucible
is impossible, as the phosphorus at once attacks the
platinum. When heated in a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen a superficial layer of sulphide of iron is formed.
There is very little aet ion when it is heated with bromine or
iodine.
( Inly two methods of decomposition were found available
for analysis.
1. By heating the finely-powdered slag in a porcelain
boat in a current of dry chlorine, and passing the gases
first through water and then through a dry plug of cotton
wool to retain solid particles, the iron was then volatilised
as Fe2Cl6, the silicon as SiCJ4, which was decomposed by
the wash-water, and the phosphorus as PC1;, or PC13 ;
in about an hour complete decomposition was effected,
only a little siliea being left in the boat. The contents
of the whole apparatus were then washed iuto a basin,
and after the addition of hydrochloric acid evaporated to
dryness and heated to render silica insoluble. After
adding weak hydrochloric acid the silica was filtered off
and weighed ; the filtrate was then evaporated several
times to dryness with nitric acid in order to oxidise the
phosphorus completely, anil was finally dissolved in weak
hydrochloric acid and diluted to 250 ccm. The iron in
25 ccm. was estimated by titration in sulphuric acid solu-
tion with permanganate of potash, and the phosphorus in
25 ccm. as Mg.:P20-, with intermediate precipitation with
ammonium- nitro-molybdate, and in certain cases directly
as ammonium phospho-molybdate.
2. This method was as follows : — («.) The finely-
powdered slag was heated with excess of a neutral solution
of copper sulphate in a sealed tube to about 170" for 4
to 5 hours. A considerable quantity of metallic copper
was precipitated with some phosphide of copper, while
some iron, phosphorus, and silicon went into solution :
when the tube was opened there was no pressure. The
contents were washed out and treated with sufficient nitric
acid to dissolve the copper, and the residue was filtered
oil' ; the filtrate was then evaporated to dryness with hydro-
chloric acid and silica estimated. The copper in the
filtrate was precipitated with hydrogen sulphide, and the
filtrate from this added *o the similar filtrate in the second
part of this method. (/<.) The residue from (a) was fused
with about five times its weight of fusion mixture at a
bright red heat for one hour in a platinum crucible, and
when eold the contents were dissolved in dilute hydro-
chloric acid and evaporated to dryness, and siliea estimated
as usual. The filtrate was then mixed with the filtrate
from (a) made up to 250 ccm., and the analysis was continued
;is in the first method.
The mean results obtained were as under : —
—
Sample
No. 1-
Sample
No. 2.
Calculated
tor
I'VJ'.M
Sample
No. :).
Calculated
i,ii'
l'Y.l'Si.
Fe
1'
70'55
[I'M
L7-90
i;t
68-75
10-84
trio
1-31
?2-02
8-97
1VIPII
14-03
10-31
1-87
74-01
13-63
' > and l"ss ....
This slag may be a definite compound containing a
small amount of impurity. The analyses of Nos. 1 ami 2
agrees fairlj well with the formula, l'e,rsi_„ and that
of Xo. .3 with Kcd'Si. Or it may he a mixture of silicide
and phosphide of iron in varying proportions. As it
is not crystalline, the Ie.s1 view is perhaps the correct
one ; yet silicide of iron is easily attacked by acids,
ami this compound is not, and its power of resistance
may he due to the existence of some definite compound.
The specific heat was determined and found to be 0-146,
being very close to that calculated for a mixture of its
constituents, viz.. 0-142, the specific heat of iron bring
taken as 0-114, that of phosphorus as 0-174, ami silicon
as 0-173 (Eegnault). The specific gravity was found to
In 5-965. The substance is a conductor of electricity.
—J. 0. ( !.
The Pit partition and Estimation of Pure Platinum.
F. Mylius and F. Foerster. Ber. 25, 1892, G65-686.
See under X., page 690.
Bromide of Potassium. H. Helbing and F. W. Passmore.
Helbing's Pharm. Record, 7, 1892.
See under XX., page 705.
Some Separations 6y Electrolysis. E. F. Smith and
II. h. Wallace. Her. 25', 1892, 775-7SJ.
See under XI., page 696.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
Testing of ( Itlorofurni.
C. Traub.
1892,192.
Zeits. f. ang. Chem.
Chloroform prepared from chloride of lime contains
ethylideue chloride and other impurities, which give coloured
products with sulphuric acid. By treating chloroform with
sulphuric acid and other reagents, a chloroform can be
obtained which in all respects is equal to Pictet's, refined by
freezing. The sulphuric acid test for chloroform may be
made more delicate by mixing equal volumes of the two
and keeping the mixture, which must be repeatedly shaken
in the dark for from six to eight days. No discolouration
ought to be noticeable. Chloroform and acid are then
separated and the chloroform dissolved in the acid is left to
evaporate at ordinary temperatures. The acid is diluted
with five parts of water, and 1 cc. of a decinormal solution
of nitrate of silver added. No alteration ought to take
place. Onlv a very pure product will bear this test.
— c. o. w.
Testing of Boiled Linseed Oil. W. Fahrion.
ang. Chcm. 1892, 171.
See under XII., page 696.
Zeits. f.
PATENT.
A Mel had of Analysing Alcohols and other Liquids or
Liquefiable Bodies and Apparatus therefor. F. de Pass,
London. From F. Gossart, Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
14,697, August 31, 1891.
Tins method, intended more especially for the detection of
impurities iu commercial spirits, is based on the following
principle: — A drop of a pure liquid when allowed to fall on
the edge of the meniscus surface of another liquid will
31,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
713
assume for a short time- the spheroidal state, if the supporting
fluid contain as impurity n portion of the same liquid as
that constituting the rolling drop. In practice, in order to
make (lie duration of the spheroidal state as long as possible,
some substance conferring viscosity, such as citric acid, may
be added to the reagent and the liquid under examination,
and the meniscus surface of the latter is exaggerated by
placing it in a vessel of suitable shape, such as a narrow cell
tapering acutely at each end. Or a tank divided into several
compartments by means of partitions gradually decreasing
in height may he used, one side of each partition being
painted with some substance which repels liquids, so that
the meniscuscs bordering the liquid steps may be alternately
concave and convex. The reagents employed are — amylic,
butylic, and propylic alcohols, wood spirit, aldehyde, acetone,
acetic ether, &c. Small pipettes, the points of which are
held about 2 — 3 mm. above the edge of the meniscus, are
used to deliver drops of the above reagents. The drops
which roll over the meniscus of the liquid being tested,
indicate the procure, whilst those which do not roll, indicate
i lie absence of the respective impurities. It is stated that
the presence of one twentieth of a given impurity ma\ be
directly detected; whilst smaller proportions may he found
l'\ careful fractional distillation of the spirit, the " first
runnings " and " tailings " being tested separately. — II. T. P.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Contributions to the Chemistry of Brown-Coal 'I'm.
V. lleuslcr. Ber. 25, l>s'-'2, 1G65.
See under III., page 671.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
I'se of Nilrnso-H-Naphthol in Quantitative Analysis.
M. Schleier, Clam. Zeit. 16, 1H92, 420—421.
Separation of Iron and Beryllium. — Solution of beryllium
sulphate gives, even on standing, no precipitate with nitroso-
fi-nuphthol, whereas iron is quantitatively precipitated by
ili. reagent in question. The method of separation advised
is as follows: — The solution of sulphate or chlorides of
beryllium and iron are evaporated to small bulk and then
ammonia is added until permanganate turbidity is formed ;
this turbitj is just dissolved by a slight addition of hydro-
chloric acid, after which about unequal volume of 50 per
cent, acetic acid is added to the cold solution ; precipitation
with a solution of nitroso-jS-naphtbol in 50 per cent, acetic
acid follows. Filtration may be performed after about
■1 — 5 hours. The beryllium is precipitated in the filtrate
by means of ammonia after evaporation for the purpose of
getting rid of the acetic acid. — T. I.. 11.
Soloent Action of Liquid Organic Compounds. A. Etard.
Compt. Rend. 114, 1892, 112—115.
FOB his purpose the author selects mercuric and cupric
chlorides. The solubility of mercuric chloride in water up
to 120 ('. is represented by a curved line, the temperatures
corresponding to abscissa: and the percentages of salt
dissolved to ordinates ; whilst from 120° up to 150 , at
which temperature dissociation begins, the curve becomes
a straight line. The curve of solubility of mercuric chloride
in methyl alcohol is exactly similar to the water curve, only
the first portion is given between the temperatures — 35
and + :;s , at which latter point the break takes place.
In the case of ethyl alcohol a diagram shows two curved
lines between — 50J and + GU': (the break occurring at
about — 5 ) and then a straight line follows. As we pass
highei in the series of alcohols, however, the distinctions
of the various curves disappear, and so almost straight
lines are obtained in the case of propyl-, butyl-, and amy!
alcohols, and such is the case for ether, acetone, acetic
acid, with acetic and formic ethers. The author suggests
this as a means of studying the influence of homology ami
isomerism.
Solubility of cupric chloride in the liquids named is
represented by straight lines, and in many eases the amount
of salt entering into solution decreases as the temperature
increases; this happens with ally] alcohol, acetone, ethyl
formate, and ethyl acetate. — T. L. li.
The Action of Metals on Salts dissolved in Organic
Liquids. U. Varet. Compt. Rend. 114, 1892,224—225.
l.\- studying the red liquids which are produced when
aluminium chloride acts on benzene in preseuce of hydro-
chloric acid gas, Friedel found that they were no longer
formed when care was taken to exclude all traces of water.
Following up this observation the author has investigated
with the following results the action of certain metals on
salts dissolved in water and in various organic liquids : —
I. Action of Aluminium on ( 'yuiudc of Mercury dissolvi d
in II ater. — The mercury is displaced by aluminium with
formation of cyanide of aluminium, which is decomposed by
the water into alumina and hydrocyanic acid; at the same
time an amalgam of aluminium is produced which rests upou
the water with formation of alumina and hydrogen. The
reactions may be expressed by the equations —
3HgCy; + 2 Al, = Al2CyG + Hg3Al2
ALCyc + Hg;tAl2 + 6 H20 = 2 Al,U:i + 6 HCy + 3 Ilg + 3 Ik,
II. Action of Aluminium, on Cyanide of Mercury dissolved
in Amnion iacal {Absolute) Alcohol. — An excess of alumi-
nium (in small pieces) was added to the solution, which was
then put aside in a cool place protected from all traces of
moisture. When the reaction had finished the solution was
filtered (moisture being all the while carefully excluded),
and then concentrated over potash and quicklime. After
some days the surface of the liquid becomes covered with a
thick, soft, transparent crystalline layer; this is a double
cyanide of mercury and aluminium combined with alcohol
and ammonia. In this case the substitution of aluminium
for mercury is never complete.
III. Aluminium anil Cyanide of Mercury dissolved in
Pyridine. — If the pyridine is perfectly anhydrous there is
no displacement of mercury by aluminium, hut if a small
quantity of water be added the same reaction occurs as in
an aqueous solution. The reaction ceases as soon as the
water has disappeared.
IV. Nickel and Bichloride of Mercury dissolved in
Water. — Here the most noticeable fact is the formation of
calomel, but there is also a slight replacement of mercury
by nickel. When the reaction is carried out in an cpeu
vessel oxide of nickel is formed, but this does not occur if
the reaction be carried out in a sealed tube with water
previously boiled.
V. Nickel and Bichloride of Mercury dissolved in
Pyridine. — In the cold, no reaction; when heated, there is
displacement of mercury by nickel.
VI. Iron and Bichloride of Mi rcury dissolved in Pyridine.
— Xo reaction either in the cold or when heated. If water
is added there is immediate substitution of iron for mercury ;
calomel is also formed, and the iron is oxidised.
It is thus evident that certain metals which can replace
other- in their salts when dissolved in water, lose their
property when certain organic liquids are substituted for
the water as solvents. — D. E. ,1.
711
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTEY. [Aug. si, 1892.
Craue Import.
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
Xkw Customs Tariff of Ciba.
See Hoard of Trade Journal for August, p. 171 el seq.
Spain.
Regulations affecting Sale of Cotton Seed and
other (Ids.
\ despatch, dated the 16th July, has lict-n received from
8ir II. Druuimond Wolff, Her Majesty's Ambassador at
Madrid, enclosinga copy and a translation of :i law published
in the " Eco de las Aduanas," regulating the sale of cotton
and other oik. The following is a translation of the law
referred to : —
Art. 1. From the date of the publication of this law in all
the Custom houses throughout the Peninsula and colonies
1 '. per 100 of wood tar or petroleum will he mixed with all
cotton or rape-seed oil which may lie imported.
Art:2. Olive oil passing through the Spanish Custom
houses will be examined, and, if found to contain an
admixture of cotton-seed oil or animal fat 1 \ per 100 of
wood tar or petroleum will be mixed with it so as to render
it unfit for food.
Art. 3. Mayors and municipal judges who have cognisance
of the sale of olive oil mixed with any other oil will seize it,
and the judge on conviction will consider the vendors
guilty of contravention o! the second paragraph of Art. 595
ul tiie Penal Code.
Art. 4. The cost of the materials employed in rendering
useless cotton oil or adulterated olive oil shall be chargeable
to the person introducing the merchandise.
Uruguay.
Proposed Remission of Import Duties on Agricultural
Products.
The French Moniteur Ufficiel du Commerce says that in
its sitting of the 8th May last, the Uruguayan Chamber of
Representatives adopted a proposed law. according to which
the following products destined for the use and improvement
of agriculture are to he fr -e of import duty : —
Sulphate of iron, mineral superphosphates and phosphates,
nitrates of soda and potash, sulphates of ammonia and lime,
sulphates, chlorides, carbonates of potash, and guano from
the Pacific.
This project was at once transmitted to the Senate,
togethei with the favourable report of the Finance Coin-
mission.
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
New Industries i\ Brazil.
Two manufactories (says our Consul at Eio Grande do
Sul) are in course of construction in this city, one for the
conversion of the fat produced in the country into soap,
candles, oils, &c., and the other for using up the horns and
of eattle in making combs, brush-backs, knife handles,
&c.
DrUOS AMi (ill Mil Us IX JAPAN.
Yokohama imported 137,5242. wortli of "Western"
medicines and drugs in 1891, and 143,2352. worth in 1890.
Among the chemicals and drugs imported the principal are
bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda, soda ash, paraffin wax,
bichromate of potash, chlorate of potash, carbolic acid,
antifebrin, cocaine, bismuth, iodoform, iodide of potassium.
quinine, &e.
Chemicals are likely to continue in demand. It is true
that trials have been made to manufacture various chemicals
such as bicarbonats of soda, caustic soda, paraffin wax, &c.,
in Japan, but in most of these eases tie cost of pro-
duction has been too great to render the trials successful.
Soda crystals and bleaching powder only can be manu-
factured at a cost which is prohibitive of competition by the
imported articles ; but there are uot many other articles at
present imported in which competition from Japanese
manufacture is likely to be felt — at least, in the near
future.
The importation of chemicals is, for the most part, a
venture of the foreign import merchant, Japanese dealers
preferring to purchase from stock rather than run the risk of
making purchases on contract.
Carbolic acid is now imported mostly in tins or large zinc
bottles, and it is found preferable to import quinine also in
hulk, instead of bottles, owing to the saving effected in
freight.
The greater part of the drugs imported now come from
Germany, The loss of much of this trade to the liritish
manufacturer can undoubtedly he traced to a want of care
in packing, from which loss by breakage results, and to the
fact that his get-up of the goods, in the matter of bottles
and labels used, is neither so good nor so attractive as the
Continental.
Some difficulty has been experienced, occasionally, in
getting medicines passed by the Government analyst, on
the ground that these are not chemically pure, although
perfectly suitable for medicinal use, and such as would be
passed in Europe. It may be hoped that longer experience
may lead to more common-sense views in these matters. —
Ibid.
Chemicals in Mexico.
The industry of chemical products is not yet a large one
in Mexico, considering that products like muriatic acid are
s.i necessary. In the whole of Mexico there are not more
than two factories of chemicals. < Ine kilogramme of native
sulphuric acid sells at 14 cents, and it costs the Mexican
manufacturer not more than 5 to 6 cents. The raw material
is found in great abundance in the vicinity of the volcanoes.
—Ibid.
Production of Mercury in Russia.
The production of mercury in Russia has sensibly
increased during the last decade, particularly in the mines
of Jekaterinoslaw, According to the Revue d'Orient
some new mines were discovered hist year in the Caucasus,
in the district of Daghestan. The production of the
establishment at Jekaterinoslaw amounts to upwards of
3(10,000 kilos, of pure mercury. The working of the mines
costs comparatively hut little, so that the low price of the
metal renders foreign competition impossible, and upwards
of 200,000 kilos, are annually exported from Jekaterinos-
law. The same paper states that a tax of half a rouble per
poud is to he levied on the mercury produced. — Chamber
of Commerce Journal.
Orchilla ix' Lower California.
Orchilla, orchil, or archil (Roeeella tinctoria properly)
was formerly prepared from the lichen Rocellus, which
grows on rocks adjoining the sea in the Canary and Cape
Verde islands, Sardinia, the Minorca Islands, the Levant,
and on the rocks of Sweden. From it is obtained the
archil of commerce, which yields a rich purple tincture,
extremely beautiful. Orchil in Europe is generally sold in
the form of a cake. It was extensively used In dyer- until
1853, when the discovery of orchilla in America and on the
Galapagos Islands created quite a commercial sensation
among the European manufacturers and dealers by its
superiority over any lichen yet in use, giving it quite a
prominent place in the European markets for its delicate
colour, lustre, and tone, especially for silks.
The Galapagos Islands compose a group lying on the
equator 10 or 12 west of Quito and Guayaquil, and belong
to the Republic of Ecuador. The group consists of six
large and seven smaller islands. Albemarle, the larj
ill) miles long and 15 miles broad. The smaller islands
possess t!ic weed.
In 1872 an American captain, John Howard, of a
whaliior ship, well informed of the nature of the orchilla
Uk. a,uiu THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
715
weed from the Galapagos Islands, made a discovery of a
superior quality of the same lichen on the lands bordering
Magdalena Bay, Lower California. Samples were obtained
bj the said captain, and in a short time quite a fleet of
vessels from Guayaquil and San Francisco, having enter-
prising parties on board, landed on the Magdalena Bay
grouuds with the necessary supplies and means for starting
the picking and packing of orchilla for export to the
European markets.
It is evidently known what importance the orchilla trade
assumed at Magdalena May and surroundings tor several
years after its discovery, and how, by shrewd management,
Mr. 1. P. Hale succeeded in dislodging all other claimants
to the orchilla lands (starting from latitude I'll 40' S. to
latitude 28 X.), with very few exceptions, by obtainiug a
Mexican grant or Government contract, which gave him
tlie entire belt of the orchilla lands, six miles broad, on the
Pacific coast side of Lower California, and comprising the
said degrees of latitude.
(iver 1,500 men have been employed in gathering the
moss, and about an equal number also employed in carting,
packing, &c.
The following figures show the cost per ton of 2,000 lb.
ready for shipment, in Mexican coin :
Dols.
:' : g and delivery. 1"50 dol. per cwt 80"00
Hydraulic-press packing 7'0o
Other expenses and shipping 1'50
Export duty 5"00
Total r;
The reproduction of the orchilla growth matures every
two years, when it is ready for repicking, packing, and
export.
Since the Kongo State has become the natural producer
of orchilla that branch of industry in America has become
totally depressed, particularly in Lower California. Europe
finds many advantages in the proximity of the African
orchilla to her markets, and the cost of transportation, &c,
is a great deal lower.
The revival of the orchilla trade in Lower California can
onlj he brought about by the revival of the manufacture
of the dye in the United States. — U.S. Consular Reports.
Okchii.lv in (Mi; Verde.
< Uvhilla, a species of lichen, differs in form from most of
the mosses found growing upon trees and rocks ; it
resembles a miniature shrub more than the usual lichen.
It grows upon large rocks, and is found in the moun-
tainous parts of these islands ; also on the Canaries. It is
plentiful, hut very difficult to obtain, growing as it docs
on 'he locks down the steep sides of the precipices, where
it is shaded from the sun the greater part of the day.
From the best information which I can obtain from those
who have been long in the business of exporting it there is
gathered annually about 120 tons from all these islands,
which goes to Lisbon.
It is gathered by the natives in sacks ami baskets and
sold to the merchants in its dry state at about I cents per
pound. When exported there would have to be added
hall' a cent per pound as export duty and the costs of sacks
to ship it in.
Owing to the indolent habits of the natives, there are
some years when not above 80 or 'JO tons are gathered.
This is when the general harvests arc plentiful. It is only
when unfavourable climatic conditions, resulting in poor
crops, occur that the natives are compelled to work to earn
their corn, beans, and rice — their principal articles of food.
1 have by the mail which takes this report sent to the
Department an average sample of the orchilla grown on
'he island of St. lago (Santiago). — Ibid.
Orchilla in Ecuador.
Orchilla is a dye moss found on the coast of Ecuador,
near Guayaquil, and in the Galapagos Islands. It is not
cultivated, but grows wild, and ran onlj he had in limited
quantities.
'Ihe moss is gathered by hand from the rocks upon
which it cicws. It is spread in the sun to dry and cure,
and is then pressed into bales of about 150 lb. to 200 lb
ready for shipment.
The total export as at present known could not exceed
2,000 quintals per annum, and the present price is from
fi dols. to 6 dols. per quintal in American gold, with an
export duty of 2 -75 dols. per quintal in American gold
additional. That costing o dols. is from the coast, and that
costing 6 dols. from the Galapagos Islands, and is thought
to be of a superior quality.
Pedro A. Moreira, of Manta, Martin Keinberg and Co.
and Noverta, Osa and Co., of Guayaquil, are reliable
commission houses through which arrangements could be
made ; but 1 would recommend that a contract be made
with Jose Monroe, of Guayaquil, who is iu charge of the
Galapagos Islands at present.
The demand for orchilla at present is very light, but on
the first appearance of an increased demand the prices
would most probably be much higher than now, unless
purchasers and manufacturers were protected by contracts.
—Ibid.
Korean Papjsr.
Korean paper is highly esteemed, and always forms part
of royal presents and of the tribute paid to China. Besides
the same uses as with us — for writing anil for books — it fills
a great diversity of needs. It serves as string ami iu the
manufacture of lanterns, fans, umbrellas, shoe soles, hats,
boxes, and makes very good rain coats ; it covers floors and
walls and ceilings, and. stretched on frames, supplies windows
and doors. It is highly prized iu China and Japan, and is
especially sought after for the manufacture of umbrellas.
It is made from a bush of the mulberry order (Itrotts-
sonetia papyrifera), which is indigenous, growing iu many
parts of the Kingdom, but thriving best iu the moist, warm
climate of the south. It is chiefly raised from cuttings for
this especial purpose, and the wild and cultivated plants are
said to be of equal value.
The bark, which alone is used, is generally gathered iu
the spring, and is boiled for a long time in water, iu which a
quantity of wood ashes has been mixed, till it becomes a
pulp, the mass having been beaten during the whole time
of the boiling. Tine bamboo screens are then place 1 in
shallow wooden vats and a ladle full of the pulp is spread
evenly over the screen by a dexterous circular motion of
the hand. The operation is repeated once or twice, or as
often as may be necessary— the more frequent the operation
the finer the paper — and the screen allowed to drain into
the vats till a proper consistency is reached, the drippings
being thus saved. They aie then placed on a hot bang
floor to dry. After the drying has proceeded far enough,
the paper is laid on a hot floor and ironed by band. The
long lines in the paper show strands of the bamboo screens,
and their nearness, distinctness, or absence indicates the
fineness or otherwise of the paper. They are almost im-
perceptible in some grades of paper, while in others they
are distinct and far apart.
Paper is made by the paper guild, a numerous and
prosperous association. The province of Chulla is the chief
seat of manufacture. — Ibid.
Celi.ci.dsk ion Bottle Shells.
An invention which may prove to be of much practical
use to the wine trade lias recently been made by a gentle-
man living in this vicinity, and the sole right of the
manufacture of it sold to a large and enterprising factory
near Mayence, whi h expects to meet with great success in
introducing it. This is simply the conversion of the raw
cellulose as it comes from the machine for the paper
manufacturer into shells for wine bottles in substitution of
straw'.
As is well known to the trade, the straw shell is the
universal cowling and protector of the wine bottle, and
is clumsy, dirty, ill smelling when moist, and prone to
fall to pieces ; and, also, it docs not adhere to the bottle
with a firm grasp, but easily slips off. To avoid all this,
under the new invention sheets of common cellulose are
stamped with fairly deep indentations, oval in shape, about
an inch long aud less than half an inch wide, and about the
same distance from each other. The sheets are then cut
716
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31,1892.
into .-trips of the length of a wine bottle nn<l sufficiently
long to go twice around it. They are then rolled twice
around with the hand, so as to form a double shell, and
fastened together near the top and bottom with a metal
spring. There is thus double protection to the bottle. The
raised surface is outside and the indentation within, and
the protuberances resemble cocoons in shape and size. The
indentations are so made that when the cellulose is rolled
together they do not all set into each other, but generally
upon the flat surface between the indentations. The result
is that great elasticity and power of resistance are given to
the shell when on the bottle, so that it can be thrown upon
the floor on its side without the bottle breaking, and this
resistance will be offered in the case when packed with wine
bottles. It also tits tiehtly and does not lose the bottle in
handling or falling.
To begin with there is, therefore, less breakage. Then
the bottles can be packed more closely together than when
straw is used, 60 bottles going with cellulose where only 50
could be put with straw. This makes a slight saving in
boxes, and consequently, also, another saving in freight by
water. Again, the straw is dusty and dirty in character,
and the capsules and labels on the bottles, when that is
used, have to be protected with tissue paper, which is not
required when cellulose is employed, as that presents a
white, clean surface to the bottle. The cellulose is also
more durable than straw, is compact, and, what is also a
desirable advantage, is a non-conductor of cold and heat ;
so that wine protected by it can be shipped in extreme cold
or hot weather without injury, which can not now be done
with straw.
The cellulose shells cost here about 1-25 dols. per 1,000
more than the straw ones do, but in the end are claimed to
be cheaper, because they are more durable, admit of more
bottles going into a case, are lighter in weight, and, besides,
when worn out with use, will be bought back again by the
factory making them at about 1"25 dols. per 1,000 (which
is the difference in price between cellulose and straw shells),
and worked up again into new shells. — Ibid.
OVER-PRODI OTIOK OI Sic. w:.
In view of the experimental success which the cultivation
of the sugar beet has already attained in various parts of the
United States, and the preparations that are being made to
greatly extend the area of such cultivation hy farmers and
others who are more or less inexperienced in the sugar
industry, it would seem timely and prudent to consider some
facts of recent development which relate more directly to
the commercial aspect of the subject. That the soil and
climate of large areas in our country are well adapted to
the growing of beet sugar has been practically demonstrated
— if, indeed, any such demonstration was necessary in a
country possessing soil so fertile and climate so varied as
those of the United States.
It remains to be proven whether, under the conditions
that now exist, the production of beet sugar on a large scale
can he made permanently profitable in face of the competi-
tion which is so rapidly developing in other countries.
Upon this and several co-ordinate questions opinion in this
country is sharply divided, and it may be of interest to
inquire what suggestion may be fairly derived from the
present condition of beet culture in the principal sugar-
producing countries of Europe.
At present there are two important operations involved in
the cultivation of sugar-beets which require to be performed
by band labour. These are the thinning out of the young
plants in the spring or early summer and the topping of the
mature vegetable in the autumn. The labour requisite for
this purpose is far more costly in the United States than in
France, Germany, or Austria. But, on the other hand,
laud is far cheaper and more fertile in our country than it
is abroad, and American laws secure to the farmer a bounty
of from l| to 2 cents per lb. lor all sugar which he may
produce, whether it be exported or sold for domestic
consumption. Will the advantages thus secured to our
sugar eulturists enable them to permanently maintain the
competition against sugars imported free of duty and which
have been grown on hinds worn by centuries ol cultivation
and requiring constant fertilisation by labour which costs
only from 25 to 50 cents per day? This question has
been already discussed by some of the more thoughtful
economists of France and Germany, and opinion is divided
as to whether, in the issue which must soon be practically
tested, it will be the American or the European sugar-
grower who must go to the wall. The rapidity with which
the issue is approaching will be apparent from the following
comparison, which shows the increase during the past three
years of the area devoted to beet culture iu France,
Germany, and Austria, and which is here quoted on the
authority of the Deutsche Zuckerindustrie, the leading
organ of the trade iu this country : —
Years.
France.
Germany.
Austria.
1888-89
IS'.iii— '.11
Acres.
124,840
G i7.s'',7
183,027
Acres.
691,000
-^ 1, i»;i
Acres.
289,978
188,461
■ 1, 350
If these statistics may be trusted, they reveal an increase
in the area of lands devoted to sugar culture of 43j per
cent, in France, 27 per cent, in German)*, and 174 per cent,
in Austria within a period of three years. This enormous
expansion would doubtless have already precipitated a crisis
in the sugar market but for the influence of two important
facts, viz., the unfavourable season of 1891, which greatly
reduced the yield of beet sugar in proportion to the area of
land under cultivation ; and the abolition of sugar import
duties in tbe United States, which opened a free market
that has for the moment absorbed the surplus from Europe
and prevented the break in prices that would otherwise
have been inevitable.
The question is, therefore, will the cheapness of sugar iu
the United States so stimulate its consumption there as to
consume the surplus that would be grown in Europe during
a fairly productive year in addition to the steadily growing
supply from domestic production ? This is where will come
the rub, for which it is wise to be prepared. It is estimated
that, if the season of 1891 had been fairly productive,
Germany, Fiance, and Austria would have been able to
export 780,000 tons of sugar in addition to their already
enormous export, which far exceeded that of any previous
year, the shipments from the single port of Hamburg having
reached 8,196,000 sacks of refined sugar, against 7,127,000
sacks in 1889, and 4,363,000 sacks in 1888. Careful
examination has shown that only two-fifths of the present
sugar product of Germany is consumed at home, leaving
three-fifths of the whole for export ; and it is not apparent
that the ratio of sugar consumption per capita is higher in
Austria or France than here or that it will lie likely to
increase.
Taken alone these facts would seem to be ominous for the
future of sugar culture iu the United States. But, on the
other hand, there are certain considerations which weigh in
the opposite direction. Beet culture rapidly drains the soil
of several elements that can only be restored by fallowing,
rotation with other crops, and by fertilising with costly
artificial manures. Ground rents and wages are steadily
though slowly advancing in all these countries, notably in
Germany; so that the farmers of Saxony, for example,
already complain that, except in the case of a full crop there
is no longer any important profit in sugar-growing. It is
not probable that the cost of sugar production can ever be
lower in Germany than it is at present, but there is a strong
probability that the bounties now paid by the Government
on domestic sugars exported from this country will be
reduced or wholly abolished. There is a large proportion
of the German people who insist that the sugar industry has
been overstimulated at the expense of other interests, so
that any change that may be made in future will undoubtedly
be in tbe direction of reduced bounties.
From the standpoint ol the American fanner who is about
to engage in the culture of beets to be sold to a neighbouring
sugar factory, there is also the consolation that beet-raising,
unlike wine or fruit growing, dues not involve (be planting
lug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
717
of vinos or trees which must be tended for years before they
bei ie productive. If, upon trial, beet culture does uot
prove remunerative, it can be promptly abandoned and the
land devoted toother crops. The principal risk would seem
to be on the part of the firms and individuals who are erecting
extensive plants for the manufacture of sugar from beets in
tin' United States, for which they guarantee to pay a fixed
price during a prescribed period, and it is to these that the
logic of the present situation is especially important. — Ibid.
Chemical Industky in Germany.
In his annual report on the trade and commerce of the
district of Frankfort on-the-Main, Mr. C. Oppenheimer, Her
Majesty's Consul-General at that town, supplies the follow-
ing particulars respecting the position of the chemical
industry in Germany, which is an important branch of the
export trade of that country : —
The following statement gives a general idea of the
export of the most prominent chemicals and drugs in
1891 :—
Essential oils, 2,546 met. centners: gelatin, 4,535 ; glue,
"■7,717 ; explosives, 19,404; soda, calcined, 353,303;
potassium, 1 10,934 ; alkaloids, 584 ; quinine, 1,869 ; chloride
cil potassium, 709,962: iodide of potassium, 977 ; sulphate
of potash, 301,888 : mineral waters, 335,63- ; salicylic acid,
2,170; saltpetre, 90,029 ; hydrochloric acid, 103,123;
gunpowder, 37,834 ; tartaric acid, 7,769.
An increase in exports is to be noted in the preceding
statement fur calcined soda, gelatin, glue, quinine, chloride
of potassium, sulphate of potash, muriatic acid, a small
improvement in potassium. However, a retrogressive
movement is to be observed in essential oils, explosives,
iodide of potassium, mineral waters, salicylic acid, saltpetre,
gunpowder, and tartaric acid.
The following statement gives the more important figures
in the export of another branch of the chemical industry,
dyes, colours, &c, viz. : —
Lead and coloured pencils, 9,464 met. centuers ; varnish
and lac varnish, 5,597 ; oil and water-colour paints, 13,538 ;
ultramarine, 44,040; alizarine, 81,685; aniline, 44,031;
aniline and other coal-tar products, 86,818 ; white lead,
117,538; zinc white and grey coloured zinc, 104,000.
The export in coal-tar products, aniline, alizarine, colours
and dyes, and zinc white, have increased: others, e.g.,
ultramarine, have decreased, The opinion formed of the
trade in general of the chemical industry for this year will
nut be an unfavourable one. Germany's chemical industry
takes a high place, and its products arc forwarded to almost
all countries of the world. The reason for this extension is
to be found in the high theoretical talents of the German
people and the excellent schools, which, year by year,
furnish a body of educated chemists to advance the trade of
the country.
( Inc branch of the chemical industry is worthy of special
attention, namely, the potassic salts. This industry has
formed a syndicate which publishes accounts every year,
ami thus facilitates inspection of the course of business.
( M chloride of potassium (SO per cent.) was sold in
1891, 1,341,039 met. centuers; 1S90, 1,265,526; 1889,
1,237,482.
The total amount of sales in muriate of potassium (90
per cent.) were, 1891, 179,804 met. centners ; 1890, 129,471 ;
1889, 62,213.
The total sales of calcined muriate of magnesia (48 per
cent.) were, 1891, 113,998 met. centners ; 1890, 108,302;
1889, 92,14s.
The total sales of potassic manure salts were, 1891,
30,779 met. centners ; 1890, 18,331; 1889,22,381.
Of kicserite the total sales were, 1891, 285,591 met.
centners; 1890,320,048; 1889,318,239.
i If which Great Britain alone received, 1891, 251,454 met.
centners; 1890,281,938; 1889,253,172.
The syndicate of the potash works (a sort of combination
whose occupation is restricted to the sales in common of the
products nl all the works concerned) with reference to this
makes the following remarks, which will be interesting to
those engaged in agriculture: —
"It maybe seen from the above figures that the total
sales have considerably increased from year to year. A
continuous increase in the consumption of the products is,
however, only to be noticed in those countries in which
among the great masses of the population the fact has
gained a firm hold (proved by scientific researches), that
without a suitable manuring of the soil with potassi: salts
no lucrative harvests can be obtained. In this respect the
sales of kainite in Germany and of concentrated potassic
salts to France and the United States of America arc
noticeable. Italy and Scandinavia have also for years
shown therasel pes to be good markets for potassic manure
salts. In those countries, where the sails are mainly used
for technical purposes, the consumption is always influenced
by i combination of different circumstances, to which the
articles manufactured from potassic salts are subjected, and
for this reason the sale to those markets fluctuates at times
considerably."
The percentage in which foreign countries participate
according to the preceding statistics is noticeable. Several
products, e.g., kieserite, are almost exclusively manufactured
in Germany for foreign countries. This fact also explains
win Germany's chemical industry, so highly developed, is
favourable to free trade. The chemical industry of Germany
in many articles is sufficiently strong to disregard the
Customs barriers raised by other countries.
The export in chemicals to Great Britain, especially in
1891, is given in the following statement : —
Lead and coloured pencils, 2,487 met. centners ; oil and
water-colour paints, 2,040; ultramarine, 19,305; caustic
sola, 3,258; alum, 33,13"; glue, 8,881; explosives, 6,045 ;
soda, calcined, 21,464; soda, crude, 10,947; alizarine,
27,991; aniline and coal-tar products, 18,194 ; white lead,
76,883 ; chloride of potassium, 129,420 ; chloride of
magnesium, 78,608 ; sulphate of potash, 46,245 ; mineral
waters, 40,147 ; saltpetre, 48,087 ; tartaric acid, 2,633 ;
zinc white and zinc grey, 21,910.
The chief articles of Germany's chemical imports from
Great Britain are as follows, the figures referring to 1891 : —
Varnishes, 3,602 met. centners ; chloride of lime, 28,451 ;
carbonate of ammonia, 12,522; sulphate, 193,840; anthra-
cene, 51,956; catechu, 12,264; cinchona bark, 19,520;
chromate of potassium, 15,294: glycerin, crude, 20,044;
india-rubber, 6,942 ; indigo, 3,560 ; carbolic acid, 14,100. —
(No. 1082, Foreign Office Annua! Series.)
The Sicilian Sulphur Industry,
The United States Consul at Palermo, in a recent report
to the authorities at Washington; supplies the following
particu'ars respecting the position of sulphur mining in
Sicily. Additional information on this subject is given
at pp. 530 — 1 of the Board of Trade Journal for May
1892.
The Sicilian sulphur industry has lately passed through
a crisis that, on the one hand, was most serious in its
effects, and, on the other, might be considered really
beneficial in its results, notwithstanding the fact that many
operators have lost heavily on account of over-production,
expensive systems of mining, and a general decline in
prices. 'This was partially due to the fact that so many
had embarked in sulphur milling to the neglect of all other
industries, partially to the expensive system of mining with-
out mechanical appliances by which the miners ascended
circuitous steps from the bottoms of pits 300 to 500 feet
deep, carrying the ore to the surface in hags on their
shoulders, and partially to the excess of supply over the
demand. As a result of all which there was such a
decline ill prices that mines were either operated at a loss
or closed. .Many abandoned their mines, and the produc-
tion would have shown greater decrease had not many
owners and lessees set fire to their mines, extracting melted
sulphur, in order to reduce expenses, regardless of waste
and damage to their property.
A result of the crisis which might be considered really a
benefit consisted in forcing Sicilian sulphur-miners to
supplant the old system with more modern means. In
the second half of' 1890 [.rices began to experience an
unexpected and brisk rise, the industry to show more
718
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Aug. 31, 1892.
activity, and naturally the first consideration in view of
Former experiences was the means of operating at less
expense, resulting in numerous instances in the adopt I
steam power and mining machinery, strange as it maj seem,
hitherto unused.
Sicilian ignorance of modern inventions was shown in
the case of a large mine at Lercara, in the centre of the
island, wherein the lessees agreed, by the usual form of
indenture, among other things, to put in, at their own
expense, a means of bringing the ore to the surface; buf
the lessees— an enterprising American and an Englishman-
instead of a"scala"(the steps above mentioned), opened
a shaft and installed mining machinery at an expense of
several thousand dollars, enabling them to produce several
times the quantity per day that would be possible by m< ans
of a seala, and, although the lessor receiveda royalty per ton
,m the production, his prejudices against an innovation of
machinery were so strong that, contrary to his own interests,
he claimed the terms of the contract violated by the failure
to establish a scala, found a court concurring in this
antiquated \ iew, ousted the lessees, removed their machinery,
and, after nearly two years' litigation, they have just obtained
possession of their property by virtue of a judgment of a
higher court.
Since the latter part of 1890 prices have maintained a
stead} and apparently healthy rise, sulphur now com-
manding an average of 25 dollars per ton at the mines,
stimulating an increasing activity throughout the sulphur
districts. And yet this chief branch of Sicilian industries
is not exempt from tears ami dangers. It is not over-
production alone that causes alarm; there is also the
danger of losing their American market through the strong
competition of sulphur pyrites. This has been found so
advantageous that most of the sulphur used in England is
produced from pyrites, and it is viewed here a- the gravest
aspect of the industry.
The export of sulphur is confined to the ports of Palermo,
Girgenti, Licata, and Catania. The amounts exported
from the ports named during the five years ended
December 31st, 1891, were as follows:— 1887, 4,046,927
cantars (cantar = about 981b.); 1888,4,521,075 cantars ;
L889, 4,568,860 cantars; 1890, 4,471,781 cantars: and
1891, 3,80!f,536 cantars.
'The exports to the United Stales were largely in excess
of those to any other country, constituting a large pro-
portion of the commerce between Sicily and the United
States.
GENERAL Tit AVE NOTES.
Production of Salts at Stassfurt.
According to the report of the Stassfurt Potassium
Syndicate the total production in metrical tons of the
various products during the past half-year is given below.
The corresponding figures for 1891 are also giveu :—
Kainite and sylvine.
Carnallite
liieserite
Potassium ch
,, ■ llan 'ous
Jan. to June
1S02.
Jan. to June
1891.
.-.Mm
2,500
10,200
2,400
:;u.:i!!ii
B,200
2,000
300
300
During July the imports of alkali from Great Britain
amounted to 10,795 cwt. a- against 7,s71 cwt. in July 1891.
— Ivdusto'ies.
A Rjv m to Stasspurt.
According to the German press potash deposits equalling
the linioiis Stassfurt mines in richness and extent have
been discovered in the Wipper Valley, near Sondershausen,
in the German Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
by a mining engineer from Dortmund. The Government
of the Principality have submitted to the local Legislative
Assrmlih a draft contract with the discoverer of the
deposits in which the latter, under penalty of afine of 3,000,000
marks, undertakes to form a company (the necessary capital
of which is estimated at 8,000,000 marks) to work the
deposits. The Principality will take shares to the amount
of 2,000,000 marks in the company, and will receive a
royalty of 15 per cent, on the net profits for the sole rights
of working to be granted to the discoverer. — Chemist and
Druggist.
Transvaal Quicksilver.
A rich quicksilver mine (says South Africa) is said
to have been discovered in the district of Wntctbcrg
(Transvaal), near Zebedela's station. Samples of cinnabar
ore and pure quicksilver metal from this mine are reported
to be at Johannesburg. — Ibid.
Patents in Canada.
Manufacturers and inventors can now take their patents
iu the Dominion for eighteen years instead of for fifteen
years as hitherto, whilst the patents for the intermediate
periods of five and ten years will now be for six and twelve
years respectively ; another advantageous alteration is that
no samples or models will be required for the issue of a
patent, though power is reserved to the officials to require
them if needed. — J. H.
Ceylon as a Source of Lndia-Rubber Supply.
At the London Chamber of Commerce on Monday last,
Mr. J. Ferguson, the corresponding secretary to the Colonial
and Imperial Institutes in Ceylon, gave an address on
• Tropical Agriculture iu that Colony." Dealing with the
india-rubber plant, he thought there was much encourage-
ment for the Ceylon planter to take up this product, for
which he understood there was a large and growing demand
at remunerative prices, especially as the prospects of the
supply from South America, Africa, and the East (nearly
all forest trees) was gradually falling off, or at any rate was
below the requirements of manufacturers. If it was true, as
lie had learned, that one province of Para in Brazil had
developed an export equal to 1 7,000 tons per annum in a
favourable year, and worth 300/. a ton, or 5,000,000/., all
the rubber being got from systematic tapping of the trees,
there ought certainly to be room in Ceylon for extensive
planting experiments with a view to the supply of the
future. In Ceylon no little attention had been given to the
cultivation of caoutchouc, or india-rubber, trees over a dozen
years ago, when they had been hard pressed for products to
take the place of coffee; and for some years great hopes
were expressed that the industry would become a profitable
and permanent one. Sample parcels of Ceylon Ccara rubber
harvested from trees 8 to 10 years old sold as high as Is.
per pound ; but the great rush into tea, and the greater ease
with which returns could be got from that product, together
with the long time required by rubber trees to mature, and
the greater expense in tapping and harvesting, discouraged
further planting, and he could not speak of more than I jti
acres in all Ceylon as now being cultivated with rubber
plants, although of late years Dr. Trimer had been able to
report very favourably on experiments under his direction
in the Botanical Gardens, and attempts were now being
made by the Ceylon Forests Department to grow the tree iu
jungle clearings. The gardens had also sent plants ami seeds
to North Borneo and Last Africa. Iu Colombo they had
endeavoured to briug all the information about rubber into
a Planters' Manual, and there could be little doubt that if
the Ceylon garden aud forest experiments went on well
during the next few years, planters would once more take up
the industry. — Electrician.
Gor.n Production in South Afrii \.
The gold production of the Hand, South Africa, has at
last passeil the century mark SO long hoped for, the
production of this wonderful district for June being
103,252 oz., and it is estimated that it will by no means stop
here. The month of greatest output for every year since
log. 31,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
719
issn ha- liurn December, the figures being'40,404 <>/.. for
I ember 1889, 50,352 for December 1890, arid 80,321 for
December 1891. The monthly output for 1892 has been:
January, 84,650; February, 86,649 ; March, 93,244; April,
95,562; May, 99,436, and June, 103,252, a total of
562,703 oz. The output for the corresponding six months
of each year since 1888 has been : 1888, 89,320 oz. ; 1889,
178,567 oz.; 1890,224,589 oz. ; 1891, 328,124 oz.— Engi-
neering and Mining Journal.
Tin Mines in the United States.
The till mining industry of tliis country, states the
Engineering and Minimi Journal^ is not in a flourishing
condition ; in fact, if is very unsatisfactory.
The II;nn,\ Peak Mining, Milling, and Manufacturing
Company's mines in South Dakota have been opened to a
considerable depth al a great number of places, and a very
large amount of money has been expended in this develop-
ment work, and more recently in building a fine mill, yet,
according to our information, the supply of ore does not
justify the starting of the mill. Moreover, the local papers
are outspoken in denouncing the expenditures for property,
ig, with much corroborative evidence, that there lias
been gross dishonesty in this department of the company's
business.
It seems pretty well established that at the present time
no paying tin mines have been opened in South Dakota,
though magnificent specimens and "promising" veins
have lieen found in many places. Unfortunately the mines,
like the companies, are better at "promising" than
■• performing."
In California the Temescal mines of ihe San Jacinto
estate, also an English corporation, have greatly disappointed
the investors and the experts who mads such glowing
reports on the property a few years ago. There the coin
pany injudiciously expended a very large amount of money
it. a worthless dam and in a mill, without ascertaining that
the mine could supply it with paying ore. At present there
are practically no reserves of paying ore in the mine. The
output of tin which, up to a few mouths ago, had amounted
to 120,00(1 lb., will probably not exceed 300,000 lb. this
year. The ore in the reserves, it is said, runs only 3 to
•1 ', per cent, of black oxide, instead of the 12 to 20 per cent,
so confidently set forth in the prospectus of the company
two years ago.
It is yet perhaps too early to say that this property does
nut contain paying veins, but it is certain that there is
nothing yet in sight which would pay, the quantity being
wholly insufficient to supply an economical plant, and too
poor to work on a small scale.
The company owns a large estate and has many chances
yet for redeeming the past, but if our advices are to be
relied on, a pretty thorough change in the administration
will take place before dividends come in sight.
In Virginia, the Boston Tin .Mining Company, operating
the Cash Mine, in Rockbridge County, have built a large
(75,000 dols.) plant and have developed the property to
the depth of 60 ft., and a length of some 200 ft., exposing
a vein about 7 ft. wide of ore that is said to average 3 per
cent, of tin. Unfortunately, the title to this property is so
defective that it is at present impossible! to say when or how
it can be perfected. The vein is here said by experts to be
extremely " promising," and the reserves already large for
the amount of work done. Until the title is made clear, it
is, however, unlikely that this mine will become a producer
of any importance,
From all this it is evident that our tin mines have thus
far been disappointing. We do not, however, abandon hope-
that this industry will some dayhecomo important. Except
in South Dakota the amount of development work done has
been too little to condemn the properties, and even there it
is possible that permanent deposits of ore of paying quality
may he proved, as we sincerely hope they will be, Had
the work of development pneceded the sale to the English
company, and had the whole enterprise not been floated
u ith -ci many and gross mis-statements, its failure up. to the
present time to have become self-sustaining would not have
attracted RO much attention or criticism.
The manufacture of tin plates in this country b
been disappointing, though there is no reason whatever
why this industry should not grow to very important
proportions, even though the tin mine- should defer for
year- the fulfilment of their promise.
The Cholera v\i> Carbolic Acid.
Once again the cholera epidemic is overlapping the
bounds of its Central Asian home, and, spreading ruin
throughout Russia, threatens to invade Western Europe.
Among the famine-stricken Russian peasantry, the disease
funis a congenial breeding-ground, and the panic-stricken
efforts of Russian officialdom to cope with its progress are
totally ineffective. By any well-organised Government the
extreme probability of an invasion of the epidemic, always
latent in the countries beyond the Caspian, into the Russian
provinces, already decimated by the recent famine, would
have been foreseen, and precautionary measures organised.
Not so, however, in Russia. Now that the scourge is
already within its gates, disinfectants, it is true, are hurried
forward from Germany and England by trainfulls and
shiploads ; but it is quite possible that they will be too
late to stamp out the disease, or even to arrest its progress.
1 1 is almost incredible that, with the cholera raging in its
midst, the Russian Government should permit the annual
fair at Nijni-Novgorod to be held as if nothing abnormal
had happened, yet such, it appears, is the case. To this
fair, which will shortly open, traders from all parts of
Central and Northern Asia and of Eastern Europe repair,
and it is thence that large quantities of many Asiatic
products, including a goodly quantity of drugs, find their
way to the markets of the West. The annual turnover at
this fair represents a value of about 20,000,000/., and this
fact, no doubt, accounts for the decision cf the Government
to let it take its course, although exceptional sanitary
measures are to be taken in respect to the disinfection of
the city and its visitors.
Carbolic acid appears to be the chief, if not the only,
disinfectant resorted to by the Russian officials. The
Medical Department of State has ordered immense quanti-
ties of the acid from abroad, to be distributed at cost price
to the local authorities, and it is said that one iirm in
Berlin received a telegraphic inquiry whether 200 tons of
carbolic acid could lie despatched at once to the suffering
districts.
The first Russian orders for carbolic acid appear to have
been placed in Germany, but as that country does not
mauufacture enough for its own requirements, almost the
whole of the increased demand will have to be supplied by
makers in Great Britain.
It is, therefore, the English market which has been chiefly
affected by the sudden demand, and which is likely to profit
most by it. To our manufacturers and dealers the reanima-
tion of the carbolic acid market lias been a most welcome,
interruption of the unusual stagnancy of trade. The
principal run has been upon the various qualities of liquid
acid, and in this class of carbolic the rise has been very
rapid, parcels which, six weeks ago, were beiug hawked
about in vain for Sid per gallon readily realising Is. id.
per gallon last week. Crystal- have not advanced in quite
the same proportion as liquid acid, but they also show a
decidedly higher value, -I'.d. per lb. having been paid
already for 34'— 35°, while for 39'— 40°, ojrf. per lb. has
been conceded, and manufacturers are unwilling to sell
anything more of this kind below 5|(t. per lb.
The weak point in the position of the article is that the
demand is limited to the summer months, anil that no one
believes that the figures now quoted can be maintained
beyond the end of September. Before the present seal
in, carbolic acid of all descriptions had fallen to prices lower
than had ever before been recorded, and several maker- had
ceased manufacturing. But they all have their plant
ready to start again as soon as there is a prospect of better
times, and the higher the present rise in prices, the sooner,
therefore, will over-production set in again. 'Ihe synthetic
carbolic acid which was placed upon the market by a
German firm of aniline-dye manufacturers a few years ago,
and looked upon for awhile as likely to become a serious
720
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[.Aug. 31 lssa.
competitor to the coal-tar acid, has receded into obscurity,
and not much is heard of it now in commercial circles. It
was good, hut much too dear. It is still possible, however,
that it might make its reappearance under more favourable
market conditions, and prevent the coal-tar product from
rising beyond a certain point.
Although the superiority of carbolic acid as a disinfectant
lias frequently been challenged, there is no doubt that it
continues to hold the first place in popular favour, and no
oilier disinfectant is so liable to sudden demand and rise in
value. Within the last 15 years there have been, at intervals,
regular runs upon it during the summer months. Its price
lias been seriously affected in turns by yellow-fever
epidemics in America, and by cholera epidemics iD Japan,
the East, Spain, and Russia. When any sudden demand
sets in during the summer (which is also the season when
the output is the smallest), it is no unusual thing to witness
an advance in price of 50 or 100 per cent, within a couple
of weeks: but it happens very rarely that this increase is
prolonged beyond the autumn. In 1879 there was a sudden
and somewhat sustained rise, as a result of an unusual
demand from America and the far East. In 1884 the
occurrence of cholera in the south of France, and in 1885
the fear of a renewed outbreak, caused prices to double
within a few weeks. In 1886 there was a fresh recovery in
price, which continued slowly until the spring of 1887, when
carbolic bad reached three times the value of its lowest
point. Then came a good time for the manufacturers.
The French Government set about to manufacture melinite.
One of the principal ingredients of that explc sive was picric
acid, about two-thirds of which is carbolic acid, and the
quantity of carbolic thus consumed was enormous. We
cannot give reliable statistics to show even the approximate
quantity of carbolic acid consumed in the manufacture of
melinite, but some idea of it may be formed by the figures
showing the increase'1 imports of carbolic acid into Germany
when tlie Herman Government followed the French in using
the drug as an ingredient in the manufacture of its war-
material. Previous to 188S Germany imported from 800 to
1 000 tons of carbolic per year, in 1888 she took 1,200 tons,
in 1889, 2,400 tons, and in 1890, 1,900 tons — the excess being
all used, it is believed, in the manufacture of explosives.
.Since 18'JO the continental demand has been decreasing
rapidly, and the English makers, no longer able to dispose
of their output abroad, have gradually been compelled to
thrown their surplus stock upon the home market. It is
estimated that the total quantity of coal-tar converted into
various commercial products is about 820,000 tons per
annum, of which over 600,000 tons fall to the share of this
country, while France produces nearly one-half of the
residue. Assuming that the production of carbolic acid is
about one-twentieth part of the weight of the coal-tar
converted, its total output in Europe would be about 11,000
tons a year, of which mors than 30,000 tons ale produced
in this country. — Chemist and Druggist.
American Potash.
This was formerly an article of much importance, and was
exported from the country in large amounts. The New
England State* were at first the principal producers of
potash, Boston, where it is now of no consequence, once
being the great export market. With the destruction of
the forests the source of supply receded from the East,
progressing into the West, where until a comparatively
recent period more or less was manufactured, but at present
only a few stray casks drift into the hands of wholesale
druggists or commission merchants. However, contrary to
general opinion, the manufacture of potash is still carried
on in sonic parts of the North-west on a considerable scale.
In the neighbourhood of the forest of Northern Michigan,
and in portions of the provinces of Canada, this substance
is still systematically manufactured the year through. By
" potash " is meant a substance containing 80 tu 95 per
cent, of carl ate and hydrate of potash, the balanci
made up of sulphate of potash, chlorides of sodium and
potas-ium, and insoluble matter. About 70 per cent. Roll
I* the standard which it is possible to obtain, but Mr. Lloyd
found the avciace ol man] Casks of first sort- came out at
5S'4per cent., and dealers would not guarantee more than
60 per cent., as they had not control of the " salting " which
is practised by makers. However, a strong protest improved
matters during the last 12 months. A total of 504. 13S lb.
averaged ?3'5 per cent. KOH, three car-loads averaging
over 75 per cent. KOH, while one car-load averaged over
80 per cent. This is evidence that a standard of 70 per
cent. KOH is attainable. For generations . it has been
customary to add more or less salt to the contents of the
potash-kettle just before it is " melted down," and sometimes
lime is also added. This not only increases the yield and
help* to make it cake, but it improves its appearance.
Good potash is generally opaque, of a dull grey, slate, or
bluish colour, often streaked with red or greenish stains.
It deliquesces on exposure to the air, and becomes slowly
pasty. It is mostly (unless much lime is present) soluble
in water. Sometimes it presents a whitish appearance in
the centre of the cake, and occasionally is honeycombed.
This description will generally average 70 per cent, ami
upwards KOH. That which is largely mixed with salt is
usually crystalline, often nearly white, pearly, and trans-
lucent, or a a beautiful delicate pink, and seems to be
the most highly valued by those who judge only from
appearances. — Ibid.
SuGAR'QltOWINQ in Queensland.
The Sydney Mail for June 4th has the following
notice : —
The extension of the Polynesian labour in Queensland has
so far invigorated the sugar-growing industry of that colony
that large areas of virgin soil are likely to be cleared and
placed under cane. There is being seriously considered a
proposal to erect, at a cost oi 100,000/., four central mills in
the Bundaberg district. It is shown that there is at present
in the banks of the district more than this sum. the savings
of farmers who have small blocks of rich land. The interest
at present obtained lor this money is I1, per cent. The
supporters of the four mills in question say that the venture
will pay at least In per cent on capital invested, and, more
than this, that the mills will make laud much more valuable
than it is at present.
Gum Acacia in Java.
Dr. dc Vrij, the Dutch pharmacist, calls attention to the
fact that the Acacia dealbata, a native of Australia, from
the stem of which exudes an excellently soluble cum, crows
in profusion in the Java mountains, and states that some
35 years ago he was in the habit of using this gum regularly
for pharmaceutical purposes. It might be worth while to
collect and export it.
Paoehs of Interest ro Technologists and others.
The following articles in the Board of Trade Journal
for August will repay perusal: —
" Cinchona and Indigo Cultivation in India " . . p. 154
" Mining Development in Peru " p. 156
" Production and Export of Copper in Japan' p. 207
" Mining in British Columbia" p. 215
The United States Consular Reports for June contain the
following : —
•' Bohemian Mirror and Plate Class " p. 249
'■ Plate Glass Manufacture in Belgium *' p. 255
" Plate Class .Manufacture in England" p. U61
" Austrian Sheets and Mirror Glass " p. 263
" Silk from Wood Pulp " p. 386
Industrial Pjpospects in Egyit.
The following particulars regarding the present industrial
condition of Egypt arc extracted from the report of the
Austro-Hnngarian Consul at Alexandria, published in the
Austrian Handels Museum of July 7th.
The most important representatives of the agricultural
industry arc the sugar factories, 22 in number, and
Aug. 31, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
721
situated chiefly in the province of Miuieh. The} pro-
duce, together, about 150,000 tons of sugar per mi.
There is, in addition, the large refinery of El-Hawaindieh
In l liro.
The oil industry is largely represented in Cairn, after
which, in this respect, come Dachalieh, Girget, and Esneh.
Cotton-seed oil, much in use for adulterating olive oil,
is tlm chief manufacture in tliis category. The manu-
facture t>f oil cakes may be mentioned as ;i side product,
and .is secondary manufactures, the production of olive and
sesame oil. A paste used for toilet purposes is also made
from sesamum.
Other establishments worthy of mention as closely con-
nected with the agricultural industry are those for cleaning
rice, manufacturing manure, fruit essences, perfumes and
dyes, as also the 600 or more hatching ovens, in which
about 6,000,000 rggs are annually hatched.
Chemical industries embrace the manufacture of soap,
candles, and matches in Alexandria, and of glass and starch
in that town and in Port Said.
Other important industries are those of cigarette-making,
paper-making, printing, quarrying, tile, brick and cement
making. There is also a considerable annual production of
soda (about 8,000,000 kilos.), saltpetre (about 700,000
kilos.), and salt.
Glass-making, which flourished here of old, and which
has everything in its favour so far as the supply of raw
materials is concerned, viz., unlimited quantities of soda
and. sand, has ceased to exist as an industry. Those who
raise the objection that it would be impossible to compete
with cheap Belgian manufactures would do well to remember
lunv successfully this competition was met by the glass
factory established a few years ago at Pascha Hagtsehe,
near Constantinople.
The establishment of a cannery for the preservation of
lish, vegetables, and quails would be a profitable speculation
— 40 per cent, of the quails, hitherto shipped alive, have
perished on the journey— as there is a good supply of
cheap and excellent oil, and tin boxes are now being made
in Alexandria.
The rags which Egypt now exports so largely to America
would make an excellent raw material for the manufacture
of paper, especially packing paper.
Palm fibre, for making coarse ropes and packings, dye-
s tuffs, .-mil as Kartham, henna, and indigo, all of which are
produced in excellent quality in Egypt, and mother-of-pearl
would be found of the greatest use towards fostering native
inibisti \ .
THE MINERAL STATISTICS OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM FOR 1891.
Copper, Lead, Tin, &c.
Although the miscellaneous mineral productions of the
United Kingdom are somewhat exposed to the risk of being
put in the shade by the preponderating importance of the
iron and coal trades, when removed from contrast with these
two industries they make a by no means despicable appear-
ance. Their total value at first hand, that is, at the mines
or open-works, reached last year almost It millions sterling.
It is true that a very large proportion of this, viz., 8,693,000/.,
represents the estimated value of the stone — limestone,
building-stone, paving-stone, &c. — produced, and although
stone is strictly a mineral substance, it is not one which is
often classed in that category by the popular imagination,
(lav is another substance which answers to the same
description, and the value of the production last year
amounted to 943,896/. This does not include ordinary clay,
but only fireclay, china clay, potter's clay, &e. Slabs and
slates might almost be classed wttb stone, and of them the
production in 1891 was valued at 9 87,000/. Next to these
in order of value comes salt, of which 976,824/. worth was
produced lest year; whilst oil-shale to the value of 707,177/.
was raised. These are the more important of the minerals
which arc rather outside our province.
('oming now to metalliferous minerals, such as tin-ore,
lead "re, zinc-ore, and copper-ore, we find thai the first-
mentioned is now by far the most important of this class
Indeed the value of thy production last war considerably
ei Is that of the other th vc combined. The quantity of
ore raised in 189] amounted to 14,488 tons, valued at
735,240/. against 14.911 tons produced in the preceding
year, and valued at 782,492/. Prom the former quantity,
9,353 tons of metal were obtainable by smelting, and from
the latter, 9,602 tons. The sources of supply last year
were as follows : —From mines in Cornwall, 13,030 tons of
tin-ore: from opem-works in the same county, 113 tons;
from rivers, foreshores, and the refuse of dressing-floors,
1,300 tons; and from mines in Devonshire, 44 tons. The
price of tin presented remarkable steadiness last year, the
standard having ranged between 88*. and 93s, per cwt., the
opening price being '.lis. and the closing price 90s. The.
average juice for the year was, however, distinctly lower
than in 1890. Last year the mean of the monthly prices
was 94/. 4s. 1 d. per ton for English block tin, compared with
97/. 13s. 3d. per ton in 1890; while the price of Straits tin
showed an average of 91/. 4s. per ton, against 94/. 4s. for
the previous year. But while, as we have just seen, the
yield of home mines showed a falling off of 423 tons, the
quantity of foreign tin imported increased considerably,
and this in spite of the lower values we have just referred
to. Of ore the imports amounted to 2,332 tons, and here
we hive a decrease of 331 tons; but 28,200 tons of block,
ingot, and bar tin were imported last year, compared with
L'7.o38 tons in 1890. The Straits Settlements continue to
be the principal outside source of supply, and sent us last
year 21 .lino tons, or three-fourths of the whole imports, in
blocks, ingots, and bars. New South Wales, from which we
received 4,390 tons, is the only other country which sends us
any quantity of importance. The exports of tin remained
practically stationary, the quantity of British tin shipped
abroad having being 5,165 tons in 1891, and 5,132 tons in
1890 ; whilst 14,621 tons ( f foreign metal were re-exported
ast year, against 14,618 tons in the previous 12 months.
The total supply of tin last year, domestic and foreign —
leaving imported ore out of the question — was 37,553 tons,
of which 19,786 tons were exported, leaving as the amount
of the home consumption 17,767 tons, if we may assume
that stocks remained the same.
Lead ranks next to tin so far as the value of the
production is concerned, although this is less than one-
half of the figure reached in the case of the latter metal.
The quantity of lead ore raised in the United Kingdom
last year was 43,859 tons compared with 45,651 tons in
1890, the former being valued at 356,783/. and the latter
at 406,164/. Last year's production was equivalent to
32,205 tons of metal, while that of the previous year was
equal to 33,590 tons, and the amount of silver obtainable
from the lead was respectively 279,792 oz. and 291,724 oz.
In calculating the quantity of silver procurable, the amount
contained in ores with less than 3 oz. of silver per ton of
ore is omitted, as in the majority of cases it is not extracted,
and it is assumed that an average of J oz. of silver is left
in every ton of desilverised pig-lead. It is not surprising
that the production of lead should have declined, seeing
that the mean of the monthly prices was almost 20s. per
ton lower in 1891 than in 1890, and the failing-off in value
is amply justified by the reduction in the quantity exported,
which amounted last year to 29,266 tons of pig-lead ami
18,967 tons of rolled and sheet lead and lead pipes and
tubing, against 34,701 tons and 20,856 tons respectively
in 1890. The exports of foreign lead did not vary to the
same extent, 143 tons less of ore, but 335 tons more of pig
and sheet lead having been shipped abroad. But while
the exports thus experienced considerable diminution, the
imports on the other hand increased not a little. Uf lead
ore 2C,560 tons were received, against 19,236 tons in 1890,
whilst 169,724 tons of foreign pig and sheet lead came into
this country from abroad last year, compared with 158,649
tons in the previous 12 months. The net result of the
production of home mines and of imports and exports was
that, in 1891, 152,893 tons of lead were available for home
consumption, against 135,047 tons in 1890. The yield of
copper ore from British mines continued its downward
course last year, and it may be said, speaking roundly, that
the output of 1891 was 33 per cent, less than that of 1890,
7±2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug.si.i892,
'in i figurei b in- respective]} S,836 tons and 12,136 tons.
II;. native production of copper is now, however, :i matter
of trifling importance compared with the entire trade, aud
the actual position will perhaps lit' most clearly shown in
i . i l.i i. ir form.
1891,
1890.
Quan-
tities.
Amount
of Copper
obtain-
able l'\
Qnan-
1 ii ies
Amount
obtain-
able by
Smelting.
i ii rs and pre-
( ipitate from mines in
the United Kingdom .
( lolonial and foreign ores,
excluding cupreous
Tons.
9 158
123,337
Tons.
720
51,801
14,106
Tons.
12,481
111.02S
104,907
and
Burnt ore from cupreous
14,062
14,245
Totals
612,773
74,636
624,100
69,235
The increase in the supply indicated by these figures is
sufficient explanation, coupled with the falling-ofi in trade,
of the decline which values exhibited last year, the price of
" besi selected " copper having fallen 52. per ton compared
with 1890.
Tabu \
PRODUCTION or MfNOR MlNi:i;\l.s.
1891.
Quantity.
Value at
theMines
1890.
Quantity
\
theMines.
Alum clay
Ah:in shale
Antimony ore
Arsenic
Arsenic .il pyrites
Barytes
Bo ore
i obalf ami nickel i
■ spar
Gold ore
Gypsum
Jel
Lignite
MCangancse ore
' tchre, umber, &c.
Oil shale
Petroleum
Phosphate of lime
Salt
Slates and slabs
Stone, &c
Sulphate of strontra
Uranium ore
\\ olfram
Tons.
10,763
t
8,228
6,474
684
15
250
6,045
58 59 1
1,370
20,876
16,075
8,03!
3,222 035
943,896
141
187
11.117
12,200
151 70s
Lb.
766
Tons
1,664
60,038
153
1,360
9 I7T,
6,213
13,602
20,103
2,361,119
707,177
100
150
1
2,043,571
976,82 1
115,029
987,
,693,7 13
8,061
i,n:;ii
31
620
138
', :i
Tons.
11,527
i, 12 i
14
7,276
.-.,11 1
15,353
11.512
3,308,214
si
268
,-,77
1 U),298
Lb.
I '7s
Tons.
2,680
12,444
19,068
2.212.25(1
35
Is I
2,1 i'7si:i
111.270
22
UN
£
5,763
802
200
60,727
1.111
29,684
7,256.
899,166
260
:in2
l.ii
7,991
245
707
6
17.177.
608,369
52
29,500
1,100,014
8,708,691
I, s|S
The production of zinc is chiefly remarkable for the fact
that, unlike tin, load, or copper, it increased last year. The
men! was, however, small, the quantity of ore raised
in Great Britain being 22,216 tons against 22,041 tons in
IS'.io, and the amount of metal obtainable by smelting
8, Sitl tons compared with 8,582 tons. It may be of interest
of our readers to note that the quantity of jroiil
produced in Wales increased considerably last year. From
1 1,117 Inns of ore 4. (IDS oz. of metal were obtained, against
a yield in 1S90 of 206 oz. from 575 tons of ore. Four
mines — one in ( iarmarthenshire and three in Merionethshire
— wer ■ worked, hut the chief producer was the Morgan
mine, in the latter county, which raised 13,802 tons of ore,
yielding 3,462 oz. of gold.
There area number of minerals obtained in the United
Kingdom which scarcely call for special mention at one
hands; particulars of these will be found in Table VI. in
preceding column. — Iron.
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS
Summary of Imports.
Metals
Chemicals and dyestufls.
Oils
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports
Month ending 31sl July
1891.
1S92.
£
1,840.628
135,782
726,156
32,821,111
£
140,745
534,169
I,2s;i.:l7l
33,497,583
Summary of
Exports.
Month ending 31st July
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
Chemicals and medicines
£
3,216,514
66 .17"
2,657,360
£
2,648,308
696,410
22282 134
21.945,112
19,463,597
Imports of Metals for Month ending 31st July.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1S91.
1892.
1891.
1S92.
Copper : —
5,064
8,989
3,361
711
13,585
is;; n
83,683
57,629
5,981!
10,312
14,018
2,959
319,796
'.1,125
1.M22
18,001
56,783
11,474
11.717,
3,557
£
2'. i.l 37
259,707
185,739
212,481
88,100
7,512
173,1 H
81,611
8,739
260,113
135,899
39S.446
£
IT n wrought .... „
Iron : —
Ore
322,729
136,202
80,569
i.tTi;
199,025
96,017
1,072
207,881
185,273
Bolt, har, &c
Steel, unwrought. . „
Lead, pig and sheet „
Other articles . , .Value £
Total value of metals
••
••
1,840,628
1,861,866
lug. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
723
Imports of Oils fob Month ending 31st July.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891.
1892.
18,075
3,157
91,729
9,417,850
988
3,007
76,727
15,882
1,443
71.2011
9,492,998
1,012
1,847
68,149
e
28,698
127.207
101,908
197,496
27,503
02,012
105,914
76,518
£
18,128
52,8 to
Palm Cwt.
103,117
85 389
Other articles .. Value £
81,131
77,235
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
726,156
534,169
Imports of Raw Matf.rial for Non-Textile
Industries for Month ending 31st July.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
Values.
1891. 1892.
£
£
Bark, Peruvian . .
Owt.
3,752
6,878
7,500
1 1,993
Lb.
488,641
373,017
71,160
54,298
Cwt.
15,082
17,673
150,592
16t,859
Guni : —
,.
4,783
5,53 '.
11.105
12,700
5,652
12,609
17,520
•10,311
Gutta-percha . . .
„
5,009
1,510
G8.644
9,301
Hides, raw :—
»
37,033
27,0X1
103,550
si), 071
Wet
..
48,553
51,391
111,629
110,536
„
1,084
1,115
52,ovi
53,203
Manure :—
. Tons
147
302
709
1,810
. Cwt.
6, 15 I
38,07 1
2,080
32,996
30,150
56,485
8,878
45,400
Tons
2,889
2,2110
20,517
19,787
20,177
14,341
00,298
67,008
Piilp of wood . . .
„
10,913
14,380
02,531
73,603
Cwt.
n „
290,503
123,718
150,81.8
179,053
54,'75S
158,752
35,367
Tallow and stcan
222,122
. Barrels
10,183
20,5011
5,527
11,676
Wood:—
. Loads
»
220,720
633,487
13,St2
286,707
785,462
18,702
¥79,042
1,474,811
10,070
622,210
1,742,339
54.674
. Tons
1,073
3,828
17.515
32,152
Other articles...
Value £
••
S50.3(i2
796,581
Total value
••
••
3,967,914
4.283,371
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 3 i st j i i.v.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
5.012
1,425
£
5.002
£
2,077
Hark (tanners, &c.) „
14.333
37,508
22,415
18,247
56,455
12.701
10,107
11,416
..
..
120,710
113,902
270
210
1,628
1,250
Cutch and gambler Tons
1,304
2,302
31,558
48,400
Dyes:—
..
..
20,300
18111
..
20,5110
20,511
1,552
1.959
485
1,323
8.418
21.932
Nitrate of soda.... „
18,897
65,610
8,153
28 028
Nitrate of potash . „
34,768
20,195
21.080
23.317
1,107
1,022
23,201
129,007
1S.159
Other articles. . . Value £
108,301
Total value of chemicals
435,782
■I »,7 15
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 3 1st July.
Uesides the above, drugs to the value of 45,438/. were imported
:is against 74,6912, in July 1891.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
. Lb.
930,500
513, 100
£
23,841
£
14,944
Military stores. .
Value £
• •
••
112,105
51.100
. Lb.
1,388,300
1,300,400
28,380
24 259
Value £
.•
..
1112 1511
11 '5.2 15
50,108
5 l,02:i
98.493
03,721
Products of coal
Value £
..
101,823
88,187
Earthenware ..
,,
..
108,303
165,883
,,
..
13,725
10,773
Glass : —
2111,185
199,498
1S.156
12,050
10.150
7,113
20.282
18,984
66,035
70,036
31,019
33.007
Other kinds..
„
17.281
19,905
13,719
15,824
Leather : —
Unwrought . .
„
12,006
10,808
111,025
110,133
. Value £
..
33,28 1
24,805
5.3H2
4,10,8
120.7S2
83,440
Floorcloth
Sq. Yds.
1,747,400
1,172,900
77,006
53,049
Painters' materials Val. £
..
..
142,777
121.777
01,030
74,173
151,090
125,040
4,227
4,194
29,396
28,210
Total value .
14,130
1,3,989
18,916
16,683
•■
2,057,300
2,282,131
724
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[AUB. 31 ,.189?.
I
Exports of Metals (othek than Machinery) fob
Month ending 31si July.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper :—
Unwrought
Mixed metal
1".- IS
55,121
; 194
31,969
290,803
4,035
8,920
14,122
9,151
82,568
25,1 n;
19,741
221,891
:..I7;;
7,196
15,11 1
£
16,814
155.231
77,184
62,319
221,148
115,808
2,178,450
fit, 232
36,208
150,754
(2.129
1 1,650
81,514
£
37.602
202,826
75,098
t;t, 475
170,557
100.1SS
1,762,184
63 537
Plated wares... Value£
Telegraph wires, &e. „
25,736
25.906
3fi.067
Other articles . . Value £
84,574
.. j ..
3,246,514 2.648,308
ExroRTs of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
31st July.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
156,156
129,St5
32,416
363,819
107,000
29,310
£
175,379
44,799
162,772
81.82G
203,708
£
130.900
H.438
] 18,862
72,339
196.S71
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Other articles
••
068,479
596,4X0
fHontfclp patent ifet.
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications arc advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
[.—GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
1 1,11 1. J. Dawson. A new and improved apparatus for
regulating the heat of dye-vats, wool-washing bowls, and
other vessels containing liquid heated by steam. August 5.
14,145. J. Proctor. Improvements in mechanical stokers.
August 5.
14,031. J. II. Annandale. Improvements in apparatus
for separating or cleaning matters suspended in liquids.
August 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
11,690. J. A. Burley.— From P. A. Mallet and A. T.
Lagniez. Improvements in analysing columns. August 17.
13,447. A. Colson. Column stills for distillation of gas
liquor and other liquids. August 17.
13.522. J. Reed. Condensers. August 17.
13.523. J. Reed. Improvements in evaporators, partly
applicable to feed-heaters and condensers or distillers.
August 17.
16,2S1. B. L. Fletcher and J. Hoyle. See Class XV.
16,80fi. ,T. Ehlis. Ozonising apparatus. July 27.
16,904. A. Suiter, and A. R. Margary. Regulators for
compressed gas. August 17.
17,185. T. Scott. See Class VII.
17,274. R. W. Deacon. — From W.Maxwell. .See Class
XVI.
1892.
11,704. H. E. Newton.— From A. E. Asheroft and
,1. Howell. Method and apparatus for generating steam by
the aid of molten slag. July 27.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
13,339. J." M. Bailey. Improvements in apparatus for
the production of fuel gas. Complete Specification.
July 21.
13,379. W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins, H. Fuller, and W. H.
Fuller. Improvements in generators to be used in the
production of hydrogen gas. July 21.
13,467. B. Gibbons and W. P. Gibbons. Improved
means or apparatus for discharging gas retorts. July 23.
13,470. T. B. Jones. The prevention of choked ascen-
sion pipes in the manufacture of coal-gas. July 23.
13,472. S. Walker and S. S. Walker. Improvements in
the manufacture of oxygen and carbonic acid and in
apparatus employed in the said manufactures and in other
like manufactures. July 23.
13,601. R. F. Strong and A. Gordon. Improvements in
the manufacture of artificial fuel. Complete Specification.
July 26.
Aug. 31,1892] TBE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
725
13,763. J. D. Brimtou. Improvements in means or
apparatus for drying, more especially intended for drying
peat. July 28.
13,912. J. E. Newby. Improvements in and connected
with coke ovens. July 30.
13.9S6. J. W. Buckley and J. H. Buckley. Improve-
ments in the method of and apparatus for the manufacture
of coal-gas. August 2.
11,070. J. Eraser. An improved description of fire-lighter
and the method of manufacturing same. August 4.
11,105. J. Beveridge and J. B. Alliott. Improvements
in or connected with the method and means for treating
wood and other materials at high temperatures, whereby
heat may be more effectively utilised. August 4.
14,171. J. Bowing. Improvements in coking processes,
and in the manufacture of coke and in the recovery of tar
products. August 5.
14,191. F. J. Lankford. Improvements in the treatment
of coal shale. August 5.
11,266. J. Koyle. Improvements in fire-lighters.
August 8.
14,374. J. A. Wanklyn and W.J.Cooper. Improve-
ments in the refining of petroleum. August 9.
14,383. C. H. Kidsdale. Improvements in the treatment
or solidification of mineral oils and other liquid hydrocarbons.
August 9.
14,490. B. Parkin. Improvements in the manufacture of
August 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
12,396. H. H. Leigh, — From T. Bauer and G. Mendheim.
Coke ovens. July 27.
15,390. H.Williams. Apparatus for Use in manufacture
of illuminating gas. August 3.
15,975. H. Brier. Means for obtaining oxygen and
nitrogen from the air. July 27.
17,298. Brin's Oxygen Company, Limited, and K. S.
Murray. Sec Class VII.
18,082. The Gas Economising and Improved Light
Syndicate, Limited, and J. Love. Apparatus for carbu-
retting gas or air. August 17.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAB
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Application.
14,174. .1. Bowing. See Class II.
IV._COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
13,147. J. V. Johnson.— From The Badische Anilin and
Soda Fabrik, Germany- Improvements in the manufac-
ture of mordant-dyeing colouring matters. July 18.
13,305. C. S. F. Mellor. Improvements iu or relating to
dyes, pigments, or the like. July 20.
13,475. O. Imray. — From the Society of Chemical
Industry, in Basle, Switzerland. Production of a red azo-
eolouring matter. July 23.
13.7G6. C. S. F. Mellor. Improvements in or relating to
dyes, pigments, or the like. July 28.
14,253. O. Imray.— From the Society of Chemical
Industry, in Basle, Switzerland. Production of azo-colouring
matters. August 6.
14,301. C. D. Abel. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Pruning, Germany. Improvements in
the manufacture of alpha-naphthol and of alpha-uaphthol
sulphonic acids from the corresponding amido compounds.
August 8.
14,398. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Limited, and
A. G. Green. New blue and bluish-green colouring
matters, and the process for their manufacture. August 9.
14,478. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new colouring matters. August 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,677. B. Willeox.— From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters
derived from anthraquinone and alizarin blue. July 27.
1892.
9360. O. D. Abel. — From L. Durand, Huguenin and Co.
Manufacture of uew bases applicable for production of
substantive dyes. August 17.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Application.
14,029. J. Miller, sen., and J.Miller, jun. Improvements
in the method of and apparatus for rendering textile fabrics
waterproof by one treatment or process. August 3.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
20,610. E. Viarenzo and E. Casper. The treatment of
rhea, and apparatus therefor. August 10.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
14,101. S. Smithson. Improvements in or relating to
means or apparatus for dyeing yarns, piece-goods, and the
like. Complete Specification. August 4.
14,230. W. Waengler. Improved method of removing
impurities from bleaching keirs formed in the operation of
bleaching cotton and other textile fabrics. August 6.
14,375. W. E. Aykroyd, W. 11. Aykrnyd, and J. Smith.
Improvements iu or connected with dyeing, tinting, sizing,
and bleaching, or similarly operating upon textile fabrics
or fibres, or other materials. August 9.
14.396. W. T. Lye. Improvements in the bleaching or
dyeing of "chip" or "chip-plaits," and straw or straw-
plaits. August 9.
14.397. W. T. Lye. Improvements in the bleaching or
dyeing of " chip " or " chip-plaits " and straw or straw-
plaits. August 9.
14,421. S. Sehmidlin. Improvements in certain machines
for washing, soaping, bleaching, dyeing, and similarly
treating textile fabrics. August Id.
14,507. J. M. Collins. Improvements in and connected
with machinery for dyeing anil scouring yarn. August 11.
14,593. H. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
process of dyeing or printing with aniline black. August 12.
726
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. fAmc si, issk.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,174. A. and J. Graemiger. Apparatus for dyeing,
scouring, bleaching, &c. yarn in cop or similar compact
form. August 17.
10,463. D. Stewart. Apparatus for bleaching, dyeing,
and treating textile materials. August 3.
16,700. (). Imray. — From H. W. Wilson. Bleaching
vegetable textile materials. August 3.
1892.
11,318. A. S. Lyon and J. H. Lorimer. Apparatus tor
skein-dyeing. July 27.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
13,121. E. H. Cook and A. E. Petter. Improvements in
treating residues (seconds) from zinc smelting, galvanised
iron scrap, rlux skimmings, and acid residues for the
purpose of obtaining products therefrom. July 18.
13,208. W. Maltster. Improvements relating to the
manufacture of sulphate of ammonia. Complete Specifi-
cation. July 19.
13,411. H. Y. Castner. Impioved bleaching compound.
July 22.
13,538. S. Meyer. A process for solidifying sulphuric
acid and facilitating the transport of the same. July 25.
13,686. E. de Cuyper. Improvements relating to the
collection of ammonia and ammoniacal salts from gaseous
and liquid mixtures. July 27.
13,822. II. W. Wallis. Improvements in the manufacture
of chlorine. July 29.
14,039. W. Walker. See Class XVIII.— B.
14,051. E. Ulrichs. Process or processes for obtaining
alkali, carbonates, and "blanc fixe" from witherite or
heavy spar (barium sulphate) and the corresponding alkali
sulphates. August 3.
14,607. H. H. Lake.— From J. II. C. Behnke and The
Chemische Fabrik Billwarder, Germany. Improvements
in the production of carbonic acid gas. August 12.
14,642. M. N. d'Andria. Improvements in the manu-
facture of muriate of ammonia and other by-products.
August 13.
14,645. A. llof. Improvements in the production of dry
hydrochloric [acid] gas. August 13.
14,657. A. Hand and 11. Kuuheim. An improved pro-
cess for the extraction of alumina from bauxite and other
substances. August 13.
14,665. ('• Dreyfus. Improvements in the manufacture
of protosulphate and persulphate of iron. August 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,684. C. B. C. Tichbome, A. E. Darley, S. Geoghegan,
and M. F. Pureed. Process and apparatus for manufacture
of solid carbonic acid (CCv). August 17.
14,159. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. Treating solutions
containing nickel and iron for obtaining useful products
therefrom. July 27.
15,822. F. H.Gossage. Obtaining monocarbonates from
bicarbouates of the alkalis. July 27.
15,833. J. M. and A. Milnes. Apparatus for manufacture
of bleaching-powder, &c. July 27.
16,647. A. Boake and F. G. A. Roberts. Manufacture
of acid sulphites. August 3.
17,185. T. Scott. Evaporating pans for manufacture of
salt from sea-water or brine. July 17.
17,298. Prin's Oxygen Company, Limited, and K. S.
Murray. Preparation of anhydrous oxide of barium, or
substances of like properties, fir separation of the oxygen
and nitrogen of atmospheric air. August 10.
19,637. E. Edwards. — From H. Bauer and J. Syiketta.
Production of boron sulphate compounds, and application
of such products to the unliming of hides and skins and for
the prevention of putrefaction. August 3.
1892.
12,884. E. Kuchenmeister. Manufacture of vinegar and
apparatus therefor. August 17.
VI1L— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
13,220. H. H. Leigh.— From I. K. Rue, United States.
Improvements in enamelled bricks, and in the manufacture
thereof. Complete Specification. July 19.
13,227. W. P. Thompson. -From The Clay Glass Tile
Company, United States. New or improved process of
plating clay with glass and in articles made in accordance
therewith. Complete Specification. July 19.
13,355. F. Ohm. Improvements in the means or
materials for decorating, colouring, and enamelling glass,
earthenware, and metals, and for the direct production of
glass. July 21.
13,416. H. L. Doulton and R. Meldrum. Improvements
in glazing pottery. July 22.
13,569. J. W. Bonta. Improvements in lears or annealing
furnaces for sheet or plate glass. Complete Specification.
July 26.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,108. E. G. Cole and H. Keston. Means for forming
clay into pots or vessels. August 3.-
16,846. I). Rylands and A. Husselbee. Lining metallic
or other vessels or tubes with glass. August 3.
17,126. J. Slater and J. J. Royle. Treating china,
earthenware, and similar surfaces. August 1 7.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
13,206. J. T. Drawbridge. Improved road paving.
July 19.
13,602. J. C. Bloomfield. Improvements in the
manufacture of plaster. July 26.
13,819. W.White. Improvements in paving blocks for
roads, footpaths, and other surfaces. July 29.
13,825. W. N. Hartley and W. E. B. Blenkinsop.
Improvements in and relating to the manufacture of
material applicable as a waterproof covering for roofs and
other such like purposes, or as a substitute for glass.
July 29.
14,336. J. E. Keseling and C. Fuchs, jun. An artificial
stone composition. Complete Specification. August 9.
Aug. 31, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
727
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
12,633. T. I). Harries. An artificial stone. July 27.
1G,:S75. W. E. Taylor. Method and apparatus for
burning cement-making materials. August 3.
18,284. W.A.Briggs. Improved marine cement. August:!.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
13,137. L. J. I), Holtzer. Improvements in the produc-
tion of steel and in the manufacture of springs therefrom.
July 18.
13,148. G. G. M. Hardiugham. — From H. Wilisch,
Germany. Improvements in hardening particles of steel or
other metal and in apparatus therefor. Complete Specifica-
tion. July 18.
13,191. E. G. Brewer. — From A. A. Cowles, tfnited
Slates. Improvements in annealing furnaces. July 19.
13,215. T. M. Ash and H. W. Gill. Improvements in
coating with metals non-metallic articles. July 19.
13,555. J. B. Torres. Improvements in the manufacture
of alloys and in the purification thereof. Complete
Specification. July 25.
13,752. E. W. James.— From W. E. Hinsdale, United
States. Process of preventing segregation in large ingots.
July 28.
13,933. T. Hampton. Improvements in the manufacture
of steel. August 2.
13,960. I). Jones and 15. Jones. Improved means for
skimming molten metal and apparatus for tinning iron or
steel plates. August 3.
14,147. F. W. Durham. Extracting gold from its ores.
August 5.
14,223. T. Twynam. Improvements in the manufacture
of copper. August 6.
14,241. J. Colley. Improvements in iron and steel
manufacture. August 6.
14,264. P. Hart. Improvements in the method of
desulphurising zinc ores. Complete Specification. August 8.
14,288. J. F. Johnston. An improvement in the manu-
facture of steel ingots. August 8.
14,079. A. K. Huntington and I!. T. Preston. Improve-
ments in bronze alloys. August 12.
14,586. J. L. Sebenius. Improvements in apparatus for
removing when casting, gases and impurities contained in
the metal or alio)'. Complete Specification. August 12.
14,59(1. R. Taylor and D. Davies. Improvements in the
manufacture of tin or terue plates and in the means or
apparatus employed therein. August 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,342. 11. l'arkes and J. C. Montgomerie. Extraction
of gold and silver from ores or compounds. August 10.
12,917. F. W. Harbord and W. Hutchinson, juu.
1 tilisatiou of tin-plate scrap. July 27.
13,740. C. James. Smelting complex silver ores.
August 17.
14,449. H. l'ieper. Production of damascened metal
bars for use in making fire-arm barrels. August 3.
I4.S23. W. H. Martin awl W. Pethybridge. (iold
extraction apparatus. August 10.
15,782. G. L. Addenbrookc. Alloying aluminium with
other metals. July 27.
17,450. L. A. Pelatan. Treating copper ores and mattes.
August 3.
17,955. C. W. Pinkney. A metallic alloy for articles
subjected to great heat. August 3.
19,191. F. W. Martino. Manufacture of alloys of nickel
with various other metals. August 17.
1892.
2193. N. Lebedeff. Extraction and treatment of metals.
August lo.
9370. G. I). Burton. Forging metals for making steel
and iron tools. July 1 3.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
13,453. G. Bamberg. Improvements in electrodes for use
in electrolytic apparatus, and in their manufacture. July 23.
13.541. F. E. Elmore. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of continuous lengths of tube by electrolysis. July 25.
13.542. F. E. Elmore and A. S. Elmore. An improvement
in tanks or cells for electrolysis and like purposes. July 25.
13,685. H. II. Lake. — From G. A. Oncfcen, United
States. Improvements relating to the saturation or im-
pregnation of organic fibrous and cellular matter with
liquids by the aid of electricity, and to apparatus therefor.
July 27.
13,764. J. B. Lee. Improvements in the construction of
secondary batteries. July 28.
14,044. J. C. Fell. — From W. Morrison, United States.
Electrodes for secondary batteries. Complete Specification.
August :',.
14,089. C. C. Lesenberg and J. von der Poppenburg.
Improvements in dry batteries. Complete Specification.
August 4.
14.180. J. L. Dobell. Improvements in or connected
with electric batteries. August 5.
14.181. C. P. Shrewsbury and .1. L. Dobell. Improve-
ments in or connected with electric batteries. August 5.
14,206. J. L. Dobell. Improvements in or connected
with electric batteries. August 6.
14,250. S. A. Rosenthal and V. C. Doubleday. Im-
provements in secondary batteries. August 6.
14,395. .1. W. ('aim and R. E. Commans. Improvements
relating to electric furnaces for the treatment of auriferous
sulphide ores and for other purposes. August 9.
14.658. A.J.Smith. Improvements relating to electric
accumulators or secondary batteries and to the manufacture
of plates or electrodes therefor. August 13.
14.659. H. H. Lake. — From F. C. Jenkins, Germany.
Improvements in and relating to electric accumulators.
August 13.
14.660. J. Rousseau. Improvements in and relating to
the manufacture of plates for electric, accumulators.
August 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
11,712. H. C. Bull. Electric batteries. August 17.
17,160. H. H. Lake. — From La Societedite Electriciteits-
Mautsehappij ^System de Khotinsky). Electric accumu-
lators. July 27.
1892.
10,200. C. Kellner. Process and apparatus for the electro-
chemical production of bleaching agents. July 27.
12,306. J. B. Lee. Construction of secondary batteries.
August 10.
728
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aub.81.18W.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Application?.
13,845. II. Rinck. A method of destroying the green
colouring of castor oil. July 29.
14,114. R. Haddan.— From B. Jaffe and L. Darmstadter,
Germany. Improvements in the separation of wool-wax
from wool-fat, and in the preparation of lanoline from the
more fluid residue. Complete Specification. August 4.
14,287. A. Paget. Improvements in apparatus employed
in the treatment of oleaginous and other seeds. August 8.
14,328. G. B. Main. Improvements in treating wool-
greases to obtain lanoline anil soap. August 9.
14,352. E. S. II. Wraith ami E. Stephenson. An im-
proved means of extracting oil from crushed seeds of
various kinds by a chemical process, also an improvement
in the mechanical apparatus used for the extracting process.
August 9.
14,354. J. Kennedy. An improved soap. August 0.
14,405. II. II. Lake.— From O. P. Amend and .1. II.
Maev, United States. Improvements relating to the desul-
phuration of oils. August \>.
14,535. W. T. Congdon. An improved saponaceous
compound applicable for various purposes. August 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,552. U. II. Lake. — From La Soeiete Anonyme des
Parfums Naturels de Cannes. Purification of the residues
obtained from fatty substances. .Inly 27.
1892.
2320. F. Hughes. — From A. Motte and Co. Process
and apparatus for removing fatty matters from wool-
washing and other waters. August 17.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
13,143. C. Rawle and H. McKenna. Improvements in
the manufacture of india-rubber for insulating and other
purpo>es. July 18.
13,240. H. Pfanne. An improved method of manu-
facturing varnish and apparatus therefor. Complete Specifi-
cation, duly 19.
13,272. F. A. Tagliaferro and A. A. Moore. Improvements
in composition for ships' bottoms. July 20.
13,305. C. S. F. Mellor. .See Class IV.
13,402. E. Biernath. A new or improved heat insulating
and waterproof material. Complete Specification. July 22.
13,424. 1!. Ripley. Improvements in or appertaining to
bag or washing blue. July 22.
13,440. C. R. F. Sehloesser, C. 1!. M. Schloesser, and
R. V. Schloesser. A new and improved method for the
production of imitation bronze powders for colouring,
printing, and other purposes. July 23.
13,460. J. Bradley. Improvements in the manufacture of
india-rubber. July 23.
13,766. C. S. ]'. Mellor. See Class IV.
13,860. T. C. Jefferies. A self-polishing black substitute
for black lead. July 30.
14,052. E. Ulrichs. Processes for the manufacture of
white pigment and of lithopone. August :'..
14,ii5:i. E. Ulrichs. Processes for the manufacture of
white colouring matter or paint. August 3.
14,479. A. Tapsell. An improved auti-fouling paint or
composition. August 10.
14,656. A. J. Smith. Improvements in and relating to the
manufacture of white lead. Complete Specification.
August 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
12.4S0. J.C.Martin. Manufacture of pigments or paints.
July 27.
16,582. J. Fraukenburg. Manufacture of aniline lakes
suitable for manufacture of india-rubber cloth, &c.
August 17.
1892.
7688. W. Cutter. Manufacture of gold, silver, and
bronze paints. July 27.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Application.
13,264. W. Francis, J. A. Carrick, A. F. Grant, and
II. A. Leverett. An improved process of rapidly making
leather. July 20.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
19,63 7. E. Edwards.— From II. Bauer and J. Syiketta.
.See Class VII.
XV— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Complete Sprcifioation Accepted.
1891.
16,281. B. L. Fletcher and J. Hoyle. Method and
apparatus for treating or drying artificial manure, grain,
minerals, &c. August 3.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Application.
14,419. L. E. A. l'rangey. Improvements in the process
and machinery for the continuous refining of sugar,
August 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,464. 1). Stewart. Apparatus for extracting juice from
sugar canes. August 3.
17,274. R. W. Deacon. — From \V. Maxwell. Multiple-
effect apparatus for concentrating sugar juice and other
liquids. August 17.
1892.
8336. W. P. Thompson.— From J. A. Morrell ami
W. R. Striugfcllow. Process and apparatus for concreting
sugar, or crystallising saline or other solutions. July 27.
Aug.8l.l8ra.] THE JOURNAL OF TUE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
729
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
18,846. II. Rinck. An improved ferruginous beer.
July 29.
13,980. A. J. Boult.— From F. L. Hume, United States.
Improvements in or relating to the purifying of spirituous
liquor and other liquids. Complete Specification. August 2.
14,118. E. Korn. A novel treatment of beers to adapt
them for transport and for preservation purposes. Complete
Specification. August 4.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,681. C. R. C. Tichbornc and others. .See Class VII.
1892.
'.i777. B. J. B. Mills. — From The Brewing Improvement
Co. Treating hops for brewing purposes. August 10.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
13,615. S. T. Aehor. Improvements in soluble chocolate
and the process of preparing the same. Complete Specifi-
cation. July 26.
13,612. II. H. Lake. — From S. Crump, United States.
An improved food compound and a method of manu-
facturing the same. Complete Specification. July 20.
14,349. G. Barker.— From R. 1!. Beaumont, United Stales.
Improvements in gelatinous food products. August 9.
14,651, A. .1. M. Bolanachi. Improvements in or relating
to the treatment of milk, cream, and various food materials,
and in apparatus therefor. August 13.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
13,713. A. Kozloff. A furnace or apparatus for deo-
dorising and consuming excrement. July 27.
14,039. W. Walker. An improved process and appa-
ratus for the purification of sewage, and the production of
alkalis, chlorine, ferric chloride, and electric, energy.
August 3.
14,175. C. E. Bell. Improvements in the manufacture of
materials used in the purification and filtration of sewage
and other liquids. August 5.
11,313. A. Goldthorp. A new or improved process and
apparatus for purifying water. August 8.
14,324. W.H.Hughes. Improvements in or relating to
the filtration and purification of water for domestic, sanitary,
and manufacturing purposes. August 9.
14,370, .1. Lowe. An improved method of drying the
sludge or residuum in the purification of town sewage-.
August 9.
14,664. C. Dreyfus. Improvements in the treatment of
sewage and other foul waters of analogous nature for
effecting the purification thereof. August 13.
C. — Disinfect a n ts.
13,291. J. V. Johnson. — From F. von I leydeu, Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of antiseptics. July 20.
13,316. C. A. Burghardt. Improvements in the produc-
tion of a ferric chloride preparation for the treatment of
sewage or other foul water. July 21.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
14,75.). E. Wilhelm, A. Brugier, and II. Trillich. Method
and apparatus for manufacturing malt coffee. July 27.
1892.
900". J. Bibby. Manufacture of composite cakes for
cattle feeding and the like. August 3.
11,988. J. V. Johnson. — From H. Salzer. Means for
preserving meat and the like. August 3.
B. — Sa n it a ry Ch emistry.
1891.
12,507. S. Phillips and S. F. Smart. Disinfecting and
ozonising air filter. August 3.
17,275. T. I!. Wilson. Utilisation of sewage sludge, and
production of filtering and purifying material therefrom.
August 3.
1892.
9733. M. A. Lutzner. Method and apparatus for
removing particles of soot and ash from waste gases emitted
by chimneys. August 3.
11,989. C. G. Collins. Process of purifying water.
August 3.
C- Disinfectants.
1891.
13,262. H. B. Thornton. Disinfectants for water-closets
and other places where water is used. August 10.
1892.
11,019. M, Syer. Improved disinfecting compound.
August 17.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
14,270. J. Fletcher and W. F'letcher. Improvements iu
and relating to the manufacture of paper. August S.
14,335. E. Jerome. Improvements in toilet paper. Com-
plete Specification. (Filed August 9. Date applied for
3rd .March 1892, being date of application in United States.)
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
14,897. A. Schlumberger. Producing safety paper by
means of water-mark. August 3.
1892.
8473. J. Robertson. Manufacture of vegetable parchment.
July 27,
730
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Aug. si, iron.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
13,400. T. S. Lemon. A new process for making and
applying artificial camphor. July 22.
14,161. O. Iuiray. — From The Society of Chemical In-
dustry in Basle, Switzerland. Production of dioxynaphtoe-
mono-sulpho acid and of its salts. August 5.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,371. O. liuray. — From the Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briining. Manufacture of tropine. August 3.
16,552. H H. Lake.— From La Societe Ar.onyme des
Parfums Naturels de Cannes. See Class XII.
20,851. R. A. Cheesebrough. Manufacture of perfumes.
August 17.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1*91.
17,967. (i. B. Brndshaw. Improvements in photography.
August 17.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
13,429. A. E. Pike. An improved explosive compound.
July 22.
13,529. A. V. Newton. — From A. Nobel, France. Im-
provements in the construction of and means for discharg-
ing rockets. July 25.
Compi.etk Specifications Accepted.
1891.
7087. H. Schluud. Distance fuses. July 27.
1892.
12,744. H. J. Allison. — From A. C Rand. Explosive
compounds. August 17.
XXI.— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Application.
13,977. N. B. Kenealy. Improvements in or relating to
photographic processes. August 2.
PATENT UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Application.
13,847. L. S. Langville. An improved carbon product.
Complete Specification. July 29.
Printed and Published by Eyre and Spottiswoohe. East Harding Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
Society of Comical ^nbushy:
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 9.— Vol. XI.]
SEPTEMBER 30, 1892.
[Non-Members 80/- per annum; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numhers;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
€i)t dorittp of CImnical gnfcustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roseoe, M.P.. LL.D.. V.P.R.S 18S1— 1882.
Sir Fredrick Abel. K.C.B., D.C.L.. F.R.S 1882— 18SS.
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1S83— 1884.
\V. H. Perk in. Ph.D., F.R.S 1884—1885.
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1886.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 18S8— 1889.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Hart., F.R.S 1SS9-1890.
E. Rider Cook 1890—1891.
Prof. J, Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc„ F.R.S. 1891 1892,
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., Ac
Vice-Presidents :
F.R.S.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart.
Wm.. Crowder.
David Howard.
Dr. I'. Hurter.
B. E. R. Newlands
Dr. W. II. lVrkin, F.R.S
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.I), D.Sc., F.R.S.
John SpUler.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. P. E.Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Turney,
A. H.Allen.
Arthur Boake.
it. Forbes < iarpenter.
Dr. I u les Dreyfus.
11. 1 Irimshaw.
i Ihristopher i '. II utehinson.
Ordinary Members of Council :
| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinson,
Boverton Redwood,
A. i iordon Salamon.
Edward ('. Cortis Stanford.
Thos. Tyrer.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E. Rider Cock East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mond, P.R.S.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices:
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc. Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E, Rider I'n.k.
W. Y. Dent.
('has. Dreyfus, 1'h.I).
Percj Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Publication Committee :
The President.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
' F. Hurter, Ph.D.
«', i [. il utehinson,
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond. F.R.S.
li. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Roverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor:
Watson Smith. University College, London, W.C
Assistedby the following Staff of Abstractors:
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gcn.Chem.
D. Bendnt III.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Bernays.M.I.C.E I.
E. J. Bevan V., XIX.
Bertram Blount . f -v}| \tjf
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV., XV.
J. C.i'horley I., XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish. ..VIII., IX., XIII.
P. DTorkowitscli.il., III.. IV..
£H., w in..: xxm.
Dr. P. Norman Evans XIX.
W.M.Gardner V.. VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Client.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping,) II. and
D.Sc J Gen. Cheiu.
ChaphAbK.oh.?:.)Ge,i-cliem-
L. de Koninirh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII. XXI.
J. Leukowitseh, ) ... -.-..
Ph.D I I "■•■*■"•
A. R.Ling IV., XVI.
D.A.Louis IX., X., XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Market, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. Ill, IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
H.S.Pattinson.Ph.D. VII.. X.
H. T. PenterO TVI TVTI
maim j XVI- ^ IL
G. H. Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists.
H. Schlichter. Ph.D.. V., XV-
Edward Simpson .... I.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
U.K. Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to hira at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to he
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
732
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1898.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respectirg them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi
tion.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Swinburne, G. Way, jun., l/'o Tennessee ; 245, Broadway,
Newport, B.I., U.S.A.
Witch-Wilson. .T.,1/6 Westovcr Road ; s, Earlsfield Road,
Wandsworth ( lommon, S.W.
Warner, 1!. G., l/o Calcutta; c o Bruce and Co., Limited,
St. George's Hall, Walham Green, S.W.
Warren, Fiske, Journals to 'J20. Devon-hire Street,
Boston, Mass., I .S. \.
Watson, Erie E., Mbnchstrasse 21, Freiberg (not Frei
burg ). Saxony.
Watson, J no., l/o Newcastle Chemical Co.; e/o United
Alkali Co., Limited, Allhusen's Works. Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Whitehouse, Enoch, 1 o Smallheath : Bridge House,
Bridge Street, Smethwick, near Birmingham.
Wild, W. E. l/o Salford; Broom Lawn, Tetlow Fold,
t Iheetham Hill, Manchester.
Ansdell, G., l/o Courtfield Road; 10, Gledhow Gardens,
South Kensington, S.W.
Bell, J. Ralston, 1" Glasgow; P.O., Vancouver, British
( 'olumbia.
Bell, 1'. Carter, l/o Fylde Terrace; 34, Poulton Road,
Fleetwood, Lancashire.
Bernard, Jas., l/o Olivaes; Quiuta do Valle Formoso,
Ria,;o ib- Prata, Lisbon.
Brasher, F. W , l/o 8; 46, Wyatt Road. Forest Cat.-. E.
Buchanan, J., l/o Chili; E3, West Cumberland Street.
Glasgow.
Bumby, 11.. 1 " Workington; Millom and Askam
Haematite lion Co., Ld , Askam-iu-Furness, Lancashire.
Butt, E. N., l/o Sussex Gardens; 77, Hamilton Terrace,
Mai.la Vale, W.
Collctt, J. M., l/o Bi unswick Square ; Guy's Cliff, Wotton,
Gloucester.
Faulkner, Frank, l/o Edgbastpn ; Laboratory, Bath Row.
Birmingham.
Fuller. W. M., l/o Wolverhampton ; Lawn Side, Stow
Park Circus, Newport, Mon.
Hazlehurst, C. W., l/o Runcorn; Merrivale, Westfield
Road. Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Howard, Alf., l/o Lewisham ; (',, Martin's Lane, Cannon
Street, E ( .
James, .1. Ilernanian. Journals to Assay Office, Swansea.
.lev, Douglas G, l/o Hull; Welton Hill, Brough, Fast
Yorkshire.
Marshall, Win., l/o Stockport ; 1 J. West Street, Bochdale.
Meyer, Max 10., l/o London ; 62, ( orso \ enezia, Milan,
Italy."
Pigot, Prof. T. F., Journals to 41, Upper Mount Street,
Dublin.
Preston, E. S., l/o Liverpool ; Easton Court, Tenbury,
Worcestershire.
Price, T. Spii r-. 1 o Mark Lane ; 15, Seething Lane, E.C.
Robertson, Alex. A, l/o Loanhead ; c/o Australian
Kerosene Oil and Mineral Co., Limited, Gresham Street,
Sydney, N.s.W.
Sacre, Howard C-, lo Higher Broughton; Eccles Old
Road. Pendleton, Manchester.
Shaw, Rol.t., l/o Widnes ; Holmfield House, Mossley
Hill, near Liverpool.
Shearer, A., l/o Stratford ; 17:!. Ham Park Road, Forest
Gate, E.
Sims, T. P., 1/" 32; o.">, Windsor Terrace, Uplands,
Swansea.
Storer, Dr. J., l/o Clarence Street; 29, Bligh Street, and
Journals to G.P.O. Ron 220 Sydney, N.s.W
Strongman, J. Pim; retain Journals until further notice.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REQUIRED.
( lallandi r, W. S., 1 o Aigburth, Liverpool.
Carran, T. W.. 1 o Rawlins Street. Liverpool.
Stewart, C. W. A., 1 0 54, Belsize Road, X.W.
38 r a 1 1) 3.
Foulieron, E., 7-S. Boulevard de Strasbourg, Paris.
Longstaff, Dr. G. D., Butterknowle, Wandsworth, S.W.
Merrick, (i. E., Holyoke, Mass., U.S.A.
ILontion ^fctt'on.
CuEMlCAL SOCIKTV'S ROOMS, BotiLIXGTON iToUi-E.
Chairman: Win. Thorp.
Vice-Chairman : \V. Crowdcr.
Committee :
F. G. Adair Roberts.
A. Gordon Salamon.
G. X. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
T. E. Thorpe.
T. Tyrcr.
Frank Y\ ilson.
C. F. Cross.
A.G.Green.
D. Howard.
C. C. Hutchinson.
W. K. liner.
1!. E. II. Newlands.
W. Ramsay.
Hon. Local Secretary: John Heron,
Ederdalo, Cottenfcam Park, Wimble 'on
SESSION 1892-93.
Monday, November 7> li :— Mr. Watson Smith. "1. The. Prepnra-
tionoi Nitrous Oxide. 2. A Reaction between Cupric Acetate
ami Galena."
Bepl so.189?.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
733
Journal ano patent* fcttrraturr.
<las<. Page,
I. — General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery '■'>''
II.— Fuel, Gas. and Light 781
III.— Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 735
IV. — Colouring .Matters and Dyes 787
V.— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 7U
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Taper Staining, and
Bleaching 7 it
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 7 |c,
\ III. Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 7 is
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars and Cements.. 749
X.— Metallurgy 750
XI.— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 7">l
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Snap Manufacture 760
XII I. —Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Robber. &c 758
XIV.— Tannin i. Leather. Glue, and Size 759
XV.— Manures, &c 7rii>
5 VI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 700
X VII.— Brewing. Wines. Spirits, Ac 763
XVIII.- Chemistry of P Is. Sanitary Chemistry, and
Disinfectants 7iW
XlX.-Paper, Pasteboard, ftc 771
XX. -Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 771
XXI. Photographic Materials and Processes —
XXII Explosives, Matches, &c 773
XXII I.— Analytical Chemistry 771
I.-OENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS. AND
MACHINERY.
The Use oj Oil in Ammonia (ins Compressors and ils
Influence on the Efficiency of the Compressors. Hans
von Strombcck. J. Frank. Inst. 133, 297 -307.
The object of the experiments described by the author was
to determine the effect the oil injected into the compressing
cylinder of the De I, a Vergne refrigerating machine lias upon
the efficiency of the machine. In the old form De laVergne
machine with a single-acting compressor the cold oil is drawn
from a tank kept at low pressure into the compressor
during the down stroke of the piston of the latter, i.e.,
when the compressor is fully charged with gas. During
the compression the oil absorbs a certain amount of the
ammonia. This passes out with the oil into the low
pressure tank and therefore represents a loss in the
efficiency of the compressor.
In order to determine the amount of the loss a series of
tests was made to ascertain the quantity of ammonia which
the oil can hold in solution at different pressures and
temperatures. The quantity of ammonia held in solution
by the oil before and after compression can then be
calculated and the difference will represent the loss.
As ait illustration, the author assumes a compressor of
12-in. diam., and 24-in. stroke, the capacity of which will
be 2.71 1 cub. iu. Let 35 cub. in. of oil be injected at each
down stroke. He assumes further a terminal pressure
of 14G7 lb. absolute, at a temperature of 150" l'\, and a
back pressure of 44 lb. at a temperature of 70° F. The
author's experiments show that at a temperature of 1 50° F.,
and under a pressure of 146*7 lb., 1 volume of oil absorbs
12-430 volumes of gas, and at a temperature of 70°, and
under a pressure of 44 lb., 1 volume of oil absorbs 6-599
volumes of gas, both volumes being reduced to normal
pressure and temperature. One volume of oil. therefore,
if reduced from 14G-7 lb. and 150° to 44 lb. and 70°,
loses 5*831 volumes of ammonia. This quantity of gas at
the actual pressure and temperature (44 lb. and 70')
occupies only 2-09 volumes. Hence the quantity of
* Any of these specifications may he obtained by post by remitting
Hi I. —the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
ammonia which is allowed to escape out of the 35 cub. iu.
of oil injected occupies, on the suction side of the compressor,
73- 15 cub. in., and as the capacity of the latter is 2.714 cub.
in., the loss in efficiency is 2*69 per cent.
The oil used in the De La Vergne machines is necessarily
a mineral oil, as all animal and vegetable oils would
saponify in contact with ammonia.
The tests were carried out as follows. The oil to be
experimented upon is placed in a strong glass flask with
a graduated neck, and is immersed iu an oil bath. From
the top of this flask issue two tubes fitted with stop-
cocks, the one a capillary tube, being that by which the
ammonia enters the flask, the other, of larger bore, with
two branches, one branch connected to a mercury mano-
meter capable of measuring to four atmospheres, the other
to a bottle containing mineral oil, through which the gas
escapes into the atmosphere. The object of this bottle is to
indicate the velocity of the current of ammonia. In order to
lessen the risk of sudden evolution of gas, the generating
apparatus is immersed in a cold water tank. When the
oil is thoroughly saturated, which takes from 1', to 2 hours,
according to the temperature and pressure used, both
of which can be varied, the cocks are closed, the generating
apparatus removed, and instead of the manometer a series
of flasks containing dilute hydrochloric acid is substituted.
On opening the cocks and sending a current of pure air
through the apparatus, the acid will absorb every trace of
the ammonia, ' forming pure ammonium chloride which
can be weighed, whence the volume of gas absorbed by
the oil under the given conditions can be calculated.
The table below gives some of the principal results, the
numbers representing the volumes of gas absorbed by one
volume of the oil at the temperatures indicated.
Pi
iasure in
lb.
32° !•'.
7a F.
150° F.
14-67
1
3- 139
2-197
1-243
29-34
G-333
■■*"
'J is;
44-01
10-040
6-599
3-556
58-68
15-655
s 52 '
4-092
— D. E. J.
PATENTS.
Improvements in or connected with Means or Apparatus
for //eating Metals by Liquid or Gaseous Fuel.
G. Rodger, Sheffield. Kng. Pat. 12,998, July 31, 1891.
By means of this invention the flame and beat from the
combustion of an oil spray are directed on to or about any
metal or material to be heated, Hy means of plates, suitably
arranged, the air is heated and the apparatus made regene-
rative. A suitable form of furnace with regenerator is
shown in the drawing attached to the specification. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Combustion of Fuel and Furnace
Apparatus therefor. K. Marshall, Honor Oak Park,
Surrey. Eng. Pat. 8159, Aprii 30, 1892.
This invention relates to the more complete combustion of
fuel with reduced air supply, and without the production of
smoke. A special form of furnace is used, into which the
fuel is charged bj- means of a hopper, and from the bottom
of which the products of combustion are drawn by the
ordinary chimney draught through the boiler- or other
flues. The air for combustion is admitted by a valve on
the top of the fuel, and passes downwards carrying with it
the gases and distilled products from the green fuel, which
are decomposed by the incandescent fuel at the bottom,
" and practically a complete combustion effected without
the production of smoke." — D. A. S.
734
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1898.
IL-FUEL, GAS, AND LIGHT.
Tlie Production of Heating Gas am! Ammonia.
A. lleimin. (hem. Trade J. 11, 147— 148.
In the dry distillation of coal the production of ammonia
does not exceed 10 per cent, of the total nitrogen, being
limited by the water of combination of the coal. This
conclusion is corroborated by the fact that in blast, furnaces
where raw eoal is used, although all the coal is consumed,
and consequently all the nitrogen is liberated, the product
of ammonia does not exceed 15 per cent, of the total
nitrogen. In addition to the water of combination in the
coal, there is doubtless also a proportionate effect due to
the water of combination of the iron ore and flux, perhaps
slio ],t 1\ influenced by traces of water carried into the
furnace with the air blast.
If all the nitrogen in coal could be converted into
ammonia, a coal containing 1; per cent, of nitrogen would
produce per ton the equivalent of 164 lb. of sulphate of
ammonia. This result is not obtainable in blast furnaces ;
it is impossible in the manufacture of illuminating coal-gas
or of coke ; hut it is realisable to a large extent in the
manufacture of heating gas for metallurgical and other
uses.
The nascent hydrogen from the water of combustion of
tin- coal is the main element which accomplishes the trans-
formation of the nitrogen into ammonia. Hence, the more
water the more ammonia. If a sufficient outside supply of
water is given, all the other conditions being favourable, the
total amount of the nitrogen may be secured as ammonia.
Practice has demonstrated the correctness of this view. In
1877, Dr. H. Grouven, of Leipzig, discovered that in a large
excess of superheated steam, when the necessary conditions
of temperature, time, and contact are supplied, combined
nitrogen is transformed into ammonia. He applied his
di ; ery to an analytical method of nitrogen determination,
which gives concordant results with other accurate
methods. Later on, lieilby. Foster, Guegen, and others
(this Journal, 1884, 216) demonstrated that the coke, which
retains a large percentage of nitrogen even at a light red
heat, parts with it in the form of ammonia in the presence
of a large excess of -team at an intense heat. Since, in
accomplishing this result, the steam is decomposed by
carbon, liberating hydrogen, aid tic- carbon is transformed
into carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, it is evident that
we have here the elements of a process tor producing
simultaneously large quantities of ammonia ami also heating
gas of high calorific value. Between tins theoretical
reaction, however, anil the establishment of an economical
manufacturing process, there were many difficulties '" over-
come. As has been pointed out, the main conditions for
the formation of ammonia ate eminently favourable to the
production of a good heating gas. Hut high temperature is
not compatible with a large excess of steam unless the
latter be intensely superheated; and such a temperature
cannot be maintained for any considerable time without
an outside supply of oxygen or an expensive external
heating. Moreover, steam in large excess is liable to pro-
due,' a gas very high in carbon dioxide, and hence of
comparatively little calorific value. Nor should it be
forgotten that ammonia, under favourable conditions, is
decomposed at a temperature far below that which is
required to decompose water and reduce the carbon dioxide
into carbon monoxide. The practical operation, therefore,
must be so e lucted as to maintain the proper heat, make
the conditions for the decomposition of ammonia as un-
favourable as possible, and, at the same time, produce such
a gas as is required in the metallurgy of iron and steel
where rapidity of heating and melting, with the lowest
percentage of waste, is a prime consideration.
The author has found that when high pressure -team is
moderately superheated ami evenly distributed and diffused
in the glowing mass, a limited supply of air, drawn into the
generator, is sufficient to maintain the temperature needed
to admit continuously from 1 lb. to I j lb. of high pn ssure
ste to the pound of coal, and that this proportion of
in, i- ample to provoke the necessarj reactions which
transform into ammonia 50 to 60 per cent, of the total
nitrogen of the coal, and still to produce a gas of the
following composition : —
Per Cent.
Carbon dioxide 10'50
I >\ yircii l'OO
Carbon monoxide SO'OO
Methane and homologous compounds 4'50
Hydrogen 3S-00
Nit ro;;en 26-00
inii'iiii
This gas is rather high in carbon dioxide, but the total of
combustible matter is considerable, and the efficiency of the
gas in a regenerative furnace for heating iron is very great.
It burns with a sharp, white-bluish flame, not without
luminosity, and heats more rapidly and more economically
than the ordinary Siemens gas.
It would seem, at first glance, that the admission of 1 lb.
to 1 "75 lb. of steam to the pound of coal would have a high
cooling effect, hindering the steady production of a gas of the
above composition, if the carbon is taken as the only source
of heat. Practice shows, however, that such is not the case.
There are different ways of accounting for this result. In
the first place, independently of the heat furnished by the
high-pressure superheated steam, many reactions producing
heat occur, such as the formation of the ammonia, &e. On
the other hand, the gas being exhausted at high speed, the
operation takes place under a constant partial vacuum, with
an apparent increased facility of the reactions, and subse-
quent distillation of the products. Whatever the explana-
tion of this precisely is, the actual result is, that not only
is there no cooling effect in the continuous production of
the above gas, but that the temperature has a tendency to
increase in the zone of combustion. If the steam has been
sufficiently superheated and diffused thoroughly in that
/.one, it is practically all decomposed during the operation ;
and the reactions proceed without intermission, the liberated
nitrogen being transformed in the presence of nascent
hydrogen into ammonia, whilst the resulting fuel gas, as
the above analysis shows, is still high in hydrogen.
The danger of the dissociation of the ammonia is not as
great in practice as has been anticipated. If we remember
in what infinitesimal proportion the ammonia is present,
diluted, and hence practically protected by the other gases,
it is evident that the chance of decomposition, with
ordinary care, is very small. And if the product is instan-
taneously exhausted from the hot atmosphere, carried into
the cooler /.one immediately above, and led out through
green fuel on the top, the ammonia is secured.
With well-devised producers and the proper plant, when
the art of managing and controlling the heat of the different
/ones of the fuel bed has been mastered, there is no ililli-
culty in producing regularly, with the proper amount of
steam, from each ton of eoal, 70 to SO lb. of sulphate of
ammonia; 1:30,000 to 150,000 cub ft. of beating gas of high
quality; and, in addition, some 15 to 20 gallons of tar,
according to the nature of the coal.
The generator must be perfectly accessible, so that it may
be easily cleaned, and the coal may be perfectly broken
through. The aim should be to keep the fuel like a sponge,
but without holes or large cavities. The advantages of a good
stirring are obvious ; it insures the complete diffusion of tin1
steam through the glowing mass, maintains the high tempe*
ratine in the lower pari of the generator, and keeps the top
cool, thus tending to secure economy in eoal, the minimum
of necessary cooling-surface in the condensers, and the
maximum yield of ammonia. The carbon dioxide should
lie kept at a minimum. Its formation is a function of
temperature ; the lower the temperature at which the carbon
and air or the carbon and steam come in contact, the more
carbon dioxide is formed. It must not be forgotten that
the depth of the fuel has a very important bearing on the
condition and results.
In order to obtain good heating gas and the largest yield
of ammonia and tar, the gas must be well cooled and well
scrubbed. If the gas be not cooled, the quantity of water
which it will sink from the washing apparatus is so great as
to destroy the value of the gas for heating purposes, while
Sept. so. 1888.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
735
the ammonia, even if it be in the form of fixed suit or
sulphate, is carried away, and tin. more volatile constituents
of the tar arc carried forward ami settle iu the conduits.
The system is entirely smokeless, ami lias the further
advantage of taking the sulphurous acid very thoroughly out
of the pas. — W. S.
Ignition Temperature of Electrolytic Gas. V. Freyer ami
V. Meyer. Iter. 25, 1892, 622.
See under Will., page 780.
PATENTS.
Improvements in or connected with the Manufacture of
Illuminating ami Heating Gas. W. II. Wilson,
Waterloo, Lancaster. Eng. Pat. 5468, March 2S, 1891.
According to this invention tar is distilled ami the resulting
gases combined with coal-gas, the combination being effected
in a chamber at comparatively low temperature. By this
means the inventor claims that the illuminating quality of
the coal-gas will not be injuriously affected. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Method of Using Hydrocarbon Oils
for Heating Purposes, and in the Arrangement and
( 'onstruction of Apparatus and Appliances far such
Purposes. E. N. Henwood, London. Eng. Pat. 10,320,
June 17, 1891.
FOB the generation of steam, smelting of ores, &c., an
apparatus consisting of a fire-brick furnace provided with an
air-tight wrought iron or steel front is employed. Through
an aperture in the iron front passes an arrangement con-
sisting of four concentric tubes, each of which is provided
witli a stop-cock or valve, and a dial indicator, for regulating
and indicating the quantity of oil, steam, or air passing into
the furnace. The centre tube, through which steam is
introduced, is provided with a taper plug at the end, so that
its orifice is annular ; the second tube is used for the intro-
duction of oil, the third for steam, and the outermost for
air; the steam and the air are preferably superheated.
A V it li this apparatus the most perfect combustion cau he
attained without smoke or noise from the blast. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Gas for Illuminating
and Heating Purposes, and in or connected irith
Apparatus therefor. J. II. K. Dinsmore, Liverpool.
Eng. Pat. 11,740, July 10, 1891.
When tar or other liquid hydrocarbon is converted into gas
and mixed with crude coal-gas in a heated duct, the tarry
deposits are so hard that they are with difficulty removed
from the duct. If, however, the tar is gasified in oue
chamber of a heated duct, and then mixed with crude coal-
gas iu a second and separate chamber, the deposits do not
bee unc hardened, and the duct can be easily cleaned.
The apparatus used for carrying out this improved process
consists of a retort or duct which is provided with two
central, horizontal, partial diaphragms. The coal is distilled
in the lowermost portion and tar is introduced at the back
on to the top of the lower diaphragm which forms the top
of the coal retort, and projects towards the mouth-piece.
The tar-gas and I he coal-gas pass towards the mouth-piece,
and the mixed gas is then led above the upper partial
diaphragm, where it is further heated and rendered
permanent. — F. S. K.
Improvements in Appliances for Use with Incandescence
Lamps. A. Heald, London. Eng. Pat. 1-1,752, Sep-
tember 1,1891.
Tins is an improved method of suspending mantles for pro-
ducing light by incandescence. The mantle is suspended
from a bridge supported by a rod disposed centrally within
the burner. An improved method of packing the mantle
to prevent fracture iu transit is also described. — I). A. S.
Improvements in Apparatus for Use in lite Manufacture of
Illuminating Gas. H. Williams, Manchester. Eng.
l'at. 15,390, September 11, 1891.
An improvement and simplification of the apparatus described
in a former patent (No. 5434, 1890; this Journal, 1891,
626).— F. S. K.
.1 New Process of and Apparatus fa- the Manufacture oj
Illuminating das. C. B. de Lauiarre, Hiloxi, Mississippi.
U.S.A. Eng, l'at. 6362, April 1, 1892.
To k method and apparatus claimed are briefly as follows : — ■
From a steam generator, steam is passed into a deeom-
posing-retort charged with coke or charcoal, the connection
being by means of valved piping. There is then a main
cooler ; with an auxiliary cooler, a purifier and a carburettor
interposed between the deeomposing-retort and that main
cooler. The main cooler is connected with the gasometer.
The auxiliary cooler, purifier, and main cooler are in
communication with the retort, carburettor, and each other.
by piping with suitable valves, so that whilst the carburettcd
gas first only passes through the main cooler, later on it
may receive a preliminary cooling in the auxiliary before
carburetting and passing through the main cooler to the
gasometer.
The carburettor is charged with the " necessary oil " or
'' spirits of petroleum," and the purifying material consists
of " an alkaline solution of potash or chromate of potash'/
in one chamber of the purifier, and a solution of oxalic acid
in the other. The first chamber with the chromate is said
to arrest the sulphuretted hydrogen, which is retained by
the chromium as " sulphide thereof." — D. A. S.
ILL-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Homopyrocatechin ( llomaeatechol) and Two of its Nitro-
Derivatives. M. H. Coubiu. Compt. rend. 115 1892,
234—236.
This substance is obtained by treating the creosol of wood-
tar with hydriodic acid gas at a temperature of 180° C, and
subsequent fractional distillation. Below 230° C. any creosol
which has not been acted upon by the gas passes over and '
may be used for a subsequent operation, the portion which
passes over between 230° and 265° C. containing the homo-
catechol. The residue consists of resinous matters.
The product obtained between 230 and 265° C. is treated
repeatedly with boiling water ; the aqueous solution is
filtered after cooling, and evaporated to a dark-brown syrup,
which is dried over sulphuric acid for a considerable time
and then purified by fractional distillation under reduced
pressure. Most of it passes over between 210 and 215°
at 190 mm. pressure in the form of a viscous, colourless
liquid which solidifies to a white mass the more readily if
some crystals from a preceding operation are introduced.
This is homocatechol containing a little pyrocatechol ; its
fusion point is 49° — 50° C. The author has prepared two
nitro-derivatives from it as follows : — ■
Eleven grins, of homocatechol are dissolved in 500 cc. of
ether, and little by little 4 cc. of fuming nitric acid are
added. After about 24 hours the mixture is agitated with a
little water, the ethereal layer separated, and distilled. To
the residue of this distillation water is added, and the
mixture re-distilled. The water which passes over is of a
yellow colour and contains some oily drops. It is heated to
bring this nitro-derivative into solution. It crystallises out
on cooling in golden-yellow scales, which are only slightly
soluble in cold water, but readily soluble in warm watei,
alcohol, and ether. About 79° — 80° they melt, and begin to
decompose about 180°. Alkalis colour them dark red.
The formula is C7H?NU4, which is that of a mouo-nitro'
derivative.
;;,;
TEE JOURNAL OF TEE SOCIETY OF CEEMICAL INDUSTRY. IScpt. 30. isw.
According to another method, 5 grms. of homoca echol are
dissolved in 150 ce. of water, and to the solution 18'. '> u'lins.
of nitrite of soda are added, and then, little by little, hydro-
chloric aeiil so loDg as nitrous fumes are disengaged. The
dark-red mixture is agitated with twice its volume of ether,
the ethereal layer separated, and distilled. The brown
residue of the distillation is dried over sulphuric acid aud
then treated with boiling- benzene, which on cooling deposits
verj strongly-coloured crystalline crusts. These are purified
by re-crystallisation from benzene and then by a series of
crystallisations from dilute alcohol, when it forms little
sulphur-yellow needles slightly soluble in cold water, but
readily soluble in warm water, alcohol, ether, and benzene.
It fuses and begins to decompose at about 180°. The
formula is t'-ll-\04, like that of the preceding, aud it is
isomeric with it.
This body gives with an excess of alkali a beautiful purple
colouration resulting from basic combinations, which have
not been obtained in crystals. II to a solution of this body
either potash or ammonia are added little by little until the
liquid begins to turn purple, on cooling beautiful orange-
yellow needles are obtained, which are monobasic alkaline
salts easily purified by successive crystallisations from water.
The potassium salt was found to have a composition agreeing
witli the formula C-!I,,KX( I. + EUO.— J. II. C.
The Composition of Liquid Ammonia of Commerce, and
the Manufacture oj Liquid Ammonia of 99- 995 per cent.
Strength. H. von Strombeck. J. Frank. lust. 1892,
134,58— 64
If the so-called chemically-pure liquid ammonia be allowed
to evaporate in a vessel connected with an inverted con-
denser kept cool by a freezing mixture, an alkaline yellow
fluid of penetrating odour is obtained, mixed with crystals
of ammonium sesquicarbonatc. The yellow fluid is a
constant product from whatever source the ammonia is
derived, but the sesquicarbonatc occasionally dissolves
instead of assuming the crystalline state. By saturation
with hydrochloric acid gas and removal of the excess with
lime a neutral liquid is yielded, which is still yellow from
the presence of traces of lubricating oil. < In distillation at a
pressure of 200 mm. at 40' — 50° C. a colourless liquid passes
over, the mineral oil remaining behind. Mineral matter, such
as sand, oxide and sulphide of iron, is also sometimes to
be fouud, the average composition of six samples of liquid
ammonia derived from different sources being as follow- : —
Per rent.
Ammonia (by difference) 98*745
Moisture O'Ml
< olourless fluid" ff Ifi
Sesquicat li mate 0 052
Oil Hill I
Mineral matter 0 ""-
i
This "colourless fluid " has a specific gravity of 0-7948
at 15-5" ('., is miscible with water and burns with a slightly
luminous flame. On fractional distillation, 14-9 percent, was
found to pass over at 74° — 78' and 7stj per cent, at 7s —
82 C, audit consisted chiefly of isopropyl alcohol, methyl
and ethyl alcohol, acetone and methyl-ethyl-ketone being
also present.
Metallic sodium having the property of decomposing
these substances, as well as the water and the ammonium
sesquicarbonate with tin- formation of ammonia ami
hydrogen as the only volatile products, tlie author has
devised ami patented (U.S. Pat l77.os'.n a process for the
production of liquid ammonia absolutely free from every
foreign substance except the lubricating oil, i.e , of, on the
average, 99* 995 per cent, purity, the increase in the cost
being only about -J • 5 per cent. The ammonia gas, manu-
factured in the usual manner, is freed from water as
completely as possible ami Ud through two vessels
containing sodium kept liquid by means of steam-jackets,
whence it is drawn into the compressor aud liquefied in the
usual way. To avoid, however, the extra work on the
engine caused bv the presence of the hydrogen evolved
during the reaction, the gases may advisedly be passed over
palladium black or gauze, for although this is a very
expensive material, 1 lb. costing about SO/., by a suitable
arrangemeut of cocks, air may be periodically led over the
palladium, removing the absorbed hydrogen and making it
fit for use over again. In this way probably \ lb. of
palladium would be the extreme amount required even for
the largest plant.
The author gives as an additional advantage of this
process the opinion that the terrific explosions occurring
every now and then iu the refrigerating plant would thereby
he done away with, as he holds that they are in all
probability due to the presence of the alcohols and
ketones, which during compression are converted into
hydrocarbons, &c, by the thermo-electricity developed
bitw ecu the tin solder of the joints and the iron of the rest
of the apparatus.. < In this subject lie is still experimenting
— F. 11. L.
cent
' Eliminating one sample the average amount of <>ii waBO
nt
The Coal -Tar Industry during the Year 1891. Chem.
1ml. 15, 1892, 145— 149.
DURING the first nine months of the year 1891, the coal tar
trade was fairly brisk, but at the end business fell off, and
owing to speculation as well, prices fell very considerably,
in some cases a- much as 5" per cent. Fifty and 90 per
cent, benzene which in January were quoted at 3s. 6<f. aud
is. '.'(/. per gallon respectively in London, in December were
only worth Is. 9d. and 2s. ?.</.; and phenol, which, as a
disinfectant, has suffered much from Koch's publications in
past years, was being sold in December at 5d. per lb. t 34° —
35 crystals). The use of naphthalene for carburetting gas
has greatly fallen off, owing to the competition of the
various regenerative burners, and although it is being used
in the manufacture of explosives such as Favier's (this
Journal, 1888, 519 and 589), as is also the ease with
phenol, the consumption in times of peace is too small
appreciably to affect the price. Anthracene, too, has fallen
off from Is. 3d. to Is. per unit, and the demand has been
very small. On the other baud, the " denaturing " bases
have increased 25 per cent, in value, and, according to
Delbruck, the consumption has gone up from 43" 1 to .'>:;• 1
milliou litres per annum in Germany.
Kecent reports of The Gas Light and Coke Company
show that petroleum products have been largely used iu gas
manufacture, ami this, inter alia, it is thought, may be
taken a- a sign that the public are far from satisfied with
the illuminating power of the gas usually supplied: the
great interest displayed iu the Dinsmore process (this
Journal, 1889, 960," and 1890, 442) which is said to
have proved unsuccessful (this Journal, 1891, G85) also
points iu the same direction. The result of this dis-
satisfaction may well be that in the future, gas manufac-
turers will have to keep the whole of their benzene in the
gas, and so the depreciation of price, which must otherwise
undoubtedly occur owiug to the increasing amount of
benzene produced by the coke ovens, may be avoided.
Should, however, tlie benzene of the gasworks remain on the
market, the question arises as to the lowest price which will
pay the owners of tlie coke ovens for the pure article, and
this may be taken in England at about 3s. !/</., aud in
Germany at 2s. 6d. per gallon.
Pearson's Creolin (this Journal, 1880,274) and Lysol
(this Journal, 1S90, 1136) are said not to have proved as
successful as could be wished, the cloudy or opaque nature
of the preparations, as well as the free or loosely combined
alkali they contain militating largely against their employ-
ment by the medical world. Should however, the new
efforts to use cresol in a perfectly soluble form (this
Journal, 1S9!, 722) be more successful, this hitherto
neglected product may rise considerably in value. Hand
Smith's process (this Journal. 1889, 553) for assisting the
solution of resins, such a- copal, by previous treatment with
benzene or phenol, may also turn out valuable, as is also the
progress made in the employment of highly nitrated tar
hydrocarbons as explosives (this Journal, 1888, 588 ; and
Sept. so, WW.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
737
1891, 1028). l'.iramidopheuol has been found to be a
good developer for photographic work, and anthr.milic acid
is being used for the manufacture of artificial indigo (this
Journal, 1891, s:ii).
()u the more scientific Bide of the coal-tar industry more
advances bave been made during the past year, among
which the following may probably become of technical
importance. Liebermann has found in phenylhydrazine
(this Journal, 1891, 578) a new reagent, much more delicate
than the Old alcoholic potash, for the detection of carbon
bisulphide in benzene, from which impurity few commercial
samples are now shown to be free. Etard and Lambert
bave isolated (this Journal, 1891, 688) pyropentyleue, the
last of the three members of the indene group (this Journal,
1891, 38) ; this being of special interest owing to Wallach's
researches on the similarities between it and the terpenes
(this Journal, 1891, 850). Iiaur has finally settled the
composition of artificial musk (this Journal, 1891), 964, and
1891, 1021), and found it to be an isnpropyl compound (this
Journal, 1892, 306). Noelting has discovered that ethyl-
benzene is present in small quantities in commercial xylene
(this Journal, 1891, 912); and Bi/.arri, by reducing
cumarone (this Journal, 1890, 27a) to amidophenanthrene,
has shown its close relationship to ehryscue and pheuanthrene.
Wiehelhaus, by a new study of that portion of coal-tar
which boils at 240°, has discovered a better method for the
production of a- aud 3-methyl-naphthalene. Klbs has
assigned to paranthracene the molecular weight 303 (this
Journal, 1892, 340), whence its formula appears to be
l\.JL„.
Among the oxygen compounds of coal-tar, phenol only
has been investigated, and this merely with regard to its
reddening in air and light. Fabini has assigned to this
colour the name pheuerythrene (this Journal, 1891, 453 and
80(1), but he lias not actually isolated such a body, nor
proved that his artificially produced colour is really the
same as the natural one, for the reddening takes place even
in phenol absolutely free from metallic salts. Schwarz
has improved the synthetical process for the production of
(B-picoline from glycerol and ammonia, and has also obtained
small quantities of the a-com pound ; and Ladenburg's experi-
ments on the addition products of pyridine ( this Journal,
1891, 818) promise to yield highly interesting results
regarding the constitution of many alkaloids. The formation
of carbazol from ortliodiainidophenol has been recently
successful (Tauber, this Journal, 1890, 1123, and 1891,030),
while Blank had previously obtained it in another way from
ortho-aniidopheiiol (this Journal, 1891,336). Kramer and
Spilker's work on the condensation products of methyl-
ated benzene and allyl alcohol and the production of
artificial lubricating oils (this Journal, 1892, 22), promises to
be of great importance.
Taken as a whole — having regard to the competition of
the coke ovens on the one hand and of the electric light on
the other, the outlook for the tar trade is not so bright as
it has been in past years, and there is no doubt that it
is passing through a period productive of great anxiety to
those connected with it. — F. II. L.
The Production of Heating Gets and Ammonia. A. Ilennin.
(hem. Trade J. 11, 147 — 148.
See under II., page 731.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Coke Ovens. H. H. Leigh, London.
1 i < >in T. Bauer, Berlin, auclG. Men'dheim, Munich. Eng.
Pat. 12,396, July 21, 1891.
This patent relates to improvements in the construction of
coke ovens, worked either with or without extraction of
byproducts. The essential feature of the invention is a
new arrangement of the air-heating chambers, through
which the products of combustion are led in order that
their heat may be utilised for raising the temperature of
the fresh-air supply. — F. S. K.
Improvements in and Relating /» Retorts fur Distilling
Shale and like Mini rah, and for Healing with the
result in./ Products. R. Orr aud R. M. Sutherland,
Linlithgow. Eng. l'at. 15,552, September II, 1891.
The principal improvement here described is a new method
of discharging the spent shale from the bottom of the
retorts into a lower hopper chamber, whence it is delivered
vertically through the door of a hopper to the removing
hutches.
E'er a description of the apparatus the original must be
consulted. — F. S. K.
Improvements in the Purification of Pyrolignitcs. F. H.
Pickles, Fairfield, and K. H. Pickles, Mat-pie. Eng. Pat.
20,753, November 28, lX'.i 1 .
It is proposed to separate the pyroliguites (such as crude
sodium acetate, wood acid, aud black-iron liquor) from the
tarry matters accompanying their production by treatment
with carbonaceous matter, or with residues containing the
same. The residues obtained in the manufacture of potas-
sium prussiate, or those by calcining animal matter alone
with the carbonates or hydrates of the alkalis, are specially
adapted for this purpose. The modus operandi consists in
heating up to boiling point a pyrolignite containing about
25 — 30 per cent, of impurities with about 50 per cent, by
weight of the residue; the liquor is then settled, filtered,
aud concentrated. — H. A.
n.-COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
On Diamidosulphobenzide and some of Us Derivatives.
Ch. Lautb. Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 1023 1024.
Diamidosulphobenzide, S( ).,' < 'J 1 1NH2)2 is easily prepared
as follows : — Sulphohenzide is dissolved in three times its
weight of nitric acid (IS B.) mixed with five times its
weight of sulphuric acid ; the mixture becomes very warm,
and is kept warm for half an hour. On cooling it crystal-
lises, the crystals are washed with water aud, after the
removal of the acids, are treated with alcohol until the
melting-point of the product reaches 197 C. The diuitro-
sulphobenzide thus obtained is reduced by warming it with
one and a half times its weight of tin and three times its
weight of hydrochloric acid ; after the reduction is complete
the tin is removed by H2S ; the liquid is concentrated on a
water-hath and the base precipitated by ammonia. After
one or two crystallisations from benzene or alcohol the
product is absolutely pure. It forms rhomboidal prisms,
melting at 165° — 170° C. soluble in water, alcohol, and
benzene when warm, aud separating out on cooling. It is
not attacked by zinc aud sulphuric acid ; attempts to
obtain paramidothiopheuol in this way were unsuccessful.
It readily yields diazo-derivatives when treated with nitrite
of soda in presence of hydrochloric acid, and these when
acted on by the usual reagents yield beautiful colouring
matters. A list of these dyes is given (orange, scarlet,
brown, aud violet colours), but the author adds that they
do not appear to be superior to others which are already
known. Contrary to his expectation they bave no affinity
for cotton. — D. E. J.
On Azo-Compounda and Colouring Matters derived from
Chrysaniline. A. Trillat and de Kaczkowski. Compt.
rend'. 114, 1892, 1021.
Ill vMiiiiirHENVL aeridine, C|.,II|,N' ;, is easily prepared by
dissolving commercial phosphine, which is generally impure,
iu a large quantity of acidulated water and pouring it slowly
into a dilute solution of carbonate of soda with continual
agitation. The base is thus obtained in the form of a
yellow powder. It is diazotised by dissolving it in dilute
acid, and adding sodium nitrite iu the cold. The tetrazoic
738
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. so, is;i-J.
compound obtained has the same properties as those of
the diazobenzene class, and easily yields, by the usual
methods, compounds with the amines, phenols, &c.
It was of interest to discover if this colouring matter
derived from tetrazochrysaniline could enjoy at the same
lime the stability of chrysaniline and the brilliancy of the
tctrazo-colours. The best results were obtained by com-
bining tetrazochrysaniline with disulphonaphtholate of
sodium. Disulphonaphtholazochrysaniline is, when freshly
prepared, a green powder with metallic reflex. It is
insoluble in alcohol, but very soluble in water, to which it
imparts a magnificent red colour. The compounds with
the sulphophenols give shades varying from rose to bright
red. They dye silk well, but wool very badly. Non-
mordanted cotton does not take the colour; and even when
mordanted with tannin it only receives the colours faintly.
M - ilidity, brilliancy, and resisting power the colours are
inferior to those of chrysaniline.— D. E. J.
The paste should not, therefore, contain more than 1 per
cent, of II.SOj, and wljeu it is remembered that as much
as 4o per cent, has been found in commercial paste, the
importance of watching this factor becomes apparent. An
excess of acid in the ink corrodes the pens, delays the
darkening of writing, and sometimes perforates the paper.
Apart from these objections it was noticed in the course of
ih' research that up to a certain point the addition of
sulphuric acid was advantageous, and then just the opposite.
This is shown by the following figures, obtained by expos-
ing equal measures of an experimental ink (0* 536 grin,
each of tannin and pure F'eS04 in 50 cc. water, plus the
amount of acid indicated) in cylindrical jars : —
An attempt to place the Manufacture of Ink on a Scientific
Basis. YV. iDglis Clark, ('hem. and Druggist, July 30,
151—152.
Towards the beginning of this century a Dr. Lewis made
some attempts to place the manufacture of ink on a
satisfactory basis, ami he succeeded so far as to determine
that an excess of iron salt in the ink is detr. mental to its
permanence, such ink becoming brown on exposure. Three
parts of galls to one part of ferrous sulphate were the
proportions which he fixed upon as the best. He did not
use boiling water in extracting the galls, and this has to be-
taken into account in considering exact experiments, for
cold water would not. as he used it, extract more than half
of the gallo-tannic acid from the galls. This observer was
the first to introduce logwood as a tinctorial agent, and he
made the interesting ami important observation that acetic
acid in the menstruum provides an ink of greater body and
blackness than sulphuric acid does— a circumstance due to
the smaller resistance of acetic acid to the formation of iron
gallo-tannate. This observation has since been utilised by
dyers. In 1798 l.ihancourt determined that an excess of
galls is quite as injurious to the permanence of ink as an
excess of iron, but Dr. Clark's research does not sustain his
explanation that this is flue to the reducing action of the
gallo-tannic acid. Dr. Bostock communicated a paper to
the Society of Aits in 1830, in the course of which he
stated that the tannin, mucilage, and extractive matter are
"without doubt the principal causes of the difficulty which
>< encountered in the formation of a perfect and durable
ink. For a good ink the essential ingredients are gallic
acid and a sesqui-salt of iron." In this point Dr. Bostock
peculiarly hit the mark. Owing to his working with galls
he was unable to make decisive experiments, but he
concludes, and that rightly, that in proportion as ink consists
merely of gallate of iron it is less liable to decomposition
and any kind of metamorphosis.
The introduction of blue-black ink is the next phase of
the development towards modern methods which is noticed.
The object of adding a dye is to give temporary colour to
the ink, and. as indigo-paste is used, it has been assumed
that this keeps the iron gallo-tannate in solution. Any
virtue of this kind which indigo-paste possesses i- more
likely due to the sulphuric acid which it contains than to
the indigo itself. The essential part of the paste required
is the snlpho-indigotate of sodium, now commonly called
indigo-carmine. The commercial paste contains varying
proportions of free sulphuric acid, and it is essential in
ink marufaeture that only the minimum of this constituent
should be admitted. It is somewhat difficult to determine
the proportion of acid present by the ordinary alkalimetric
methods, but, by treating a known weight of the paste with
excess of barium carbonate, and absorbing the evolved
carbonic dioxide in a weighed potash bulb, the amount of
sulphuric acid can be accurately obtained. Three samples
of paste, which were fouud to be very suitable for ink
making, gave the following figures : —
Sample \.n'4r, , CO > • i 0
It, 0-819 ., = 0-71
C, 0"236 „ = <rX
Acid ad 1' <1 -
".
Time exposed.
St i in o'fppt.
Per cenl of
Fe in ppt.
Per Cent.
0 0
Hours.
■:\\
Grin.
0-1043
s-..
.i 01703
64S
8-66
u-i ".in,;
ills
0-0103
10- 12
0*05109
.ii-
0-0198
8*53
0 0C812
i.
O'OUOO
0-00
The stability of an ink precipitate depends upon the
amount of iron which it contains, and which on no account
should be less than S per cent. More than the highest
amount of acid above indicated throws down a white granular
precipitate.
Similar experiments to the foregoing with gallic acid
revealed the fact that no precipitate whatever i- obtained
under precisely similar conditions. This point followed up
explained in a measure why a gall infusion prepared with
hot water is not suitable for a blue-black, whilst a cold-
water infusion is. In the litter ease a comparatively small
percentage of tannin is extracted from the galls, while
much is extracted with hot water, and the consequence is
that on adding the indigo-blue the colour of the latter is
not brought out as it should be. Substantially the same
thing occurs with ink made with tin: respective acid-,
although the blue colour remains for a considerable time
unimpaired in a tannin ink, ami it appears to be due to the
fact that ferrous taimate reduces indigo-blue to indigo white,
a change which the low- reducing power of ferrous gallate
does little to effect. The vegetable matter present in
common inks facilitates the destruction, or, rather, altera-
tion and precipitation, of the indigo, for the dye appears in
the iron precipitate, and may lie extracted from it with
boiling water.
The investigation having demonstrated the superiority of
tannin and gallic acid to galls, the opportunity was tak-ii
to determine the correct ratio of tannin and sulphate of iron
to be used for ink. As in experiments previously mentioned,
samples of ink were made containing different proportions of
essential ingredient-, exposed, and the percentage and nature
it the precipitate determined. The results show that : —
1. The amount of precipitate increases as the proportion
of iron to tannin is increased.
L'. The composition of the precipitate is so variable as to
preclude the possibility of its being a definite body. Increase
of iron in the solution has not at first any effect on the com-
position of the precipitate, but afterwards iron is found in it
in greater but not proportional amount.
3. At one point the proportions of iron in the precipitate
and in solution are the same, and this is at between six and
ten parts of iron to 100 parts of tannin.
4. The proportion of iron in the precipitate varies with the
length of time the ink has been exposed. At first the pre-
cipitate contains lo percent, of iron, but by-and-by a new
one having only 7'5 per cent, is formed, and in from -10 to
70 days we find one of 5'7 per cent., resembling —
(Ca7H19H01?)3Fe3
Simultaneously iron increases in the ink (proportionate to
the tanuin). These results differ markedly from those of
YVittstcin, recorded in (imeliu's "Chemistry."
Sept. 80, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
739
.">. These results show, anil practice confirms, that 16 parts
of iron (80 ferrous sulphate) and 10U parts of tannin are
best for iuk manufacture.
The research now travelled in a direction which accu-
mulating experience showed to he obligatory. Blue-black
tannin ink lost colour, and the reducing nature of the tannin
tended to the formation of a highly objectionable precipitate
in the ink, which made writing anything but a pleasure.
These two faults were doubtless linked together in sonic
way, and seemed uot to exist when gallic acid was used, for
ink so made was found to precipitate only after long
exposure, it required no free acid to keep the precipitate in
solution, retained the indigo-blue colour for a long time, j
alkalis did not decompose the ink, and provided blacker and i
more permanent writing. It is also notable that one of the
most popular English blue-black writing inks is a gallic acid
one. Determination of the correct proportions of gallic acid
and ferrous sulphate to use was the subject of prolonged
experiments, which were conducted on similar lines to those
already detailed. The conclusions as to precipitation were
also similar. Thirty parts of iron (150 of ferrous sulphate)
and 100 parts of gallic acid were found to be the most |
suitable proportions for ink-making. It is advisable, how-
ever, not to discard tannin altogether, owing to the slow
blackening of the gallic-acid iuk, and a little tannin gives
initial blackening and body, while it is absolutely necessary |
for copying-ink. Initial blackness can also be ensured by
oxidising 21 per cent, of the ferrous sulphate without
adding the extra acid necessary to the formation of a ferric
salt.
The concluding portion of the research was devoted to
the influence of sugar upon the permanence of ink, and the
results of the experiments arc summed up in the following
sentences: — "It would be injurious to add 3 per cent, of
sugar to a tannin ink, while from 4 to 10 per cent, would be
quite allowable. Most copying inks contaiu about 3-5 per
cent, of sugar — uot far from the critical amount. With
gallic acid more than 3 per cent, of sugar hardly varies the
precipitate, hut the importance of this point is somewhat
diminished by the fact that the presence of sugar is by no
means necessary in a writing-ink. Dextrin is a much
superior substance to use. Curiously this body rapidly
precipitates a tannin iuk ; hence it is useless for copying-
ink, but for the gallic iuk it is an excellent thickener." — W. S.
The Manufacture ofNitrobromfluoresceln. 0. Miihlhauser.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 284, 1892, 95.
Eosix is nitrated by the action of sodium or potassium
nitrate and acetic acid, the operation being conducted
in a pan A (Figs. 1 and 2) set in a water-bath, and the
Fig. 1.
i«vv<v<vy<.;vt ■^wv>ivw^wi<<s.'X^-vNf^v.'^^v''c<Vi^
Fig. 2.
T— " -._
Mi.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Sept. - -
product being freed from acid by repeated washing with
water in the wooden tub 1!. The preeipitate is collected
on the filter C, and the water use 1 in washing allowed to
stand over night in tlie vat D, the colouring matter -till
remaining in suspension being deposited and collected on
the filter E, the contents of which are worked up in the
succeeding operation, while the bulk of the material is dried
on the drving plates F. The resulting nitro-eosin is then
treated with dry ammonia gas in order to render it soluble.
(O. Miihlbauser, this Journal, 1892,676). Should the eosin
used have been somewhat impure, the free acid is treated as
follows. The colouring matter is digested in the vessel G
with a solution of soda insufficient for its saturation, blown
over into the tub H, allowed to settle and deposit the
undissolved portion of the colouring matter, and the solution
passed through the filter J into the jacketed pan K, and
evaporated to dryness. The potassium salt of the colouring
matter may be obtained by decomposing the solution of the
sodium salt in K with potassium carbonate solution. he
colouring matter, however prepared, is finally ground in a
ball mill or edge runner. — ii. B.
Determination of the Quantity of Indigqtim in Com-
mercial Indigo. (*. Midler. J. liuss. Cheni. Soc. 24,
1892, 275.
See under XXIII., page 778.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of < 'olouring Matters
Derived from Anthraquinone. B. Willeox, London.
From The " Farbeufabriken vormals F. Bayer and Co.,"
Elberfeld, Germany. En::. Pat. I".u77, August 13,
1891.
This patent describes a new method of preparing hexa-
hydroxy-aiithraipiinonc (Eng. Pat. 18,729 of I 690 ; this
Journal, 1891, 917) by applying the oxidising process
mentioned in Eng. Pat. 8725 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891,
J37) to the anthrachrysone first obtained by Barth and
Sennhofer (Annalen, 164, 109 — 1 15) by heating symmetrical
dihydroxy-benzoic arid (C02H:OH:OH = 1:3:5) with or
without sulphuric acid. From the method of its formation
anthrachrysone would appear to have the formula —
11(1
/\/
CO
(111
co/\/ OH
(HI
If this compound be treated in a sulphuric acid solution with
a large excess of sulphuric anhydride, the sulphuric ether of
a compound is produced which hears the same relation to
anthrachrysone that purpurin does to purpuroxanthin ami
i- in fact hexahydroxyanthraquinone identical with that
obtained by oxidising alizarin bordeaux with sulphuric acid
or anthraquinone with sulphuric anhydride. Anthrachry-
sone possesses little \aluc fur dyeing with mordants, giving
a pale red with alumina and a yellowish-brown colour with
chromium whilst the new product gives a pure bluewith the
latter mordant on wool. Anthrachryfone dissolves in
sulphuric acid with a red colour, in alkalis with a yellowish-
red, and in baryta water with a brownish-red colour. The
new product dissolves in sulphuric acid with a bluish-red
colour, the solution having a vermilion-red fluorescence.
The solution in alkalis is blue and barium salts give a
bluish-black insoluble lake. By the action of fuming
sulphuric acid on anthrachrysone one of the products
obtained is the neutral sulphuric ether of the above dyestuff
which can be converted into the colouring matter either by
the action of alkali- and boiling with dilute mineral acids or
by heating with sulphuric acid of 60 li. The following
quantities an- given for producing the dyestuff from
anthrachrysone. In kilos, of anthrachrysone are added
slowly at a low temperature to 2U0 kilos, of fuming
sulphuric acid containing 80 per cent, of S03, and the
mixture is allowed to sfand for about four days, when it is
diluted with l,o00 litres of ice-water. The precipitate if
filtered olf, dissolved in about 1,500 litres of water and a
slight excess of soda lye and boiled. Sulphuric acid is then
added in excess and the boiling continued for about hall' an
hour, after which the colouring matter is filtered off and
washed. t is not necessary to separate the anthrachrysone
as the process can he worked through starting from
dihydroxybenzoic acid by dissolving this substance in
20 parts by weight of the above fuming sulphuric acid and
allowing the mixture to stand until the sulphuric etber of
the hexahydroxyanthraquinone is formed, after which the
melt is worked up as already described. — T. A. E.
The Manufacture and Production of New Dyes related
to the Rhodamine Series. J. V. Johnson, London.
From the " Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik," Ludwig-
shafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 14,723, August 31. 1891.
(Second Edition.)
Tm; tetra-alkylated rhodamine- when heated by themselves
or with certain other substances lose one or more alkyl
groups, and give colouring matters which dye yellower
-hades than the original compounds. Some typical examples
are given. About 3 kilos, of tetra-ethyl rhodamine are
heated in an enamelled vessel in an oil-bath to 230 —
-»:;"i C. for 2| — 3 hours, or until the crystals form a pasty
bronzy mass. The melt is then cooled, broken up, and
dissolved in 40 litres of water acidified with hydrochloric
acid. After filtering the solution is precipitated with salt.
These operations are to he repeated until the desired purity
of shade on dyeing is obtained, and the product is then
recrvstallised from water. Another method is to heat
abou* 3 kilos, of the rhodamine with an equal weight of
aniline hydrochloride to about 190 C. for 2 hours. The
melt i- then worked up as above. The same reaction takes
place if the rhodamine he heated under pie-sure with very
dilute sulphuric acid at about 190° (.'., hut in all these
cases it is necessary to watch the reaction from time to
time, as prolonged heating ultimately destroys the colour-
yielding products insoluble in water. — T. A. E.
Manufacture, of Blue Dyestuffs. J. A. Hewitt, London.
From E. Cassella and Co., Frankfort-on-the-Maine, < icr-
many. ling. Pat. 15,143, September 7, 1891.
Ones green or bluish -green dyestuffs have hitherto been
obtained from the dianiido triphenylcarbinols. The present
invention describes the preparation of pure blue colouring
matter- belonging to this class. They are obtained by
condensing mono-methyl- or mouo-ethyl-o-toluidine with
m-hydroxybenzaldehyde, sulphonating the leuco bases and
Oxidising the resulting products to the colouring matters.
A mixture of 12 kilos, of mono-ethyl-o-toluidine, 9 kilos,
of hydrochloric acid (21 li.), and 5 kilos, of m-hydroxy-
benzaldehyde is heated for three days in a water-hath.
After neutralisation with sodium carbonate and removal of
the uncondensed oil by distillation with steam, the leuco
ha-e is filtered off, washed, and dried. The diethyldiainido-
ditolylhydroxyphcnylmethane thus obtained forms a nearly
colourless crystalline mass melting at 153° C. It is easily
soluble in caustic soda and also in dilute mineral acid-.
After powdering it is dissolved in G'' kilos, of sulphuric
acid monobydrate and heated to loo (.'. until a sample
dissolved in water is no longer precipitated by sodium
acetate. This takes about 4 — 6 hours, after which the
melt is diluted with water and neutralised with calcium
hydrate. The leuco solphonic acid in the filtered solution
is oxidised let the addition of 9' 5 kilos, of lead peroxide
and 20 kilos, of acetic acid. The had i- removed by the
addition of sodium sulphate, and after filtering salt is added
which precipitates the colouring matter. It dyes wool aud
silk a very pure blue. Other oxidising agent-, such as
bichromates, may be used in place of the peroxide.
— T. A. E.
Sept.30,1892.] THE JOUliNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
'41
Improvements in Hie Manufacture af Colouring Matters
from Amido-naphthol-sulphonic Acids. S. Pitt, Sutton.
From L. Cassella and Co., Frankfort-on-the-Mainc, Ger-
many. Eng. Pat. 15,725, September 16, 1891.
As extension of Eng. Pat. G972 of 1801 (this Journal. 1892,
315) ami referring to the employment in different ways of
the amido-naphthol disulphonic acid II for the production
of colouring matters. According to this patent one
molecular proportion of the acid II is combined with one
molecular proportion of a diazo-eoni pound from aniline,
amidoazobenzene sulphonic acids, fi-naphthylamine or its
mono- or disulphonic acid, or from the nitrotoluidines. This
combination takes place in an acetic acid solution, and when
complete the whole is made alkaline and another molecular
proportion of a diazo-cornpound is then run into the
solution. lly substituting a tetra/.o -compound for the
second diazo-compound intermediate bodies are obtained
of the following general formula —
(S();lin.,(()II)(NII.,K,ll,lI,
/
N = N - W
■ N = N - R" - N - N •
which containing a free diazo-group are capable of combin-
ing with phenols or amines, &c. Another modification of
the process is to combine a tetrazo-compound with the
acid II (equi-inolecular proportions of each) in presence
of acetic acid and act with this intermediate compound on
resoreinol, m-toluylene diamine, the ehrysoidincs, Bismarck
browns, or ui-hydroxydiphcnvlatuiuc. These latter dye-
stuffs give brown shades on unmordanted cotton whilst
certain of the combinations enumerated above give green,
lilueish-blaek, and violet-black shades. — T. A. L.
Errata.
Page 0 7 4 , in description under Fig. 3, for " Plan" read
Plant.
Page G75, eol. I, line 1, for "molten," read mother;
line 10, for " plan " read plant.
Iliid., col. 2, in title, for " Miillliauser," read Muhlhiluser.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
The Specific Rotatory Power of Silks of different Origins.
L. Vignon. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7, 1892; 139 — 141.
The author has determined the optical activity of the
sericin and fibroin contained in silks from various sources,
in the manner described in a previous paper (this Journal,
1892, 427). The results are embodied in the following
table :—
Nature of Substance.
S..lv,nt.
Concentration
2-2(1
i -so
1-17
2' IS
ft::,
1-32
1-42
[«]..
Bombyx M. Var. sericin
Bombyx M. China, serioin
Bombyx M. Japan, sericin
Yamma-Mai, Japan, sericin
Bombyx M. Tonkin, sericin
Bombyx M. Madagascar, sericin
Bombyx M. Bagdad, sericin
Bombyx M. Vox., fibroin
Bombyx M. China, fibroin
Bombyx M. Japan,. fibroin
Yanirou-Mai, Japan, fibroin
Bombyx M. Vav.,flbroin
Bombyx M. China, " polyvoltin," 6th cru\>, fibroin
Bombyx M. Tonkin, fibroin
Bombyx M. Madagascar, fibroin
Bombyx M. Bagdad, fibroin
Soda,3 o
HCI, 11° B.
(-ii.se),, 66°B iocc.)
■! Ice 20cc>
(.HCI, 82° B lOccJ
HCI, 11° B.
400
4'00
roo
fait
fa:,
fun
3-95
3-99
38°-20
33 -90
31°'30
U° 10
13° -60
'SI
9° -00
35° -90.
40° -00^
39° -50
44° 40
50° -00
a
'3
=
s
ulr'IIO
Is -2M
43° '30
-39° -40
-44o,20.
The fibroin of " Yamma-Mai " was found to be insoluble
in hydrochloric acid j but soluble in cold strong sulphuric
acid after some standing. The solution thus obtained is
too dark for examination, but after the addition of ice,
followed by hydrochloric acid, the colour disappears.
Bombyx M. I ar. was examined under similar conditions
for the sake of comparison. — II. T. P.
The Formation of Mildew in Woollen Goods. K.Sehimke.
Farb. Zeit. 1892, 339.
The formation of mildew in woollen, as in cotton goods, is
due to the development of fungoid growths in the presence
of air and moisture at a certain temperature. The most
favourable time for the appearance of these fungi is in
summer, and especially in the mouth of August they occur
very frequently. Certain dyes like vat-hlue are particularly
liable to this growth, probably on account of the alkaline
reaction of the dye-liquors. The danger can only be
avoided by not allowing the goods to lie in a heap for any
considerable space of time. One of the primary causes of
mildew can frequently he observed in the process of weaving
moist cloth. Two different kinds of fungi may appear at
this stage, according to whether the fabrics remain cold or
get hot. In the first case the fibre is not attacked or
disintegrated, and also the fungoid growth often extends
over a considerable area. Dark shades are hardly ever
affected. The mildew can easily be biushed off. Much
more serious is the second kind, which appears in the form
of smaller or larger patches, generally disintegrating the
fibre. Mildew stains of this kind show after the milling as
bare patches, and the fibre appears quite rotten. The same
stains often are caused through the cloth, after the milling
process, being left to lie unwashed. Undoubtedly the highly-
alkaline reaction of the cloth at this stage is very favourable
to the growth of the fungus. There occur, however, other
stains in woollen cloth, which in their appearance are very
much like mildew stains, hut are due to quite different
742
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 80, 1892.
causes, and only a microscopical examination can reveal
the true nature" of the stains. Under the microscope the
fibre of mildewed wool is found to have lost its characteristic
scales almost entirely, and to be split or dissolvedinto
numerous individual cells, so that the ends of the fibres
I the appearance of a brush (Fig. 2), Fig. 1 repre-
senting the normal appearance of milled wool fibre. Such
mildew stains are, in dyeing, quite indifferent to colouring
matters, >o that according to the degree to which the fibre
has been affected the stains appear after dyeing of a lighter
colour than the rest of the cloth, or they may remain
altogether undyed. The behaviour of mildew stains towards
various dyes was found as follows : —
Scarlet, dyed in one bath with
cochineal, tin crystals and
oxnlie acid.
Billiard-cloth green, dyed with
acid gn en, sulphuric acid and
Glauber's salt.
Moss-green, dyed with indigo-
carmine, fustic and alum, in
one bath.
Vat-blue topped " ith logwoo 1 . .
Vat-blue, medium shade
Dove-grey dyed with alizarin-
blue s'w.
Dark-brown dyed in one bath
wiili fustic and camwood, with
ii ipper :<tul iron sulphate.
Logwood black with ferrous
sulphate.
White spots of varying size.
White spots, fibre very rotten.
Light, greenish-yellow stains.
tin; nile of which is entirely
destroyed.
Large and small stains, dyed an
uneven light blue.
Irregular white spois.
Pale-blue spots.
Large and small light-brown
stains.
Light bluish stains.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
!•'.". :s.
The mildew stains on the logwood black are very similar
to the stains caused by soap remaining in the cloth in the
washing. In all eases the microscopical examination of the
above samples showed the sealeless and split fibres, as in
Fig. 3.— C. O. W.
PATENTS.
An Improved Process for < 'leaning, Restoring, mid
Bleaching Damaged Cotton or oilier Products from
t 'otton Seeds, Sponges, and oil Textile Materials.
W. II. Hughes and A. Rowbotham, Liverpool. Eng.
Pat. 3960, .March 5, 1891.
The object of this invention is to restore, as far as possible,
the quality of cotton damaged in harvesting or by sea-
water, but the process is also applicable for the treatment
of sponges and for other purposes.
As applied to damaged bales of cotton, an important
part of the process is the opening of the bales. This is
done by placing them in a keir, saturating the cotton with
low-pressure steam, and then forming a vacuum. Some-
times the cotton is sprinkled with methylated spirits before
being placed in the keir. The bleaching process consists in
treating the material first with permanganate solution, and
afterwards with sulphurous acid in the well-known wav. —
W. M. G.
Improvements in Arrangements and Mechanism or Appa-
ratus for Dyeing and Bleaching and otherwise Treating
Cotton, Wool, Silk, and. other Fibrous Materials, in the
Raw and Manufactured or partly Manufactured state.
G. Young and W. Crippin, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 1928,
March 19, 1891.
The present specification consists of extensions, modifica-
tions, and improvements of Eng. Pat. 1157, 1890 (this
Journal, 922, 923, 1891). Being based largely upon
mechanical details it is not possible to give a clear idea of
the present claims without a simultaneous view of the
diagrams explanatory of the two patents. — W. M. {',.
Improvements in Apparatus for Washing and Scouring
Wool and other Fibres, such said Apparatus being
applicable fir Mordanting and Dyeing Wool and other
Fibres and also for Extracting or Separating Animal
from Vegetable Fibre. J. and 1. Smith. Halifax. Eng.
Pat. 6601, April 17, 1891.
The construction of the apparatus will be readily understood
by reference to the accompanying illustration. The process-
liquor is placed in tank H, from whence it is pumped up
through pipe J, falling in a powerful spray through the
rose I. into tank A. Flowing along A the liquid falls over
the end G through the strainer I back again into tank II.
While the apparatus is in work the circulation of the liquid
Sep i .:m.i892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
743
iu the direction indicated is continuous. The tank A is
provided with a perforated false hottom which allows any
sediment to collect in D.
The wool or other material is fed into the apparatus
over the end F., aud meeting with the spray (which extends
the full width of the tank) is wetted and opened out. It is
then carried forward by the How of the liquid, aud is
pressed underneath the surface by the perforated drums Ml
At the exit end it passes between the light nipping rollers
G G, and lastly the heavy squeezing rollers K II.
Machine for Washing and Scouring Wool, &c.
It is claimed that this machine has a greater capacity
than any at present in use, and that felting and breaking
of the fibre is avoided. It is further stated that the appa-
ratus is applicable to mordanting, dyeing, or carbonising
operations. — \V. M. G.
Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus far Cleansing
and Lustreing Dyed or Undyed Yarns of Silks, Cotton,
or other Fibrous Substances. S. Fisher and H. Murga-
troyd, Hudderslield. Kng. Tat. 6999, April 23, 1891.
These consist in certain structural modifications of the
machines at present in use to overcome defects which
experience has rendered evident. — W. M. G.
Improvements in Apparatus for Carbonising Shoddy.
A. Hof, Dueren, Germany. Eng. 1'at. 7464, April 30,
1891.
I.\ carbonising by the dry process it is usual to gasify the
acid in a separate vessel and lead it into the extracting
drums containing the shoddy, &c. The improvement
consists in evaporating the acid by means of hot air in
a portion of the drum itself, the acid chamber being
separated from the space containing the material by a
perforated plate. The acid is supplied in regulated
quantity from a tank and enters the drum by a hollow
shaft. The whole apparatus is covered in and is rotated
by suitable means. — \V. M. G.
An Improved Process of Ungumming and Decorticating
Textile Materials. A. M. Clarke, London. From La
Societe La Ramen, Paris. Kng. Pat. 10,556, June 20,
1891.
The process is specially applicable to ramie or China grass,
and has for its object the removal of the gummy pectic
and extractive matter which cement the useful fibres
together (retting). This is usual accomplished by the
aid of alkalis, but in the improved process it is proposed
to use basic borates, phosphates, arseniates, tungstates,
molybdates, or more particularly manganates, staunates, or
alkaline silicates. — W. M. G.
Improved Art or Process for Colouring Pictures on Textile
Fabrics. A. Ophoven, Paderborn, Germany. Kng. Pat.
2939, February 15, 1892.
The picture is produced upon the textile material by
suitable chemical or mechanical means, and then Pastell
colours corresponding to the design 4re rubbed into the
texture of the fabric on the reverse side. — YV. M. G.
Improvements in or Relating to Cellulose Manufacture.
A. .1. Boult, London. From E. Rocca, Naples. Kng.
1'at. 9139, May 29, 1891.
The invention consists in a modification of the usual
process for treating paper pulp, resulting in the production
of a soft, porous, spongy substance resembling cotton
wadding, which it is proposed to call "celluline."
Suitable proportions of fibrous cellulose and of cellulose
from resinous plants are mixed together, and the mixture
treated exactly as for the manufacture of paper until the
pulp reaches the drying cylinders, from which it must be
removed before it has quite lost its plastic state. The
nature of the product depends upon the mixture of the
raw material, the degree of purification, the thickness of
tlie layer of pulp, and the heat used in drying.
The material is manufactured into felt, sponges, wadding,
stuffing, &c, and may be made more flexible by addition of
glycerin. When sterilised it may be used for bandages,
&C. \V. M. G.
Process of Treating Wool Washings. I). P. Griffin,
Revere, Massachusetts, I'.S.A. Kng. Pat. 8375, May 3,
1892.
The wash-waters from wool-scouring are concentrated by
evaporation and then mixed with an acid absorbent or
" filler," preferably acid phosphate of lime. The mixture
is heated until all the water is driven off, when the wool-
grease may be removed by mechanical pressing or by
extraction with volatile solvents. The remaining cakes
retain all the potassium and ammonia salts originally con-
tained in the wash waters, anil thus form, in conjunction
with the phosphate, a valuable manure. — J. L.
An Improved Fabric, applicable for Tubing, Belting,
Valve Sheeting, and other articles of' Elastic Nature.
R. Temmel, Berlin, Germany, Kng. Pat. 10,637, June 4,
1892.
.See under XI II., page 759.
Erb \tcm.
Page 680, col. 1, line 9, for " Bombyx Dori " read Bomby.r
Mori.
-;n
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 30. 1892.
VI.-DTEING, CALICO PRINTING. PAPER
STAINING. AND BLEACHING.
Some New Dyes fast to Milling and Washing. A. Kertesz.
F&rb. Zeit. 1892, 323-324.
I nth. a few years ago the industries requiring dyes fust
to milling and washing had only the natural colours to
resort to. the reason, of course, being that the coal-tar
colours then known did not stand those operations. The
application of the alizarin colours on wool must therefore
he considered a very happy idea, since, owing to their
capability of forming insoluble lakes with various inor-
ganic bases (mordants), these colours opened out quite a
new field to the dyer of woollen fabrics. At present the
alizarin colours are competing with the natural colouring
matters with a considerable degree of success, and already
a Dumber of new dyes are coming forward, which although
not belonging to the class of the alizarin dyes, also possess
the valuable properties of being fast to milling and washing.
According to their chemical nature these dyes niaj be
arranged into three diftereiit classes.
1. The Tetrazo-Colouring Matters derived from Benzi-
dine, or Benzidine anil Diamine Colours nf the Trade. -
It is well-known that the colours belonging to this group
p.ivi^s the valuable property of dyeing cotton without
a mordant, and it has been found that these dves are
also capable of dyeing wool. The shades so obtained are
all more or le^s fast to nulling and washing, and are in
this respect, without exception, superior to the ordinary wool
scarlets, although frequently their fastness to ligbt is
deficient. This deficiency, however, is individual, it is not
a property inherent in the group as a whole.
2. Mordant- Dyeing Colouring Mutters. — Like the ali-
zarin colours these dyes form fast chromium lakes. Whilst,
however, the shades of the alizarin colours are only
developed upon the fibre in the process of the formation
of the lake, these dyes of the second class, independently
of mordants, possess all the properties of colour. Our
knowledge and the manufacture of these dyes is due to
tlie efforts of Liebermann, Kostanecki, Witt, and Xietzki,
who showed the formation of such dyes to be dependent
on the presence in their molecules of two hydroxyl-groups
in the ortho position.
:;. There exists a certain number nf dyes fast to
milling and washing which it is difficult In classify. —
The chemical constitution of these gives no (due to an
explanation of their specific fastness under the above-
mentioned circumstances. These colours possess also the
advantage that they do not dye cotton, so that in the milling
of mixed fabrics the cotton remains white. When dyed on
a chrome mordant these colours probably become a trifle
faster, without, however, the difference being very notice-
able. These colours are dyed in an acid bath. As
colours belonging to this class, particularly the diamine
colours, must be mentioned, diamine-scarlet B, diamine-
violct, and diamine fast red being the best. Especially the
latter, when dyed in a weak acid bath and topped with
tluorehrome, is so remarkably fast to milling and light,
that it is an excellent substitute for alizarin-red. Anthra-
i yellow C is one of the mordant-dyeing colours, and
therefore is best dyed on a chrome mordant, but it has
been found preferable to chrome the wool after dyeing it.
Anthracene-black produces without any mordant shades
which are fast to milling. The colour also dyes on chrome-
mordant, but the shades are not faster than without it.
Anthracene-black in fastness to light is slightly superior
lo Alizarin-black.
Shades which are fast to milling may also he produced
on cotton by means of the developed colours. Some of
the substantive dyes are in themselves fast to washing,
but not sufficiently to allow of their application in dark
shades on milled goods. Some of these dyes possess,
however, the property of being convertible, by means of
nitrite of soda and hydrochloric acid, into diazo-com-
pounds, and these again are capable of combination with
various amines and phenols. This fact was first realised
by A. G. Green, and th* well-known in-grain colours are the
outcome of it. Many of the diamine colours can he
applied in the same manner and by using Diamine-black
RO, Diamine-blaekBO.Diamine-hhie-hlack K, Cotton-brown
N, or Diamine- brown V on the one hand, and combining it
on the other hand after diazotisation with /3-naphthol,
naphthylamine ether, phenylenediamine, blue developer
A N or fast blue developer A 1), shades are obtained which
are all very fast to milling, and also (especially the black
and brown shades) very fast to light. These developed
colours have already been employed on cops, skeins,
hosiery, piece-goods, ami velveteens witli a considerable
measure of success. It appears highly probable that the
introduction of primuline and the developed diamine
colours into the dyeing industry marks a new departure
as important as the introduction of .Magenta and Congo red.
— c. o. w.
'/lie Tannins and Tanning Extracts and their Application
in Dyeing Cotton. V. II. Soxblet, Farb. Zeit. L892,
325—346.
The process of producing upon cotton shades varying from
ligbt grey to a greyish black, by treating the cotton succes-
sively in the solution of some tanning material and of certain
iron salts, is certainly very old. With the introduction of
the coal-tar colours the tauuins became of very much
greater importance on account of their property of fixing
these colours, although the fugitiveness of the shades dyed
in this manner was a great drawback. Not until the disco-
very of T. Brooks, that by treatment of the mordanted
cotton in a bath of tartar emetic, the tannic acid could be
fixed in the form of an insoluble compound, was it possible
to produce last shades with those colours. Naturally the
colour of tin' tannin-antimony compounds obtained with the
various tannins and tartar emetic, became now a matter of
great interest to the dyer.
Examining the various commercial tannins a good idea as
to their suitability for the purposes nf the dyer can be
obtained by means of comparative dye-tests. It is generally
sufficient for this purpose to dye samples with the respective
tannins and an iron salt, which shows not only the per-
centage of tannin contained in them, but also supplies
information as to their most advantageous use in dyeing.
When first the tannins were applied as mordants all basic
aniline colours were dyed on a tannin-antimony mordant, to
which later on for dark blue shades a passage through an
iron salt was applied. To-day the tartar emetic bath bus
become obsolete in the production of dark shades, and after
the tannin passage' the yarns are taken through a bath of
ferric sulphate, previously neutralised by the addition of a
little chalk. With most of the blue basic dyes this method
gives excellent results.
As the various tannin extracts vary considerably in
strength it is necessary for the examination to reduce them
nil tc. a standard strength of 15° B. Those tanning mate-
rials which are still sold in the natural unextracted state are
best carefully extracted and then evaporated on the water-
bath until the standard strength of 15 B. is reached. The
tannin extracted from galls is the type of those tannins
which give blue or blue-black precipitates with iron persalts.
The price even of the lower grades of commercial gallo-
tanuic acid is too high to allow of any general application.
As it is, it is only used for light shades, but the beautiful
dark bluish black it produces with the persalts of iron
would make it as useful for the production of dark shades of
blue. Bleached gall-nut extract produces a remarkably
white mordant with tartar emetic, and is particularly service-
able for the weighting of very light silks. The high price
of this extract is prohibitive to its application in cotton
dyeiog. Sumac is no doubt the most generally employed
and best known tannin mordant of the cotton-dyer. Iu
spite of its low and varying percentage of tannin (from 15
to 25 per cent.) it is still used in very large quantities,
probably on account of its accompanying impurities leaving
the cotton fibre much softer than most other tannins.
Decolourised sumac extracts are now manufactured which
produce an almost white precipitate with tartar emetic.
Sept. 30,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTF.Y.
745
Owing to the great liability of liquid extracts of sumac to
fe nt, whereby the tannic acid is converted into gallic
acid, frequent examination i- necessary, especially during
the hot summer months. Purified chestnut extracts yield
rather strongly-coloured precipitates with tartar emetic, and
also the colouration with iron -alts is darker than with
either of the before mentioned tannins. Conaequently for
the dyeing of light shades with aniline dyes chestnut
extract cannot be used, but its iron compound is all the
more useful for the dyeing of dark blue ami similar shades.
Purified chestnut extracts have certainly not received the
attention which they deserve, as with them ii" harshness of
the yams needs to be feared. Dak extracts, which are also
sold in a purified form, are scarcely used yet in dyeing,
although they may he recommended for their cheapness.
— C. 0. W.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Machinery for Scouring, Dyeing, and
Drying Hunks of Yarn. ii. M. Marchant, Hudders-
Bi Id Eng. Pat. Lv.his, July '.to. 1891.
Tiu: hanks are slung on pairs of rollers attached to
brackets which an- carried by two discs, fixed near the ends
of a horizontal driving-shaft. The whole apparatus is
constructed to facilitate the transfer of the dye-frame and
hanks from one vat to another. The brackets are adjust-
able to enable hanks of different lengths to be placed on
the rollers. By means of cams, or otherwise, the brackets
are caused to approach one another when submerged in the
dye-liquor and to recede from one another when out of the
liquor, to respectively decrease and increase the tension of
the hanks. Hot air may be employed to dry the banks
after dyeing and whilst still on the rollers.
The mechanical arrangements are fully described in the
original specification with the aid of four sheets of drawings.
_E. lb
Improvements in Apparatus fur Bleaching or Dyeing
Textile Materials and Fabrics or otherwise Treating the
same with Liquids or Gases. 1>. Stewart, Glasgow.
Ehg. Pat. 16,463, September 29, 1801.
The goods to he bleached or dyed are placed inside a
perforated shell F (see Figure), which is carried on a
_ «ffp
truck or on wheels on to the platen 1) of a hydraulic press
C. The platen is then raised and the shell lifted into the
vessel A, fixed directly above the platen which, when
raised, tightly presses against the Hanged bottom edge of
A. II, .1, K, I., M, and N art' pipes, the first two connected
respectively with a vacuum pump and steam boiler, and the'
rest with reservoirs or apparatus lor supplying " bleaching
or dyeiDg or other liquids or gases" ami to vessels for
receiving the same after application.
The shell F may be made with a central, perforated shell
or tube, in which case a central, perforated pipe It is pro-
vided for the injection of the bleaching, &c, liquids into the
goods, the liquids passing radially outwards through them.
A piston P, actuated by hydraulic power, may also he placed
within the vessel to express the excess of liquids from the
goods. — E. B.
Improvements in the Bleaching of Vegetable Textile
Materials. 0. Imray, Condon. From II. W. Wilson,
Lille, France. Eng. Pat. lC.Tnn, < Ictober 1, 1891.
Textile materials are simultaneously scoured and bleu, lied
hy a solution of potassium or sodium hypochlorite, applied
at a density of "I- 01 to 1'03 and a temperature of 50° to
100° F., first under diminished pressure and then under a
pressure of several atmospheres. — 10. lb
Improvements relating In tin- Dyeing or Printing if
Woollen and other Goods. II. 11. Lake, London. From
K. Oehler, Offenbach-on-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat.
17,082, (Ictober 7, 1891.
Woollen and mixed fabrics containing wool are dyed or
printed aniline-black by oxidising the wool, and then pad-
ding or printing with a mixture, such as is commonly used for
the production of steam aniline-black on cotton, and finally
steaming. For oxidising the fibre, a 3 per cent, bath of
hydrogen dioxide, rendered slightly alkaline with ammonia
aiid at a temperature of SO !•'., or a bath of 6 to 10 per
cent, of bleaching powder, aciditied with 9 to 15 per cent,
of hydrochloric acid at 34 Tw., is employed. After this
treatment, the fabrics are well washed, dried, and padded
or printed, again dried, and -teamed " for some minutes to
three quarters of au hour or more,'' then washed and, " if
necessary, soaped or passed through a weak acid bath."
The following examples of appropriate padding and printing
mixtures are given :— (Padding mixture) 405 grms. of
" chlorhydrate of aniline or of toluidine or a mixture of
both," 150 of sodium chlorate, 260 of potassium ferro-
eyanide, and sufficient water to make 3,150 ee., with the
optional addition (to render the black more intense and to
preserve the softness of the wool) of about 200 grms. of
sugar and of glycerin, and some tartaric acid ; (printing
mixture) 800 grms. of dextrin solution (1 : 1), 200 of aniline
hydrochloride, 75 of sodium chlorate, 130 of potassium
ferrocyauide, 200 of Water, and 40 of tartaric acid. — E. B.
AriAKxTi's rm: Bleaching ok Dyeing Textiles.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for Pre-
venting the Escape of Noxious Gases in the Processes of
Bleaching, and otherwise Treating Textile Fabrics.
L. Kern, Hamburg. Eng. Pat. 22,203, December 19,1891.
The hot gases are carried off from the bleaching (or
carbonising, &c.) vessel by means of a pipe connected with
a coke tower supplied with a spray of water or other liquid.
By this means the gases are cooled, condensed, and
absorbed, and a reduced pressure thus produced in the
apparatus, which causes a considerable suction from the
bleaching (&c.) vessel.
Diagrams are given illustrating the process as applied to
the carbonising of woollen rags. — W. M. G.
746
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEUfClL, TKDUSTRY. [Sept. so, isaa.
New or Improved Bleaching ( 'ompound. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. From W. B. Brittingham, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 8964, May 11, 1892.
This improvement refers to the employment of alkaline
tungstates, preferably in " combination " with chlorine, for
bleaching purposes. The cloth, paper, or other unbleached
material are agitated for 5 — 15 minutes in a solution of half
an ounce of sodium tungstate in a pint of water, and bleach-
ing powder or sodium hypochlorite added in the proportion
of '. lb. to 4 gallons of water. The solutions are preferably
heated. The efficiency of this mixture may be prolonged In
the addition of a previously heated and subsequently diluted
mixture of salt and sulphuric acid. Another way " for
securing the necessary chlorine " consists in addiug to the
tungstate a solution of 1 oz. of sodium carbonate, 1 oz of
hydrochloric acid, ami 1 gallon of water. Another combina-
tion consists of a mixture of arsenious acid, sodium hypo-
chlorite, and --odium tungstate. — II. A.
Improvements in Apparatus for Skein-dyeing. A. S. Lyon,
Lowell, and .1. H. Lorimer, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng.
l'at. 11,318, June 1G, 1892.
The hanks are placed on rectangular boards F (see Figure- ).
fixed by means of springs in sockets e1 in metallic frames E.
The sockets are connected by a metallic yarn-guard e4
secured to or east in one piece with them and supported out
of contact with the boards. At the extremities of the frames
are trunnions d3, which fit into holes formed in the end- of
arms d-, projecting in opposite directions perpendicularly
from the links in the sprocket-chains I>. The latter consist
of a series of alternate double d and single d' links, the
spockets on two parallel wheels c1 (not shown in Fig.) anil
c2 entering between the double link-. B1 is the ram and B
the cylinder of a hydraulic hoist ; ft5 and b6 are stop-collars
on the ram fastened on to the same respectively above and
below the guide-ring «'-', arranged in a bole «' in an upper
floor A1. To the non I'.1 i- seemed a bracket with horizontal
Mini- and downward extensions in which the shaft of the
recK ' is journal led. Two vats— one for dyeing and the other
for rinsing — arc fixed on opposite -ides of the cylinder, ami
:it equal distances from it, thus rendering it convenient to
rinse the skeins without emptying the dye-vat, which is
accomplished by raising the ram and with it the dyeing
apparatus high enough to clear the top- of the vats, turning
through an angle of 180° and lowering into the water-vat.
Improvements relating to the Dyeing or Printing of
Woollen and other Goods. II. H. Lake, London. From
K. Oehler, Offenbach-on-Maine, Germany. Fng. Pat.
7638, April 22, 1892.
The method of dyeing or printing an " ungreenable " aniline-
black described in Eng. Pat. 17,082 of 1891 (see above) is
applicable to hair and other animal fibres. Reserve-colours
on an aniline-black ground may be produced on these fibres
and on wool by a process " similar to that used in calico
printing on the Prud'homme system." The materials are
impregnated or printed with the aniline-black mixture, and,
before being steamed, are printed with such " discharge "
mixtures as the following : — (For white), 500 grms. of
" leiogomme " (dextrin) water (1 : 1),200 of sodium' acetate,
200 of potassium thiocyanate, 16 of "violet solution "(1:100);
(for green), 250 of water, 50 of " benzol " green, 50 of
glycerin, 250 of " leiogomme," and 400 of sodium acetate.
They are then steamed for 5 to 30 minutes, well washed, and
in some cases (with the sulphonated dyes for instance)
passed through dilute acid, again washed, and dried. As
reserve colours for wool and mixed goods containing woal or
silk, " most of the artificial dyes and the substantive natural
dye- are suitable, but those requiring mordants are less
suitable ;" for mixed goods containing vegetable fibres,
" basic dyes and dyes of the Congo group alone or combined
with acid dyestuffs" are suitable. — E. IS.
By removing a certain equal number of single and double
links from the sprocket-chains, and so causing the latter to
Fig. 1.
> - -J "~ti::::
Fig. 2.
id,"- e'
Improvements i\ Apparatus for Skein-Dyeing.
form, or more nearly form, the rims of the sprocket-wheels,
the tension of the skeins may be varied. — E. B.
VII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Concentration of Sulphuric Arid in Apparatus made
partly of I 'ast Iron, partly of Platinum. Scheurer-
Kestner. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1892,196—198.
The author has endeavoured to combine in one apparatus
the advantages possessed by platinum and by cast iron for
the concentration of moderately strong and of very strong
sulphuric acid respectively. The platinum apparatus of
Kessler is combined with a Desmoutis apparatus having an
iron bottom. A concentration of 95 per cent, may be
obtained in the first part and 97 • 5 per cent, in the second
part. The chief difficulty is to make the joints light, for
which purpose asbestos-packing is adopted. — V. ('.
The Compressibility of Saline Solutions. II. Gilbant.
Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 209—211.
See under XXIII., page 780.
Sept. so, 1882.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
747
The Influence of Nitrogen Tetroxide on the Specific
Gravity of Nitric Acid. G. Lunge and L. Marchlewski.
Zeits. f. ang. Chem. 18?:?, 330—331.
See under XXIII , page 775.
The Composition of Liquid Ammonia of Commerce, and
Ike Manufacture of Liquid Ammonia of 99-995 per
cent. Strength. II. Von. Strombeck. J. Frank. Inst.
134, 18.92, 58-64.
See under III., page 736.
PATENTS.
Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Cyanides.
G. T. BeUby, Slateford. Eng. Pat. 1820, March 18, 1891.
The process consists iu passing dry ammonia gas through
a heated mixture of 55 — GO parts of previously well dried
potassium carbonate, 20 — 25 parts of carbon and 20 parts
of potassium cyanide. Instead of ammonia, the volatile
alkaloidal bases from shale oil, peat tar, animal oil, &c, may
In used. The potassium cyanide is employed only for the
purpose of reducing the melting point of the mixture. The
supply of ammonia is stopped when a product containing
about 70 per cent, potassium cyanide is formed, which is
settled, filtered from the carbon in suspension and run into
moulds or drums. The escaping gases are passed through
dust chambers for the collection of the cyanide carried
away.
The apparatus consists of a series of cast-iron melting
pots, provided with dip pipes for the supply of ammonia.
Any uudecomposed ammonia is utilised with the following
pot of the series ; after leaving the last it passes through
the dust chamber aud finally through a scrubber for the
recovery of the last traces of ammonia. In the measure as
the formation of potassium cyanide proceeds, fresh quantities
of the materials are introduced through a hopper, until the
pot is filled to its fullest working capacity.
Another apparatus consists of a vertical retort provided
with perforated shelves ; a revolving vertical shaft provided
with arms, rakes the charge from nhelf to shelf. The whole
is set in a furnace. The molten mass meets in its down-
ward course with ammonia, which is introduced from below
and is gradually converted into cyanide. The materials are
charged in continuously from the top and the cyanide is
drawn off at tbe bottom.
In a further modification of the apparatus the revolving
shaft is dispensed with. — Ii. A.
Improvements relating to the Extraction of Aluminium
Hydrate or Aluminium Salts from Aluminium Silicates
or Clay. E. Meyer, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 13,395,
August 7, 1891.
The alumina contained iu clay can be rendered easily
soluble in weak acid, by gently heating the clay with
alkaline or alkaline earthy chlorides, or with aluminium
chloride. The best results are obtained by saturating the
finely-ground clay with 0' 1 to 1 per cent, of a solution of
aluminium chloride, drying and heating up. — H. A.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Extraction of
Ammonia, applicable for Ammonia Soda Works and the
like. G. I. J. Wellf, Middlewich. Eng. Pat. 13,42-1,
August 8, 1891.
Ix the usual way of distilling ammonia from a solution of
ammonium chloride by means of lime and steam, great
inconvenience and loss of time is caused by the blocking up
of the connection pipes between the " distiller " and the
" heater." The inventor proposes to dispense with the
connection pipes by placing the heater on the distiller, thus
forming one apparatus of the two vessels. A further
disadvantage arises from the blocking up of the dip pipes
which convey the mixed liquors down the distiller.
Hitherto these pipes were permanently fixed to the distiller,
but now they are proposed to be made removeable, and
can be exchanged when required. Additional facilities are
also given for cleaning the revolving mushrooms in the
upper part of the distiller, by constructing them of two
pieces which can be disjointed. The top overflow pipe is
furthermore provided with a rimmer for chipping off any
scales which may form inside this pipe. — H. A.
Improvements in the Purification of Pyro/ignites. ¥. If.
l'ijkles, Fairfield, and K. H. Pickles, Marple. Eng. Pat.
20,753, November 28, 1891.
■See under III., page 737.
Improvements relating to the Production of Soda and
Chlorine, and to Apparatus therefor. H. H. Lake,
London. From E. B. Cutten, New York, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 88, January 2, 1892.
Ix the electrolytic production of chlorine and caustic soda
from a solution of sodium chloride, great difficulties are
encountered by the formation of " chlorinated soda " or
" CINaHO " owing to the re-combination of the chlorine and
caustic produced, and furthermore by the gradual weakening
of the salt solution. The gist of all these improvements,
which are embodied on two sheets of drawings, is to effect
the separation of the chlorine and caustic soda by drawing
off the first by means of a pump in the measure it is formed,
and by allowing the caustic solution which is formed round
the walls of the cell (the cathode) " to sink to the bottom
of the cell by its own gravity," from whence it can be drawn
off at leisure. Whilst this process of subsidence proceeds,
strong salt solution is forced in the lower part of the cell, at
a point below the cylinder which surrounds the anode, and
ascending this, leaves at an elevated point to be collected
and strengthened up by pumping it over rock salt. The
body of the cell may be filled with salt, and some variations
are given in the construction of the same. — H. A.
Improvements relating to the Production of Liquid Chlorine
and to Apparatus therefor. H. H. Lake, Loudon.
From E. B. Cutten, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 89,
January 2, 1892.
In the production of liquid chlorine great difficulties are
encountered by the rapid corrosion of the containing metal
cylinders. The invention consists iu apparatus for the
production of thoroughly dried chlorine, which when
liquefied and packed in dry cylinders does not cause
corrosion. Chlorine from any source, preferably that
obtained by electrolysis (see previous abstract), is passed
through tubes surrounded by cold water, by which means
part of its moisture is condensed. The gas is then passed
over shelves charged with calcium chloride, and then
through sulphuric aeid. It subsequently enters a receiver
from which it is forced by means of a compressing pump
into a steel tank, where it liquefies under a pressure of
GO lb. The heat generated iu the compression is abstracted
by means of cold water circulating iu coils, which dip in the
liquid anhydrous chlorine. The uncondensed air and other
impurities are allowed to escape through a safety-valve at
the top of the tank, when occasion requires it.
The liquid chlorine is charged in the cylinders by means
of dip pipes, aud thus drives the air out of the cylinder,
which escapes through a safety-valve. (This Journal, 1891,
546.)— H. A.
748
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1898.
VIII— GLASS, POTTERY. AND
EARTHENWARE.
The Action of Carbon em the Alkaline Sulphates in
presence of Silica ; the id ion of Carbon on Sulphurous
Acid; and the part played by these Reactions in the
Preparation of Silicate of Soda and Glass. Scheurer-
Kestuer. Bull. Soe. Cliim. 1892, 190— 196.
The hitherto accepted view with regard to the reactions
studied iu this investigation has been that the carbon which
i- add. d to the silica and sodium sulphate in a glass furnace
facilitates the decomposition of the sulphate by reduction,
and forms sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. The
supposed reaction might be represented thus—
•_' l: .St ), + 2 C = 2 SO, + 2 CO + 2 K.O
or, as carbonic acid is formed in the furnace gases, by the
above equation in conjunction with —
2 R.SO., + C = 2 SO» + CO., + 2 E»0
The amount of carbon which is required in practice for
complete reduction of the sulphate is, however, much larger
than that demanded by either of these equations. The
author shows that the sulphur dioxide is not formed b3~ the
reaction between the carbon, alkaline sulphate, and silica,
and that it is only produced subsequently by reactions
among the gases present. In the author's experiments the
materials were placed in earthenware crucibles with lids
hermetically closed. An iron tube passed through the lid.
The crucible was heated and the gases coming off through
the iron pipe were collected and analysed. Experiments
were made with the proportions required by the first
equation (see above) and with the larger quantity of carbon
employed in practice. In both cases carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide were obtained together with the sulphur,
both in the form of gas and deposited on the tube ; but no
sulphurous acid was present in. either case. With the
quantity of carbon demanded by the above equation only a
part of the sulphate was decomposed.
Berthelot has shown that when carbon acts upon sulphur
dioxide at a red heat carbon monoxide, carbon oxysulphide,
anil carbon bisulphide are formed. At the higher tempera-
ture attained in the glass furnace, however, oxysulphide of
carbon is decomposed, yielding sulphur and carbon
monoxide. Carbon bisulphide at the same temperature is
decomposed by oxygen (furnished in the decomposition of
sulphuric anhydride) with formation of carbonic acid and
sulphurous acid. Sulphurous aeid is decomposed by carbon
monoxide forming carbonic acid and sulphur. The author
has >hown experimentally the formation of carbon oxysul-
phide at a moderate temperature, using the materials and
apparatus above described.
It is thought that the following equation may be taken to
represent these reactions —
(1.) -1 SO; + 9 C = 2 C< IS 1- ( S„ + 6 ( K I
(2.) G CO 4 2 G( IS + i !Sj r 2 Si I. = 6 CO + :s CO. + 8 S I
The above proportion, two of carbon monoxide to one of I
carbonic acid, is found to hold approximately.
The following equation is believed to represent the
decomposition of the alkaline sulphates as far as the final
products are concerned —
3 R2S04 + 6 SiOs +oC=3S+4 CO., + CO + 3 (R„0, 2 SiO„)
ress of carbon must be carefully avoided in the
manufacture of glass, a fact well known to the manufac-
turers, or sulphide is produced. The amount of sulphide
does not, however, increase in anything like the same
proportion as the carbon. According to Berthelot it is the
carbon monoxide which reduces the sulphate to sulphide.
The presence of excess of carbon increases the proportion
of il»' carbon monoxide formed. — V. C.
Compounds of Stannic and Chromic Oxides. Levkauf.
"j. Prakt. Chem. 19, 1892, 127.
Chromium staunate can be obtained by igniting stannic
chromate at a high temperature. It forms a dark violet
mass from which glazes varying in colour from rose red
to dark violet can be prepared. So-called " mineral lake "
consists of chromic oxide associated with an excess of
stannic oxide. When these two substances are ignited
together in the proportion of one part of the former to flO
of the latter, a mass composed ot a mixture of tine crystals
and fused glassy particles of a beautiful permanent lilac
colour is obtained. According to the author " pink
colour" consists of the above-mentioned substance
mixed with calcium stannate, and according to Malaguti
may be prepared by igniting 100 parts of oxide of tin with
:'. 4 parts of chalk and 1 — l'o parts of chromic oxide or
three to four parts of potassium chromate. Stannic
chromate has been supposed to be produced by precipi-
tating stannic chloride with potassium chromate. A yellow
precipitate is certainly formed which on ignition becomes
converted into chromic stannate, but according to l'etrik
the reaction that takes place is expressed by one or other
of the following equations according as the neutral or acid
chromate is used —
I.
SnCl4 + 2 KsCr04 + H„0 = H.SnO, + 4 KC1 + 2 Cr03
II.
SnCl4 + 2 KX'r.O; + H.,0 = HoSn03 + 4 KC1 + 4 Crt);l
It therefore appears that the stannic acid only retains
chromic acid mechanically. This is borne out by the
analysis of the precipitate not thoroughly washed and
dried at 100° C. It contains Sn02, 71 — 81 per cent ; HoO,
7-6—8-5 per cent.: Cr( K, 6-4—12-1 per cent.; KC1,
3 — 8 per cent. On igniting this precipitate violet " miueral
lake " and not chromic stannate is obtained. The author
endeavoured to prepare similar bodies by heating together
potassium chromate, potassium nitrate, and stannous
chloride, but the substances obtained were poor iu chromic
oxide, two samples containing respectively 3 -28 per cent.
and 4-03 per cent. Even traces of chromic oxide suffice
to colour stannic oxide. Petrik corrects the statement that
the precipitate produced by the addition of potassium
chromate to a solution of alum consists of aluminium
chromate. He considers the reaction to take place as
follows : —
Als(S04)3 + 3 KX'r04 + 3 H20 =
Al,(OH)fi + 3 CrO:! + 3 K.,S04
The precipitate, after pressing and igniting, becomes
green, and ou washing out the excess of potassium chromate
yields a red substance similar to that obtained when stannic
oxide is used. It may also be formed by igniting precipi-
tated alumina with a little potassium chromate. The
production of a red or pink compound does not therefore
depend on the presence of stannic oxide. A corresponding
substance is produced by the precipitation of molecular
proportions of magnesium sulphate and ammonia alum and
the half an equivalent of chrome alum with ammonia, and
ignition of the precipitate. When the magnesia is replaced
by lime, strontia or baryta, substances are obtained which
appear green by daylight and red by lamp light. It may
be remarked that porcelain glazes coloured with chromic
oxide appeal green and grey when viewed by the above
methods of illumination. The conclusion Petrik draws
from his investigation, is that " pink colour " does not
contain chromic stannate, but that a red chromium
compound, apparently chromic oxide in a finely-divided
state, is precipitated upon the stannic acid serving as a
" base." The observation that the colour can be produced
with alumina is of technical importance, inasmuch as upon
it can be founded the preparation of an underglaze red of
a refractory character. - I>. Ii.
Sept. so, 1898.] THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL, INDUSTBY.
749
IX.-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS.
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
The Colouration of Clay by Oxide of Iron. Ding). Polyt.
J. 284, 1892, 94, 95.
A pater by Seger on this subject was read at the genera]
meeting of the German Association for the Manufacture
of Bricks, Pottery, Lime, and Cement. Clays containing
various amounts of iron were mixed in different proportions
and the colour of the product after burning observed. The
conk nt of fenic oxide ranged from C • 8 per cent, to 2 1 " 3 per
cent., reckoned on the clay after ignition. The results
showed that the amount of ferric oxide has no marked
inriuerice on the colour after a limit of 9 per cent, has
been reached. Moreover the colour does not merely
depend upon the quantity of iron present, but on the
constitution of the clay, its state of mechanical division,
and the intensity and method of burning. — B. B.
The Porosity of Building Stones and their Resistance to
Frost. Peroche. Monit. Oer. et Ver. (Dingl. Polyt.
J. 284, 1892,92).
The author is of opinion that the resistance to frost does
not always inert use witli decrease of porosity. Two kinds
of natural building stones are found on the shores of the
I Hse. The upper layer is composed of a siliceous limestone
known as " Vergelet," while the lower is termed " St. Leu."
The first is porous and resists frost well, while the latter,
though closer in the grain, exfoliates in layers parallel to
the plane of cleavage of the stone. Miehelot explains this
anomaly as follows : The porous stone called Vergelet
consists of rounded particles which are only cemented
together at the surfaces in contact with each other, so that
the water in expanding finds means of escape, whereas the
second, though absorbiug less water, does not allow of such
expansion, and is accordingly disintegrated. The author
concludes from these facts that the best method of preparing
tiles to resist frost consists in the use of a ware with a
porous body and a thick glaze on one side. This view
is, however, objected to on the ground that the use of such
a layer of glaze would hinder the expansion of the water.
In exposed situations the only certain method of preventing
damage would appear to be either to use unglazed tiles, or
preferably stoneware, the whole thickness of which is dense
and non-porous like porcelain. — B. B.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Building Boards,
Paper Barrels or Cylinders, and similar Hollow
or other Articles from Paper Pulp. C. Weygang,
Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 12,299, July 20, 1891.
See under XIX., page 771.
An Artificial Stone. J. U. Harries, Aberystwith. Eng.
Pat. 12,033, July 25, 1891.
The patented stone consists of a mixture of 1 part by
measure of Portland cement with 3 parts of extracted
metalliferous matrices, such as " clay, slate, quartz, or
limestone," from which metals as " gold, silver, lead, tin,
copper" have been removed. Water is added to form a
paste and the whole allowed to set in moulds for three to
six days. — B. B.
.1 \<ir or Improved Chemical Treatment or Application
for Cleaning Stone, Marble, Granite, and the like.
'K. Lodge and F. Jury, Huddersfield. Eng. Pat. 15,101,
September 7, 1891.
The use of hydrofluoric acid is patented for the purposes
mentioned in the title. — B. B.
Improvements in Means or Apparatus for Forming Clay
into Pots or Vessels. E. G. Cole, Tottenham, and
H. Keston, Luton. Eng. Pat. 15,108, September 7, 1891.
A horizontal rotating table is carried by a vertical shaft,
borne by a step-bearing formed on the upper side of the
bearing of the main driving shaft of the apparatus, which
is horizontal and carries a wheel which drives by frictional
contact a disc keyed on the vertical shaft carrying the
table. The disc is free to slide on the shaft and is kept
down against the opposition of a spiral spring in contact
with the frictional driving wheel by a shoe which can be
forced down by a wedge-piece controlled by a rod with a
head against which the body of the operator is pressed.
When the pressure is released the disc rises out of contact
with the driving wheel and the rotation of the table is
discontinued. — B. B.
An Improved Process for the Manufacture of Artificial
Stone and Marble. G. Solenz, Graz, Austria. Eng.
Pat. 15,509, September 12, 1891.
A mixture is made of 1 part of burnt magnesite, 4 to 5
parts of clean sand, and 2 parts of " chloride of magnesium
lye of from 23° to 28° B." Articles such as tiles are formed
by pouring the composition into wooden moulds which have
been previously lacquered, washed out with magnesium
chloride solution, and oiled. The goods are ready for use
24 hours after moulding. Bricks with a glazed surface can
be prepared from a similar mixture in hard wood or metal
moulds. The better the surface required the stronger must
be the solution of magnesium chloride. Imitations of veins
and streaks may be produced by suitable pigments stirred
into the mass or applied to the mould.— B. 1!.
Improvements in or connected with ami Apparatus for the
Burning of Cement-making Materials, Lime, Chalk, and
the like. W. R. Taylor, Rochester. Eng. Pat. 16,375,
September 26, 1891.
A kiln is provided with two side flues disposed one above
the other between it and the chimney, which are fitted with
doors so that the kiln gases can be diverted from one to
the other. During the first stage of the process the material
to be burnt in the form of blocks or bricks, perforated or
corrugated, is dried, and as soon as carbon dioxide begins
to come off the hot gases from the kiln are turned into the
other flue, and the carbon dioxide drawn off with a fau.
The bricks are then transferred to the kiln and burnt to
clinker. The fuel used during the evolution of the carbon
dioxide may be " coke, in combination with oxygen or
other gas, or liquids, to support combustion." A retort,
provided with doors, packed with asbestos, a manhole and
pyrometer, may be substituted for the upper flue. The
apparatus patented may be applied to existing dome kilns
by placing one or more saddle-shaped chambers against the
lower part of the kiln, and fitting the latter with a hood
and a pipe in its upper part for drawing off the carbon
dioxide. The fuel is burnt in the saddle-shaped chambers,
and the products of combustion led into the kiln, and the
evolved carbon dioxide drawn off by a fan. The chambers
are provided with double walls filled with loose asbestos,
into which a portion of the hot carbon dioxide may be
forced to maintain the heat in the kiln. This part of the
process may be omitted when oxygen is used. — B. B.
Improved Cement Composition for Coating the Interior of
Ships and the like to prevent Corrosion. YV. A. Briggs,
Dundee. Eug. Pat. 18,284, October 24, 1891.
AnouT 2J parts of measure of crushed pumice stone are
mixed with one part of Portland cement and used for the
purpose set forth in the title. The advantage claimed is
that the composition is only about half the weight of the
mixture of cement and sand generally used. — B. B.
750
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 30, 1692.
X.-METALLUEGY.
Metallic Carbonyls. Ludwig Mond. The Engineer,
June 10, 1892, 498.
The following is an abstract of the report of a lecture given
at the Koyal Institution. After historically dealing with
the researches on the action of carbonic oxide on metals
tin- lecturer prepared some nickel carbonyl aud proceeded
to illustrate and describe its properties.
The gas, Ni(CO)4, burn-, with a bright, luminous flame,
metallic nickel separating and becoming incandescent.
Solids heated to 2005 C. in it become coated with bright
metallic nickel, while carbon monoxide is liberated. It
condenses to a liquid in a freezing mixture, and can then be
sealed iu a tube. A mixture of the vapour aud air explodes
readily but not very violently. The pure liquid does not
explode, but at high temperatures it decomposes. The
vapour has a characteristic odour and is poisonous. It
produces an extraordinary reduction of temperature when
injected subcutaneously, sometimes as much as 12". The
liquid can be distilled, but not from solution in liquids of a
higher boiling point as decomposition then occurs, finely
divided nickel being separated and carbonic oxide evolved.
When attacked by oxidising agents, e.g., nitric acid,
chlorine, or bromine, or by sulphur, decomposition ensues,
nickel salts being formed and carbon dioxide liberated.
Metals, alkalis, non-oxidising acids, and the salts of other
metals produce no change. Nickel carbouates of composi-
tion varying with the hygroscopic state of the atmosphere
are formed by exposing the liquid to the action of the air.
These precipitates dissolve easily in dilute acid. An intense
blue colouration is obtained when nitric oxide is passed
through a solution of nickel carbonyl in alcohol (Berthelot).
Nickel carbonyl is very diamagnetic, and an almost
perfect non-conductor of electricity (Quincke). All other
nickel compounds are paramagnetic. It is opaque for
rays beyond the wave-length 3,820, and its flame gives a
continuous spectrum (Xiveiug and Dewar).
The following are some of the physical constants of
nickel carbonyl and ferro-penta carbonyl :—
■ — ■
Nickel Carbonyl.
Ferro-penta
carbonyl.
1-8185
r; C.
1-J6G
102-8° C.
- 25" C.
- 21° C.
Molecular weighl
17H
106
I'.-nt
0'5
Coefficient of expansion. .
0'0018
i oeiflcicnt of dispersion..
1-1230
Molecular refraction ''- . .
58-03
69-30
Magnetic rotary power. . .
38-21
Diamagnetic constant —
- S'131 x io'"
DiJerro hepta-carbonyl tv.irou, mol. weight 308.
Perkin found the power of magnetic rotation of nickel
carbonyl to be greater than that of any other substance he
has examined, except phosphorus. Mond anil Nasini found
the atomic refraction to be about 2-5 times as large as in
any- other nickel compound, and the former proved it to
have great refractive and dispersive powers. The atomic
refraction of a liquid ferro-carbouyl bears about the same
ratio to the atomic refraction of other iron compounds.
This ferro-carbonyl is similar in preparation and properties
to the nickel carbonyl, and at 180 C. the iron is thrown
down in bright mirror-like form, carbon monoxide being
liberated. Its composition is Fe(CO)5,
Ferro-carbonyl lias been found in carbonic oxide which
bad been compressed in an iron cylinder, and is believed to
be the cause of the led deposit sometimes found upon
steatite gas burners (Roscoe). It has been found in com-
pressed gas used for the limelight (Thome), and Gamier
supposes that it may he found in blast furnaces when woi king
too cold, and to be the origin of large deposits of iron
oxide sometimes found in the tubes leading from the
furnaces ; but the author finds it difficult, to believe that the
temperature is ever low enough to permit of the formation
of iron carbonyl. This body behaves towards acids and
oxidising agents as does nickel carbonyl, but it dissolves in
alkalis without evolution of gas. and in time a greenish
precipitate, chiefly of liydrated ferrous oxide, falls. The
liquid becomes brown on exposure to air, taking up oxygen
when hydrated ferri? oxide is precipitated.
The question of industrially extracting nickel from its
ores by means of carbonic oxide was then dealt with.
For solving this problem within the limits of the resources
of a laboratory the discoverers devised apparatus, the
principles of which are shown in the accompanying diagram.
^^^"•s.'ai^
It consists of a cylinder divided into many compartments,
through which the properly prepared ore is passed very
slowly by means of stirrers attached to a shaft. On leav-
ing the bottom of this cylinder the ore passes through a
transporting screw, and from this to an elevator which
returns it to the top of the cylinder, so that it passes many
times through the cylinder until all the nickel is volatilised.
Into the bottom of this cylinder carbonic oxide is passed,
which leaves it at the top charged with nickel carbonyl
vapour, and passes through the conduits represented, into
tubes set in a furnace, and heated to 200" C. Here the
nickel separates from the nickel carbonyl. The carbonic
o^ide is regenerated aud taken back to the cylinder by
means of a fan, so that the same gas is made to carry fresh
quantities of nickel out of the ore in the cylinder, and to
deposit it iu the tubes an infinite number of times. Upon
these principles Dr. Langer has constructed a complete
plant on a small scale, which has been at work in the
lecturer's laboratory for a considerable time. The volatilis-
ing cylinder is divided into numerous compartments,
through which the ore passes. The carbonic oxide gas is
prepared in any convenient manner. When it comes out at
the top of the cylinder it pisses through a filter to catch
any dust it may contain.
The carbonic oxide, on escaping from the depositing
tubes, is passed through another filter, thence through a
lime purifier to absorb any carbon dioxide which may have
been formed. The whole of this miniature plant is kept in
motion by means of an electric motor. By means of this
apparatus nickel has been extracted from a great number
of ores, in times varying, according to the nature of the
ores, from a few hours to several days.
Plant to carry out this process on a large scale is now
being erected in Birmingham. The advantages claimed are
the great simplicity of the process, and the possibility of at
once obtaining pure, firmly coherent, metallic nickel iu auy
desired form, e.g , tubes, copies of art work by deposition
in heated moulds, &c, the latter advantage beiug expected
to prove a serious rival to the present method of nickel-
plating by electrolysis.
Specimens of the ores used in the process, tubes aud
plates, articles of pure nickel and articles plated with
nickel produced in Mr. Mood's laboratory, were exhibited.
Finally the lecturer drew attention to the prospect opened
out of being able to meet the continually increasing
demand for pure nickel, and poiuted out how the most
Sept. £0,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
751
valuable properties of the nickel-steel alloy for armour
plates, &o., make an abundant and cheap supply of nickel
a matter Of national importance. — A. W.
'I'll <■ Effect of Heat on Mercury Compounds. F. Janda.
Iron, 40, 9.
In the new 1(5 ri a method of assay, using a gold collecting
dish, when heated with forge scale under a covering of
zinc oxide, the sulphide, oxides, sub-chloride, and basic
sulphate air completely decomposed, hut the chloride loses
8 per cent., and the normal sulphate 4 per cent., volatilised
unchanged. If the zinc oxide cover be omitted, the
mercury is generally blackened with amorphous sulphide.
Ily heat without reageuts, cinnabar is changed to mercury,
sulphur dioxide, and a small amount of black sulphide.
Mercuric chloride volatilises, about 5 per cent, only being
reduced to metal, and mercuric nitrate is also very slightly
decomposed by heat.
Mercurous salts are all decomposed by a red heat except
the chloride, which sublimes unchanged. Mercuric sulphate
turns yellow, then melts to a brown liquid, and on cooling
becomes white again. At a higher temperature it sublimes
unchanged, but more slowly than any of the other com-
pounds. Xurbeth mineral completely but slowly volatilises
with decomposition. The mercurial flue stuff, composed
mainly of mercury, and its sulphide, basic sulphate, and
sub-eli oridc, with impurities, and containing 8G'5 per cent,
of mer cury, decomposes into mercury and mercury black —
a finely-divided mixture of metal and sulphide — which,
mixed and heated with lime, gives metallic mercury. The
amalgam on the gold plate is bright, and has only a slight
coating of hydrocarbon oil. The chloride aud sulphate are
not completely decomposed by lime alone, and a sublimate
of the unchanged salt covers the amalgam.
Cinnabar and Hue soot, when mixed with 25 per cent, of
lime and 25 per cent, of lamp-black, and heated, yield the
whole of their mercury, but the deposit is coated with black.
By the same treatment the oxides and lower compounds
completely decompose and yield a clear amalgam, but the
higher chloride and basic sulphate lose 8 and 4 per cent.
respectively. — A. W.
Experiments on the Elimination of Sulphur from Iron.
E. .1. Hall and A. Wingham. The Irou and Steel
Institute Spring Meeting, 1892.
This paper is the result of an experimental investigation
made about four years ago at the Koyal School of Mines.
A few experiments were carried out at the Brymbo Works
in an endeavour to combine desulphurisation with the Darby
recarburisation process, bnt they were not satisfactory.
The authors first found that potassium cyanide placed on
the surface of molten cast iron almost completely removed
the sulphur, the three experiments cited showing a reduction
to about one hundredth of the quantity originally present.
The volatility of the cyanide, however, was so great that the
proportion required could not be reduced within practicable
limits, and the authors, therefore, endeavoured to rind some
flux which would retain when molten a quantity of cyanide
sufficient to effect desulphurisation. Sodium carbonate,
lime, aud blast-furnace slag were each tried, the lirst being
found the most effective. With the less basic lime slag the
diminution in the percentage of sulphur varied with the
amount of cyanide used. These experiments also showed
that with soda flux the addition of large excess of cyanide
was useless, probably owing to the wa°te due to its
volatility. These results led to experiments being made to
ascertain the action of sodium carbonate alone. A very
considerable diminution in the quantity of sulphur occurred.
With quantities of soda varying from one-thirtieth to one-
tenth of the weight of the iron, the reduction was practically
the same, ie., from I'll to O'l.j per cent. They then
found that with a repetition of the treatment the percentage
of sulphur was not practically further diminished, ami
apparently sodium carbonate alone would not completely
remove the sulphur. A mixture of it with potassium
cyanide, however, proved much more satisfactory. They
sometimes used the ferroeyanide as a more convenient salt
than the cyanide, and this gave the same result. Hence it
was evident the cyanide greatly assisted the action of the
carbonate. The same beneficial effect, but to a greater
extent, was noticed when caustic soda was substituted for
the carbonate, so that less cyanide was necessary, and this
led to the belief that the cyanide might be dispensed with
altogether. Subsequent experiment showed that under
certain conditions the caustic soda by itself would act
successfully. Previously it had appeared that the
cyanogen had some direct action in removing the sulphur,
but this indicated that the real agent was metallic sodium
formed in situ b3' reduction of the soda by carbon and iron.
This was established by the introduction of metallic sodium
in the form of an alloy with lead into the molten iron, the
sulphur being thereby totally eliminated. The experiments
cited were selected from a much larger number, the contact of
the alkaline slag with the iron usually extending over about
20 minutes, and on comparing the results it is remarkable
how frequently the sulphur is reduced to 0'15 percent.,
thus suggesting that this residual quantity may be in a
different state of combination. To eliminate this residual
sulphur it seems necessary to use more powerful reducing
agents so as to get rid of any oxidising substances which
may be present. In the laboratory potassium cyanide was
used, and by its great reducing power, or by facilitating the
formation of metallic sodium or potassium, enabled the
operation to be completed at comparatively low tempera-
tures. At the higher temperature, in practice, however,
its volatility would militate against its use, and ve^y
probably it might not be needed at all, because as the
temperature increases the alkali becomes more active.
Basic lime slag with soda present would not act in the
laboratory, but at higher temperature it is probable such a
slag would become active in removing sulphur, provided
oxidising influences were avoided. There is evidence that
magnesium yielding fluxes can so act, but it is believed to
be essential that all chances of external oxidation and also
all oxides of iron should be absent. A trace of oxide of
iron might exist in the metal e\ en with 3 or 4 per cent,
of carbon present, and indirectly be the origin of the
reluctant O'l per cent, of sulphur, and a basic lime slag
per se would probably be insufficiently active to remove
this sulphur except with difficulty, and it might be
necessary to use some soda with it. Even then the tenacity
of the supposed trace of oxide might render this sulphur
capable of resisting this attack, and the employment of a
still more powerful reducing agent might be necessary. The
authors performed an experiment with ferro-manganese,
which (or spiegel) was the only agent which suggested
itself as a practical reducing agent, aud the cast iron was
submitted to the action of carbonate of soda before and
after the addition of the ferro-manganese. By carbonate of
soda alone the sulphur was reduced from 0'58 to 0' 14 per
cent., and then by it, in conjunction with rich ferro-man-
ganese, from 0 ■ 1 4 to 0 • 0G per cent.
In the blast furnace, working hot, with excess of lime
and fuel, it is well known that the sulphur is kept low, and
such working gives a more basic slag; but all oxidising
influences are not, and probably cannot be, absolutely
eliminated, hence some sulphur remains with the iron, and
the same is the case in the furnaces used for the conversion
into steel. Whether the removal by manganese, on the
addition of spiegel after the blow in the converter, is In-
direct action of manganese or by the manganese producing
complete deoxidation, and so allowing the slag to act, it is
difficult to decide, but, at any rate, the metal is then for the
first time in the necessary state for desulphurisation, and
the sulphur begins to come out. Probably it is because
these conditions were not fulfilled that the Brymbo
experiments were unsatisfactory. There were signs of
a diminution of sulphur, but the idea was to combine
desulphurisation aud recarburisation in one operation.
The authors hope that the publication of the results of
their experiments may throw some light upon this subject,
and point out that being on so small a scale the waste was
excessive, and therefore the results should not be
scrutinised too closely as to their practicability. They
show, however, that under the conditions of contact of the
75S
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, tm.
molten metal with an alkaline or basic slag, and all
materials and surroundings in a perfect state of deoxidation
— a basic process in direct contrast to the basic phosphorus
process — any amount of sulphur can be removed from pig
iron. If in the basic-lined converter the oxidising
conditions cjuld be transformed to reducing ones, the
sulphur and not the phosphorus would probably be
removed. Since the reduction was effected by metallic
sodium produced in situ, it would obviously be most
advantageous to carry out the desulphunsation process
with pig iron and Tint from blown metal or steel. The
authors believe it will always be found easier to remove
sulphur from pig iron than from steel, whatever the method
employed.
In the discussion the difficulty of the 0-1 percent, on a
large scale and the importance of the reducing conditions
were questioned. Snelus thought there was more in these
results than appeared on the first glance. He did not
think the fundamental conditions of sulphur and phosphorus
and their affinities as regards their elimination from iron
had ever been understood sufficiently. It appeared that
sulphur was more firmly held in combination as a sulphide
than when in an oxidised state, as in the ease of phosphorus.
Hence under the reducing conditions in a blast furnace, the
bulk of the sulphur might easily be removed by calcium or
sodium as sulphides, and so pass into the slag. Under
proper conditions manganese would remove the sulphur,
but its affinity to hold the sulphur was not as strong as
calcium or sodium, which, as shown in the paper, would
hold it most strongly under the right conditions of a
reducing atmosphere. He thought it a disadvantage to
have oxide of iron present.
Sir Lowthiac Bell submitted the possibility that sulphur
might be removed from iron without having formed sodium
at all. He had detected cyanides of potassium and sodium
in the blast furnace, and their formation was due to
previous formation of sodium. For several years he had
aspirated a quantity of blast-furnace gases through mercury,
but if sodium were present it was in too small quantity to
be arrested by the mercury.
The peculiarities of the manganese process were referred
to in such examples as a pig iron containing both 0'4 per
cent, of sulphur and 6 per cent, of manganese, which metal
had been afterwards used to remove sulphur with satis-
factory results. Hadfield's manganese steels had also been
known to contain sulphur notwithstanding the large
quantity of manganese present, and it was possible that the
question of the trace of oxide raised in the paper might
have something to do with these irregularities. The
importance of chemists examining into these questions was
pointed out. — A. W.
Production of Platinum in Russia. .1. Soc. Arts, 40, 807.
The platinum beds of the Ural mountains, according to
ill. Journal dc hi Chambre de Commerce de Constantinople.
are the only ones in the world in which this metal is found
in grains. Platinum is found in Brazil and in the Cordilleras
in the hard serpentine rocks, but never in the form of
grains. The platinum beds of the Ural mountains are
found in various districts. The platinum found in these
places is in the form of grains, in sand frequently containing
gold. The weight of these grains is from 17 to 21 grms.
to every 1,640 kilos, of sand. The richness of the
platinum beds varies in the same proportions. In some,
the thickness of the turf covering the sand does not
exceed from 2-16 metres to 2-88 metres, while, in others
it varies from 10-80 metres to 14 metres, so that it becomes
necessary to work underground. The thickness of the
platinum sands does not vary much. During the la-t 12
\ , ars the annual prodnction of platinum has averaged about
3,194 kilos., of which half has been derived from the beds
in the north of the Ural mountains belonging either to the
State or to private persons. Throughout the whole world
only about 3.270 kilos, of platinum are annually used,
but it is anticipated that this amount will soon be con-
siderably increased, and it is stated that the platinum beds
of Bisserski tan alone supply the total quantity required
for the consumption of the world. When the demand for
platinum was insignificant and the price very low, the gold
miners who found platinum while seeking gold, frequently,
it is stated, used the former, instead of lead, as shot for
firing at wild birds. All the platinum extracted from the
Ural mountains, after having paid a tax of 3 per cent, in
kind, is sent as raw ore to St. Petersburg for treatment and
shipment to foreign markets. — W. S.
Specific Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion of Aluminium.
J. Pionchon. Compt. rend. 115, 1S92, 162 — 10.5.
The metal employed by the author for his determinations
was obtained from the French foundry of Froges (Isere),
which contains scarcely 0-9 per cent, impurities, consisting
chiefly of iron and silicon. The total quantity of heat
required to bring the metal from 0° to the fusion point
(625° C.) was 239-4 calories (expressed as qpm= 239"4),
the specific heat immediately before and after the fusion
being about the same, 7-^ = 0-2894 and yCM = 0-308.
Although from the difficulty of fusing aluminium experienced
in practice, it might be expected that the latent heat of
aluminium is very high, that it was found to correspond to
80 calories, equal to that of water, will excite some
surprise. — F. W. p.
Aluminium : its Manufacture and Uses from an Engineer-
ing Stand-point. A. E. Hunt. J. Frank. Inst. 133,
241—271.
The author commences his paper by stating it as his
opinion that the " problem" of manufacturing aluminium
of high quality at small cost has already been solved by the
method of electro-deposition from a molten electrolyte.
It is possible by this method to obtain cheaply aluminium
of over 99 -9 per cent, purity, the impurity being only
silicon, and the author believes that within the next few
years it will be possible to reduce the cost to between 18
and 23 cents per pound The object of the paper is to
point out some of the ways in which aluminium can be
used in the arts.
For many purposes it is not so advantageous to use pure
alumiuium as an alio}' of the metal with a small percentage
of other elements, such as titauum, copper, or chromium.
These do not detract seriously from the non-corrodibility
of the metal while they add considerably to its strength and
hardness, and give it a better colour.
The properties of aluminium which are likely to make it
most useful in the arts are : —
(1.) Its relative lightness.
(2.) Its non-tarnishing quality as compared with other
metals, being more slowly oxidised in moist atmospheres,
anil nut being acted upon by sulphur fumes.
(3.) Its extreme malleability.
(4.) Its easy casting qualities.
(5.) Its influence in various allocs.
(6.) Its high tensile strength and elasticity when
compared weight for weight with other metals.
(7.) Its high specific heat and electrical and heat
conductivity.
Section for section, aluminium is unfortunately only
about as strong under tensile strain as cast iron, having
less than half the strength of wrought iron under ordinary
circumstances. The author gives tables and curves showing
the strength under various stresses of forged, cast, and
drawn aluminium.
An aluminium wire, alloyed with a small percentage of
silver, titanium, or copper, can be produced having, weight
for weight with copper wire, an electrical conductivity of
170, that of copper being 100. When it is taken into
consideration that the tensile strength of the copper will be
less than one-half that of the aluminium-titanium alloy,
and that the conductivity of iron or steel in the same scale
would be only about 17, it would seem that a field of
usefulness for electrical conductors is open to the metal.
A striking property of aluminium, likely to render it
serviceable in the arts, is its low specific gravity. Wherever
Sept. so, 1898.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
753
momentum is to be overcome, as in the reciprocating parts of
m;iny forms of machinery, aluminium can be advantageously
used.
Aluminium does not oxidise seriously, so that a bright
polish can be maintained for some time if suitable polishes
are used. The metal withstands the action of wind and
weather, and it is not much acted upon by boiling water
or steam. It has therefore been successfully used as a
packing in steam connexions, where lead has been rapidly
cut out. It withstands the action of organic secretions better
even than silver, which has led to its use for surgical
purposes, and it has alio been successfully used for the
manufacture of cooking utensils. It docs not corrode more
readily in the presence of organic acids than copper or tin,
and its salts are not injurious. It also makes a much more
durable and satisfactory roofing than the sheet copper now
generally used. Its high thermal and electric conductivity
have already been referred to, and it is also found to be
practically non-magnetic. Its sonorousness renders it well
adapted for the sounding boards of musical instruments,
and its extreme malleability makes it possible to beat it into
leaf marly as thin as gold leaf, or to draw it into the finest
wire. It can be readily welded by the apparatus of the
Electric Welding Company, and can be cast in moulds of
dry sand. It, however, requires some experience on the
part of the founder before perfectly sound castings can be
made. Until lately it was not easy to solder aluminium,
but this difficulty has now been overcome by the use of a
very hot soldering bolt, and crystals of chloride of silver as
a flux.
One of the greatest uses for aluminium in the arts will be
in the form of alloys. It is possible to make an aluminium
bronze of 130,000 lb. tensile strength and 5 per cent.
elongation in 8 inches. Such a bronze would be perhaps
the best metal for cylinders to withstand high pressures.
A small percentage of aluminium added to the ordinary
Babbitt metal will greatly increase the durability of the
alloy. If added to steel castings it is found to prevent
blowholes and unsound tops of ingots. Its addition to the
alloys known as pewter, Britannia metal, white metal, delta
metal, &c, has been found to have a useful effect. It has
been used with advantage as an addition to the zinc in
galvanising baths, and has also been used as a coating for
iron by itself. It has been successfully used to replace
lithographic stone, and mixed with chlorate of potash it
may be used instead of magnesium to produce a flash-light
for photographic purposes.
The paper concludes with a repetition of the statement
that the problem of the future is to utilise the metal in the
arts with financial success, " rather than in devising more
economical methods of manufacture." — D. E. J.
The Preservation of Sodium. W. Vaubel. Zeits. f. ang.
Chem. 1892, 200.
The author recommends a liquid paraffin known as " Vase-
line oil " for the preservation of sodium, the use of ordinary
petroleum oils, &c., giving rise to brown incrustations,
which mean a loss of sodium. In the vaseline oil first
mentioned the metal can be preserved for years unaltered.
—A. L. S.
Von Sehulz and Low's Method of Estimating Lead in
Ores. .1. E. Williams. Eng. and Mining .1. 53, 1892,
641.
See under XXIII., page 775.
The Scparatiojt and Estimation of Lead, Silver, and
Zinc in Minerals composed of Galena and Blende.
E. Aubin. Bull. Soc. Chem. 7-8, 1892, 134.
See under XXIII., page 775.
Micrographic Analysis of Alloys. G. Guillemin. Compt.
rend. 115, 1892, 232—234.
•Sec under XXIII., page 774.
Aluminium and Beer. Zeits. f. ang. Chem. 1892, 299.
See under XVII., page 766.
The Almaden Quicksilver Mines. Chemist and Druggist,
1892.
The quicksilver mines of Almaden are situated to the
north of the town of the same name. The veins of mercury
run irregularly in several directions ; those that are now
being worked cover an area of from 550 to 600 feet in
length by 40 to 45 feet in width. Their depth is still
unknown, as after the exhaustion of one vein the borings
are continued until a lower one is reached. Several veins
are not payable ones, and are, therefore, left undisturbed.
The average thickness of payable veins varies from 40 to
130 feet. The lowest point reached at present is about
1,100 feet below the surface. Roth the quality and the
percentage yield of mercury improve with the depth
of the vein, and in the tenth and eleventh galleries (the
lowest as yet worked) the mercury actually runs out of the
rock like gum from a tree, and is caught in small leather
receptacles. The colour of the rock varies from blackish
grey to vivid red, and the redder its colour the richer is the
yield of the metal. Mercury is often found in Almaden
as a sulphide. Three veins arc being worked at present.
The ore is carried from the mines to gigantic smelting
ovens, where it is distilled by the application of intense
heat. The product of distillation passes through a long
system of tubes, at the end of which it forms drops, which
are caught upon small tubes fixed in containers. The
annual production is from 55,000 to 60,000 frascos, or
metal bottles, containing 4 arrobas each. About 3,000
hands are emploj'ed at the mines at present, 2,000 of these
working below the surface.
PATENTS.
An Improved Process for Treating Copper and its Alloys
to Prevent Oxidation and Deo.vidation thereof during
Heating or Annealing. II. 11. Lake, London. Erom
G. W. Cummins, Vienna, N.J., U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8989,*
(Amended), June 10, 1890.
The improved process consists in surrounding the copper
or its alloys during the process of annealing with steam,
atmospheric air being excluded or not dining cooling as
may be desired. Other non -reducing gaseous fluids, such
as carbonic acid and nitrogen, may also be used when their
cost is not too great. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Utilisation of Tin Plate Scrap. E. W.
Harbord and W. Hutchinson, jun., Wolverhampton.
Eng. Pat. 12,917, July 30, 1891.
The scrap is melted vrith a suitable proportion of cast or
pig iron, and the metallic product worked up into steel by
the basic process ; or the mixture may be treated directly
in a basic Siemens furnace without previous melting ; lime
and oxidising agents are added when necessary. The tin
and zinc are partly volatilised and partly pass away in the
produced.— J. H. C.
Improvements in Alloying Aluminium with other Metals.
G. L. Adderbrooke, London. Eng. Pat. 15,782, 17th
September 1891.
The improvements consist in alloying known combinations
of nickel and aluminium with tin and copper so as to
make them more readily workable without adding unduly to
their cost. For castings 92 per cent, of aluminium, 4 per
cent, of nickel, 3 per cent, of tin, and 1 per cent, of copper
754
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 80.1892.
are found suitable. The nickel is first brought to a white
hriit, and a little aluminium is added ; the two metals com-
bine with incandescence. The remainder of the aluminium,
which has been previously melted, is then added. The tin
and copper are also melted together and cast into the form
of sticks and subsequently stirred in the molten aluminium
and dissolved therein. The resultant metal should be cast
into ingots and remelted twice before use. If a softer or
more malleable mixture is required the nickel may be
reduced to 1^ per tent, aud the tin in like proportion. For
some purposes the copper may be omitted. — J. H. C.
An Improved Process of Tn ating < 'opper Ores and Mattes.
L. A. Pelatan, l'aris. Eng. Tat. 17,450, October 13,
1891.
Natural copper waters and copper-liquors obtained from
pyritic ores by the ordinary processes of oxidation and
lixiviation are run into troughs where they are acted upon
by ordinary copper matte which has been previously crushed
or granulated. The copper iu the liquor precipitates on the
matte, while the iron of the matte goes into solution. After
the whole of the copper has been thus precipitated the
liquor is drawn off and fresh liquor is supplied, until there
is no further action, and there remains as the final residue
of the operation copper highly concentrated, partly in the
metallic state and partly in various stages of sulphurisation.
If obtainable, ores of a composition analogous to that of the
mattes may be used in place of them. — J. H. C.
An Improved Metallic Alloy, more especially intended for
Use for Gas or Petroleum Engine Igniters or like
Articles subjected to great Heat. C. W. Pinkney,
Smethwick. Eng. Pat. 17,955, October 20, 1891.
The alloy consists of nickel and iron, preferably in equal
proportions : it is most conveniently formed by first melting
the nickel and then adding the iron in a divided state.
—J. H <
Improvements in Preparing Ores, Oxides, and Compounds
of Iron for Smelling. J. Woodcock, Low Moor, Vorks,
J. Smith and W. McD. Mackev, Leeds EDg. Pat. 2583,
February 10, 1892.
The ores, &c. are mixed with about three parts by weight of
small coking coal, fluxing materials being also added when
required ; anil the mixture is coked in the ordinary way.
—J. H. C.
XJ.-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
On the Lairs of Electrolysis. A. Chassy. Compt. rend.
114, 1892, 998—1000.
usee bas shown that when a substance of complex
formula M.,I!7 is electrolysed, M being the electro-positive
and 1! the electro-negative radicle for every equivalent of
hydrogen disengaged in a water-voltameter in the circuit,
there is disengaged one equivalent of the radicle I; and
equivalent of the radical M. According to Wiedemann
and other physicists, however, there are exceptions to this
law, for with certain salts the quantities of the radicles
disengaged under the given conditions are, ' equivalent of
1! and one equivalent of M.
The author therefore wishes to substitute for these two
tatements a single law which will satisfy all known cases.
If in the formula M*R , Mp is replaced by H.,- in order to
obtain a certain known hydrogen compouud (an operation
which can always be carried out without ambiguity), Mp and
H.r may be called corresponding quantities. Thus in the
quantity Fe»Cl3 (ferric chloride), Fe2 may be replaced by
H, and here 1 Fe is the corresponding quantity to H,
while in FeCI (ferric chloride) Fe corresponds to H. Iu
the same way in all salts of sodium, Na corresponds to II.
To obtain these corresponding quantities it is not necessary
to know the formula corresponding to the electrolytic
molecule; thus whether ferric chloride be Fe.Cl; or I\ ,('!,,
the quantity of iron corresponding to one equivalent of
hydrogen is always the same. The determination of these
corresponding quantities is thus independent of all theory.
The following is the law which the author proposes : —
Whenever any substance whatever is electrolysed, there is
always disengaged one equivalent of hydrogen or the
cone-ponding quantity of the electro-positive radicle.
This law is applicable to all known cases, and agrees
with the laws of Iieequerel and Wiedemann, and also with
that of Faraday relative to compounds of the simple formula
II R. It may also be applied to a certain number of sub-
stances where very complex secondary reactions are set up.
Suppose it is desired to know the quantities of the radicles
disengaged from a body of formula MpTLq. Let the liquid
be placed in two vessels conuected together by a siphon,
and let platinum electrodes be used. In the vessel sur-
rounding the cathode there is a certain quantity of the body
M.pHq and in addition a certain quantity of M, these two
substances reacting on one another to form secondary
compounds. Then, by making the necessary analysis to
obtain the weight of all the substances in the vessel, it is
easy to deduce by simple calculation the quantity of the
body M disengaged by the current.
The law has been verified for potassium ferrocyanide,
potassium ferricyanide, sodium nitroprusside and several
other substances, amongst which may be mentioned the
case of the ferric nitrate Fea03. 2 N05. The quantities of
the radicles of this salt which appear at the electrodes are
| Fe and ^ (2 SO, + 3 0). This does not agree with
either the law of Becquerel or that of Wiedemann, but is in
accordance with the law proposed by the author, and serves
as an instance of the advantage of its use, aud of its general
applicability. — D. E. J.
Mierographic Analysis of Alloys. G. Guillemiu. Compt,
rend. H5, 1892, 232—234.
See under XXIII., page 774.
Aluminium : Its Manufacture ami Uses from an
Engineering Standpoint. A. E. Hunt. J. Frank, lust.
133,241—271.
See under X., page 752.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Carbons for Electric
Arc lamps. W. Lloyd Wise, London. From W. Gru-
delbach, Dinslaken, Germany. Eng. Pat. 12,019, July
1."., 1891.
Hollow rods, that is to say, rods formed with a core hole,
are made by pressing, and are then baked, after which the
substance employed for the core is charged into the core
hole, a second baking being unnecessary. The charging is
effected by means of a machine having a plunger capable of
pressing the dry mixture of finely-pulverised carbon ami
other substances while allowing the air to escape past it.
— <;. 11. II.
",1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
755
Improvements in the Treatment of Solutions containing
Nickel and Iron for Ihe Obtainmenl of Useful Products
therefrom. J. H. Johnson, London. From T. Parker
and E. Robinson, Wolverhampton. Eng. Pat. 14,159,
August 21, 1891.
Solutions of nickel and iron such as those obtained from
the process described in a previous patent (Eng. Pat. 5199
of 1890) are peroxidised by any suitable agent. Magnesite
is added to precipitate the iron, and the filtrate is electrolysed
between carbon electrodes after the addition of the chloride
of an alkali. The nickel is precipitated and the solution is
filtered oft' and evaporated to the required bulk for
crystallisation as Epsom salts. — G. H. R.
Improvements in or connected with Electrolysis. From E
A. Le Sueur, Ottawa, Canada. Eng. Pat. 15,0.50,
September 5, 1891.
The evils arising from diffusion or leakage from the negative
electrode side to the positive are minimised by maintain-
ing the solution in the positive sections in practically the
same condition chemically throughout electrolysis. In the
case of the electrolysis of common salt, hydrochloric acid is
ailled to the solution on the positive electrode side of the
diaphragm, to neutralise the caustic soda which diffuses
through the diaphragm. — G. H. R.
Improvements in Galvanic Batteries. G. Cohen, Man-
chester. Eng. Pat. 15,407, September 11, 1891.
Tm: elements are zinc and carbon, and the space between
them is filled with a mixture of three parts sal-ammoniac
and two parts calcium chloride dissolved in ten parts of
water. About ten parts of plaster of Paris are then added,
forming a solid exciting compound.— G. H. 1!.
Improvements in Ozonising Apparatuses. I. Ehlis, Liege,
Belgium. Fng. Pat. 1G.80G, October 3, 1891.
See under XVIII., page
Improvements in and relating to Electric Accumulators.
H. H. Lake, London. From La Societedite Electricitcits-
Maatschappij, Gelnhauscn, Germany. Eng. Pat. 17,160.
October 8, 1891.
The invention consists in filling up the spaces between the
ribs of the lead grids used for the positive electrodes with t.
mixture of lead peroxide and red lead, and in the employ-
ment of finely-pulverised metallic lead as a filling for the
negative electrodes. — G. H. R.
Improvements in or connected with t \ lis for Electrolysing
Chloride Solutions. From T. Parker and A. E. Robinson,
Wolverhampton. Eng. Pat. 6007, March 28, 1892.
The improvement consists in making the anodes of
phosphides of chromium, either pure or mixed with carbon,
in order to prevent their being attacked by the liberated
chloriue.-G. H. R.
Apparatus for the Production by Electrolysis of Chlorine
and Alkalis. C. Kellner, Vienna, Austria. Eng. Pat.
9.346, May 17, 1892.
The apparatus in which the electrolytic decomposition of
the solution is effected, consists of an iron trough having
cast on one of its side walls partitions which terminate at
some distance from the opposite side wall. This trough
with its partitions constitute the cathodes, and in the
intermediate spaces there are arranged frames of suitable
acid and alkali-resisting material, such as glass or stone
ware, which contain the anodes and diaphragms. The
entire space between the diaphragms is filled with powdered
carbon, in which are inserted rods or plates of carbon which
serve as anodes. The diaphragms are made of slate or
glass pierced with holes, which are so arranged that the
holes in one diaphragm come opposite the solid portions of
the next.— G IT. II.
Process for the Separation of the Alkali obtained by
Electrolytical Decomposition of Halogen Compounds
from the Electrolyte which has not been Decomposed.
C. Kellner, Vienna, Austria. Eng. Pat. 9347, May 17,
1892.
The object of this invention is to overcome the difficulty
experienced in separating the alkali produced by the
electrolytical decomposition of halogen compounds from
the electrolyte which has remained undecomposed, as for
example when obtaining caustic soda by the electrolytic
decomposition of common salt. The liquor containing
caustic soda coming from the electrolytic decomposing
apparatus, is conveyed by means of a pipe to a precipitating
apparatus where it is heated to cause the crystallisation of
the sodium chloride. The pasty mass so obtained is con-
veyed into a displacing apparatus provided with a perforated
false bottom covered with woven wire. A quantity of brine
equal to the amount of caustic soda found by experience to
be retained by the crystals is now added, and the displaced
caustic liquor passes over into another vessel, is again
evaporated and the entangled caustic soda is again displaced,
and so on until a caustic soda solution of very considerable
strength is obtained. The sodium chloride residue is
re-electrolysed. — G. H. R.
Improved Process and Apparatus for the Electro-chemical
Production of Bleaching Agents. C. Kellner, Vienna,
Austria. Eng. Pat. 10,200, May 28, 1892.
According to this invention the ions separated by the
electrolysis are brought into contact with one another
outside the decomposing cell to form a hypochlorite. The
chlorine gas issuing from the vessel in which the electrolysis
takes place, passes into the bottom of an absorption tower.
The alkaline liquid coming from the cathode compartments,
and containing the separated caustic soda, passes into an
agitator where it is stirred violently to free it from any
hydrogen gas which may have been carried over with it.
From here the alkaline liquid is conveyed to the top of the
scrubber and trickles down through the ascending chlorine
gas.— G. H. R.
Improvements in Primary Voltaic Batteries. II. Wey-
mersch, London. Eng. Pat. 10,850, June 8, 1892.
Axy element can be removed or replaced in electrical
connection with the others without involving any screwing
or unscrewing, as in all cases the connections are made by
hooks dipping into mercury contained in grooves cut in the
cover of the battery box. The plates pass through slots
cut in this cover and are suspended from it by the hooks.
— G. II. i;.
Improvements in Secondary or Storage Batteries. From
H. II. Lloyd, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 11,147,
June 14, 1892.
The improved battery plate consists in a conducting support
which is perforated so as to form a lodgment for the active
material which maybe cast chloride of lead, with or without
an admixture of chloride of zinc ; and in order to retain
the active material in the perforations, a rabbet or match
joint is formed between the adjacent portions of each of the
pieces of active material and the support. The support is
protected from the action of the current by means of an
acid-proof insulating cover, which is perforated by groups
of small holes where it covers the active material. — G. H. R.
A n Improved Process of Purifying Water. C. G. Collins,
Woodsburgh, New York, L'.S.A. Eng. Pat. 11,989,
June 28, 1892.
See under XVII I., page 770.
756
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEaTICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. SO, 1892.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Bibliograph>i of Beesica.r : arrangi d < 'hronologicatly. U.S.
Depart, of Agriculture, 1892. Bulletin 13, 866—869.
t 'imposition of Beesica.r. Brodie. Phil. Trans. 1848, 1,
159.
Detection of Stearic Acid in Beeswax. Fehling. Dingl.
Polyt. J. 1858, 147, -'27.
dterants in Beeswax. Babineaud. J. do
Pharm. d'Anvers, 1860, 531 ; Dingl. Polyt. J. 1862, 163,
80.
Adulterations <,( Beeswax. H. Hager. Pharm. Central-
halle, 1*62. 3^ 207.
Detection of Paraffin in Beesica.r. Landolt. Dingl.
Polyt. J. 1862,160,224.
Detection of Adulterants in Beeswax. Dullo. Wagner's
Jahresber, 1863, 670; Zeits. Anal. (hem. 1864, 510.
Detection of Vegetable Wax in Beeswax. Dingl. Polyt.
J. 1864,172, 156.
Detection of Paraffin in Beeswax. Payen. J. de Pharm.
et de Chim. ii. 4, 233.
Determination of Paraffin in Beeswax. Lies-Bodart.
Compt. Bend. 1866, 62, 749. B. Wagner. Zeits. Anal.
Chern. 1866. 279; Dingl. Polyt. J. 1867, 185, 72.
Bleaching Beesica.r. J. F. Bahcock. Proc. Amer. Pharm.
Assoc. 1867, 98 and 372.
Adulteration of Beesica.r. H. Hager. Pharm. Central-
halle. 1869, '10, 49; Chem. News, 1869,19, 310. E.
Davis. Pharm. J. (Trans ) L870.
Adulteration of Beeswai with Japan Wax. H. Hager.
Pharm. Centralhalle, 1870, H, 209.
Detection of Rosin in Beesica.r. Pharm. J. (Trans.)
1870.
Optical Analysis of Beesica.r. H. I'ocklington. Pharm.
J. (Trans.) 1871, ii. SI.
Detection of Ceresin in Beeswax. Pharm. Centralhalle,
1872, 371.
Formation of Beesica.r. W. von Schneider. Annalen.
162, 235; J. Chem. Soc. 1872, 25, 639.
Detection of Adulterants in Beeswax. H. Hager. Com-
ment. Pharm. Geim. 1873, 435.
Specific Gravity of Waxes used as Adulterants. E.
1 lieterich. Arch. Pharm. 1873, 20, 454.
Tests I'm- Adulterants of Beeswax. E. Donath. Dingl.
Polyt. .1. 205, 131-
Adulteration of Beeswax. Amer. J. Pharm. 1874, 510.
Detection of Japan Wax in Beeswax. C. Mene. Compt.
Bend. 1874,78, 1544.
Wax Adulterated with Paraffin. Pep. de Pharm. 1874;
A. \V. Miller. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1875, 200.
Crystalline Structure of Beeswax. B. Buttger. J. Chem.
Soc. (Abstr.) 1879, 36, 171.
Composition of Beeswax. Schalfejeff. Ber. 1876, 9, 27S
and 1688.
Detection "/' Rosin in Beeswax. J. Chem. Soc. (Abstr.)
1877, 365.
Manufacture of Artificial Wax. Chem. Centr. 1876,
528.
Adulteration oj Beeswax. Bedford. Pharm. J. (Trans.)
1877. 316.
Action of Iodine ioi Beeswax. T. A. Edison. Chem.
News. '1877. 36, 138.
Detection of Paraffin in Beeswax. H. Hager. Pharm.
Centralhalle. 1877.18, 414.
Detection of Rosin in Beeswax. E.Schmidt. Ber. 1877,
10, B37
Estimation of Paraffin in Beeswax. W. T. Thompson.
Chem. News, 38, 167.
Analysis of Wax. F. Becker. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1880,
241.
Detection of Paraffin in Wax. M. Buchner. J. Chem.
Soc. (Abstr.) 18S0, 240.
Electrical Properties of Beeswax. W. E. Avrton. Phil.
-Mag. [5], 6, 132.
Is Beeswax a Rancid Fat .' Amer. J. Pharm. 1879, 220.
Examination of Wax H. Hager. Pharm. Centralhalle,
1880, 119; J. Chem. Soc. (Abstr.) 1881, 316.
Determination of Hydrocarbons in Beeswae. A. II. Allen
and Wni. Thomson. Chem. News, 1881. 43. 267.
Detection of Rosin in Beeswax. F.Jean. Chem. Z jit. 1881,
303.
Constitution of Beeswax. E. Zatzeck. Monatsh. Chem.
3,367.
Detection of Para [tin in Beeswax. E. Dieterich. Wagner's
Jahreber, 1882, 1028.
Manufacture of Wax by the Bees. Hutchinson. Pharm.
J. (Trans.) 1882, 24.
Adulteration of Beeswax. Amer. Bee J., May 23, 1883.
Analysis of Beesica.r. 0. Hehner. Analyst, 1883, 16.
F. Hiibl." Dingl. Polyt. J. 1883. 249, 338; this Journal,
l^sa, 418.
Di tection of Tallow in Beeswax. Amer. Bee J. 18S3,
298.
Determination of Carnauba Wax in Beeswax. E. Valenta.
Pharm. Centralhalle, 1883, 24, 417.
Microscopic Examination of Wax. E. Dieterich. Zeits.
Anal. Chem. 1884, 567.
Tests for Purity of Beeswax. P. E. Besch. Amer. Bee
J. 1883, 211.
Acid Constituents of Beesica.r. E. Xafzger. Annalen,
1884,224,225.
Anal /sis of Beeswax. Stflrcke. Annalen, 1884, 223, 295
Composition of Beeswax. C, Hell. Annalen, 1SS4, 223,
269.
Non-Acid Constituents of Beeswax. F. Schwalb. J.
Chem. Soc. (Abstr.) 18^-0, 48, 962.
Tests for Purity of Beeswax. C. Dadant. Amer. Bee J.
1884, 84.
Bleaching of Wax. M. H. Barnouvin. Pharm. J. (Trans.)
1885, 616.
Detection of Animal Fat in Beeswaa
19 aud 298.
Amer. Bee J. 1885,
Purification of Beeswax. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1885,448.
Analysis of Wax. Archiv. f. Pharm. 1886, 24, 490.
Analyse dec Fette una Wachsarten. Benedikt. Berlin,
1"'',.
Composition of Beeswax. F. Schwalb. Annalen, 1886,
235, 106 ; this Journal, 1887, 549.
Das Waehs und seine Technische Verwendung. L. Sedna.
Vienna, 1886.
m of Adulterations in Beeswax. A. Clarency. .1.
de Pharm. et de Chim. [6], 13, 27.
Determination of Purity of Beesica.r. C. L. I.ochmann.
Proc. Penna Pharm. Assoc. 1886, 204.
Feeding of Wax to Bees. X. W. MeLain. Amer. Bee J.
1886, 296.
Determination of Specific Gravity of Waxes. E. Dieterich.
Pharm. Zeit. 1887, 32, 37. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1887,
770.
Dimethylamido-azobenzene for Colouring Beeswax. Zeits.
Anal. Chem. 1887, 106.
Estimation of Rosin in Beeswax. F. M. Horn. Bep.
Anal. Chem. 7, 503 ; this Journal, 1887, 682.
Sept. 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
757
Arc/;/! Number of Waxes. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1888, 528.
Adulteration of Beeswax. Amer. Bee J. 1888, 499.
Analysis of Beeswax. Buehner. Chem. Zeit. 1888, 1276 ;
this Journal, 1888, 871. F. Hiibl. Chem Zeit. 1888,
127". C. M. Morse. Thesis for Mass. College of
Pharmacy, 1888. E. Dieterich. Helfeuberger Annalen,
1889, 21.
Detection of Paraffin in Beeswax. H. Hager. Pharm.
Centralhalle, 1889, 565 j J. Chem. Soc. (Abstr.) 1891,
122.
Analysis if Beeswax. H. Rottger. Chem. Zeit. 1889,
1375 ; this Journal, 1890, 88 and 771.
Apparatus for the Investigation of Fats, Waxes, $'c.
Schiidler. Chem. Centr. 1889, 2, 861.
Analysis of Beeswax. Buehner. Chem. Zeit. 1890,1707;
this Journal, 1890, 83. A. and P. Buisine. Bull. Soc.
Chim. 1890 [3], 3, 567 and 867; this Journal, 1891, 52.
R. Kayser. Chem. Zeit. 1890, 686. H. Riittger. Chem.
Zeit. 1890, 606, 1442, and 1473 ; this Journal, 1890, 771.
Bleaching of War. U.S. Pat. 421,904, February 25,
1890.
Detection of Rosin in Beeswax. Chem. Zeits. 1890,1474;
this Journal, 1891, 165.
Determination of Specific Gravity of Waxes. Chem.
Centr. 1890, 502. Amer. Bee J. i890, G29.
Analysis <>/' Beeswax. Benedikt and Mangold. Chem.
Zeit. 1891, 474; this Journal, 1891; 860. A. and P.
Buisine. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891, [3]. 5, 654 ; this
Journal, 1891, 729. Yalenta. Centr. Org. f. Waareu-
kunde, 1891, 112. F. Jean. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1891,
[3], 5, 3; this Journal, 1891, 728. K. Mangold.
( linn. Zeit. 1891, 799; this Journal, 1891, 860.
Bleaching of War. A. and P. Buisine. Jour, de Pharm.
et de Chim. 1891,526; this Journal, 1891,52. M. H.
Barnouvin. Jour, de Pharm. et de chim. 1891, 6.
Determination nf Paraffin in Waxes. F. M. Horn.
Chem. News, 1891, 165.
Dilution of Paraffin in Beeswax. Pharm. J. (Trans.)
1891, 851.
Defection of Rosin in Beeswax. H. Rottger. Chem.
/..it. 1891, 45 ; this Journal, 1891, 575.
Light Petroleum as a Reagent for Waxes. H. Hager.
Chem. Zeit 1891, 307
Analysis of Russian Waxes. J. Antoushevich. J. Russ.
Chem. Soc. 1891, 223; this Journal, 1891, 1014.— A. R.L.
Bibliography of Wares used in Adulterating Beeswax :
arranged Chronologically. U.S. Depart, of Agriculture.
1892, Bulletin 13, 869-871.
Melting Points of Various Waxes. B. S. Proctor. Chem.
and brag. 1863.
Sumac Wax. J. Batka. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1865, 491.
Adulteration of Japan War with Water. Proc. Amur.
Pharm. Assoc. 1868, 179.
Black War from Madras. Chem. News, 1868.
Carnauba War. X. S. Maskelyne. Chem. News, 1869,
145; J. prakt. Chem. 1869.
Collection nf Japan War. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1874, 425 ;
ibid. 1876, 1003.
Reactions of Carnauba War. Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc.
1877,283.
Cfillection of Japan Wax. Amer. J. Pharm. 1877, 452.
Wax contained in the Leaves of Her Paraguayensis.
P. N. Arata. Gazzetta Chim. Ital. 1878, 366 ; J. Chem.
Soc. 1878, ii. 324.
Japan War. E. Ban. Archiv. Pharm. 1879, 403 ; J. Chem.
Soc. 1879. 1037.
Vegetable War. A. Meyer. Archiv. Pharm. 1879, 97,
129 ; Amer. J. Pharm. 1879, 600.
Collection of Chinese Insect War. Pharm J. (Trans.)
1880.
Qualitative Reactions of Various Waxes. E. Hirschsohu.
Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1880, 749.
Specific Gravity of Waxes. E. Dieterich. Arch. Pharm.
1882, 455.
Myrtle War. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1883, 61.
Constituents of Carnaub I War. H. Stiircke. Annalen,
1884, 223, 225 ; this Journal, 1884, 448.
Adulteration of Wax. Schmidt. Seifens. Zeit. 49, 589;
this Journal, 1883, 182.
Egyptian War. K. Labler. Chem. Centr. 1884, 497.
Specific Gravity of Paraffin. E. Sauerlandt. Chem. Zeit.
1884, 388; Zeits. Anal.' Chem. 1884, 256.
Vegetable War. M. Buehner. Chem. Centr. 1884, 257.
Chinese Insect War. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1885, 755.
Asclepias War. C. Kassner. Chem. Zeit. 1886, 390.
Vegetable War. G. Kassner. Eng. Pat. 11,561 of 1885;
this Journal, 1886, 495.
Chinese War. C. Theilmann. Amer. Bee J. 1886, 24.
Determination of Glycerol in Waxes. Wanklyn and Kox.
Chem. News, 1886, 15 ; this Journal, 1886, 546.
Composition of Japan War. Eberhard. Proc. Amer.
Pharm. Assoc. 1889, 054.
African Insect Wax. Chem. and Drug. 1890, 667.
Japan Wax. O. Kleinstiick. Chem. Zeit. 1890, 1303 ;
this Journal, 1890, 1072.— A. R. L.
Carbon Tetrachloride as a Solvent. Eckenroth.
Pharm. Zeit. 1892, 338.
Carbon tetrachloride is now produced so cheaply, that it
may be recommended as a solvent for the extraction of fat
from food materials, &c. The author recommends it with
the more confidence also, since it is not inflammable. It is a
colourless liquid of agreeable odour, hearing a certain
resemblance to chloroform. It boils at 76- 51 C. and has
a specific gravity of 1 ■ 6319 at O'1 C.—W. S.
PATENTS.
Refining and Deodorising Refuse Oils and Fats.
E. S. Wilson, Camberwell, Surrey. Eng. Pat. 5340,
November 12, 1883.
Tins is an amended specification of the patent referred to in
this Journal, 1884, 450. — J. L.
Improvements in the Method of and Means for Manufac-
turing Soap. J. Cathrein, Salzburg, Austria. Eng. Pat.
14,902, September 3, 1891.
The improved soap claimed by this patent belongs to that
class of soaps which contain mineral oil, of which the
patentee incorporates 100 per cent, with the fat stock
Special mixing apparatus has been designed.— J. L.
Improvements in Apparatus for Distillation of Fatty Acids
and other Substances. L. Hugues, Paris. Eng. Pat.
15,287, September 9, 1891.
The novelty of this patent consists in the arrangement of
two stills side by side in one furnace. Both stills are com-
pletely fitted up, and can be alternately connected with the
same condensing apparatus. The material undergoes a
preliminary heating by the gases of combustion in one still,
whilst the material in the seeond still is beiug distilled by
7:.S
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 30, 1892.
means of superheated steam in the usual manner. The
charge of the second still having heen distilled off, the first
still can be worked immediately by turning the superheated
steam into it. The condensation of the vaporised acids is
effected by the injection of cold water into the first receiving
or main condenser. Any vapour that may have
escaped condensation is finally condensed in a second
receiver arranged below the first receiver and communi-
cating both with the top and bottom of the latter. An
ejector worked by water under pressure ejects the condensed
material and the water into a collecting tank.— J. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Lubricants.
II. Hutchison, Cowlairs, Lanark. Eng. Pat. 16,024,
September 22, 1891.
The composition of the improved lubricant for railway axles
is 30 parts of mineral oil 0 905. 14 parts of oleic or similar
fatty acid, and I part of slaked lime (neighed before being
slaked). With I part of the prepared grease are intimately
mixed 9 parts of " pinate of soda or of potash." — J. L.
Improvements relating to the Purification of the Residues
or Cakes obtained from Fatty Substances, Oleaginous
Fruits, or Grains. La Societe Anonyme des Parfums
Xaturels de Cannes, Paris. Eng. Pat. 16,552, Sep-
tember 29, 1891.
To free the cakes, &c. which have been extracted by means
of volatile solvents from the last trace of the solvents, steam
is employed with or without a vacuum. To prevent all
condensation, the cakes, Sec. are previously heated by means
of the superheated solvent to a suitable temperature, and
then -team is admitted. The steam may be also superheated
to prevent any condensed water being retained by the cakes.
-J.L.
'Hi, Manufacture of an Improved Soap. W. R. Dodd,
Stamford Hill. Eng. Pat. 16,557, September 29, 1891.
Tin: improved soap consists of ordinary hard or soft soap
with which borax and camphor are incorporated. — J. L.
Improvements in the Art of Treating Vegetable Oils,
(;. W. Scollay, New York, U.S.A.' Eng. Pat. !>2'J2,
May 17, 1892.
The patentee uses in refining cotton-seed oil or similar oils
certain ochres, as luematite and limonite, which are inti-
mately mixed with the otla. The ochre may iu seme
instances previously be mixed with dry caustic soda or
biborate of soda. — J. L.
Improvements in Detergent Compounds. W. P. Thompson.
From W. B. Brittingham, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
10,765, June 7.
Tiik claims of this patent cover the mixture of the
tungstates of sodium and potassium with soaps, it bavins
hem ascertained that these tungstates are possessed of
considerable detergent properties. — J. L.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES.
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
The Oleo-licsin of Canarium Muelleri, Bailey ; together
with .\otcs on Manila Elemi. J. H. Maiden. Proc.
Koy. Soc. Queensland, 8, 1891—1892, Part 3.
Tiik true source of Manila elemi being still a matter of
uncertainty, the author has examined the resin wbicb
exudes from Canarium Muelleri, a tree growing on the
Johnstone River, Queensland. This substance is of the
consistence and general appearance of honey, and has a
pleasant odour resembling that of turpentine and lemons.
By digestion in cold alcohol, the latter becomes much more
prominent, almost making the resin valuable as a perfume.
The oleo-resin is readily soluble in petroleum spirii,
chloroform, ether, absolute alcohol, and rectified spirit, but
only partially so in 50 per cent, alcohol. On exposure to
the a'mosphere the scent becomes very much fainter, and
by evaporation of the volatile oil. the resiu steadily loses in
weight, the loss in six months being 7' 165 percent. At the
temperature of the water-bath, the whole of the oil is driven
off only with difficulty, but by treatment of the oleo-resin
with dilute alcohol and subsequent distillation at a
temperature of 110 — 123 (. ., it may be split up into 26'67
per cent, of a lemon-scented volatile oil, and 73" 33 percent,
of resin. This residual resin is transparent and resembles
in appearance gelatin. It is extremely brittle and contracts
strongly on cooling. Its melting point is 75° — 76° C, and
it is soluble in the same liquids as the original oleo-resin.
Pixamined under the microscope, it is seen to be perfectly
devoid of crystalline form, thns distinguishing it from
Manila elemi, which on treatment with rectified spirit yields
(British Pharmacopoeia, 1885) acicular crystals consisting of
amyrin or elemin (Fliickiger, Pharm. J. [3], 5, 142.)
— F. H. L.
Pentasulphide of Antimony. Th. Willm. J. Buss. Chem.
Soc. 24, 1892, 371—3
The author undertook to discover the reason why when
vulcauisirgoaoutchoucand india-rubber with pentasulphide
of antimony, varying results are so often obtained. He
found that the method used for testing the good quality of
pentasulphide of antimony by ascertaining the quantity of
sulphur extracted from it by carbon bisulphide, is inaccurate
and misleading. The author proposes to ascertain the
total sulphur by oxidation with fuming nitric acid in a sealed
tube. The liquid is then evaporated with strong hydro-
chloric acid till the citric acid is eompletaly expelled, and
the sulphur precipitated as barium sulphate. Iu good
samples of the pentasulphide the usual quantity of sulphur
must he a little over the theoretical number, and when art. il
on with carbon bisulphide there must remain behind pure
antimony trisulpbide. — P. U.
Produr'ion of India-Rubber in Borneo. J. Soc. Arts, 40,
820.
There is a royalty charged on rubber collected from the
jungles of Borneo of 10 per cent, ad valorem. The different
of the plant found are, according to the I
States Consul at Singapore, (1) Manungan pulan, which
comes chiefly from Xorth-west Borneo; it is a WiUughbeia
6«r6i<fjrei, and is specially identical with the "gutta-singgarip "
of the peninsula ; (2) Maugan buyok, said to yield the best
gutta of the Borneo forest : it is a Leuconotis engenifolius ;
this species is also found in small quantities on the peninsula ;
(3) Manugan manga, which yield- a very good gutta, is
possibly a WiUughbeia, as also is Snrapit, for the latter
yields the same milky exudation as Manungan pulan, hut
is said to he a had gutta and seldom collected. Bertabu,
or Petabo pulan, is referred to as of little value as gutta,
except perhaps for adulterating the better kinds. The other
Sept. so, 1892.] TEE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
?59
kinds of gutta met with in the Mala; Peninsula are — (1)
Singgarip putch, or Gutta smirk; (2) Singgarip hitam ;
and (3 ) Gutta jelulong — the latter is only used for
adulterating. The gutta-percha production and export is
much larger than the trade in india-rubber properly so
culled. The name is given to the inspissated juice, which is
produced chiefly by Vichopsis gutta, called by the natives
Gelah taban merah, and often confused with caoutchouc.
The tree is of large size, from four to five feet in diameter,
and from 10U to 200 feet in height. When growing in the
forest it has a clean straight stem, and it may be generally
distinguished by the rich brown colour of the under surface
of the leaves The flowers are small, white, and divided
into sis; petals and six sepals. The seeds — generally two in
each fruit — are oily, and are eaten by birds and monkeys.
It (lowers in March, and the fruit ripens in June. The
method of collecting the gutta is as follows : — A tree having
been selected is felled, and as it lies on the ground, rings
about an inch broad are cut in the bark at intervals all
along the whole length of the trunk and of the branches,
with a parang or Malay knife. These cuts soon become
filled with the white, cream-like sap, and in about half an
hour the gutta will line separated from the aqueous portion
of the sap, and may be removed by rolling a small ball of it
round in the cuts, to the edge of which the coagulated gum
adheres and forms a disc, varying in size according to the
number of scores it is rolled in. These discs are then boiled
in water and made into balls, and sold by the collectors to
the persons who export it to Singapore and Penang. The
gutta is at first white, but soon changes to pink, and finally
to a brownish red. The amount yielded by a single tree
about 100 feet high, and whose age was estimated to be over
loo years, was '_' lb. 5 oz. of fairly clean gutta. valued
b\ a Malay dealer at 3*. 3d. per pound. The product,
therefore, of the whole tree is worth only 7s. Gd. Other
species of the gutta tree in the Straits Settlements are
( 1 ) Geiah toban putch (white) ; (21 Gelah toban sutra
(silk); (3) Getah toban chayas (liquid) ; and (-J) Gelah
toban simpor. It is stated by the director of the Botanical
Gardens at Singapore, that there are over 92 species
altogether on the peninsula. — W. S.
PATENT.
An Improved Fabric, applicable for Tubing, Belting,
Valve Sheeting, and other Articlesqfan Elastic Nature.
1!. Temmel, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,637, June 1.
1892.
Articles composed chiefly of india rubber, such as tubing,
belting, &c, without their elasticity beiug destroyed, are
rendered stronger and more durable by the insertion in them
of strips of cane-wood, " preferably of the species known as
Tokio cane." In the case of tubing, the strips (which
measure up to 20 ft. in length) are wound spirally round a
core of any suitable india rubber-coated fabric, and then
covered by one or more layers of the india rubber-coated
fabric, and the whole finally vulcanised together. Tubing
thus constructed offers great resistance both to internal and
external pressure, this resistance being due to the flat shape
of the cane strips and to their firm attachment to the rubber.
Driving-belts are manufactured by embedding strips of
cane-wood longitudinally side by side in two or more sheets
of canvas, which have been previously coated on both sides
with " liquid india-rubber." For valve-sheeting, the strips of
cane-wood are either laid side by side in the middle of the
sheets, or are interlaced in the same during the process of
manufacture.— E. II.
XIV.-TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
PATENT.
.'1 New and Improved Mould for Moulding Leather,
Paper, and such like Pulp. (i. Mahaffy, YV. llabley, anil
J. Westaway, London. Eng. Pat. 11,361, July 4, 1891.
The invention consists in constructing the moulds of a
porous material, such as wood of a suitable texture placed
endways of the grain, so that the air and moisture contained
in the pulp may penetrate the mould and be thus
eliminated.
Drawings are given showing the application of the
invention to the production of boot-heels from leather pulp.
— W. M. G.
XV.-MANURES, Etc.
Valuation of Superphosphates, Special Manures and
Mixed Fertilisers of High Grade. Aun. Keport of the
Connecticut Agri. Exper. Stat. 1890, 20—21.
In these manures the total valuation is obtained by adding
together the trade values of the several ingredients.
Organic nitrogen is taken at the price of nitrogen in raw
materials of the best quality ; insoluble phosphoric acid
from rock, phosphates at 1 d., from other insoluble phos-
phates at 1 Id. per pound ; potash as chloride at 2 ~d., and any
potash in excess of that required to satisfy the chlorine at
3d. per pound. Ground bone is sifted into four grades,
the nitrogen and phosphoric acid in each grade are
reckoned at their various trade values, then multiplied by
the percentage proportion of the respective grades, and the
sum of these separate computations is taken for the total
valuation. The valuation price is generally below the
selling price, the difference represents the manufacturing
and other charges. In 1890, 12*. to 18*. per ton covered
the cost of mixing, bagging, handling, and carting, and
the average selling price of ammoniated superphosphates and
guanos was 33 '80 dols., the average valuation, 28 '57 dols.,
whilst in the case of special manures the average cost was
39' 18 dols., the average valuation, 32 '90 dols. Valuation
is useful: — 1. For making comparisons between various
manures ; 2. For ascertaining whether a manure is worth
its cost, as a trade commodity, for the more its cost exceeds
its valuation the less the economy of its purchase. For
the first purpose the same values must be used, but for
the second purpose market variations have to be considered.
It must be remembered that analysis does not accurately
decide either as to the condition of the different ingredients,
or about the mechanical state of the manure, therefore the
valuation must not be too literally construed. D. A. L.
The Occurrence of Fluorine in Different Varieties of
Natural Phosphates. Ad. Carnot. Compt. rend. 114,
1892, 1003 — 1006.
The author has applied the comparatively easy method of
estimating fluorine recently described by himself (this
Journal, 1892, 710) in the analysis of various mineral and
organic substances containing fluorine. The results of the
examination of mineral phosphates are described in the
present note.
I. Apatites.— .the analysis of apatites (the fluorine being
estimated directly) entirely confirms the theoretical formula
Ca(F, CD +3 (P„05 3 CaO) or Ca5012P;l(F, CI), in which
fluorine may be replaced by an equivalent quantity of
chlorine and a little of the lime by magnesia or oxide of
iron. II. Phosphorites. — Here complete analyses were
not made, but only determinations of the phosphoric acid
760
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 30, 1802.
and fluorine. It is found that semi -crystalline fibrous
phosphorites have almost the same composition as apatites ;
whereas earthy and compact phosphorites contain a much
smaller quantity of fluorine. III. Sedimentary phos-
phates.— These generally contain the same amount of
fluorine as apatites containing an equal proportion of
phosphorus. Careful analyses of phosphates from several
localities have already been made by M. Henri Lasne, who
came to the conclusion that sedimentary phosphates are
in reality fluophosphates having the same definite com-
position as apatite, i.e., containing one equivalent of fluorine
to three of phosphorus. The author's analyses entirely
confirm these views. — 1). E. J.
The Solubility of Tricalcium Phosphate and of Bicalcium
Phosphate in Solutions of Phosphoric Arid. M. H.
Causse. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1892, 165—169.
For determination of the solubility of the tricalcium
phosphate six solutions were prepared containing 5, 10, 15,
20, 25, and 30 grms. of phosphoric acid in 100 cc. Stronger
solutions could not be used owing to the deposition of
crystals of monocaleium phosphate. An excess of tricalcium
phosphate was added in small quantities to each of the six
solutions which were allowed to stand for 24 hours. The
lime in the filtrate was estimated as oxalate, and the
phosphoric acid was titrated with uranium solution. The
amount of action which has taken place can be calculated
from the equation —
Ca3(P04).: + H,P04 = 3 (CaH P04)
The maximum amount of tricalcium phosphate is con-
verted to monocaleium phosphate by a 10 per cent, solution
of phosphoric acid. Solutions prepared as above were
heated to 100° C. in closed vessels. It was found that it
was only in those solutions which contained free acid that
an appreciable amount of bicalcium phosphate was formed.
The experiments on the solubility of bicalcium phosphate
were conducted in precisely the same manner. The
solubility of this salt is much less than that of the tricalcium
salt. The maximum solubility is reached with five per
cent, of free phosphoric acid. In the heat, the quantity of
bicalcium phosphate formed increased regularly with the
strength of the solution.
The author concludes from this investigation that tri-
calcium phosphate dissolves in solutions of phosphoric acid
much more readily than the bicalcium phosphate, and that
this difference of solubility depends upon the conditions of
equilibrium between water, phosphoric acid, and mono-
calcium phosphate. The water appears to be the most
important factor ; it divides its action between the bicalcium
and the monocaleium phosphate, and the only other deter-
mining condition is the proportion in which these two salts
are present. — V. C.
Note on the Estimation of Potash. J. Jean Z. Trillat.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 228.
See under XXIII., page lib.
The Phosphates of Algeria and Tunis. Chem. Trade
Journal, 1892.
It is significant of the interest now being taken in the
deposits of phosphate of lime that the greater part of the
Bulletin <?■ la Societe Geologique de France for the first
hall of last %car should be given to a description of the
phosphates of Algeria and Tunis by M. Philippe Thomas,
and at the same time in the quarterly journal of the
Geological Society of England should be a paper on the
phosphatic chalk at Taplow, by Mr. A. Strahan.
These deposits recently found in Tunis and Algeria hid
fair to rival those of Florida, and though they are both
primarily Eocene deposits, they differ considerably in
neological conditions; both, however, seem to be derived
from the leaching of a phosphatic limestone. The new
beds described by M. Thomas resemble very closely the
deposits of Ciply in Belgium and Taplow in England,
except that they seem far more extensive. They are found
on the " hauts plateau " of Tunis, and are distant about
200 kilos, from a seaport. A portion of them has been
exhaustively examined by competent engineers. There are
other tracts discovered but not yet thoroughly examined.
The phosphate occurs in well-defined strata, overlaid and
underlaid by a more or less crystalline limestone, all tilted
at an acute angle, so that the outcrop is distinct and readily
traced, examined, and worked. This outcrop has been
carefully examined and measured for a distance of 30 kiloms.,
though traced for about 60 kiloms. The buds in which the
belts of phosphatic chalk occur have a thickness of from
30 to 50 metres. The richest bed had a mean width of
In metres and will average 50 per cent, of phosphate of
lime. This by washing can readily be increased to 60 per
ceut. or 65 per cent, tricalcic phosphate, and there is an
abundant and constant supply of water. These phosphates
contain less than 1 per cent, of iron and alumina, and very
little silica. The engineers sent by the French Geological
Survey estimate that there are at least 10,000,000 tons of
60 per cent, phosphate in sight, and it i^ presumed that as
the strata are tilted the deposit will continue in depth, hut
they have only estimated what can he extracted without
machinery. A railway is projected to reach these beds.
Concessions for mining them have already been secured
from the Government by a French syndicate, and it is
expected that very shortly active development will begin
and these phosphates placed on the market. Native
unskilled labour is abundant and cheap.
M \1. Tissot and Mercier, who have also examined these
beds, prophesy that Tunis, which in the time of the Romans
was known as the granary of the world, but which is now
sterile, will regain its old "fertility, as it is phosphate which
has been lacking.
A great number of fossils were found and determined in
the phosphate beds, and there is a large amount (8 per
cent.) of organic matter present in composition. The
phosphate is of a greyish to yellowish colour, with brownish
pebbles, and seems to be physically identical with the
deposits at Taplow and Ciply ; there is the same matrix of
phosphatic chalk, with fish coprolites and broken fragments
of bone and teeth, fish scales, &c. The occurrence i^ also
noted of a number of " pebbles " of a phosphate chalk,
covered with a crust of dark coloured resinous phosphate
which seems identical with some varieties of Florida
" pebble."
The discovery is very interesting, and this section will
probably provide at no very distant date vast quantities of
phosphate, and may prove a formidable rival to South
Carolina and Florida.
'Researches on the Adhere?ice to the Leaves of Plants,
especially of the Potato, of Copper Compounds intended
to Cure their Diseases. Aiine Girard. Compt. rend.
114, 1892, 234—236.
See under XVIII., page 770.
XVI.-SUGAK. STARCH, GUM, Etc.
Quinitol, the Simplest Sugar of the Inositol Group.
A. ion Baeyer. Ber. 25, 1892, 1037—1040.
It having been shown by Maquenne (this Journal, 1890,
311) that the sugar— /3-inositol — contains an aromatic
nucleus, it being probably hexahydroxyhcxamethylene, it
was to be expected that derivatives of hexamethylene con-
taining fewer hydroxyl-groups would also possess the
characters of sugars. To put this question to the test, the
author reduced p - diketohe.vamethylene (a compound
obtained by hydrolisiDg ethyl suceiuosuecinate) by adding
Sept. so, 1882.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
761
sodium amalgam to its aqueous solution, a current of
carbonic anhydride being passed through meanwhile. The
p-dihydro.ryhc.ramethylene —
H . /CH...CII.,. .H
\ Q / " \ Q /
oh/ \ch2.cHj/ \oh
which is named quinitol, when purified by means of its
diacetyl derivative, melts at 143 — 145°, and sublimes
without decomposition. It tastes sweet at first and then
bitter, aud does not reduce Fehling's solution. The author
is now engaged on the reductiou of phloroglucinol, in the
hope of obtaining another sugar, and by such a process as
this, it may be possible to effect the synthesis of quercitol
and similar sugars. It should be mentioned that the crude
quinitol is a mixture of two isomerides, only one of which
is here dealt with. — A. 14. L.
Notes on Analyses of Sugar, Molasses, Confections, and
Honey. II. W. Wiley and others. U. S. Depart, of
Agriculture. 1892, Bulletin 13, 073 — 676, 681 — 682,
7 lu — 719.
The total absence of any added matters to commercial
sugars is shown by 500 analyses of samples purchased in
different parts of the United (states. An article w..s sold
some years ago in large quantities under the name of " new-
process sugar" which was made by mixing corn-starch
siiirar. at 3 — 5 cents a pound, with cane sugar, then worth
10 cents a pound. Corn-starch sugar has never found a
read) sale on account of the difficulty of drying it, and the
manufacture of the anhydrous substance has proved a com-
mercial failure. The low price of cane-sugar has heretofore
prevented its adulteration with starch products. Modern
methods of sugar-boiling at a low temperature (115° —
120" F ) and the use of annual charcoal enable a great deal
of low-grade sugar and water to be incorporated with
sugars of a low price, which are, however, almost white, and
find a ready sale for culinary purposes. The question
being one of economy only, it may in general be said that a
higher price is paid for the same amount of saccharine
matter in the purchase of low-class than in that of high-class
sugars. It is believed that maple sugar is adulterated with
cheaper varieties, but the chemical identity of the sugar con-
tained in the adulterant precludes its detection. If, however,
the substance which gives to maple sugar its characteristic
flavour could be quantitatively estimated, adulteration with
a sugar containing none of it might be detected. Extract
of hickory bark is said to possess the same flavour as maple
sap, and in the event of adulteration with this, another
difficulty would be presented.
The Colouring of Sugars. — The process of blue-ing to
impart a whiter and brighter appearance is usually effected
by suspending ultramarine in water, and applying it as a
final wash in the centrifugal machine immediately before
stopping it. In addition to this, some sugar-makers
suspend a small quantity of ultramarine in water and draw
it into the vacuum-pan a few minutes before the " strike "
is finished, and it is not unusual to hud sugars so excessively
blued that they yield a blue syrup on solution. Ultra-
marine is, however, non-poisonous. The yellow clarified
sugars of the plantations are treated in the centrifugal
machine with a wash containing "tin crystal" (stannous
chloride), and such of these sugars as are not treated with
tit. mm m become a dead or greyish yellow; the latter an-,
however, only manufactured for the refiner. Stannous
chloride is the principal constituent of the various sugar
colours known as " iock compound," " Smith's sugar
colour," &c. Tin can rarely be detected in sugars coloured
in this way, and the yellow colour is probably produced by
the action of stannous chloride on the sugar itself. In the
manufacture of Demerara crystals stannous chloride is
employed in the vacuum-pan, aud it has now superseded
sulphuric acid for this purpose. The stannous chloride
passes into the molasses and becomes an objectionable con-
stituent of this product. Lock and Newlands Brothers
(Treatise on Sugar, p. 291) mention a harmless organic
yellow colouring matter which is used in the manufacture of
imitation Demerara crystals, hut it appears not to be used
on the sugar plantations of the United States.
Open-kettle sugar is largely made iu Louisiana by
planters, the boiling beiug effected without vacuum appa-
ratus, and the molasses, which fetches the highest price in
the New Orleans market and for which there is some
demand especially among bakers, is separated by simple
drainage.
The price of maple sugar is out of all proportion to the
amount of saccharine matter which it contains. The great
stores of this variety of sugar offered for sale in comparison
to the very limited supply have probably aroused the
popular suspicion as to its adulteration mentioned above,
but its annual output in the United States (20.000 tons)
would be sufficient to supply a great demand ; outside the
area of its manufacture, it is chiefly used as a delicacy.
Molasses and Syrups. — It has already been mentioned
that stannous chloride occurs in molasses, and copper
(derived probably from the copper pans and coils used in
evaporating the juices) is also sometimes present. Starch
glucose is often found iu syrups, aud besides being cheaper
than the genuine constituents of molasses (though at present
the difference in value is small), it gives to the syrups a tine
body and a light colour. A molasses or syrup, therefore,
made chiefly of glucose, and flavoured with the refuse
molasses of a refinery, makes a very attractive article for
table use, and it is impossible to condemn glucose as
regards its wholesomeness. Syrups containing glucose may
be detected analytically by their high dextro-rotation both
before and after inversion, as well as by the comparatively
small quantities of sucrose wdiich they contain. The
following is a list of the bleaching agents supposed to be
most commonly used for molasses: — (I) Sulphur fumes;
(2) stannous chloride (about 1 oz. of a saturated solution to
a barrel of molasses); (3) sulphites and sulphuric acid;
(4) sulphite of soda and zinc-dust, with subsequent addition
of oxalic acid to precipitate the zinc.
In his analyses of samples of molasses given iu this
report, F. G. Wiechmaun states that from indications he
has obtained as to the reactions of some of the samples
with acids and alkalis, he is of opinion that tropaeoliu dyes
were used in colouring them ^compare Cassal, Analyst,
1890, 141).— A. R. L.
Bibliography of Honey: arranged Chronologically. U.S.
Depart, of Agriculture, 1892, Bulletin 13, 871 — 874.
Adulteration of Honey. Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1867,
61, 341 ; Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1868.
Honey Trade of the United States. B. F. Stacey. Proc.
Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1871, 313.
Tinted Honey. Pharm. J. (Trans.) December 1870; ibid.
January 1871.
Adulteration of Honey. F. Molitor. Bienen Zeit. 1872,
73.
Artificial Honey. C. T. V. Siebold. Bienin Zeit. 1872,
280. Dzierzon. Ibid. 1872, 1.
Fermentation of Honeys. J. Boussingault. Aunales de
Chim. [4], 26, 362.
Mehring's Artificial Honey. W. S. Schuller. Bienen
Zeit. 1872, 76.
Locust Flowers for Flavouring Artificial Honey. Proc.
Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1873, 480.
Constituents of Honey. E. Erlenmeyer and A. von Planta.
Chem. Centr. 1874, 5, 790.
Adulteration of Honey. Amer. J. Pharm. 1875, 232.
Boxwood-Flower Honey {Artificial). J. M. France.
Pharmacist, 1875, 322.
Colloids and Crystalloids in Honey. E. Dietench. Chem.
Ceniralhalle, 1877, 318.
Honey Hew. H. Hoffman. Landw. Versuchs Stat.
20, 61.
762
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1898.
Poisonous Honey in Armenia. Pharm. J. (Trans.) l:;77,
1S4.
Prosecution for Adulterating Honey (England). Analyst,
1877, 2, 167.
Adulterated Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1878, 29.
Composition of Honey. J. C. Brown. Analyst. 1878, 3,
267.
American Honey. Amer. J. Pharm. 1879, 102. Cali-
fornia Honey. Ibid. 320. Ethiopian Honey. E.
Villiers. Compt. Rend. 1879, 88, 292.
Fennel Honey. Amer. J. Pharm. 1880, 132.
Adulteration of Honey, von Planta. Dingl. Polyt. J.
1880, 238, 356.
Glucose for Adulterating Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1880, 10.
Artificial Honey. A.J.Cook. Amer. Bee J. 1881,315;
see also ibid. 1881, 214.
Tests for Adulterations in Honeys. Amer. Bee J. 1881,
13. Use of Glucose for Mixing Honeys. Ibid. 393.
Adulteration of Honey. von Planta. Zucker Ind. 1882,
338 ; Amer. Bee J. 1883, 526.
Testing Honey. F. Filsinger. Rfp. Anal. Chem. 1882,
169; this Journal, 1882, 111.
Artificial Comb Honeys. Century, October 13S3.
Canadian Honey. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1883, 365.
Detection of Glucose. Amer. Bee J. 1883, 377.
Aconite Flower Hone/. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1883, 242.
Orange Bloss -m Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1883, 377 and 421.
Poisonous Honey. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1883, 504.
Adulteration of Honsy. Am^r. Bje J. 1884, 51 and 229.
Analysis of Honey. O. Hehner. Analyst, 1884, 9, 64.
Analytical Methods for Honey. J. Sieben. Zeits. Anal.
CLem. 1884, 24, 137. W. Leuz. Ibid. 135.
Formic Acid in Honey. Pharm. J. (Trans.) 1884, 343.
Gallisin. E. Schmidt. Ber. 1884, 17, 1000 and 2456;
this Journal, 1884, 453.
Lecture on Adulteration of Honey. 0. Hehner. Analyst,
1884, 9, 181.
Poison of the Hymenoptera. Carlet. Compt. Rend. 1884,
1550.
Spurious California Hone:/. Sterns and Smith. Amer.
Bee J. 1884, 339.
Test for Purity of Honey. W. C. Preston. Amer. Bee J.
1884, 36.
Adulteration of Honey. H. Hager. Pharm. Centralhalle,
1885, 26, 327. H. W. Wiley. Amer. Agriculturist,
1885, 3, No. 12.
Analysis of Honey. W. Bishop. J. Cbem. Soc. 1885
(AbstiA 444.
Artificial Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1885, 425 ; ibid. 627.
Analytical Methods for Honey. M. Barthe. Pharm.
Centralhalle, 1885, 87.
Ash of Hone,/. 0. Hehner. Analyst, 1885, 10, 217.
Analysis if Honey. E. Sieben. Dingl. Polyt. J. 255,
441 : this Journal, 1885, 355.
Composition and Adulteration of Honey. J. Sieben. Bied.
( ientr. 1885, 134 ; this Journal, 18S5, 441.
Detection of Glucose in Honeys. Rev. J. G. Teeter.
Amer. Bee J. 1885, Aug. 26 ; ibid. 1886, Oct. 7.
Vextro-Rolatory Honeys. Amthor. Repert. Anal. Chem.
1885, 163.
Estimation of Water in Honeys. H. W. Wiley and
E. V. Broadbent. Chem. News, 1885, 52, 280.
Fermentation of Honey. E. Dicterich. Gesehaftsber. d.
Papier u. Chem. Fabrik in llelfenberg, 1885 — 1886;
Zeits. Anal. (hem. 1888, 231.
Poisonous Honeys from Gelseminine. Pharm. J. (Trans.)
1885, 188 ; ibid. 448.
Proper Time to Harvest Honey. K. Zwilling. Bied
( entr. 1885, 67.
Adulterated Honeys. Amer. Bee J. 1886,216.
Artificial Honeys. Amer. Bee J. 1886, 307.
Characteristics of Honeys from Different Sources. E. S
Commings. Amer. J. Pharm. 1886, 539.
Detection of Artificial Honey. G. Ambuhl. Chem. Zv;it.
1886, 70.
Fermentation of Honey. R. Kayser, Zeits. Aual. Chem.
1888,231.
Nectar of Flowers. A. von. Planta. Zeit. physiol. Chem.
1886, 10, 227.
Poisonous Honey. Chem. Zeit. 1886, 27.
Adulterated Honeys. Report on Adulteriation of Food,
Ottawa. Canada, 1887, 58.
Eucalyptus Honey. T. Carman. Progress Medicate, April
16, 1887.
P. .lamination of Honey. R. Kayser. Zeits. Anal. Chem.
1887,27,2.
Poisonous Constituents of Trebizonde Honeys. Pharm.
J. (Trans.) 1887, 397; ibid. 540.
Adulteration of Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1888, 682; ibid.
810.
Analytical Methods for Honeys. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1888,
28,231.
Artificial English Honey. Amer. Bee J. 18S8, 691.
History of Adulteration of Honey. C. Dadant. Amer.
Bee J. 1888, 537.
Composition of Honey. Beusemann. J. de. Chim. et de
pharm. 1888, 20.
Honey-Canning Factory (A. Cristie, Southland, Iowa).
Amer. Bee J. 18S8, 100.
Food Juice of /lees. A. von Planta. Chem. Centr. 1888,
673.
Examination of Honey. R. Kayser Zeits. Anal. ( 'hem.
1S88, 231.
Production of Honey in California. Amer. J. Pharm.
1888, 126.
Artificial Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1888, 709.
Flotation wanted against Adulteration. Amer. Bee J.
1888, 265.
Strained Honey, Purity, Adulteration, &c. Amer. Bee J.
1888, 587.
Use of Oleomargarine for Adulterating Honey. Amer.
Bee J. 1888, 739.
Analysis of Honey containing Dextrose. C. Amtlior.
Chem. Zeit. Rep. H, 289 ; this Journal, 1888, 136.
Analysis of Honey. Von Raumer. Zeit. angew. Chem.
1889, 607; this Journal, 1890, 91.
Eucalyptus Honey. Arch, de Pharm. 1889, 873. Ma-
quenne. Annales de Chim. et de Phys. 1889 [6], 17
495.
Food of Bees. A. von Planta. Chem. Centr. 1889, 299.
Right-Rotatory Honeys. Von Lippmann. Zeit. angew.
Chem. 1889, No. 20. Amthor and Stern. Zeit. angew.
Chem. 1889, 575.
Action of Phenols on Honey. A. Ihle. Chem. Zeit. 1890,
14, 3 ; this Journal, 1890, 418.
Adulterated Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1890, 211.
Adulterated Extracted Honey. Amer. Bee J. 1890, Ij 4 I.
Bogus Honey. C. C. Miller. Amer. Bee J. 1890, 505.
Examination of Honey. Chem. Zeit. 1890, 42 686.
Hone,/. Vicrteljahresehrift f. Chem. d. Nahr. u. Genus-
smitUl. 1890, 2, 188.
Sept. so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
763
Orange Blossom Honey not likely to be Pure. Amer. Bee
.1. 1890, 580.
Presence of Dextrine in Pure Honey. \V. Mader. Archiv.
Hyg. 1890, 399.
Date Honey. K. Gaab. Chem. Zeit. 1891, 118.
Dextro-Boiatory Honeys. 0. HeEule. Analyst, 1891, 79
(compare Dieterich, this Journal, 1891, 799).
Examination of Honeys. Mansfeld. Chem. Zeit. 1891,
1053 and 1544.
Eucalyptus Honey. Pharm. Era, 1891, 107.
Pine Tree Honey-Dew and Pine Tree Honey. H. W.
Wiley. Amer. Chem. J. 1891,24; this Journal, 1891,
5G0.— A. RrL.
Methylsaccharine. O. Weber. Her. 25, 1892, 1737.
See under XX., page 772.
Determination of Small Amounts of Sugar. M. Midler aud
F. Ohlmer. D. Zucher. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 309.
See under XXIII., page 778.
The Influence of Acetates of Lead on the Estimation of
Invert-Sugar by the Fehling-Soxhlet Method. A. Born-
triiger. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 333—335.
See tinder XXIII., page 77S.
The Separation of Iso-Maltose from the Diastutic Conver-
sion Products of Starch. C. J. Lintner aud G. Dull.
Zeits. aug. Chem. 1892, 263.
See under XVII., page 766.
Determination of the Freezing Point of Dilute Aqueous
Solutions, and the Application thereof to Cane Sugar.
F. M. Kuoult. Bull. Soc. Ckiui. 7—8, 1892, 130.
See under XXIII., page 780.
Vegetable Amyloid. E. Winterstein. Ber. 25, 1892, 1237
— 1241.
See under XVII., page 703.
XVII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIKITS, Etc.
The Chemistry of Fermentation. E. Buchner. Ber. 25,
1892, 11G1 — 11G3.
The optical isomerides of various organic acids behave
differently with moulds. Pasteur was the first to make use
of this property when he separated the two tartaric acids.
It appeared probable that other organic acids which were
as closely related, but in a different mauner, would also
behave differently with moulds.
Experiments made with maleic and fumaric acids showed
that Penicillium glaucum grew vigorously iu a solution of
fumaric acid to which the proper nutrient salts had been
added, but that under exactly the same conditions it would
not grow in solutions of maleic acid, whilst in solutions of
the mixed acids it grew easily. These experiments suggest
a general method for separating such closely related organic
acids, and will probably lead to other results of interest.
—A. L. S.
Vegetable Amyloid. E. Winterstein. Ber. 25, 1892, 1237
— 1241.
Amyloid is a constituent of the cell wall, and yields a blue
colouration with iodine. Keiss fouud that on digestion with
sulphuric acid it yielded dextrose, but he does not appear to
have worked with a pure body, aud did not isolate the sugar.
The author has prepared the pure body from the seeds of
Tropoelum majus. They were powdered and successively
treated with ether, hot alcohol, dilute ammonia, cold 1 per
cent, soda solution, and cold water. The residue was
extracted with hot water ; the solution contained the amyloid,
aud was precipitated with alcohol aud the precipitate dried.
Amyloid thus prepared forms a white amorphous mass,
which is insoluble in cold water and dissolves in hot water,
forming a mucilaginous solution. It gives the same reactions
as starch with iodine, and with Griessmeyer's reagents.
The solution is dextro-rotatory, having [a] „ = +93 '5. It
is unacted on by diastase. Oxidised with nitric acid it
yields 10 per cent, mucic acid, and boiled with hydrochloric
acid it yields 15 5 per cent, furfural. It contains 43 • 2 per
cent, of carbon and 6-07 per cent, of hydrogen and no
nitrogen.
Heated with 2 h per cent, of sulphuric acid, it is hydrolysed,
and from the sugar syrup, galactose can be isolated ; there is
also present a pentose which appears to be xylose, and
there are some evidences of the presence of dextrose.
Amyloid prepared from pxonia officinalis yields on hydro-
lysis a syrup having approximately the same composition.
This seems to indicate that the substance described is a pure
body. It appears to have the same constitution as starch,
but composed of the elements of galactose and xylose
instead of dextrose. — A. L. S.
The Oeneral Character of the German Wines. Zeits.
Anal. Chem. Reported by Dr. Barth, 31, 1892, 143—
157.
The communication is accompanied by an exhaustive table
of analyses, giving the specific gravity, alcohol, extractive
matters, free acid, mineral constituents, phosphoric acid,
glycerol, &c., of the different wines of the German wine-
producing districts, and for each year from 1884 to 1890.
Of these years 18S4 produced the best wine, the remaining
years standing in the following order of excellence : — 1886,
1887, 1889, 1890, 1885, 1888.
Extract. — This varies considerably, the mean amount
being 2 '2 to 2 4 per cent., occasionally sinking as low as
1'5 and rising to 5'7 per cent.
The connection between the specific gravity of wine
must, and the amount of dry solids it contains has not
been properly determined, but the amount in 100 volumes of
must closely approximates to that contained in 100 parts by
weight of beer wort as given by Schultze's table.
By using these factors and determinations of sugar by the
usual gravimetric method, it is possible to obtain an
approximation to the amount of non-sugar present. Musts
of 50° — 85° Oechsle have from 2 to 3 per cent, of non-
sugars of which rather more than one-half are neutral
bodies.
Alcohol— The amount of this is naturally dependent on
the amount of sugar contained in the must which is influenced
by a variety of conditions. The mean amount is 7 • 5 to 8
per cent., running in some cases to 12 per cent, and falling
as low as 2 • 5 per cent.
The Relation between the Alcohol and Glycerol in a
normal wine lies between 7 and II parts of glycerol to
100 parts of alcohol. In an abnormal wine from Longeville
the proportion was as low as 5-8 parts, and in 1888
Alsatian wine was as high as 15-5 parts glycerol to 100 parts
alcohol ; though no doubt in the latter case, the proportion
of alcohol had been originally higher, some of it having
been destroyed by mycoderma vini.
Mineral Constituents.— These usually average 0-2 per
cent. The addition of sugar lowers the quantity and the
addition of the after-wine or yeast-wine raises it.
D
76-1
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTET. [Sept. so, 1892.
The riper and finer the grapes the larger is the quantity
of phosphoric acid contained in the must and wine. Red
wine contains more phosphoric acid than white wine.
The average amount of phosphoric acid is 0'02 — 0"04
per cent. ; some wines contain as little as 0-004 per cent.
and some as much as 0'09 per cent.
Relation In twei n thi Musi and the New Wine. — The yield
of alcohol is usually lather less than accords with Pasteur's
numbers (48-4 per cent, of the sugar) owing to a small
quantity of the sugar remaining unfermented. The amount
of acid diminishes in musts of high or normal acidit\,l>ut
does not alter with those of low acidity.
Changes during Storage. — The amount of acid still
diminishes, and this is more marked with the more strongly
acid wines ; the diminution is not exactly balanced by the
alteration in the amount of extract and consequently it
appears as if some of the acid were destroyed by micro-
organisms. The amount of alcohol also slowly diminishes ;
in a normal wine, the loss is 0-2 — 0-3 per cent, between the
first and third racking.
Effects of Wine Diseases on the composition of theWine.
Mycoderma vini destroys the alcohol, and also, if very
vigorous, the acids and extract.
Mycoderma aeeti converts the alcohol into acetic acid.
If this appears early iu the fermentation, the production of
glycerol is diminished and part of the sugar is converted into
optically inactive bodies.
The liopy Ferment arises in wines owing to a variety of
causes, usually when the normal fermentation is in some
way stopped. Wine frequently becomes ropy if bottled too
early.
The Blackening of wine is produced by the presence of
iron andtaunates.
The Brown colour of wine is due to rotten grapes. It
may be removed by clarifying the wine with isinglass and
racking it into a clean cask.
The production of a bitter taste in red wine is due to a
decomposition of the tauuiu. The bacteria which produces
this may be killed by Pasteurisation.
The so-called Biickser, a stench of sulphuretted hydrogen.
This sometimes arises when the must ferments in the
presence of sulphur, and is more easily produced with a
vigorous fermentation than iu a less active one. It may
also be produced by the presence of metallic iron and an
excess of sulphurous acid. The stench may be removed by
drawing off into a clean cask and adding sulphurous acid.
Wine which remains for too long a time in contact with
yeast, sometimes becomes yeast-bitten.
Lactic acid is also produced in wine when the normal
fermentation is unduly prolonged. — A. L. S.
if the bacterium be present, this goes on much further.
This might be accounted for by the bacterium removing
products which prevent the further action of the yeast.
In the discussion which followed this paper, A. G.
Salamon stated that in a stinking beer he had found empty
yeast cells and micrococci, and he considered that the
micrococci had bored their way into the yeast cells and
therein produced a decomposition of the protoplasm which
gave rise to the stink. — A. L. S.
Symbiosis and Symbiotic Fermentation. M. Ward. Trans.
Inst. Brew, 5, 1892, 55—82.
The term symbiosis is used to signify the association of two
organisms to the mutual advantage of both. Recent
research has led us to believe that this is of more common
occurrence than had been previously thought, and that
many cases which were considered to be parasitism appear
to be of a symbiotic nature.
A great number of examples of symbiosis are here given,
amongst which is described the ginger-beer plant, recently
investigated by the author (this Journal, 1892, 255).
This eonsists of a symbiotic association of a yeast aial
bacterium, which is closely related to the lichens. ( Bacteria
have been recently shown to be modified algae, whilst
lichens are a symbiotic association of a fungus and alga).
The bacterium of the ginger-beer plant forms thick
gelatinous sheaths, and if grown in a saccharine solution,
these render the whole solution gelatinous. There is no
doubt that this is a symbiotic association, as both the yeast
and bacterium grow better when mixed than when separate.
If the yeast he placed alone in a saccharine solution, the
fermentation will not proceed beyond a certain point, whilst
Fractional Fermentation: a Contribution to the Study of
the Amyloins (JMalto-dextrins) . G. H. Morris and .1. (i.
Wells. ' Trans. Inst. Brew. 5, 1892, 133—172.
Fermenting worts have been analysed at different stages
of the fermentation ; the results show that at the commence-
ment the sugar fermented as calculated from the alcohol
formed has a higher cupric reducing power and a lower
optical activity than maltose; during the main portion of
the fermentation the optical activity and reducing power of
the sugar fermented, calculated in the same way, are the
same as these factors for maltose ; and that during the slow
after-fermentation the sugar fermented as calculated from
the alcohol produced has a lower cupric reducing power and
higher optical activity than maltose.
These observations are explained by the fermentation of
tlie ready formed sugars of the malt during the first stages,
by the fermentation of the free maltose during the main
portion of the fermentation, and by the fermentation of the
malto-dextrins during the final stages.
These various stages of the fermentation are found to be
very much influenced by the nature of the yeast, the
temperature, and the character of the fermenting liquid.
The action of two pure yeasts from the Berlin experi-
mental station has been studied. One of these (Frohberg
yeast) attenuates malt wort from 10 to 15 per cent, lower
than the other (Saaz yeast). If when the fermentation of
a beer pitched with Saaz yeast had stopped, a little Frohberg
yeast " ere added, the fermentation recommenced and went
as far as it would have done had Frohberg yeast been used
from the start. It is found that the refusal of the Saaz
yeast to ferment further is due only to the want of ferment
able matter, and that when it stops, all the free matter has
been fermented ; the cause of the further fermentation when
Frohberg yeast is added is the degradation and subsequent
fermentation of the malto-dextrins.
The properties possessed by these yeasts render them of
great value in the analysis of malt wort, as the one may
he used to determine free maltose and the other the
fermentable malto-dextrins.
In a note the authors state that the inability of the Saaz
yeast to ferment malto-dextrin arises from its want of
diastatie power. Frohberg yeast and most brewery yeasts
possess this power. — A. L. S.
A Contribution to the Study of Deplaslered Wines.
H. Quantin. Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 3G9-371.
]>ui lstertng of wines generally has for its object the
elimination of any potassium sulphate present iu excess over
the limit allowed by law. According to the author, not
only chloride, nitrate, and carbonate, but also tartrate,
acetate, and phosphate of barium are employed for this
purpose. In order to determine which particular barium
salt was employed the author proceeds as follows: — In the
fust place, it is of importance to examine the lees or
In jjs of the wine for barium, because it is usually only in
the dregs that the barium can be detected, in the form of
an insoluble salt. If no dregs arc available, it is very
difficult to form an opinion as to the nature of tin- di plaster-
ing agent employed. Barium having been detected the
wine is examined for chlorides, any excess of which points
to the use of barium chloride. Barium carbonate is
indicated by the absence of tartar and a deficiency of
j acidity in the wine, as well as by the presence of traces of
dissolved barium. If the acidity be normal, and chlorides
be absent, the dregs from the sample are washed free from
Sept. so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
765
soluble sulphates, and digested with strong ammonium
chloride solution. The subsequent presence of barium in
this solution indicates the use of barium tartrate. If the
above tests yield negative results, 100 cc. of the wine are
exactly neutralised and evaporated to dryness on the water-
batli. The residue is extracted with absolute alcohol, the
solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated with
phosphoric acid. An evolution of acetic acid may show : —
1. That barium acetate was used for deplastering purposes.
2. That the sample was partially neutralised in order to
mask excessive acetification. In the first case the per-
centage of total potash in the wine will be normal ; in the
second case, the alkaline carbonates in the ash of the sample
will be high. If the result be still negative, nitrates
(derived from barium nitrate) are estimated by Pelouze-
Sehlosing's method. Finally, the use of barium phosphate
is indicated by its presence in the lees. It is detected by
igniting a portion of lees, moistening with ammonium
sulphate, again igniting and extracting the phosphate by
warm dilute hydrochloric acid. The wine itself, in such
cases, generally contains an excess of alkaline phosphates.
— H. T. P.
The Process of Mashing and Fermenting from the
Distillers' Point of View. YV. J. Sykes. Trans. Inst.
Brew. 5, 1892, 175—186.
I.\ this paper the author considers the factors which favour: —
1. The maximum extraction of starch from the materials
us. d, and its conversion as far as possible into maltose.
2. The maximum production of alcohol.
1. To realise the first point the malt employed should be
as highly diastatic as possible. It should be grown at a low
and even temperature (65° — 68° F.) and the acrospire allowed
to develop three-quarters to full length, but not more, or loss
of diastase will ensue. Afterwards the malt should be dried
at a temperature not exceeding 123° F. Green malt is
much used on the Continent, but it is not so well suited for
the production of vigorous yeast, and should not be
employed at all if the yTeast crop be intended for bakers'
purposes. The mashing heat must be as low as possible
consistent with proper extraction of the starch. In practice
it is usual to start the mash cold, or nearly so, heat quickly
to 122° F. and then very gradually to 150° F.. or even
158° F. in the case of very strong mashes. Excess of
acidity must be carefully guarded against, for even a
comparatively small percentage of acid (lactic, butyric. &c.)
greatly cripples the diastase. The subsequent sterilisation
of the wort by boiling is, of course, not admissible ; but
the bacterial organisms present (with one or two excep-
tion-1 are sufficiently paralysed for practical purposes by
keeping the mash for half an hour at 150° F.
2. The fermentation process may be divided into the
three stages of yeast reproduction, main fermentation, and
after-fernientation. A large yeast reproduction at the
heginningof the fermentation is most essential, and is secured
by suitable temperature and proper aeration of the wort.
82° F. appears to be the best temperature (Pedersen), and
it is for this reason that often in practice the yeast is
added to the wort on the cooler when its temperature has
fallen to 82° F. According to Hayduck the richness of the
yeast and wort in nitrogenous constituents also has an
important bearing on the reproductive and fermentative
energy of the yeast. The yeast used should be vigorous
and well matured and as pure as possible ; for any consider-
able bacterial contamination not only hinders yeast repro-
duction, but ultimately leads to the excessive formation of
bodies other than alcohol (acid, &c). In this connexion
cleanliness of plant is of the greatest importance.
In the main fermentation the bulk of the maltose is
fermented, ami it appears from Foth's researches that the
maximum yield of alcohol is obtained at 81'5°F. This
holds good in practice, and it is therefore necessary to
keep the temperature of the wort down by careful attempc-
rating. Yeast reproduction practically ceases when .", per
cent, by volume of alcohol has been formed (Hayduck).
After-fermentation, which lasts about four days, is most
advantageously carried on at 77° — 87° F. During this
period the more stubborn bodies, dextrin and isomaltose
(this Journal, 1892, 171; also 627) are fermented, the
former, itself nnfermentable, being previously converted
into maltose by the action of the diastase remaiuiug in
the wort. This explains why the wort is not boiled after
mashing. An excess of acid in the wort must therefore be
avoided for the same reason as before — because it cripples
the diastase.
Theoretically, 1 lb. of starch will yield 0-5678 lb. of
alcohol ; but in practice, under the most favourable con-
ditions, only 88*3 per cent, of this amount is obtainab'e,
whilst in bad working, this may sink to 72*5 percent. The
sources of loss are : — non-extraction of a portion of the
starch ; incomplete fermentation ; conversion of a portion of
the carbohydrates into by-products, such as acetic land
other acids, fusel oil, &c. ; consumption of a portion of the
sugars by the yeast for food ; and loss of alcohol by
evaporation. — H. T. P.
The Fermentability of Dextrins. L. Medicus and
C. Immerheiser. Zeits. Anal. Chem. 30, 1891, 665—668.
In the course of their analytical practice the authors
condemned some samples of wine as containing potato
glucose, the presence of wdiich was inferred from the
marked dextro-rotatory action of the samples on polarised
light. This conclusion was disputed, however, because it
was observed that the optical activity of the wines could
be reduced to zero by fermentation with pressed yeast ;
and it was suggested that the original dextro-rotation was
due to a " difficultly fermentable dextrose " derived from
the grapes. To decide the question, several of the samples
were " pitched " with pressed yeast and fermented for
several weeks. In each case the polarisation dropped to
zero. That the substance thus fermented away was
dextrin, however, and not dextrose, was proved by the
fact that the original wines on complete inversion, ex-
hibited a distinct increase in reducing power. Besides,
v. Raumer has recently shown (Zeits. ang. ('hem. 1890,
421) that the dextrin of potato glucose is by no means
perfectly stable under the influence of pressed yeast.
Further experiments were made with two inferior potato
glucoses. Solutions were prepared containing 40 grms. in
250 cc, and pitched with 10 grms. of pressed yeast. Fer-
mentation was allowed to proceed for the first six days
at the ordinary temperature, afterwards at 30° C. The
following results were obtained : —
I.
II.
Original polarisation
Polarisation after <j day
„ 11 „
+ l;-u
+ 35-35
+ l°-n
+ 17 -ii
+ 3°-30
+ l°-9
( )ti the 14th day the solutions were filtered and treated with
8 grms. of yeast each. Polarisation after 23 days, + 0-55°,
and + 0-£5°. Again filtered and 10 grms. fresh yeast added
to each. Polarisation after 32 days ± 0°, +0°.
Similar results were obtained with the dextrins isolated
from the above glucoses by means of alcohol. The authors,
therefore, adhered to their original opinion that the wines
in question were adulterated with glucose. — H. T. P.
Note on the Fermentability of Dextrins. C. J. Lintner.
Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 328—330.
Referring to Medicus and Immerheiser's recent communi-
cation (Zeits. Anal. Chem. 1891, 66o ; this Journal, see
preceding abstract), the author is of opinion that their experi-
ments by no means demonstrate the fermentbiality of dextrins.
In the first place, the "non-sugars" existing in the commercial
glucose employed in the said experiments were assumed,
without sufficient proof, to be dextrins ; but recent researches,
especially by Wohl (this Journal, 1890, 957 — 95S), have
shown that these non-nugars consist in reality largely of
" reversion-products" formed from dextrose by the action of
acid. These bodies resemble dextrin, but are probably not
identical with it. Apart from the above consideration,
i) 2
766
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. SO, 1862.
however, the use of pressed yeast (i.e., a mixture of
numerous species of yeast and bacteria) as fermenting agent,
is sutlicient to condemn Medicus and ltamerheiser's con-
clusions, for it is well known that under the combined
influence of yeast and bacteria, even starch itself is attacked.
From his own researches the author is of opinion that
dextrin produced from starch by diastatic action is not
fermentable by S. cerevisix, and this statement is probably
also true in the case of acid-formed dextrin. — H. T. P.
Precipitation of Jlaffinose by Ammoniacal Lead Acetate.
T. Koydl. Oesterr. Z. Zucker. 1892, 92.
See under XXIII., page 778.
Note on Wines containing Potato Glucose. W. Presenilis.
Zeits. Anal. Chi™. 30, 1891, 669— 672.
In this paper the author describes some experiments which
confirm, and to some extent complete, the results obtained
hv Medicus and Immerheiser (see preceding abstract). The
conclusions arrived at are : —
1. The so-called "unfermeutable" constituents of com-
mercial potato glucose are completely fermeutable by means
of pressed yeast, but are not affected by beer yeast.
2. The said unfermeutable bodies, when present in wine,
are destroyed and consequently disappear under the
influence of film formation, due to exposure to air. This
point is ol importance, in so far that samples of wine on
which a film has appeared should not he employed for
analysis, especially when an opinion is required regarding
the presence or absence of potato glucose. — H. T. P.
On Beers Brewed in Portugal. H. Mastbauin and F.
Dickmann. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 201—203.
Ur to quite recent times, beers brewed in Portugal, both on
the top and bottom fermentation systems, were of very
indifferent quality. However, within the last year or two,
German brewers have fouud their way into the country,
and some very fair bottom fermentation beer is now
produced. The following table contains the results of
analyses of some of these beers : —
Jan«nJjanseii,,^?*^Trind«di!l
!""'1^1" Munich.
Pipa. Pilsen.
garxafada.
Light
Light
Dark
Bark
Specific gravity at 15° C. . . .
L'0064
1-0121
1-0215
1-01 00
0-343
0-188
0-148
0-1-C
3-8S
3-28
0-187
0-0*1
f(59
5-01
0-211
0-050
3-82
7-12
0-243
0-043
lin;
.vsi
0*240
0-084
Glycerol
0-04S
0-033
O-025
0-059
0-62
1/0]
0'059
10 85
69-77
l-iil
•2-511
0-093
14-03
64-07
2-12
3-63
0-091
14-90
50-20
,,;s
0-102
1 1-04
! leg reea ol rermcnl ation. . . .
57-18
Sugar : Nbn-sugur in the
wort.
Nitrogen in the wort, per
cent.
Ash in the wort, per cent. .
1 : (1-3-J
0-51
1-72
1:0-40
0-G6
1-71
1:0'55
0'61
1-63
1:0-46
0-74
1-76
lyijin the wort, pei ce it. .
iru
0-35
0-29
0-61
Turbid
Clear
Clear
Clear
On the Apparent Proportion between the Dextrose and
Leoulose in Dark Brown Malaga Wine and other
Similar!'/ Prepared Wines. A. ISorntriiger. Zeits. ang.
Chem. 1892, 207—208.
The great proportion of sweet wines contain an excess of
levulose over dextrose. There are, however, wines which
apparently contain an excess of dextrose over levulose. It
is difficult to see how this can be the case if the wines only
contain these two sugars, as dextrose is more easily
fermented than levulose, and consequently it has usually
been assumed that starch sugar has been added to such
wines. The author finds that dark brown Malaga wine
and other similar wines apparently contain more dextrose
than levulose ; but he finds that this is owing to the pro-
duction of dextro-rotatory unfermeutable sugar produced
by heating the must in the process of manufacture. He
proposes to carefully investigate this point. — A. L. S.
The Separation of Iso-Maltose from the Diastatic
Conversion Products of Starch. C. J. Liutner and
G. Dull. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 263 -268.
Iso-maltose was first discovered by one of the authors
(this Journal, 1892, 171, 627) in beer and wort, from which it
was separated as " iso-maltosazone." In the present paper
voluminous details are given of the process by means of
which the authors succeeded in isolating iso-maltose from
the products of the diastatic conversion of starch. Briefly,
a starch conversion (made at 673 C.) was concentrated,
after previous removal of the maltose by fermentation,
and submitted to dialysis, the diffusate and residue being
subsequently repeatedly fractionally precipitated with
strong alcohol. By this means two fractions of constant
specific rotatory power were finally obtained. The one
fraction (remaining in solution) [o]D = + 140°, consisting
of iso-maltose; the other (precipitate) [a]D = + 190° of
dextrin. No intermediate dextrins possessing an optical
activity between 1403 and 19u° could be detected amongst
the starch products. This fact renders the existence of the
so-called " malto-dextrius " extremely problematical.
Iso-maltose has not yet been obtained iu the crystalline
state. Absolute alcohol precipitates it from its solutions in
the form of a viscid syrup which solidifies after several
days standing in contact with absolute alcohol. Iso-maltose
possesses a sweet flavour. Its specific rotatory power in
10 per cent, solution is [o]D = + 139° — 140°, and its
eupric oxide reducing power (in 1 per cent, solution) is
equal to 83 per cent, of that of maltose. Iso-maltose is
very sensitive to heat, being distinctly caramelised at
temperatures exceeding 90° C., and when quite dry it is
exceedingly hygroscopic. It is fermentable by yeast, and
diastase converts it into maltose. In conclusion, the
authors give details of the most suitable method of preparing
iso-maltose from starch. — II. T. P.
—A. h. S.
Aluminium and Beer. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 299 — 300.
Beer may he kept in clean aluminium flasks without
contracting any unpleasant taste. It was found that some
beer kept for three weeks in an aluminium vessel had
taken up but the smallest traces of aluminium; the highest
amount that could be fouud being 0' 8 mgrm. per 100 cc. of
the beer.— A. L. 6.
The Influence of Different Temperatures on the Condition
of Malt and the Composition of the Wort obtained
therefrom. E. Prior. B. Brauer, 1892. Zeits. ang
Chem. 1892, 312—318.
A mu.t was dried for 24 hours on the upper floor of an
Engelhardt kiln at 20° R., and then on the lower floor
without raising the heat and with closed draught for
12 hours more and finished with 4 hours at 35° K. The
malt was analysed both before and after drying; the
reducing sugars were respectively 12-58 and 13-74 per
cent, on the anhydrous malt and the fermentative powers
were respectively 88-9 and 134-0. These numbers are in
Sept. 30, 189a.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
767
accordance with the knowledge acquired in practice, that
by properly conducted withering the soluble matter of the
malt is considerably increased.
Malt was dried with a free supply of air at various
temperatures ranging from 35' to 80° K. The dried malts
were analysed and the following relations were observed as
the drying temperature was raised : — The water in the dried
malt diminished, the fermentative power decreased, the
duration of saccharifieation increased, the proportion of
maltose to non-maltose decreased, as did also the absolute
amount of maltose contained in the extract ; the colour of
the resultant wort increased and the number of brown
corns likewise. These malts were mashed and the worts
obtained examined. The reducing sugar calculated as
maltose was found to be in part easily fermentable and
in part unfermentable. In the wort prepared from malts
dried at the higher temperatures the amount of fermentable
maltose is less and of unfermentable maltose is greater
than in wott prepared from malt dried at a lower
temperature.
The relation between the fermentable and unfermentable
maltose is not a fixed and definite quantity, but depends
on the yeast employed ; thus with two yeasts, A and L,
yeast A always fermented about 6 per cent, of the total
maltose more than yeast L, no matter at what temperature
the malt had been dried.
The author considers that the only products of the
mashing process are maltose, an unfermentable reducing
body, and dextrin. The unfermentable reducing body
must be either iso-maltose or malto-dextrin. Now the
result of the fermentation of wort prepared from the malts
dried at different temperatures show that the decrease in
the amount of fermentable maltose in the high dried malts
is balanced by the sum of the increase in the amount of
unfermentable maltose and dextrin. Also, if the unfer-
mentable residue be tested with phenyl-hydrazine it is
found that maltose and other sugars are absent, but that
iso-maltose is present.
From these facts the author concludes that there is no
such substance as malto-dextrin present in the worts, but
that the unfermentable reducing substance is iso-maltose.
In the preparation of the above worts, the whole of the
diastase acted on the malt between 45° and 70° and the
mash was kept at the last temperature for one hour. Under
these conditions the amount of maltose formed was the
maximum possible and was practically constant at what-
ever temperature the malt was dried at so long as there
remained an excess of diastase, being about 75 per cent, of
the total extract ; the remaining 25 per cent, consisted of
dextrin, albuminoids, ash, &c, and is the minimum amount
which will be produced in any transformation, and con-
sequently may be taken as a constant constituent of all
worts. The remaining 75 per cent, is subject to alteration
in composition when the drying has destroyed a poition
of the diastase, in which case a portion of the maltose will
be replaced by an equivalent amount of dextrin.
Besides the maltose produced during mashing, there is
present in the malt a certain amount of ready formed sugars.
The amount of these was determined and the proportion of
them that is fermentable. It was found that the amount
of fermentable maltose ready formed in the malt dried at
45° to 50° was 10 per cent., and that this decreased as the
temperature of drying increased, being 8 '3 per cent, in
malt dried at 75 ; the decrease the author considers con-
verted into caramelised bodies. The amount of unfermentable
maltose ready formed in the malt was practically the same
in malt dried at any temperature between 45° and 75°, being
1 ■ 8 to 2 ■ 0 per cent.
By comparing the results thus obtained with the previous
ones, it appears that as the amount of fermentable maltose
decreases in the higher dried malts, its place is taken by an
equivalent quantity of dextrin ; the numbers being for malt
dried at 45°, 52 '8 per cent, maltose and 12'0 per cent,
dextrin ; and at 75°, 40' 0 per cent, maltose and 25-4 per
cent, dextrin, whilst the amount of iso-maltose produced at
the same time is practically constant, being about 12' 8
per cent.
The amounts of transformation products obtained from
malts containing an excess of diastase is 52 3 per cent.
maltose, 12' 9 per cent, iso-maltose, and 12 '0 ner cent,
dextrin, being in the proportion of 8 molecules maltose,
2 molecules iso-maltose, and 2 molecules dextrin.
The transformation of starch may be accordingly repre-
sented by the equation —
12 (C,,H,„0,«) + 2H,0 = 2 0,^0,1 + 2 (C^O,,,) +
starch. Iso-maltose. Dextrin.
8 (C,.:rr,0o„o
Erythrodextrln,
s (CY^Au) + b h,„ = 8 c,,ii,Ai
Maltose.
If the amount of diastase is insufficient, the last equation
becomes modified ; thus —
8 (C,,H,0O1(1) + 7 Fa, = 7 r,,IUA, + C13H20Ou -
Maltose. Dextrin,
or—
8(C,,H2„0,o) + 6H.,0= 6 0,3^0,, + 2ClsH,„O)0
and so on.
Further analyses of the worts were made in which various
portions of the diastase, from none to nine-tenths, were
destroyed, and it was found that the amount of iso-maltose
was practically the same in all the worts, but that the
relative amounts of maltose and dextrin varied aecordiug to
the amount of diastase present. These facts bear out the
above theory. — A. L. S.
Wort and Beer. C. Amthor. Zeits. ges. Brauw. 1892 ;
Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 318—320.
Samples of fermenting wort taken at different stages of the
fermentation were examined. It was found that the matter
fermented during the first day had a less optical activity
than maltose ; that the matter fermented on the succeeding
three days had about the optical activity of maltose, and
that the matter fermented during the slow fermentation
succeeding had a greater optical activity than maltose, and
that in the last stages of the fermentation the optical
activity of the fermented matter was double that of maltose.
Further experiments showed that the low optical activity
of the matter first fermented was due to the ready-formed
sugars of the malt, i.e., cane sugar, dextrose, and levulose.
Further, it was found that young beer, finished beer, and
beer of some age, when digested with invertase, showed a
diminution in optical activity and a gain in reducing power.
This cannot be due to cane sugar, which must long ago
have been fermented ; it must be due to some other
constituent of the beer, which may be malto - dextrin or
iso-maltose. — A. L. S.
Boric Acid in Wines. M. Gassend. Bull dc Pharm.
de Bordeaux, 128.
The author has discovered that boric acid exists in the
normal condition in wines. When the residue from a
quantity of wine treated with alcohol and sulphuric acid,
fails to impart a green colouration to the flame of the former,
the presence of the acid may still be indicated by the
reaction with turmeric paper and by its spectroscopic
character. This discovery is pointed out as interesting,
considering the recently introduced F'reuch Statute for-
bidding the addition of boric acid to wines. — W. S.
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in Wine. M. M. Morgen-
stern and Pavlinoff. J. Russ. Chem. Soc. 1892, 341.
See under XXIII., page 777.
Determination of Chlorine in Wine. YV. Siefert. Zeits.
Anal. Chem. 31, 1H92, 186.
.See under XXIII., page 778.
768
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 3d, I8:i2.
The Influence of some Metallic Salts on the Luetic
Fermentation. C. Richet. Compt. rend. 114, 1892,
1494—1496.
■See under XVIII., page 770.
ERK HUM.
Page C99, col 2, line 25 from bottom, for " Bacillus
Amylozymiens ferment " Se, read Bacillus Amylozymicus
ferments, &c.
XVIII.-CHEMISTEY OF FOODS, SANITAEY
CHEMISTKY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
Oi.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
Changes in Chalybeate Waters during Storaqc. J. Kiban.
Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 1483—1485.
With respect to the changes undergone by mineral waters
in the bottle, a subject recently brought forward by
Parnientier (Compt. rend. 114, 1363), the author recounts
his experiences with chalybeate waters. From the analysis
of twelve different waters obtained from the best Parisian
pharmacies, lie shows that nearly all the iron that was
originally held in solution in the water had been precipitated,
and the small quantity that remained in solution was
generally in the ferric state. These waters must therefore be
considered as unreliable therapeutical agents. The ferrous
iron in solution was determined with permanganate, and the
total iron by the same standard reageut after reduction with
zinc. The presence of organic and sulphurous matters in
the waters does not in the author's opinion practically
affect the analytical results by this method, when the
operation is conducted in the cold, as the decolouration of
the permanganate by most, organic matters is slow and
progressive. — F. W. 1'.
Changes in Chalybeate Waters during Storage. J. Kiban.
Compt. rend. 115, 1892, 185.
In reply to a further communication by Parmentier (Compt.
rend. 114, 1483; see preceding abstract), the author says
that he obtained the samples for analysis from a pharmacy
in order that the ordinary conditions of the therapeutical
employment of foreign mineral waters should be attained.
The analytical method he maintains to be sufficiently
reliable and his results to have been confirmed by
I.. Chatelier (Compt. rend. 115, 124). The author
condemns the practice of surcharging mineral waters with
carbonic acid as altering the composition of the water and
thus affecting the conditions under which its therapeutical
actiou has been established. — F. W. P.
Bibliography of Honey : arranged Chronologically. U. S.
of Agriculture Bulletin 13, 1892, 871.
See under XVI., page 761.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Preparation of Fish for Use as Food.
P. W. Schonau, Flensburg, Germany. Eng. Pat. 13,811,
August 15, 1891.
Tun cleaned fish are packed with dry salt, dried at 110°,
ground into fine fibres, and mixed with vegetables in the
proportion of lib. of dried fish to 3 1b. of vegetables;
condiments are added and the mass worked up into cakes
which are baked at 11(1°. The cakes are preserved in a
gelatin " obtained by a decoction of the cuticle surrounding
the bone of fish, with the addition of a minute quantity of
alum and carbonate of soda." — A. G. B.
.1 Mi /hod and Apparatus for Manufacturing Malt Coffee.
E. Wilhelm, A. Brougier, and H. Trillieh, Munich,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 14,755, September 1, 1891.
The malt is soaked in water at 40° and dried in a coffee-
roaster until the grains are glassy brown, when it is sprinkled
with hot water and the roasting continued in order to loosen
the cuticle of the malt. A liquid having the aroma of
coffee, and prepared as described below, is then sprayed into
the roaster, which is kept revolving ; when the spray is
discontinued the malt is further heated until dry. The
roaster is removed from the fire, and after the malt has
cooled somewhat, a little cocoa-butter or other fatty matter
is introduced, and the rotation continued until the malt-
coffee has been coated with a fatty layer.
The coffee-liquid is made by condensing the vapours
arising in the roasting of coffee. The condensed liquid is
concentrated by distillation and neutralised by sodium
bicarbonate. Sufficient sugar is then added to make a
syrup. Extract of unroasted coffee may be substituted for
the condensed vapours. — A. G. B.
Improvements in Mill; Sterilisers. A. Cornaz, Neuchatel,
Switzerland. Eng. Pat. 16,787, October 2, 1891.
The steriliser consists of a cylindrical jar having its top
enlarged in the form of a conical collar shaped " like the
frustrum of a cone," and makiug an angle of about 135'
with the wall of the jar. The milk is boiled in this until
sterilised, overflowing being avoided by the conical top. The
apparatus is provided with an ordinary saucepan handle.
—A. G. B.
An Improved Process for the Preservation of Meat.
S. Pitt, Sutton, Surrey. From J. Mariosa, Sao Paulo,
Brazil. Eng. Pat. 3462, February 22, 1892.
The meat is dipped into, or painted with, a paste made of
40 parts of sodium bicarbonate and 60 parts of saccharine
matter, such as sugar, and enough water to produce a
syrupy condition. The piece thus coated is hung in the air
for an hour and then in an artificial current of air, until the
surface is thoroughly desiccated. — A. G. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Compound Cakes for
Cattle Feeding and the like, J. Bibby, Liverpool.
Eng. Pat. 9667, May 21, 1892.
The present process of making compound cakes consists of
live distinct operations, namely: — (I) Grinding the parti-
cular oil-seed ; (2) pressing the same to extract the oil ;
(3) re-grinding the cake thus made into meal for mixing;
(4) mixing the same with farinaceous matter, ground
cereals, &c. ; (5) Re-pressing the whole into a compound
cake.
This invention dispenses with operations (3) and (4") by
grinding the seeds first, then mixing them with each other
and with the farinaceous or other material, in the desired
proportion, and finally crushing the mixture to obtain oil
and the compound cake. — A. G. B.
Improvements in or relating In tin Manufacture of Salt
(Chloride of Sodiujn). W. P. Thompson, Liverpool.
From A. L. Lawton, Rochester, U.S.A., and W. S.
Dodge, Washington, LT.S.A. Eng. Pat. 9884, May 24,
1S92.
The improvements refer to the production of table salt
from impure rock salt, by fusing the same with an admix-
ture <>f '. — 2 per cent, of lime or other alkaline matter, and
Sept. a., 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
769
settling out the impurities. The clear fused suit is then
run out and reduced to small globules by means of an
*' atomiser"' worked by an air-blast.
The apparatus consists of an inclined retort provided with
horizontal steps for the reception of the salt. This is intro-
duced on the top by means of a hopper. The salt is
brought to fusion by meaus of a fire from the bottom part
of the retort, and the fused material is collected in a
receptacle whore the impurities settle out.
All vessels are lined with a basic infusible material such
as lime and clay, to prevent the formation of sodium
silicate. — II. A.
Improvements in and relating to the Production of an
Alimentary Product from Indian Corn or Maize. H.
Bates, Indianapolis, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 10,788, June 7,
1892;
The corn is first hulled and degerminated, then fed into a
broken-flighted conveyor trough where it is sprayed with
water by means of a rose situated immediately above the
point of deliver}* from the hopper. In traversing this
conveyor the wetted grains are tumbled together and the
moisture thus equalised. To avoid " possible undue
saturation." the grains are delivered from the tail end of the
broken-flighted conveyor into a dry coutinuous conveyor
trough, from which they pass into another continuous con-
vex or, provided with half a dozen shoots located immediately
above the flattening mills. Expedition is the advantage
claimed. — A. G. B.
Improvement in Means for Preserving Meat and the like.
J. Y. Johnson, London. From H. Salzer, Baltimore,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 11,988, June 28, 1892.
The meat is subjected to dry steam in a closed vessel
allowed to cool and compressed in moulds for about six
hours. It is next wrapped in a suitable material such as
paper and enclosed in a tightly-fitting jacket of fabric im-
pregnated and coated with plaster of Paris. When the
plaster has set the coated article is put into a can; grease
(suet, lard, or tallow) is run in and the whole sterilised
before being sealed. So much grease is absorbed by the
plaster that the contraction on cooling does not destroy the
protective coating as is usually the case. Metallic foil
can be substituted for the can, but in this case another
plaster coating must be applied outside the layer of grease,
to prevent the latter from making holes in the foil during
the heating necessary for sterilisation. When a can is used
it is desirable to prevent contact of the package with the
interior of the can, for " it is well known that meat enclosed
in cans undergoes distinct changes, and acquires a foreign
and disagreeable flavour, induced by contact with the metal.
The latter is a good conductor of what may be termed
telluric influences, and these changes are believed to be due,
in part at least, to that fact." The inventor fixes projec-
tions of a non-conducting substance to the interior of the
can to prevent this contact. — A. G. B.
(B.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
The Impurities of Town Air. Dr. G. H. Bailey. The
British Association {Chemical Section), Edinburgh, 1892.
Dr. Bailey said that during the past year the Air Analysis
Committee of Manchester, in conjunction with the Royal
Horticultural Society, had been engaged on the analysis of
the air of large towns. From the results of several
hundreds of analyses in London, Manchester, and Liverpool,
the following conclusions were drawn: — (1) That in clear
breezy weather the amount of sulphurous acid was less than
1 mm. per 100 cub. ft. of air; (2) than in anti-cyclonic
periods it rose very considerably, and in times of fog the
maximum of 34 to 50 mm. had been recorded for the worst
districts of Manchester and London respectively ; (3) that
wherever an open space or a less densely populated area
occurred there was a very marked diminution in the amount
of impurities in the air ; (4) that an increase in the amount
of sulphurous acid was accompanied by at least as large an
increase in the amount of organic impurities in the air ;
(5 ) that smoke, promoting as it did the formation of fog
and preventing free diffusion into the upper strata of the
air, must be regarded as the principal cause of the impure
state of the atmosphere in large towns W. S,
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Purifying Witter or other
Liquids. R. S. Brownlow, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
15,172, September 8, 1891.
Tins is an addition to a previous patent (16,006, 1890;
this Journal, 1891, 128), and relates to a continuous,
sewage depositing apparatus. The improvements consist
in an alteration of the number, form, and arrangement of
the baffling plates, with the object of rendering the passage
of the sewage through the apparatus more smooth aud
tranquil.— H. T. P.
Improvements in the Oxidation of Seivage and Impure
Waters, and of Material for Use in the Treatment of
such Seivage and Impure Waters. F. P. Candy, Balham,
Surrey. Eng. Pat. 15,391, September 11, 1891.
This invention relates to the manufacture of a precipitant
and oxidiser for sewage. For this purpose, ferrous
sulphate, or chloride in solution is mixed with about 15 pet
cent, of its weight of true sulphuric or hydrochloric acid,
respectively, and churned in a cylinder with an excess of
manganese dioxide, or ferric hydrate, until 50 — 80 per cent,
of the ferrous salt is oxidised to the ferric state. Oxidation
may also be effected by slowly filtering the acidified solution
through a layer of the oxides. Bauxite may likewise be
added to the mixture, with sufficient sulphuric acid to
convert it into aluminium sulphate. In treating sewage, a
quantity of the above compound containing from 2 to 14
grains of the original ferrous salt may be added to each
gallon of sewage. A solid preparation, suitable for
transport, is obtained by grinding together the ferrous salt,
acid, and manganese dioxide (5 — 8 per cent.), or ferric
hydrate (15— 20 per cent.), and allowing the mass to set.
According to this invention, sewage may also be purified by
agitation in a suitable vessel with granular manganese
dioxide, the average time of contact being about, five
minutes.— H. T. P.
Improvements in Ozonising Apparatuses. J. Ehlis, Liege,
Belgium. Eng. Pat. 16,806, October 3, 1891.
The ozonising apparatus consists of a wooden box sup-
ported on four feet, and entirely open towards the bottom.
The cover is pierced with a hole in which is screwed a
trumpet -shaped mouth-piece or inhalation tube. A sealed
glass tube containing air or other gas under more or less
pressure, or in which a more or less perfect vacuum has
been produced, passes through holes in opposite sides of the
chamber. To one end of this tube is attached a terminal
which is connected to the positive pole of a coil or other
source of electricity. Inside the box, parallel to, but not
quite touching the tube, are two insulated metallic plates, one
on each side. These plates are connected to the negative
pole of the coil. When an electric current is passed into the
apparatus a silent discharge takes place between the tube
and the metallic plates, resulting in the ozonisation of the
surrounding air. The latter is then inhaled by means of
the mouth-piece mentioned above. The claim is for " a
hermetically closed glass tube, enclosing a gas at a
pressure lower than that of the atmosphere, which tube
is connected to one of the poles of a coil or other source
of electricity."— H. T. P.
Improvements in the Utilisation of Sewage Sludge, and in
the Production of Filtering and Purifying Material
therefrom. T. B. Wilson, .Manchester. Eng. Pat.
17,275, October 10, 1891.
The sludge from sewage containing iron, or that has been
purified by the addition of ferric chloride or other iron-salt
is employed for the production of a filtering material for
770
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1892.
water, sewage, &c. To this end the sludge is pressed,
dried, and if deficient in iron, a quantity of waste ferric
oxide, or iron ore added. The dried material is sub-
sequently calcined in a closed retort or by other suitable
means, air being excluded as soon as the mass attains a
dull red heat. After ignition, the material is allowed to
cool out of contact with the air to avoid oxidation. The
product thus obtained consists mainly of an intimate
mixture of carbon and magnetic oxide of iron, and forms a
valuable filtering material. — H. T. P.
An Improved Process of Purifying Water. C. 6. Collins,
Woodsburgh, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat, 11,989,
June 28, 1892.
According to this process, which is more particularly
applicable to the purification of water for domestic use,
manufacturing purposes, ,Vc., use is made of the combined
influence of oxygen and an electric current. The apparatus
employed consists of a long, preferably closed tank,
containing a series of carbon or platinum electrodes which
are connected alternately to the positive and negative poles
of a dynamo, or other source of electricity. The ends of
the tank are provided with water inlet and outlet taps
respectively ; whilst oxygen under pressure if supplied by
a pipe entering at one end and running nearly the whole
length of the chamber, the portion inside the chamber
being perforated to allow of the escape of the gas. It is
claimed that under the conditions obtaining in the above
apparatus, the nascent oxygen, liberated by the electric
current, combines with the oxygen introduced and dissolved
in the water, forming from the very beginning a maximum
amount of ozone, under the influence of which the
impurities present in the water are rapidly and thoroughly
destroyed or rendered insoluble. On the score of rapidity
and etliciency the method is said to be greatly superior to
any processes involving the use of either oxygen, or
electricity, alone. — 11. T. P.
The author is therefore of opinion that it is to these
three last compositions that practical people who desire to
preserve their potatoes from the fundus, should turn.
— D. E. J.
( C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
Researches on tlie Adherence to the Leaves of Plants,
especially of the Potato, of Copper Compounds intended
to cure their Diseases. A. Girard. Compt. rend. 114,
1892,234—236.
Owing to the increase of the ordinary disease of potatoes,
due to the heavy rains in July and August of 1890, the
author was of opinion that it might be interesting to
endeavour to find out whether the various copper compounds
proposed for destroying the parasitic ailments of plants
possessed any power of adhering to the leaves, and what
consequent reliance might be placed upon them.
To determine this he carried out experiments last year,
which consisted in submitting the plants to the action of
artificial rains of calculated intensity and duration, having
previously treated them with different copper compounds,
and determining by chemical analysis the quantity of copper
adhering to the leaves both before and after the washings by
these rains. Three types of rain were adopted : ( 1) a violent
storm rain, corresponding to a fall of 17 mm. of waterin
22 minutes ; (2) a steady downpour, giving a fall of 15 mm.
in six hours ; and (3) a gentle rain giving a fall of 10 mm.
in 24 hours. The watering apparatus consisted essentially of
an inverted flattish cone revolved at the rate of eight times
per minute by a hydraulic motor, from which the water can
issue uniformly in drops, from the lower surface. The
author's conclusions are: —
1. That the proposed copper compounds have very
different powers of adherence to the leaves of plants.
2. That it is under the action of violent rains and
mechanical disturbance that the copper deposited disappears.
3. That, among these compositions, that which gives way
the most is the copper-lime wash ; that a diminution in the
proportion of lime slightly increases the solidity, and that
the addition of aluminous compounds is of no practical use.
4. That the copper-soda anil the verdigris washes adhere
nearly twice as well as the copper-lime wash, and that, best
of all, is the copper-lime-sugar wash of M. Michel l'erret.
'/'he Influence of some Metallic Salts on Lactic Fermenta-
tion. C. Kichet. Compt. rend. 114, 1S'J2, 1494—1496.
Prom the study of the influence of metallic salts on lactic
fermentation the author has determined that although very
small quantities of certain metallic salts retard or wholly
prevent the development of the ferment, still smaller
quantities even act as accelerators of the fermentative
action. The ferment appeared indifferent to salts of copper
and mercury in quantities inferior to 0-00025 grin, per litre,
in doses of 0-0005 grm. per litre these salts possessed an
accelerative action, and in quantities of 0-0U1 grm. per litre
their antiseptic properties first became evident. The
fermenting liquor consisted of milk from which the casein
had been precipitated by warming with acetic acid, and the
filtrate then neutralised with bicarbonate of potash. The
respective quantities of the different salts were subsequently
added to the solutiou, the liquids sterilised in Pasteur's flask,
inoculated with the lactic ferment, and kept at a temperature
of 40° C. At the end of a definite period the free lactic
aeid was titrated with an alkaline solutiou, with phenol-
phthalein as indicator. The toxic action of the metallic
poison does not appear to affect the chemical activity of the
ferment, but rather its powers of multiplication. The bio-
logical relations as regards the toxicity of metals do not follow
chemical laws, as certain metals which are chemically very
similar have a very different toxicity, and it is especially
noteworthy that the rarer metals, to which the ferment is
probably not so well accustomed, appear more toxic than
the common metals. The prohibitive dose of zinc is 1 grm.
per litre, whilst 0-15 grm. per litre of cadmium sulphate
completely prevents fermentation. Ferric and manganese
salts are also less toxic than cobalt and nickel salts.
— F. W. P.
The Antiseptic Properties of Formic Aldehi/de.
A. Trillat. Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 1278.
See under XX., page 772.
PATENTS.
New or Improved Compounds to be used for Disinfecting,
Deodorising, Gennicide, Sanitary, Manuring, and like
Purposes. T. McMurray, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 13,139,
August 4, 1891.
The disinfectant in question forms a moist, granular mass,
obtained by grinding together blast-furnace slag (previously
reduced to powder by running it whilst fused into water),
lime, or limestone, and some form of carbon, with a suffi-
ciency of a solution of sulphuric, boracic, or other acid. It
is em ploy od by scattering it over the floors of stables,
urinals, &c, and over dung heaps, &c. The free acid in
the preparation absorbs and fixes the ammonia given
off by excreta, &c, and increases their manorial value.
The inventor also employs blast-furnace slag and lime,
either separately or together, mixed with the acids as a
disinfecting whitewash for the walls of stables, fee. — H.T. P.
An Improvement in the Preparation of a Compound for the
Destruction of Blackbeetles, Coc/iroaches, and other
Insects. E. Decesari, London. Eng. Pat, 8602, May C,
1892.
The above compound consists of the following ingredients: —
i lb. lump borax, dissolved in 2 pints of water, 1 lb. of
size, i lb. of honey, 10 grms. of "mercuric chloride,"
and 12 lb. of borax powder. For use hot water is added,
and the mixture applied to the places frequented by tho
above insects. — H. T. P.
Sept. an, ma.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
771
XIX.-PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Wife's Oxycellulose. A. Xaeutukov. .1. Russ. Chem. Soc.
24, 1892,2.56—27.'..
Tiik author prepares an oxycellulose by the action of a
dilute solution of caustic lime upon the filter paper of
" Schleicher and Schiill." Analysis has shewn the formula
of this oxycelhilose is C6H,„lSTr,. — P. D.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Building Boards,
Paper Barrels or Cylinders, and simitar Hollow
or other Articles from Paper Pulp. ('. Weygang,
Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 12,290, July 20, 1891.
The various improvements detailed in the specification
have for their object the production from paper pulp of
articles of a harder and more impermeable nature than
heretofore, and which are also waterproof and grease-proof.
Several of the processes involved are already covered 1>\
Patents Nos. 790-4, 1886: 12,159, 1886; 12,190, 1888";
3004. 1890; and 14,753, 1890.
.Many modifications of the processes and mixtures
employed are detailed, but the following may serve as
an illustration : — About 80 per cent, of glutinous matter,
prepared by treating peat or horse-manure with an alkali,
is mixed with about 20 per cent, fibrous paper pulp, adding
also about 10 per cent, (of the total weight) of resin size.
Towards the end of the mixing about 10 per cent, of
aluminium sulphate and 3 per cent, farinaceous matter
are also added, when the mixture is ready to be moulded
into boards, casks, &c.
The mixture may be made more water-resisting by adding
a chromium salt or may be coloured by incorporating
suitable pigments with the pulp. Grease-proof properties
are obtained by addition of animal glue, &c. — W. M. G.
Improvements in the Treatment and Utilisation of Esparto
Liquor and other similar Waste Liepwrs and By-
Products. W. H. Higgin, Bolton. Eng. Pat. 13,409,
August 8, 1891.
The object of the invention is the recovery of the alkali,
partly as such and partly as acetate of sodium.
After evaporating to dryness the residual mass is
calcined at a carefully regulated heat, which should vary
somewhat according to the character of the liquors. For
esparto liquor residue a temperature of about 400° C. should
be used. This results in the production of a porous, easily
pulverised, coke-like " char " containirg about 15 per cent,
anhydrous acetate of sodium.
A low temperature is to be avoided because the acetate
is impure and a less yield is obtained, while a too high
degree of heat decomposes the acetate.
After dissolving out the acetate the black insoluble
residue is burnt, leaving as a white ash much of the alkali
originally employed. —W. M. G.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Preparation of Carvacral. M. A. Keychler. Bull. Soc.
Chem. 7, 1892, 31—34.
Cakvol hydrochloride when heated with about one-fifteenth
of its weight of zinc chloride and a little glacial acetic acid
is readily and completely decomposed into carvacrol and
hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid begins to be
evolved at 9.5 C. and is all given off at 110' — 120° ('., the
whole decomposition being effected in about 20 minutes
and without the least explosive violence. The carvacrol
obtained is best purified by dissolving it in caustic soda.
Numerous other substances can he substituted for the zinc
chloride, such as sulphuric, phosphoric, or hydrochloric
arid, zinc dust, or finely granulated tin. Carvacrol in
alcoholic solution is coloured green by ferric chloride, only
after the addition of water to the mixture. — C. A. K.
Some Derivatives of Carraerol. M. A. Reychlcr. Bull.
Soc. Chem. 7, 1892, 34—36.
Thymoquinone is readily obtained from carvacrol by
oxidalion with a mixture of sulphuric acid aud potassium
bichromate, allowing two-thirds of a molecular weight of
bichromate per molecular weight of the phenol. It is best
to warm the carvacrol first with sulphuric acid and separate
the para-sulphouic acid formed and then to oxidise this
anil distil the resulting quinone over by steam. The yield
is 68 — 70 per cent, on the carvacrol taken.
Dimethyl-thymo-hydroquinone is obtained by the action
of methyliodide and methyl alcohol on thymohydroquinone
in presence of sodium at 100' C. in sealed tubes. It boils
at 248'— 250° C. aud has a sp. gr. 0-998 at 22° C. It is
of interest since it occurs in essence of arnica, together
with phlorol isobutyrate.— C. A. h".
Digitalin. H. Kiliani. Archiv. de Pharm. 230, 1892, 250.
Schmtedeberg has shown that the leaves and seeds of
Digitalis purpurea contain a preponderating amount of
an inactive glucoside digitonin together with other sub-
stances which act upon the heart — crystallisable digitoxin
and two amorphous glucosides digitalin and digitalein.
The last two are of greatest therapeutic importance, and the
author has succeeded in preparing them in a state of purity.
He finds the commercial digitalin generally contains two
amorphous glucosides in addition to the above substances
and that Schmiedeberg's digitalein is also a mixture. On
the other hand the digitalin previously described is a
distinctly individual substance possessing in a marked
degree the power of acting upon the heart. It forms a
white amorphous powder which melts and becomes yellow at
about 217° C. It dissolves in about 1,000 parts of water
and in 100 parts of 50 per cent, alcohol. When dissolved
in a little 80 or 90 per cent, hot alcohol, a thick magma of
structureless granules separate on coo*ing. The unifomity
of this deposit is a characteristic test of the purity of the
substance. The impurities of digitalin may be detected by
the following tests : — (1.) A few granules when mixed with
about 2 cc. of a caustic potash solution (1 : 10) should
retain their whiteness for at least one minute ; the presence
of the amorphous glucosides is shown by the rapid
appearance of an intense yellow colouration. (2.) When
digitalin is made into a thick paste with water and a mixture
of 22 parts of amy 1 alcohol to 100 parts of water is added
and the whole allowed to stand in a closed flask for 24 hours
distant crystalline warts appear if digitonin he present even
in very minute proportion. Digitalin is almost insoluble in
chloroform or in ether ; it is precipitated from the alcoholic
solution in a granular form on the addition of ether. Con-
trary to previous statements the taste of digitalin it hut
slightly bitter, the previously described intensely bitter and
disagreeable taste being due to the presence of the accom-
panying glucosides. Digitalin dissolves in concentrated
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid with a golden-yellow colour
which rapidly changes to blood-red in the latter case. On
the addition of a drop of nitric acid, ferric chloride, or
bromine water to the yellow solution an evanescent brilliant
purple colouration results. Digitalin is decomposed by
hydrochloric acid into a crystalline body digitaligenine,
melting at 210° — 212' C, glucose, and a sugar resembling
rhamnose, and having the formula C7H1505. Analyses of
digitalin point to the formula (C5HsO.;)„. A resume of
physiological experiments with digitalin, which is now made
for medicinal purposes under the name of " digitalin
verum," is given. These point essentially to its action being
unaccompanied by any injurious secondary effects, the latter
being most probably due to the presence of admixed
glucosides. — C. A. K.
772
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 90, issa.
On Methylsaccharine (Tohiic Sulphinide). O. Weber.
Ber. 25, 1892, 1737— 17 1."..
Thrke year? ago a method was patented by the Badische
Anilin und Soda Fabrik (Ger. Pat. 48,583) for the
production of a homologue of Fahlberg's saccharine. The
proci ss consists in converting p-tolaidine-m-sulphonic acid
into the corresponding cyanotolueue su'.phonic acid by the
diazo-reaction ; the last - mentioned compound is then
converted into the sulphonamide, whence by hydrolysis, the
acid —
C6H3(CH3)<SO.:XH.,)(COOH)
is obtained, and this on heating yields methylsaccharine —
C6H3(CH3)
S
/S°-\
NH
The author finds that methylsaccharine resembles sac-
charine in taste, is very slightly soluble in cold water,
but readily so in hot water ; it dissolves easily in alkalis,
alcohol, benzene, ether, and glacial acetic acid, sublimes
well, and melts at 246°, as stated in the specification. A
series of derivatives furnished by interactions of purely
scientific interest are described in the remaining portion
of the paper; among these may be mentioned that
when methylsaccharine is dissolved in water (3 parts)
and heated at 80 on the water-bath together with a
7 per cent, solution of potassium hypochlorite (10 parts),
it gives p-toluidine-m-salphbnic acid ; whilst when com-
mercial saccharine is similarly treated, a mixture of 1 : 2
anilinesulphonic acid, p-sulphamidobenzoic acid, p-chloro-
benzoic acid, and />-sulpbobenzoic acid is obtained, thus
proving that it is not a homogeneous compound. — A. K. L.
Action of Pyridine Bases on Certain Sulphites.
G. Deniges. ' C'ompt. rend. 114, 1892, 1018-1020.
The author has already described the action of aromatic
amines on metallic sulphites. In the present note he
describes the action of pyridine bases on the same sulphites.
Sulphite of Zinc-pyridine, S03Zn, C5H5X.— 30 grms. of
crystallised zinc sulphate are dissolved in 700 cc. of water ;
25 cc. of pyridine and 60 cc. of a solution of sodium
bisulphite (density 1-38) are added. A white precipitate
is immediately formed, which when washed and dried is
found to have the composition indicated by the formula
SO:iZn, C5H5X. It crystallise- in quadratic needles which
have a negative optical sign.
The other pyridine bases act in a different manner on the
mixture of sodium bisulphite and zinc sulphate. Crystals
of pure zinc sulphite are produced having the formula
(S03Zn)3+5H20.
If any soluble salt of manganese is used instead of zinc
sulphate, crystals of sulphite of manganese, S03Mu + 3 H.,( )
are produced.
Sulphite of Cadmium-puridiue. S03C'd, C5HAX. — With
cadmium there is produced a salt having the composition
S03C'd, C5H5N. If less than the indicated quantity of
pyridine is used there is formed by the action of cold, a
precipitate which left to itself becomes crystalline and
answers to the formula (S( l3< id U + 3 H;0.
The sulphite of zinc-pyridine is much more stable than
the corresponding cadmium compound. When the other
pyridine bases are mixed even in excess with sulphite of
cadmium, no combination takes place. — 1). E. J.
A Soluble Naphlhol Antiseptic. M. Stackler. Compt.
rend. 114, 18»2, 1027—1028.
This communication presented by M. Srhutzenberger refers
to the calcium salt of a-monosulphonate of j3-naphthol
C10H6SO3H(a)( 111(1'). It was preparedly M. Bang, in view
of various experiments by the author on antiseptic- M.
Bang indicates two conditions as necessary for obtaining a
pure product : — 1st the previous formation and use of
absolutely pure /9-naphthol, and 2nd, the perfect isolation of
the a- from the $- modification of the sulphonate.
This substance has been studied as an antiseptic, under
the name " Asaprol " by Dr. Dujardin Beaumetz in hospital
practice.
It is neutral, very soluble in water and alcohol, unaltered
by heat, non-irritant, uninjurious to the digestive organs, of
little toxic power, and passing off easily in the urine. In
the case of a rabbit, the fatal dose by hypodermic injection
after some hours was 50 centigrms.
In conjunction with Dubief, the author studied the
action of this antiseptic in connection with the culture of
certain micro-organisms. The results were briefly these : — ■
In 5 centigrms. of broth, the culture is retarded by
10 centigrms. of the product, for Asiatic cholera, herpes
tonsurans and the bacillus of typhoid. It is arrested by
an addition of 15 centigrms. for Asiatic cholera, herpes
tonsurans, the bacillus of typhoid, the " Streptococcus
aureus, the charcoal bacterium, and retarded in the case of
the pyocyanic bacillus. By 30 centigrms. it is arrested in
the case of all the foregoing microbes.
For man, the product acts as a medicament in doses of
1 to 4 grms. It is useful in the different forms of
rheumatism, and also acts as a febrifuge in tvphoid fever.
— W. S.
The Antiseptic Properties of Formic Aldehyde. A. Trillat.
Compt. rend. 114, 1*92, 1278— 1281.
In 1888 the author remarked that the addition of formic
aldehyde to urine retarded its putreseence, and in con-
sequence of this observation discovered the remarkable
antiseptic properties of the aldehyde, which are said to be
superior to those of corrosive sublimate. A series of ex-
periments showed that broth to which 1„'0l,th part of formic
aldehyde had been added remained sterile for several weeks,
whereas decomposition commenced after five or six days
when lio'uoth of corrosive sublimate had been added. The
germicidal action of formic aldehyde is most evident with
the anthrax bacillus, and the bacilli of the saliva and sewage.
Dr. Berlioz has also determined that cultivations of the
cholera bacillus are rendered sterile by a 0-003 percent,
solution of formic aldehyde. The urine of guinea-pigs into
which 0'5 grm. per kilo, of the aldehyde has been injeeted
does not putrefy. Its antiseptic character in very dilute
solution suggests its applicability to the preservation of milk
and other articles of food. The extractive and natural
colouring matters of wine are precipitated in a few hours by
a 0*025 per cent, solution, on which the author bases a
method for the examination of wines. Formic aldehyde
coagulates albumen, forming a transparent gelatinous mass,
and also blood. It also forms a compound with fresh hides
analogous to leather. A more delicate reagent for formic
aldehyde than the reduction of ammoniacal nitrate of silver
is an aqueous solution of aniline, with which it forms a white
precipitate, CH„ : NC6H5, a reaction also common to acetic
aldehyde.— F. \V. P.
The Determination of the Total Alkaloids in Cinchona
Bark. W. Haubensack. Pharm. Centralhalle, 32, 1892,
294.
See under XXIII., page 779.
Impurities of Chloroform. Brit. Assoc. Edinburgh, 1892.
1 ' i . . . i essob W. Ramsay, of University College, London, has
found that the only impurity in a number of samples of
chloroform received from hospitals where deaths had
occurred was carbonyl chloride. It was impossible to look
for an unknown impurity in a number of small samples of
chloroform, and therefore he had exposed a large quantity
of perfectly pure chloroform to daylight in presence of air.
After some months a considerable quantity of carbonyl
chloride was formed, no other product (except a trace of
hydrochloric acid) having been detected. It was possible
Sept. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
?73
t o test for earbonyl chloride by pouring baryta on the
Burfi of a suspected sample, when a white filament would
appeal at the line of division between the chloroform and
the watery solution. Most of the samples received by him
gave this test, and it was a significant fact that most of the
samples were the products of large consignments to the
hospitals. He was inclined to believe that the cause of
death was the spasmodic contraction of the glottis produced
by the earbonyl chloride after the lungs had beer thoroughly
charged with chloroform. This paper was discussed by
I >i\ W. W. J. Nieol, Dr. Arthur Richardson, Mr. Vernon
Hareourt, and others.
PATENTS.
A New Self-acting Apparatus for the Automatic Produc-
tion of Oxygen. F. Fanta, London. Eng. Pat. 10,667,
June 23, 1891.
The specification contains full details of the apparatus em-
ployed by the patentee in the manufacture of oxygen from
atmospheric air according to the process previously patented
(Eng. Pat. 3034, February 19, 1891; this Journal, 1891,
854), and is accompanied by numerous diagrams of the
plant.— C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Piperazine or
Spermine. W. Majert, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 1 1,957, July 14,
1891.
I'm piperazine derivatives used in the preparation of
piperazine according to the patentee's previous specification
(Eng. Pat. 15,404, September 29, 1890; this Journal, 1891,
791) may be substituted by the di-, tri-, and tetra-sulpbonie
acids of diphenyl or of ditolylpiperazine. These sulphonic
acids are obtained by the action of fuming sulphuric acid on
diphenyl- or ditolyl-piperazine or their salts, and are decom-
posed, after being converted into the alkaline salts, by means
of alkali or by the oxides of the alkaline earths. The freed
piperazine is distilled over with steam, and then further
treated as described in the previous specification. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Oxygen. G. Webb
and G. H. Rayner, London. Eng. Pat. 13,036, July 31,
1 Mi 1 .
The improvements relate to the manufacture of oxygeu
from the atmosphere according to Tessie de Motay's method,
and is concerned essentially with the preparation of the
material used to absorb the oxygen. This is obtained by
dissolving caustic soda in water at 100° C. and adding to the
solution manganese peroxide and sodium manganate in
stated proportions. The whole, after being well stirred, is
evaporated to dryness and heated to a bright red or white
heat. After the heating the mass is broken up into small
pieces about the size of a walnut, and these pieces which
are slightly adhesive rolled in powdered peroxide of man-
ganese. This last operation is of great importance, since the
pieces are thereby prevented from coalescing and caking
when strongly heated. The material is placed in retorts
having each two inlet and outlet tubes, and dry air freed
from carbon dioxide is passed into it, the retorts being kept
at a dull red or crimson heat. The oxidised material is
subsequently decomposed by steam and the liberated oxygen
collected, any of the ordinary forms of apparatus being used
for this purpose. — C. A. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Mush.
A. Baur, Mulhouse, Alsace. Eng. Pat. 13,613, August
12, 1891.
The phenol ethers of methyl-propyl, methyl-butyl, and
methyl-amyl phenol yield trinitro-compounds having a
musk-like smell (this Journal, 1890, 545, and 1891,
1024 ). The nitro-derivatives of the ortho- and para-phenol
ethers have no marked smell, but the meta-derivatives in
general have. These last are prepared by the action of
aluminium chloride on the meta-substituted phenol ethers,
such as meta-cresol, and the chloride or iodide of the
hydrocarbon, such as tertiary butyl chloride, the resulting
ether being nitrated in the usual way. The trinitro-
derivatives of the propyl eresol, butyl cresol, and amyl
cresol ethers have been thus prepared. Instead of the
above process the phenols themselves can first be prepared
and converted into the ethers after nitrating, or the phenol
ethers may be treated with propylene, butylene, or aniylene,
in presence of aluminium chloride, and subsequently
nitrated. — C. A. K.
Erratum.
Page 707, col. 1, middle of col., insert the word "of"
before " mildew and similar growths."
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES. MATCHES, Etc.
The Determination of Nitrogen in Nitrocellulose. G.
Lunge. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 261—262.
See under XXIII., page 778.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Explosives, H. de Mosenthal, A. G.
Salamon, and J. J. Hood, London. Eng. Pat. 13,038,
July 31, 1891.
This invention consists in the use of thoroughly washed and
dried Weldon mud. This compound will absorb from 2i
to 3 times its weight of nitroglycerin, and may be used in
the manufacture of dynamite with or without the admixture
of kieselguhr, its available oxygen tending to augment the
energy of the explosive.
In the preparation of explosives containing sulphur, this
manganese compound when charged with sulphuretted
hydrogen and subsequently exposed to the action of air or
oxygen so as to precipitate free sulphur in a finely-
disseminated condition in the Weldon mud, may be
employed as an oxygen-bearing substitute for sulphur or
its compounds. — W. Si.
Improvements relating to the Extraction of Nitroglycerin
from the Waste Acid Formed in the Manufacture of
Nitroglycerin. J. Lawrence, Paulsboro', New Jersey,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 7981, April 27, 1892.
The inventor states that hitherto the waste acids have only
been treated for the recovery of acids. He has discovered
that by cooling the waste acids to a temperature lower than
the freezing point of nitroglycerin and higher than that of
the acids (about 40° F.), a reaction takes place between
the residual, unacted on glycerin and the nitric acid, a
certain amount of nitroglycerin being thereby produced.
The refrigeration has to be continued for three to four
days with occasional agitation. Sulphuric acid may be
added to the waste acids with good effect. By this process
the ultimate yield of nitroglycerin from a given weight of
glycerin may be increased from 6 to 9 per cent. — W. M,
774
THE JOUHNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 3D, 1S92.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTEY=
APPA PA rus.
On Hit Optical Measurement of High Temperatures.
II. I.e Chatelier. Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 214—216.
The author has previously shown how high temperatures
ni:i v he easily and exactly measured by means of thermo-
couples. This method is rapidly spreading in laboratories
and has even done good service in factories, although
delicate galvanometers are unsuitable apparatus for
workmen.
At the high temperatures, however, now attained in
metallurgical operations all bodies rapidly disintegrate, and
it becomes necessary to make use of the differences in the
radiations emitted at different temperatures. It is only
necessary to assist the eye by the use of apparatus
sufficiently precise and at the same time simple.
The author's method is to compare the radiations emitted
with those of the flame of a small petroleum lamp, itself
standardised by comparison with a standard amyl-acetate
lamp. A red glass placed in front of the eye-piece ensures
the practically monochromatic radiations necessary for exact
photometric observations. The most appropriate photo-
meter for the purpose is that of M. Cornu, modified so as to
render it more manageable. The method is very sensitive,
the intensity of the luminosity varying from 1 to 1,000,000
as the temperature varies from 000° to 1,800°, a graduation
quite impracticable with thermo-electrical pyrometers.
Working under these conditions, the author has found
the following values for the intensity of the most luminous
regions of the given sources, expressed in terms of the
corresponding intensity of the standard lamp.
Amyl-acetate. Candle. CaroelLamp. Melting Platinum.
The principal difficulty met with is owing to the fact that
the radiations emitted by the incandescent body do not
depend only upon the temperature, but also upon the
chemical nature, the physical state of the surface, and upon
the temperature of the surrounding space. In the particular
case where the temperature of the body is the same as that
of the surrounding space, a condition practically obtaining
in a reverberatory furnace, the brightness depends upon the
temperature only, and in the case of black bodies the
radiation is independent of the temperature of the surround-
ing space. Magnetic oxide of iron (formed on the surface
of iron heated in air), and carbon fulfil this latter condition.
A special graduation is necessary for all other bodies.
The author has made this graduation for a certain
number of bodies heated in the flame of mixed air and gas.
The results are expressed in terms of the intensity of the
flame of amyl acetate. The scale of temperatures has been
determined by taking as fixed points: —
Sulphur.
Gold.
Palladium.
Platinum.
448
1,043 1,600
1.77.-,
It should be remarked that the ratio between the
emissive power of magnetic oxide and that of platinum
varies slightly with the temperature '■ —
Temperature.
magnetic Oxide.
Platinum.
600
11-001103
11-00001
son
0'003
0-001-23
1 1
II "US
0-03
1,200
0-65
0-26
1,400
3-40
1-41
1,600
12-G
502
1,800
30-00
171)11
The following bodies have, between 1,000° and 1,500°, for
the red radiations adopted, the following approximate
emissive powers: —
Magnetic
Oxide of Iron,
and Carbon.
-r„„_i. Polished
Palladium. pS?£„ Platinumand
j Hatmum- Kaolin.
Magnesia.
1
0-5
(V4 0-25
O'lO
The value obtained for magnesia is very uncertain, owing
to the inevitable roughness of the body.
The graduation given for magnetic oxide, of which the
emissive power is unity, is applicable to all bodies heated
in a region of uniform temperature.— D. E. J.
The Measurement of High Temperatures. H. Le Chatelier.
Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 340—343.
A reply to H. Beequerel's claim for priority on behalf of
his father, E. Bccquerel (this Journal. 1892, 709).
— H. T. P.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
A Sensitive Reagent for Carbon Monoxide. J. Haber-
mann. Zeits. aug. Chem. 1892, 324 — 325.
When carbon monoxide or air containing it is passed through
a solution of ammonio-nitrate of silver, a brown colouration
is produced more or less rapidly, and in presence of appre-
ciable quantities of carbon monoxide a black flocculent
precipitate of metallic silver soon separates. Air contain-
ing only 0'1 per cent, of CO by volume still produces a
distinct colouration, whilst air alone has no effect on the
solution. The reagent is perfectly stable and is prepared
by adding ammonia to a solution of silver nitrate until the
precipitate at first formed is almost redissolvcd, and then
filtering.— H. T. P.
Micrographic Analysis of Alloys. G. Guillemia. Compt.
rend. 115, 1892,232—234.
The researches of Messrs. Osmond and Werth (Compt.
rend. 100, 1885, 450; this Journal, 1885, 406) induced
the author to undertake similar investigations on non-
ferruginous alloys. The polished surfaces are attacked
by dilute acids while under the influence of a feeble
electric current ("2 volts and J^th ampere). The corroded
surfaces were examined microscopically. The imaces
obtained are always the same for the same alloy, and they
are preserved bj- photography. The corroded surfaces
consist of furrows more or less twisted, separated by ridges,
which represent material spared by the acid.
Doubtless at the moment of solidification the fluid metal
had separated into many simple alloys of definite composi-
tion which are unequally attacked by acids as shown by
M. Riche (Ann. deChim. ct de Phys. 30, 187:!).
Sept. so, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
775
By microscopic examination of the corroded surfaces they
may at once be referred to a small number of classes.
Thus, among bronzes and brasses we can distinguish those
with a base of tin, the phosphor-bronzes, brasses containing
less than 37 per cent, of zinc, Muutz metal and analogous
alloys containing over 37 per cent, of zinc, aluminium
bronzes, aluminium brass, delta metal, Roman brass, &c.
In white alloys with a base of tin, antimony, and copper
known as antifriction alloys, the presence of lead can
easily be recognised, and even with practice something near
the proportions. In examining ingots of red copper from
the same fusion, hut of different pourings, those which are
properly retined can be distinguished, whilst others in which
the refining is not complete can be classed according to
the degree uf advancement. It is known that the mechanical
qualities of brasses and bronzes are much modified by the
addition of very small quantities of aluminium or of phos-
phorus. The presence of these bodies is at once recognised
since the furrows have the forms of veins of marble, or of
conglomerate when aluminium is present, whilst phos-
phorus produces, in bronze containing tin, a characteristic
image resembling a fern-leaf which is seen more clearly
near the outer margin than in the centre, and which no
doubt indicates differences of composition due to different
periods of cooling as shown by M. Riche (loc. cit.)
The presence of 4 per cent, of zinc in a bronze masks the
micrographic action of phosphorus. Further, for a given
alloy the " microgrammes " indicate not only the circum-
stances of casting, but also the nature of the operations to
which it has been subsequently exposed ; whether it has
been poured too hot or too cold ; if it has been stamped or
rolled ; and if rolled, in which direction the power has been
applied. — J. H. C.
Changes in Chalybeate Waters during Storage. J. Itiban.
See under XVIII., page 708.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Von Schull anil Low's Method of Estimating Lead in
Ores. J. E. Williams. Eng. and Min. J. 53, 641.
It is claimed that this method is superior to the fire assay.
It consists essentially in formiug lead sulphate, dissolving
out with ammonium chloride solution, and precipitating the
lead by means of sheet aluminium. The details are as
follows :-
One gramme of ore is treated with 10 cc. pure strong nitric
acid and 10 cc. pure strong sulphuric acid, and heated until
all nitric acid is expelled and the sulphuric acid is boiling
freely. The liquid is then allowed to cool and 10 cc. of
dilute (1 in 10) sulphuric acid free from chlorine added.
Next are added 2 gnus, of ltochelle salt, and when that is
dissolved 40 cc. of water free from chlorine. The solution
is heated to boiling and allowed to stand and settle for two
minutes, filtered and washed with dilute sulphuric acid.
The PbSG4 is then dissolved out of the insoluble residue by
means of a saturated boiling solution of NH^Cl, keeping
the volume as small as possible, and the lead is precipitated
by placing in the solution three strips of aluminium, each
about If in. x | in. x -J^ in. thick. The whole is boiled
for five minutes, then diluted with cold water, poured into
a basin, and the lead collected, dried and weighed. It is
practically free from Ag, Au, Cu, Sb, Bi, &c. The
aluminium used must be purer than the commercial article,
which contains too much silicon.
Von Schulz and Low state that this assay is applicable
to all ores, mattes, &c, which can be decomposed by nitric
or sulphuric acid. If silver be insignificant in amount the
reagents need not be perfectly free from chlorine. If
antimony be absent, only 5 cc. of sulphuric acid, no Uochelle
salt, and only half the dilution are required. The time is
the same as for copper and zinc, and the cost less than
for the fire assay, 1 lb. of aluminium sufficing for hundreds
of assays. One, two, or three assays may be made in the
same time as a similar number of fire assays, but as the
" humid " scheme requires much more manipulation, in
making a large number the advantage would rest with the
fire method. Assays by this humid method can be done in
less than 40 minutes. The results have a tendency through
oxidation of the lead to be slightly above the correct
amount. If oxidation becomes visible, the assay should be
rejected. The results are generally 3 per cent, higher than
those by fire assay, and it is suggested that this amount
should be deducted to meet the objections of the smelters
who will not buy on the basis of any wet assay. The
method is very valuable for assaying a matte or a speiss, and
antimony, arsenic, &c, do not interfere with its accuracy.
— A. W.
77ie Separation and Estimation of Lead, Silver, and
Zinc hi Minerals composed of Catena and Blende.
E. Aubin. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7- 8, 1892, 134—135.
The author recommends the following method as being
rapid and easy of execution, and therefore suitable for
prospecting work. 10 grms. of the powdered mineral are
boiled in a conical beaker of 1 litre capacity with 50 cc.
of fuming nitric acid and evaporated to dryness on a sand-
bath. The residue is warmed with 20 cc. of nitric acid
(36° B.), and when all the iron is dissolved, diluted to
400 cc. with distilled water and allowed to stand until the
sulphate of lead has settled. The liquid and sediment are
then transferred to a pair of balanced filter-papers placed
one within the other, the sediment is thoroughly washed,
dried, and weighed. This insoluble portion, consisting of
gangue and sulphate of lead, is removed from the filter-
paper and triturated in a mortar with a warm alkaline
solution of sodium tartrate (20 per cent.) until all the
sulphate of lead is dissolved, as shown by the disappearance
of white specks. The residual gangue is retransferred to
the original filter-papers, washed, dried, and weighed. The
difference between the first and second weights gives that
of the lead sulphate, and thence the percentage of lead in
the sample.
The nitric acid solution containing the Line and silver is
diluted to 500 cc. and 50 cc. taken for the estimation of
zinc in the ordinary way, i.e., by precipitation as sulphide,
after previous removal of the iron and aluminium, re-solution
in hydrochloric acid, and ieprecipitation as carbonate. The
remaining 450 cc. are rapidly concentrated to 20 — 30 cc.
and cooled. Any crystalline deposit is then decanted off,
one grin, of sodium chloride is added to the liquid, and
finally the precipitated silver chloride is collected on a
tared filter-paper and weighed. — H. T. P.
Note on the Estimation of Potash. P. Jean and Tiillat.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 7, 1892, 228.
Fort the rapid estimation of potash in manures the authors
proceed as follows; — Au aqueous extract of the manure is
boiled with soda in order to expel ammonia, filtered if
necessary, and evaporated to a syrupy condition with
excess of platinic chloride. The residue is washed with
alcohol and ether in the usual way, the remaining potassium
platinic chloride dissolved in boiling water and treated
with an alkaline solution of sodium formate. The platinum
black which separates is washed with very dilute acid,
collected, and weighed. From its weight the corresponding
amount of potash is deduced. Formaldehyde may be
employed as reducing agent instead of sodium formate, as
it keeps much better and is more energetic, besides which
there is no tendency for the precipitated platinum to adhere
to the sides of the beaker. — H. T. P.
The Influence of Nitrogen Tctro.vide on the Specific
Gravity of Nitric Acid. G. Lunge, and L. Marchlewski.
Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 330—331.
This research was undertaken with the object of avoiding
the direct estimation of total acid, which is very trouble-
some, especially in the case of fuming nitric acid. It was
thought that the percentage of true IINO^ present in a
77G
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. LSept. so, 1892.
sample might be deduced from its specific gravity, a
correction being first applied to allow for the influence
of dissolved N.,04, the latter being estimated separately by
potassium permanganate. It appears, however, that results
thus obtained are not at all reliable, chiefly owing to the
very varying influence exerted by X.,04, HNO.,, &c. on the
density of nitric acid of different strengths. The estimation
of total acid, therefore, remains indispensable ; and the
authors recommend that the portion of acid taken for
analysis be weighed in a tap-pipette and that methyl-orange
be employed as an indicator. The bleaching of the indicator
(by IIN'O.,, &e.) may be avoided either by adding it only
near the end of the titration, or by adding excess of alkali
and titrating back with normal acid. Neutrality is attained
when all the nitrous acid is exactly converted into nitrite.
Some results are given in the table.
X.o,,,,-,-
Cent.
i spondiug
Amount
of ll.Vii.
Total Acid
per Cent.
HN03 alone.
Specific Gravity
Of Sample in
vacuo at '
1°
Ipecific
Gravity due to
HNo, alone.
Total Difference Difference for
between the 1 per ( lent.
Specific Gravities. .V.' >.
Gkiesheim Acids.
0'71
rr'.iT
94-69
93-72
1-5031
1-4992
0-0(139
0-0 1550
2" HI
3-2:i
98-26
9* '97
1-6180
1-5018
0-0102
0- 176
5'50
7'. -.3
96-53
89-011
1-5255
I" 1884
0-0371
0-00674
12-32
16-87
103-93
87-06
1-5694
1 ■ 1S31
0-U863
0-00700
" Green Acids": Specific Gravity of Original Acid = 1-314G6 at '. IS VACUO.
0-64
0-88
65-32
0117
1-39916
1-39676
0-00240
0-00375
1-21
1-65
65-77
61-12
1-40000
1 -39.176
0-00524
0-0(1133
2- 65
8-6.1
66'69
63*06
1-40317
1-38914
0-01403
0- 00520
1-07
5-57
67-42
61-85
1-40594
1-38294
0-0230(1
0-00564
-II. T. P.
Note on the Difference in Solubility of the Chromntes of
Strontium and Calcium in Dilute Alcohol, and the
possibility of Separating the two Earths by this Means.
W. Presenilis and F. Ruppert. Zeits. Anal. Cheru. 30,
1891, 672—680.
The ordinary calcium sulphate test for strontium is very
unsatisfactory, especially in presence of much calcium
chloride which may entirely prevent the precipitation of
strontium sulphate. In this paper a more efficient means
of detecting strontium in presence of calcium is described,
based on the slight solubility of strontium chromate, as
compared with calcium chromate in dilute spirit. The test
is best carried out as follows : — Potassium chromate is
added to a fairly dilute neutral solution of the two chlorides,
the mixture is heated to 60° — 70° C, and shaken with one-
third of its volume of absolute alcohol. In presence, even
of small quantities of strontium, a yellow precipitate of
strontium chromate is obtained, whilst under identical
conditions, pure calcium chloride solutions remain perfectly
clear or yield only after some standing, a trifling deposit,
which can readily be distinguished from the strontium
chromate precipitate. Acetic acid entirely prevents the
separation of the strontium, whilst ammoniacal salts hinder
it more or less. As regards the delicacy of the test, a
solution containing in 5 cc. 0-002 grm. SrCL and
0-013 grm. CaCl. yielded at once a distinct turbidity when
tested as above. On the other hand, a liquid containing
per 10 cc. 0-171 grm. Sr!'l . and 1-100 grms. CaCI, gave
no precipitate with calcium sulphate, even after long
standing.
Endeavours were made to apply the method quantitatively,
and the results of a number of experiments are given ; but
they are not perfectly satisfactory, the strontium being in
all cases found somewhat low, and the calcium high, chiefly
owing to the slight solubility of strontium chromate in
dilute spirit. The addition of a considerably larger quantity
of alcohol fails to precipitate all the strontium, but throws
down a large portion of the calcium chromate.
Possibly the difficulty might be overcome by applying a
correction for the solubility of the strontium chromate.
The solubilities of the two chromates in alcohol were found
to be as follows : —
50 cc. of alcohol (53 per cent, by volume) dissolve 0-044
grm. of calcium chromate, and 0-001 grm. of strontium
chromate. 50 cc. of alcohol (29 per cent, by volume)
dissolve 0-6080 grm. of calcium chromate and 0
grm. of strontium chromate. — H. T. P.
Potassium Hydrogen-tartrate as a Starting roint for
Acidimetry and Alkalimetry. A. liorntriiger. Zeits.
ang. Chem. 1892, 294—295.
Potassium hydrogen-tartrate, which can easily be prepared
in a state of purity, is' recommended for standardising
normal alkali solutions. For this purpose 3-7626 grms. of
the tartrate are equivalent to 20 cc. of normal alkali.
—A. L. S.
On the Estimation of Small Quantities of Carbon Monoxide
loi Means of Cuprous Chloride. L. de Saint .Martin.
Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 1006—1009.
The absorption of carbon monoxide by a solution of
cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid has been utilised by
F. Leblanc for the estimation of the gas. Uerthelot subse-
quently obtained a crystallised product corresponding to the
formula 3 CO, 2 CuXHo + 7 H20. This compound is destroyed
by heat, and boiling (assisted by reduction of pressure)
liberates the gas entirely. Starting from these known facts
the author has endeavoured to estimate small quantities of
carbonic oxide in gaseous mixtures by agitating a known
large volume of the mixture with the acid solution of
cuprous chloride, thus concentrating the poisonous gas, ami
afterwards extracting it by applying heat and exhaustion
with a Spreugel pump. The method was analogous to that
employed by Muntz and Aubin, for estimating carbonic
acid in the atmosphere. But whereas a very small quantity
of potash suffices to absorb all the carbonic acid from a
large volume of gas, the same is by no means true for carbonic
Sept. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
777
oxide and copper solution. This practical difficulty seemed
formidable :it the outset ; but after numerous trials the
following procedure was found to be satisfactory.
In the first place the copper solution is made by digesting
■In grins, of copper turnings and 40 grms. of copper oxide
with 4.0U grins, of hydrochloric acid in the cold. The
colourless liquid can absorb about 25 times its volume of
carbonic oxide, or 12 times its volume of oxygen. A glass
flask provided with a stop-cock and having a capacity of
1,100 cc. to 1,2110 cc. is emptied by first applying a water-
pump and afterwards a Sprengel pump, and is then filled
(bj aspirating) with the air to be analysed, i'ifty cc. of
the copper solution are introduced and vigorously shaken up.
The flask is now turned upside down and connected by
thick rubber tubing with the apparatus for extracting the
gas (which apparatus is pumped out beforehand). By
simply turning the stop-cock the reagent (which has
collected in the neck of the flask) is made to run into a
distillation flask. This operation is repeated four times,
40 cc. of the copper solution being used the first time
and 30 cc. afterwards. The gas has now to be extracted
from the reagent by boiling in vacuo in the usual way; the
apparatus used consisting of a distillation flask connected to
a Sprengel pump by a long Liebig's condenser.
The gas collected is first freed from carbonic acid by
means of potash. After measuring the residue, three times
its volume of oxygen is added, and the mixture is exploded
by an electric spark. After noting the contraction, the
carbonic acid produced is estimated by absorption in potash.
The eudiometric estimation of carbonic oxide is only accurate
when the mixture which is exploded contains between
20 and 25 per cent, of the gas. If it contains more, com-
pounds of nitrogen are formed (traces of this gas being
unavoidably present) ; if it contains less the combustion
may be incomplete. — D. E. J.
The Occurrence of Fluorine in different I unities of
Natural Phosphates. A. Carnot. Compt. rend. 114,
1892, 1003.
See under XV., page 759.
Note on the Detection of Chlorine and Bromine in
Presence of Iodine. I). 8. Macnair. Chem. News,
1892, 66, 5.
When freshly precipitated, moist silver iodide is heated
with potassium bichromate and concentrated sulphuric
acid the precipitate dissolves, silver iodate and bichromate
being formed which are partially precipitated on diluting
moderately and cooling the solution. Silver bromide and
chloride when similarly treated evolve bromine and
chlorine respectively and form silver sulphate. To carry
out the test the solution is precipitated with silver nitrate
and the resulting haloid treated as above, when a chloride
or bromide is readily detected even in presence of a very
large excess of iodide. — C. A. K.
A Method for the Quantitative Separation of Barium from
( \ilrinm lii/ the Action of Amyl Alcohol on the Nitrates.
P. E. Browning. Amer. Journ. of Science, 1892, 43,
April ; also Chem. News, 66, 3.
The method consists in converting the mixed salts of
calcium and barium into nitrates, evaporating the solution to
dryness and boiling the residue after taking it up with
the least possible amount of water, with 30 cc. of amyl
alcohol. The calcium nitrate is dissolved, whilst the
barium salt remains behind and can be filtered off on to a
perforated platinum crucible containing an asbestos lining.
The precipitate is dried at 150° C. and weighed. The
calcium in the filtrate is determined as sulphate, after
evaporating off the alcohol. The author has previously
shown (Amer. Journ. of Science, 1892, 43. 50 ; and Chem.
News, 65, 271), that strontium and calcium can be similarly
separated, a correction being made for the solubility of the
strontium nitrate in boiling amyl alcohol (0-001 grm. SrO
per 30 cc. of alcohol). Analytical data confirm the accuracy
of the method. — C. A. K.
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in Presence of Iron anil
Aluminium. S. W. Johnson and T. B. Osborne. Ann.
Keport of the Connecticut Agri. Exper. Stat. 1890, 195 —
197.
The authors find that the rapid molybdic method now
" official " in the United States, and by which the precipita-
tion is effected from hot solutions, and the digestion is
continued for one hour at 65°, gives irregular and higher
results in the presence of iron and aluminium than the old
Sonnenschein method, by which the cold solution of the
substance in sulphuric or nitric acid is mixed with large
excess of molybdic solution and kept for four to six hours
at a temperature near but below 50°. The latter procedure
ensures the precipitation of all the phosphoric acid with
ammonia as the only base, whilst in the former course
some iron oxide and alumina are precipitated with the
yellow precipitate and carried forward during the subsequent
operations into the magnesium phosphate. — D. A. L.
Pcntasulphide of Antimony. Th. Willm. J. Buss. Chem.
Soc. 24, 1892, 371—388.
See under XIII., page 758.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
Meta-dinitrobenzene. C. Willgerodt. Ber. 25, 1892,
608—609.
Caustic alkalis give a pink colouration with alcoholic
solutions of ui-diuitrobenzeue only in presence of dinitro-
thiophen ; the pink is turned to violet by warming with a
little stannous chloride.
wi-Dinitrobenzene freed from diuitrothiophen shows no
pink colouration with caustic alkalis, and no violet with
alkalis and reducing agents, but if it be dissolved in acetone
a beautiful violet is given with caustic soda or caustic
potash. As the author has previously shown (Ber. 14,
1881, 2459), a-dinitro-chlorobenzeue gives a similar reaction,
and also the ethers of a-diuitropheuol. — T. L. B.
The Chemistry of Fermentation. E. Buchner. Ber. 25,
1892, 1161—1163.
See under XVII., page 763.
Impurities of Chloroform. W. Ramsay. Brit. Assoc. 1892.
See under XX., page 772.
A Contribution to the Study of Deplastered Wines. H.
Quantin. Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 369.
See under XVII., page 764.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITATIVE.
Determination of Phosphoric Acid in Wine. M. M.
Morgenstern and Pavlinoff. J. Buss. Chem. Soc. 24,
1892, 341—346.
The authors have improved upon the citrate method of
Mercker (Landw. Vers. Stat. 37, 301), 200 cc. of the
wine to be investigated are acidified aud heated with 20 cc.
of HN03 (sp. gr. l-38), and then the liquid is neutralised
with ammonia. When the liquid has cooled down, 50 cc.
of a solution of citrate of ammonium are added, aud then,
after shaking, 25 cc. of magnesia mixture. The finally
resulting precipitate, Mg2P207, is quite white and crystalline.
778
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1892.
The Determination of Chlorine in Wine, W. Siefert.
Zeits. Anal. Chem. 31, 1892, 186.
Fob the volumetric determination of chlorine according to
Volhard's method, the wine is neutralised with sodium
carbonate, evaporated, and. the residue incinerated. The ash
is dissolved in dilute nitric acid and the solution titrated.
—A. I.. S.
Determination of the Quantity of Indigotine in Commercial
Indigo. O. Miiller. J. Buss. Chem. Soc. 24, 1892, 275—
299.
Tun author considerably improves Mohr's process, and has
tested his improvement on more than 600 samples of
Asiatic and American indigo. 0-5 grin, of indigo is treated
with 10 grins, of monohydrated sulphuric acid, and the
mixture is heated on the water-bath with stirring, for an
hour. It is then mixed with water to make up 1 litre and
left in a dark place from 6 to 12 hours. 50 cc. of the cold
solution are now titrated with permanganate of potassium
solution (1 cc = 0' 0012864 grm. of indigotine).
The reaction of oxidation of indigotine is made according
to the following : —
5 ( II; X .1 ), + 4 KMr.04 + 6 H.,S04 =
5 C16H10X2O4 = 2 K3SOj + 4 MnSQ, + 6 ID I
i.e., the proportion between indigotine and KSlnO, is
expressed numerically as 655 : 3162. — P. I).
The Action of Acetic Anhydride on Dimethylaniline.
F. Reverdin and C. de la Harpe. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7,
1892, 211—212.
In a mixture of acetic anhydride and dimethylaniline
(employed for the volumetric determination of aniline and
methylaniline) small quantities of tetramethyldiamido-
diphenylmethane are formed after long standing. In well-
stoppered bottles this decomposition is exceedingly slight,
but when exposed to air, and more especially when air is
passed through the mixture for a short time, a greenish-blue
colour is developed, and after several days' standing as
much as 10 per cent, of the dimethylaniline originally
present may be converted into the new base. — H. T. P.
The Determination of Nitrogen in Nitrocellulose.
G. Lunge. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1S92, 261—262.
The author draws attention to his nitrometer with separate
decomposition vessel (this Journal, 1S90, 547 — 549), by
means of which the trouble of cleaning the measuring tube,
and the annoyance caused by froth, &c, are avoided.
Subsequently, a form of nitrometer is described in which
either small or large volumes of gas may be measured, so
that analyses of all kinds of materials, such as chamber-
acid, nitrocellulose, manganese ore, &c, may be effected by-
its means. A cut representiLg the apparatus is given
below.
■ i
11
It consists of a measuring tube which is widened out in the
middle to a bulb of 70 cc. capacity. The portions of the
tube above and below the bulb hold 30 cc. each and are
divided into J,T cc. as usual. It is obvious that the upper
portion of the tube serves to measure small volumes, and
the lower portion large volumes of gas. — H. T. P.
The Influenci of Acetates of Lead on the Estimation
of Invert - Sugar hy Ike Fehling - Soxhlet Method.
A. Borntrager. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892, 333—335.
The author has investigated the errors introducd in the
volumetric estimation of invert-sugar by Fehliug's solution,
by the presence of vaiying amounts of acetate and basic
acetate of lead, and the results obtained are embodied in
two tables. As a general rule, the invert-sugar was found
too low, and the error increased with the amount of lead
solution employed, being already very considerable in the
presence of such a quantity of acetate or basic acetate of
lead, as would be ordinarily used for clarifying purposes.
It is necessary, therefore, to get rid of any dissolved lead
before titration, and for this purpose sodium sulphate is
recommended in preference to sodium carbonate, since the
latter salt distinctly influences the results obtained. In
conclusion, the author states that a perfectly correct solu-
tion of invert-sugar for standardising purposes may be
prepared by allowing a solution of cane-sugar to stand
overnight in the cold with -J^ of its hulk of strong hydro-
chloric acid (1 • 1S8 sp. gr. at 15" C), and finally neutralising
and diluting to a suitable volume. — H. T. P.
The Effect of the Presence of Lead Acetate on the Titra-
tion of Lactose, according to Fchling-Soxhlet. A. Born-
trager. Zeits. ang. Chem. 1S92, 293—29".
I-V the presence of lead acetate, more lactose is required to
reduce a certain volume of Fehling solution than would
otherwise be the case, so that solutions of lactose containing
lead acetate, when titrated with Fehling's solution, will
appear to contain less sugar than they do in reality.
Experiments were made to test the extent of this difference.
Fehling's solution was diluted with 4 volumes water and
boiled for 6 — 7 minutes with a 1 per cent, lactose solution.
Experiments were made with from 1 cc. down to 0-05 cc.
of a basic lead acetate of a sp. gr. 1 ■ 250.
With 1 C-. lead acetate the per cent, oflaetosc indicated was u*777
„ 0-10 „ „ „ 0'97:i
.. ""'-'"' „ „ » 0*987
No lead ac itate l'OOl
If it be necessary to employ any considerable quantity of
lead acetate to prepare the solution, it is necessary to remove
all the lead remaining in solution before titration. For this
purpose sodium sulphate may be used, as it has been found
that the presence of this salt has no influence on the reduc-
tion ; the salt must, however, he free from carbonate, as
this does affect the reduction. — A. L. S.
Precipitation of Raffinosi by Ammoniacal Lead Acetate.
T. Koyd. Oesterr. z. Zucker. 1892, 92.
A syrup containing cane-sugar and ratfinose in the propor-
tion of 9 "26 of the former to 1 of the latter, was precipitated
with lead acetate, and the filtrate precipitated with an excess
of ammonia. This washed precipitate was decomposed with
carbonic acid and yielded a syrup in which the proportions
of the two sugars were 2-01 to 1. The filtrate from the
ammonia precipitate was precipitated with lead acetate, and
this precipitate after decomposition with carbon dioxide
yielded a syrup in which the proportions of the two sugars
in the syrup were 3'47 to 1. — A. L. S.
Determination of Small Amounts of Sugar. M.Mullerand
F. Ohlmer. 1). Zucker, 1892 ; Zeits. ang. Chem. 1892,
309—310.
One method, but not one to be recommended, is to
evaporate the solution in a platinum dish and heat the
Sept. 80, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
779
residue- until the sugar is just caramelised. The blackened
mass thus obtained is compared with others obtained in the
same way from solutions containing a known quantity of
sugar.
If concentrated sulphuric acid be added to a sugar solution
ami also a few drops of an alcoholic or alkaline solution of
a-naphthol, a violet-red or light-red colouration is produced;
with a solution containing onlyO'Ol per cent, sugar the
colour is that of weak red wine, and even with a solution
containing only 0-0005 per cent, sugar, the colouration is
quite distinct. If nitric acid is present the delicacy of the
reaction is destroyed ; 0-6 rngrm. nitric acid is sufficient to
destroy the reaction with 0-001 per cent, sugar; and
(i mgrms. nitric acid prevent, the reaction with a 001 per
cent, sugar solution. — A. L. S.
Notes on Analyses of Sugar, Molasses, Confections, and
Honey. H. W. Wiley and others. U.S. Depart, of
Agriculture Hull. 13, 1892.
■Sec under XVI., page TGI.
Bibliography of Honey : arranged Chronologically. U.S.
of' Agriculture Bull. 13, 1892, 871—874.'
See under XVI., page 7GI.
The Determination of the Total Alkaloids in Cinchona
Bark. W. Hauhensack. Sehweiz. Wbchenschr. f. Pharm.
1891, 147 ; Pharm. Centralhalle, 32, 294.
Twjentx grins, of the powdered bark are placed in a 500 cc.
flask with 10 cc. of 10 per cent, ammonia solution, and
20 cc. of 94 per cent, alcohol added, and the whole well
shaken. To this are added 170 cc. of ether, and after well
shaking the whole is allowed to stand 2 — 3 hours; 100 cc.
of the liquid are withdrawn, and about 50 cc. of dilute
sulphuric acid are added, so that the solution is slightly acid.
The aqueous solution is taken, warmed to expel the ether
in solution, and extracted with 30 cc. of chloroform. The
chloroform solution is collected in a weighed flask, and the
chloroform distilled off ; the residue is dried for some hours
_at 100° C. and weighed.
According to Wegmiiller (loc. cit. G33), the above
method gives too large a yield, and he recommends that the
bark be extracted, mixed with lime, and the alkaloids be
volumetrically determined in the chloroform solution by
adding an excess of — hydrochloric acid and titrating back
with -"■■ potash solution, using logwood as an indicator
(1 cc. normal hydrochloric acid equals 0-0309 grm. of
alkaloid).— A. L. S.
The Estimation of Mustard Oil. A. Schlicht. Zeits.
Anal. Chern., 30, 1891, 661 — 665.
Cattle foods, iu the composition of which the seeds of
certain Crucifera enter, frequently contain mustard oil
derived from the potassium myronate present in the seeds.
The oil may be readily separated by steam distillation, and
its amount most conveniently deduced from a determination
of the sulphur in the distillate. Foerster's method for the
purpose is based on the conversion of the mustard oil into
thiosinamine by means of ammonia, and the subsequent
decomposition of that body into sinamine and mercuric
sulphide by treatment with mercuric oxide, the mercuric
sulphide being finally weighed. In Duck's process the
sulphur of the mustard oil is oxidised to sulphuric acid by
alkaline potassium permanganate, the excess of the latter is
destroyed by evaporation with hydrochloric acid, and the
sulphuric acid afterwards precipitated and weighed as
barium sulphate. According to the author both processes
give low results. The following method is recommended
instead. The mustard oil is thoroughly agitated aud heated
with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate (20
parts of KMnO,, 5 parts of KOH to one part of oil). The
excess of KMn04 is then reduced by the addition of alcohol
(25 cc. 01 alcohol to 5 grms. of KMn(_>4), the liquid made
up to a known volume and filtered. To an aliquot part of
the filtrate, previously acidified with HCI, sufficient iodine is
added to reoxidise any reduction product formed from the
potassium sulphate by the action of aldehyde derived from
the alcohol, and the sulphuric acid is then precipitated as
barium sulphate in the usual way. Test analyses made with
pure mustard oil yielded excellent results. — H. T. P.
Bibliography of Beeswax. U.S. Depart, of Agriculture
Dull. 13, 1892, 866.
See under XII., page 756.
Bibliography of Waxes used in Adulterating Beeswax
U.S. Depart, of Agriculture Hull. 13, 1892, 869.
See under Xll.,page 757.
Chloroform. Tests of Purity. Traub. Pharm. Centralhalle,
33, 245.
Chloroform prepared with chloride of lime contains
ethylidene chloride, and the action of sulphuric acid
indicates that other impurities also occur in crude chloro-
form, giving rise to blue or violet colouration of the acid.
Sometimes an odour of peppermint is developed. By
treatment with sulphuric acid these impurities are removed
completely, and a product is obtained in no wise inferior to
the best kinds of chloroform. The following way of
applying the sulphuric acid test is recommended : — The
chloroform is mixed with an equal volume of sulphuric
acid, and exposed for six or eight days to light, being
meanwhile repeatedly agitated. Under such conditions
there should be no colouration of the acid. The sulphuric
acid is then separated, the chloroform dissolved iu it,
evaporated off, water added, and then 1 cc. of a solution of
silver nitrate. No precipitate should be caused. However,
it is only very pure chloroform (hat will stand this test.
The author also recommends another test, based upon the
action of sodium. Five cubic centimetres of the chloroform
are shaken up during several days with 0-2 grm. of sodium,
in a stoppered tube. In the case of pure chloroform free
from alcohol, there is at most only a deposition of sodium
chloride in small colourless crystals, aud the odour remains
pleasant. In the presence of alcohol the salt deposited has
a yellow or brown colour. — W. S.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
The Action of Metals on Salts dissolved in Organic
Liquids. Ji. Varet. Bull. Soc. Chim. 1892, 172—173.
Certain metals which precipitate others from the aqueous
solution of their salts, lose this property when certain
organic solvents are substituted for water. In the experi-
ments on the action of aluminium on cyanide of mercury
dissolved in absolute alcoholic ammonia, an unstable
cyanogen compound of aluminium was formed which is
remarkable as being the only cyanogen compound of
alumiuium which does not contain a complete radicle
similar to ferrocyanogen. — V. C.
The Allolropy of Amorphous Carbon. W. Luzi. Ber. 25,
1892, 1378—1385.
The so-called graphitite from Wunsiedel in the Fichtel-
gebirge, has always been looked upon as amorphous, and
the author has made further examination as to whether
this is really correct. The mineral he finds consists of pure
carbon containing neither hydrogen nor nitrogen j microscopic
780
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. 80, 1892.
i xamination shows no signs whatever of the substance being
of crystalline nature. The conclusion arrived at is that
this form of carbon is amorphous, but that it differs
considerably from wood charcoal, for ordinary amorphous
charcoal has a sp. gr. 1-57— 1-88 whilst the graphitite in
question lias the sp. gr. 2-21— 2'26 (Ceylon graphite
according to Brodie has the sp. gr. 2-25 — 2- 26); again,
ordinary amorphous carbon is completely oxidised by
potassium chlorate and red fuming nitric acid, without
formation of the slightest trace of insoluble graphitic acid,
whilst amorphous graphitite gives an insoluble crystalline
oxidation product perfectly analogous to or identical with
that obtained from crystalline graphite. Schungite occurring
in Eussia cannot well be compared with the above, since it
contains 0-5 per cent, of hydrogen and 0"5per cent, of
nitrogen, but it agrees will with ordinary amorphous carbon
in that it has about the same specific gravity and in that
on oxidation it yields no graphitic acid. — T. L. B.
Ignition Temperature of Electrolytic Gas. F. Freyer and
V. Meyer. Ber. 25, 1892, 622—635.
As a continuation of the experiments already carried out
(this Journal, 1891. 7."j2), electrolytic gas was passed at
the ordinary pressure through a glass tube contained in a
cylinder of sheet iron dipping into a bath of boiling zinc
chloride. If the zinc chloride be set boiling and then the
gas be passed, a very considerable explosion takes place at
once ; if the tube, however, be filled with electrolytic gas
and then be introduced into the bath of boiling zinc chloride,
water is formed without explosion. If the passicg of the
gas he stopped, theu the bath heated to boiling point, a
forcible explosion may be obtained by simply re-starting tin
gas current. Determinations of the temperature showed it
to be 730 C. Next, zinc bromide was taken for the bath,
but with this no explosion could be obtained; the tempera-
ture in this case was 650 C. Hence the temperature of
ignition must lie somewhere between G503 C. and 730° C.
— T. L. B.
Determination of the Freezing Point of Dilute Aqueous
Solutions, -and the Application thereof to Cane-Sugar.
F. M. Raoult. Hull. Soe. I him. 7— 8, 1892, 130 — 134.
The author has modified his method of determining the
freezing point of solutions in a manner which greatly
increases its accuracy. The principal improvements consist
in the use of a cooling medium (40 per cent, glycerol)
maintained at a constant temperature (about 3°C. below the
freezing point of the liquid under examination) by suitable
means ; and of a more effective stirring apparatus in the
shape of a platinum wire-gauze spiral surrounding the
thermometer and rotated with it by means of gearing
operated at a distance. The accuracy attainable is said to
be^i^thof 1°C. Applying this method to the determination
of the depression of the freezing point exerted by cane-
sugar in solutions of different strengths (0P 683 to 39-04
gruis. of sugar per 100 grms. of water), the author in
general confirms his previous results, and finds that the
molecular depression of cane-sugar, as in the case of other
bodies, gradually increases when the strength of its solutions
falls below a certain limit. — H. T. P.
On a New Instance of Abnormal Solution. Saturated
Solutions. F. Parmentier, Compt. Kend. 114, 1892,
1000—1002.
The author has already shown that if phospho- and silico-
molyhdic acids are dissolved in ether, the ether being in
excess, they only dissolve in a certain definite proportion of
ether. This proportion varies with the temperature, being
less ;is the temperature is raised. He has found a new-
instance of such a phenomenon. Schutzenberger has
shown that if bromine be treated with ether, a crystalline
body may be obtained which he calls brominatcd ether
(ether bromure), and which has the formula (C4H10OBr3)2.
The author finds that this body is very soluble in ether,
but if the ether is taken in increasing quantities there
cornea a time when the excess of ether separates from the
liquid product, which is no longer homogeneous. The
quantities of ether saturating a solution vary with the
temperature, just as in the case of the phospho- and silico-
niuh bdic acids, but. whereas in the ease of those bodies the
quantities of ether decrease as the temperature is raised,
in the case of the brominated ether they increase as the
temperature is raised.
In ordinary solutions, the solubility of the solid in the
liquid is defined by the weight of the solid dissolved in a
given weight of the liquid at a given temperature, the
solid being in excess. In these abnormal solutions it is
(lie weight of the liquid which limits the saturation and
which therefore serves to define the solubility, the liquid
being in excess. The author proposes the following
definition of saturation, as being applicable to all cases ; —
•' Whenever bodies can, without combining, give a bomo-
• liquid, (he solution is said to be saturated when
the bodj in excess separates from the solution." — 1). E. J.
7'Ae Compressibility of Saline Solutions. H. Gilbaut.
Comjit. Eend. 114, 1S92, 209—211.
While engaged in determining the variation with pressure
of the electro-motive force of batteries, the author was led
to investigate the compressibility of saline solutions.
The method pursued was that employed by Cailletet iu
an analogous investigation, special precautions being taken
to rid the solutions of gas and to ensure that the tempera-
ture was everywhere uniform during the course of an
experiment. All the experiments were carried out at about
the same temperature, the differences being not more than
01 1 i , thus allowing a comparison of the results.
For certain solutions the author carried out several
experiments with the same liquor, which enabled him to
construct curves from which he deduced the following laws.
(I.) At a given temperature between 10° and 3.V the
compressibilities of solutions of a given salt vary w ith the
concentration.
(2.) For dilute solutions the difference between the
compressibility of water and that of the solution, which he
calls the saline compressibility, is proportional to the
concentration, and depends upon the salt and the solvent.
(is.) In general, starting with a given concentration, the
saline compressibility increases less rapidly than the quantity
of salt added, and if we represent the relative results for
different salts by curves of which the abscissae are per-
centages of salt and the ordinates the corresponding
compressibilites, all these curves, if suitable scales are
chosen, are superposable.
(4.) The compressibility of very dilute solutions
diminishes with increase of temperature ; on the other hand,
the compressibility of a nearly saturated solution increases
or diminishes less than that of a dilute solution of the same
salt in consequence of a rise of temperature. Iu general,
there is a point of mean concentration at which the
compressibility is unaffected by change of temperature.
(5). The curves showing the compressibility of different
solutions of the same salt have the same form at all
temperatures, provided that the temperature is not 0°.
(6.) The curves being constructed up to the point of
saturation, the relation which subsists between the length of
the curved and straight parts for each solution, is pro-
portional to the contraction which takes place on solution.
(7.) If a given weight of a given salt is dissolved in a
given volume of different solvents, solutions are obtained
of which the saline compressibilities are proportional to the
compressibilities of the solvent, and for a given salt, the
quotient of the saline compressibility by the compressibility
of the solvent is a constant.
(8.) The product of the saline compressibility of different
solutions of a given acid and of given concentration into
the equivalent of the metal of the dissolved salt is not
i -tant.
Sept. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
781
(9.) The product of the saliae compressibility of solutions
of a given metal into the equivalent of the halogen is not
constant when we take salts of different acids.
(10.) For any salts whatever, having a very small
equivalent, the product of the saline compressibility into the
equivalent of the metal and into that of the halogen is a
constant 1). E. J.
On the Mineralising Artion of Sulphate of Ammonia.
T. Klobb. Conipt. Rend. 115, 1892, 230-232.
Met u. Lie oxides or sulphates are fused in a crucible or
evaporating dish with an excess of sulphate of ammonia.
The mixture is heated to 350? — 400''' as long as vapours are
disengaged, and then left to cool. If the residue has not
been overheated it will consist of a neutral sulphate— a new
example of crystallisation by volatilisation of the solvent.
Precipitated sulphate of lead when thus treated is con-
verted into a grey micro-crystalline powder consisting of
transparent prisms not more than 0'07 m. long, having their
angles and edges distinctly replaced. Many of the crystals
shoiv the combinations m-ait which is one of the simplest
forms of anglesite, Their specific gravity is 6' 18, and they
contain 26'9 per cent, of S03.
Generally, intermediate double sulphates are formed.
Some of these have already been described by Messrs.
Laehaud and Lepierre. With copper the action is particu-
larly clear. According to the temperature at which the
operation is stopped, we have successively —
1st, a double sulphate 2 SO„Cu, S04 (NH4)2
2nd, the normal sulphate . . . SO.,Cu
3rd, the basic sulphate 2 CuO, S< );<
4th, cupric oxide CuO
Under certain circumstances, in the absence of reducing
gases, cuprous oxide is also obtained.
The first of these bodies may be obtained by heating over
a sand-bath a mixture of one part of ordinary sulphate of
copper and three parts of sulphate of ammonia. At first
only water and ammonia are given off, then sulphuric and
sulphurous anhydrides. The liquid is kept boiling at
360° — 380° until a crust forms on the sides of the dish, and
even until this crust is a little decomposed by the heat, so
as to avoid any excess of sulphate of ammonia.
The body thus obtained is represented by the formula
(No. 1) given above. It consists of pale green transparent
prisms about 1 mm. long, with a specific gravity of 2 • 85.
They are very soluble in water ; in alcohol, at 90°, they
slowly colour it, but do not dissolve. Exposed to air they
rapidly become blue and opaque. At a temperature of 20°
they absorb within 24 hours 42 per cent, of water. Left
in vacuo, at the ordinary temperature, the loss of
"weight is only — Vrr in 24 hours, but there appears to be
some dissociation at the surface. The crystals melt at
about 200% and at 3.00s are converted into the anhydrous
sulphate of formula No. 2. This consists of minute grey
prisms with sp. gr. 3*78, which are not so hygroscopic as
those of the double salt, but which are gradually changed
by contact with air into the sulphate containing five
equivalents of water.
Heated with care lo a dull red, the neutral sulphate loses
sulphuric anhydride, and leaves a yellowish brown powder
of the basic salt having a specific gravity of 4- 21 which
consists of pseudomorphs ot the crystals of the neutral
sulphate.
Finally, the basic sulphate, when heated to a bright red,
is changed into a crystalline powder of cupric oxide of
sp. gr. 6 '36, which is not hygroscopic— J. H. C.
Erratum.
Page 713, col. 1, line 28, from bottom, for " perman-
ganate " read " permanent."
&t\3) £00feS.
The Extra Pharmacopoeia. By William Martinhale,
F.C.S. Medical References and a Therapeutic Index
of Diseases and Symptoms. By W. Wysn Westcott, M.B.
.Seventh Edition. London : H. K. Lewis, 136, Gower
Street, W.C. 1892. 7s. 6<i.
Tins little work, of pocket-book size, and elegantly bound
in morocco, and gilt, now appears in its Seventh Edition.
It occupies 524 pages, including Prefaces to the sixth
and seventh editions, Introduction, with list of Abbreviations,
Additions made in 1890 to Brit. Pharm. of 1885, principal
subject-matter covering 409 pages ; there is also a Secondary
list of Drugs, covering 9 pages, Appendix, containing —
I. Antiseptic applications, &c. (4 pages). 11. Histological
preparations for staining, hardening, and mounting micro-
scopic objects, &c. (2 pages), and Index and Posological
Table (78 pages). The work closes with a Therapeutic
Index of Diseases and Symptoms.
It is pointed out that during the last two years methods
of attempting to rid the animal organism of the infective
bacilli by chemical antidotes have increased, and for this
purpose the following preparations have been proposed,
and a description of them is given in the volume, viz.,
Cantharidate of potassium, Chloride of zinc, Eucalyptol,
Creosote, Guaiacol, and Benzosol. In this little work have
been summarised the chemical researches on Salicylic aeid
and its new compounds, on the Aconite alkaloids and on
Chloroform, as also on the Mydriatic alkaloids, especially
Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine, Scopolamine, Gelsemine, and
Cocaine, as well as those on Mercuro-Zinc cyanide and
Eucalpytus oils. It is stated that as general anaesthetics,
Pental (Amylene) and Ethyl bromide are now competitors
with Chloroform and Ether, whilst in local Amesthesia,
Chloride of ethyl competes with Cocaine and Methyl
chloride, especially for dental purposes. As new anti-
pyretics and Analgesics since the Sixth Edition of the
work have been introduced: — Salophene, Salicylamide,
Analgene, Isopyrine, Salipyriue, Phenocoll, and Euphorine.
In urinary diseases, Piperazine has been used as a solvent
for urates, and Jambul against glycosuria. The use of
Nitroglycerol has been extended to heart affections, and
that of oxygen for pneumonia. The use of Coroutine is now
applied for haemorrhage, of Apocodeine as an expectorant,
and of the bromides of Ethylene and of Strontium for
epilepsy. The compatibility of Nitrate of Cocaine with
Nitrate of Silver is referred to, and, in a word, all new
applications that have met with a fair measure of success
receive due descriptive notice.
Attention may be particularly called to the useful
"Therapeutic Index of Diseases and Symptoms," or as it
might with even greater truth be styled, " Alphabetical
Index of Diseases and Symptoms, with Selected Remedies."
The usefulness of this Index is enhanced by the printing of
the newer remedies added in the fifth, sixth, and seventh
Editions of the Extra Pharmacopaia last in each list and
by printing them in italics.
Adressruch und Waarenverzeich.niss der ClIKMISCHEN
Industrie pes Deitschen Reichs. Herausgegeben
vox ( )tto Wen/.el. General Secretar des Vereins zur
Wahrung der Interessen der Chemischen Industrie
Deutschlands. 1892. III. Jahrgang. Berlin : Verlag
von Rudolf Miiekenherger, Dessauerstr. 13. London:
H. Grevel & Co., 33, King Street, Covent Garden. M 25,
or about 1/. 5s.
This systematic work, first issued in 1888 (this Journal,
ISsS, 596), now appears in its third edition and year, greatly
increased in size. It is a most complete Directory of the
Manufacturers of Chemicals and Chemical Products of the
German Firnpire, taking the form of a large 8vo. volume
bound in cloth. An excellent feature of the work is that it
is written in German, English, French, Italian, and Spanish.
It now covers 1164 pages without the Appendix, which itself
covers 152 pages additionally. The work commences with
brief Prefaces, a Table of Contents, an Alphabetical Index of
782
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 50,1892.
Chemical Products referred to in the body or' the work, first
in German and then repeated in English, French, Italian,
and Spanish. Next follows the Index to Advertisements,
then a List of German Associations and Societies connected
with Applied Chemistry, and then the List of the Chemical
Manufactories and Laboraties. In the latter are given : —
1. Chemical Manufactories; 2. Chemical Laboratories; and
:;. List of Localities. The next divison of the work is
devoted to the List of Chemical Products and Raw Materials,
subdivided as List of Chemicals with Names of the Manu-
facturers, and List of Raw Materials and Half-manufactured
Goods for the Supply of the Chemical Industry, with names
of the suppliers. Finally, the third division of the work
gives publicity to the Agencies, Wholesale Houses, Export
aud Import Houses in Germany and other Countries.
The Appendix is an Index for Articles required in
Chemical Works, and is subdivided as follows: — 1. Index
to Advertisements; and 2. Index to the Market for Supply.
Lessons i\ Hi \r and Lioht. By I). E. Jokes, lis,-,
(Lond.l, Director of Technical Instrucrion to the Stafford-
shire County Council, Late Professor of Physics in the
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. London :
Macmillan & Co., 1S92, and New York. 3s. 6rf.
( h i wo volume bound in cloth, containing Title page,
Preface, Table of Contents, Xote on Metric System of
Weights and Measures, and Text covering 309 pages.
Answers to Examples set in the body of the work cover
pages 310 and 311, and an Alphabetical Index concludes
the treatise. With regard to the subject-matter, this is
arranged in chapters of which there are in all nine, aud the
illustrations number 194. Examples to be worked out by
the student are given at the end of each chapter.
Die Sdxfosauren der Beiden Xaphtylarnine und der
beiden Naphtole. Uebersichtlich Zusammengestellt von
Dr. Ernst Tuber. Privatdocent an der Eonigl. Tech-
nischen Hochschule, Berlin. 1892. Berlin: R. Gaertuer's
Verlagsbuehhandlung (Hermann Heyfelder), S. W.
Schiinebergerstr. 26. London : H. Grevel & Co . 33,
King Street, Covent Garden. M. 3-60 (about 3s. 7</.).
Large Svo. volume in paper cover, containing Preface,
Arrangement of Text, List of Abbreviations of Sources of
Reference, and Table of Coutents. The subject-matter
covers 30 pages. Pages 1 to 10 are devoted to a descrip-
tion of the o-Xaphthylamine sulphonic acids ; 10 to 17, the
jS-Naphthylamine sulphonic acids ; 18ro 24, the a-NaphthoI
sulphonic acids ; 2o to 30, the /3-Xaphthol sulphonic acids.
In the description of these acids, first, the methods of
preparation are given briefly with original references ;
secondly, the properties, also with references ; thirdly, the
constitution, and modes of determination, with references.
The descriptive matter is given in the left-hand and larger
column, a smaller right-hand space being reserved for the
references, which are printed in italics.
Handworterbuch deb Piiarmacie. Praktisches Hand-
lmcli fur Apotheker, Aertzte, Medecinbeamte und
Drogisten. Herausgegeben von A. Brestowskj.
Zwei liande, Wien and Leipzig. Wilhelm Braumuller,
K. C. K. Hof-und Cniversitats-Buchhandler. 1892.
London : H. Grevel and Co., 33, King Street, Covent
Garden. 2s. 5d. (2-4 M.).
Tins Dictionary of Pharmacy, issued in parts, large Svo.
size, now reaches the issue of part 4 (see this journal,
1892, C41). Part IV. commences with a description
of " Bernsteinsaure," succinic acid. Its formula and
constitution are first expressed. The chief methods of
preparation then follow: then the properties, the tests,
and finally the uses, therapeutic and otherwise. This
method of description is systematically carried out in the
case of the other substances referred to. Part IV. closes
mi page 32o, with a definition of the word •• Burtonisiren,"
or Burtonising, which is defined as the treatment of water
with sulphate of lime.
Modern Materia Medica. Eor Pharmacists, Medical Men
and Students, by H. Helbixg, F.C.S. Third enlarged
Edition. New York. Lehn and Fink, 12s\ William Street.
London: The British and Colonial Druggist, 42 Bishops-
gate Without, E.C. 1892. 4s.
Octavo volume, bound in cloth, and containing Introduction
to third edition and also to the second, Table of Contents and
Text covering 182 pages. The work closes with Tables of
Doses, Solubility, Melting and Boiling Points of New
Remedies, and the Alphabetical Index. The method of
treatment and description followed of the various substances,
is well exemplified in the case of the first individual, viz,
Acetanilide, the Synonyms in Pharmacy and Chemical
formula of which are first given. The Method of Prepara-
tion now follows, then the Physical and Chemical Properties,
and next the Medicinal Uses. Lastly, the Derivatives and
Allied Compounds of interest are described.
Crarje Report*
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
Greece.
The Greek Drug Trade.
The Greek official statistics for 1891 have not yet been
published. Those for 1890 which our Consul at Athens
sends over show a considerable increase in the imports jf
medicines and perfumery over 1889, but a still larger
falling off in the imports of heavy chemicals. The figures
showing the imports of pharmaceutical goods into Greece
from various countries are as follows : —
Quinine.
Country.
1S89.
1890.
Other Drugs and
Medicines.
1890.
United Kingdom
France
Belgium
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Italy
Oz.
2&8SS
24,361
850
14,280
18,694
13.SC7
120,943
Oz.
14,080
29,984
85,080
7,363
LI).
51,000
Lb.
ii.' oo
'.'1,iiiiii 119,000
51,000
123,000
11,000
77,230
360,000 (84,000
69,
141.000
43,000
Country.
United Kingdom
France
Belgium
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Italy
Soap and Perfumery,
1SS9.
Heavy Chemicals
and acids.
1889.
Lb.
49,000
30,000
Lb.
74,000
64,000
3,719,000
203,
2,000
155,000
174,
255,000 '
Lb. Lb.
2,806,000 2,723,000
394,1 ,u
117.000
150,000
B7.000 110,000 7,312,000 3,381,000
Sept. so. 1692.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
783
Quinine.
I can obtain no explanation, says Consul Elliott, of the
great decline in the importation of this drug, except that
there must have been an over-importation in 1889. In
view of the simultaneous increase under the heading
" Other Medicines and Drugs," 1 surmise that its place
may have been taken by antipyrine and similar preparations,
but I can obtain no confirmation of this conjecture. It
has been suggested to me that sanitation has improved, and i
this is no doubt true as regards the capital and some other [
towns ; but the bulk of the quinine is consumed in the low- |
lying country districts. The greatest decline was in the
quinine brought from France, the quantity having fallen
from 2-1,364 oz. in 1889 to 720 oz. in 1890.
Chemicals.
Although including acids, which obtained a reduction of
duty, chemicals show a diminution of 45 per cent., the
decrease in British imports being, however, only 18 per
cent.
Soa/i and Perfumery.
A small trade, shows an increase. The duty on high-class
soaps is nearly prohibitive, even with the reduction stipulated
by the French Convention.
Jamaica.
Manufacture of Lime Juice.
The crude lime juice is obtained either by running the
limes through an ordinary cone mill, or by placing them in
a squeezer especially adapted to the purpose, which is the
simpler and more usual plan.
The juice is then clarified by straining and filtration,
when some foreign substance is added to prevent decom-
position of the vegetable matter. In this state most of the
juice is shipped from the island.
In order to concentrate the juice, it is strained from the
seed and pulp, placed in a copper battery, and boiled on
the same principle as sugar, taking care not to scorch or
burn it, as that destroys the acid. The more densely the
juice is concentrated the more valuable it is ; but it is not
advisable to go too far, as it burns easily without forming a
crust on the copper. No iron vessel must be used, as the
iron turns the acid black.
In the year which ended March :ilst, 1891, the amount
exported was .3:?, 884 gallons, of which 44,492 gallons went
to the United Kingdom, 110 to Canada, and 9,282 to the
United States.
The average valuation in the export list is 20 cents per
gallon, but the price for the raw juice ranges from 18 to 30
cents, according to the supply and the demand, while the
concentrated juice sells according to the percentage of citric
acid it contains.
Substantially the same process is adopted in the manu-
facture of sour-orange juice, which, when concentrated, is
valued at from 45 to 50 cents per gallon. Of this 1,102
gallons, the entire amount manufactured during the period
above stated, was exported to the United States.
Russia.
The Naphtha Business.
The yield of petroleum from the Baku fields is larger this
year than it has ever been before, and the existing works
are scarcely able to cope with the supply. The house of j
Chiba'iev are constructing near their factory in Baku an '
immense underground reservoir capable of containing I
5,000,000 pouds of naphtha. This reservoir is not to be
rectangular, but to take the form of a reversed cone or
funnel shape. The firm of Nobel are constructing a still
larger reservoir, which will have a capacity of 6,000,000
ponds. The walls will be lined with zinc, and the foundation
will be a bed of water, to be obtained by boring.
Quicksilver.
The only quicksilver mine, situated in the south-western
part of Russia, near Nifcitofka station, on the Kursk-
Kharkov-Azov line, Bakhmoet district, in the province of
Kkatcrinoslav, shows an output of 50,114 tons of ore, or a
decrease of 8,404 tons of ore extracted, as compared with
1890. Of this quantity 45,547 tons were kilned, producing
314 tons of quicksilver, 30 tons more than in 1890. At
present 350 men are employed, of whom 226 work under^
ground.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
New Oil-field in Sumatra.
In a review of the kerosine oil trade in Singapore for
the June quarter, forwarded from the office of the Colonial
Secretary at Singapore, the following note with reg.ird to
the development of a recently discovered oil-field in Sumatra
occurs : —
The most important feature now before the trade is the
new oil-field, for some time known, but only recently
become productive, in the northern part of the island of
Sumatra, in the State of Langkat, with a sea-board on the
Straits of Malacca. Concessions have been granted by the
Dutch Government to both Hutch and English capitalists,
but so far a Dutch company is the only one which has got
to work, and, after a commencement within the last 12
months, it is now reported to be producing from 15,000 to
20,000 cases per month, with a steadily increasing output.
Altogether concessions have been granted for some 320
square miles of what has been pronounced by experts to be
a very rich oil-producing territory, and, being on the sea-
coast, and not, like the American and Russian oil-fields,
far inland, and having besides an excellent deep water,
well-sheltered harbour, its position may be said to be
unique. Also the kerosine produced at Langkat is proved
by a skilled English engineer to be of first rate quality,
being " water white " absolutely without " bloom," flashing
by Abel's test at 83 to 86 degrees, and burning at 124 to
126, the percentage of kerosine yielded being fully equal
to good American and quite double that of Russian petro-
leum. When it is borne in mind that the Russian output
in 1891 was 834 million barrels, the bulk of which was
obtained from an area of about seven square miles of the
oil-field near Baku, the capabilities of the new oil-field in
Sumatra may be judged, supposing it turns out all that
is said about it. — Board of Trade Journal.
Discovery or a New Deposit of Onyx in Mexico.
The Revista Financiera Mcxicana announces that a new
deposit of onyx of considerable importance has just been
discovered about 50 kilometres to the south of El Paso.
This deposit, the working of which has been conceded for
a term of five years, is not less than 86,000 acres in extent.
The onyx newly discovered is of superior quality, with
fine grain and richly shaded with delicate and varied tints.
It is situated at about 22 kilometres distant from the Central
Mexican railway, with which it may be easily connected by
a branch line.
The cost of extraction will be very small, and, in view of
the exceptional importance of the deposit, the onyx delivered
at El Paso will not cost much more than building stone. It
should also be observed that blocks of onyx of considerable
dimensions can easily be extracted. — Ibid.
South American Metallurgical Industries.
Mons. Ch. Vattier recently read a paper before the French
Soeieto des Ingcuieurs Civils. entitled " The present state
of metallurgy in South America in general and Chili in
particular; its future, and its importance from the point of
781.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
s ipt. 30, l?9i.
view of French industry and commerce." The South
American Journal for the 30th July says that Mqns.
Vattier lias resided for many years in Chili, and has erected
numerous manufacturing establishments in that country.
The climate of Chili, the French technologist says, is
healthy ; the artisan is intelligent, and the soil is very rich
in metalliferous deposits. The railway system is already an
important one, and the construction of several new lines is
now under consideration.
The exploitation of saltpetre is, of course, a staple
industry. It yields to the Government an annual revenue
of 25,000,000 piastres. The crude saltpetre, treated in the
large works, is brought to a percentage of 95. Many other
industries exist, amongst which may be mentioned iron-
founding and briquette-making. The chemical industry is,
Mons. Vattier thinks, capable of great development.
Metallurgical establishments pure and simple are very
numerous.
As fuel, wood is employed in the central and southern
regions. Fairly good lignite is worked on a large scale,
especially in the neighbourhood of the industrial town of
Lota. Coke is imported from the United States. At
several points in the Republic refractory, material of medium
quality is found, together with the substances used as
fluxes.
Mons. Vattier enumerates the mines of copper, gold, and
silver, and discourses on the special metallurgy of each
metal. The auriferous ores have a very hard gangue, and
are treated with difficulty. The production of copper has
comparatively little expanded since 1847, when it was
equivalent to one-third of the entire output of the world.
Mons. Vattier draws attention to the methods employed of
treating the ores. Some of the processes, he says, although
excellent, are unknown in France. Such are the treatment
of argentiferous ores by the wet method, and even by the
dry process, in the special furnaces (semi-blast furnaces),
and the copper ores by smelting ami " Bessemeration."
Among other metals, manganese may especially be cited.
The export of the ores containing this metal has reached
in one year 13,000 tons. Up to the present this export has
been confined to Great Britain and the United States.
With respect to the metallurgy of iron, this is an industry
whirl: lias yet to be created in Chili. Mons. Vattier, who
made, for the Chilian Government, a tour of inspection
through the Republic, extending over three years, found
very pure iron ores near the coast, and he expresses the
hope that French concerns will obtain the privilege of
conducting future mining and metallurgical operations in
the country.
In any ease, he desires that Frenchmen will no longer be
content to see foreigners mouopolise the principal products
of South America. At present the metallic silver, argenti-
ferous lead and copper, mattes, the ores of copper, lead,
silver, tiu, bismuth, and antimony from the Argentine
Republic, Chili, Peru, and Bolivia are shipped largely to
Havre ; but, instead of remaining in France, they are
despatched abroad, principally to Hamburg. — Ibid.
The Sulphuric Acid Trade in Brazil.
The Brussels Bulletin du Musee Commercial for the
23rd July publishes the following particulars of the trade
in sulphuric aeid in Brazil: —
There is in the country a sulphuric acid factory ; it is
established at Rio de Janeiro, and its products are con-
sidered to be of excellent quality. The3r are much used
in Brazilian industries. Deliveries are made in earthenware
demijohns, of a capacity of 30 kilos., and in cases
containing two demijohns packed in wood.
A maker of printed calicoes at San Paulo, M. Frederico
ECowarick, receives six eases per month, and the six mineral
water factories about eight cases. Two mineral water
factories a' Santos are also Supplied from till' works at
Bio de Janeiro.
The aeid of the desired clegree of concentration for these
factories costs 190 reis per kilog., including package. It is
stated that the European product costs more, and it would
appear that no industry of the State of San Paulo obtains
it from abroad.
The Companhia Formicida Paulista, founded at San
Paulo in 1891) with a capital of 500,000 milreis, is engaged
specially in the manufacture of sulphur of carbon used in
the destruction of ants, which are a plague in the country.
It will probably make also sulphuric acid for native
establishments.
For this trade, as for all others, the conditions of
payment are very varied.. Some consumers pay ready
money ; others obtain credits of three, six, and often nine
months.
The new tariff does not modify the duty levied on
sulphuric acid ; pure or colourless, so reis per kilog. ;
impure, 10 reis, duties estimated for both at 15 per cent.
ad valorem. Tare is fixed as follows : in earthenware jars,
30 per cent. ; in cases, 10 per cent. — Ibid.
The Oil Trade of Scotland.
So peculiarly is the destructive distillation of oil shale a
Scottish industry, that the condition of the mineral oil trade-
is a matter of national interest. Mineral oil, of course, is
not a monopoly of ours ; but the mineral oil of America,
East Europe, and Asia comes to the hands of man in a
liquid or semi-liquid form, whereas in Scotland it has to
be mined from the bowels of the earth in the form of shale,
and then put through an elaborate process of distillation
in retorts of the most scientific construction. The Scottish
oil industry is, from first to last, one calling for the exercise
of the highest chemical and engineering knowledge and
skill, whereas that of America calls for little more than
the application of mechanical labour. The history of the
Scotch industry has been a romance, and few departments
of human effort have experienced so many vicissitudes
within considerably less than a generation. At present
the trade seems to have fallen upon evil days, and a perusal
of the annual reports of the several companies is a depressing
exercise. Looking at the net result of the operations of the
financial year just closed, we find the following in the case
of those companies who have published their accounts : —
Broxburn (after depreciation}
Burntisland (without depreciation),
Clippens „ „
Holmes „ „
Linlithgow „ „
Oakbank „ „
Pumphercton (after depreciation).. .
Young's (without depreciation, but less in.
teres! I.
Profit.
Loss.
£
20,354
£
D.607
18,834
1,118
7,512
1,623
15,087
49/J3S
,.
Thus, four only out of eight companies are able to show
a balance on the right side of profit and loss account, even
by postponing allowances of depreciation of property,
machinery, and plant. In some cases (it would be
invidious to make individual references here) no deprecia-
tion has been written off for several years ; in others the
operation has only been suspended for a year or two, in the
hope, no doubt, of better days to come.
Whether such a hope can be fairly entertained there is
only too good reason to doubt ; and that that vague, incor-
porate, yet shrewdly intelligent body called " the market "
entertains but little, can be inferred from an inspection of
the Stock Exchange list. We have been at pains to compile
a comparison of the prices of oil shares as at the close of
last account and at the corresponding period of last year.
The effect of a year's depression is startling. The following
Sept. 3.M892. J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
785
Statement shows the prices of the shares on June 10, 1892
ami 1891, respectively : —
Broxburn
Preference,
Burntisland
Clippens
„ Debentures.
Dalmcny
Hormand (A)
(B)
Holmes
„ s/. paid
Linlithgow
< Viklinnk
„ 62. paid
Pumpherston
Young's
West Lothian
Juno 10.
Loss.
1891.
1892.
17
10
V
11
in;;
v
65s. Od.
Ills.
55*. Sd
00*.
21*.
89*.
95
m
Vi\
12!
10
2 '
7s. Sd.
Ms.
■Is. fid.
3s. Sd.
Ss. :>,/.
65*. Sd.
25*.,
hi.,. Sd
IV,
65s.
60*.
25*.
5s.
20*.
89
6
2«
sss. :<,!.
75*.
13*. 0<7
7!
H
64*.
29*. 3d.
SO*.
mi.
60s.
(The West Lothian Company have gone into liquidation
during the year under review.)
Now, what do these declines in the market prices of these
shares represent to the public ? The question is more
serious than may be generally supposed, for the oil shares
are nearly all held in Scotland ; and while they are
distributed among all classes of the community, they are
very largely held by the class of small investors — the
industrial and trading class — who have put their savings
freely into this national industry. The following table
shows' the depreciation in capital amount : —
No. of
Shares.
Broxburn
Preference 10,000
sland 16,700
„ Call "f 30*. per
share.
Clippens 25,896
Stork 1,400
Dalmeny 2,700
Hormand 115,000
Call on 200,000
Holmes 5,000
625
Linlithgow 20,000
Call of
Oakbank M73
1,500
12,500
77.011
Pumpherston.
"i >ung's
Young's Converted stork
depreciated.
Wesl Lothian ; 10,000
Tall.
Loss.
Id.
55*. Sd.
30s.
39*.
181
g
Is. ll,/.
5s.
ins. 0i/.
60*.
I'll;.
13*. '.'il.
H
Ms. 9d.
(?)
I Ills.
i lapital loss in 1- months.
e
164,500 "I
3.12 1)
1 1,342 I
£5,03oj
50,497-1
18,000 J
0,750
■-',-,s75 1
5 10 ^
[I ..121 I
1,875 )
20,000")
20,000 )
12,860")
3,094 J
23,438
133,800
I'.- 1
30,000
646,237
To this, however, must be added the loss by interest in
these companies which have not paid any dividends, the
depreciation on capital converted from debenture bonds
into ordinary shares (Young's) and the depreciation on
other mortgage and debenture bonds and deferred shares —
items which are not easily ascertainable, but which will
bring up the year's loss to, in round numbers, not les< than
three-quarters of a million sterling. Indeed, it would not
be unfair to assume that the community is poorer by one
million in respect of these investments than it was a year
ago. How much poorer since the companies were formed
one shrinks from inquiring.
This is a serious enough fact in itself, but, unfortunately,
worse remains behind. The accounts of a considerable
number of these companies show that they are in a condi-
tion from which financial recovery is hopeless without some
phenomenal revival in some branch of the oil trade: < If
such phenomenon there is not the slightest prospect. Last
year good hopes were entertained of profit under the
arrangement with the American competitors for sustaining
the price of scale oi paraffin wax. What was gained, how-
ever, in scale was more than lost in burning and machinery
oils, and a heavy net depreciation occurred. This year a
fierce competition between the Americans and the Russians
has produced a still further reduction in the price of oil,
and at the present moment there does not seem to be a
redeeming feature in the trade. Indeed, the competition
between the petroleum wells of the eastern and the western
hemispheres may conceivably reduce the price of burning
oil to farthings, instead of pence, per gallon, and with this
product must also decline the heavier oils used for machinery
purposes. With the Scotch companies burning oil is now
very much in the nature of a by-prduct, their profit being
derived from elements which formerly went to waste. This
however, is a mere general statement, not to be received
without qualification. Thus, the companies may not, as a
rule, expect to make a profit on the average selling price of
burning oil ; but if by the competition of petroleum they
are compelled to sell at a loss what they cannot avoid
making, then their chance of profit upon the other products
is pro tanto reduced. At the present moment the fortunes
of the survivors seem to depend on the future course of
scale and sulphate of ammonia, and the balance of proba-
bility does not appear to be in favour of an advance of
ether. On the other hand, the announcement of a heavy
reduction in the price of petroleum in America conveys a
serious menace : and it must he admitted that few, if any,
of these Scotch incorporations are in a position to stand any-
further buffeting. Their balance-sheets are not models of
perspicuity ; indeed, some of them leave the general im-
pression that they are skilful contrivances to hide the worst
from the long-suffering proprietors. Sometimes one may
be cruel only to be kind, and sometimes one may try to be
kind and end by being cruel. If all the oil concerns had
been properly debited with depreciations most of them
would have been wiped out of existence by this time. But
while there is life there is hope; and, at all events, as long
as there is life there is employment for a large number of
persons, who will, indeed, be in an evil ease when the oil
industry has to be numbered among the departed glories of
Scotland. — Chem. 'Trade Journal.
The Perfumery I)r awtsack.
The following is the text of the General Order authorising
a drawback on perfumed spirits and spirituous flavouring
essences when exported from the United Kingdom : —
Genetal Order concerning the Drawback on Exported
Flavouring Essences and Perfumed Spirits.
Inland Revenue, Somerset House.
London, W.C., August 30th, 1892.
The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury haying
sanctioned the repayment of duty charged on the spirits
used in the manufacture of flavouring essences and perfumed
spirits exported by licensed rectifiers and compounders,
when such essences are not made in bond :
786
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept.:
It is ordered: —
1. That a rectifier, or compounder, intending to export
flavouring essences or perfumed spirits on drawback, must
comply with the following regulations : —
2. Twelve hours' notice must be given to the officer on
Form Xo. III. — 5, prepared for the purpose.
3. The officer will attend at the notice hour and check the
contents of the bottles with a suitably graduated measure to
be provided by the Revenue.
4. The total quantity of flavouring essences or perfumed
spirits in any one consignment for exportation examined at
any one attendance of the officer must be not less than
two bulk gallons, except under the special sanction of the
Board, and subject, if so ordered, to a special charge for the
attendance of the officer.
j. t >ne sample out of every ten, or fraction of ten kinds,
whether of essences or perfumed spirits, is, as a rule, to be
taken by the officer. A larger proportion of samples may,
however, be taken, should the officer in his discretion think
it necessary.
6. The samples of flavouring essences are in all eases to
be sent to the laboratory ,• but, usually, the strength of the
samples of perfumed spirits shall be tested by the officer
and the samples returned at once to the exporter.
7. In cases of doubt, arising from any peculiarity of the
perfumed spirits, suggesting that the hydrometer does not
afford an accurate indication of the strength, a sample
should be sent to the laboratory ; and also in all cases where
the strength found by the officer is less than that declared
by the exporter by more than 2 per cent.
8. The quantity drawn for a sample to be sent to the
laboratory is to be not less than 3 oz. of perfumed spirits
and 1 gill of flavouring essences. The sample may be
contained in, or taken from, separate bottles, but the
contents of all the bottles must be of the same strength.
These samples are to be labelled with the name of the
flavouring essences or perfumed spirits, and the original
notice to export (Form III. — 5) should be forwarded by the
first post to the laboratory.
9. The name of the particular flavouring essence or per-
fumed spirits must be stated on the label attached to each
bottle, and every case must be branded or inscribed with a
progressive number and distinguishing mark, the bulk
gallons contained therein, the name of the person for whom
the goods were bottled, or a special mark without a name,
and the words " flavouring essences" or" perfumed spirits,"
as the ca se may be.
10. Every case after the bottles have been counted, the
strengths ascertained by the hydrometer, or samples taken
for the laborator3', and the contents compared with the
specification, must be packed, closed, and securely fastened
with tape or wire at the trader's expense, and sealed by the
officer with the Revenue seal.
11. There is no objection to the refilling of the bottles
sampled with flavouring essences or perfumed spirits of the
same kind and strength should the exporter so desire, or to
the substitution of bottles already filled, labelled, &o. for
packing, of similar kind, si/.e, and strength.
12. The full particulars of the several cases, and the total
bulk gallons of each consignment, must be entered in an
opening of the survey book according to the following
precedent : —
a
Dcscrin
-
09
-
•a
of
r
Z
>
\t -
:i 2 ca
u ' ™<a a. ■'■ c—
*
aa
-
ss S»
- - -
S " -
o°0
sogq
■^ i
a
■- ?
36 ^|=
as - ' ~ jz
13. The officer should certify, at foot of the notice
(Form III. — 5), that the contents of the cases agree with
the specification.
14. If on testing the strength by the hydrometer, or on
examination of the sample at the laboratory, the average
strength is found to be less by not more than 2 degree- than
that declared by the exporter, the declared strength
will be regarded as correct, and drawback, &c. allowed
accordingly.
15. If, however, the average strength found be less by
more than 2 degrees than that declared, a deduction to the
extent of the difference, and a further deduction of
1 degree is to be made, in calculating the proof quantities
of all the flavouring essences and perfumed spirits in the
consignment ; but where the difference amounts to 5 degrees
or more, the Board will specially determine the basis
on which the calculation for drawback, &c. is to be
made.
16. For example, two samples are taken, the strengths of
which are declared to be 50 over proof and 8 under proof
respectively, or an average of 21 over proof.
17. These are found by the hydrometer or by analysis to
be 47 over proof and 9-3 under proof respectively, or an
average of 18-6 over proof. The drawback would be payable
on the basis of the declared strengths if the average found
had been 19 over proof or more ; but, since it is less than
that declared by 2-4 degrees, a further deduction of 1 degree
is to be made (in all 3 • 4 degrees) in calculating the proof
quantities of all the flavouring essences or perfumed spirits
in the consignment.
18. In arriving at the amount of drawback payable under
these provisions, the bulk and proof gallons are to be
calculated to centesimals, following the rule adopted as
regards spirits bottled in warehouse.
19. An ordinary spirit certificate, showing the number of
cases, the total bulk gallons, &c, must be sent with tin-
goods to the ship's side, the original notice (Form III. — 5)
being in all cases sent at the same time .to the collector of
Customs at the port from which the goods are to be
exported. The proper officer of Customs will certify-
thereon the shipment of the goods, and send it immediately
to the Customs Statistical Office. It will then be returned
without delay to the station whence the goods were
removed.
20. When samples are sent to the laboratory, a copy
of the notice (Form III. — J) must be sent thereto by first
post.
21. This notice, with the analysis strength inserted
therein, will be forwarded from the laboratory to the
proper officer, or by the Board to the proper collector, as
may be, in accordance with the instructions in the
case of tinctures, in General ( Irdei of April Gth last.
22. The officer should note, on each notice, the address
to which it should be returned.
23. An abstract of each consignment should be sent to
the principal of the Statistical Department.
24. Bond, with surety, for the due exportation of the
goods, must be given by the rectifier or compounder before
removal. The bond may be a general one. A special
form of bond (No. 294 — I) has been provided for use
under the regulations in this Order, and a supply can be
obtained in the usual way.
25. On receipt of the Form III. — 5, examined by the
supervisor, the collector will take steps for payment of the
drawback without delay.
26. When flavouring essences or perfumed spirits are
exported to the Isle of Man, the following course is to be
adopted : - -
27. When the strength has to be ascertained at the
laboratory the officer must prepare a copy of the original
notice for transmission to the collector of Customs at
Douglas, and forward the original notice to the principal of
the laboratory, who, after inserting therein the ascertained
strengths, will forward it to the collector at Douglas, in
order to enable him to charge the insular duty. Both
notices will then be returned to the proper collector of
Inland Revenue, for payment of drawback. &e.
Scpt.3o,i8(2.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
787
28. If the strength be determined by the officer and
found correct, only the original notice need be sent to the
collector at Douglas.
29. In cases of extreme variation of strengths, whether
found by the officer or at the laboratory, the notice will be
sent to the collector at Douglas by the Hoard, when the
basis for calculation of drawback has been fixed.
Flavouring Essences.
30. With regard to these essences an allowance for waste
of 4 per cent., is to be made upon those prepared by
maceration or percolation, the same as in the case of
tinctures ; and upon those prepared chiefly by the addition
of flavouring ingredients to the spirits, an allowance of
2 per cent.
31. The drawback of duty will be at the rate of 10s. Gd.
per proof gallon, with the usual allowance of 4d. per
gallon.
32. The sizes of the bottles will be restricted to J oz.,
1 oz., 2 oz., 4 oz., i pint, 1 pint, 2 pints, and 4 pints.
33. A case may contain flavouring essences of different
kinds, but all the bottles in the same case must be of the
same size.
34. When the size of the bottles is not less than 5 oz.,
they must be packed in cases containing not less than two
bulk gallons, and when the size of the bottles is not greater
than 4 oz., they may be packed in cases containing not
less than 1 gallon.
35. Schedule of flavouring essences in respect of which
the special allowance of 4 per cent, for waste may be
granted under the provisions of this General Order :—
Essence
of celery.
Essence of tonquin.
chocolate.
„ vanilla.
coffee.
,, lemon, made with
>»
ginger.
spirits and lemon-peel.
,,
horehound,
Essence of orange, made with
,,
orris.
spirits and orange-peel.
,»
tamarind.
Perfumer! Spirits.
36. An allowance of 4 per cent, for waste is to be made
on perfumed spirits as prepared for sale (except upon
certain articles herein-after mentioned) ; but in order to
become entitled to this allowance the exporter must make
a declaration on Form III. — 5, that the perfumed spirits
have been made from pomade extracts, or from other
macerated substances prepared in this country, and that
they do not consist of and have not been manufactured
from imported perfumed spirits.
37. The drawback of duty will be at the rate of 10s. Gd.
per proof gallon, with the usual allowance of -id. per gallon.
38. To meet the requirements of the trade the sizes may
begin at i oz., and increase by multiples of - oz. ; but the
bottles in each internal package must be of uniform size
and of the same strength, and must contain at least 3 oz.
39. The contents of the bottles are to be checked by
taking not less than six of each size for ascertaining the
average contents of the bottles of that size, and the total
contents for drawback and allowance shall be calculated
from such ascertained average, and not from the nominal
capacities of the bottles.
40. No case is to weigh less than 42 lb., after the same
has been packed and made ready for exportation.
41. The regulations concerning perfumed spirits shall
apply also, as far as applicable, to the following preparations ;
but the sizes of the bottles, except in the case of Eau-de-
Cologne, lavender-water, and Florida water, shall begin
with 1 oz. and increase by multiples thereof: —
Eau-de-Cologne. Dentifrices.
Lavender-water. Hair-washes.
Florida water. Brilliantines.
Toilet-vinegars and waters.
42. The strength of these preparations must be ascer-
tained by the hydrometer.
43. These preparations are not entitled to the allowance
of 4 per cent, for waste ; but the usual drawback of 10s. Gd.,
with the allowance of id. per proof gallon, will he paid.
By the Board,
Robert Micks,
Socretary.
Articles op Interest to Technologists and
Manufacturers.
The following, in the Board of Trade Journal for
September, will repay perusal i —
" Manufacture of Tin and Terne Plates in the
United States " p. 055
" The Russian Salt Industry " p. 263
" Customs Tariff of Greece " • p. 293
" Alterations in the Swiss Customs Tariff "... p. 3 11
The History op Borax in the United States.
Previous to the year 1864 the existence of borax in the
United States was unknown, and the whole of the supplies
came from abroad. In those days its application for
commercial purposes was comparatively limited, and it was
chiefly known as a drug and a blacksmith's flux. Now it is
largely used in welding, as a preservative for animal food,
and as an enamel, while its uses in metallurgical processes
and in assaying have been enormously extended. Thirty
years ago the imports of borax into the United States were
145,000 dols. to 220,000 dols. per annum, but in 1864, when
the domestic product was first placed on the market, the
imports fell to the yearly value of 9,000 dols. In the old
days borax figured chiefly in drug stores, where it -was
retailed at 25 cents an ounce In 1864, however, the price
fell rapidly, until in 1872 it was sold by the producers at
10 cents a pound. Coming down to recent vears we may
note that the 7,589,000 lb. produced in 1888 realised on an
average 6 cents a pound, and that the eleven million pounds
produced in 1887 brought about 5 cents a pound. As yet
the only States where borax is found are California and
Nevada. It is found in several forms, which chiefly occur
as efflorescences from ancient marshes and lake bottoms.
In some cases it occurs as tinkal i.e., crude crystals of
sodium biborate; at other places it is accompanied by other
chemicals, such as sodium chloride and carbonate of soda ;
another common form is borate of lime imbedded in clay
and sand, and known as ulexite or cotton balls ; and pure
borate of lime in the forms of colemanite and pandermite is
also found in great quantities. In the first two cases very
little treatment except purification by solution is required,
and with ulexite, colemanite, and pandermite, the borate of
lime is changed into borate of soda by mixing the solution
when hot with carbonate of soda.
The credit Jof discovering borax in the United States is
due to Dr. Veatch, who noticed in 1856 that the water in a
spring near Bed Bluff, Tehama Co., Cal., contained a small
amount of borax in solution. He followed up this discovery
by searching through the country north of San Francisco,
and in the course of a year or so he found a lake among the
mountains called Clear Lake, whose mud contained great
quantities of crystals of borax. This lake is entirely
surrounded by a circle of hills and the water has no outlet.
The scenery and features of the landscape present many
indications that the bowl of the lake has at one time been
the crater of a volcano. When Dr. Veatch first came
across the lake it was in the summer season, and the area of
the lake was only about 50 acres, and its depth not more
than one foot ; but the appearance of the banks showed that
in winter the lake would cover at least 200 acres. The
uncovered bottom at the time of discovery was a mass of
slimy mud emitting a horrible smell, but studded all over
with groups of crystals of the desired article. It was not,
however, until 1864 that a company was formed to collect
these crystals and place them on the market. The four
succeeding years were bright times for the company, who
grew rich fast, but an unexpected event put a stop to their
undertaking, and suddenly made the district an unprofitable
one. This was the sinking of an artesian well whose
upward flow of water was so great that all attempts to plug
788
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. SO, 1892.
it failed, and the valley consequently became deluged in
water. Shortly after this catastrophy another lake, the
Hachinhama, was discovered in the same locality, and work
was done there for some time. At this "lake, however, the
borax did not crystallise out of its own accord, and the
mud had therefore to be washed and the chemicals in
solution extracted by crystallisation. The borax thus
produced was largely mixed with carbonate of soda, which
had to be washed out afterwards. A few years afterwards,
in 187-2, borate of lime was found in Nevada, and this was
brought to Hachinhama and mixed with the concentrated
waters of the lake. The effect of this mixture was to
transform the borate of lime into borate of soda, and to
change the carbonate of soda into carbonate of lime.
Borax was first discovered in Nevada by Dr. Veatch in
I860, and Mr. William Troup found a marsh near Columbus,
Xev., which contained common salt and ulexite or cotton
balls. It was not, however, till the year 1871 that
Mr. Troup rose to the consciousness that if the cotton balls
were mixed with carbonate of soda, a commercially pure
borax was formed. Even then very little was done, and the
Hachinhama people were allowed to go on without any
rivals, and this condition of affairs was unaltered until in
1872. The Teel's Marsh deposits of crude borax were
discovered by Mr. F. M. Smith, who is at the present time
the president of the Pacific Coast Borax Company. This
borax was of an extremely rich character, and no time was
lost in putting it on the market.
The effect of the competition that sprung up between
Teel's Marsh and Hachinhama was most disastrous. Prices
were cut ruthlessly, until they were insufficient even to pay
for the wood used in the evaporating tanks. It was no
wonder, therefore, that a financial crisis occurred which
ruined the company that worked Teel's Marsh temporarily,
aud the Hachinhama people permanently. Only a short
time elapsed before the Teel's Marsh works were in full
swing again, and they have ever since then held on their
course with the prosperity that attends on careful and
energetic management. The Teel's Marsh deposit was at
first a most remarkable sight. The ground was covered
with a vast deposit which had an appearance not unlike
dirty snow or chalk. On examining it closely it was found
to be covered with a sandy crust which would break uuder
the feet and reveal an understructure of clay and unfathom-
able slime. This and many other marshes subsequently
discovered sometimes, in very wet seasons, assume the form
of lakes, aud in almost ever)' ease they are surrounded by
hills which allow no outlet for the local mountain streams
except the marsh itself. In all these cases, as in the case
of Clear Lake, the first discovered, there is every reason for
supposing that they are the location of ancient volcanoes.
It .is even supposed that these volcanoes are not yet entirely
defunct, for as fast as the first crop of superficial crystals is
removed they are replaced by further formations which
crystallise out of the liquid that oozes upward through the
mud aud clay. At Teel's Marsh this ooze crystallises out
in a hard crust composed of borax, carbonate of soda, and
common salt, while at the San Bernardino Company's
marshes in California, subsequently discovered aud worked,
the crust becomes so hard that the miners have to use their
picks very forcibly. Since the time that Teel's Marsh was
first worked many other deposits of crude borax, both in
marshes aud otherwise, have been worked with profit.
It has already been mentioned that cotton balls or ulexite
were discovered at Columbus aud Saltwells, Nev., in 1871.
Though these deposits were neglected at first, they were
afterward developed, along with many other marshes which
were found to give excellent yields of this, so to speak, oil
of borax. The balls vary in size from pin heads to water-
melons, and they occur generally embedded in tough clay,
though in some cases they are distributed among sand.
They are easily broken at first, but exposure to the air
causes them to become very hard.
In some localities the ulexite is not in the form of balls,
but exists as a powder mixed with sandy loam. For some
years the borax marshes and ulexite formed the only source
of commercial borax, but in the course of a few years a
new and valuable deposit of borate of lime was discovered
by Mr. W. T. Coleman, a well-known borax man of San
Francisco. This discovery was made accidentally while
prospecting for silver in the Calico Mountains in the neigh-
bourhood of Death Valley, where a deposit of borax had
already been fouud. The borate of lime was in the form of
a stratum of snow-white colour, aud at first its constitution
was not understood. Mr. Coleman, however, had an analysis
made of it, and to his and everybody's surprise it was
announced to be very rich in borate of lime.
The new substance existed in stratum or ledge, cropping
out at various points and of an average thickness of six
feet. The Pacific Coast Borax Company took possession
of the ledge and christened the material colemanite.
Further deposits have been discovered more recently, and a
variation of it called pandermite has also been found. The
natural features of the country, however, have stood in the
way of a really successful working of these magnificent
deposits. It can be worked easily enough, but it is impos-
sible to carry out the chemical processes on the spot, owing
to the total absence of fuel and to the great scarcity of
water. Consequently the Pacific Coast Borax Company
are obliged to transport it to San Francisco for chemical
treatment and preparation. Unfortuuately, however, even
this part of the business is surrounded with difficulties.
There is no railroad near and there are absolutely no roads
or highways. The colemanite has to be carried in waggons,
and the waggons are drawn along over rough ground by a
team of mules. At the present time the deposits of
colemanite are comparatively untouched, owing to the
absence of good roads.
As we have already stated, the colemanite is heated for
the production of borax at San Francisco. The method
pursued is the same as in the treatment of cotton balls.
The colemanite is crushed to a tine powder and mixed with
the requisite quantity of carbonate of soda, and then the
mixture is dissolved in water in an iron boiler. The
solution is stirred by an internal mechanical stirrer. The
resulting solution of borax is allowed to stand for a short
time in order that the carbonate of lime shall be precipitated,
and then it is run into open tanks, where, on cooling, the
borax crystallises out in dark coloured crystals. These
crystals are redissolved and recrystallised in a pure and
marketable form.
In the manufacture of borax from cotton balls the process
is slightly different. The balls are ground and mixed with
carbonate of soda and then dissolved in water contained in
an open vat. Besides the resulting carbonate of lime there
are impurities in the cotton balls to be precipitated, such
as sand and clay. The heating is done by steam from a
boiler, and the stirring is done b}T hand. When the
chemical treatment and purification are carried on at the
marshes and other sources of supply, where wood is too
expensive to be used for heating, it is customary to burn
sage brush directly uuder the vats. — Engineering ami
Min in;/ Journnl.
Manihe Market in 1890.
Ann. Report of the Connecticut Agri, E.eper. Stat. 1890,
73—76.
Nitrogenous. — The wholesale quotation for nitrogen in
nitrate of soda and in dried blood fell from 16-1 cents per
pound in 1889 to 11-9 in the early parts, and 11-2 in
December 1890, the retail price in Connecticut being
about 16 cents per pound. Ammoniacal nitrogen also fell
at first, but during the latter part of 1890 was higher than
in 1889, owing to the use of ammonia in iee-making. The
wholesale price was 16'- cents, the retail figure, 18 cents
per pound. Dried fish scrap fell from 22 ■ 50 dols. per ton
in January 1889 to 19-25 dols. per ton during 1890.
Nitrogen was retailed per pound at 15 -5 cents in blood,
from 15-6to 16-8 in castor pomace, and from 11-7 to 13-3
in cotton-seed meal.
Phosphatic. — Refuse lime-black fell from 19-45 dols.
per ton wholesale in the beginning of the year, to 18-50
dols. in September and afterwards. Rough aud ground
bone were quoted at 21-50 dols. and 26 -50 dols. per ton
wholesale throughout the 3-ear ; ground Charleston rock
per ton wholesale at 11-25 dols. in January, 10-65 dols.
in July, and 9-75 in August and afterwards; acid phos-
phate with 14 per cent, available phosphoric acid was
Sept. so. 189a.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
789
quoted in January at 81| cents per unit, equivalent to
4*06 cents per pound of available phosphoric acid, but,
in July and afterwards at 73|, or 3 '7 cents per pound of
available phosphoric acid.
Potassic. — Chloride valued at 3 64 to 3-55 cents per
pound wholesale, and 4*2 to 1*1 retail; potassium
magnesium sulphate at 4'42 — 4-41 cents per pound for
actual potash, falling to 4-27 cents in November, but
rising again to 4-53 cents in December, and retailing at
about G cents per pound throughout the year ; high grade
potassium sulphate, almost free from chloride, cost
wholesale 4'77 cents per pound of actual potash, but
under new tariff with free importation fell to 4-17 in
October, and 4 "06 in November, but rising in December to
4-31 cents; kainite, wholesale, rose from 10' 70 dols. per
ton in January 11 dols. in April, fell to 10'37| in July,
aud in December to 10 dols. — D. A. L.
BOARV OF TRADE RETURNS.
Summary of Imports.
Month endin
^ :3lst August
1891.
1892.
£
l,'.itS.88S
496,852
589,870
£
1,871,897
4S7,1'2
706,2 10
Raw materials for non-
dustries.
textile iu-
Dports ....
1,621,164
Total value of all in
32,746,279
31,341,305
Summary of
Exports.
Month ending 81st August
1891.
1S92.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
2,791,562
615,628
2,549,918
£
2.739,174
7i's,7s;,
2,360,009
20,670,489
20 031,330
Imports of Metals
for Month ending 31st A
UGUST.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper : —
Tons
7,548
7,256
£
59,484
£
35,541
Regulus
„
5,590
10,73'.l
161,169
251,056
Uuwrought ....
..
6,358
3,231
889,549
161,450
Iron:—
"
272.983
7,488
373.221
5,620
204,521
73,350
258,778
Bolt, bar, to. ...
56,032
Steel, unwrought. .
„
1,065
279
10,364
8,189
Lead, pig and sheet
„
1 1,390
14,881
181,491
156,51 I
Pyrites
„
09,699
49.S01
110,284
88,393
Lb.
65,400
67,650
6,676
6,107
Cwt.
Tons
34.7 ts
4,712
67,660
4,509
158,938
11!, 132
323,075
90,057
Other articles . ..V
alue £
netals
..
531,660
451,105
Total value of i
••
"
1 :ih,w
1,871,897
Imports of Oils for Month ending 31st August.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Palm Cwt.
19,864
1,219
88,285
8,358,372
1 ,580
2,662
54,831
17,684
1 ,857
93,673
13,560,606
1,406
2,3ns
91,974
£
26,191
43,396
101,063
172,3 1
41,882
55,842
74,321
69,271
£
06,000
95.261
261,550
34.1SS
45,511
99,965
83,313
Other articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
5S9.S7I1
7lHl,2-lii
Imports of Raw Material for Non-Textile
Industries for Month ending 31st August.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1361.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian .
Cwt.
6,472
7,924
£
14,586
£
15,949
Lb.
.331,001
493,855
46,029
81,355
Cwt.
23,870
15,483
898,212
119,417
Gum : —
„
6,978
6,137
14,554
1.3,962
8,906
7.117
32,576
20 595
Gutta-percha ...
„
4,339
8,668
50,864
44,800
Hides, raw: —
Dry
„
36,470
24,898
103,1171
61,142
51,301
52,059
115.292
108,178
„
634
756
30,906
34,361
Manure : —
Tons
7S5
2.907
5,839
20,567
4,450
2.126
23,345
9.696
. Cwt.
36,338
33,081
51,645
50,708
Tons
3,222
2,071
33,745
21,129
19,111
18,333
91,155
88,969
Palp of wood ...
„
15,155
16,101
78,017
80,714
Cwt.
189,894
154,000
35,642
37,958
Tallow and stearin „
165,847
126,131
215,06 1
157,173
Barrels
33,179
35,967
20,575
191,748
Wood :—
Loads
275,640
30S.370
565,922
718,880
733.372
794,077
1,501,491
1,719,279
15,497
18,850
57,839
55,735
Tons
3,530
6,334
31,049
59,533
Other articles....
Value £
■•
955,571
1.042,195
Total value
••
1,436,652
4 021,154
Besides the above, drujjs to the value of 05,i!-j3/. were imporU-il
as against 57,001?. in August 1801.
790
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. 3d, 1892.
Imports of Chemicais and Dyestuffs fob Month
ending 3 1st August.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
6,579
67,027
5,639
31,305
£
4,120
35,03!
£
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
12,901
49.377
35,382
14,045
10,458
..
..
127,101
102,740
m
27S
4,269
1,674
Cutch and gambler Tons
2,791
1,876
55,746
39,472
Dyes : —
16,765
1 4.397
• .
27,645
24,973
..
..
1,335
409
051
2,310
9,103
35,485
Nitrate of soda. ... „
87,989
111,366
16,358
47 200
Nitrate of potash . „
22,840
30,170
20,504
23,889
],190
3, 121
22,403
47,379
Other articles. . . Value £
••
••
142,419
121,192
Total value of chemicals
••
■'
I 16,852
487,122
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending ;S1st August.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
. Lb.
S15.300
754,000
£
21,334
£
16,710
Military stores.
Value £
• .
..
91,027
81,005
. Lb.
1,362,900
1,720,100
20,671
S1.4S8
. Value £
..
..
90,422
103,029
52,706
43,032
1H4 191
77,569
Products of coal
Value £
..
108,189
67,845
Earthenware ..
,,
..
165,018
1S6.432
>■
..
..
10,778
10,314
Glass:—
266,517
144,916
19,717
8,290
9,553
8,638
19,629
20,205
81,578
68,614
29,8 17
33,073
Other kinds..
„
17,582
18,565
15,047
13,929
Leather : —
Unwrought . .
• ,,
12,189
10,001
111 362
94,831
Value £
..
..
33,151
40,932
4,009
1.51S.500
4,679
1,282,700
108,298
06,133
91.292
59,334
Sq. Yds.
Painters' materials Val. £
..
..
129,768
115,648
78,822
7.1,072
133,779
131,159
4,05 I
47,798
26,689
15,120
20.006
49,955
1 !,739
••
••
2,549,918
2,360,069
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending 31st August.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
10,282
43,899
27,363
28,539
272,209
3,071
8,295
11,334
7,854
OS 936
26,780
20,197
239,025
4,306
9,237
17,362
£
45,585
121,309
S9,650
S0.672
193,817
99,170
1,884,692
42,098
31,635
112690
39,655
1R.097
£
33,6-40
Copper :—
Miied metal
Implements „
100,008
79,379
10,056
1S3.320
100,644
1,880,174
43 303
Plated wares... Value £
Telegraph wires, &c. „
27,739
29,755
45,369
18,726
70,390
Other articles . . Value £
84,682
••
2,791 532
2,739 174
Extorts of Drugs and Chemicals for Month evding
31st August.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Medicines Value£
Ot her articles ... „
423,053
114,739
35,102
500,228
150,624
49,959
£
158,344
39,615
141,747
86,842
180,080
£
170.474
69,807
109,191
10,911
216,402
••
"
015,028
70S.785
8flpt.so.i892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
791
iflontfjlp patent 3tist,
• The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two monihs of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
14,672. W. McGufrin Greaves. Improved methods for
supplying air to furnaces, and the apparatus therefor.
August 15.
14,675. A. G. Berry. Improvements in and relating to
multiple effect evaporators for treating sugar and other
liquids. August 15.
14,835. E. Ashworth. Improvements in the method of
and in apparatus for evaporating spent liquors, and for
recovering salts therefrom. August 17.
14,s.'»l. F. Windhausen. Process and apparatus for
separating out the constituent parts of gaseous and liquid
compounds. August 17.
14,926. J. U. Askham. Improvements in apparatus for
separating suhstances of different sizes or specific gravities.
August 18.
14,985. T. Blatcher. Improvements in apparatus for
producing currents of inflammable gases and air. August 1 9.
15,122. W. H. Beck.— From B. de Lissa, Australia. See
Class II.
15,124. G. H. Richmond. Improvements in apparatus
for heating and cooling liquids. August 23.
15,181. C.M.King. An improved apparatus for extrac-
tion and lixiviation. August 23.
15,244. V. J. Kuess and C. H. J. D. Donnadieu. An
improved construction of alembic. August 24.
15,270. G. Thomas. — From A. Stauber, Germany. An
oil-testing apparatus for ascertaining the frictional coeffi-
cient of oils and fats. August 25.
15,286. J. Martin. Improvements in apparatus for
automatically controlling the flow of pulp and other semi-
liquid or liquid substances. August 25.
15,521. F. M. Robertson. Improvements in means or
apparatus for evaporating or drying. August 30.
15,698. F. W. Golby. — From B. Jardiu, France. Im-
provements in apparatus for heating air. Complete
Specification. September 1.
15,786. C. Wegener and P. Baumert. Improvements in
furnaces using coal-dust or the like as fuel. September 2.
15,880. A. Dauber. Improvements in calcining furnaces.
September 5.
16,019. A. McNeill. Improvements in and relating to
multiple effect evaporating apparatus. September 7.
16,031. G. H. Biddies and J. Hewes. A new or improved
furnace for burning town or other refuse. September 7.
16,259. G. Mitchell. Improvements in presses for the
expression of oils or other liquids from substances containing
the same. September 10.
16,308. W. Maybach. Improvements in the methods
of and apparatus for effecting a continuous circulation
and cooling of cooling liquids employed in motors and
compressors. Complete Specification. September 12.
16,403. C. W. Cooper. Improvements in methods of
and apparatus for evaporating liquids. Complete Specifi-
cation. September 13.
16,609. J. McPhail. Improvements in or connected
with supporting or strengthening pipes containing liquid
under pressure. September 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
17,750. J. J. Mi-Daniel. Method of and apparatus for
securing a continuous time record of the rate of distillation
and direction of flow of distilled fluids. August 24.
18,533. J. Wright. Construction of vertical stills for
distillation of ammoniacal and other liquors or liquids.
September 21.
21,072. G. Johnston. Apparatus for drying moist
substances or materials. August 24.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
14,725. J. Mitchell. Improvements in machinery or
apparatus for withdrawing coke from coke ovens and for
like purposes. August 15.
14,862. C. R. Poulsen. New or improved apparatus for
the production of ozone by means of phosphorus.
August 17.
15,122. W. H. Beck.— From B. de Lissa, Australia. An
improved method of and apparatus to be used in the
manufacture and storage of inflammable gas for general
purposes. Complete Specification. August 22.
15,217. F. G. Birehall. Improvements in carburetting
coal-gas. August 24.
15,262. E.J. Rotbwell. Consuming smoke and saving
fuel. August 25.
15,639. H. Collet and M. Mericheuski. An improved
mixture intended for use in making or enriching combustible
gas. August 31.
15,748. T. W. Lee. Improvements in the manufacture
of blocks or briquettes of fuel. September 2.
15,777. W. H. Laird. A process for producing gas and
apparatus for using the produced gas for heating purposes.
Complete Specification. September 2.
15,802. W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins, H. Fuller, and W. H.
Fuller. An improved apparatus for carburetting gas.
September 2.
15,818. P. H. Dawe, T. Gill, A. Brown, and J. Robinson.
Improvements in retort benches and ascension pipes for the
manufacture of gas. September 3.
15,925. J. J. Hood and A. G. Salamon. Improvements
in the purification of coal-gas. September 5.
16,258. V. B. Lewes. Improvements in the manufacture
or production of illuminating gas from liquid hydro-
carbons and apparatus therefor. Complete Specification.
September 10.
16,273. J. F. Bell. Improvements in self-sealing gas
retort mouthpieces. September 12.
16,320. H. S. Pringle. An improved combination of
ingredients or plastic compound, suitable for heating
purposes. September 12.
16,322. C. Winter. Improvements in artificial fuel.
Complete Specification. September 12.
16,622. J. Bowing. Improvements in coking processes,
and in the manufacture of coke, and in the recovery of
products. September 17.
792
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, 1892.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
14,440. W. Arroland W. Foulis. Apparatus for charging
gas and other retorts, and in part applicable for other
purposes. August 24.
20, 120. H. H. Lake.— From W. H. Harris. Manufacture
of gas and apparatus therefor. September 7.
1892.
737'.i. A. G. Boult. — From H. C. Rew. Gas generators.
September 7.
8207. W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins. H. Fuller, and W. H.
Fuller. Metallic block to be used in the production of
hydrogen. September 7.
12,716. A. Noteman. Process and apparatus for making,
heating and illuminating gas. September 7.
13,339. J. M. Bailey. Apparatus for the production of
fuel-gas. August 31.
13,379. W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins, H. Fuller, and W. II.
Fuller. Generators to be used in the production of hydrogen
gas. September 21.
1. R. F. Strong and A. Gordon. Manufacture of
artificial fuel. August 31.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
14,71 7. 0. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briining, Germany. Improvements in the
production of alpha-nitro-alpha-aniido and alpha-quinoline
compounds of alizarine and the anthra- and flavo-purpurines.
August 15.
14,728. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in or
connected with the manufacture or production of colouring
matters. August 15.
14.742. R. G. Williams. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of new colour-producing bases and new colouring
matters therefrom. August 16.
14,927. H. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new colouring matter-. August 18.
14,993. G. Pitt.— From L. Cassella and Co., Germany.
Production of new dyestuffs derived from amidouaphthol-
sulphonic acids. August 19,
15,056. H. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture of dyestuffs. August 20.
15.246. J. V. Johnson. — From The Badische Auilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The manufacture and production
of uneenish - blue mordant dyeing colouring matters.
August 24.
15,311. ( I. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, and Briining, Germany. Manufacture of novel
alizarine colouring matters. August 25.
15,321. 11. K. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The production of new
sulpho-acids and salts thereof. August 25-
15,325. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. The manufacture and production
of new mordant dyeing colouri! g matters, and of new inter-
mediate products relating thereto. August 25.
15,386. Read, Holliday and Sons, and K. B. Elbell.
Improvements in the manufacture of azo colouring matters
and of materials for the same. August 26.
18. 11. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayei and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new colouring matter.-. August 27
15,439. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co.. Germany. Improvements in the
production of black azo colours upon fibres. August 27.
15,636. H. E. Newton. — From 'lhe Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new azo colouring matters suitable for dyeing
and printing. August 31.
15,692. J. R. Geigy. Production of two isomeric disulpho-
acids of para-amidophenol, and obtaining violet-black dye-
stuffs therefrom. September 1.
15,789. C. D. Abel.— From The Actien Gesellschaft fur
Amlin Fabrikation, Germany. Improvements in the pro-
duction of azo-colouring matters. September 2.
16.569. CD. Abel.— From The Actien Gesellschaft fiir
Anilin Fabrikation, Germany. Manufacture of new colour-
ing matters. September 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,377. H. H. Lake.— From F. Reverdin and C. de la
Harpe. Manufacture of colouring matter. September 21.
18,606. H. H. Lake.— From Wirth and Co., agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters.
August 31.
18,783. O. Imray. — - From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, und Briining. A new manufacture of
colouring matter. September 7.
19,061. B. YVilleox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Haver and Co. Manufacture and production of new
cotton or substantive dyestuffs. August 31.
19,062a. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters.
August 31.
19,847. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, und Briining. Manufacture of colouring
matters from prctocatechuic acid and phenols. Septem-
ber 21.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications
14,754. G. C. Kingsbury. Improvements in the treat-
ment of textile fibres for manufacturing purposes.
August 16.
16,043. J. Purchase. Improvements in the cultivation
and treatment of certain plants to obtain fibres and other
products therefrom. September 7.
16,515. T.W.Harding. Improvements in the method
of and apparatus for reducing cotton-seed and removing
fibre or fluff therefrom. September 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,081. R. Scott and W. J. Beard. Manufacture of
floorcloth and like fabrics and machinery therefor. Sep-
tember 21.
17,562. C. Ideson. Apparatus for gassing silk and other
yarns. August 24.
18,878. S. Fisher and H. Murgatroyd. Machinery or
apparatus for cleaning and lustreing dyed or undyed yarns
of silk, cotton, or other fibrous substances. September 7.
Sept. 3«, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
793
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
1-1,943. C. A. Sahlstrom and E. Pair. Improvements in
the bleaching of wool, hair, silk, cotton, flax and other
animal and vegetable fabrics and fibres, paper, pulp, and
the like. August 18.
15,000. J. O. Obermaier. Improvements in or relating
to the mordanting, dyeing, washing, and otherwise
treating of spun yarn or the like, and apparatus therefor.
August 19.
15,082. E. Obermayer. An improved process of dyeing
animal fibres and fabrics, horn, feathers, leather, and
albuminous substances generally. August 20.
15,239. W. T. Lye. Improvements in the bleaching or
dyeing of chip, chip-plait, straw, or straw-plait. August 24.
15,310. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Pruning, Germany. Improvements
in dyeing wool and woollen fabrics with sulphonic acids of
alizarin colouring matters. August 25.
15,726. D. Stewart and T. Lambert. Improvements in
cleansing, bleaching, and dyeing textile materials and
fabrics, and in apparatus therefor. September 2.
15,933. C. I. Edmoudson. Improvements in printing
designs or patterns in two or more colours upon textile
fabrics. September 6.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
11,101. S. Smithson. Means or apparatus for dyeing
yarns, piece-goods, and the like. September 14.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
14,835. E. Ashworth. See Class I.
14,842. I. Levinsteiu and T. G. Webb. Improvements in
the method of and apparatus for concentrating sulphuric
acid and other liquids. August 17.
14.945. H. W. Wallis. Improvements in the manufacture
of chlorine. August 18.
14.946. H. W. Wallis. Improvements iu the manufacture
of chlorine. August 18.
15,083. L. Grabau. Improvements relating to the
manufacture of aluminium fluoride. August 20.
15,275. W. Stones and R. Bardsley. Improvements in
the method of and in apparatus for the production of
carbonic acid gas. Complete Specification. August 25.
15,346. F. Bale. Improvements in obtaining ammonia,
hydrochloric acid, and chlorine from ammonium chloride,
also in obtaining chlorine from hydrochloric acid, and in
the apparatus used. August 26.
15,513. H. J. Haddan. — From Viscount Lam billy,
France. New process for the production of the cyanides of
the alkalis and alkaline earth by the simultaneous employ-
ment of a hydrocarbon and ammonia gases, with the
addition, if desired, of free nitrogen. Complete Specification.
August 29.
15,653. E. A. Deiss. Process and apparatus for the
production of sulphocyanides. August 31.
15,809. T. D. Owen. Improvements in the manufacture
of copper sulphate. September 3.
16,046. II. Y. Castner. An improved process of and
apparatus for the electrolytic decomposition of alkaline
salts, September 7.
16,297. H. C. Bull and .1. Ramage. An improved
process for making hydrochloric acid and obtaining pure
silicates of soda aud lime for use in glass-making from
pure sodic chloride with pure calcic carbonate and refuse
sand from grinding plate glass. September 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
12,522. E. Brochon. Process and apparatus for enriching
or concentrating phosphates of lime. August 1 7.
17,659. P. de Wilde, A. Reychler, and F. Hurter.
Apparatus for the manufacture of chlorine. August 31.
17,796. G. F. Briudley. New solidc ompounds of sulphur
trioxide, water, and the bisulphates or acid sulphates of
sodium or potassium. September 21.
17,911. H. C. Sacre and II. Grimshaw. The utilisation
of the waste oxide of iron produced in the manufacture and
purification of chloride of zinc. August 31.
18,700. C. W. Vincent. Preparation of mineral salts for
bathing and drinking purposes. September 21.
22,481. E. Edwards. — From O. Guttmann and L.
Rohrmann. Process for the preparation of pure nitric acid.
September 21.
22,558. A. M. Clark.— From The Deutsche Gold und
Silber-Scheideanstalt vormals Roessler. Production of salts
of ferricyanogen. September 2 1 .
13,208.
ammonia.
W. Malster.
August 31.
1892.
Manufacture of sulphate
of
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
14,830. F. Winkle and J. Winkle. An improved
appliance or tool for use in forming or shaping the interior
of vessels or utensils made of or from clay, or similar plastic
material or compound. August 17.
15,162. W. L. Pilkington. Improvements in the pro-
duction of corrugated or like roughened surface sheet glass.
August 23.
15.453. I. Rozelaar. An improved manufacture of
pottery ware. August 27.
15.454. I. Rozelaar. An improved manufacture of
decorated pottery ware. August 27.
1 5,934. J. Bilton. A new method of decorating pottery,
porcelain, tiles, bricks, &c. September 6.
16,143. S. Hughes. Improvements in the manufacture
of glass bottles. September 9.
16,241. J. C. Duntze. An improved process for pro-
ducing colours on glass surfaces. Complete Specification.
September 10.
16,252. P. Sievert. Improvements in glass furnaces.
September 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,559. T.Arnold. Utilisation of slag for the manufacture
of blocks, slabs, drain-pipes, or other moulded articles.
September 7.
21,542. A. R. Carter and II. C. Hughes. Manufacture of
stained glass panels for windows and other transparencies
and mural decoration. September 21.
79i
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Sept. so, is»2.
1892.
13,220. H. H. Leigh.— From I. K. Rue. Enamelled
brick?, and manufacture thereof . August 24.
13,227. W. P. Thompson.— From the Clay Glass Tile Co.
Process of plating clay with glass and articles made in
accordance therewith. August 24.
13,569. J. W. Bonta. Lears or annealing furnaces for
sheet or plate glass. August 31.
K.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
14,889. R. Kieffert and H. Thirion. Improvements in
cements. Complete Specification. August 17.
15,147. J. E. Keselinff and C. Fuchs, jun. An artificial
stone composition. Complete Specification. August 23.
15,221. J. C. Sellars. Improvements in or connected
with the manufacture of Portland or equivalent cement,
mouldings, castings, Mocks, or the like. August 24.
15,468. G. J. Elwood and R. Elwood. An improved
process of preparing wood for the reception and indelible
preservation uf characters or designs written, painted,
printed, engraved, embossed, or otherwise. August 29.
15,531. S. it. Wilmot. Wilmot's fireproof lathing.
August 30.
15,911. E. Edwards. — From K. Goetz, Austria. Improved
process for producing liquid clay or slip for casting in
moulds. Complete Specification. September 5.
16,040. W. Orr. Improvements in the construction of
concrete roofs and floors for buildings. September 7.
16,354. J. E. Eeseling and C. Fuchs, jun. An artificial
stone composition. Complete Specification. September 13.
Coiwplete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,139. F. Haines. Constructing cement or the like
pavements, floors, platforms, or other surfaces or structures.
August 31.
15,195. C. Tompkins and J. A. Kinder. Improvement
in buildings, fireproof walls, partitions, and roofs.
August 31.
15,281. W. F. Thomas. Decoration of artificial stone
and pavements. September 14.
19,46". J. C. Bloomfield. Manufacture of plaster.
September 14.
20,269. L. Haarmann. Means for securing asphalt mastic
as a coating or stopping upon all descriptions of buildings
and building materials. August 24.
20,740. .1. H. Blakesley. Fireproof floors, roofs, girders,
joists, and the like. Augusi 31.
1892.
12,174. 0. Terp. Manufacture of artificial stone and
hard compositions applicable to building and paving
purposes, to moulds for cement castings, to safes, and to
other articles and purposes. August 24.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
14,739. N. Henzel. An improved method of converting
pulverous metallic oxides into solid ores. August 15.
14,787. J. Mandt and H. Huhnholz. Improved method
of soldering aluminium to aluminium and other metals and
alloys. August 16.
14,920. E. Goll and C. Vatcky. Improved aluminium
solder, and method of manufacturing the same. August 18.
14,982. T. D. Rock. A new method of dealing with
blast-furnace and other slag, and apparatus therefor.
August 19.
15,058. E. Martin. Process for alloying the surfaces of
metal wires, strips, plates, sheets, and the like. Complete
Specification. August 20.
15,075. J. von Langer and L. Cooper. Improvements
in or connected with furnaces for puddling, welding,
annealing, smelting, and similar industrial operations.
August 20.
15,152. W. P. Thompson. Improvements in or relating
to the production of bright metallic deposits. August 23.
15,206. J. D. Gilmour. Improvements in the extraction
of gold or other metals from ore. August 24.
15,248. J. W. Sutton. Improvements in the wet process
for the extraction of gold or silver, or both, from pulverised
ores or other finely-divided material, and in apparatus
therefor. Complete Specification. August 24.
15,289. T. Ray. An improved furnace for heaiing
malleable iron or steel. August 25.
15,444. II. IT. Lake. — From G. F. Simonds, United
States. Improvements relating to the manufacture of steel,
and to furnaces therefor, said furnaces being applicable for
other uses. August 27.
15,491. E. H. L. Sturzel. Improvements relating to the
coating of articles with zinc. August 29.
15,584. J. W. Chenhall. Improvement connected with
the extraction of metals from their ores. Complete
Specification. August 30.
15,707. G.D.Simpson. Improvements in or connected
with apparatus or appliances for condensing and depositing
metallic fumes. September 1.
15,713. J. B. Alzugaray. — From J. B. Torres, France.
Improvements in and connected with the reduction of
antimony ores, alloys, and salts, and purification of the
metal obtained therefrom. Sept. 1.
16,002. H.F.Taylor. Improvements in gas-fired furnaces
for heating, re heating.and annealing purposes. September 6.
16,168. K. Wittgenstein. Process for manufacturing
thin steel or iron sheets direct from ingots or blooms.
Complete Specification. September 9.
16,173. J. T. Wainwright. Improvements in the process
of reducing unsmelted ore, including roasted ore, furnace
cinders, and like material. Complete Specification.
September 9.
16.234. G. Selve. Improvements in coating or plating
aluminium with other metals or alloys. September 10.
16,246. B. Dukes From J. Rose, Germany. Improved
process for obtaining aluminium. September 10.
16,292. O. Nicolai and C. Langenbach. Soldering
aluminium. September 12.
16,312. O. C. Strecker. Improvements in the prepara-
tion and production of aluminium plates for printing
purposes. September 12.
16,356. T. Lockerbie. Improvements in the treatment
of slags, and apparatus for effecting the same.
September 13.
16,408. G. F. Thomson. Improvements in or relating
to the manufacture of iron and steel. September 13.
spt.su, 1992.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
795
16.5S2. A. Kay. Improvements in ihe treatment of dust
deposited in calcining furnace, flues or other material to
obtain bismuth therefrom. September 16.
16,629. W.Mills. Improvements in the manufacture of
aluminium, and apparatus therefor. September 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
9784. W. Noad, C. Minns, and P. II. Stephens. Process
or means for extracting or recovering metals from their ores
or other metal-bearing bodies, September 14.
15,567. E. B. Parnell. Furnaces for treating ores.
August 24.
16,178. C. Walrand and E. Legenisel. Treatment of
steel, and apparatus therefor. August 24.
17,315. J. H. Pratt. New or improved metallic alloys.
September 7.
17,636. F. Webb. Means or apparatus for extracting
precious metals from their ores. September 21.
17,755. J. B. Alzugaray. Basic furnace lining and basic
material. September 21.
18,442. W. A. Sugden.— From W. R. Sugden. Manu-
facture of iron, and a fuel or compound suitable therefor.
September 21.
18,559. T. Arnold. See Class VIII.
19,118. H. Le Neve Foster. Manufacture of iron.
September 14.
19,389. S. H. Johnson and C. C. Hutchinson. Leaching
ores, and apparatus therefor. September 21.
19,771. A. K. Huntington and J. T. Prestige, jun.
Copper alloys. September 21.
20,003. H. Y. Castner. Manufacture of the oxides of
alkaline metals. September 21.
1892.
4460. W. P. Thompson.— From W. J. Miles, jun.,
II. S. Deming, and A. Herz. Metallic alloys. August 24.
10,583. W. P. Thompson.— From B. Talbot. Treatment
of iron and basic slag, and extracting silicon and phos-
phorus. September 14.
13,148. G. G. M. Hardingham. — From H. Wilisch.
Hardening particles of steel or other metal, and apparatus
therefor. August 31.
14,264. P. Hart. Method of desulphurising zinc ores.
September 14.
14,586. J. L. Sebenius. Apparatus for removing, when
casting, gases and impurities contained in the metal or
alloy. September 21.
XI.— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
14.719. T. Floyd. Improvements in and relating to
electrical storage batteries. August 15.
14.720. A. J. Jarman. Improvements in and relating to
electrical storage batteries. August 15.
14.813. E. P. Usher. Improvements in electric battery
plates. Complete Specification. August 16.
14.814. E. P. Usher. Improvements in storage batteries.
Complete Specification. August 16.
14.815. E. P. Usher. Improvements in storage batteries.
Complete Specification. August 16.
14.816. E. P. Usher. Improvements in electric battery
plates. Complete Specification. August 16.
14,947. A. J. Jarman. Improvements in the plates or
electrodes of electric storage batteries. August 18.
15,113. J. P. Koubcrtie, V. Lapeyse, and U. Grenier.
Manufacture of caustic soda and potash, and hydrochloric
acid, by electrolytic treatment of chloride of sodium and
chloride of potassium, and apparatus for this purpose.
August 22.
15,120. H. W. Headland. Improvements in or applicable
to electrical accumulators or secondary or storage batteries.
August 22.
15,197. H. M. E. Andreoli. Improvements in electrolytic
apparatus. August 23.
15,296. H. C. Bull and J. Ramage. Improvements in
and appertaining to electrical accumulators. August 25.
15,319. D. Federman. Improvements in and relating to
electric batteries. August 25.
15,356. H. C. Bull. An improved electro-chemical
process for treating iron pyrites, thereby recovering every-
thing valuable contained therein and avoiding all noxious
fumes. August 26.
15,372. YV. Boggett. Improvements in the method and
means of obtaining electricity. August 26.
15,477. A. F. W. Kreiusen. Improvements in the means
for and method of melting metals and other materials by
electricity. Complete Specification. August 29.
15,649. J. Stoerk. Apparatus for continuous decom-
position of alkaline chlorides by electrolytic fusion.
August 31.
15,793. C. G. P. de Laval. Method of smelting or over-
heating iron or other metals by means of electricity. Filed
September 2. Date applied for March 8, 1892, being
date of application in Sweden.
15,799. E. Nunan and J. W. Nelson. An improvement
in galvanic batteries. Complete Specification. September 2.
15,887. H. H. Frei. Improvements in and apparatus for
obtaining metals by electrolysis. September 5.
16,201. J. B. Fachris. Improvements in galvanic
batteries. September 10.
16,262. C. A. Faure. Improvements in the electrolytical
decomposition of alkaline chlorides for the production
of chlorine and alkalis, and in apparatus therefor.
September 10.
16,300. H. H. Frei. Improved method of and means for
supplying electricity to the carbon electrodes employed in
the electrolysis of fused electrolytes. September 12.
16,461. W. Main. Improvements in secondary batteries.
Complete Specification. Filed September 14. Date applied
for February 15, 1892, being date of application in United
States.
16,545. A. E. J. Ball. Improvements in and relating to
dry and other galvanic batteries. September 16.
16,588. P. Garuti. Production of oxygen and hydrogen
by electrolysis of water. Filed September 1 6. Date applied
for, April 25, being date of application in Italy.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,758. The Mining and General Electric Lamp Co.
and J. T. Niblett. Elements for secondary batteries.
September 7.
18,974. T. Parker. Electrical furnaces for the manufac-
ture of phosphorus or other matters capable of being
volatilised by heat. September 7.
1892.
14,044. J. C. Fell.— From \Y. Morrison,
secondary batteries. September 21.
Electrodes for
?9o
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Sept. SO, 1892.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
14,726. G. Harper. Improved compound or composition
for cleaning or removing paint and varnish or for cleansing
wood, metal, and stone. August 15.
15,012. J. Trent and G. Henderson. A process of
extracting, purifying, and saving the fat or grease from
wool, and for cleaning the wool by the use of benzole
(benzene) or any other spirituous liquid suitable for dis-
solving the fat or grease. Complete Specification.
August 19.
15,270. G. Thomas. — From A. Stauber, Germany. Sec
('hiss I.
IS, 432. W. Shepperson. Improvements in the treatment
of animal fats. August 29.
15,696. W. C. Latham. An improved cleansing com-
pound. September 1.
15,899. J. C. Decker. Improvements in oil for general
painting. Complete Specification. September 5.
16,018. W. H. Ilorton and E. M. Taylor. An improve-
ment in what is commonly called dry soap or soap-powder,
and intended for use for certain purposes. Complete
Specification. September 7.
16,314. ,T. G. Haller and I. Magnus. — From R. Gieber-
mann, United States. A process for recovery and treatment
of glycerin. September 1 2.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,^47. J. Alexander and Co., Limited, and H. de Laspee.
Manufacture of soap and saponaceous compounds. Sep-
tember 7.
17,440. J. Templeman. Manufacture of soaps and
saponaceous compounds. August 24.
18,632. F. G. Haigh aud W. C. Haigh. Fluid soap.
September 21.
19,297. J. Taylor. Manufacture of soaps. September 14.
20,445. H.E.Walter. Cleansing material. September 14.
1892.
12,974. G. 1'. Macdougald and J. Sturrock. Process or
means for making soap cakes or bars with an indelible
colour. August 24.
13,081. W. P. Thompson.— From F. Hlawaty and A.
Kanitz. Manufacture of washing soap. August 24.
14,114. R. Haddan. — From B. Jaffe and L. Darmstiidter.
Separation of wool-wax from wool-fat, and preparation of
lanoliue from the more fluid residue. September 14.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
14,726. G. Harper. See Class XII.
14,7'.: + . (;. I). Coleman. An improved process and
apparatus for the manufacture of white lead aud other
lead pigments. Complete Specification. August 16.
14,888. R. Kieffert and II. Thirion. Improvements in
paints. Complete Specification. August 17.
14,S96. 15. Pitt. A chemical compouud gelatin or
liquid detergent for laundry, washing, or other purposes.
August 18.
15,348. J. W. Longbottom and A. Sharman. An
improved material or composition for coating boilers or
iron work or steel work generally for the prevention of
rust, .xc. and the like. August 26.
15.426. J. \V. Savage. Manufacture of an elastic
compouud for electrical insulation and other purposes.
August 27.
15,452. J.M. Raymond. Improvements in the treatment
of vulcanised india-rubber. August 27.
15.544, A. !■'. S. George. Manufacture of artificial caout-
chouc. August 30.
15,614. J. McDonnell. Coir fibre aud rubber composi-
tion. August 31.
16,184. P. Bronner. Process for the manufacture of
oxide of lead and of white lead from crude sulphate of
lead. September 9.
16,435. P. Bronner. Improvements in the production
of white lead direct from galena. September 14.
16,536. M. Mackay. Improvements in treating copal,
kauri, sandrac, and other gum resins. September 15.
16,573. H. MeKenua. A new 'process for the
manufacture of paints and varnishes and strong cements.
September 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,229. F. J. Rowan and 15. Dawson. Apparatus for
oxidising lead sulphide and zinc to form white pigments.
August 21.
19.545. E. V. Gardner. Manufacture of white lead.
September 21.
1S92.
and
4252. D. Rigole. Extraction of gutta-percha,
apparatus therefor. August 24.
12,175. O. Terp. Enamel paints for resisting damp,
fire, and atmospheric influences, and imitation mosaic and
other articles made therewith. August 24.
13,402. E. Bieruath. A new or improved insulating and
waterproof material. September 21.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
15,630. E. Braud. Improvements in the manufacture
of animal glue. Complete Specification. August 31.
15,807. J. Westaway. Improvements in means and
apparatus for tendering leather waterproof. September 3.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
12,522. E. Brochon. See Class VII.
1892.
12,432. J. T. Knowles. — From L. Buroni and P. Mar-
chand. A composition for fixing ammoniacal nitrogen
used in agriculture. September 21.
Sept. so I882.J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
797
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
14,675. A. G. Berry. See Class I.
15,571. G. .1. Epstein. Improvements in the separation
of gluten from Hour. August 30.
15,816. C. M. Lafontaine. A new or improved process
and apparatus for the treatment and purification of raw
sugar, and its conversion into blocks or ingots. Complete
Specification. September 3.
15,897. A. Bumpier. Process and apparatus for the
production of invert sugar and dextrose. Complete
Specification. September 5.
16,409. G. J. Epstein. Improvements in the treatment
of waste products from the manufacture of starch.
September 13.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
20,119. J. Drummond. Apparatus for separating
impurities from sugar. September 21.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
15,656. C A. Sahlstrom and A. B. Cunningham.
Improvements in the purification and maturing of spirits
and in apparatus therefor. August 31.
16,04S. G. Francke and 0. E. Nycander. Improvements
relating to the production of dry 3-east. September 7.
16,563. W. Uohowsky. A new or improved process or
manufacture of non-injurious beverages from liquids
containing alcohol. September 16.
16,666. W. I!. Lake. — From C. Zimmer, Germany. An
improved process of brewing and apparatus therefor.
September 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13, OSS. II. E. Xewton. — From La Societe Anonyme "La
Levure." Production and preservation of pure yeast.
September 7.
18,258. F. E. V. Bains. Process for treating grain to
obtain a product suitable for use in brewing, distilling,
vinegar making and for other purposes. August 24.
IS, 292. F. Scheibler. Apparatus for liquoring sugar.
September 7.
1 8,53S. R. H. Leaker. Pneumatic malting, and ma-
chinery or apparatus therefor. September 14.
18,833. E. Barlow. Drying and calcining brewers'
refuse and grains, and other substances and materials.
August 31.
18,997. R. H. Leaker. Kilning malt, and structures and
apparatus therefor. August 31.
19,849. P. A. Roche. Manufacture of beer. Septem-
ber 21.
1892.
6531. J. F. Wittemann. Process of finishing beer.
September 7.
12,214. .1. Mosler, M. Schaffer, and A. Sachs. A process
for the production of sugar-colour from brewery and
distillery refuse. September 21.
12,413. B. J. B. Mills. — From the Universal Carbonating
Co. Method and apparatus for carbonating beer.
August 10.
XVIIL— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
16,548. C. Blackmore. A new or improved process for
incorporating malt, or the aroma therefrom, with coffee,
tea, and similar substances used as beverages or food.
Complete Specification. September 16.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
14,861. C. B. Lotheriugton. An improved method of
consuming noxious gases or vapours in chemical manure
and other works, also applicable for ventilating such works.
August 17.
15.285. C. A. Burghardt. Improvements in the produc-
tion of a ferric preparation for the purification of sewage
or other foul water. August 25.
16,333. W. F. Goodhue and C. Paulus. Improvements
in sewage-separating and purifying apparatus. Complete
Specification. September 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
17,363. P. Meyer. See Class XX.
19,859. E. P. Robert. Blood-forming substance and
method of producing the same. September 21.
21,391. D. Evans. — From A. A. Freeman and C. Evans.
Process of preserving oysters and other bivalves in the
shell. September 21.
1892.
13,615. S. T. Achor. Soluble chocolate, and the process
of preparing the same. August 31.
13,642. H. H. Lake. — From S. Crump. An improved
food compound, and method of manufacturing the same.
September 7.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
17,924. A. P. Hope. Process for oxygenating, deo-
dorising, and disinfecting sewage or other fermentable or
noxious matters. September 7.
18.286. G. C. Purvis. Method in sewage precipitatior.
September 7.
18,466. A. Lutschaunig. Manufacture of filtering, preci-
pitating, deodorising, and purifying material. September 14.
19,120. J. P. Alliott Apparatus for dealing with the
refuse of towns. September 14.
19,803. H. P. Boulnois and J. A. Brodie. Refuse
destructors. September 21.
1892.
9760. H. Stier. Proces- for the purification of waste or
refuse water from sewers, mills, works, factories, and the
like. September 14.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
14.7S8. H. H. Lake. — From A. G. Plumraerer. Fluid
insecticide. August 31.
18,466. A. Lutschaunig. See Class XVIIL B.
798
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. fc.30,1892.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
Au improved process of and apparatus
for the manufacture cf paper pulp.
15,720. A. Brin.
for treating peit
September I .
15,851. .T. Craig and G. .1. Wildridge. Improvements in
the manufacture and production of blotting-paper or like
absorbent paper, and apparatus to be employed therein.
September 3.
16,239. S. Berbuto and E. Marguet. Improvements in
paper pulp refining apparatus. September 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,560. H. de Chardonnet. Manufacture of pyroxylines.
August 24.
1S92.
14,335. E. Jerome. Toilet paper. September 14.
XX.— FIXE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
14,715. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Briining, Germany. Improvements in
the production of iodoso compounds. August 15.
14,710. O. Imra_v. — From tie Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Bi lining, Germany. Improvements in
the production of pyrazolone derivatives. August 15.
14,881. II. E. Xewton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals !•'. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new chemical compounds containing sulphur.
August 17.
16,112. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture of
iodine compounds. September 8.
16,279. J. Simpson. Improvements in the manufacture
of iodine. September 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
14,430. A. Schmitz and E. Toenges. Process for the
production of oxy-fatty glycerin ethers and oxy-sulpho-
<>xy-dioxy and sulpho-dioxy fatty acids. August 31.
17,137. O. Imray. — From La Societc de Laire et Cie.
Manufacture of vanilloyl carbonic acid and of vanilline by
its transformation. August 24.
17,363. P. Meyer. Apparatus for the production of dry
extract of coffee or tea. August 24.
12,660. C Lowe.
September 7.
1892.
Manufacture
of crude acetone.
XXI.— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
14,706. J. H. P. Gillard. Improvements in sensitised
films, and in sensitive emulsions therefor. August 15.
15,901. W. H. Slader and L. Siedle. An improved
process for the transfer of photographic images. September 5 .
15,956. E. H. Hardy. New or improved process and
apparatus for the tentative exposure and development of
pictures obtained by photography. September 6.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,434. J. Hauff. The preparation and employment of
aromatic amido-compounds as developing means in photo-
graphy. September 7.
20,690. J. Hauff. The use of aromatic amido-compounds,
and cf derivatives of pyrogallol for the development of
photographic images. September 21.
XXIL— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
15,416. M. Weis. Improvements in lucifer matches.
August 27.
16,567. O. Imray. — From Chemische Fabrik Greisheim,
Germany. Manufacture of explosives. September 16.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
18,439. C. Huelser. — From G. Gillischewsky. Process
for producing a liquid substance for making fir star firework.
August 31.
XXIII.— ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Application.
15,273. P. Willis. — From J. E. Lonnergan, United States
A new process of asceriaining the quantity of butter-fat in
milk. August 25.
PATENT UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
13.SI7. L. S. I.angville. Carbon product. September 7.
Printed and lublisiied by Eyke and Spottiswoolp. East Harding Strict, London, E.C., (or the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OP THE
Society of Qjemtcctl 3noustry:
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 10.— Vol. XI.]
OCTOBER 31, 1892.
f
Non-Members 80/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
€\)t £>orietp of Cfmnfcal Entoustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Eoscoe, M.P.. LL.D., T.P.R.S
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S
Walter Weldori, F.R.S
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S
K. K. Muspratt
David Howard
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S
E. Rider Cook
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
1881—1882,
18S2— 1883,
1883—1884.
1884—1885,
1885—1886
1886—1887
1887—1888,
1888—1889.
1889—1890.
1890—1891
1891—1892,
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President : Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., 4c.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Wm. Crowder.
David Howard.
Dr. F. Hurter.
K. K. Muspratt.
B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
John Spiller.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Tumey.
A. H Allen.
Arthur Boake.
R. Forbes Carpenter.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
H. Grimshaw.
Christopher C. Hutchinson,
Ordinary Members of Council :
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinson.
Boverton Redwood.
A. Gordon Salamon.
Edward C. Cortis Stanford.
Thos. Tyrer.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E. Rider Cook East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices:
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. T. Dent.
Ohas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Hummel.
Publication Committee :
The President.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. C. Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
r, Lewkowitsch,)
Ph.D /
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors :
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X.
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
D. Bendii III.
M. Bentley VI.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Beruays.M.I.C.E I.
E. J. Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount . (xn 'xill
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV., XV.
J. C.Chorley I, XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V.Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII
C. F. Cross .... V., XI I., XIX.
W. P. Dreaper VI.
P. Dvorkowitsch II., III., XII.
W.M.Gardner V., VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J . Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, } II. and
D.Sc j Gen.Chem.
ChaphAbK.ob°:.}GenChem-
L.deKoningh XVIII.,XXIII.
T. A. Lawson, Ph.D. . IV.
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII., XXI.
III., XII.
A. R. Ling IV., XVI.
D.A.Louis IX., X., XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel.Ph.D. .. XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
F. W. Passmore, > XY \-ttit
Ph.D $ XX., XXIII.
H.S.Pattinson.Ph.D. VII., X.
HmTan^?n.tf.r:} ™~ "II.
W.J.Pope .... IV.. X., XXI.
G.H.Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D. A. Sutherland . . . II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H.Veley.M.A. Gen.Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XII I.
J.G.Wells XVII., XX.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Foreign and Colonial Members are reminded that the
subscription of 25s. for 1893, payable on January 1st next,
should be sent in good time to the Treasurer in order to
ensure continuity in the receipt of the Society's Journal.
Any changes of address to appear in the new List of Mem-
bers now in course of preparation, should reach the General
Secretary not later than January loth, 1893.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated. _^___^__
800
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 81, 1892.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Sfottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer Us. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 21st OCTOBER 1892.
Ambler, Chas. T., Monghyr, East Indian Railway, mine
owner.
Anquetil, Edw., 24, Hurley Road, Kenuington, S.E.,
botanist and chemical student.
Ashburn, Win. B., Blauefield Print Works, Strathblaue,
N.B., chemist.
Benson, Surgeon-Major Percy H., Mysore city, South
India, Surgeon-AIajor, Indian Army.
Burroughs, Silas M., Snow Hill Buildings, Holborn
Viaduct, EC., manufacturing chemist.
Corpataux, J., 6, Cliff Villas, Toller Lane, Bradford,
Yorks., technical chemist.
Derrick, Wm. H., Airlie, Denzil Avenue, Southampton,
mining engineer.
Dyson, Septimus, 6, Hanover Square, Leeds, manufac-
turing chemist.
Flintoff, Robt. J.,Crumpsall Lane, Manchester, chemist.
Hammond, Geo. W., Hotel Hamilton, Boston, Mass.
U.S.A., fibre manufacturer.
Harding, Jesse 11., Reuonda, Montserrat, Vest Indies,
manager Redonda Phosphate Co.
Horton, Wm., Fern Hill, School Koad, Moseley, near
Birmingham, solicitor.
Jenkin, Wm. A., Casino Ingles, Minas de Rio Tinto,
Prov. Huelva, Spain, metallurgical chemist.
Keirby, Juo. E.. Moorland Villa, Swinton, Manchester,
manufacturing engineer.
Ledoff, Alex., Technological Institute, Charkow, Russia,
professor.
Naylor, Wm., 1G, Walton's Parade, Preston, Chief
Inspector Ribble Joint Committee.
Passmore, Dr. Francis W., 27, Kennington Park Gardens,
S.E., analytical chemist.
Pears, Andrew, jun., Spring Grove, Isleworth, chemical
Mndent.
Rudolf, Norman S., Sewan, Sarun, Bengal, India,
analytical chemist.
Rueff, Emil, 426-436, East 19th Street, New York City,
U.S.A., Superintendent American Carbonate Co.
Sellentin, E., London Soda Works, Horseferry Road,
Liinehouse, E., managing director.
Shenton, Jas. P., 34, Lansdowue Road, Didsbury, Man-
chester, analytical chemist.
Silvester, Harry, 65, Douglas Road, Handsworth,
Birmingham, analytical chemist.
Stephens, Michael, Avenue House, Finchley, frf., ink
manufacturer.
Stuart, Ernest B., 3900 Cottage Grove Avenue, Chicago,
111., U.S.A., teacher of chemical technology.
Tatton, Reginald A., 44, Mosley Street, Manchester, civil
engineer.
Thorpe, Thos., Wuiterield, Manchester, civil engineer.
W'instanley, Hy., Glengowau Print Works, C'aldercruix,
via Airdrie, N.B., calico printers' chemist.
Witthaus, Professor Rudolph A., 118, West 55th Street,
New York City, U.S.A., professor of chemistry.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Aron, S. B. A., 1 o Bayswater ; Alexandria House, Balls
Pond Koad, N.
Banks, A. J., l/o West Ham; c/o F. W. Fellow es,
61, Chancery Lane, E.C.
Bewick, T. Burrell, l/o Suffolk House : Broad St. House,
Old Broad Street, E.C.
Bolas, Thos., l/o Grove Terrace ; 60, Grove Park Terrace,
Chiswick, W.
Bookman, S., l/o Mittelstrasse ; Pestalozzi Strasse 28, 1, r.,
Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Boothby, Chas., l/o Stockport ; c/o J. L. Wade & Co.,
Manor House Wharf, Vauxhall, S.W.
Boyd, Wm., l/o Cardiff ; Tharsis Co.'s Works, Hebburn-
on-Tyne.
Deans, J. A., l/o Morristou ; 4, College Street, Swansea.
Down, Thos., l/o Williugton-on-Tyne ; Tharsis Copper
Works, Cardiff.
England, R., l/o Dunster House ; Broomhill Lodge,
Woodford Green, E.
Fletcher, A. E., l/o Chalfont St. Peter; 13, Christchurch
Road, Crouch End, N.
Gillman. G., l/o Lorca ; Ferro-carril de Murcia a
Granada, Aguilas, Prov. de Mureia, Spain.
Hirsch, Dr. R., l/o Potsdamerstrasse ; 25, Urban Strasse,
Berlin, S.
Hodges, H. B., l/o Boston ; c/o B. & O. R. R., Mount
Clare, Baltimore, Md.. U.S.A.
Holmes, F. G., l/o Silvertown ; 76, Pepys Road, New
Cross, S.E.
Isherwood, O., l/o Bolton; 16, Portland Avenue, Cross
Lane, Salford.
Kortright. F. L., l/o Syracuse; 31, North Geneva
Street, Ithaca, New York, LT.S.A.
Lineff, A. L., l/o Chiswick ; c/o Goldenherg, 51, Tribune
Buildings, New York City, U.S.A.
McArthur, Jno., l/o Nicosia Road; 196, Trinity Road,
Wandsworth Common, S.W.
Morgan, A. F., l/o Doncaster ; Springfield, Caerleon
Road, Newport, Mon.
Morris, Herbert N., l/o Zurich ; 52, Manley Road,
Manchester.
Nahnsen, Dr. R., l/o Altona; Domitz, Elbe, Germany.
Rademacher, H. A., l/o Broadway ; General Delivery,
Lawrence, Mass., U.S.A.
Ritson, T. N., l/o Jersey ; Gas Works, Kendal.
Robinson, Jno., l/o Ditton ; 17, Frederick Street, Simms
Cross, W'idnes.
Seholefield, H. E., l/o Edge Lane ; Greenwood, Victoria
Park, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Scrutton, W. J., l/o New Mexico; 18, Billiter Street,
London, E.C.
Sharp, Henry, l/o Southampton ; Brockenhurst, Hants.
Sommer, Ad., l/o California ; corner 1st and Binney
Streets, East Cambridge, Boston, Mass., 0.S. A.
Stirk, Jos., l/o Burton ; Fernelift'e, Elm Bank, Nottingham.
Teanby, G. W. A., l/o Leeds ; Laboratory, 65, Bath Row,
Birmingham.
Trechmanu, A. O., l/o Stockton ; Tinnoth House,
Hailing, near Rochester.
Van Gundy, C. P., l/o Pittsburg ; Laboratory, Baltimore
and Ohio R.R., Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
Wilson, Dr. W. H., l/o Bedford ; Presidency College,
Madras.
Oct. 31,
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
801
JBfatf)8u
Pratt, J. W. l/o Belize ; at Memphis, U.S.A. Dec. 10th,
1891.
Thompson, Chas., 15, Patshull Rcl., N.W.
Wells, Jno., Northampton Square, Clerkenwell, E.C.
ionfcon Section,
Chemical Society's Kooms, Burlington House.
Chairman: Win. Thorp.
Vice-Chairman: W. Crowder.
C. P. Cross.
A. G.Green.
D. Howard.
C. C. Hutchinson.
W. Kellner.
B. E. R. Newlands.
W. Ramsay.
Hon. Local Secretar
Committee:
F. G. Adair Roberts.
A. Gordon Salamon.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
T. E. Thorpe.
T. Tyrer.
Frank Wilson.
: John Heron,
Ellerdale, Cottenham Park, Wimbledon,
SESSION 1892-93.
Monday, November 7th :— Mr. Watson Smith. "1. The Prepara-
tion of Nitrous Oxide, 2. A Reaction between Cupric Acetate
and Galena."
Et'brrpool Section.
University College, Brownlow Street.
Chairman: H. Brunner.
Vice-Chairman : E. Carey.
Committee :
J. Campbell Brown. F. Huiter.
E. Carey. A. H. Knight.
V. C. Driffield. E. K. Muspratt.
Jos. C. Gamble. G. Schack-Sommer.
C. L. Higgins. A. Watt.
Hon. Treasurer : W P. Thompson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. Chas. A. Kohu, University College, Liverpool
Notioes of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to he
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892-93.
Wednesday, November 2nd:— Mr. Henry Brunner. Chairman's
Address — "Artificial Manures in Fruit Culture."
Further Meetings on the first Wednesday in each month.
Commttmratiom
THE FLAMELESS COMBUSTION OF
NATURAL GAS.
BY GODFREY L. CABOT.
Referring to the well-known phenomenon of the ignition
of gas in contact with platinum as described on p. 669 of
the Society's Journal for August, it may be of interest to
know that this does not occur with natural gas such as
found in Western Pennsylvania.
Natural gas always contains aqueous vapour. The pipe-
lines through which it passes can be most economically laid
and maintained at or near the surface of the ground, and
usually are thus laid, except in the large cities. In winter
frost is formed inside them, and it is necessary to have gas
fires burning at intervals along the lines to prevent them
from being plugged.
Such fires are often extinguished by accidental causes,
and it occurred to me to put platinised asbestos in front of
the escaping gas jets along my lines to re-ignite the gas.
This very convenient form of finely-divided platinum can
be readily obtained by dipping asbestos in platinic chloride,
and heating in the flame of a Bunsen lamp. When heated
to below redness and exposed to the mixture of natural
gas and air escaping from a liunseu burner, this platinised
asbestos quickly attained a bright red heat but did not
ignite the gas. To try the experiment to the best advantage,
I took two sheets of very thin platinised asbestos board and
let the inflammable mixture pass between and around them,
but all in vain. The radiant heat emitted was greater than
the gas-flame itself would have given but no flame was to
be had.
An electric gas-lighter such as is used in our New
England mills would not ignite natural gas. When natural
gas is used in gas engines, it is found necessary to use
artificial gas for the smaller flame from which the flash is
obtained. The flash of natural gas is too slow.
In short, natural gas requires a much higher temperature
for ignition than ordinary coal-gas. It has a greater specific
gravity, about that of water-gas such as used in this city ;
and, as it contains chiefly the homologues of the paraffin
series, we may suppose that its non-inflammability results
from the comparatively small percentage of free hydrogen.
Another characteristic that may have something to do with
it is the absolute freedom from sulphur and from all
aromatic hydrocarbons.
tglasgoto arid ^cottt'sf) £>ertt'on.
Chairman : C. A. Fawsitt.
Vice-Chairman: E. J. Mills.
G. Boilby.
W. J. Chrystal.
C. J. Ellis.
Wm. Foulis.
J. Gibson.
R. A. Inglis.
R. Irvine.
J. Falconer King.
Committee :
J. S. Macarthur.
T. P. Miller.
T. L. Patterson.
J. Pattison.
J. B. Readman.
E. C. C. Stanford.
R. R. Tatlock.
G. Watson.
Hon. Secretary and. Treasurer :
J. Stanley Muir, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892-93.
Tuesday. November 1st -.—Mr. D. R. Stewart. " The Flash-point
and Heat of Burning of Mineral Oil."
(JMutuaip.
GEORGE DIXON LONGSTAFF, M.D.
ONE OF THE FOUNDERS, AND FORMERLY
A VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY.
When the first and inaugural meeting of the Society of
Chemical Industry was held on June the 28th and 29th,
1881, and Sir H. E. Roscoe, then Professor Roscoe, gave
the first Presidential Address, it was Dr. Longstaff, who,
in a brief but very interesting speech, proposed a vote of
thanks to the first President for his address.
The fact may have been somewhat overlooked then,
though it will not be overlooked now, that no more
appropriate selection could possibly have been made of
one who should open the first of the many discussions
which have since been carried on in our Society on
subjects relating to the Chemical Industries of this
B 2
802
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct. si, 1892.
country, than the venerahlc octogenarian, who has
recently passed away from us. Dr. Longstaff was one of
the pioneers and founders of chemical industry in this
country, and in referring, in the little speech mentioned,
to " Those who have been (i.e., in 1881) acquainted with
chemical manufactures for the last half century," he
would probably find very few in that room who could
respond to so long an experience.
It may not be out of place on this occasion to
accentuate the interesting fact, then so modestly referred
to by Dr. Longstaff, which shows that he and his friend
Dr. Dalston of Edinburgh, were the first in this, and
probably in any country, to found and carry on a coal-
tar distillery.
To quote his own words : — " It so happens that the
first chemical manufacture with which I was connected,
was in Birmingham, with coal-tar, in the year 1822,
together with my friend Dr. Dalston of Edinburgh.
We had a contract with a gas company by which we
were allowed to take all the tar away on the condition
that we removed it gratuitously. A small manufactory
was erected near Leith, where we distilled the spirits
from the tar, which we supplied to Mr. Mackintosh of
Glasgow, for waterproofing his cloth, and after that the
residue we consumed, and produced lamp-black, &c."
" I mention that as a matter of history." (This Journal,
1881, Proc. of First Gen. Meeting, page 7.)
It may thus be a reflection of certain interest to our
Scottish members and friends, that tar-products were
first carried from Edinburgh to Glasgow.
To turn now to the early days when George Dixon
Longstaff first saw the light, we are carried back through
almost a centmy, to the 31st of March, 1799, and to the
little town of Bishop Wearmouth, county Durham. He
thus linked, as it were, in his own person, the two
centuries, and could relate from personal experience to
the present generation many facts, that would seem like
the records of ancient history. He used to tell, for
example, how the stage coach drove on one memorable
occasion, into the market place of Dundee, and the
guard fired his blunderbuss and both pistols in the air
(the signal of great news), and wheu people ran together,
how he cried out, " Wellington has beaten Bonaparte at
Waterloo."
As a schoolboy young Longstaff became a cadet
in the great volunteer movement at the commencement
of the century. As a young man, he assisted his
father for several years in his scientific lectures, aud
himself frequently lectured on a variety of subjects.
After the usual scholastic course he graduated in 1828,
as an M.I), of Edinburgh, at which University he was
some time assistant to the late Dr. Hope, and in that
capacity, was probably the first teacher of practical
chemistry to medical students in this country. He was
distinguished for readiness of speech, clearness in
explanation, and the success of his experiments. His
readiness of speech and powerful voice, it may be added,
were never better used, than in the support of Wilber-
foree's anti-slavery movement, and on this subject he
both could and did speak from experience, as he saw
much of negro-slavery and inquired more into it, when
in the United States in 1834 — 37.
His experience in America, moreover, taught him the
serious results of leaving government, especially local
government, in the hands of the ill-educated and inex-
perienced.
Among other works of a well-spent life — much of it
devoted to the well-being of his fellow men — he took
great interest and an active part in the formation of
mechanics' institutes, and was a frequent lecturer at
these useful associations. Dr. Longstaff was not only
one of the founders of our comparatively infant Society,
he was also one of the founders of its "elder sister, the
Chemical Society of London, and in this connection he
started the Chemical Society Research Fund by a dona-
tion of 1,000/. It was he who seconded the adoption
of the Report to the Council of the Cavendish Society
I in 1M49, in which the translation and publication of
Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry were proposed, and
later on he founded the Longstaff Medal for the en-
couragement and promotion of scientific research. He
has resided in the parish of Wandsworth for upwards of
50 years, and was one of the first members of the
Wandsworth District Board of Works, chairman of the
Free Public Library Commissioners, aud in 1887 pre-
sented a reading room to the library.
Dr. Longstaff, in 1833, married the eldest daughter of
the late Henry Blundell, J. P., of Hull, and he leaves
two sons, Colonel Longstaff (Wimbledon), and Dr. G. B.
Longstaff, of Putney Heath, the latter well known on
the London County Council. After his marriage, Dr.
Longstaff spent some years in America to apply his
scientific knowledge to gold mining in North Carolina,
after which he entered into business in association with
his father-in-law as a manufacturer of oil, colours, and
varnish, and was for many years chairman of the firm
of Blundell, Spence, and Co., Limited, and a director of
that company till his death.
He died on Friday, September 23rd, at his residence,
" Butterknowle," Wandsworth, after a brief but painful
illness. — W. S.
3curnal anto patent* Xtttratttre*
Class. Page.
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 802
II— Fuel, Gas, and Light BOS
III. — Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 807
IV.— Colouring Matters and Dyes 808
V.— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 810
VI.— Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching Sll
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 814
V 1 1 1.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware S17
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars and Cements.. 818
X.— Metallurgy 819
XL— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy Si3
XII. — Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture $-7
XIIL— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, &c vj:
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size —
XV — Manures, &c 830
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gum, &c 830
XVII.— Brew ing, "Wines, Spirits, 4c 830
XVIIL— Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chsmistry, and
Disinfectants S34
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, &c 835
XX. — Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 835
XXI.--Photographic Materials and Processes S3H
XXI I.— Explosives, Matches, &c 839
XXIIL— Analytical Chemistry 840
I -GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, AND
MACHINERY.
The Action of Salt Solutions on Metals. Eng. and Min.
Jour. 1892.
Ix reduction works using the Patera hyposulphite process
or the modern Russell process there has been much
complaint of the annoyance and expense of the rapid
destruction of the pipes, pumps, valves, and plungers, and,
in fact, of all metal exposed to the action of the solution
charged with various salts. Hyposulphite of soda solutions
alone are sufficiently destructive, but when charged with
• Any of these specifications may be obtained by post by remitting
Sd.~ the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— fo
Sir Henry Reader Lack, Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
Oct. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
803
various sulphates the life of pipes and pumps is short. So,
too, in copper mines containing sulphide ores. A portion
of the copper sulphide is oxidised to sulphate, and is washed
out by the mine-waters. When this solution is pumped, the
copper in it is precipitated on the pump column, the iron
going into solution and the pipe is eaten away. Various
acid-resisting paints have been tried, but unsuccessfully,
the coating is worn away by attrition from particles of rock
brought up with the muddy waters.
One remedy for this destruction, both in reduction works
and mines, lies in the use of an alloy containing a large
percentage of copper, such as deoxidised bronze, the
composition of which is —
Cu 826 j Sn 12-4; Zn3'23; Pb 2- 14
Digesters for wood pulp works made of this alloy have
been found to withstand admirably the action of hypo-
sulphite of soda and of sulphurous acid. Copper would
not be precipitated upon it, at least in any quantity, and
pump columns, plungers, and pipes made of this metal
should certainly stand the action of mine-waters or of the
Russell solution. The first cost would not be a drawback,
as the saving in a short time would more than equalise
matters, it is a matter which should be investigated by
both mining men and manufacturers of alloys.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Analysing Columns. A. Berly, London.
Kng. Pat. 11,'<J90, July 9, 1891.
Tins invention relates to the construction of portions or
segments of distilling columns devised in such a manner
that a stirring action takes place at the circumference,
and the combination of such segments so as to produce a
variety of apparatus for various purposes, such as the
distillation of gas ammoniacal water, the rectification of
hydrocarbons, alcohol &c— J. C. C.
Improvements in or connected with Evaporating and
Condensing Apparatus. J. Keed, North Shields. Kng.
Pat. 13,523, August 11, 1891.
This invention consists in the arrangement of pipes or
coils for the circulation of steam, and in certain devices
for effecting an automatic feed- water entry and exit
atmospheric valve. The feed-water entry is controlled
by an automatic device consisting of a float working in a
chamber connected with the interior of the shell. As the
level of the water changes, the level of the float varies, and
this motion is utilised to actuate by means of rods and
levers a piston valve controlling the feed-water entry port.
The steam finds outlet from the evaporators through a
perforated pipe leading to an atmospheric valve connected
with a condenser. The valve is balanced by means of
double pistons so as to neutralise the variations of pressure
in the condenser, and a screw-down handle enables it to be
used as a stop valve when required, and should the pressure
in the evaporator fall below atmospheric pressure, then the
valve closes due to its exposure to the atmosphere through
a small hole in the valve easting.— J. C. C.
Improvements in or connected with Condensers. J. Reed,
North Shields. Eng. Pat. 13,522, August 11, 1891.
The condenser described, consists of a shell of suitable
form with a medial division plate, and a filtering
chamber attached to lower part. On either side of the
division plate a number of coils are arranged, connected at
their upper ends with one another and attached to the
division plate. The cooling water passes into the shell at
one side of the division and out at the other. .The steam
having passed through a perforated copper plate called the
" dirt arrester," enters at the lower ends of the coils on
one side of the division from a steam chest placed inside
the shell. Having passed up the coils on one side of the
division it descends through the coils on the other, and
the condensed water enters the filtering chamber, passes
downwards through the filtering medium and up again
through the exit pipe.— J. C. C.
Improvements in Refrigerating and Freezing Apparatus.
S. Puplett, London. Eng. Pat. 21,103, December 3, 1891.
These improvements relate to freezing machines described in
specifications 12,541 and 12,542 of 1884, in which refrigera-
tion is effected by the vaporisation of a liquefied gas, the
liquid to be cooled passing through cylindrical vessels
traversed by tubes and immersed in freezing tanks. So
constructed, the tubes are liable to be blocked upon the
stoppage of the circulation of the liquid, by the formation of
ice. In the improved arrangement the freezing cylinders
are placed above the level of the freezing tanks, and the
brine is pumped through them. They are also fitted with
a device for automatically draining them in the event of
the failure of the pumps or stoppage of the circulation,
whereby the danger of freezing is avoided. — B.
Improvements i>i Apparatus for Drying Moist Substances
or Materials. G. Johnston, Springburn, N.B. Eng.
Pat. 21,072, December 3, 1891.
The improved apparatus consists essentially of a rectangular
brick tank with semicircular ends, with the interior divided
longitudinally into lateral spaces by a wall which stops
short of the ends, and horizontally by any suitable number
of floors. The substances are moved along the floors by
scrapers attached to endless wire ropes carried by a
grooved pulley at each end, all pulleys being fixed on
vertical shafts secured in the centre of the circular ends
and rotated by suitable gearing. (See Figs. 1 and 2.)
The material to be dried is fed in at the top ; the floors
have suitable openings at their ends, which allow it to
descend from floor to floor, after having in every case
passed over the whole length of the floor. The hot air or
gases for drying are allowed to pass through the apparatus
in any convenient tray. Suitable devices are indicated for
jointing the ropes and for securing the scraper:-.
Eisr. 1.
.
804
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31,1892.
Fig. 2.
Apparatus for Drying Moist Substances.
—15.
Improvements in Displacement rumps for Air or other
Gases. J. H. Hargreaves and J. G. Hudson, Bolton.
Eng. Pat. 12,588, July 8, 1892.
The accompanying illustrations show a pump constructed
Fig. 2.
in accordance with the specification. A piston or plunger
A, which is of an elongated form with curved couoidal ends,
works vertically in a cylindrical pump chamber B placed
eccentrically in a larger cylindrical chamber C. The inlet
valves 1) and discharge valves E are placed at the upper part
of the apparatus, and the crescent-shaped space F, partly
encircling the pump chamber, communicates directly with
one set of the inlet valves and outlet valves. The inlet
valves D are arranged in side chambers G, which are
provided with flanged openings H, for the attachment of
pipe or other connection. The piston A works through a
brass sleeve, which is held by an external flange in the
joint between the bottom and upper castings, forming the
shell of the apparatus. If the pump is to be used for
compressing air or gas, a cover must be fixed on the
chamber M. — J. C, C.
An Improved Holder for Large Jars, Carboys, Demijohns,
or the like. TL. W. Holmgren-Holme, Toronto, Canada.
Eng. Pat. 13,056, July 15, 1892.
This is a frame with rockers at the back for facilitating
the tilting and emptying of large jars or carboys, as will be
understood from the accompanying sketch.
Improved Holder for Carboys, &c,
— B.
Improved Apparatus for the Desiccation of Solid Matters.
E. Donard and G. Boulct, Rouen, France. Eng. Pat.
13,242, July 19, 1892.
The improvement relates to the method of fastening the
steam tubes in a rotary heating drum, for details of which
the specification should be consulted. — B.
Displacement Pimp.
Oct. 31, 1892.]
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
805
II -FUEL, GAS. AND LIGHT.
The Use of the Producer. The Engineer, 74, 264.
The principle on which the producer acts has long been
applied in all methods of firing in which it is necessary to
obtain a flame without using a fuel capable of yielding a
considerable quantity of gas on mere destructive distillation.
An example is afforded by a common reverberator}- furnace,
burning anthracite instead of bituminous coal, or yet more
simply by any basket of live coke, topped with its lambent
blue flame, serving to warm a night watchman. In cases
such as these, and in the producer proper, which is nothing
but a huge basket of fuel with a restricted inlet for air,
and means of collecting and leading away the carbon
monoxide in place of burning it on the spot — no difficulty
is experienced in maintaining the combustion of the charge,
and therefore the evolution of gas from it. This is at once
explained by a consideration of the thermo-chemical
reactions taking place under the given conditions. The
union of carbon with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide
is attended with the evolution of so much heat that the
reaction can proceed without external impetus, and this
heat is manifested and measured by the high temperature
of the gaseous product; in one word, the reaction is
exothermic. This is equivalent to saying that, of the whole
quantity of energy which is present potentially in the
coal and oxygen, a portion appears as sensible heat, while
another part remains potential, although a step nearer
utilisation in the shape of carbon monoxide, which, though
an oxidised body, is not a saturated compound, and is
capable under proper provocation of combining with another
atom of oxygen before sinking to the dead level of complete
satiety.
The economical aspect of this state of things is very
easily elucidated. Since a large portion — something, indeed,
approaching one-half — of the total quantity of energy is in
the thrni of sensible heat, means must be adopted for its
immediate absorption and application, as it is impracticable
to retain it in storage or reservoir, to be drawn as required,
at intervals short or long. Several methods of so doing are
practicable. It remains to ascertain their several advantages
and drawbacks.
When steam is substituted for air as the gas which is
blown into a producer, a reaction wholly differenl from that
which has already been described takes place. The oxygen
of the steam combines with the heated carbon, and the
hydrogen with which it was previously united is set free.
Hut the decomposition of steam can only be effected by the
expenditure of precisely the same amount of heat as is
evolved by its formation from its elements, and when the
energy bill is made out, it becomes evident that the balance
is, from the user's point of view, on the wrong side. In
short, the reaction in a producer evolving true water-gas is
endothermic, aud it is plain that if it is to go on evolving
true water-gas, heat must be supplied it from without.
This could be accomplished in several ways, but what is
actually done in practical working is to keep up the tempe-
rature by burning, in a stream of air, a portion of the fuel
which it is intended to convert into combustible gaseous
products. This can be done in two ways. Either the
working of the producer can be intermittent — that is to
say, air can first be introduced until the contents of the
producer are at a high temperature, and then steam blown
in to react with the red-hot carbon until its temperature is
reduced below the limit at which the reaction will take
place; or steam and air are admitted simultaneously. In
the first case the product during the admission of air only
is producer-gas proper, theoretically consisting solely of
carbon monoxide and nitrogen, and carries away with it a
portion of the sensible heat of the reaction. In the second
case the same result is arrived at, but the evolution of
producer-gas and water-gas takes place simultaneously and
continuously, the proportions being fixed by the amount of
heal evolved by tbe production of the first, and that required
for the formation of the second. Excess of air means
waste, and excess of steam involves the extinction of the
producer. Possibly if these simple principles were a little
more generally understood there would be fewer badly run
producers.
Another method of utilising the sensible heat formed
during the partial oxidation of carbon with air differs
notably from that just described. It consists in introducing
carbon dioxide into the producer, subsequently to, or
simultaneously with, the air. The reaction that then takes
place is the deoxidation of that gas by the heated carbon,
and the production of double its volume of carbon monoxide,
itself combustible. When the heat absorbed in the
reduction of carbon dioxide is compared with that necessary
for the decomposition of steam, it is found that a small
advantage rests with the latter plan, as a somewhat greater
fraction of the sensible heat is utilised ; but the difference
is not so great as to give the preference to the use of steam
under all circumstances.
In addition to the methods detailed above, one has been
devised for a special form of Siemens furnace, which does
not depend upon the introduction of gases of extraneous
origin. The products of combustion of producer-gas are
nitrogen and carbon dioxide, part of the nitrogen heing
obtained from the air blown into the producer, and the
remainder from the air by means of which the producer-gas
is burned. If now these products of combustion be turned
back into the producer, the carbon dioxide they contain will
he reduced to carbon monoxide iu the mauner already
explaiued, and tbe sensible heat of the primary reaction in
the producer utilised. Obviously the whole of the waste
gases cannot be so returned, as it would involve a constantly
increasing quantity of gas iu the producer. A fraction
only of the products of combustion is therefore returned to
the producer, the remainder passing away as waste gases.
It will be seen that the main objection to this sj'stem arises
from the large volume of nitrogen from the air used to
burn the original producer-gas, that is returned from the
producer, which is not only absolutely inert, but has to be
raised to the same temperature as the burning gases, at the
expense of a portion of their heat. This can, of course, be
largely recovered by the use of the regenerator, but the
objection to the dilution of the combustible material still holds
good. All three methods have certain advantages, and the
adoption of one rather than another can only be decided
upon by consideration of the conditions governing each
case ; calculation of their theoretical merits is useful only
as indicating the limits existing for each, and as a guide to
the choice between them.
So far we have merely endeavoured to act as expositors
of facts that are clearly, but not universally known, by
showing their origin and correlation, but we cannot con-
clude without touching upon the possible extension that a
recognition of their significance may bring about. Some
time ago certain schemes were mooted for the conversion
of coal at the pit's mouth into ordinary illuminating gas,
and its conveyance to large centres of population. Although
the feasibility, desirability, and utility of the scheme were
sufficiently discussed at the time, little attention was paid
to what is after all the main question of interest, namely,
whether destructive distillation is the best means of gasifying
coal. Seeing that at leasr half the coal remains iu the
retorts in the form of gas coke, which is already a drug in
the market, there is little to be said for a plan that would
enormously increase the amount of the output of that
commodity, at places moreover where there is less demand
than in the neighbourhood of London, where there are the
cement makers to take a good deal of it. The way that
obviates this fatal difficulty is, of course, to turn the whole
of the combustible portion of the coal into producer-gas,
enriched by the use of steam or carbon dioxide, and thus
greatly increase the amount of gas, while simultaneously
disposing of the coke. This process, patent enough, one
would think, to anyone in the least conversant with the
matter, seems to have been overlooked and was in danger
of being completely ignored until Professor Emerson
Keynolds, in his recent address to the Society of Chemical
Industry, on the occasion of the expiration of his tenure
of the presidency, emphasised the necessity of replacing
the ineffective and wasteful process of destructive distillation
by the more drastic dissolution that takes place in a producer.
80G
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct.si,MM.
The eminently practical gas manager has for some time
produced a gas of comparatively low illuminating power,
and enriched this in illuminating constituents by adding to
it water-gas charged with heavy hydrocarbons formed by
the judicious cracking of mineral oils. He has only to
extend this system, to substitute producers for retorts, and
to increase his enriching plant, to accomplish the object
which we have here sketched. By this means all question
of providing a separate system of mains for a heating, in
addition to an illuminating, gas would be removed, and
the difficulty of the odourless nature of a gas rich in the
extremely poisonous carbon monoxide, which has so
exercised our hygienists, overcome at a stroke.
80 fruitful is the conception of the complete gasification
of fuel by means of the producer, that it has sufficed
to show a fairly promising plan for making the abundance
of peat now lying idle in Ireland of some value to its
inhabitants, and whatever the ultimate result the very fact
that a method can be devised which puts peat on a level
with coal as a possible competitor, is a powerful testimony
to the alterations brought about by the study of the
principles and reactions of the gas-producer. — B.
Report I11/ A. Carnal and II. Lc Chatelier on a Study of
the Calorific Power of Combustibles used for Industrial
Purposes, undertaken by P. Mahler. Bull, de la Soc.
d'Encouragement pour l'lndustrie Nat. 91, 1892, 317 —
374.
See under XXIII., page 840.
l>> nitration of Pyroxylin. D. Woodman.
Cheni. Soc. 1892,14, 112.
See under XXII., page 839.
Amer.
are so arranged that the peat is passed several times through
the furnace. The dried peat is carried by elevators to a
briquette machine, and mixed with suitable binding material
into a paste, which is then passed through a tapering spout
compressed and divided into briquettes. The briquettes
are lastly carried by an elevator to a specially constructed
coking furnace, down which they slide automatically, and
are removed, being finally withdrawn through a door at the
bottom, and subsequently cooled. — D. A. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus fur Producing Light. J. G.
Hudson, London. Eng. Pat. 2226, February 6, 1891.
This is an apparatus for producing flash lights by blowing
magnesium or other powder through a flame, and consists
of two rubber balls, acting as air-pump and reservoir
respectively, the latter communicating with a tube placed
horizontally in a reservoir- of magnesium powder. With
each puff of air a cylinder of magnesium powder is driven
forward, mixes with the air, and passes up a tube placed in
the side of the reservoir to the exit tube. The entrance to
the latter is smaller than the aperture communicating with
the reservoir, so that the air takes up an eddying motion
and the air and magnesium powder are more thoroughly
mixed. The exit tube passes through an annular flame of
naphtha or similar combustible, and must be protected by
a non-conducting coating to prevent the magnesium from
caking.— H. K. T.
Improvements in the Method of and Appaiatus for
Washing and Purifying Smoke. W. B. Hartridge,
London. Eng. Pat. 4106, March 7, 1891.
Thk gaseous products of combustiou are subjected in their
passage up the chimney to the action of water percolating
down through layers of marbles or other rounded bodies.
— D. A. S.
Process and Appliances for Producing Peat Coke Cukes.
Y.. Stauber, Hamburg, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7648, May 2,
1891.
This invention is intended to produce from peat a relatively
pure carbon to serve as an advantageous fuel, and of a
shape suitable for transport. The peat after being dried as
much as possible by means of centrifugal apparatus, is
finally dried by feeding it continuously through a drying
furnace provided with endless luin'U nud thick plates, which
Improvements in Apparatus for Charging Inclined Gas
Retorts. B. Gibbons and W. P. Gibbons, Lower Gornal,
Stafford. Eng. Pat. 9366, June 3, 1891.
This invention consists in mechanical improvements in
apparatus for charging inclined gas retorts, known as
" through retorts." The inclined shoot or drive is used for
holding the charge, and is set a little steeper than the
angle of rest of the coal, and so made as to hold the
charge of coal in an even stratum of about the same width
and thickness as the charge when in the retort. — I). A. S.
Improvements connected with Ovens, Furnaces, Retorts,
or other Structures used in the Making of Coke or
Charcoal, or for Distilling or Roasting Carbonaceous
Matter or otherwise subjecting Carbonaceous Matter to
the Action of Heat. L. H. Armour, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
Eng. Pat. 11,210, July 1, 1891.
The ovens, furnaces, retorts, &c., are connected by pipes
or passages with the chimney used in connexion tvith the
oven, retort, or with any other chimney in proximity to the
retort ; the draft of the chimney being thus utilised to
draw the gases, without the aid of mechanical exhausting
devices or engine power. — D. A S.
Improvements in Gas Producers. J. Bromilow, Ponty-
mister, Monmouthshire. Eng. Pat. 11,416, July 4, 189i.
This is an improved producer, the bottom of which is
divided into two parts by means of a brick wall, which is
carried up a few iuches above the doorframes, thus forming
two separate pockets at the bottom. The steam and air
supply are so arranged that neatly pure water-gas can be
produced in one of the pockets, while in the other the
proper temperature is being maintained by the forcing in of
a large volume of air. These conditions can be reversed by
means of suitable reversing gear, thus rendering the
producer eontinimus and regular in its working. The
upper portion of the producer consists of a large rectangular
chamber, which admits of free distillation of the solid fuel
into gas. The inventor claims that by these means " the
largest possible amount of steam can be decomposed in
proportion to the amount of fuel used, thereby effecting
considerable saving of fuel and labour." — D. A. S.
An Improved Device for Containing Volatile and
Inflammable Liquids to be used for Illuminating
Purposes. F. H. Diffetot, Paris, France. Eng. Pat,
12,721, July 27, 1891.
This device consists of two tubes fitting one inside the
other, and having small holes, which can be arranged to
coincide. The inner tube contains some absorbent material,
which may be soaked with an inflammable liquid ; this may
then be used as a torch. — D. A. S.
Improvements in Inducing Combustion of Gases in Furnaces
ami in Apparatus therefor. J. Hargreaves, Widnes.
Eng. Pat. 14,835, September 2, 1891.
An; is supplied through a nozzle fitted in an annular
space, which is filled ami fed with gas. Combustion is set
up, and the joint currents of air and gas, whilst undergoing
combustion (the air in the gas), are passed through a tube
Oct. 81,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
807
or flue called the " mixing tube " into the furnace or space
to be heated. The burning mixture may be directed
downwards on to tbe charge on the bed of the furnace, or
upwards on to the roof when heating by radiation is
required. In the ease of boilers the products of combustion
are made to pass through the centre of the flue until the
temperature of them is sufficiently reduced to allow them
to impinge on- the boiler plates without injury thereto.
—A. W.
A Simplified Form of Magnesium Lamp. P. Kllis,
Wellington. Eng. Pat. 17',586, October 15, 1891.
It consists of a small spirit or other lamp in front of a
reflector with a slit in its centre. The reflector is fitted at
the back with a handle, so constructed that the whole can
be lifted with one hand by placing three fingers below the
handle and the first finger aud thumb above, while the two
latter are also used to push the ribbon through the slit and
thus feed the lamp with magnesium without the use of any
rollers or other appliances. — A. W.
Improvements in Coke Ovens. J. Johnson, Liverpool.
From H. Kennedy, Sharpsburgh, Penn., U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 3959, March 1, 1892.
Tiik proposed oven is of the bee-hive pattern, but instead
of the parts being moveable, as has been suggested, the
oven is constructed so that it can travel on wheels and
carry the ignited charge with it from the hearth. After
coking, the oven is conducted laterally over an opening,
down which the charge drops into water or into a waggon, as
may be desired.
The oven itself is drawn back whilst still red hot, and is
ready for the next charge. The hearth is made of extra
strength and smoothness, as well as of considerable thick-
ness, so as to retain the heat as much as possible. Sudden
chilling of the ovens by water is thus avoided, and a
saving in labour and working is effected. — D. A. S.
An Improved Method of Increasing the Illuminating
Power of Flames. L. Chandor, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Eng. Pat. 6188, March 30, 1892.
The invention is intended to be applied to lamps for
burning vegetable or mineral oils. An incandescent body
is arranged vertically in the burner, with a view of
increasing the illuminating power, and the insuring of a
more perfect combustion of the material employed. The
composition used consists of asbestos, which has been
treated with acetate of magnesia and gum tragacanth.
— D. A. S.
Improved Apparatus and Means for Increasing the
Illuminating Power of Gas. J. Rudd, Atherton. Eng.
Pat. 5994, March 28, 1892.
The inventor provides a suitable receptacle consisting of
a simple three-necked vessel, charged with benzine or other
liquid hydrocarbon, over the surface of which the gas
travels on passing from the meter to the place of con-
sumption.— D. A. S.
Improvements in Method of and Apparatus for Purifying
Smoke and Precipitating the Products of Combustion
thereof. C. Fink, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
7243, April 14, 1892.
This invention has for its object the purification of products
of combustion from furnaces, and the like, by forcing them
into a tank suitably provided with stationary and revolving
sieves, or screens of different sized mesh, the latter being
rotated by any suitable means in a reverse direction to the
motion of the water, by which means all solid matter is
precipitated. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Fuel.
R. F. Strong and A. Gordon, London. Eng. Pat. 13,601,
July 26, 1892.
" Coal-dust, coke, small coal, breeze, peat, lignite,
charcoal, petroleum, sand, or other carbonaceous material
or materials " are ground, intimately mixed together, and
then mixed with water, to form a plastic mass, which is
formed into briquettes with 6 to 10 percent, of hydraulic
lime and 1 per cent, of rock or other common salt, or
sulphate of soda. If a non-flaming material is employed,
4 per cent, of cellulose is also mixed in, so as to supply a
flame during combustion. The lime is stated not only to
bind the ingredients, but to combine during the burning with
the carbon dioxide, and so absorb " all or practically all the
smoke-forming products of combustion." To restrict the
ash to the lowest possible limit compatible with this object
not more than 10 per cent, of lime should be used. The
salt is used to cause the lime to set or harden more quickly.
—A. W.
HI-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS. Etc.
The Analysis of Coal Tar Preparations. H. Ilelbing and
F. W. Passmore. Helbing's Pharm. Rec. July 1892.
See under XXIIL, page 848.
A Method for Separating the Xylenes. J. M. Crafts.
' Compt. rend. 114, 1892, 1110.
See under XXIIL, page 849.
PATENT.
Improvements in Column Stills for Distillation of Gas
Liquor and other Liquids. A. Golson, Leicester. Eng.
Pat. 13,447, August 8, 1891.
The inventor simplifies the jointing of the trays by casting
them in one with the distance pieces, and joining them by
bolts passing through ears cast on each tray, by means of
which the packing rings placed between the grooved meeting
faces are compressed. Through each tray pass short tubes
standing above the bottom, and on each of these is placed
a cap having its lower side perforated. Above the highest
tray is placed a perforated plate to prevent priming of the
liquid due to frothing. — J. C. C.
IY.-C0L0URING MATTERS AND DYES.
The Relation between the Composition of Compounds and
their Colour. M. Schutze. Zeits. physikal. Cbem. 9,
1892, 109.
The following are the conclusions at which the author has
arrived : —
(1.) A diminution of absorption from violet to red
generally corresponds with the colour alterations green-
yellow, yellow, orange, red, red-violet, blue-violet, blue,
blue-green (deepening of the colour tone) ; a diminution
from red to violet the converse changes (heightening of the
colour tone).
(2.) Atoms and groups of atoms when introduced into a
molecule, cause a characteristic deepening or heightening of
the colour tone, for the same chromophore and solvent.
Groups causing deepening are distinguished as " batho-
ehrome," whilst those to which heightening of the colour is
due are termed " hypsochrome."
808
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1892.
(3.) Hydrocarbon radicals always act as bathochromes.
In homologous series the shade increases with the molecular
weight.
(4.) Similar alteration to that mentioned under (3.)
occurs in the case of elements of the same periodic group.
(5.) The addition of hydrogen is always associated with
a heightening of the colour.
(6.) The modification in colour from the causes enume-
rated above, is the greater the closer the alteration in
chemical composition is to the chromophore. The distance
of the atoms from each other as depicted in a structural
formula seems generally to correspond with their actual
condition : in the case of the di-derivatives of benzene,
however, the substituted groups in the para-position appear
to be nearer than in the meta-position.
(7.) The generalisation detailed in (G.) only applies to
monochromophore compounds and symmetrical dichromo.
phores. Tlie colour of an unsymmetrical diazo-compound
of the general formula Y — A — X — A — Z approximates
to that of a mixture of the two symmetrical bodies —
V - A - X - A - Y and Z - A - X - A - Z.
— B. B.
p-Tolylglycocine. C. A. Bischoff and A. Hausdorfer.
Ber. 25, 1892, 2280—2290.
The substance of melting point 166° — 168°, which was first
prepared by J. P. Meyer (Her. 8, 1158), and has since been
generally regarded as p - tolylglycocine, is not this com-
pound, but a polymeride —
X'H.X'OOH
C6H4(('I1,)X
,/
\CH2 . CO( >NH;, . Cf)H4 . CHa
The authors confirm the observation of Heumann (this
Journal, 1890, 758) that the compound does not furnish
an indigo derivative on fusion with potash. The true
p-tolylglyeoceine has already been described by J. P. Meyer
(Ber. 14, 1223), who regarded it as a polymeric compound ;
it has now been prepared by the authors by the hydrolysis
of ethyl-/) -toluido acetate. It forms colourless leaflets,
melts at 118° — 119°, and gives an indigo-derivative on
fusion with potash. — A. R. L.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Aniline Lakes
suitable for the Manufacture of India-rubber Cloth and
other Purposes. Isidor Frankenburg, Greengate Bubber
■\Vorks, Salford, Lancaster. Eng. Pat. 10,582, Sep-
tember 30, 1891.
See under XIII., pape 829.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Mutters.
H. H. Lake, London. From A. Leonhardt and Co.,
Muhlheim-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,600,
October 28, 1891.
In Eng. Pat. 13,217 of 1889 (this Journal, 1890, 934)
certain oxides are described, which are obtained by con-
densing dialkylated w-amido-phenols with formaldehyde,
and afterwards eliminating water by the action of a
dehydrating agent. The present invention describes the
formation of these oxides in a different way. Instead of
treating tetra - alkyl - diamido - dihydroxy-diphenylmethane
with dehydrating agents, tetra-alkyl-tetramido-diphenyl-
methane, which has the following formula —
]!,X
CIL
3 \/\
\/\xililn/\/ NBs
is treated with two molecules of nitrons acid. A very
unstable tctrazo compound is thus obtained which decom-
poses even at a low temperature, evolving nitrogen, and
forming oxy-compounds identical with the oxides described
in the above-mentioned patent, and which can be oxidised
in a similar manner to form pink colouring matters. A
solution of 2'8 kilos, of tetramethyl-tetramido-diphenyl-
methane, 40 kilos, of concentrated sulphuric acid and 250
litres of water is treated with a solution containing 1 • 4 kilos,
of sodium nitrite. When the decomposition of the diazo-
compound, which may take place at any temperature up to
40° C., is complete, the solution contains the oxy-compound
which may be precipitated by the addition of an excess of
caustic soda-lye. In order to produce the colouring matter
it is preferable to oxidise the acid solution directly by the
addition of 14 kilos, of a 30 per cent, ferric chloride solu-
tion, and raise to the boil. After cooling, the dyestuff is
precipitated by the addition of salt, and is purified by
redissolving and precipitating with salt and zinc chloride.
If the solution of the oxy-compound be first boiled down and
then oxidised a similar colouring matter is obtained, but of a
yellower shade. — T. A. I/.
.1 New Manufacture of Colouring Matters. O. Imray,
London. F'rom "The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, und Bnining." IIochst-on-the-Maine, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 18,783, October 31, 1891.
Up to the present, seven naphthylene diamines out of a
possible ten have been obtained, but of these only the
1 ■ 5 compound has been employed in the manufacture of
colouring matters. This body is converted into its tetrazo
compound, and when combined with phenols and amines
and their derivatives yields yellow, red and violet colouring
matters (Ger. Pat. 39,954). More valuable colouring
matters can be obtained from the 1 ■ 4 naphthylene diamine
according to this invention, but as the direct conversion of
the diamine into its amido-, diazo-, or tetrazo-compound is
always incomplete, an indirect method has to be employed.
The conditions necessary for obtaining colouring matters
are that only one amido-group he diazotised and combined
with an amine or phenol or derivative of the same, or that
first one amido-group and then the second be diazotised and
combined successively with two molecules of a phenol or
amine, or their derivatives. In this way two different types
of colouring matters are obtained having the general
formula1 —
I.
V ^ .1 L | ,,[!,; — ML
!/-
II.
-C,„Hn-N5-.,
where r and y stand for the various components which may
be used in each case. The colours formulated on type I.
can be produced in two ways. 1. By nitrating a-acet-
naphthalide the compound 1*4 nitro-aeetnaphthalide is
produced which on reduction yields 14 acetuaphthylene-
diamine. This substance is diazotised, combined with any
phenol or amine, and then saponified by heating with dilute
mineral acids, strong solutions of caustic alkalis, or even by
heating with water alone with or without pressure. 2. By
diazotising 1 • 4 nitronaphthylaniine, combining the diazo-
compound and finally reducing the nitro-compound with an
alkaline reducing agent. Colouring matters of type II. are
obtained by diazotisation and combination with phenols and
amines, of the bodies obtained as above. The following
examples give the quantities to be employed in the various
processes worked according to this invention. Twenty kilos,
of 1' 1 acet-naphthylenediamine are suspended in about
300 litres of water and dissolved in the cold by slowly
adding 27 kilos, of 30 per cent, hydrochloric acid. The
solution is diazotised by the addition of 7 kilos, of sodium
nitrite in about 24 litres of water, and the diazo solution is
then added to 40 kilos, of sodium 0-naphthol disulphouate
R, and 1 00 kilos, of sodium acetate in about 500 litres of
water and the whole kept agitated for 6 — 10 hours. Part of
the colouring matter separates out and the rest may be
precipitated by the addition of salt and purified in the usual
manner. The shades given by these dyestuffs range from
a bluish magenta to a claret red. The colouring matter
thus produced may be saponified by dissolving in water to
a 15—20 per cent, solution, adding 20 kilos, of caustic soda
and heating under constant agitation to 120' — 125° C. either
Oot.si.iS9a.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
809
with or without pressure until a sample no longer changes
from violet to blue on acidifying with acetic acid. The
melt is then acidified with acetic acid or dilute mineral
acid, and the colouring matter precipitated with salt. The
saponification can also be performed by heating with
30 per cent, sulphuric, acid and also, but in a less efficient
manner, by heating with water alone under pressure. The
shades obtained are bluer than those from the acetylated
compounds. The second method for producing these
colouring matters is to suspend 188 kilos, of 1*4 nitro-
naphihylamine in 250 litres of water and 400 kilos, of
30 percent, hydrochloric acid. After diazotisation at about
15° C. with 69 kilos, of sodium nitrite in 200 litres of water,
the solution is added to 370 kilos, of R salt dissolved in
water and kept alkaline by the addition of sodium carbonate
and sodium acetate. The colouring matter may be pre-
cipitated with salt or may be reduced by warming to 50° —
60° C, and slowly adding about 2,500 kilos, of sodium
sulphide solution containing 500 kilos, of crystallised sodium
sulphide. The solution on completion of the reduction is
acidulated and the colouring matter precipitated with salt.
In place of sodium sulphide other alkaline reducing agents
may be employed, such as glucose, stannous oxide, or zinc
powder, but care must be taken not to use an excess of the
reducing agent, as otherwise the azo group may be reduced.
The colouring matters obtained according to the two
preceding methods may, as already stated, be diazotised
and combined with a variety of compounds. 517 kilos, of
the colouring matter from R salt having the composition —
H3N-ClllH6-X,-C1„H4(OH)(803Na)2
are dissolved in 8 — 10 times the quantity of water and
mixed with 365 kilos, of 30 per cent, hydrochloric acid. A
solution of 70 kilos, of sodium nitrite in 300 litres of
water is then added below 5° C, and the whole left for
several hours until a sample diluted with water forms a
clear solution. This is then mixed with 385 kilos, of R salt,
and 275 kilos, of sodium carbonate in 7,000 litres of water.
Part of the colouring matter precipitates, and the remainder
is thrown out with salt. It dyes a greenish to a black blue,
according to the depth of shade, and has the formula —
,N„- C,0H|(OH)(SO3Na)2
XN, - C„,H<( OH X SO-,Na),
liy varying the components in these compounds a
regularity in the change of shade is noticed, the lower
molecular compounds of the benzene series giving colours
at the red end of the spectrum, whilst the higher molecular
compounds of the naphthalene series give blue shades.
Moreover, in the example just quoted, it is observed that if
other naphthalene derivatives are substituted for the second
molecule of R salt the shades of the resulting colouring
matters are a greenish blue when the compound contains a
hydroxyl- or an amido-group in the ^-position, hut are
reddish violet to violet red when these groups occupy the
a-position. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matters.
B. Willcox, London. From " The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. llayer and Co." El herf eld, Germany. EDg. Pat. 19,062a,
November 4, 1891.
The formation of leueo bases of the rosaniliue series by
condensing tetra-alkylated diatnidobenzhydrols with primary,
secondary and tertiary aromatic amines proceeds easily,
but the oxidation to form colouring matters only takes place
satisfactorily when the leueo products are obtained from
tertiary amines. It has been discovered that if the leueo
bases from the primary and secondary amines are converted
into their nitrosamines before oxidation good results are
obtained. The nitroso group is subsequently removed by
heating the compounds in an aqueous solution with or
without the addition of acids or alkalis, but in order to
avoid oxidation by the nitrous acid disengaged it is
advisable to perform the reaction in presence of an aromatic
base, such as aniline or toluidine, or in presence of sul-
phurous acid. A product identical with Victoria Hlue B can
be obtained as follows, according to this process : — 47 ■ 1 kilos.
of the leueo base, obtained by condensing tetra-methyldi-
amidobenzhydrol with phenyl-a-naphthylamine in alcoholic
solution and in presence of muriatic acid, are dissolved in
200 kilos, of 50 per cent, acetic acid, 40 kilos, of muriatic
acid of sp. gr. 1*18 and 400 litres of water. After cooling,
69 litres of a 10 per cent, sodium nitrite solution are added,
and the resulting nitrosamine leueo compound oxidised by
the addition of 79 "3 kilos, of a 30 per cent, lead dioxide
paste. Diluted sulphuric acid, from 10 kilos, of pure
sulphuric acid, is then added to the deep green solution to
precipitate the lead, and after the addition of 500 litres of a
6 per cent, sulphurous acid solution the whole is poured
into an equal volume of strong hydrochloric acid, which
eliminates the nitroso group. After standing some hours
the solution is poured into water and the free acids
neutralised with an alkali. The colouring matter then
separates in a crystalline condition and may be purified by
dissolving in acids and precipitating with alkalis. Tetra-
ethyldiamidobenzhydrol may be employed in place of tetra-
methyldiamidobenzhydrol and the following secondary
amines may be substituted for the phenyl-a-naphthylamine :
methyl-, ethyl, and benzyl-aniline, diphenylamine, methyl-,
ethyl-, benzyl- o- and p-tolyl-a-naphthylamine and di-
naphthylamine. All these colouring matters yield violet to
blue or greenish blue shades on wool or on cotton mordanted
with tannic acid. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of New Cotton or
Substantive Dyestuffs. B. Willcox, London. From
" The Farbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer and Co.," Elber-
feld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,061, November 4, 1891.
In the Fr. Pat. 209,519, November 14, 1890, Guinou,
Picard and Jay describe a process for obtaining cotton
colouring matters by the action of hypochlorites on
primuline. Superior colouring matters are produced by
acting with sodium hypochlorite on dehydrothio-p-toluidine
sulphonic acid or its homologues obtained from m-xylidine
or if-cumidiue and which are derivatives of benzenyl-o-
amido-thio-m-cresol—
CH-C6H./ \c-C6H5
(Gattermann and Pfitzinger, Ber. 22, 1063 ; this Journal
1889,608). The dehydrothio-^-toluidiue, melting at 191°C,
is sulphonated and 50 kilos, of the sulphonic acid arc,
dissolved in 1,000 litres of water with 8 to 10 kilos, of
sodium carbonate. The solution is mixed at a temperature
of about 15°C.with a sodium hypochlorite solution obtained
by adding the requisite quantity of sodium carbonate to
50 kilos, of chloride of lime. The solution, which is at
first colourless, turns a deep reddish yellow and the reaction
is complete in about 24 hours. The dyestuff is precipitated
with salt, washed with brine, pressed and dried, and forms
a brown powder readily soluble in water. It dyes unmor-
danted cotton a brilliant yellow, similar to C'hrysamine R,
and withstands alkalis, acids, chlorine, and light. The
oxidation can also be effected by hypobromites or by
potassium ferrieyanide or lead dioxide in presence of an
alkali. The new compounds probably belong to the class
of azo- or azoxy-colouring matters produced from two
molecules of dehydrothio-;)-toluidine sulphonic acid by the
simultaneous oxidation of the two amido groups, since nitrous
acid no longer gives a diazo-compound. The shades
produced by the higher homologues are redder than those
from the toluidine derivative. — T. A. L.
Manufacture of New Bases applicable for the Production
of Substantive Cotton Dyes. C. D. Abel, London.
From L. Durand, Huguenin, and Co., Bale, Switzerland.
Eng. Pat. 9.360, May 17, 1892.
These bases are obtained by condensing tolidinc, benzidine,
or dianisidine with formaldehyde or with »i-phenylene-
diamine. The condensation products obtained give diazo
compounds which when combined with naphthylamine
filO
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct. si, 1892,
sulphonic acids yield substantive cotton dyes. 21 '2 kilos.
of tolidine, 2-4-8 kilos, of basic tolidine hydrochloride, and
10 kilos, of alcohol are mixed to a thick paste and treated
with 7 ■ 5 kilos, of a 40 per cent, formaldehyde solution.
The melt is allowed to stand for 12 hours and is then
heated for a further 12 hours on the water-bath. After
cooling it is powdered, dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric
acid filtered from unaltered tolidine, and the new base
precipitated by sodium carbonate as a light green resinous
mass which begins to liquefy at 60' — 63° C. and is com-
pletely melted at 85° — 90° C. The following constitution
is given for the substance —
/NH.CjHs.CyHgNHo
Iff'/
\NH.C;H(.C7H6KH.
It is easily soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in benzene,
and almost insoluble in ether. The hydrochloride and
sulphate are readily soluble in water. Similar compounds
are obtained from benzidine and dianisidine. The con-
densation product from tolidine and m-phenyleuediainine
is produced as follows : 12 kilos, of m-phenylenediamine
are heated to 180° C. and 10 kilos, of basic tolidine hydro-
chloride are slowly stirred in, the temperature being then
raised to 280° C. and kept at this point for three hours,
ammonia being evolved during the reaction. The melt,
after being powdered, is washed with warm water to remove
unaltered phenylenedianiine and is then dissolved in hot
dilute hydrochloric acid, any tolidine present being precipi-
tated by the addition of sulphuric acid. After filtering, the
base is precipitated by the addition of soda-lye, forming a
yellowish-brown mass which melts from 100° — 110° C.
The following equation is given as representing the
reaction —
C.H6-NH, C,"H6-Nfl-( !6H4-NH,
| +G6H4(NHs)2=NHs+ |
C7H6-XH., C?HC-NH,
The compound can be diazotised and the amount of
nitrite used corresponds to the formula given. The
diazotised base combines with naphthylamine sulphonic
acids, givirjg substantive cotton dyestuffs. The solutions
of the condensation products from m-phenylenediamine
and more particularly those of the bases in alcohol possess
a strong green fluorescence. — T. A. L.
Improvements in Machinery for Washing and Treating
Hosiery and other Fabrics. J. W. and G. Roberts,
Bolton. Eng. Pat. 10,4911, June 20, 1891.
A i vi. e or dashwheel, formed by fixing wooden or
metal lags with bevelled edges to two circular discs,
is arranged to revolve inside a stationary washing cylinder.
The cage is driven either continuously or with reversing
gearing. — E. B.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc,
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Vegetable Textile Fibres
for the Manufacture of Yarns and Fabrics. F. V,
M. Baabe, London. Eng. Pat. 8776, May 23, 1891.
This invention, which is an improvement on Eng. Pat.
9811, of 1885, relates to the preparation for spinning and
manufacturing of those bast fibres " which ordinarily are
not employed in the production of superior goods " The
claims comprise : — the boiling of the fibres in a mixture
of urine and alkali solution ; rinsing the fibres so treated ;
hydro-extracting ; drying by hot air ; and opening, dividing,
and cleaning. — E. li.
Improvements in Apparatus for Treating Textile Vegetable
Substances to obtain Fibres therefrom. I). Barnett,
Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 10,252, June 1"', 1891.
Ramie and other vegetable fibres are submitted to a com-
bined bruising, rubbing, and drawing action, for the purpose
of removing the incrusting ligneous and cementiticus
matters " by a dry or almost dry mode of treatment."
— E B.
Improvements in the Process of and Apparatus for
Bleaching and Treating the Fibre of Peat or other
Substances. G. A. Cannot, London. Eng. Pat. 13,102,
August 1, 1891.
See under VI., page 813.
Improvements in the Method of and in Apparatus for
Bleaching and Treating Textile Fabrics. C. F. Pike,
Manchester. Eng. Pat. 13,509, August 11, 1891.
Cotton fabrics are continuously scoured by passing them
in the rope-form through a series of tanks filled respectively
with boiling milk of lime, hot water, and " hot caustic
solution." The cloth travels up and down through each
tank, and is squeezed before passing into the succeeding
tank. It is stated that the " entire bleaching operation
might be carried out by putting a similar apparatus
in line with the example illustrated (in the original
specification), and carrying on the treatment until the goods
are fully bleached." Both the method and the apparatus
employed are claimed. — E B.
Improvements in the Process of Extracting Deleterious
Matters from Wool and other Textile Materials.
( .'. Hanson, Wakefield. Eng. Pat. 243, January 6, 1892.
The process of extraction of the vegetable matters from
wool, muugo, shoddy, &c. by immersion in cold, dilute
mineral acid, as at present conducted, fails to thoroughly
cleanse the wool and leaves it with a harsh feel. This, it is
claimed, is obviated by heating the dilute acid to a tem-
perature " varying from 100° to 400° F., or in some instances
lower than 100 F." Less acid is required iu this way, and
the wool is obtained of a better feel and colour, so that less
soap, &o. for scouring is needed. — E. li.
Improvements in Machinery for Breaking or Scutching
Flax and similar Fibrous Materials. E.G. A. Hatschek,
London. Eng. Pat. 5223, March 16, 1892.
The flax-straw is passed downwards through a hopper to
two feed-rollers and then between two fixed pairs of bluut
knives placed horizontally beneath the feed-rollers. A
frame provided with knives is arranged to move laterally
to and fro between the two pairs of stationarj' knives, the
lower pair of which is lightly pressed against the frame by
springs. When the flax-stems pass through the apparatus
the straw is broken and shaken out of the fibre. — E. B.
New or Improved Wood Fibre Ropes. O. Marwitz,
Schierstein, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7482, April 20, 1892.
Wood-kopes, to substitute straw-ropes for use in foundries,
are manufactured by spinning together firmly-twisted strands
of aspen or willow-wood fibre with loosely-twisted strands
of pine or poplar-wood ; or by covering a firmly-twisted
j inner core of aspen or willow fibres with loosely-twisted
piue or poplar fibres, or with straw, hay, hemp, flax,
manilla, cocoa-nut fibre, or other vegetable fibre. — E. B.
Ool. 81,1881] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
811
VI.-DYEING. CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
Tie Discharge of Alizarin Dyes. Emil Schnabel.
Farben. Zeit. 1892, 395.
Discharging a dye means the total or partial abstraction
of it from the dyed fibre, although occasionally the same
term is applied if a certain dye by means of some reagent is
lightened in shade without any of the dye being removed
from the fibre. If a brown dyed on chrome mordant with
logwood, fustic and camwood is treated in a boiling solution
of tin crystals, no loss of dye occurs, but the shade
becomes much lighter. Many of the alizarin dyes can be
modified upon thp fibre in the same manner, but in this case
the solutions employed have to be much more concentrated
than for the wood colours. The great stability of most of
the alizarin colours calls frequently for the most energetic
and destructive discharging agents.
Carbonisation wiih Sulphuric Acid at 5° D.
Does not modify.
Very slightly modifies.
Diamond black it.
I Bayer. Elberfeld.)
Alizarin orange.
(Uoechst.)
Alizarin indigo blue S M \V.
(B. A. and S. P.)
Alizarin green S W.
( B. A. and S. F.)
Alizarin blark S \V.
[B. A. a n,l S. I'.l
i Tcjh mon ffrt i ttish.)
Alizarin Mack S R W.
(B. A. an. I S. I'.l
(Trifle more greenish)
Alizarin blue S \V.
(B. A. ami S. I'.i
{Trijlv more greenish.)
Does not modify.
Very slightly modifies.
Galloflavin.
(B. A. andS. F.)
Alizarin bine W X.
(li. A.andS. F.)
( Trifle more greenish.)
Alizarin blue DN W.
(Hoeehst.)
{Trifle more greenish.)
Alizarin brown,
(Hoeehst.)
[Slightly paler.)
Anthracene blue W R.
(1!. A. and S. F.)
{Trifle more greenish.)
Alizarin indigo blue S W.
(B. A. and S. F.)
(Trifle more greenish.)
Alizarin yellow GGW.
(Hoeehst.)
[Slightly lighter and paler.)
Alizarin dark bine.
(B. A. andS. P.)
[Slightly greenish, paler;)
Considerably affected arc:— Gallein (B. A. & S.F.), became
a reddish purple; Alizarin grey G (Hoeehst), grey green ;
Alizarin cyanine R R II (Hayer, Elberfeld), much paler
and greener; Alizarin blue R R, pale green. Alizarin red
appears after the acid treatment brighter and more yellowish
in shade, but when the acid has been neutralised by an
alkali, the shade is found to be considerably bluer.
Dyed with
After Treatment with
Sulphuric Acid.
in percent. Gallein paste
(B.A. AS. P.)
In per cent. Alizarin
green s \v paste.
Mi. A. JkS. F.)
1(1 per cent. Alizarin
black S \V paste.
(B. A.& S. P.)
10 percent. Alizarin
black S R \V paste.
(B.A.&S. !•'.)
•2 per cent. Diamond
black powder.
(Bayer, Elberfeld.)
10 per cent. Alizarin
grey G paste.
(Hoeehst.)
In per cent. Alizarin
brow n paste,
(Hoeehst.)
10 per cent. Galloflavin
paste.
(B. A. &S. F.)
Pale violet, looks like
shade dyed with 3 per
cent. Alizarin Blue S \Y
paste and 3£ per cent.
Alizarin red W B.
Purplish paler, not much
lighter.
Turned red, like a shade
obtained with Q\ per cent.
Alizarin grey R paste
(Hoechsl ►.
Like Alizarin blackSTV.
Like Alizarin black S \V.
Considerably greener,
resembling shade from
2': per cent. Alizarin green
S W paste 2$ percent.
Alizarin black 8 W paste,
£ per cent. Alizarin brown
paste.
Intensity reduced fco a
shade obtained with 21 per
cent. Alizarin brown paste.
Lost about tJ per cent, of
the dye, shade rather
duller.
Tin Crystals and
Hydrochloric Aeid.
Dull purple, like that
obtained from 2 per cent.
Alizarin blue S W paste.
| to 1 ■■ per cent . Alizarin
red U U paste, and
l per cent, yellow tla\ in
paste.
Like sulphuric aeid.
Like sulphuric acid, red
still more pronounced.
Like Alizarin black S VV.
A little redder than
sulphuric acid.
Grey green.
Yellowish orange, as from
1 per cent. Alizarin orange,
3 per cent, fustic extract-
paste.
Like sulphuric aeid, still
paler.
Much fuller shade,
purplish-violet. Almost as
bright as similar shades
obtained from methyl-
\ iolel .
Unaltered.
Turned slightly greenish.
Unaltered.
Unaltered.
Grey Green.
Scarcely any paler, but
somewhat more purple.
Scarcely altered, a trifle
lighter.
Like alum, but brighter
and redder shade.
A dark grey, similar to
that from 7 per cent.
Alizarin black S W paste,
and li per cent. Alizarin
blue S W paste.
Turned a shade of olive,
such as is obtained from
5| per cent. Alizarin
brown paste, .'*£ per cent.
Cerulein paste, l\ to 2\.
4 per cent. Alizarin blue
S W paste.
A shade more greenish.
Entirely destroyed into
a pale buff, and like one
obtained with 0"2 to 0*4
I per cent. Alizarin brown
paste, 0*2 to o *4 per cent
Galloflavin paste.
Exactly like shade from
5i per cent. Alizarin brown
paste, 4 per cent. Alizarin
blue S W paste, 1$ per
cent. Galloflavin paste.
Gained a little iu bright-
ness and intensity.
A little more reddish,
no lighter.
812
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1892.
After Treatment with
Dyed with
in per cent. Cerulein
paste.
(Hoechst.)
In per cent. Alizarin
yellow G G W paste.
(Hoechst).
10 per cent. Alizarin
dark blur paste.
(IS. A..YS. F.i
in per cent. Alizarin
blue B B paste.
II. vh-l.l
'2 per cent. Alizarin
red s powder.
(B. 1.&S.F.)
In per cent. Alizarin
i I'd "\V B paste.
(B. A.&S. P.)
In per cent, Ali2arin
orange paste.
(Hoechst.)
Sulphuric Acid.
Oxalic Acid.
Dye not discharged, only
a little paler, bluish red.
Almost completely
discharged, like a shade
with :i per cent, oi the
dye, hut duller.
Slightly lighter and
duller.
Losl From 2 to :i per cent.
i 'I dye, and is less red.
Terra cotta shade, as
obtainable from 4 per cent.
Galloflavin paste
6 pier cent. Alizarin
red ,S powder.
Similarly altered as
Alizarin red S.
Lost about l per cent, of
dye, Yellower.
Like sulphuric acid, a
little more affected.
Like sulphuric acid.
Slightly lighter and
duller.
Not much lighter, but
a little duller led.
Light orange, as obtained
from 15 per cent.
Alizarin orange on
alumina mordant, but
rather duller.
Like Alizarin red S.
Like a shade with IB per
cent. Alizarin orange on
alumina mordant.
Alum.
I naltered.
Scarcely altered, only
a trifle discharged.
A hi lie fuller shade,
blueish.
A little more red.
similar to ordinary
Alizarin red. but more
blueish and duller. A
little discharged,
Like Alizarin led S.
a little discharged.
Tin Crystals and
Hydrochloric Acid.
Not discharged, a little
more dull and orange.
Losl about -t per cent..
tlie dye, a little duller
reddish.
A dark purple, as
obtained with In per cent.
Alizarin grey R paste.
A dark purple shade, a
little redder than
Alizarin dark blue.
Similar as with oxalic
acid, but duller.
Like Alizarin red S.
Like oxalic acid, noi so
bright. A little discharged.
Much yellow, not much
lighter.
The action of a hot bath of sulphuric acid is similar to
that of the carbonisation bath, but acts much more energetic.
The following table shows the alteration which the shades
undergo, if submitted for 20 minutes to the action of a
bath containing 10 grins, of sulphuric acid 66° B. in a litre
of water at a temperature of 80" C. Of course these
experiments only serve to illustrate the alterations of the
various dyes, but cannot be generally employed for practical
purposes. The experiments with oxalic acid were carried
out with solutions containing 1 ■ 5 grm. of oxalic acid in a
litre of water. In this bath the material was boiled for 15
minutes. The alum baths were of the same strength, but
the boiling was continued for 25 minutes. The tin baths
contained in a litre of water 1 grm. of tin crystals and
1 grm. commercial hydrochloric acid, and the material was
boiled for 30 minutes in this bath.— C. O. W.
lied and White Discharge Prints on Dyed Indigo-Blue.
C. 1'. Brandt. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, April— May
1892,201—206.
In 188-4, A. Scheurer directed attention to the decolorising
influence on indigo-blue exercised by the alkaline hypobro-
mites. This suggested the idea of applying the reaction to
the production of red discharge effects on fabrics dyed
indigo- blue, a problem at that time of considerable practical
importance, the processes in use being very imperfect and
most of them having the defect of strongly attacking the
fibre. To effect the end desired, it is requisite to associate
with a salt of alumina the reagents necessary for the dis-
engagement on the fibre of bromine or hypobromous acid.
Solutions of chlorate of alumina and ammonium or sodium
bromide when mixed undergo no change, but on addition of
bisulphite of soda a disengagement of hromine takes place
after the lapse of some time in the cold and instantaneously
and energetically on heating. A mixture of these three
r, agents thickened with British gum, printed on indigo-dyed
cloth, and subjected to a steaming of 1 i minutes duration,
effects a decolorisation of the tissue, and at the same time
sufficient alumina is fixed on the fibre to produce a red
when subsequently dyed up in alizarin. This process is,
however, defective, as the colour only keeps for a short time,
after which a decomposition sets in with liberation of
bromine. If the bisulphite of soda be left out and in its
place sulphide of copper substituted, the disengagement of
bromine is also effected on heating, and such a mixture
gives excellent results. Here, however, a new difficulty
presented itself. Although the new colour keeps much
better than the one containing bisulphite, yet the insoluble
sulphide of copper becomes slowly oxidised to soluble
sulphate of copper, and when this transformation has
reached a certain point a rapid decomposition of the
printing colour takes place. An attempt to substitute the
copper by vanadium was futile, the latter not inducing
the necessary decomposition of the reagents. It became
necessary to prevent the formation of a soluble salt of
copper, and this was effected by the addition of iodide of
potassium, which precipitates the soluble copper salt at the
moment it is formed. This addition made the process
complete and practical, and it has been used by the author
from 1884 up to the present time without change. The
working receipt is as follows : —
1 litre chlorate of alumina, 1.5° B. (thickened with
British gum).
200 grins, bromide of potassium.
2.5 grms. iodide of potassium.
25 grms. sulphide of copper.
This is for a dark indigo shade ; for medium and light
shades the above colour is reduced by admixture with more
of the thickened chlorate of alumina.
After printing, the fabric is steamed 1 1 minutes in Mather
and Piatt's aniline ager ; the discharge is complete and the
tissue is not injured.
For the production of a white discharge simultaneously
with the red, the attempt to substitute other chlorates in
place of the chlorate of alumina was unsuccessful, the
indigo being either unaffected or only partially discharged.
The end was, however, gained by an addition of citric acid
to the printing colour, this preventing the fixation of the
alumina on the fibre. It was also found convenient in this
latter case to partially substitute the chlorate of alumina by
barium chlorate, in order to make the colonr less acid, and
to replace the bromide of potassium by bromide of ammo-
nium. (Prints of red and white discharges on indigo-blue
accompany the paper.) — W. P. K.
Process for the Discharge of Dyed Indigo-Blue. C. F.
Brandt. Hull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, April—May, 1892,
210. (Sealed packet of 23rd February, 1885.)
This describes the process abstracted above in which
bisulphate of soda is used. In order to obtain a good bright
shade of indigo the white cloth is mercerised before dyeing
0,-t. 81, 181(2.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
813
blue. The colour thus got is uot injured by the subsequent
processes of dyeing and brightening of the red. Anthra-
purpurin is to be preferred us dyestuff. — \V . E. K.
Process for the Production of a Discharge on Dyed Indigo.
F. Binder. Bull Sdc, Ind. Mulhouse, April— May 1892,
207—209. (Sealed packet of April 18, 188.'.. )
Tins process is based on the destruction of the indigo
by nascent bromine, obtained by the action of a strong acid
on —
(1.) Bromide and brornate of sodium.
(2.) Bromide and chlorate of sodium.
(3.) Bromide of sodium and chlorate of alumina.
The acid is that disengaged from glycerosulphate of
alumina, sulphate of alumina, alum, or chloride of aluminium,
by steaming at 100° C. through the Mather and Piatt ager.
The indigo is destroyed and alumina is simultaneously
fixed on the fibre. It is sufficient after steaming to wash
wash off and then- dyed up in alizarin.
Chloride, tartrate, or citrate of ammonium, admixed with
the bromide and bromate of sodium, also destroy indigo on
steaming.
An additional note of March 1892 gives the following
details. The bromide-bromate mixture is prepared as
follows ; — GOO grms. of bromine are added to 1,000 grins, of
caustic soda at 38° B., boiled, and made up to 35° B. This
gives 1,875 cc. of liquid containing per litre 343 grms. of
bromide of sodium and 100 grms. of bromate of sodium.
From this the printing colour is prepared : —
f litre sulphate of alumina solution, 35° B.
1 15 grms. soda crystals.
Boil and add to —
1 litre gum tragacanth solution.
Cool and add —
625 cc. bromide-bromate 35° B. (above). — W. E, K.
Peroxide «/' Sodium. M. Prud'homme. Chem. Trade .1.
11, 208.
See under VII., page 814.
The Chemical Examination of Handwriting. A. Robert-
son and J. Hofmann. Pharm. C. H. N. F. 1892, 13, 225.
See under XXIII., page 847.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Production of
Chlorine Compounds for Bleaching. Count T. de
Kienheim-Brochocki, Paris. Eng. Pat. 9332, June 2,
1891.
Chlorine gas, after being cooled, is passed through a
vessel containing water in order to remove acid, and then
after admixture with air, through a bed of coke moistened
with sulphuric acid to dry it. The air and chlorine are
then led through an apparatus where the mixed gases are
subjected to a constant discharge of electric sparks which
causes the formation of a certain amount of hypochlorous
and chlorous acid. The gases are afterwards passed into a
concentrated solution of caustic alkali. The product of
the combination of the alkali and the chlorine so treated is
designated by the patentee " chlorozone," and he claims
that its bleaching capacity is superior to that of an
ordinary alkaline hypochlorite. — H. S. P.
Improvements in the Process of, and Apparatus for
Blenching and Treating the Fibre of Peat, or other
Fibrous Substances. G. A. Cannot, London. Eng. Pat.
13,102, August 1, 1891.
Peat is rendered fit for manufacturing into thread or for
conversion into paper-pulp by successively heating it with
dilute alkali under slight pressure, washing with water and
dilute acid, treating with dilute hypochlorous acid, washing
and drying.
The inventor, further, claims a process of manufacturing
"hypochlorous acid gas" by submitting a dry mixture of
oxygen and chlorine gases at a low temperature (to
avoid explosions) to the influence of a stream of electric
sparks, the resulting gas being absorbed in a solution of
caustic soda or potash. — E. B.
Improvements in Dyeing and Printing Textile Fibres with
Aniline and its Homologues or Derivatives. \V. J. S.
Grawitz, Nogent-sur-Marue, France. Eng. Pat. 13,955,
August 18, 1891. (Date claimed under International
Convention, January 19, 1891.)
The tendering of the fibre which takes place in the dyeing
of aniline black by the process of drying and steam-ageing,
is due to the action of the mineral acid which is liberated.
This is obviated by adding to the aniline solution an
acetate or tartrate of an alkali or alkaline earth, the
mineral acid which becomes free interacting with such salt,
and liberating acetic or tartaric acid. The best proportion
of the alkaline salt to add is three-fourths of au equivalent
to one equivalent of aniline hydrochloride. The cotton, after
being impregnated with this solution, is dried and aged as
usual. — E. B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Dyeing, Scouring,
Bleaching, or otherwise Treating Yarn in Cop, or other
similar Compact Form. A. and J. Graemiger, Bury.
Eng. Pat. September 8, 1891.
In order that large batches of yarn in cop may be dyed, and
liquor of a high temperature used, the patentees propose to
employ the following apparatus. The yarn is placed on
hollow perforated spindles carried on suitable frames, which
fit into a tank of convenient shape, which is capable
of being hermetically closed. The frames are inter-
changeable, thus allowing of one lot being refilled, while
the other is under treatment. During the process the yarn
may be subjected to air exhaustion, or liquor, gases, or
steam, may be forced or drawn through the tank. In cases
where high temperatures are used, the action of the
circulating pump may be assisted, and a more thorough
impregnation of the yarn effected, by the introduction of
steam, or air under pressure. A perforated bottom, and
steam coil, permit of heating the dye or other liquor to the
required temperature. The yarn may be finally dried after
treatment, in the tank by means of superheated steam
or air.— W. P. D.
An Improved Method of, and Apparatus for Effecting the
Oridation of Aniline Black in the Process of Dyeing
Cotton, Thready or Wool, on Bobbins and Cops.
C. Schniirch, Altchemnitz, Germany. Eng. Pat. 7555,
April 21, 1892.
The cops or bobbins are fixed on pins projecting from bars
which are carried through the drying and " damping "
chambers by endless pitch-chains. The cops are placed
upon the pins before passing into the drying apparatus and
are removed from them outside the " damping " chamber,
continuous working being thus achieved. — E. B.
Improvements in Hawking Machines for Indigo Dyeing.
W. H. Coulter, Batley, Yorkshire. Eng. Pat. 12,694,
July 11, 1892.
In this machine nipping rollers are made to rotate in the
dye liquor, between which the fabric passes. In order to
prevent the fabric sticking to the rollers, and thereby
becoming damaged, it is proposed to use scrapers of strip
copper, or other suitable material, which are fixed nearly
at right angles to the rollers, and so prevent the return of
the fabric. These scrapers are partly curved and attached
to a longitudinal bar. and thumb-screws are employed to
adjust the pressure of the scrapers upon the surface of the
rollers.— W. P. D.
8U
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31. 1892.
VII.— ACIDS. ALKALIS. AND SALTS.
Peroxide of Sodium. M. Prud'homme. Cheni. Trade J.
11, 208.
Sodium peroxide has lately been introduced into commerce
at about 5 frs. per kilo., a price which may allow
of its introduction as a bleaching agent. The com-
mercial article contains about 20 per cent, of active oxygen,
corresponding to the formula Na2Oa (barium peroxide
only contains about 8 per cent., hydrogen peroxide
12 vol., only 1*5 per cent, oxygen). It dissolves without
evolution of oxygen in dilute acids when kept cool, a
solution of hydrogen peroxide being formed. A moderately
concentrated solution of sodium peroxide attacks cellulose
violently, disintegrating it and turning it yellow; when
subsequently washed and treated with a weak acid, the
cellulose takes a deep shade in a bath of Methylene blue.
The peroxide is too alkaline to be used for bleaching wool
and silk, therefore E. de Haen recommends the preparation
of magnesium peroxide by means of the sodium peroxide
from a solution of magnesium sulphate —
(S()4Mg + Na20, = S04Naa + Mg02)
which is more stable than hydrogen peroxide.
Recipes are given for the use of sodium peroxide, for
bleaching wool, tussur, and mixed silk tissues. As an
example, the first method may be reproduced : — The wool
is to be thoroughly freed from grease, and put into a bath at
30° C. containing 30 per cent, of the weight of the material
in magnesium sulphate, free from chlorine. The material is
turned several times, removed, and peroxide of sodium
added (10 per cent, on the wool). It is again put in, and
the temperature raised to CO0— 70° C. After allowing to
remain for § to 1 hour, it is taken out, passed into dilute
sulphuric acid to remove the magnesia, and then washed
and dried. — J. L.
The Comparative Value of Brimstone and Pyrites in the
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid in the United States.
J. H. Kelley. Kng. and Mining. J. July 23, 1892, 72.
The only advantage that pyrites possesses over brimstone
is that the sulphur in this form costs from one-thitd to one-
half less than in the form of brimstone, while the advantage
possessed by brimstone over pyrites may be given as
follows : — As pyrites contains an amount of iron requiring
oxidation, more air is used in the burning process than
with brimstone in producing the same amount of sulphuric
acid ; consequently the burner gas from pyrites contains a
larger percentage of nitrogen and a smaller percentage of
sulphurous acid and free oxygen than that from brimstone.
In exact figures, the burner gas from pyrites should contain,
with good working, from 8 to 10 per cent., and that from
brimstone from 11 to 13 per cent. SO;. This increase in
the amount of nitrogen and decrease in SO» and free
oxygen requires an increase of from 2 to 3 per cent, of nitre
in the amount of sulphur charged, and it also requires
an increase of from one-fourth to one-third of the capacity
of the chambers. The author finds that the average
amount of nitre used with pyrites to be 6 per cent, and with
brimstone 4 per cent, of sulphur charged.
He finds that 100 lb. of sulphur charged, in the form of
pyrites, produces 430 lb. of chamber acid, and that 100 lb.
of sulphur in the form of brimstone 490 lb. of chamber
acid 50 B. (sp. gr. = 1*53), these figures being equivalent
to 247 and 300 lb. of pure acid respectively. This
difference is due to the amount of sulphur remaining
in the cinder, averaging 3 per cent., and also to the
sublimation of sulphur and the non-formation of sulphurous
acid due to the high temperature of the furnace. This
increase in temperature, combined with the greater amount
of nitre used with pyrites, shortens the life of the chambers
by at least one-half. On this account the wear and tear of
the brimstone plant are calculated at 6 per cent, per annum,
and in the pyrites plant at 10 per cent, per annum. The
pyrites plant, which produced 9 nine tons 50' B. acid per
day, was valued at 30,000 dols. ; and the brimstone plaut,
using the same chambers and producing 12j tons per day,
was valued at 27,000 dols. The difference in cost is due to
the difference in the cost of the furnaces.
With pyrites the services of four men were required for
charging (two during day, two night), besides the extra
expense of breaking and preparing the ore for the furnace ;
while with brimstone two men were sufficient for all
purposes.
In the following table are given the averages expenses
for a day, first with pyrites, second with brimstone :—
Cost of Producing Nine Tons Chamber Acid with
Pyrites.
Dols. i>ois.
5 tons pyrites, at 5 dols. to 8 dols., from 2fS-00 (o tnim
270 lb. nitrate, at 2.50 dols. vct 100 <r75 .. 075
•:i60 lb. acid; at toe. per 100 1'45 „ l-4S
Breaking ore and loss, :it 25 c. per ton 1'25 „ 1"25
Four men. at 1'25 dols. per ton 5'00 „ 5'00
Wear and tear ICOO „ 9"00
Office and other expenses 5'00 „ 5*00
58/45 68'45
Producing 50° B. acid (sp. gr. = r.wi. at from ."'('l dols. to 7'60 dols.
per ton.
Cost of Producing Twelve Tons Chamber Acid with
Brimstone.
Dole. Hols.
31 tons brimstone, at 21 dols. to 29 dols B'B'oO to TZ'50
2(jii lb. nitrate, at 2'50 dols. per lno .VtiO „ .VtiO
*2iio lb. acid, at toe. per 100 080 .. 0'80
Two men, at r25 dols 250 ., 2'5(i
Wear and tear 000 „ ti'00
Office and other expenses 5'00 ,. 5'00
71-80 9V80
Producing 50° B. acid tit from 5'98 dols. to 7-ti5 dols. per ton.
This table shows that if pyrites can be obtained at from
5 dols. to 8 dols. per ton delivered, brimstone should be
bought at from 21 dols. to 29 dols. per ton delivered. At
present pyrites can be bought at from 10 dols. to 11 dols.
per ton, delivered, and brimstone at 28 dols. to 30 dols. per
ton, delivered, so that the comparison is even more in favour
of brimstone than appears from the table. This calculation
does not take into consideration the value of the cinders in
the case of pyrites, as we have never been able to make
anything on them.
So far, the value of a ton of acid produced from pyrites
has been taken to be the same as one produced from
brimstone. This is true only where the presence of a small
percentage of arsenic is of no consequence. There is
always some arsenic in pyrites, and it is almost impossible
to eliminate it.
In the manufacture of superphosphate or sulphate of
soda to be used in alkali, or in glass-making, or in the
purification of petroleum, there is no objection to arsenical
sulphuric acid, but where the acid is to be used in the
manufacture of food products, such as starch, sugar, and
molasses, it is necessary that brimstone acid should be
employed. Where a chemically pure article is required in
pharmaceutical and analytical work, it is absolutely necessary
to use the brimstone acid.
Brimstone possesses the advantage of producing an acid
averaging from 5° to 10° stronger than that produced by
pyrites. The pyrites burner-gas has a higher temperature,
and in order to reduce this sufficiently for the chamber
process it is necessary to introduce more steam than with
brimstone. Por some time Wm. H. Adams has been
advocating the use of pyrites in place of brimstone for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, and gives the following
estimates. The chief reasou for the substitution is the
* This difference in the amount of acid used is caused hy the
difference in temperature, and by the fact that the nitrate potin
th>> pyrites furnace is stationary, so that the nitrate cake must be
liquid enough to How out.
Oct. 81. 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
815
greater cheapness of the sulphur contained in pyrites, and
the second reason is that pyrites are comparatively abundant
in the States, whereas brimstone has to be imported. He
gives in his writings a comparative statement of the costs
in producing sulphuric acid by the two processes. This
may be put in the form of a table : — •
Cost of Sulphuric Ac id made from Pyrites.
Dels.
in tuns pyrites, till costs a* above :it :> dels per ton .WOO
\ii i of soda, t| percent, mi sulphur contents, or, say
mil lb. at 2'SOdols. per 100 His WOO
Coal, 2 tmis daily, at 3 dels, per ten O'OO
Labour, the men for all purposes, at 1'25 dels, per day .... 6*25
Superintendent and office cost B'OO
Weal- a ml tear as above 10 "00
Total ■ 88- •> 3
(or fOOdels. per ten el' chamber acid.)
Cost of Producing Sulphuric Ann kkom Hrimstone.
Dols.
Four tens brimstone, all cost including freight, losses m
transit and burning, Ac, at 24 dols. a ten. used inpro-
ducing is tens daily 06"00
Nitrateof soda, 6 per cent, of brimstone used, or 588 lb.
daily, at 2°e0 dols. per 100 lb 13"45
Labour, five men. all purposes, at V20 dels, ret- day 6*25
Coal, - tons daily, at 3 dels, per ton 6'00
Superintendent and office cost 8*00
Wear and tear per day, 10 per cent, per annum, en works,
costing 35,1100 dols WOO
Total 137-70
(or 7V.5 dels. t>er ten el' chamber acid.)
It will be noticed that Kelley's and Adams' estimates
vary considerably. Adams estimates that with brimstone
costing 24 dols. a ton chamber acid will cost 765 dols. a
ton, and that with pyrites at 5 dols. a ton chamber acid
ousts 1-90 dols., while Mr. Kelley estimates the cost of
acid from brimstone at from 5-98 dols. to 7-65 dols., and
from pyrites 5 84 dols. to 7-60 dols., taking pyrites as
costing from 5 dols. to 8 dols. per ton and brimstone at
21 dols. to 29 dols. a ton.— W. S.
PATENTS.
The Problems of Commercial Electrolysis. J. Swinburne.
Inst. Elect. Eng. July 1892.
See under XI., page 823.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of the
Aluminates, Sulphates, and Carbonates of Soda and
Potash, and to the Production or Recovery of Alumina
and other By-products. C. F. Claus, London. Eng.
Pat. 4311, March 10, 1891.
The process may be considered in three stages : — I. Chloride
of sodium or potassium is mixed with native hydrate of
alumina (bauxite) or with the hydrate of alumina produced
in the third stage, in the proportion of from 30 to 100 parts
by weight of hydrate of alumina to 100 of the chloride. A
sufficient quantity of water is added to make a stiff paste,
and the mixed substances are moulded into bricks and dried.
These bricks are then charged into chambers arranged in a
series, the chambers being connected in such a way that a
flow of gases can be led through the whole series, and by a
system of valves, admitting of any one chamber being
excluded from the series, as desired, for the purpose of
charging or discharging it, and further so arranged that
each chamber in turn becomes the first, the last, or an
intermediate chamber in the series.
When the chambers are charged with the moulded
material a gaseous mixture of hot sulphurous acid, steam
(superheated or not), and hot or cold atmospheric air is
then conducted through them. At the beginning of the
operation the chambers should be heated by gaseous fuel or
hot air to a temperature of from 400' to 500° C, which is
found to be the best temperature for the carrying out of
the reaction that ensues. This reaction results in the
decomposition of the alkaline chloride with the production
of alkaline sulphate and hydrochloric acid gas. The
reaction is energetic and runs its course quickly without
any danger of the chlorides fusing, as in the analogous
Ilargreaves process, both of which facts are probably due
to the admixture of aluminium hydrate, which is temporarily
converted into sulphate and then transfers its sulphuric
acid to the alkalis. The gaseous mixture used may contain
a larger proportion of sulphurous acid, and the temperature
of the air and steam may be higher than in the Hargreaves
process. The sulphurous acid may be made by the combus-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen obtained in the second stage
of the process or by the buruiug of pyrites or other sulphur
ores. It the latter plan be adopted the sulphuretted
hydrogen formed in the second stage may be burnt in a
Claus kiln and solid sulphur recovered.
The hydrochloric acid evolved from this series of chambers
is conveyed from the last chamber in the series to condensers.
The finished product remaining in the first chamber of
the series, consisting of sulphate of sodium (or potassium)
and aluminium hydrate, is then withdrawn and charged
preferably hot into one of another series of chambers.
II. In this second series the next stage of the process is
carried out, and it consists in reducing the alkaline sulphate
to sulphide by the action of reducing gases such as hot
hydrogen, carbonic oxide, or water-gas. The gases should
be nearly red hot, or at the temperature at which they leave
the producers. If the heat be not sufficient a little air may-
be admitted so as to burn some of the gas and raise the
temperature. The alkaline sulphide then reacts upon the
aluminium hydrate, and the corresponding alkaline aluminate
is formed, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas is evolved, which,
as already stated, may either be burnt to sulphurous acid
and used over again in the first stage, or may be used for
the recovery of the sulphur it contains.
III. In this stage the alkaline aluminate is dissolved in
boiling water, and after separation of the insoluble matters
by subsidence or filtration carbonic acid gas is pumped
through the clear liquor ; or the carbonic acid may be
forced through the mixture of water and alkaline aluminate.
and the insoluble residue separated afterwards. For this
operation an apparatus such as that used in the Chance
process for obtaining sulphuretted hydrogen from alkali
waste may be used. The action of the carbonic acid on the
alkaline aluminate results in the production of a solution of
alkaline carbonate and a precipitate of aluminium hydrate
which falls in a dense and easily filtered form. The alkaline
carbonate liquor may be treated in the usual way, and the
hydrate of aluminium may be used over again in the first
stage of the process. Any undecomposed alkaline sulphide
is likewise decomposed by the carbonic acid, and the
sulphuretted hydrogen passes away with the residual gases
and may be dealt with in the well-known manner. — H. S. P.
Using a Combination of Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric
Acid for the Decomposition of Chlorides, Sulphides,
Sulphates, and of Sulphuretted Hydrogen. J. Pedder,
Widnes. Eng. Pat. 4712, March 17, 1891.
Mined rock salt is placed in a Weldon still with a sufficient
quantity of sulphuric acid mixed with one-third of its bulk
of hydrochloric acid, and steam is applied until the salt is
decomposed. The liquor is then run into a vat and crystal-
lised. The residual liquor is used with sulphuric acid for
the next treatment of salt. The crystals are roasted to
drive off the adhering hydrochloric acid, and the still and
roaster are connected with condensers. In applying the
process to ordinary hand furnaces, these may be worked as
at present with ground rock salt and sulphuric acid to
which an addition of hydrochloric acid has been made, and
the heat is kept lower than usual to prevent the formation
of hisulphate.
In the application of the process to metallic sulphides,
the ore is digested with a mixture of sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids. Heat is applied to assist the decomposition
816
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. SI, 1892.
and expel the sulphurous acid. Air is admitted to oxidise
the metals after desulphuration, and the gases are passed
through cylinders to produce sulphate of soda. When
applying the process to the treatment of salt in the
Hargreaves cylinders, a certain quantity of sulphate of soda
as a powder or in a liquid form is added to the salt before
roasting to prevent too close packing. The sulphate of
soda " decomposes the steam (which has been acidulated
with hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid) that passes with
sulphurous acid or sulphuretted hydrogen into the cylinders
of the Hargreaves type." — H. S. P.
Improvements in /!"■ Manufacture of Cyanogen Compounds,
and the Treatment of Substances used therein. .1. J. Hood,
London, and A. G. Salamou, London. Eng. Pat. 5354,
March 25, 1891.
Ammonia and carbon bisulphide mixed with Weldon mud
(washed free from calcium chloride) are heated together
in closed vessels to the temperature of boiling water or
somewhat higher, by steam. Sulphocyanide of manganese,
sulphide of manganese, free sulphur and water are formed.
A second base may be added such as an alkali, or caustic
or slaked lime, sufficient in quantity to combine with the
sulphocyanie acid. The resulting mass is washed, the
sulphocyanide goes into solution and the sulphide of
manganese and sulphur remain undissolved and may be
revivified by exposure to the air. The sulphocyanide of
manganese or lime in the solution is recovered by
crystallisation, or an alkaline sulphocyanide ■ may be
obtained by decomposing these with an alkaline salt
(carbonate, sulphate or sulphide) and separating by
crystallisation. Advantage is taken in order to separate
the manganese and calcium from each other of the fact
that earboDate of soda or potash first of all precipitates
carbonate of manganese, which is removed and may be
reconverted into the oxide by ignition, and then a further
addition of the alkaline carbonate precipitates the calcium as
carbonate.
From the alkaline sulphocyanide thus obtained, the
aluminium sulphocyanide may be formed by addition of
aluminium sulphate, or the yellow prussiatc of potash or
soda, may be made by evaporating the solution of the
alkaline sulphocyanide and igniting with iron filings or
borings.
Instead of Weldon mud, the peroxide of manganese
artificially made from manganese carbonate by ignition,
or the native ore called " wad " may be used.
Instead of manganese peroxide, hydrated ferric oxide
artificially made or native may be used. Irish bog oxide is
preferred. In this case sulphide of iron (which may be
revivified by exposure to air) and ammonium sulphocyanide
arc formed. If a second base such as caustic or slaked
lime be added all the ammonia is converted into the
cyanide radicle as sulphocyanide of lime, as in the case
when peroxide of manganese is used.— II. S. P.
An Improved Method, Chiefly designed for Enriching
( Calcareous Phosphates, and for Manufacturing Super-
phosphates and various By-products. II. II. Lake,
London. From A. Briart and P. Jacquemin, Belgium.
Kng. Pat. 5357, March 25, 1891.
The calcareous phosphates are treated in suitable vessels
provided with agitators, with an aqueous solution of
sulphurous acid. This acts upon the calcium carbonate in
the phosphates forming calcium bisulphite, which goes
into solution, together with a small quantity of the phosphate.
The residual phosphate obtained coutains a larger proportion
of phosphoric acid than the crude phosphates used. The
process may be facilitated by first calcining the crude
phosphates. This increases the energy of the action of the
sulphurous acid on the lime, and weakens the soluble action
upon the triealcium phosphate. The liquor containing the
bisulphite of calcium in solution is then decanted and
treated with sulphuric acid, which precipitates calcium
sulphate in a state well adapted for making a high class
plaster of Paris. The sulphurous acid evolved is again
absorbed by water, and is used over again. The liquor
drawn from the precipitated calcium sulphate, containing
sulphurous acid and phosphoric acid in solution, is used over
again for treating fresh phosphate. There is therefore a
gradual accumulation of phosphoric acid in this liquor, and
it may be allowed to become so concentrated as to produce
after further concentration by evaporation a marketable
article, or it may be used alone for enriching the natural
phosphates or in making superphosphates. The sulphurous
acid may be generated in any known way, but when made
from pyrites the gases from the burners must be cooled
before passing to the absorbing towers where they are
dissolved in water. Use is made of the heat contained in
the gases to calcine the plaster of Paris and to dry the
superphosphates and enriched phosphates made in carrying
out the process. The patent also provides for utilising the
escaping sulphurous acid evolved in the process for making
sulphuric acid in leaden chambers. — H. S. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Caustic Soda mid
Caustic Potash. E. L. C. Martin, Ivry-Port, France.
Eng. Pat. 8006, May 9, 1891.
Sodium or potassium chloride is first decomposed by
magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride and sulphate of
the alkali being formed. The magnesium chloride is then
decomposed by heat whereby magnesium is deposited and
hydrochloric acid liberated. The solution of alkaline
sulphate is then treated with neutral or acid sulphite of
baiium or strontium, and the precipitated barium or
strontium sulphate is removed and the solution of neutral
or acid sulphite of sodium or potassium which remains is
boiled. This causes a liberation of one-half of the
sulphurous acid from the acid sulphite which is collected,
and the solution of neutral sulphite remaining is then
decomposed with lime mixed with a suitable proportion of
caustic baryta, whereby a solution of caustic alkali is
formed and calcium and barium sulphites are precipitated,
and are afterwards separated by decantation from the
solution. The calcium and barium sulphites are then
converted into bisulphites by treatment with sulphurous
acid, and these are used again for decomposing fresh
quantities of alkaline sulphate. — H. S. P.
Improvements in Evaporating Pans for the Manufacture
of Salt from Sea Water or Brine, awl for other
Purposes'. T. Scott, Edinburgh. Eng. Pat. 17,185,
October 9, 1891.
The bottom of the pan is provided with a steam-chamber,
which may be screw-studded to resist the pressure.
Ordinary or superheated steam may be used. The water
condensing in the chamber is passed through a coil, which
heats the liquor before it is run into the pan, and is then
pumped back into the boiler. — J. C. C.
An Improved Process for Preparing at the same Time
Neutral Sulphate of Soda and Precipitated Phosphate
of Lime. L. Brunner, Wetzlar, Germany, and A. Zanuer,
Laeken; Belgium. Eng. Pat. 2389, February 8, 1892.
Bisur.i-HATE of soda is dissolved in water and treated with
sulphuric acid solution of spent or refuse phosphates.
The solution obtained by this treatment contains sulphate
of soda and acid calcium phosphate, and the latter is then
preipitated with milk of lime or calcium carbonate or by
a weak alkali, and the precipitate of mixed calcium phos-
phates is filtered off from the solution containing sulphate
of soda. The sulphate of soda may be then recovered by
evaporation and crystallisation. — H. S. P.
An Improved Holder for Large Jars, Carboys, Demijohns,
or the Like. E. W. Holmgreu-Holmes, Toronto, Canada.
Eng. Pat. 13,050, July 15, 1892.
See under I., page 80 I.
Oct. 81, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
817
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
The Expansion of Class, and on " Compound" Glass.
Sohott. Ber. d. s'itzv. April 1, 1892 ; d. Yer. /.. BefBrder d.
Gewerbefli
Most of the determinations of the coefficient of expansion
of glass that may be found in technical literature have
been recorded without any reference being made to the
composition of the samples used. The author, in conjunc-
tion with Winkelmunn, Straubel, and Pulvrich has deter-
mined the cubical coefficient of expansion of 38 samples
of accurately known composition. Several generalisations
can be deduced from their results. In the first place the
coefficient of expansion shows a relation with the content of
alkali, in the case of silicate glasses. Sodium glasses give
higher figures than those containing potassium, although
the coefficient of expansion of the metal potassium
(O-000O8H5) is higher than that of sodium (0-00007105).
Lime, baryta, zinc oxide, alumina and lead oxide have no
marked influence on ordinary silicate glasses. Phosphate
glasses approximate to silicate glasses in their expansion ;
borate glasses, containing much boric acid are, ou the
contrary, distinguished by low coefficients of expansion ;
Borosilicate glasses, which may be free from alkali on
account of the fusibility imparted by boric acid, have low
coefficients of expansion. A glass of this kind, of the com-
positiofa BaO 25, ZuO 5, AL03 4-5, B;Oj 14, MiUJ,, 0 • OS,
SiO.j 51 '22, As/V 02 parts percent, respectively, is note-
worthy on account of its good insulating quality. This and
its freedom from alkali will make it useful for many scientific
purposes.
The coefficient of expansion is largely dependent upon
the condition of tension in which the glass is, a fact that
should never be lost sight of when glass is used for delicate
measurements. The risk of alteration in length and
volume is enhanced by great variations of temperature.
This view is justified by the. author's observations
that slight permanent displacement of the thinnest parts
of the glass may oceur at a temperature considerably
below its softening point, a fact bearing upon the altera-
tion of the zero of thermometers. The belief hitherto
held that the rise of the zero point is caused by a delayed
contraction of the glass due to the high temperature
at which it has been prepared ap Dears scarcely tenable
now. Alkali free glass does not show this phenomenon,
and it is to be hoped that thermometers giving constant
readings may be prepared from it. < )ther investigations of
the authors have been directed to ascertain with what
success glasses possessing different coefficients of expansion
may be united, when they are taken upon the blow-pipe, in
successive layers. When articles of glass of which the
inner part has a lower coefficient of expansion than the
outer are cooled in the air so that the outer layer exerts a
compressive force, it is found that they resemble " hardened''
glass. Such " compound " glass (l'erbundglas~) has been
used for making flasks, upon which water could be sprayed
when they were heated to the boiling point of aniline
(184° C.) without risk of fracture. Dishes of this material
could be heated directly over a Bunseu burner without
cracking. An Argand chimney could be sprinkled with
water ou the inner surface with similar immunity. Gauge
glasses of this " compound " glass withstood the corrosive
action of water better than the ordinary specimens, and
were so little affected by violent alterations of temperature
that they could be plunged vertically into cold water after
having been heated in oil to 200'— 230° C.
The patented process for making compound glass consists
in taking up a small portion with the blow-pipe of the glass
with the lower coefficient of expansion, and then the rest
from another pot containing the glass with the higher
coefficient of expansion. The composition of the glass
may vary within wide limits, as it is only the difference
between the two coefficients of expansion that has to be
regarded. The requisite difference can usually be obtained
by altering the percentage of alkali present. Spontaneous
explosion, as sometimes occurs with Bastie's " hard glass,"
has not been observed. — 1>. IS.
The Composition of Biscuit Porcelain. H. Seger. Thonind.
Zeit. 16, 1892, 359.
I'.isi'tiT porcelain for figures, &c, should he translucent,
a circumstance which necessitates the addition of a con-
siderable amount of fluxing constituents to the kaolin. If
the limit of fusibility be overstepped a disagreeable waxy
appearance occurs at the more prominent parts, such as the
fingers, nose, hair, Ike. A sample of biscuit porcelain, free
from this defect, had the following composition: — Silica,
03-00; alumina, 24-74; ferric oxide, trace; lime, 0-77;
magnesia, 0-64 ; alkalis calculated as potash, 10-86 parts
per cent, respectively. The extraordinarily high content of
alkali, and the low percentage of silica led to the conclusion
that the material consists of a mixture of kaolin free from
quartz, and felspar. Such a mixture having a composition
corresponding with that given above, was made by mixing
32 parts by weight of kaolin and 68 of felspar. At the
melting point of Seger's cone No. 8, it was thoroughly
fused but retained its matt surface. For the production of
biscuit porcelain of this quality the author recommends
mixture of 54 parts by weight of Zettlitzcr kaolin, 45 of
felspar and 1 of marble, with the addition of 30 per cent, of
the same mixture burnt and ground. — B. B.
Analyses of Glass used in the Manufacture of Incandescent
Electric Lumps: I). Woodman. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
14, 1892, 61—63.
In the manufacture of incandescent lamps, apart from the
breakages due to bad annealing and other causes, an
excessive percentage of " spontaneous " breakages may
often be traced to inequalities in the composition, and
consequent variations in the coefficient of expansion of the
glass of which the lamps are made. The author has
analysed samples of glass employed in the manufacture
of lamps which were peculiarly liable to spontaneous
breakage, in spite of every care taken in annealing, &c.
The results obtained fully explain the causes of the
trouble.
Analyses op Glass Kod, Tube and Lamp Bulb.
Rod,108. | Tube, 100. Lamp Bulb, 112
K.O
N»..0
CaO
MgO
MnO "i
iv.o, !
AlsOs >
PbO
SiOa
Cr/h
IMS
15 -0G
■2- 15
(T7(l
16-81
03 -M
Trace
1 • 20
Trace
1-G5
I9-83
G5-16
Trace
2 ' 32
14'50
o-to
0'9S
Trace
1-15 -1
1-3(1
72-35
Trace
1110-30
:i'.i-:;i
The glass of an English lamp gave the following
figures : —
C 2
818
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Out. 31, 18itt.
Analyses or Bulb and Stem <n English Incandescent
Lajlf.
Bull). 113.
Stem, 116.
Ki)
•;■ 1 1
;i -:,,
b-m
CaO
.-.'11
5' 05
MgO
Trace
i . ' I
:( TO
j
AI..O
l-io
riiu
2-90
10-68
; ; i"
OS'24
:i:'\-,i
'.I'.iSl
The above glass was veiy brilliant and clear. The
percentage of breakages in the manufacture of these lamps
was not kuown. Another lamp (of American manufacture)
was found to be uniform in composition throughout, as
shown below : —
—
Bulb, 113.
St.- n. 114.
KjO ...
717
6*91
.;- is
1) -so
06-32
.-. ' 89
M .( 1
r:i>
I'M)
171 1
SiO
r„v-n
CaO
0; 13
1 13
M»u
1
MgO
, Tra i -
Trm i s
9S-9J
— H. T. P.
PATENTS.
An Improved Process for Lining Metallic or other Vessels
or Tidies with Glass. D. Rylands and A. Husselb.ee,
Barnsley. Kng. Pat. 16,846, October 3, 1891.
The metal vessel or tube is heated to the required tem-
perature, molten glass is then gathered on a blow-pipe and
blown out to nearly the size of the vessel. The glass is
introduced into the metal vessel or tube, and is then
blown out to the full size. The metal vessel being hot
the glass adheres, and the vessel is properly lined. As
soon as the glass has been blown out to the required
extent a " burst-off " is formed round the top of the vessel,
and thus the superfluous glass is blown, or burst, off. The
glass lined vessel is passed into the annealing arch or
leer, and is then annealed. The process is applicable to
electric accumulator cells. — V. C.
Improvements in Treating China, Earthenware, and otlter
like Surfaces for Various Useful and Ornamental
Purposi s. .1. Mater, Hursh.-m.and J. J. Roy le, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 17,126, October 8, 1891.
The purpose of the invention is the depositing of metals,
-neli a- copper and silver, on certain portions of china and
earthenware articles with the double purpose of ornamenta-
tion, and of giving additional strength.
The surface of the articles to be treated is first coated
with a paste containing the following ingredients ; —
Part's by WeSgltt.
Nitrate ..I silver 12D
Ammonia chloride of mercury SO
Bromide of sodittm-. . . . .1"
i ixide of bismuth H'
and then fired. The article is afterwards placed in an
electro-plating depositing bath, when the prepared surface
is found to take a strongly adhering metallic coating. A
very thick deposit {e.g., of copper) greatly strengthens
handles, spouts, c\.c. — V. ('.
Xar or Improved Process of Plating Clay n-ith Glass, and
in Articles made in accordance therewith. \V. P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From The Clav (.lass Tile Co.,
Corning, U.S. Eng. Pat. 13,227, July 19, 1892.
Hitherto various methods have been employed in applying
transparent silicic coatings to clay. Some such coatings
come properly under the description of enamels, others are
slags exuded from the body of the impure clay, and some,
such as that formed on tiles by adding common salt, are
glazes formed on the surface but in part out of the substance
of the clay itself. It has long been known that molten glass
will adhere with tenacity to burnt clay, < .</., at the sides of
clay retorts. The structure of the surface in this case is,
however, useless for ornamental purposes, unless the method
be followed which is described in this invention. The
purpose of the invention is to coat clay tiles or bricks with
glass of any desired thickness, colour, and design. The
method employed is as follows : — First, a clay is selected
having about the same rate of shrinkage as the glass. The
clay tile is heated to a high temperature and the molten
glass is poured upon the surface. The clay is contained in
a mould furnished with a pluuger, by lowering which the
glass is compressed against the sides of the mould, liy
employing a plunger with a figured face any required design
may be impressed on the surface of the glass,— V, Q,
Improvements in Leers or Annealing Furnaces for S/ieit or
Plate Glass. J. W. Bonta, Mayne, Delaware, l'.S. Eng.
Pat. 13,569, July 2G, 1892.
Tin object of this invention is to construct a leer or
annealing furnace so that the furnace bottom or table shall
not "heave" or "sag," that is to sajT, shall not expand
irregularly. The table is simply a layer of soft bricks,
which is supported by ventilated bricks constructed in any
form (for instance, with ribs at the end) which will properly
ventilate the table. During the operation of the furnace air
is blown in from below, whicdi keeps the table from being
unduly heated. By these arrangements the table is properly
ventilated without being unduly eooled. The object sought
for and attained in this invention is to keep the plate of glass
from being deformed, and thus save the waste of time and
material involved in reproducing a true plane surface in the
subsequent operation of grinding.— V. C.
IX-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
Preparation of Concrete Blocks for Paving and /luililing
Purposes. Trobach and Huppertsburg. I). Tiipfer und
Ziegler. Zeits. 23, 314.
Macnksiim chloride solution (30° B.) is mixed with
powdered asphalt or other similar bituminous substances to
a pasty consistence, and then magnesia equal in weight to
the chloride used gradually stirred in. According to the
quantities employed the mass -.4s, in from 5 'id 30 hours,
to a hard product insoluble in water, non-absorbent, and not
Oct. 31,18930
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
819
softened by the heat of the sun. The quantities found most
suitable are 75 parts magnesia, 7.') parts ehloride of magne-
sium, and fjti [nuts asphalt by weight. The blocks are dried
at first in the moulds and then alone at a temperature
corresponding to the melting point of the original asphalt.
For paving they are laid upon a cement basis, and cemented
together.— E. W. 1'.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial Stone.
( ). Imray, London. From W. Schleuning, Heidelberg,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 8567, May 19, 1R91.
I.i i.i \.\, -ni>A residues, after being exposed to the air and
lixiviated to remove a great portion of their sulphur, or the
residue from Chance's sulphur-recovery process, arc mixed
with water and gypsum or any other hydraulic mortar or
cement, and moulded into any desired shape by pressure
and allowed to harden in the air. Or the residues from
Chance's process may be mixed with powdered clay and
slaked lithe and the damp mixture moulded as desired. If
it is not certain that the soda residues have been sufficiently
decomposed or oxidised by the air, from one-twentieth to
one fifteenth of the entire mass may be added of finely-
ground burnt pyrites. — II. S. P.
Iiii/irnri incuts in tin f/tilisdtion of Slag for the Manufacture
of Hint lis. Slabs, Drain Pipes, or other Moulded Articles.
t. Arnold. West Hartlepool. Kng. Pat. 18,559, Octo-
ber 2fi, 1891.
Hi.tsi'-n'RXM k slag is crushed and ground and mixed with
Portland cement, which may be added in the ordinary
powdered state or in the form of clinker, in which ease it is
ground together with the slag. With slags which contain a
high percentage of lime, such as Cleveland slags, a low per-
centage of cement, e.g., 10 percent, for a slag with 45 percent,
of lime may be used, while slags from lucmatites and Spanish
ores with 20 per cent, of lime, require as much as 30 per cent,
of cement. The mixture is moulded dry into articles such as
are mentioned in the title, and consolidated by pressure or
the administration of a series of blows or shocks until its
bulk is decreased by about 25 per cent. It can then either
be exposed to the air to absorb moisture or immersed in
water or " a silicate bath." An extra hard surface, which
may be roughened for paving and the like if desired, may be
givel) by covering the mixture with a layer of neat cement
about i in. in thickness before the pressure or shaking is
applied — B. Bl
Means for Securing Asphalt Mastic as a Coating or
Stopping upun all Description of- Buildings and Building
Materials. L. llaarman, Eschershausen, Germany. Eng.
I'at. 20/269, November 21, lgOl.
ASPHALT mastic is caused to adhere firmly to sandstone,
bricks, wood, concrete, and the like by painting the .surface
to be coated with a solution of a suitable bitumen dissolved
in a volatile solvent such as " sulphide of carbon " or
" benzine." The system of applying mastic can be utilised
for protecting structures exposed to damp, including such as
are exposed to weather, e.g., the wooden bearers of balconies.
— B. B.
ImpriH'i menfs in flic Manufacture of Artificial Stone and
Hard Compositions applicable to Building and Paring
Purposes, to Moulds for Cement ( 'astings, to Safes, and
to other Articles and Purposes. O. Terp, London. Eng.
Pat. 12,174, June 30, 1892.
Fifty per cent, of calcium chloride crystals are dissolved in
51 1 per cent, of water, and 66 per cent, of magnesium chloride
crystals in :',4 per cent, of water, and 7 7 per cent, of the
resulting latter solution mixed with 23 per cent, of the
former. " To this are added 2 per cent, of pure hydrochloric
acid of full strength, and 1 per ecu*, of chlorated water
being a pure saturated solution of chlorine while constantly
stirred." The resulting solution is mixed with " the bitter
earth of commerce " (magnesia) and various compositions
in imitation of sandstone and marble made therewith. The
patented material may be also used for mosaic work, for
moulds, and when mixed with peat, paper pulp, sawdust, &c,
for panels and boards. A composition of 60 per cent, of
emery, 20 per cent, of the chloride solution, and 20 per cent,
of " bitter earth " may be cast in the walls of safes, and is
said to be fireproof and to resist drilling. — B. B.
Improvements in Enamelled Bricks and in the Manufacture
thereof H. H. Leigh, London. From I. K. Hue, New
Jersey, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,220, July 19, 1892.
Enamelled bricks, made either by direct application of the
enamel to the clay, or by the use of an intermediate layer of
clay, sand, powdered flint, &c. made into a slip into which
the brick is dipped previous to the application of the
enamel, have the disadvantage that the enamel and the
intermediate layer are apt to part from the body of the
brick. This the patentee claims to obviate by forming the
lining or intermediate layer of the usual materials in the
form of a paste, so that it forms a coating of tangible
thickness. The brick is then tired and enamelled in the
usual way. In order that chipping of the enamel may be
but little conspicuous, the lining may be coloured like the
enamel. — B. B.
X.-METALLURGY.
The Manufacture of Iron in ils Relations to Agriculture.
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., E.B.S. Irou and Steel
Institute Autumn Meeting, IS92.
The author deals with the above subject from the chemical
point of view. It is well known that any attempt to produce
a crop from a purely mineral soil would fail, and the
presence cf organic matter appears to he necessary in order
to enable the plant to assimilate the mineral matter, the soil
contributing little or nothing else towards the substance of
the plant. The ash of the plant is usually not more than
2| per cent, by weight, of which amount possibly only
Jjjth is iron oxide. Mclvendrick's Physiology states the
actual quantity of iron in an adult human body to be about
46j grains, and upon the proper changes in oxidation of
this iron is animal life entirely dependent. The two ingre-
dients entering into the composition of all animals and of
the vegetables upon which they feed, and which are
especially treated of in this paper, are nitrogen and phos-
phorus, the former being believed to be entirely derived
from the ammonia and its compounds contained in the air
which are present in so slight a proportion that if all this
ammonia were collected in a layer at the sea level, under
the ordinary pressure, it would form a stratum less than a
quarter of an inch in depth.
Although fresh ammonia is continually generated by
decaying animal and vegetable matter, in our country, under
present conditions of population and sanitation, the waste
of nitrogen is enormous, and has to be compensated for
from other sources, a small quantity being found in nature,
but much larger quantities being produced in gas manufac-
ture. Coal burnt in the open tire yields little or no
ammonia, that body being decomposed, but heated in closed
vessels the nitrogen takes up hydrogen and is carried over
in the form of ammoniacal compounds so much needed.
The 7,000,000 tons of coal treated annually in our gas-
works should yield about 60,000 tons of the sulphate, worth
about 600,000(.
It is estimated that more than 1 5,000,000 tons of coal are
annually coked for the use of our ironworks, and the
attempts to obtain the ammonia from this coal have been
abandoned, as the coke produced was less suitable for
820
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Get. 81. 18&
blast-furnace work. The annual loss of ammonia from the
coal thus incurred is estimated as considerably above a
million sterling.
About a million tons of pig iron are annually produced
in Great Britain b}- use of raw coal, and the extraction of
ammonia in gasworks led the Scotch ironmasters to try the
effect of appl3"ing condensers to the waste gases from the
blast furnaces. In gasworks, from a ton of coal 9,000 to
in, uOO cubic feet of gas are obtained, and about 5 lb. of
ammonia converted into sulphate. In the blast furnace,
however, not only have 10,000 cubic feet of gas to be pro-
duced, but all fixed carbon, except the small amount
combining with the iron, escapes as oxides of carbon, and
in addition there is the carbonic acid of the flux and the
nitrogen of the blast, which more than doubles the volume
of the gases, bo that the ammonia seldom exceeds one
volume in 800. It is generally estimated that each ton of
coal burnt in the furnace generates about 90,000 cubic feet
>i uas and yields 4 -:;8 lb. of ammonia-gas. The condensa-
tion is obviously much more difficult here than in the ease of
the gasworks.
The plant used in the Dempster mode of condensation at
Carnbroe, with almost the completeness of a laboratory
experiment, consists primarily of dust-boxes, condensers,
exhausters, scrubbers, and separators, together with the tar
and ammenia plants for working up those liquors. From
the main gas-tube from close-top furnaces the gases pass
through the dust-boxes, where the dust and about 80 per
cent, of the tar are deposited, and thence enter the con-
densers, which, as with a gas plant, are in duplicate and
fitted with valves by which any part in need of repairs or
clearing can be shut off without interfering with the working.
Each set of condensers consists of 144 wrought-iron tubes
20 in. in internal diameter and 55 ft. high, the whole being
fitted on cast-iron boxes with partitions for giving the gas
the full travel of the condenser. The total length of piping
is five miles and the external area 48,000 sq. ft. ; the tem-
perature of gas on entering averages 130° T\, and on leaving
i'j0= F., the temperature of waste gases from furnaces
burning coal being much lower than from those burning
coke, as much of the heat is absorbed in vaporising the
volatile portions of the coal. The tubes are cooled exter-
nally by water sprays. The tar and ammonia liquors
overflow into the separators in the usual way.
The gas next passes to the exhausters, of reciprocating
type, so arranged that the gas cylinders and all gas con-
nections are outside the house to avoid risk from leakages.
Each exhauster has two steam and four gas cylinders,
passing 550 cubic feet of gas per revolution. The pistons
work at one-quarter centre and draw off the gas very
steadily. The engines are regulated by gas-governors,
working by the pressure of the main gas tube. The gas is
then forced into the washers, consisting of four cast-iron
boxes sealed with the ammonia liquor from the scrubbers.
The gas enters at the centre, passes through perforated
plates, thus breaking up the stream of water into spray and
washing itself, and reaches the outlets to the scrubbers.
The overflow liquor or seal is regulated by patent slide
valves, and passes to the separators directly opposite to those
for dividing the tar and liquor from the condenser boxes,
the tar being lighter than the liquor. The gas then passes
into the three scrubbers, each 120 ft. high and 18 ft. in
diameter. These towers are filled with thin boards, about
7 in. wide set on edge, each tier of boards being set at right
angles to the next. The gas enters at the bottom and meets
the liquor pumped from the tank to the distributor rc\ olving
inside the scrubber, thus equally wetting the whole area
and presenting an enormous surface to the gas, which
passes from the top to No. 2 scrubber, and thence to No. 3,
in which the boards are still more closely packed, and fresh
and clean water used. Water valves are attached to the
scrubbers so that any one may be shut off while the others
continue working. They have also relief valves, and man-
holes for cleaning.
The washed gas then passes t" the hot-air stoves and
boilers of the works, and is nsed in the ordinary way.
The yield of raw products has averaged 120 gallons of
ammoniacal liquor of 2 (Tw.) and 25 gallons of tar
per ton of coal used in the furnaces. The ammoniacal
liquor is worked up into sulphate by use of lime and steam
in continuous ammonia stills, which may also be heated
by the blast-furnace gas after it has passed the condenser.
The tar is treated in eight vertical tar stills, each capable
of holding 7,000 gallons. The oil is taken from the
receivers into the store boilers and blown by compressed
air to store tanks. The pitch is run into the coolers from
the still. From the much lower temperature in the blast
furnace the tar oil has a different composition from that
of the gasworks aud is unsuitable for the preparation of
aniline and tar colours, but if passed over red-hot coke,
benzene and anthracene, may be obtained, and future
researches may give a higher value to this substance.
Figures are given showing the yield, prices, and profit
obtained at one works in three weeks from three furnaces
by the employment of this system. The coal used was
5,841 tons and the profit a little over 718?.
The author then turned to the element phosphorus, of
which 3 to 4 lb. are needed for the building up and
maintenance of the life of an adult human being. He
believes that the absence of readily available phosphorus
in the oldest geological formations may have had an
influence in delaying the appearance of life upon the
earth. By degrees these formations became disintegrated,
the phosphates becoming more soluble, and as the amount
of more soluble phosphates increased so vegetable life of
a low type established itself and then higher types and
richer vegetation flourished. When this process had
arrived at a suitable stage, low types of animal life were
brought into existence, followed by higher types until it
has arrived at the present existing state.
The iron first dissolved from the soil by aid of carbonic
or other acids is believed to have been deposited, as at the
present day, under atmospheric influences as the peroxide,
aud as the concentration of phosphorus in vegetation
progressed, the deposition of the organic matter must have
caused an increase in the amount of phosphorus in the beds
of iron ore then forming. It should also be remembered
that the agents — carbonic and vegetable acids — which cause
the solution of the iron are the same which effect the
separation of the phosphates. In support of this view
the author quoted a list of analyses from Percy's work on
Iron and Steel, and from a report of the Labour Com-
missioner of the United States, which appear to establish
that the iron ores from the older formations are very
deficient in phosphorus as compared with those of later
origin. That there are exceptions to this rule cannot be
denied, but it would be remarkable if it were not so.
At the period of formation of the coal-bearing strata a
great increase in the quantity of vegetable and animal
remains occurred, and we find a corresponding increase in
the proportion of phosphorus, but it is only in the more
recent lias formations that we meet with the full measure
of inconvenience caused by phosphorus, and in this manner
the Cleveland ironstone from the deposition of the remains
of marine organised beings has become so contaminated
that the pig iron from it is totally unfit for the ordinary
Bessemer process. With about 0-5 per cent, of phosphorus
in it, however, the Cleveland ironstone would be impracticable
for use in fertilising our land, but with this ore, when
submitted to the action of the blast furnace the phosphorus
becomes so concentrated in the metal that the amount which
existed in 3{ tons of ore passes into one ton of pig iron.
More than 20 years ago the author pointed out the loss to the
country incurred by allowing the phosphorus of 2O,imi0 tons
of phosphoric acid to poison 2,000,000 tons of pig iron
annually, while our ships were scouring the seas to obtain
that substance from the remotest parts of the earth. This
scandal is being removed gradually by the use of the basic
process, and the slag formed is decomposed by natural
processes when used as manure. The attempt to perform
such a decomposition in the laboratory, although quicker, k.
much more costly. — A. \V.
Oct. 31, 1892.]
THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
821
The Gold-bearing Veins of Pyrites on Monte Itnsa.
Konrad Walter. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 920—922.
Tiii; reins are almost universally quartz, with pyrites,
aisemeal pyrites, with here and there potters' clay, and
copper pyrites scattered through in varying quantities.
The amount of gold and silver is very variable, as a rule
gold is only found in the presence of much arsenic. The
distribution of the gold is very irregular, and proper
samples can be only obtained by examining at least 10
tons. The mineral, even in the same vein, differs greatly
in its yield by the amalgamation process at spots only a
tew yards apart, and this has led to the failure of many
small private undertakings worked by this method. As a
rule it may be said that gold (and silver where it is present)
is only found in the pyrites and not in the quartz. The
ore ran therefore easily be prepared, according to the
amount of gold in the pyrites (from 45 to 90 grins, of gold
per toll), so that it is worth carriage to a place suitable for
the extraction of gold ; aud this all the more readily in
that water power is alway available ill the immediate
proximity of the mines. As the result of experiments made
on 2 kilos, of material, the veins above Magna average
30 grins, of gold per ton of material; the deep mine in
Pestarena yields ore containing 30 grms. per ton and an
equal quantity of silver. Ore is found here and there,
especially at the surface, which can be worked by the
amalgamation process of extraction, but the method will
not yield a profit on a large industrial scale. The future
of the Monte Kosa Ore Works lies in the chemical gold
extraction processes, but here also the method must be
selected according to the ore to be treated. Extensive
trials are now in progress for treating the raw ore, or even
the residue, by an improved cyanide process. The roasting
is omitted and is replaced by a very careful grinding. The
ore thus prepared is treated with cyanide solution, filtered,
and the gold deposited electrolytically, or with zinc. The
addition of some other reagent to the cyanide solution is
alleged1, which is said to increase the efficiency of the
cyanide. — G. H. B.
The Treatment of Argentiferous Zinc-Lead Sulphides.
( '. Schnabel. Kng. and Mining J. 1892, 269 and 295.
Thk ore under consideration is found in the district of
Broken Hill and the Barrier Range, it consists mainly of a
very intimate silver-bearing mixture of galena and zinc blende.
The silver varies from 8 to 32 oz. to the ton, the lead
from 15 to 4 J per cent., and the zinc 15 to 30 per cent.
Treatment by the ordinary metallurgical processes is
unsuitable, as the separation of the silver and lead is
impossible without material losses of these metals. It has
been found impossible to make a complete separation of
the zinc from the lead, and especially from the silver, by
concentration, the zinc blende obtained not only being
found to carry a high percentage of silver, but also a certain
percentage of lead and garnets.
The Production of Metallic Zinc.
1, On account of the low percentage of zinc contained
in the sulphides, and the proportionately high percentage of
lead, the ores arc unsuitable for distillation.
■>. The direct decomposition of zinc blende by metallic
iron or lime has never been carried out on a commercial
scale.
3. Tin; decomposition of the molten sulphides by
electrolysis has never been attempted on a large scale.
The electrolytic production of zinc from zinc sulphate can
only be carried out economically when the power necessary
can he produced at a very low cost, and when the sulphate
of /.ine is produced as a valueless by-product from other
processes.
The Production of O.ride of Zinc.
1. Volatilisation. The treatment of the ore in the blast
furnace is only possible after a preliminary roasting;
further, the fumes resulting contain too much lead to be
valuable as a zinc ore, or too much zinc to be valuable as a
lead ore, and would be too impure to be used as a paint.
2. Reverberatory Furnace. The roasted ores mixed
with coal were heated in a reverberatory furnace to the
temperature necessary to reduce the zinc oxide. The
volatilised zinc was re-oxidised and collected in chambers.
Although the collected fumes were suitable for paint, the
process was not a success on account of the losses of lead
and silver, and the fume collected was not sufficient to pay
for the cost of treatment.
3. Bartlett Process. The author considers that this
process cannot be carried out with advantage under the
existing circumstances, as the paint produced would hardly
find a lucrative market in case much of the ore were treated
by this process.
Wet Methods. The solution by means of carbonate
of ammonia is not applicable for the roasted sulphides on
account of the sulphate of lead and basic sulphate of zinc
always present in the roasted ores, as the ammonia would
be converted into sulphate, aud thus cause loss of ammonia.
The zinc in the sulphides can be converted into chloride
by roasting with common salt, and treated in solution with
milk of lime, but the recovery of silver in this case would
be a matter of considerable difficulty, there would also he
a considerable loss of chloride of zinc by volatilisation.
During the process of roasting the ores at a low tempe-
rature, it is possible to convert as much as 50 per cent, of
the zinc into sulphate. The balance may be converted into
sulphate by treatment with sulphuric acid and the whole
dissolved out. Zinc oxide may be obtained from the
sulphate by precipitation with magnesia, or by heating the
crystals directly. Both methods are practicable and leave
a profit if the sulphate of zinc is considered as a valueless
by-product. The author reviews the treatment of the ores
by concentration, and comes to the eonclusiou that those
methods having for their object the removal of the zinc
previous to smelting, are those most suitable to be adopted
in the treatment of these sulphides. — J. C. C.
The Problems »/' ' Commercial Electrolysis. J. Swinburne.
Inst. Elect. Kng. July 1892.
See under XI., page 823.
The Determination of Zinc in Ores. Kng. aud Mining J.
August 20, 1892, 178.
See under XXIII., page 846.
The Action of Beer on Aluminium. R. Kobert. Chem.
Zeit. 16, 1892, 821.
See under XVII., vaoe 830.
A Practical Slide-Rule for use in the Calculation of
Furnace Charges. A. Wingham. Iron and Steel
Institute Spring Meeting, 1892.
Tn K author describes a slide-rule of special construction for
use in iron-smelting aud other chemical operations. The
principle is that of having a scale for each substance under
consideration so arranged and divided that by measuring
any given length on each the equivalent quantities of the
various substances which chemically or metallurgically have
the same power of displacement or combination are given.
In the present instance scales have been arranged for
lime, limestone, magnesia, alumina, soda, potash, manganous
or ferrous and ferric oxides, and lead, zinc, and cuprous
oxides as bases, in accordance with their combining
proportions with silica to produce silicates, and with sulphur
to produce sulphides. The acids are restricted to silica, for
which three scales are given, one each to represent the
quantities of silica necessary to produce with each base a
mono-, sesqui-, or bi-silicatc.
822
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct.31.lMi2.
By the special construction of the rule, and given an
analysis, the amount of silica required by four or five bases
conjointly in the same material to produce either of the
three silicates can be read off without any calculation. The
i kcj ss of acid or base in complicated slags can similarly be
rapidly ascertained, and the amount, if necessary, of the
material to be added to produce the correct proportions
obtained. The main principle of the rule is recommended
for adoption in many chemical operations requiring calcula-
tions, by the construction of special scales ; and likewise in
the laboratory for the conversion of figures obtained by
analysis into end results. — A. W.
PATENTS.
An Improved Method of Condensing Lead and other
Metallic Fumes arising from Furnaces. S. Elliott. New-
bury, Berkshire. Eng. Pat. 20,944, December 23, 1890.
This is an improvement on a previous patent (Eng. Pat.
12,460. August 7, 1889; this Journal, 1890. 273;, and
consists in the use of a pipe m;ule of fireclay, enamelled
iron, or other non-corrosive material, jacketed, if necessary,
leading from the furnace to the washing tank, the fumes
or gases being made to pass along it by means of a fan or
steam jet. The tube communicates with an enamelled
perforated tube placed horizontally in the washing tank,
the perforated tube being capable of rotation and provided
with wings or beaters. Above the rotating tubes are
horizontal perforated trays. The rotating beaters and the
tra\s breakup the water or chemical solutions contained
in tin tank into a tine spray, by which the fumes ami gases
are condensed and dissolved. — H. K. T.
Improvements in Furnaces fur Treating Ores. E. 15.
Parnell, Sutton. Eng. Pat.' 17..567, September 14, 1891.
Tut; furnace is tubular with a cross section not quite circular,
and is fixed horizontally with the longer axis in the vertical
plane. The tube is encased in an outer tubular shell with
an annular space between them. The fire is at one end and
by suitable dampers may be directed either into the annular
space and so heat the inner tube as a muffle, or into the
inner tube if it is to be heated after the reverberatorv style.
The ore is fed into one end of the inner tube from a hopper
by a worm-feed and is carried along by a suitable screw-
running on a shaft through the length of the tube, to the
exit at the other end. It is recommended to use these
furnaces iu scries one above another with worm conveyors
connecting them, so that the ore can be passed through
more than one furnace and thus ensure perfect calcination.
Steam pipes are provided for injecting steam when required;
Tlic tubes are made preferably of cast iron protected from
the fire where necessary by a coating of suitable material.
—A. \V.
Improvements in the Treatment of Stir! and in Apparatus
therefor. C. Walrand and E. Legenisel, Paris. Eng.
Pat. 'it'.. 178, September 23, 1891.
The steel is treated by additions in the converter with the
object of obtaining greater heat and fluidity at the time of
pouring. In acid conversion an alloy rich in silicon, in basic
conversion an alloy rich in phosphorus, ami in particular
case- a combustible body other than silicon, or phosphorus,
j- added to the Bteel near the end of the blow. — J. H. C.
Xewor Improved Metallic Alloys. .T. If. Pratt, Birmingham.
Eng. Pat. 17,31."., October lo. 1891.
The alloys consist of nickel, copper, and zinc, in various
proportion!! a- tabulated, the nickel ranging from 4 uptoI5
pei cent., the copper frpm 55 down to 45 percent., and the
zinc from 40 to 15 pel cent., the cupper decreasing as the
nickel anil zinc increase. Some of the alloys are suitable
for use in place of German silver. In general the copper
and nickel are melted together and the zinc is afterwards
stirred in, but sometimes the nickel is melted by itself, then
the copper and flux are added, and afterwards the /.inc.
( lecasionally, when great ductility is required, small quantities
of aluminium and manganese are added, together with a flux
consisting of cvanide or ferrocvanide of potassium.
—J. H. C.
Improve** ids in . Apparatus for ( 'oneentrating or Separating
the Heavii r Constituents of Pulverised Ores or the like.
1). Eerguson, Barrhead, N.B. I'rom P. E^erguson,
Waiorongomai. X.Z. Eng. Pat. 18,211, October 23,
1891.
This is a combination and arrangement of parts for con-
centrating or separating the heavier and lighter constituents
of pulverised ores and the like. They embrace a feeding
hopper, into which the pulverised materials are charged,
from the lower opening of which they are dropped in a
regulated stream by means of a fluted roller, when they
meet a strong blast of air directed against them in a
horizontal or more or less inclined direction. The blast is
directed through a number of inclined fixed blades which
assist the separating action, whilst the space below the
current forms a receptacle divided by partitions, into which
the separated particles fall, arranged according to their
sizes and weights. — B.
Improvements in tin Manufacture of Alloys of Nickel and
( 'opper, and of Alloys of Nickel and Iron, and of , Alloys
.</' Nickel, Copper, and Iron. E. \V. Martins, Sheffield.
Eng. Pat. 19.191, November 6, 1891.
The alloys are made direct from the ores, or from crude
mattes. Thus, to make an alloy of copper and nickel from
Lake Superior matte, which contains copper, nickel, and iron
in the state of sulphides, it is finely powdered and 1 00 parts
are mixed with 60 parts of quartz sand and 134 parts of
sulphate of baryta or sulphate of soda. The mixture is
melted in a reverberatorv furnace so as to remove the iron
as slag and leave only the sulphides of nickel and copper.
This double sulphide is again finely powdered and com-
pletely oxidised by careful roasting in a suitable furnace.
The oxides so produced are then mixed with charcoal and
moistened with coal tar and water, with which a little burnt
lime and clay have been mixed so as to form a paste ; this
is made into briquettes, dried and strongly heated. The
briquettes are smelted in a " Siemens-Martin converter or
in a reverberator}' furnace," metallic copper being added if
necessary to make up an alloy of definite composition. A
similar alloy may be made, using New Caledonia ores in
part, if they are first sulphuretted by fusion with such
materials as soda-waste or gas-lime. In making an alloy of
nickel with iron (known as ferro-nickel). New Caledonia
ores are preferred. They are powdered, made up into
briquettes and then smelted as above described, pig iron
being added if necessary to make up an alloy of definite
proportions. Alloys of the three metals may be prepared
by similar methods. In some cases the dried briquettes are
utilised as carbides without smelting. The gist of the claim
is for manufacturing the alloys specified, directly from ores
containing the metals of the said alloys, or some of the
metals, &c, and afterwards inciting them together, or
alloying them, .\-c, \e. — I. II. C.
Improvement* in Metallic -Alloys. W*. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. E'rom \V. .1. Miles, jun., H. S. Deming and
A. Herz, Terre Haute, Indiana. U.S.A. Eng. Pat. '4460,
March 7, 1892.
The alloys consist of aluminium, iron (or steel), nickel,
tungsten, and manganese combined iu suitable proportions,
with the addition of about one grain of osmium for each
Oct. 3i, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
823
24 07.. of alloy. For spoons and jewellery the following
proportions are prepared : —
Oz.
Aluminium 4,
Nickel 8
Iron 8
Tungsten l
Manganese 2 399 grains.
Osmium 1 grain.
Total 23 4,00 grains.
For table cutlery they recommend :—
Iron 3
Aluminium C
Nickel (i
TniiL'sti -n 3
Manganese o 399 [Trains.
Osmium 1 grain.
Total 23 40:) grains.
In preparing the alloy all the metals except the aluminium
arc fused together ; the aluminium is then added aud the
alloy is cast into ingots. — J. H. C.
.4« Improved Metallic Block to be used in the Production
oj Hydrogen. W. Hawkins, T. Hawkins, H. Fuller, and
W. ft. Fuller, Portsmouth. Eng. Pat. 8207, April 30,
1892.
The block consists of iron or steel scrap, preferably
borings, shavings, or turnings, which are first cleaned and
then galvanised with zinc. The scrap is then placed in a
mould, Heated to a suitable temperature, and molten zinc is
poured over it. The scrap is sometimes consolidated by
pressure before the molten zinc is applied, and a rust
preventive coating is used in some instances. — J. ft. ( '.
Improvements in Hardening Articles of Steel or other
Meta\\ and in Apparatus therefor. G. G. M. Harding-
ham. From H. Wiliseh, Homburg, Bavaria. Eng. Pat.
1.5,148, July 18, 1892.
A bath of melted alloy is used for tempering, its com-
position varying with the temperature required. Thus, a
bath composed of 10 parts of tin and 6 parts of lead
solidifies at 358' t\,and one composed of 2 parts of bismuth,
1 part of tin and 1 part of lead solidities between 203° F.
and 209° F.
The tank containing the alloy is provided with beating
and cooling tubes for the purpose of controlling the
temperature and keeping it uniform, and these may be
brought into operation automatically by suitable means
which are indicated. — J. H. C.
Improved Apparatus for Effecting the Casting of Metals in
Vacuo. W. S. Simpson, Loudon. Eng. Pat. 13,298,
July 20, 1892.
The apparatus consists of an upper vessel or chamber
containing the ladle of molten metal, and a lower chamber
in which the mould is placed, the two being connected by a
channel which is closed by a fusible plate or diaphragm.
Spy holes closed with glass are provided for both chambers.
The mould is placed in position in the lower chamber, which
is then securely closed. The molten metal is then run into
the ladle through an aperture in the wall of the upper
chamber, and this also is closed. The molten metal can be
stirred by means of a rod passing through a stutling-hox.
When all is ready the air is withdrawn from both chambers
by a pump or other convenient means; the ladle in the
chamber is then tilted so that the metal falls upon the
fusible plate and melts it, aud then flows iuto the mould
where it sets in vacuo. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Centrifugal Ore Separators. O. B. Peck,
Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,990, August 2, 1892.
An Improved Process of Separating Powdered or Finely-
Divided Particles containing Mineral - Hearing
Substances of Different Degrees of Specific Gravity*
O. B. Peck, Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,991,
August 2 1892.
The method embraced in these two patents causes separation
of particles to be effected through the action of centrifugal
force exerted on the circumference of a belt whose direction
is changed by guide pulleys.— li.
XI.-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
The Problems of Commercial Electrolysis. J. Swinburne.
Inst, of Elect. Eng. July, 1892.
The object of the author is to take a bird's-eye view of the
subject, and if possible to predict the directions in which
others must seek for future developments. A very large
number of the processes employed jn chemical industry
consist merely in oxidising and reducing, special conditions
being arranged to suit the particular substance being
operated upon. ( Ince we take this broad view, all we have
to consider is " Which of the oxidising and reducing
processes in use in chemical works can we advantageously
replace by electrical methods ? "
Oxidation and Reduction. — Oxygen. — For the decom-
position of water it would be best to use an alkaline
solution with iron electrodes. Allowing 2 volts as the
pressure required, the cost comes out at as. Id. per 1,000
feet for the oxygen, taking the price of a kilowatt-hour as
0'25<i. Taking 15*. per 1,000 cubic feet as the selling
price, there is a large margin between this and the 2r/. per
cubic foot retail price of Briu's oxygen.
Alkali. — The Leblauc and Weldon process is exceedingly
complicated and very costly ; and as by simply electrolysing
silt costing about 15s. per ton, chlorine and caustic soda
can be produced, it seems at first sight at least, most
strange that electrolytic processes have not replaced all.
others within the last few years. With suitable vats and a
reasonable current density, we may take it that 3 volts is a
liberal allowance. For the ton of 70 per cent, caustic soda
we have —
£. S. it.
Electrical energy 2 15 0
Salt l 2 c
Lime 13 0
For 5/. we have thus obtained a ton of caustic aud l£ tons
of bleaching powder. We have allowed nothing for the cost
of vats, for labour at the vats and in handling, or for
evaporation of causticised liquor. The ordinary caustic
liquor, after causticisiug, is quite weak, but electrolytic
caustic can be made iuto strong lye. Evaporation with a
Varyan should not come to more than a shilling or two a
ton extra, from which it appears that a ion of caustic and a ton
and a half of bleach should be made for 67. This allows an
enormous marginf or expenses and for profits, and therefore the
author believes that the apparent nou-suecess of electrolytic
soda processes is due to the want of a really durable anode.
Platinum is generally supposed not to be attacked by
chlorine, and it is used extensively in the electrolysis of
chlorides, but the author has found experimental anodes
eaten away. In 1882 Bartoli and Papasogli pointed out
that carbon was attacked when used in any solution which
evolves oxygen. The author confirmed this in a scries of
independent experiments carried our in 1883, and suggests
that corrosion is the cause of the failure of carbon anodes.
The difficulty of making good contact and the expense of
large carbon plates has been overcome by Greenwood
824
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1S92.
(Kng. Pat. 18,990, 1890 ; this Journal, 1891, 642) by electro-
plating one side of a number of comparatively small plates,
and then soldering them to a plate of type metal. The
electrolysis of sodium sulphate does not allow the same
margin for profit as that of the chloride, and lead anodes
are attacked. Magnesium chloride is generally employed
in the Hermite process (Kng. l'at. 8177, 1889 ; this Journal,
1890, 733) but salt is now used. Messrs. Cross and Bevan
(this Journal, 1890, 450— 453, and 1890, 585) hold that
the bleaching power of these products is not as determined
by arsenious acid.
Potassium Chlorate. — A hot solution of the chloride is
electrolysed. This process (Eng. Pat. 4686, 1887 ; this
Journal, 1888, 3271 is carried out on a large scale atVallorbes
in France, and it is stated that 24 h.p. hours yield 2-2 lb.
Aluminium. — It seems impossible to deposit aluminium
from any of its solutions, so fused salts have to be
employed. The electrolyte is cryolite, or a solution of
alumina in cryolite. In the Minet process (A Miuet,
Compt. rend. 110, 342—343; this Journal, 1890, 753)
a solution of the oxide is employed, aluminium is deposited,
and the anodes are burned away by the oxygen. In the
Hall process (Kng. Pats. 5669 and 5670, 1889 ; this Journal,
1889, 549) carried on at Pittsburgh, the electrolyte is
practically the same.
Zinc. — Proposals have been made to deal with zinc ores
elcctrolytieally. Kiliaui (this Journal, 1884, 260) pro-
posed to use high current densities ; Watt (this Journal,
1 B89, 287) prefers to use acetate of zinc as the electrolyte.
Lend. — Though the Keith process for desilvering lead
elcctrolytieally was brought out in America some ten years
ago ; it does not seem to have come into general use.
(inld and Silver. — Crootes (Eng. Pat. 3532, 1890;
th\< Journal, 1891, 353) finds that the particles of gold
become amalgamated, and get caught in the mercury, if the
stamped quartz is worked in a weak solution of a mercury
salt under the influence of an alternating current of small
frequency.
Electro-Metallurgy of Copper. — Electrolysis may be
employed either in connection with the extraction of copper
frc.ni its ores, or in refining copper. The ore may be con-
verted into matte, and subsequently cast into anodes which
are treated in baths of copper sulphate, using copper
cathodes. The circulation of the iron salts must be avoided,
therefore some sort of diaphragm is necessary. The
Marchese (this Journal, 18s4. 260) and Siemens and
Halske (Eng. Pat. 3533, 1889 ; this Journal, 1890, 3961 are
in commercial operation, and the electric extraction of
copper is already a growing industry. The electro-motive
force for this process is less than a volt ; so that assuming
coal to be used as in the estimate at the beginning of this
paper, the electrical cost i- 1 In. jd. per ton for the extrac-
tion of copper.
In the refining of copper tin' amides are formed of crude
copper, thin plates of fine copper arc used as cathodes, ami
the electrolyte is sulphate of copper. At the Bridgeport
Copper Works, where the arrangements are in accordance
with the patents of E. S.Hayden (Eng. Pat. 2071, 1888;
this Journal, 1888, 390), the anodes, instead of being
thick cast copper, are sheets of thin rolled metal. Each
vat contains a number of plates arranged vertically and
across the vat. and at one end a thin plate is supplied ;is a
cathode. The first plate is made the anode, and copper is
eaten off one sick- of each plate, and deposited on the plate
next to it. The process is carried on until the whole of the
anodes are eaten, and their place is taken by pure deposited
copper. The plates are syringed and removed, and the slime
is treated to recover the silver and gold. The product is the
highest grade of copper in the market, and fetches 6/. 10.v.
a ton above "tough cake," or 4/. 10s. above "best
selected." Silver and gold are completely separated without
loss, and as :s5 oz. of silver and | oz. of gold per ton are
allowed as tan, any copper containing more than that yields
s/. per ton in bullion. Argentiferous copper thus yields at
least 14/. Id-.. leaving a gross profit of 12/. 10s. at present
rates.
The author also deals briefly with electrolytic processes
for producing magnesium ; for the electrolysis of fused
soda (Castner, Eng. Pat. 13,356, 1890; this Journal, 1891,
777) ; for treating antimony ores (rJorchers, Chein. Zcit.
1L, 1020—1022: this Journal, 1890,673) ; for the recovery
of tin from scrap tin ; for the production of ozone (Siemens
and Halske, Eng. Pat. 8929, 1891 ; this Journal, 1892. 585 ;
and Fahrig, this Journal, 1890, 131). He describes the
Cowles electric furnace (this Journal, 1889, 677 — 684) ;
miscellaneous processes such as the Webster sewage process
(Eng. Pat. 15,760 and 15,939, 1887 ; this Journal, 1888,
764) ; the Turellaudthe Meritens (Eng. Pat. 14,162, 1889 ;
this Journal, 1890, 7581, processes for ageing wine and
spirits, and the electrical tanning processes. Messrs. Bidcal
and Trotter (this Journal, 1891, 425—432) have shown
that electricity has a beneficial effect ; and Groth's
process (Kng. l'at. 18,385, 1890; this Journal, 1891, 938)
shown at the Crystal Palace Electrical Exhibition tin
also gives good results. — G. H. R,
Recent Developments in Electric Are Welding.
P. I. Unwin. The Electrician, 29 (741), 335—336.
In the arc process of electric welding uuder the Benardos
patents three separate and distinct methods are in daily-
use. Between these three there is a vital difference, and
much difficulty and confusion have arisen from the want of
distinction between them. The first method is welding
propel, in which the wrought iron or steel to be united is
raised only to the welding temperature, whereby a perfectly
strong fibrous weld is obtained. Xo reinforcement of the
weld is used in this case. In the second method, called a
" built weld," small pieces of metal are melted into the
joints and hammered in. The meltiug of course destroys
the fibre of the metal, but this is partially restored by the
work put upon it. A special grade of very mild low carbon
steel has proved most suitable for reinforcing purposes. The
third method, which is unsuitable for the welding of wrought
iron and steel, is used chiefly in repairing castings. It
consists in fusing pieces of metal into the weld, or defective
place in the casting, until the metal is a molten mass locally.
In the case of cast steel the hammer may be applied to
produce a smooth surface, when the metal has partially
cooled ; but in the case of cast iron the whole casting
must be kept black hot during this process of cooling. In
welding wrought iron and steel it is of vital importance
that the arc should be maintained at least 2 in. long or
more, and should be kept continually moving over the
surface of the metal to be heated. As an example the
method of making a steel flanged "tee" for a marine
steam-pipe line, 8 in. in diameter and having a 6 in. flanged
outlet is given. — G. H. R.
Practical Notes on the Electrolytic Refining of Copper.
American Inst. Elect. Engineers. Eng. and Mining J.
August 6, 1892, 126.
Ijj this paper the author gives a partially complete list of
the refineries in the United States where copper is treated
eleetrolytically, and lie also gives information as to the
cost and the various processes ami methods adopted at
these refineries. The accompanying table is not complete,
but it serves to show the extent to which this method of
refining has been adopted.
From the table given, however, it appears that about
25,000 tons will be near the mark. As will be,seen in the
fourth column of the table, there are four different processes
in vogue, viz. : the Multiple, Smith's, Hayden's, and
Stalmaun's. Iu all these processes the black copper is
used as the anode and the electrolyte is a solution of
sulphate of copper.
In the "multiple" process the anodes of black copper
and cathodes of pure copper of each cell are arranged in
a row alternately, but connected in multiple-, and there is
generally one more cathode than anode. The electrodes
.ue suspended in a vertical position in wooden vats lined
Set.si,lHffl.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
825
with lead, and the vats are either in series, multiple, or
multiple series, the best arrangement, however, being single
scries.
Iu Smith's process there are no cathodes at all. The
anodes of black copper are arranged horizontally, and the
current causes the solution of copper from the under sides
of each plate and a deposition of it on the upper side of
the plate next below. A cotton cloth screen is placed
between each plate to intercept impurities or foreign
matter, such as gold and silver. The anodes and the vats
are all in series.
Haydcn's process differs from Smith's only iu the fact
that his plates of black copper are arranged vertically
instead of horizontally and that there are, no screens
between.
In Stalmann's process the anodes of black copper and
cathodes of refined copper are arranged in ordinary series,
but each pair of anodes and cathodes, except the initial and
terminal ones, is riveted together to form a solid block
without any electrolyte between.
Theoretically it is possible to refine any quantity of
copper per horse power by increasing the size and number
of the vats and the amount of copper under treatment
indefinitely. Such an arrangement would of course be
uneconomical, and a medium has to be found where both
the vats and the power are the smallest consistently with
1'uil'IW. 1, 1ST OS Kl.KCTIMIl.VTIU Coi'l'EK 1{ KI'IXKJtlKS IN TII10 UnITKD St.VTKS.
Estimated
Number
Process
1 'apacity in
Name of Company.
General ors.
of
(Arrangement
Electrolytic
Remarks.
Vats.
of Vate).
Copper per
Month.
Tons.
1. Anaconda Mining Qoin-
5 Edison— 60 volts, 1,100
320
Partly multiple,
350
Plant being extended for
pany, Anaconda, Mont.
amperes.
partly Slalmann.
ultimate capacity of 000
tons per month.
l'. American Nickel Works
l Excelsior -6 volts, 1,000
amperes.
48
30
By-product.
(Jos. Wharton), Cam-
in series.
den", N.-I.
:>. Balbacli Smelting and
7 Excelsior— 15 volts, 2,000
7 series -.! I-.
Multiple ( L8 anodes,
650
They refine the product of
Refining Company,
amperes, l Excelsior —
1 series oi 96.
si cathoe'es).
the Oxford Copper Co.,
Newark, yj.
30 volts, 3,000 amperes;
whose smelters are in New
Jersey, and who arc general
purchasers of copper ores,
uial te. and bullion.
-1. Baltimore Copper Smelt-
6 Edison— i50 volts, 100 am-
...
800
Generators are sectional fields
ing and Rolling Com-
peres.
which can be plugged Eor
pany, Baltimore, Md.
different voltages.
5. Baltimore Refining Com-
pany, Baltimore, Md.
2 Edison -SO vults, 700 am-
300
..
peres.
6. Boston and Montana Con-
3 Thomson-Houston, multi-
288
Multiple fl!> anodes.
550
Plant. in construction.
solidated (topper and
polar separately excited,
19 cathodes).
Dynamo capacity in excess
Silver Mining. Company,
165 volts, 1,000 amperes.
of present requirements.
Greal Falls, Mont.
7. Bridgeport Copper Com-
1 Thomson - Houston, 1
3 series of 10
Hayden turn eleo-
■tun
They refine the entire pro-
pany, Bridgeport* Conn.
Mather, l Edison— 150
volts, 400 amperes.
trodes in each vat).
duct (black copper) of the
Parrot! Silver and < 'upper
Qompany, Butte, Mont.
8. Chicago Copper Refining
2 Edison— 80 volts, S00 am-
165
Multiple
150
• ■ . . ■ . ..
Company, Bine Island,
111.
0. Electrolytic Copper Com-
peres.
3 Mather— 100 volts, 300 am-
73
10IJ
. . * • • • ••
pany, Ansonia, Conn.
peres.
in. Lewissohn Bros., Taw-
1 Excelsior— 15 voltsj 2,200
60
Multiple (19 anodes,
110
• • . . • . . •
tucket, R.I.
amperes.
in series.
in cathodes);
11. Omaha and Grant Smelt-
1 Excelsior— 6 volts, 1,000
amperes.
4S
30
ing Works, Omaha, Neb.
in scries.
12. Pennsylvania Salt Manu-
.. • * . • ■■
■ • •
Smith
3D
By-product.
facturing Company!
Philadelphia, Pa.
13. St. Bonis Smelting and
l Excelsior 16 volts, -l, 100
48
t;u
This plant is operated in con-
Refining Company,
amperes.
in series.
nexion with an electrolytic
Cheltenham, St. Louis.
silver refinery, using the
Mo.
Moebius process.
1 1. Washburn, Moen, and Co.,
...
..
(J0
Plant burnsd, being erected.
Worcester, Mass.
each other. The density of the current is also an
important point to be considered in producing absolutely
pure copper. It is usual in the States to use a current of
10 amperes per square foot of active cathode surface as a
maximum. Though in some cases in the series processes
the figure is as high as 15 amperes; by this arrangement
the output per vat is higher, though the quality of the
copper is not so good. Theoretically 1 lb. of copper will be
deposited per hour by a current of 38G amperes out of a
solution of sulphate of copper.
It is necessary to keep up a constant circulation in the
electrolyte in order that its resistance shall he constant.
Sometimes this is effected by arranging each vat a little-
lower than the other and by allowing the liquid to pass
down the row in series. Another and better way is to
supply all the vats from a common trough and to collect
the overflow in a common reservoir and pump it back to
the trough by means of lead pumps or injectors. However,
the lead pumps are always getting out of order aud the
injectors add too much moisture to the electrolyte. The
writer proposes as an improvement the adoption of two
collecting tanks, which can be used alternately ; as soon as
the one is full it will be made air-tight aud a small air
compressor will force the solution up to the tank again. In
Smith's process it is claimed that no circulation of the
electrolyte is needed.
The majority of these plants are by no means models
of electrical engineering. There are many faults aud
defects in their design which shows that the advances made
during the last 10 years in electrical discovery have not
been taken advantage of in the plants for electro-deposition.
In most of them there is uo measuring of the voltage made,
and in the exceptional cases it is made in a very clumsy
manner. The writer in designing a new plant introduced
a great improvement by placing a potential board in the
manager's office, which indicated the pressure of any vat
immediately by the turning of a switch handle. It is very
necessary also to guard against the short-circuiting of anodes
and cathodes, which in the multiple system meaus the short-
circuiting of a whole vat. If such an occurrence is not
detected immediately the whole contents of the vat are
spoiled. Until recently, however, no automatic indicator
was used in any of the plants.
826
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct. si.'issfc
Some of the electrolytic refineries in the United States
buy copper matte of from -15 to 54 per cent, of copper
from the mining companies : they resmelt the copper matte
and produce black copper of from 97 to 98 per cent, of
copper. This black copper is then cast into anodes aiiq
subjected to the electrolytic process. Other refineries buy
the black copper from the smelters owned by the mining
companies.
Each copper refinery ought to have an installation of its
own for the manufacture of the necessary sulphate of
copper, which can be effected at a small fraction of what
there is to pay for it. The same holds good in relation to
the refining of the slime or mud which collects at the
bottom of the vats, and contains the precious metals. Each
copper refinery should have its own plant for the refining
of this mud.
The approximate cost of a refinery with a capacity of
1,000,000 lb. of electrolytic copper per month is as
follows : —
UmIs
Building 30.000
Pavement (asphalt) 8.0P0
Pipes for steam heating 4,000
Vats 6,000
Lead for lining vats, collecting tanks or troughs ... 2s.
Lead burning l ~nn
Copper conductors 11. mm
Rails for overhead blocks for handling plates 2,000
Sulphate of copper :i..-,iiu
Sulphuric acid 1,000
S[cam injectors, or pumps, or air compressors 1,001)
Electric generators, switchboard, and instruments 30,
Shafting and belting 3,000
Total 123,000
To this sum must be added the copper under treatment,
which will amount to at least 80,000 dols. ; and if a steam
plant is required another 20,000 dols. must be added, so
that 223,000 dols. is the total cost of the plant. In the
items in the table, the cost of labour is iucluded, but not that
of freights. As will be seen, a plant for the electrolytic
treatment of black copper is a costly affair and the erection
of one should not be commenced until the very best
metallurgical and electrical advice has been obtained.
A few words may be said on the subject of electric
generators. The writer prefers to use separately excited
machines, for the reason that they cannot be reversed, and
also because it is easier to regulate the current when the load
varies. It is fairly easy to regulate a high-class steam
engine, but with a turbine it is well-nigh impossible. By
running the exciters from a separate source, the strength of
the field can be kept uniform through all variations in the
working circuit. There are two other processes coming into
note, viz., Siemens' and Hoepfner's. lloepfner'uses in his
process carried on in Schwarzenberg a cuprous chloride
solution, out of which a current of one ampere will deposit
2 ■ 35 grms. of copper per hour, an amount nearly double
that produced from cupric sulphate. — W. S.
carried out alone, it is preferable to generate the sulphuretted
hydrogen within the acid itself, by treating it with barium
sulphide. This method has been employed by ITerr Lucas
at Hatren.— W. S.
The Purification of Sulphuric Acid for Accumulators.
The Electrician, 29, 135.
Metallic impurities in the electrolyte are considered by
Dr. Kugel to play a very important part in diminishing the
capacity of secondary cells. Now these deleterious metals
are completely precipitated in a dilute sulphuric solution by
sulphuretted hydrogen, and Dr. Kugel utilises this fact to
purify acid intended for accumulators. A current of the
gas is passed through tin electrolyte, which is then filtered
after -I hours" rest. When this process of purification is
A Moiliflcd Method for the Electrolytic Determination of
Copper. G. P. Drossbach. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 818.
See under XXIII., paije 8 45.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus fin Use in Obtaining Copper.
The Kovello Syndicate, Limited, and J. C. Howell,
London. Eng. Pat. 8s;',7, May 25. 1891.
This patent describes the mechanical arrangements of the
cells used in the copper-obtaining process knowu as the
Kovello process. The chief feature consists iu the use of a
band of parchmentised paper or other porous material as a
diaphragm, the baud being passed backwards and forwards
round upright posts fixed in the vat, and the joint between
the band and the bottom of the vat rendered water-tight by
means of a layer of plaster of Paris, or by means of rubber
tubing which is fitted into a groove and then inflated. Or
V shaped grooves may be made in the sides of the vat,
and pieces of parchment fitted into these grooves and
rendered water-tight by means of flexible tubing as above.
The apparatus also includes a system of pipes for the
circulation of the fluid, which may also be produced by jets
of air or by means of a centrifugal pump or a screw similar
to a ship's screw rotating in the fluid. ( )i tic liquid in the
vat may communicate with au apparatus similar to a feed-
water heater, which when heated causes the liquid to
circulate. < >ther means of supporting the diaphragm consist
in placing it in grooves into which wedges are driven either
with or without flexible material. It may also be fixed in a
similar manner to frames which slide in grooves in the sides
of the vat, or the diaphragm may be fixed to perforated
sheets of metal, ebonite, celluloid, or glass which slide in
grooves and tire made to fit water-tight as above. — II. K. T,
Improvements in or connected with Electric Ilatlnits.
H. C. Bull, Lcndon. Eng. Pat. 1 1,712, July 9, 1891.
The object of the invention is to produce electricity direct
from carbon, either in the form of coke, anthracite, coal, or
wood charcoal. The battery is on the lines of Jablochkoff's
coke battery (Eng. Pat. 492, 1877), the exciting liquid being
nitrate of potash, nitrate of soda, or any other nitrate which
may be found to work satisfactorily, maintained in a liquid
state by the application of heat. The arrangement preferred
is as follows: — Two iron troughs of convenient dimensions
with chambers at each end connected by a passage under-
neath are arranged side by side, and between the passages
an ordinary Bunseu or other suitable burner is placed to
keep the nitrate liquid. The carbons are placed in the
centre chamber, and an outlet is provided for the carbonic
acid generated in the working of the battery. The nitrate
produced is re-converted into nitrate by means of air, and
nitric acid vapour introduced into the passages under the
troughs by means of a steam jet. A small accumulator is
necessary to start the battery working, and when the main
circuit is broken, the battery is employed in re-charging the
accumulator to prevent the oxidation of the iron by the
nitrate which occurs when the battery is standing idle.
— G. H. B.
Improvements in Elements /'or Secandary Batteries. The
Mining and General Electric Lamp Co., and J. T. Niblett,
London. Eng. Pat. 17,758, October 17, 1891.
Supports have been formed of woven copper wire, which
are protected from electrolytic action by a coating of lead
or lead alloy, but owing to the dissolving effect of the
electrolyte, a difficulty has been experienced in obtaining a
perfect coating of the lead which is used for the purpose of
protecting the copper from electrolytic action. According to
this invention the support consists of a network or woven
mesh of lead, or lead and antimony. To give the mesh the
requisite strength it is surrounded by a rim of metal or other
rigid substance, or the mesh may he mounted on any suit-
able support. To make better contact, and to prevent the
Oct. si, lass.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDtfSTBY.
827
formation of sulphate or other inert salts between the active
material and the network, the latter may be coated by any
suitable means with gold, platinum, or other suitable metal
which is not easily affected by electrolysis. — G. II. R.
Improvements in Electrical Furnaces fur the Manufacture
of Phosphorus or other Matters capable of being Volati-
lised lii/ Heat. T. Parker, Wolverhampton. Eng. Pat.
18,974, Xovember 3, 1891.
The object of this invention is to overcome the objections
arising from the condensation of phosphorus or other volatile
matter in the upper part of the charge of the electrical
furnace. According to this invention the furnace is provided
at its upper part with a portion or addition which constitutes
a retort, which is heated to retain the upper portion of the
charge at such a temperature as to prevent condensation of
the phosphorus or other volatile matter, and by applying
heat to the charge at this part, economising electrical heat
in the arc of the furnace. When the charge is fed through
a hopper or the like by which the furnace is sealed, there
may be at the upper part of the furnace a hollow chamber
formed by a wall outside the retort-like part leading from
the hopper to the furnace, and in this hollow chamber a
flame or other means of heating may be used to retain the
retort-Tike part at a necessary temperature. — G. H. R.
Improvements in the Construction of Secondary Batteries
for Electrical Storage Purposes. J. 15. Lee, London.
Kng. Tut. 12,306, July 2, 1892.
The elements are composite structures built up of cored
rods of lead. Each cored rod consists of an outer tubular
portion of lead with an axis of enamelled iron or steel, or
other suitable material, to give internal support to the leaden
tubes which completely ensheath the cores. The outer
leaden portion may be cut or grooved either longitudinally,
or spirally, or circularly, and the grooves must not he
carried quite through the whole thickness of the lead.
/"' IT T}
XII.-PATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
Adult, ration of l.insad Oil. Industries, 13, 1892, 212.
See under XXIII., page 818.
Testing Olirr Oil for Adulterants. L. Taparelli. C'hem.
trade .1. 11, 207—208.
.See under W\\\.,page 818.
PATENTS.
Process for the Prodm lion Of O.ey-fatty Glycerin Ether's,
and Oi'ij-, Siitpho-ory . Dio.rij-, and Sidpho-dioxy-Fattg
Acids. A. Schmitz and E. Toenges, Cleves, German)'.
Kng. Pat. 14,130, August 26, 1891.
t ).\- mixing fatty acids or their glycerides with concentrated
sulphuric acid in stoichiometric quantities, mono-sulpho-
nated fatty acids or their sulphonated glycerides are
obtained, which, on being heated to 105° — 120° C, are
transformed into hydroxy fatty acids or their glycerides with
loss of sulphurous acid. The hydroxy fatty acids in their
turn may be subjected to the same operations when
sulphonated hydroxy fatty acids (or their glycerides) and,
subsequently, dibydroxy fatty acids (or their glycerides)
result. Another repetition of the sulphonating process
yields sulpho-dihydroxy fatty acids (respecting their
glycerides). The products thus obtained are recommended
by the patentees as mordants in dyeing and printing with
alizarin dyes, for the preparation of Turkey-red oils, of
finishing oils for cotton, silk, linen, and leather, and of
paint-oils and varnishes by mixing them with linseed oil.
—J. L.
Improvement in the Manufacture of Soap and other
Toilet Preparations. J. Alexander & Co., Lim., and
H. de Laspee. Eng. Pat. 15,547, September 14, 1891.
The incorporation of an extract of the wych hazel
( llumamelis virginica} wi'.h soaps or toilet preparations is
claimed by this specification. — J. L.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Soaps
and Saponaceous < 'ompounds. J. Templeman, Greenock.
Eng. Pat. 17,440, October 13, 1891.
Any free caustic soda of soaps is neutralised according to
this " invention " by oleic acid or resin. Amongst others
there is the following claim : — Making soap by combining,
in a finely-ground state, anhydrous caustic alkali with oils,
and preferably heating this combination to such high tempe-
ratures as exceed that of boiling water and under the
boiling point of the oils. — J. L.
A New or Improved Process and Apparatus for Removing
Fatty Matters from Wool-Washing and other Waters.
F. Hughes, London. From A. Motte and Co., Hombaix,
France. Eng. Pat. 2320, April 9, 1892.
The object of this patent is to recover the fat from the
wool-washing waters in four fractions, the purest being
obtained in the first instance. This is done by subjecting
the wash-waters to a beating operation by means of suitable
beaters, when 30 per cent, of the total fat separate out as
a froth on the top of the water. On adding the sulphuric
acid required to neutralise the wash-water in two fractions,
twice 30 per cent, of the fat are recovered. The remaining
10 per cent, are extracted directly by meaus of a filter-press.
—J. L.
Improvements in or Relating to the Manufacture of Washing
Soap. F. Hlawaty and A. Kanitz, Vienna, Austria.
Eng. Pat. 13,081, July 16, 1892.
The patent is claimed for a resin soap to which 20 per
cent, of borax is added. Instead of using soda-ash, the
patentees pass carbonic acid into the mixture of resin and
caustic soda. — J. L.
XIII.-PALNTS. PIGMENTS, VAENISHES,
EESINS, INDIA-EUBBEE, Etc.
Production of India-rubber in Nicaragua. J. Soc. Arts,
11, 1892, 896.
India-kubber is obtained in Nicaragua from the Siphonia
elastica, a tree from 50 to 60 feet ill height, and no india-
rubber has as yet, it is said, been obtained from any other
source. Some authorities in the country consider that the
rubber tree of Nicaragua is not the Siphonia elastica, but
the Castilloa elastica. There are several methods of
obtaining the rubber employed by the hunters, but the
principal' aie those described below. The large rubber
trees are generally felled, and incisions about 2 inches deep
and 2i inches wide at the top are made round the tree at
82S
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Out. 31, ISM.
distances of about a foot apart, and the rapidly flowing
milk collected, through funnels formed of leaves, into
calabashes, each capable of holding from three to five pints,
or in holes made in the ground and well lined with leaves.
Another method employed is to cut into the tree near the
top and down to its base, one, two, or three vertical
channels, according to the size of the tree, through the
exterior bark into the lactiferous vessels, and frequently
through these vessels into the woody fibres ; then cutting
numerous oblique channels on each side of, and connecting
with, the vertical ones. This work requires ladders, which
the rubber-hunters improvise either by using the vines on
the trees which they intend to scarify, or cut from the
numerous meshes of vines found handy in the forests; by
these the hunters ascend the trees and commence their
work near the top, and continue cutting one or two vertical,
and numerous oblique connecting channels uninterruptedly,
until they have completed them. They work rapidly in
order to keep in advance of the fast flowing milk. The
milk is conducted from these channels by the means
referred to above. A third method used by the rubber-
hunters is to scrape off the outer bark of the trees with a
machete, commencing eight or ten feet above and extending
down to within one or two feet of the ground. Clay alone,
or a vine and clay, are placed around the tree, inclined so
as to form a ridge about two inches high on the lower edge
of the scraped or bark-removed part of the tree. This
guard is sufficient to direct the rapidly flowing milk or
emulsion into the receivers at the foot of the tree. In
order to make the milk coagulate rapidly, the Indians or
rubber-gatherers make a decoction from the vine which
they find twined around the trees, and this has been found
the most efficient means of producing coagulation. This
decoction on being added to the milk, in the proportion of
one pint to a gallon, coagulates it to rubber, which is made
into round flat cakes. Sometimes the fresh milk is mixed
with the coagulating decoction, and then heated up to
between 160 and 17u F. in the calabashes, and with a
result apparently of a more elastic aDd less gummy india-
rubber than that obtained by any other process. As the
number of rubber trees becomes less, the methods employed
in gathering the rubber become different. A few years
ago the trees produced from 10 to 20 gallons of milk, and
the rubber-hunter would then take the milk and put it into
a large hole in the ground and make a cake of it, known as
torta, but now that the trees do not yield a great quantity
of milk, the plan of making a hole in the ground is fast
being done away with. The best rubber is considered that
which is taken from the long channels, which the ulleros
cut in the trees, after the milk has been allowed to remain
in the channels from one to two weeks. The rubber is
known as borricha, and it is considered to be superior to
all other because it contains less water. The natural supply
of india-rubber is yearly decreasing in Nicaragua. The
cause of this is the habit of the natives, until lately, of
cutting down the trees, thinking that they could thereby
secure more milk ! The Government attempts no super-
vision of the forests ; anyone may cut the trees, and great
destruction is caused by the young trees being tapped as
well as the full-grown ones. Consul Newell says it is an
incontrovertible fact that so far, at least, as Nicaragua is
concerned, the rubber tree is susceptible of cultivation, and
in the district of Managua there are large tracts of land
suitable for growing rubber trees. The rubber section of
Nicaragua is that portion extending from the mountains in
the vicinity of Chontales, the north-eastern part, to the
Atlantic coast, and it is the opinion of those persons in
Nicaragua who are interested in rubber production, that the
cultivation and improvement of rubber plantations would
be very profitable, — W. S.
The Relation between the Composition of Compounds anil
their Cutout: M, Schiitze. Zeits. physik. Chem. 9,
1892, 109.
See under IV., page 807,
Copal Resins: E. Kressel. Chem. News, 66, 90 — 91,
and 103— 104.
Op all copals Zanzibar copal is the only one entirely free
from taste and aroma ; all other kinds possess more or less
aroma, and some of these (Borneo and Manilla copal) a
bitter aromatic taste. According to Brisson, the specific
gravity varies from 1 : 04.J to 1 ■ 139, but in these estimations
the air enclosed in the copal has not been regarded. The
melting point of a copal resin depends upon the hardness ;
the harder the resin the higher the melting point. Andes
gives the following average scale for hardness, which the
author found to be correct : —
" Zanzibar, Sierra Leone, Angola, Benguela, Accra,
Benin, Loango, Kauri, Manilla, Borneo, Singapore."
A good, hard, and nearly colourless copal dried for some
time over H.;S04 gave on analysis —
C = 79-12, H = 10-065, and O = 10-815
With benzene, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, or ether,
the powdered resin swells considerably ; on standing, a
gelatinous mass separates from the solution, which remains
clear at the surface. Freshly-distilled ether entirely free
from water was used as a solvent. The extraction of the
resin with ether was repeated until a few drops left little or
no residue on evaporation. The substauce insoluble in
ether requires some considerable time to dry and to become
of constant weight, and when so, it appears like horn. It is
called " swell copal," as it only swells in every solvent, arid
does not form a clear solution. The amount of swell copal
was found to be in proportion to the hardness of the raw
copal resin. The copal now in question contained about
64-5 percent, of swell copal. Owing to the nature of this
substance, copal resins cannot be used for varnishes in their
raw state, but on heating to a high temperature conversion
is effected into " pyro-swell copal," which is easily soluble
in any solvent.
The analysis of " swell copal " gave —
C = 73-24, H = 11-02, andO = 9-74
The ether extraction of the raw copal leaves on distilling
off the ether a light yellow resin, which is soft, and remains
so when even subjected to ,100° C. for some time. < >n
distillation, an oil passes over at about 132° C, leaving a
brown brittle resin.
The substance dried at 130° C. gives on analysis —
C = 7S-50 70, H = 10-30, and O = 11-20 ,'.
It is easily soluble in benzene, ether, chloroform, &c, but
scarcely in alcohol.
The melting point of copal resins varies from 175 to
370° C. When carefully roasted, at first a small quantity
of gas, about 4 to 5 per cent., is obtained, which consists of —
CH^ = 40-3-41 -27 7 ... COJ = 23 -57-23- S3 ",', and
CO = 36-13— 34-88 °/0
On further heating, the copal oil distils over. Many
careful experiments were made in order to estimate what
loss in weight must occur before a soluble resin, tit for
further manufacture of varnishes, can be obtained, and it
has been found to be on an average from 8 to 12-5 per
cent., but when the roasting process is carefully conducted,
the loss need not exceed 10 per cent., and the raw product
is fully converted into the soluble '■ pyro-copal."
Naturally when a closed vessel is in use for roasting, the
vapours are condensed and the copal oil collected for other
uses.
When the melting point is reached, the heat should he so
regulated that the temperature does not increase ; it is
indeed better that it be barely maintained. The mass will
soon flow evenly, and after about 15 to 20 minutes the
whole is sufficiently treated to be ready for further manu-
facture. This time is calculated for about 10 to 12 lb. of
raw copal, and more time would be required should larger
quantities be treated at once.
Quite analogous with this process is the conversion of
starch into soluble dextrin ; the former is heated to about
150°, and if a small quantity of HN03 or HCI be added to
Oct. 81, 181)2.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
829
the starch the transformation takes place much more
rapidly. This is also, with certain modifications, the case
with copal.
The analysis of the carefully roasted (at 352 ' C.) soluble
product, " pyro-copal," gave —
C = 83-17, H = 10-64, and O = G-19%
After increasing the heat to 365° C. —
C = 84-30, H = 10-75, andO = 4-96%
After increasing the heat to 375° C. —
C = 83-06, H = 10-85, and O = 4-09 "/.
From the chloroform solution of pyro-copal, alcohol
precipitates the pyro-swell copal. The suhstauee dried at
1 1 ii i C. gave on analysis —
C = 82-86, H = 10-71, and O = 7-44
Comparing now the raw copal with the " pyro-copal " and
the " swell-copal " with the " pyro-swell copal," it is pointed
out that roasting causes in every instance an increase of C
and a decrease of O, while the II remains nearly constant.
— w. s.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Pigments or Paints.
.I.e. Martin, London. Eng. Pat. 12,840, July 23, 1891.
Tins invention relates to a treatment of all such pigments,
which like zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, and white lead produced
by any of the wet processes, are generally of inferior body
and covering power, and require an excess of oil for
conversion into paints. By treating such pigments in the
form of a powder in a pug mill and adding as much water
as will produce a slightly damp powder, and subsequently
submitting the damp powders to the action of edge-runners,
their bulk is considerably reduced and their specific gravity
proportionately increased. This partially-treated material
is then dried aud again treated in a similar manner with
addition of such a quantity of oil as will allow it to remain
in powder. The pigments so treated are considerably
improved hi covering power, and a considerable saving in
oil is effected on their being ground into paints. — C. O. \V.
Imprtoemems in Apparatus for Oxidising Lead Sulphide
and Zinc to Form White Pigments. F. J. Rowan,
Glasgow, and B. Dawson, Worcester. Eng. l'at. 16,129,
September 23, 1891.
The invention comprises a new apparatus or furnace so
constructed as to prevent the admixture with the products
of carbonaceous or other foreign particles which might
diminish the purity of the pigments. For the manufacture
of the lead pigment, galena or any suitable sulphide of
lead, or a lead ore or compound supplemented with more
or less sulphur or sulphur-yielding material may be
employed, and for the zinc pigment zinc or any suitable
ore or compound of zinc can be used. A gas furnace is
employed in the process having a reverberatory chamber
across which are placed a series of retorts into which the
pulverised material is fed by means of a jet of air or steam,
or any of the well-known mechanical means may be used
for this purpose. The retorts are inclined so that any slag
from the material may flow to one end, where it is
discharged through a duct. The oxidised material, being
converted into a fume, passes from the higher ends of the
retorts into condensing chambers, where it is collected,
steam or air being applied to propel the fume into the
condenser. The gas furnace may also be constructed on
the system known as a blow-pipe furnace, in which case
the combustible gas is injected into the furnace chamber
through a nozzle, together with the necessary air for
combustion. The construction of these chambers is other-
wise similar to that of the before-mentioned retorts.
— C. O. W.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Aniline Lakes
suitable for the Manufacture of India-Hubber Cloth
and other Purposes. I. Frankenburg, Lancaster. Eng.
Pat. 16.5S2, September 30, 1891.
Tin: invention refers to the manufacture of compound
lakes from any of the acid or sulphonated aniline colours,
by converting them into barium-alumina, calcium-alumina,
barium-chromium, or calcium-chromium lakes, which are
capable of withstanding all the influences incidental to the
manufacture of india-rubber articles. — C. O. W.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Gold, Silver, and
Bronze Paints. W. Cutler, Birmingham. Eng. Pat.
7688, April 23, 1892.
The object of this invention is to prevent bronze paints
from tarnishing by exposure to the atmosphere, and it is
effected by dissolving pryoxyliu in spirits, ethers, essences
or acids, and mixing with this liquid celluloid enough of
the bronzes to bring it to the consistency of ordinary
paint. This paint is then applied in the usual manner.
On drying a transparent film of celluloid is formed on top
of the coat of bronze, and this film being water- and air-
proof protects the bronze against atmospheric, gaseous, and
other influences. — C. O. W.
Improvements Relating to the Extraction of Guttu-Percha
and to Apparatus therefor. I). Kigole, Paris, France
Eng. Pat. 4252, May 3, 1892.
This invention relates to the extraction of gutta-percha from
the leaves and twigs of Isonandras, Uichopsis, or other
gutta-percha trees, by means of bisulphide of carbon.
For this purpose the leaves aud twigs are suitably pounded
and placed in an exhausting vessel in which they are treated
with bisulphide of carbon. The solution of gutta-percha
returns then to the bisulphide of carbon boiler, from where
it is again evaporated and after being condensed, again acts
upon the material to be extracted. In this manner the
carbon bisulphide which is continually being purified by the
distillation effects in a short time the complete exhaustion
of the leaves. By working a set of valves arranged on the
apparatus the previous connection between the bisulphide
of carbon boiler and the extractor is now closed, and a
current of superheated steam forced through the extractor
and from there into the bisulphide of carbon boiler. The
bisulphide of carbon evaporates and leaves the boiler
together with the steam through a specially provided pipe
terminating in a condenser. The superheated steam thus
carries away all the bisulphide of carbon, leaving the solid
gutta-percha behind. — C. O. W.
Improvements in Enamel Paints for Resisting Damp,
Fire, and Atmospheric Influences, and in Imitation
Mosaic and other Articles made therewith. O. Terp,
London. Eng. Pat. 12,175, June 30, 1892.
Twenty-three parts of a 50 per cent, solution of chloride
of calcium and 77 parts of a 66 per cent, solution of chloride
of magnesium are mixed together. To this 2 per cent, of
commercial hydrochloric acid and 1 per cent, of a saturated
solution of chlorine in water are added. To this mixture
or solution any desired pigment may be added, and when
required for use the solution is mixed with about an equal
quantity of Silesian " bittererde " (oxide of magnesium), and
this mixture is then applied to the surface to be coated.
In order to give the coloured enamelled surface a brighter
colour it may be coated with linseed oil. The hardness of
the enamel can be modified by using in the above mixture
more or less hydrochloric acid. By enamelling with the
above preparation suitably formed polygonal pieces of
various materials and colours, and piecing them together a
kind of mosaic may be manufactured. — C. O. W.
830
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31. 1892.
XV.-MANURES, Etc.
The Manufacture of Iron in its Relations to Agricultui
Sir Lowthian Bell, Hart., F.K.S.
See under X., page 819.
XVI.-SUGAR, STARCH, GUM, Etc.
Detection and Removal of Protein Substances in Hcet
Juice In/ Means of Tannin. E. Brack. Chem, Zeit. 16,
222.
If a tannin solution be added to the clear jniee or diluted
syrup a deep violet flocculent precipitate is formed, and the
tillered fluid appears considerably lighter and brighter than
the original. The reaction takes place in all the raw, inter-
mediate, and fiual products of manufacture, and is an
index of the purity and concentration of the solution.
The use of tannin thus enables the amount of dissolved
albuminates to be cietermined both qualitatively and
quantitatively, the precipitate being collected in the latter
case upon a tared filter, well washed with hot water, dried
at 100° — 110°, aDd weighed. The estimation is of course
relative, but suffices for practical purposes. In order to
avoid the formation of soluble tannin salts it is advisable
to conduct the process in a solution as nearly neutral as
possible, after it has been previously treated with a stronger
acid than tannic acid, for this purpose sulphurous acid is
recommended. The juice clarified with tannin is distin-
guished by its ready and rapid evaporation in vacuo, and the
product can be easily treated in the centrifugal machine,
which is not always suitable for the untreated juice in the
latter periods of the harvest. As regards the yield of
crystallised sugar this is decidedly increased, the molasses
remaining being distinctly less than in the ordinary method,
being only about 1*45 per cent. The author also calls
attention to the further advantage of removing protein
substances from the juice, since these serve as carriers
of colouring matters and form a pabulum for fermenting
germs.— F. W. P.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Refining of Sugar Juice or Molasses.
A. Schneller and W. J. YVisse, the Hague, Holland.
Eng. Pat. 14,575, August 28, 1891.
Tins is an improvement on Eng. Pat. 5236 of 1891 (this
Journal, 1892, 44 8) ; besides treating the syrup with
ozonised air, it is also treated with carbonic acid in the
same or a separate scrubber, by means of which the
mineral matters are precipitated. — A. L, S.
Improvements in Multiple "Effect Apparatus for
Evaporating or Concentrating Sugar Juice and other
Liquids. II. W. Deacon, Birmingham, Krom YV. Max-
well, .lava. Eng. Pat. 17,274, October 10, 1891.
Ax outlet pipe, at the level the liquid is required to be
maintained in the upper chamber of each vessel in the
multiple effect apparatus, leads into the lower chamber of
the next vessel, through a steam trap, which allows only
liquid to pass and not vapour, the upper portion of this
trap being also connected with the vapour space in the
succeeding vessel. The pressure in the first vessel being
greater than that in the next one, the liquid in the first
vessel will always flow into the next, until its level falls
below the opening of the outlet pipe, at the same time the
trap prevents the passage of vapour ; in this way the
excess of the feed to the first vessel is automatically
transferred to the next and so on throughout the series.
Similarly, by connecting the middle chamber of the first
vessel with the middle chamber of the second in the
series, by a pipe leading through a similar trap, the water
of condensation is automatically transferred from one
vessel to another. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus for Liquoring Sugar. F
Scheibler, Burtscheid-Aachen, Germany. Eng. Pat.
18,292, October 24, 1891.
The apparatus is intended to effect the liquoring of sugar
by exposing a number of blocks of sugar at one operation
to contact on one side with fine liquor under pressure,
while the green syrup is exhausted from the other side.
Two sets of open frames are slung by perforated lugs ou
horizontal rods fixed between standards. Half the number
of frames are connected to an overhead reservoir containing
fine liquor, while the other half, composed of alternate
members, is coupled to the vessel, provided with a gauge
glass, for receiving the green syrup, and thence to the
exhaust pump. The sugar to be liquored is contained in
moulds open on their opposite sides and supported by
carriers on the horizontal bars. When the frames and
moulds are in place they are brought into close contact by
a moveable head-plate similar to that of a filter-press and
actuated by a fixed screw and loose nut. The joints arc
packed and the whole apparatus tightened up by the
endscrew before mentioned. The fine liquor is admitted at a
pressure of about 1 J- atmospheres to half the frames (termed
the "liquor frames "), while green syrup is drawn off by
the pump from the other half of the frames (the " syrup
frames ") its quantity being ascertained 1)3' the gauge glass
ou the vessel into which it is drawn by the action of the
pump. — IS. B.
XVII.-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS. Etc.
The Action 6f Beer on Aluminium. 11. Robert. Chenl.
Zeit. 16, 1892, 821.
It has been shown that beer stored in aluminium vessels
takes up 8 mgrms. of the metal per litre, yet Aubry
concludes that aluminium is a suitable material to use for
the manufacture of vessels intended for the storage and
transport of beer. At present there is only one work
extant on acute and subacute poisoning by aluminium
salts, (viz, Siem, Ueber die Wirkungen des Aluminiums
uud Berylliums, Dorpat, 1886), but it has been shown that
even the smallest quantity circulating in the blood has a
toxic effect, Siem's experiments show that the fatal dose
per kilo, of weight of the animal was 300 mgrms. for
rabbits, 250 to 280 mgrms. for cats, and 250 mgrms. for
dogs. Experience with other metallic poisons has shown
that the susceptibility of man is greater than that of
animals, and therefore the use of aluminium for vessels to
contain beer should be prohibited, as it would accumulate
in the system, and produce slow poisoning. — G. H. K.
'The Action of Beer on Aluminium, Chem. Zeit. Hep. 16,
1892, 173.
The action of beer on aluminium has beeu investigated at
the Wissenschaftliche Station fur Brauerei at Munich, at
the instance oi the Aluminium Industrie Actien Gesellschaft
of Neuhausen. Beer kept in aluminium flasks was scarcely
affected in flavour, provided that the dirt in the flasks as
received from the manufactory was carefully removed.
When kept in aluminium vessels in a cellar for three weeks
at 10° — 12°C., the greatest quantity dissolved was 0-8 mgrm.
Oct. 31,18m.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
831
1'iT 1 1 n» to. Similar results were obtained with beer in :\
state of fermentation, the metal being unaffected by the
nascent carbon dioxide. Aluminium was also found avail-
able for yeast cultivation flasks, and its use is proposed for
brewing laboratories. The only precaution requisite is that
when such vessels are cleaned with caustic soda solution,
that liquid should not be allowed to remain in contact with
them for any considerable time. — B. B.
The Alcohols of Fusel Oil. E. Q, Sehiippbaus. J. Auier.
Chem. Soc. 14, IS 92, 45— GO.
About a decade ago fusel oil or commercial amyl alcohol
was practically a waste product, being only employed to a
comparatively small extent in the manufacture of alkaloids,
certain ethers, &c~, and a few organic dyes. H. Briem
(Organ Centr. Vereins Kiibenzucker Ind. Oest. Ing.
Monarchic, 1877, 180, and 1S79, 265) recommended the
fusel oil from the fermentation of beet-sugar molasses as a
source for illuminating gas of superior quality ; and in
1880 (('&/</. 1880, 20) he reported that several factories,
including a distillery, had introduced the process. This
was, however, but a poor way of utilising the raw material,
a- was rightly pointed out by Wagner (Wagner's .lahresb.
1879, 1216). Bat better uses were found for it. In 1882,
J. 11. Stevens (l.S. Pat. 269,34:), 1882) introduced fusel
oil instead of grain alcohol as a solvent for uitro-cellulose,
in the manufacture of celluloid. In this connection, it is
worthy of note that A. H. Elliott (J. Amer. Chem. »Soc. 4,
1882, 147), mentions amyl alcohol as a solvent for nitro-
saccharose. The pyroxylin varnish industry, which first
began to flourish in 1879, owes its development to the use
of amyl acetate as a solvent; and in 1882, J. H. Stevens
( l.S. Vat. 269,340, 1882) patented the use of this substance
in tlve manufacture of celluloid. O. P. Amend. (L.S. Pat.
371,021, 1887; 372,100, 1887 ; U.S. lte-issue, 10,879, 1887)
employed for a similar purpose the chlorination products
of amyl alcohol and acetate. In 1884 the author discovered
that propyl- and t'-butyl alcohols (U.S. Pat. 410,204, 1884)
which are present in commercial fusel oils, are preferable
to amyl alcohol in the manufacture of celluloid. At the
same time he proposed the use of propyl and butyl acetates
in the preparation of pyroxylin varnishes. W. D. Field
(U.S. Pat. 381,354, 18S7"; this Journal, 1888, 443) obtained
a patent for such varnishes. Large quantities of propyl,
butyl, and amyl acetates are consumed in the manufacture
of photographic films ; and amyl acetate also forms a
constituent of some smokeless powders, and is employed as
illuminant in Hefner's standard lamp. Amyl acetate,
butyrate, and valerate enter into the composition of a
number of artificial fruit essences and flavours. E. Liebert
(Ger. Pat. 51,022, 18S9; this Journal, 1890, 326) adds
amyl nitrate to nitro-glycerol to diminish its sensitiveness
to cold and concussion. Eusel oil and its derivatives also
find application in analysis, the preparation of artificial
musk, &c, valeric acid, and valerates (used in medicine).
Le 6el (Compt. rend. 86, 1878, 213) described a method
of preparing inactive amyl alcohol from fermentation
products, and showed that the valeric acid obtained from it
was identical with the officinal acid.
As a consequence of the enormous increase in the con-
sumption of fusel oil the supply is now no longer equal
to the demand. Moreover, every progressive distiller aims
at counteracting its formation as much as possible, and the
researches of Lindet (this Journal, 1891, 717) and Springer's
(Scient. Amer. Suppl. 1891, 13,125) method of producing
alcohol point to success in this direction.
Fusel oil was discovered by Scheele (Crell's Annalen,
1, 1785, 61) in the tailings of rye whisky; whilst Pelletan
(Ann. Chim. Phys. (1), 30, 1825, 221) examined a similar
product from potato spirit. Dumas (Ann. Chim. Phys.
( I). 56, 1834, 314) isolated amyl alcohol from potato fusel
and ascertained its percentage composition, without, however,
recognising its alcoholic nature. Cahours (Compt. rend.
4, 1837, 341 ; and Ann. Chim. Phys (1) 70. 1839, 81, and
75, 1840, 193), however, showed its analogy to, and classed
it with ethyl alcohol. Balard (Ann. Chim. Phys. (3), 12,
1844, 294) obtained it from the fusel of grape-skins, and
prepared a series of amyl compounds. In a fusel of the
same origin, Chancel (Compt. rend. 37, 1853, 410)
discovered n-propyl alcohol. Wurtz (Compt. rend. 35,
1852, 310; and Ann. Chim. Phys. (3), 42, 1854, 129)
detected i-butyl alcohol in the fusel oils from potato and
beet-sugar molasses spirit. Kolbe (Annalen, 41, 1842, 53),
Wurtz (Ann. Chim. Phys. (3), 42, 1854, 129), and Perrot
(Compt. rend. 45, 1857, 309) examined the ethers and
fatty acids of fusel oil. Although in crude fusel oil, amyl
alcohol preponderates, the composition of distillates varies
greatly. Instances of fusel oil free or nearly free from
amyl abohol, such as mentioned by H. Briem, (Organ
Centr. Vereins Riibenzucker Ind. Oest. ling. Monarchic,
1877, 180), must be regarded with suspicion. One such
case investigated by the author was found to refer to a
distillate from fusel oil (A. Freund, J. prakt. Chem. 12,
1875, 25). In 1873, G. L. Ulex (Dingl. Polyt. J. 208,
379) described a method for the determination of ethyl
alcohol in fusel oil, and pointed out the gross inaccuracy
of the process adopted by the British Excise authorities.
Details of these methods, as well as of one devised by
A. H. Allen, mav be found in " Allen's Commercial Organic
Analysis," vol.!., 1885, 119. Ulex (he. at.) also inci-
dentally remarks that " wine " fusel oil contains no amylic
alcohol because it distils over completely below 1 30' C. The
weakness of this argument must be evident to all who have
experience of fractional distillation, and know how imperfect
a separation is effected by a single distillation of even so
simple a mixture as amyl and ethyl alcohols (see Koscoe
and Schorlemmer, " A Treatise on Chemistry.'' Vol. III.
147). A further complication ensues in presence of
water. A mixture of water and amyl alcohol, boiling point
13(i C. ( Pierre and Puchot, Ann. Chim. Phys. (4). 22,
1868, 234), boils at 96' C and the distillate consists of
2 vols, of water and 3 vols, of amyl alcohol. In the case of
butyl alcohol, boiling point 108" C., the boiling point drops
to 90 '5° C.j and the constituents pass over in the proportion
of one volume of the former to five of the latter. Whenever
a rational separation is aimed at, complete dehydration is
indispensable.
The German Excise authorities (Wagner's Jahresb. 1890,
1078) employ the following tests for fusel oil : —
1. 10 cc. of fusel oil are shaken with 30 cc. of calcium
chloride solution of sp. gr. 1-225 (25 grins. CaCl, and
100 cc. of water). After one minute's agitation at least
7'5 cc. must remain undissolved.
2. 100 cc. of fusel oil must show a decided turbidity
when shaken for one minute with 5 cc. of distilled water.
The author has analysed several samples of distillates
from fusel oil. A sample from a German factory consisted
of propyl and butyl alcohols, and was anhydrous. Another
distillate of American origin was similar in composition,
but contained in addition a little amyl alcohol. Certain
other samples which had been responsible for most
objectionable troubles in the manufacture of celluloid were
also examined. These samples had been certified to be
practically free from amyl alcohol, and to contain as chief
constituent propyl alcohol, with an average of only 4 per
cent, of water. Analysis revealed a considerable proportion
of water, and, as might have been expected, all the alcohols
of fusel oil were found to be present. The anhydrous
samples on fractionation yielded four fractious boiling at
78°— 80° C, 97° C, 109° C, and 128'— 132° C. respectively.
The slight residue boiling above 132° C. consisted probably
of amylic ethers. The following results were obtained in
th,- rase of four different samples (see next page).
Kraemer and Pinner (Ber. 2, 18U9, 401, and 3, 1870, 75)
and also Pierre and Puchot (Ann. Chim. Phys. (4), 22,
1868, 234) have likewise investigated the composition of
the first runnings of fusel oil. The four distillates previously
mentioned, mixed with methyl alcohol in the proportions
employed in the manufacture of celluloid, yielded a clear
camphor solution. When only camphor, however, was
added, a portion of the water separated ; and this behaviour
accounts for the disagreeable experiences with the solvents.
Large blocks of celluloid when cut into sheets were found
to be interspersed with cavities containing a fluid, which
proved to be chiefly water. Since these samples were stated
to be free from amyl alcohol, the fraction 128°— 132° C. was
carefully tested and proved to consist of iso-amyl alcohol
83-2 THE JOUKNAL OF
THE SOCIETY OF
OHEMIC
Mi INDUS
TET. [Oct.3i,iv.2.
j
Ethyl
M-I'l'opvl
i-Butvl
Fermentation ftkidiu-
Anvyl Alcohol. *« --"'"•.
Sample. , Specific Gravity.
Water.
Alcohol.
Alcohol.
Alcohol.
I'erCent.
i
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
i Percent.
Per Cent. PitlVnt.
I. Clear yellow liquid of
0-842.J at IS C.
11-0
30-0
11-5
25 '2
l.vn i\3
neutral reaction.
1 1, i Hear yellowish liquid of
nwVJIiat 19-5 C.
lilt -o
111 -4
11-7
2CJ
22-u 2-0
neutral reaction.
III. Slightly cloudy liquid of
ost.'il at 21-5°C.
18-3
15"0
brownish tinge. Reaction
neutral.
IV. i olourless clear liquid of
0'8630a1 16'5 I .
SSS-'f)
02 '8
5*7
11-0
7-u n-j
neutral reaction.
1
But the chief constituent was said to be propyl alcohol, and
in view of Rabuteau's researches (Compt. rend. 87, I'Wi
500) on potato fusel, it was thought possible that isopropyl
alcohol might be contained in the fractions of low boiling
point.
This body was prepared from acetone by Friedel
(Compt. rend. 55, 1862, 53), who pointed out that it is not
freed from water even by distillation from barium oxide.
Berthelot (Ann. Chim. Phys. (3), 43, 1855, 385), the
discoverer of isopropyl alcohol, found its boiling point, when
still containing a little water, to be 81° — 82° C. Friedel's
compound boiled at 84° — 86° C, and after treatment with
metallic sodium, at 86° — 883 C. Linnemann (Annalen,
136, 1865, 37) investigated the subject fully and laid great
stress on starting with pure acetone. He found the boiling
points of isopropyl alcohol and its three hydrates —
3 C3HsO + 2 H.,0, 2 C3HsO + H.O, and 3 C3HsO + H/)
to be 83°— 84° C, 78°— 80° C, 80° C. and 81° C. respectively .
Since fractional distillation would be useless in this case,
the fractions between 78°— 88° C. were tested chemically
for isopropyl alcohol with entirely negative results.
Iiabuteau (lor. cit.) found no less than 150 cc. of isopropyl
alcohol, boiling point 85° C, in one litre of Swedish potato
fusel oil and identified it by ultimate analysis, by conversion
into acetone, aud by its acetate, boiling at 76° C. But
according to Berthelot (foe. cit.) and Friedel (loc. cit.),
isopropyl acetate boils at 90°— 93° C. ; whilst 76° C. is the
boiling point of ethyl acetate. Rabuteau's figure, however,
may be an error. It is interesting to note, that so late as
1868, Mendelejeff (Zeits. Chem. 1868, 25) doubted the
very existence of n-propyl alcohol, and consequently its
presence in fusel oil ; and he failed to isolate it from
Chancel's (Compt. rend. 37, 1853, 410) alcohol. Its
presence in fusel oil, was, however, proved beyond a doubt
by Pierre and Puchot (loc. cit.) and Kraemer and Pinner
(loc. cit.). That Perrot (Compt. rend. 45, 1857, 309) and
V. de Schepper (Zeits. Chem. 1868, 520) failed to find
M-propyl alcohol is attributable to the fact that they
employed fusel oil containing water. As regards isopropyl
alcohol, Pierre and Puehot, and Kraemer and Pinner,
although working under the most approved conditions, were
unable to detect it in fusel oil from different sources.
Barbaglia (Ber. 6, 1873, 1064) found in isobutyl aldehyde
from Kahlbaum's factory considerable quantities of acetone,
and ascribed its formation to the presence of large quantities
of isopropyl alcohol in the commercial isobutyl alcohol
from which the aldehyde had been prepared. Kraemer
(Ber. 7, 1874, 252), the manager of the above factory,
replied that the isobutyl alcohol employed was practically
pure, and showed that acetone was a constant product of
its oxidation under the conditions obtaining in their process
of making isobutyl aldehyde. Lipp (Annalen, 205, 1S80, 1)
described a method by which the formation of acetone may
be almost wholly avoided. If Rabuteau's data be considered
in the light of all these facts, the conclusion is inevitable
that the presence of such large quantities of isopropyl
alcohol in fusel oil is somewhat doubtful. The boiling point
is no criterion of the purity of the alcohol ; the ultimate
analysis is of little value ; and the boiling point of the
acetate is not 70 C. Nor is the formation of acetone
sufficient proof, until it is shown that it is produced in such
quantities as to preclude the possibility of its formation
from small amounts of isobutyl alcohol.
All the alcohols, which have hitherto been isolated from
the products of the fermentation of saccharine solutions,
and about which there can be no reasonable doubt, arc-
primary alcohols, viz., methyl, ethyl, M-propyl, n- aud
;-butyl, and i-amyl alcohols. Xormal butyl alcohol was
found by Claudon and Morin (this Journal, 1888, 513) in
the heavy oils of French brandy, in which, however, it i*
only formed under abnormal conditions. Morin (this
Journal, 1888, 224) proved its absence in normal biandv.
Methyl alcohol is a product of the spontaneous fermentation
of sugar-cane juice in tropical climates (Marcano, this
Journal, 1889, 561). Kraemer aud Pinner's (Ber. 2, 1869,
401) opinion that hexyl alcohol might possibly exist among
the, alcohols of fermentation has not been verified ; although
Faget (Compt. rend. 37, 1853, 730) isolated a substance
from the fusel oil formed by the fermentation of grape-skius,
which he was incliued to regard as hexyl alcohol. The
researches of Wurtz (Ann. Chim. Phys. (3), 42, 1854, 125),
Perrot (Compt. rend. 45, 1857, 309), Claudon and Morin
(this Journal, 1888, 513), and Morin (this Journal, 1888,
224) show that no alcohols higher than amyl alcohol exist
in fusel oil. Referring 10 Swedish potato fusel oil the
author remarks that if it really contain such a large quautitv
of isopropyl alcohol, there can be no difficulty iu establishing
the fact. It is only necessary to separate from the thoroughly
dehydrated product the fraction boiling below 85° C, and
prepare from the latter an acetate of correct boiling point.
If the alcohol regenerated from the acetate yields acetone
on oxidation, and furnishes abenzoate (Linnemann, Annalen,
161, 1872, 51) which on heating splits up into propylene
and benzoic acid, the existence of isopropyl alcohol in the
original substance will be proved. — H. T. P.
Relations between Fat-hydrolgsing and Glucoside-resolring
Ferments. YV. Sigmund. Monatsh. 13, 567 — 577.
See under XXIII., page 849,
PATENTS.
Improvements in Distilling and Rectifying Alcohol or
other Liquids, and in Apparatus Employed therein.
6. Perrier, Paris. Fug. Pat. 13,729, August 14, 1891.
The chief feature of the apparatus is the use of rectifiers
which are each kept 'at a constant and uuiform temperature ;
this is maintained by a bath of boiling liquid, the vapour
from which is immediately condensed and returned.
The rectifiers may be made in the usual form with plates ;
or they may he filled with beads.
In the distillation of alcoholic liquids the temperature of
the rectifiers may be so arranged that one condenses the
water while allowing all the more volatile portions to pass
through, the next condenses the least volatile portions of
these, i.eV, the tail products ; the next the least volatile
portions of what has passed through these, i.e., the alcohol
and the head products having passed uucoudensed through
all of them are condensed in a refrigerator. A special
arrangement is described, by means of which the flow of
wash into the boiler is regulated by the temperature of the
vapours passing out of the boiler ; thus producing a regular
and even distillation. — A. L. S.
H.-t.:fi,l89i.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
833
Improvements in Malt Mashing Apparatus. F. .1. Money,
London. Eng. Pat. 14,658, August 29, 1891.
The patentee proposes to grind the malt to a fine powder
and mash it in a churn like machine in order to obtain all
the starch in solution, which he says cannot be done by the
present methods. — A. L. S.
An Improved Method and Apparatus for Straining
Brewer's Wort. 8. A. Croxford, Bedminster, Bristol.
Eng. Pat. 15,467, September 12, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a strainer which is placed in the
copper or underback and rests on the bottom thereof, and
is withdrawn when the albuminoid matters have been
coagulated. The strainer cousistsofa wire frame, supporting
a web of horsehair or other suitable material. — A. L. 8.
Improvements in the Apparatus for the Making and /lie
Urging of Malt. A. (iough, Loudon. Eng. l'at. 15,764,
September 17, 1891.
Thb apparatus consists of a cylinder of relatively large
radius and short length ; part of it is a closed chamber for
steeping and germinating, and part is provided with per-
forated flues passing through the drum in a plane at right
angles to its axis. Hot or cold air may be passed through
the flues. The drum is provided with edge gear, by means
of which it may be made to revolve on its axis.
In the preparation of malt by means of this apparatus,
the barley is introduced into the closed part of the drum
and there steeped ; the water is then drawn off and the
drum turned to promote even germination, and the tempera-
ture kept within the proper limits by passing cold air
through the flues. When germination has proceeded as
far as necessary, the cold air is replaced by warm and the
drying and curing takes place. — A. L. S.
Improvements in Apparatus for Filtering Beer and other
Alcoholic and Gaseous Liquids. H. Gehrke, Berlin,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 8290, May 2, 1892.
The filtering vessel is cylindrical and is divided into
partitions by filter plates. The uufiltered beer is led into
alternate compartments, and passes through the filtering
material into the other compartments of the filter. No
pressure is used except that due to the difference of height
between the settling back and the cask to receive the filtered
beer. It is claimed that the special arrangement of the
filter gives a greater surface in the same bulk than any
other. — A. L. 8.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Manufuctun <>J Malt
Liquors. P. M. Justice, London. From A. W. Billings,
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8952, May 11,
1892.
These improvements relate to an apparatus described by
the inventor in Eng. Pat. 10,135, of 1891 (this Journal, 1892,
628).
The mash tub is made in the shape of a cylinder, pro-
vided with stirrers working on an axis eoiucident with the
axis of the cylinder.
The cylinder is closed except for a narrow opening at
the top, which can be hermetically closed by plates provided
with pipes for water, malt, and raw grain. — A. L. S.
ImpftHh inrnts in Spraying Devices for Cooling Beer and
other Liquids. C. C. Hanford, Medford, Middlesex,
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 9975, May 26, 1892.
This is a modification of the apparatus protected by a
previous patent (13,428, of 1890 ; this Journal, 1890, 1057),
and is specially suited for small breweries. The modifica-
tion consists in alteringthe shape of the valve from circular
to semicircular, and an arrangement for opening the valve
by which the aperture remains practically semicircular, and
the spray is thrown out only on oue side of a line passing
through the straight side of the semicircle. The valve can
thus be fixed over the side of the cooler, without risk of
losing any of the wort. — A. L. S.
Process and Apparatus for Impregnating Beer with
Carbonic Acid. B. J. B. Mills, London. From The
Universal Carbonating Company, Newark, New Jersey,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 10,305, May 31, 1892.
In the ordinary method of preparing lager beer for
market it is customary to add to the ruh-beer a small
quantity of young beer, whereby fermentation is again
started, and the beer becomes saturated with carbonic
acid.
The inventor proposes to substitute for this the direct
carbonating of the beer by means of compressed carbonic
acid. To do this a circulation of the beer is caused by a
pump, in a tube one end of which is attached to the top
and one end to the bottom of a lager cask ; into this tube
carbonic acid gas is injected, and by this means the whole
of the beer is soon carbonated. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colour Malt.
W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From L. Schmied, Zizkow,
Bohemia. Eng. Pat, 10,442, June 1, 1892.
The green malt before watering is frozen ; this is done in
a chamber, built like a malt kiln with one hurdle, under
which are placed cooling tubes in communication with an
ice machine. After some hours the frozen malt is brought
on to the second floor of a kiln with the hood closed and
heated for 4 or 5 hours at 50° C. With gentle turning it is
allowed to remain for 2 or 3 hours more in its own vapour,
and then removed to the first floor of the kiln and quickly
dried.
The colouring malt thus obtained does not, like ordinary
colouring malt, show inside a roasted " amylum," but a
crystalline malt sugar which tastes sweet like caramel.
—A. L. S.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatusfor Mashing
and Brewing Ale, Beer, and other Fermented Liquors.
J. Barton, Bewsbury, Yorkshire. Eng. Pat. 10,496,
.luue 2, 1892.
This is an arrangement for completing the whole operation
of brewing in one vessel, and is specially adapted for
domestic use.
It consists of a cast-iron stand supporting a copper or
other metal vessel. To the interior of this is fitted a
removeable perforated metal vessel, to the under surface of
which is attached an attemporator coil.
To use the apparatus, a sufficient supply of cold water
is introduced into the copper vessel and heated by a gas-
burner or other convenient source of heat to the required
temperature. The ground malt is placed in the inner
perforated vessel, and the whole lowered by suitable gear
into the water. After standing a sufficient time the per-
forated vessel is raised, and carries the spent grains with it ;
these are washed with a stream of water from a rose nozzle,
and after draining the perforated vessel is swung to one
side and the spent grains removed. The hops are then
put in the place of the grains and lowered into the wort,
which is then boiled. The hops are removed in the same
way as the grains, and the boiled wort is cooled by the
attemperator. Yeast is introduced, and when the
fermentation is finished the beer is drawn off by a tap.
—A. L. 8.
1> 2
834
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. SI, 1S92.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
(/I.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
Caffeine and Coffee Distillate and their Physiological
Effects. W. Heerlein. Arch. Physiol. 52, 165.
The experiments of the author show that coffee, us far as
its alkaloid caffeine is concerned, is neither a food nor
decreases the bodily waste, but rather excites and increases
it. As the distillate from coffee was also found to have
no diminishing; effect on the consumption of oxygen, the
author considers that coffee should be struck off the list
of direct or indirect foods, and its action as an exciter of
the nervous system alone recognised. — F. W. P.
An Unusual Form of Spring Water. J. H. Stebbins.
J. Amer. Chein. Soc. 14, 1892, 115—116.
The water in question came from New Jersey ; it was
clear, without taste, and neutral to test paper, but it had a
slight smell when the bottle containing it was uncorked.
It possessed a very considerable viscosity, which was
ascertained not to he due to gelatinised silica, but to the
presence of organic matter in the form of either alg.x\
bacteria, or some other form of growth.
Total solids were 8' 2 grains per gallon; inorganic matter
obtained on ignition, 3'2 grains per gallon.
The nature of the organism contained in the water is
unknown to the author, who asks for any information on
the poiut. The water is free from chlorine, but contains
traces of sulphates ; it has no ill-effects on those drinking it.
— T. L. B.
The Behaviour of Antiseptics toward Salivary Digestion,
H. A. Weber. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 14, 1892, 4—14.
The author draws attention to the custom, extensively
practised, of adding antiseptics to perishable articles of food
in order to preserve them, and points out that their action
on the consumer is in many cases decidedly injurious.
Many preparations, more particularly of salicylic and boracic
acids, are sold as " lard bleachers " and " fruit, wine, and
cider preservatives," &c.
As H. Leffman and W. Beam (this Journal, 1888, 582—
583) have shown that certain preservatives complete!}'
arrest the saccharifying action of diastase and pancreatic
extract on starch, experiments were made to determine
whether a similar influence is exerted by these substances
on the diastatic conversion of starch-paste by saliva (at
40" C). The antiseptics employed were salicylic acid, borax,
calcium sulphite, and saccharine. From the results obtained,
which are embodied in a series of tables, it appears that in
the presence of 1 part of preservative to 210 parts of " food
mixture," salicylic acid and saccharine altogether arrest
diastatic action j borax and calcium sulphite only have this
effect at the beginning, after which the latter exerts no
depressing influence, whilst borax retains its retarding action
to the end. Used in the proportion of 1 : 420, salicylic acid
and saccharine completely check the conversion of the
starch ; borax distinctly retards it, and calcium sulphite has
no effect. In more dilute solutions (1:840) only borax and
salicylic acid exert a marked depressing influence, especially
at the beginning, hut less strongly afterwards. At the rate
of 1 : 1050 to 2,100 borax alone has a retarding effect.
— H. T. P.
PATENTS.
Improvement in the Manufacture or Production of Sutter.
J. II. Duncan, London. Eug. Pat. 12,549, July 24, 1891.
By means of the inventor's centrifugal apparatus, butter of
exceptional quality may be made in about 20 or 30 minutes.
The number of revolutions required is 120 per minute if the
cream has a temperature of 60° F., but if this is raised to
75° F., 60 revolutions per minute will suffice. The cream
should be four days old. The apparatus chiefly consists of
a vessel containing the cream, a rotary disc mounted so as
to be partly immersed in the cream and capable of picking
this up in the form of lilms ; and means whereby the
contents of the vessel can be rapidly heated by the applica-
tion of hot water to the jacket or false bottom, and by the
circulation of the cream, by means of the discs, over the
warm surface. — L. de K.
Process for the Production of a Palatable Kola - Nut
Poioder. B. Haseloff, Kottbuserdamm, Berlin. Eng. Pat.
12,729, July 27, 1891.
The difficulty that presents itself in the utilisation of the
kola-nut, the fruit of Sterculia acuminata and Ss macrocarpa,
for food purposes similar to the cocoa-bean, is the large
quantity of tannic acid present, which communicates to it
an astringent and unpalatable flavour. Availing himself of
the property of tannic acid to absorb oxygen from the air in
alkaline solution and form other non-astringent bodies, the
patentee proposes to treat the partly-roasted and pulverised
kola-nut with alkaline reagents, and expose the moistened
kola-nut powder to the action of the atmosphere at 30° C. to
35° C. for several days, whereby the tannic acid is destroyed
and an agreeable flavour developed. The alkaline substances
used are caustic potash, alkaline carbonates, hydroxide of
calcium, borate of soda, and phosphate and hydroxide of
potassium, in dilute solutions, preference being given to the
latter. The proportions adopted are from k to 1 per cent,
of alkali.— F. W. P.
Process of Producing Sterilised Butter. 0. Miiller, Zerbst,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 8264, May 2, 1892.
The production of sterilised butter has up till the present
time not been a success, due to the fact that the proper
sterilisation of the cream is prevented by the necessary
changing of receptacles during the manufacture of butter.
The cream is in consequence brought into contact with
numerous surfaces and is necessarily subjected for a con-
siderable time to the action of the air. By means of the
patentee's apparatus the cream is sterilised and churned and
the butter washed in one and the same apparatus. A
product is thus obtained which will keep for a considerable
time without getting rancid, and which is free from
pathogenic bacteria.
The sterilisation of the cream is effected by means of
low-pressure steam at a temperature of about 103' C. Any
air which may enter on cooling is sterilised by being filtered
through wadding. The receptacle containing the cream is
then put into a shaking or churning apparatus to produce
the butter. The butter-milk is then let off from the bottom,
sterilised air entering at the top. Sterilised water is then let
in to wasli the butter, which operation is again performed
in the shaking apparatus. Finally the butter is repeatedly
shaken without addition of water, in order to separate the
bulk of the mechanically-mixed water.
If it is desired to produce salt or coloured butter, sterilised
salt or colouring is introduced into the receptacle before the
dry shaking takes place. — L. de K.
(5.)— SANITARY CHEMIST!! V.
Progress of the Mutch Industry. YV. Jettel. Chem. Zeit.
16, 1892, 670.
See under XXII., page 839.
Poisonous Gases from Dynamite. P. I'. Charon. Eng.
and Mining J. 1892, 269.
See under XXII., page 840.
The Action of Beer on Aluminium. R. Robert. Chem.
Zeit. 16, 1892, 821.
See under- XVII. , page 830.
The Action of Beer on Aluminium. Chem. Zeit. Rep. 16,
1892, 173.
See under XVII., page 830.
J
Oct. si, i8»a. j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
835
XIX .-PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Sulphite-Wood Liquor and Liqnin. J. B. Lindsey and
1!. ToUens. Annalen, 267, 341.
The soluble by-products of the bisulphite process of
pulping wood are derivatives of its lignin or lignonc con-
stituents, and the authors have investigated these waste
linuors with the view of elucidating the constitution of the
latter. The results of a general examination for carbo-
hydrate constituents showed: (1) the absence of dextrose
or bodies yielding dextrose. (2) the presence of galactose
and of mannose, and (3) of pentaglucoses or derivatives
of these. A series of observations of yeast fermentations
of the liquor, after expelling sulphurous acid by evaporation
with sulphuric acid, showed the formation of 5— C cc.
alcohol from 1 litre of the wood liquor (containing 9.'> grms.
total solids'). After hydrolysis by boiling with acid the
quantity of alcohol formed amounted to 6 "75 cc. It is
obvious that these by-products are for the most part
insusceptible of alcoholic fermentation.
The greater proportion of the constituents of these
sulphite liquors are precipitated by lead acetate. This
precipitate, decomposed by sulphuric acid, gave a solution
from which alcohol threw down a flocculent substance
having the empirical composition C:6H30SO,o ; the filtrate
from this on evaporation yielded a gummy body, analysis
of which also gave numbers expressed by the formula
(',,11 (1S( lr. The addition of hydrochloric acid to the
original liquor precipitated a body C2fjH30SO10 ; and bromine
threw down a brominated derivative C;6Hi,sBr4SOu.
These products boiled with hydriodic acid for the deter-
mination of O.CH3 gave numbers proving the presence of
2 CH3 groups in the above empirical formula'. The Sis
present as 8( )3H. For the original constituents of the pine-
wood, of which these bodies are sulphonated derivatives,
the authors arrive, after discussion, at the formula
C2JHil(CH3)2O10, and point out its substantial identity
with that assigned by Dietrich aud Konig (Landw. vers.
Stat. 13, 222) to the lignin of woody tissue, as with that
taken by Cross and Bevan for the lignone constituent of
jute (Chem. Soc. J. 55, 213).
Action of Nitric Acid (sp. gr.1'35) on Pine- Wood. —
From 100 grms. pine-wood, after treatment with this acid,
the authors obtained 17 grms. of insoluble residue, which in
composition (C36H6()0;tl) and properties was closely similar
to the oxycellnlose obtained by Cross and Bevan, by the
oxidation with nitric acid of cotton and other celluloses
(Chem. Soc. J. 43)- This body differs from the pectic group
of plant constituents in not yielding to acid hydrolysis and
containing no pentaglucose groups.
Preparation of Dextrose from " Sulphite " Cellulose. —
On dissolving sulphite cellulose in concentrated sulphuric
acid, diluting, boiling, and further proceeding as in the
ordinary method of preparing " glucose " from cotton
cellulose, the authors finally obtained 3' 5 percent, of its
weight of a white sugar, and from this 2-0 per cent, of
dextrose (calculated on the original cellulose). Pine-wood
treated in this way yielded nearly 5 per cent, of its weight
of dextrose. — C. E. C,
PATENTS.
Inijirorements in the Process of and Apparatus for Bleach-
ing and Treating the Fibre of Peat or other Substances.
G. A. Cannot, London. Eng. Pat. 13,102, August 1,
1891.
See under VI., page 813.
An Improvement in Oil and other Waterproof Sheets used
in taking Press Copies of Letters and other Documents
A. C. Thomson, 113, Union Street, Glasgow. Kng.
Pat. 18,448, October 27, 1891.
Thk invention consists in combining with the oiled or water-
proof paper a piece of calico, linen, or other fabric, or wire
cloth or gauze, so that the sheet can not be torn when being
used. " The fabric is preferably placed between two sheets
or pieces of oiled paper, and secured thereto in any
suitable manner." — C. 0. W.
Erratum.
This Journal 1892, 771, col. 1, line 2, for "caustic
lime" read chloride of lime.
Ibid., col. 1, line 4, for "CjH^N,;," read C6HwOj-
XX -PINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS.
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Antipijrine-Sulphonic Acids. C. Mollenhoff. Ber. 25,
1892, 1950—1951.
Antipyiuxk dissolves with considerable evolution of heat
in 30 per cent, fuming sulphuric acid, but no sulphonic
acid is obtained after heating for an hour on a water-bath.
Complete sulphonation is, however effected by heating for
three hours at 130°. The barium salt dried at 120' forms
a vitreous hygroscopic mass, having the composition
(CnHnN204S)2Ba. When its solution is acidified and
sodium nftrite added, a blue-green coloration is produced.
Bisantipyrinedisulphonic Acid —
•CO C C CO-
yy
\
NC6H,SOaH
S03H-C»H4-N< /k
\X(CH3)-C(CH3)C(CH3)-N(OH3)/
is obtained by heating on a water-bath bisantipyrine with
four times its weight of fuming sulphuric acid until the
product, after treatment with soda, is found to be soluble
in water. The sulphonic acid can be crystallised from water
in which it is readily soluble, — A. K. M.
Ether. A. C. Abraham. The Chem. and Drug. 41,
520—523.
This paper was read before the Liverpool Chemists' Asso-
ciation, and is now published with numerous additions by
the author. Ether, or, as it was formerly called, sulphuric
ether, was known before 1540 when it was described by
Valerius Cordus. It was worked at later by Boyle and
Newton, and two of their assistants, Erobenius and Hanko-
vitz, the latter of whom is said to have been the first to
produce it on a large scale. The original process, which
appears to have remained official until 1836, was to distil
equal weights of oil of vitriol and highly rectified spirit of
wine until a heavy liquid began to come over. The retort
was then cooled, half the previous quantity of spirit was
added, and the distillation repeated. These operations
were carried on as long as ether was produced, and the
crude product was then rectified. This process has been
discarded in favour of the continuous one which was intro-
duced by Boullay or Mitecherlich, and consists in running
the alcohol into the sulphuric acid in a continuous stream
instead of adding it in quantity from time to time. Not
only is this a saving of time and fuel, but losses of ether
are also avoided, as large quantities dissolved in the air
admitted each time the still was cooled and expelled when
reheated. Moreover it is possible to keep the temperature
in the still much more constant, and thus prevent alcohol
836
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
[Oct. 31, 1892.
coming over if the temperature is too low or the forma-
tion of defiant pas, oil of wine, and other impurities, if it
is too high. The author states that the reaction takes
place in two stages according to the following equations —
1. C.,H5OH * H.S04 = 0:H5IISO4 +■ H,<>
2. C2H,OH + CHJISO, = C\H-OC..H5 + H3S04
and mentions that sulph-ethylic acid is a product of the
action of alcohol on sulphuric acid, as its salts can be
prepared, and also that ether is formed when alcohol and
sulph-ethylic acid are distilled together. With regard to
the actual proportions employed, form of apparatus, and
details of manufacture, the author remarks that '-'- makers
are not generally disposed to enlighten outsiders." He
mentions the temperatures given by various writers which
yield the best results, and describes Squibb's process for
the production of ether as giving a product superior to that
ordinarily sold in this country. To every 9 parts by weight
of sulphuric acid 2g parts by weight of spirit are put into
;i lead-lined still fitted with a leaden steam coil, and heated
by this means to 130° C. The vapour passes first of all
through a potash solution kept at such a temperature that
ether and alcohol pass on uncondensed through six heated
purifiers, similar to a Coffey's still, where the vapour meets
warm distilled water. The ether, alcohol, and incondensible
gases are then passed through a block-tin worm cooled to
35c C, by which means the alcohol is condensed and
returned to the still. The ether, containing about 4 pet-
cent, of alcohol, is then condensed, and forms the stronger
ether of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. Up to about 1846 ether
appears to have been employed exclusively internally as a
sedative, anti-spasmodic and carminative, and externally us
a refrigerant. Its anaesthetic effect was described by
Pereira in 1842, although in 1818 it was mentioned as
acting in a similar way to nitrous oxide. It appears to
have come into regular use an an anajsthetie after 1S46,
and was first employed by a surgeon in Boston. A con-
siderable portion of the paper is devoted to a discussion of
the impurities found in ether, together with their detection.
They are divided into four classes:— 1. Those pre-existing
in the alcohol or decomposition products of such impurities.
2. Decomposition products from the alcohol and sulphuric
acid. 3. Alcohol and water. 4. Products of the decom-
position of the ether itself. The first impurities may be
detected by allowing the ether to evaporate spontaneously ,
which should take place without change of odour, and
should leave no residue which shows the presence of oil of
wine. The impurities under 2 may be sulphurous and
acetic acids, which can be detected by their action on
moistened litmus paper. The presence of alcohol and
water is shown by the specific gravity. Water, according
to Squibb, is detected by a crystal of fuchsine (rosaniline
acetate) and alcohol by the formation of iodoform when
Lieben's test is applied. The fourth class of impurities
would, according to the author, appear to consist of two
bodies, one of which liberates iodine from potassium iodide,
and the other forms a substance similar to aldehyde resin
with caustic soda, but it is uncertain whether the impurities
from which these substances are formed are the same or
different ones. Dunstan and Dymond believe that hydrogen
peroxide is the cause of the liberation of iodine, and that
this body is produced from an unknown impurity formed
during manufacture, and that light is not essential for
the production of the peroxide. According to these
investigators the ether may be purified by the use of an
ample quantity of lime and twice washing with alkaline
water. An ether so treated 10 years old showed no trace
of peroxide. Other chemists arrive at different results.
Poleck and Thummel conclude that vinyl alcohol is an
impurity of commercial ether, but the author does not
think this probable. His experiments show that the
impurities may be removed entirely by treatment with a
svrupy solution of caustic soda, but that rectification from
solid caustic soda or prolonged contact with it in the cold
in a finely-divided condition causes decomposition of the
ethei . ( )f the various ethers known in commerce, the
following are described : — Meth. 0 • " 1 7. — This, chemically ,
is an exceedingly impure article, us the specific gravity of
pure ether, according to Squibb, is 0'7189 at 60 F. It is
used for producing local anaesthesia and for freezing
specimens, the low gravity being due to the presence of
dissolved methylic ether. Meth. 0-725 is the purest ether
derived from methylated spirit. It is said to be used for
photographic purposes. Pure 0-735. — This is obtained
from pure spirit, and is employed medicinally. Absolute
0 ■ 720. — This is the pure ether of the British Pharmacopoeia,
and is directed to be made by washing ether twice with
distilled water, drying with freshly-burned lime and calcium
chloride, and distilling therefrom after 24 hours. The
author states that he believes it is impossible to obtain
an ether of 0-720 by this means, and one firm of manu-
facturers for many years would not guarantee their absolute
ether to have a gravity of 0*720. He also mentions, and
his experiments have been confirmed, that of several
samples examined, this ether was the least pure. lit
proposes that the following tests lor jEther AnivstTieticum
should be insisted on: — 1. Two fluid drachms [allowed to
evaporate spontaneously should not give rise to any foreign
odour towards the end or after completion of the evapora-
tion. 2. Xo effect should be produced upon solid sodic
hydrate, solution of potassium iodide, or moistened red or
blue litmus paper after 24 hours' contact. 3. Specific
gravity should not exceed 0-722. In conclusion, he refers
to the fact that ether made from methylated spirit contains
a considerable quantity of gaseous methylic ether in
solution, which lowers the specific gravity and boiling
point. A methylated ether, therefore, of sp. gr. I -720
must necessarily contain a larger proportion of alcohol,
water, or other heavy impurity than one made from pure
spirit, a fact which should be borne in mind. — T. A. L.
Chloroform rictet. H. Helbing and V. \V. l'assmore.
Helbing's Pharm. Bee. March 1892.
The paper describes the examination of a large number of
specimens of chloroform which had been purified by Rnoul
Pietet's process of recrystallisation, as suggested by
Professor O. Liebreich forthe removal of impurities affecting
its physiological value. The chemical examination of
chloroform so purified agrees with the results of the
physiological experiments of Rene du Bois Reymoud in
ascribing to it a high degree of purity. The authors point
out the great variance in the specific gravity and boiling
points of chloroform recorded by various observers a.
given in Carnelly's tables. They found an average specific
gravity of 15002 at 15c C. in six specimens of chloroform
Pictet, individual specimens ranging from 1-5000 to
l-5004. The boiling point observed under 750 mm.
pressure was 61*0° to 61* 1° C, which most nearly
approaches to Main's figure, 61 • 1'— 61 -2" C. at 760 mm.
The specimens were fractionally distilled and the specific
gravity of each fraction determined, in no case any variation
being found beyond the limits of experimented error and
the temperature never rising above 61 -1° C. In only one
cSse did the residue amount to 0-00005 per cent, or one
part in 2,000,000, and even then no bad odour was apparent.
The usual tests with potassium bichromate, silver nitrate,
and zinc iodide and starch gave negative results. Specimens
were also examined to which a small percentage of absolute
alcohol had been added, subsequent to the purification
process, in order to increase their stability, but a few
experiments that the authors made as to the decomposing
influence of sunlight on chloroform in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid renders the value of this
addition to pure chloroform questionable. 20 cc. chloroform
and 15 cc. pure concentrated sulphuric acid were exposed
in nearly full bottles to sunlight. On the fourth day those
specimens containing alcohol assumed a milky appearance
which was not observed in the pure chloroform specimens
until the sixth day. On the other hand the latter first gave
evidence of livdrochloric acid with the zinc iodide test.
—Y. W. P.
091 .:;i.is92.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
837
A Contribution to our Knowledge of Eucalyptus Oil.
H. Helbing and F. W. Passmore. Helbing's Pharm.
Rec. June 1892.
Tiik authors liave made an examination of a number of
commercial eucalyptus oils from various sources, which
they show vary considerably in the amount of the active
constituent, eucalyptol, present, and also in other characters
which affect their value as medicinal agents. After
determining the physical constants, the oils were submitted
to careful fraction distillation and the fractions passing
over between 170° and 180° C. placed in a freezing mixture
of ice and salt to separate the eucalyptol, from which the
eleaoptene was removed whilst still in the freezing mixture.
Pure euealpytol, C10HlsO, crystallises at —1° C, boils at
1/.6 C, is optically inactive, possesses the specific gravity
.0*923 at 15' C, and is identical with cineole from worm-
wood oil. The results of the examination maybe tabulated
as follows : — ■
Carbon Tetrachloride.
Rotation : Specific
in200iiint. gravity
tube. at 15° C,
1. 01; Eucalypti iCuminiitir'si, I.
2. .. „ ,. II.
3. 01. Eucalypti (Cummiitg'sl.
redistilled.
1. 01. Eucalypti, (Australian)...
5. ,. „ Rlol). (Oalifornian)
6. ,. „ „ (Spanish)..
7. „ ,. „ (French)...
-11-65° O-H-'iiJ
- (1-55° li'jss-
- rs° o-iH77
• i:8t 0-9104
+ 11-7° I n-%22
+ 1-2° , 0-9281
-4S"2° 0-8865
The Californiau and Spanish oils contained in their first
fractions traces of bodies of aldehydic nature, giving
a crystalline compound with sodium bisulphite, which
irritated the throat very much ou inhalation, whilst the
Spanish oil contained also a solid body that separated from
the higher fractions in crystals melting about 250° C. The
authors do not think great stress should be laid upon the
exact botanical source of au euealpytus oil, as several
varieties of eucalyptus contain as large or even a larger
amount of eucalyptol than K. globulus, and recommend
that in future editions of the British Pharmacopoeia, a
definite percentage of crystallisable eucalyptol shall be
demanded. As eucalyptol is very ditticult to purify from
the last traces of terpenes it is further suggested that
"crystallisable eucalyptol" should boil about 176° C, and
null above — 5° C, have a specific gravity between 0-922
ami ii- '.i:34 at 15° C. and not rotate polarised light in 100 mm.
tube more thuu half a degree in either direction. A good
oil should contain at least 40 per cent, of this constituent,
and the greater portion (about 80 per cent.) distil between
17(1° and 190'° C, and of course should be free from such
volatile aldehydic compounds as irritate the mucous
membranes on inhalation. The other constituents met with
were dextro-pinene and la;vo-linionene, together with
hevo-rotatory sesquiterpene, and according to the respective
quantities of these the oil acquired its activity towards
polarised light.— F. W. P.
Asaprol. Banjj
Pharm. Zeit. 37, 324 ; Chen). Zeit. 16,
217.
As,Ai'EOI. is the name for the calcium salt of /3-naphthol
sulphouic acid recently given to it by Strachler and Dulief
on account of its antiseptic properties, but these are so
slight as not to make this compound an important com-
petitor with other antiseptics. It has an antithermic action
on the human organism that has been proved beneficial in
typhus and acute rheumatism. — F. W. P.
H. Eckenroth.
339.
Pharm. Zeit. 37
Tetrachloride of carbon, which was discovered by
Begnault and Dumas, has lately come largely into use as an
extractive, solvent and crystallising medium for organic
substances. It is prepared technically in large quantities
by a modification of A. W. v. Hofmann's process of passing
dry chlorine gas into boiling carbon bisulphide, preferably
in the presence of antimony chloride. The product boiling
below 100° C. is boiled with caustic potash solution, and
fractionated. The commercial product is a heavy colourless
liquid, boiling between 75° and 80° C, and on account of
its non-inflammable properties is preferred in many factories
to the more dangerous ether, ligroin (petroleum spirit), and
carbon bisulphide, especially as its stability towards acids
and halogens allows it to be used as a diluent in chlorina-
tion, &c. Chloride of sulphur, which is obtained as a
by-product in the manufacture of carbon tetrachloride, finds
abundant demand as a vulcanising agent in the india-rubber
factory.— F. W. P.
Analysis of Neic Cinchona Barks. D. Howard. Pharm.
Journ. 51, 875, 876, 898.
These barks were specimens of rich barks from New
Granada, presented to the Pharmaceutical Society's Museum
by R. Thomson, of Bogota, who is engaged in cinchona
cultivation in that neighbourhood, and could not identify
them with any known species or variety of cinchona. Four
specimens were obtained from plants found wild in New
Granada, and their analyses showed that C. Thomsoniaua,
C. Negra, and C. Tuna are very rich in quinine, yielding
respectively 5-94, 7-30, and 9-04 per cent, of quinine
sulphate, whilst other alkaloids were only present in
comparatively small quantities. Five other cultivated
varieties were also analysed, but were not on the whole so
rich in quinine, though of good alkaloidal contents.
— F. W. P.
The Influence of the Carboxyl Group on the To.ric Action
of Aromatic Compounds. W. Neucks and H. Bautmy.
Arch. Scienc. Biolog. St. Petersburg, 1892, 61.
The investigations of the authors, which include both new
and old data, tend to show that the introduction of a
carboxyl group into the molecule of most aromatic
compounds effects a considerable decrease of their toxic
action. This they attribute to be due to the fact that the
carboxyl group is one that caunot be reduced in the
animal organism readily, whilst poisoning is usually con-
nected with reduction. As examples, the authors cite
benzene, naphthalene, pyridine, and quinoline, which are
acknowledged moderately strong poisons, whilst the corre-
sponding carboxyl acids have been proved to be weak
poisons. The toxic action of the phenols is also decreased
by the introduction of a carboxylic group into the molecule.
Amongst the more complex compounds the same relations
have been traced between acetauilide, CijH5.NH.CO.CH3
and malonanilic acid, C6H5.NH.CO.CH.,.COOH, between
phenacetin, C6H4(OC„H3).NH.CO.CH3, and phenacetin
carboxylic acid, C6H4(OC„H5).NH.CO.CH2.COOH, the
therapeutic activity of the bases having entirely disappeared
in the acids.— F. W. P.
Lead in Tartaric Acid. C. Buchet. Journ. Pharm.
Chim. 25, 540.
The author has found combined and even free lead in all
the French and foreign tartaric acids vet examined by him.
— F. \V. P.
838
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1862.
£i ad in Tartaric Acid. Guillot. Journ. Pharu). Chim.
25, 541.
A furthbb examination of tartaric acid for pharmaceutical
use has shown lead to be present. The sample examined
contained O0S28 grm. combined and 0-0626 grm. of
metallic lead per kilog. — F. W. I'.
Detection anil Estimation of Lead in Commercial Tartaric
and Citric Acids. M. Boucket, Repert. I'harro. 48,
246.
See under XXIII., page 848.
The Oils of Lavender and Be.iyp.mot. J. Bertram and
11. Walbaum. J. prakt. Chem. 45, (12), 590—603.
The ethereal oil of the lavender blossom 'Lavandula vera
JJ.C.) is largely used in perfumery, the manufacture of
lakes, and in the painting of porcelain. There are two
varieties of the oil ; the English oil or Mitcham oil of
lavender which commands a high price, aod the French
article manufactured in the South of France to the extent of
about thirty to forty thousand kilos, per annum. There are
several varieties of the French article commanding prices
varying from 3\ francs up to 16 francs per kilog. according
to quality, and this quality vary considerably according to
adulteration with other and cheaper ethereal oils such as
oil of turpentine, and the oil of Lavandula Spica Ctiai.e
" Spike oil." Under such circumstances the determination
of the quality and purity of oil of lavender is for the con-
sumer of great importance. The tests hitherto adopted and
based upon the smell, the specific gravity, solubility in
dilute alcohol, optical properties and boiling point are
approximate but still insufficient, and a research was
undertaken with the object of ascertaining precisely the
chemical constituents present in the oils.
The results obtained are briefly summarised as follows : —
The chief constituent of the French oil of lavender is an
alcohol Cu,HlsO with its esters, principally the acetic ester.
The alcohol of lavender, C]0HlsO, absorbs 4 atoms of bromine
to form an addition product. With hydrochloric acid it
forms a liquid chloride CJ0HJ8C12. On oxidation with
chromic acid mixture it is converted into citral, C10Hi6O
(Geranial). Dehydrating agents split off hydrocarbon
residues C10H16 from the alcohol, amongst which terpenes
and dipentene can be recognised with certainty.
From these reactions and from the physical properties of
the alcohol, it follows that it is identical with the Linalool
of the oil of Linaloe.
The acetic ester of Linalool is found in oil of bergamot,
and is the cause of its odour. — W. S.
.1 Diriet Method for Preparing Antipyrine. J. prakt.
Chem. 45, (i2), 589.
A. Miihakl, in. an article on the Constitution of Sodium
Acetic Ether states that he has succeeded in preparing
antipyrine direct, by heating hydriodide of phenylhydrazine
methyl alcohol and aceto-acetic ether together. He has
also obtained it by the action of salts of the symmetrical
methylphenyl-hydraziue. on aceto-acetic ether. — W. S.
The Colour lleuetions of Furfural and a Modification of
Wepperi-s Verdtrine Reaction. F.Lewes. Ph'arm. Zeit.
37, 338.
See under XXIII., page 848.
PATENTS.
Improvements in or Connected with Apparatus or Means
for Obtaining O.rygen and Nitrogen from the Air.
H. Brier, Crosshill, Renfrewshire. Eng. Pat. 15,975,
September 21, 1891.
The separation of oxygen and nitrogen from atmospheric
air is rendered more efficient by the application of an
arrangement of valves and cocks, which are so adjusted to
the service pipes of the producing plant that during the
time of transition of a furnace from the charging to the
exhausting state, the excess of gases under pressure in
the furnace will be delivered into a second furnace. The
arrangement is applicable when the furnaces are served by
two or more pumps, so that part of the installation may be
under pressure and part under exhaustion simultaneously,
whilst a mechanical device is added for controlling the
cocks and valves. A considerable quantity of the gases
and air otherwise blown to waste are saved, less nitrogen
left in the furnace, and consequently a less diluted nitrogen
obtained. If it is required to obtain as pure gases as
possible au auxiliary exhauster and reservoir may be added
to the apparatus to deal with the excess gases. — F. W. P.
Manufacture of Tropine. Meister, Lucius, and Bruniug,
Hochst-on-the Maine. Eng. Pat. 16,371, September 26,
1891.
The position of tropiue as the base of several natural
alkaloids, as shown by the researches of Liebermami and
others, and the possibility of producing tropiues by
synthesis identical with or analogous to the natural alkaloids
by introducing organic acid radicles iuto the tropine
molecule, make the technical synthesis of tropine an
important problem. The present patent deals with the
manufacture of tropine from one of its decomposition pro-
ducts, dihydrobenzyldimethylamine, which can be prepared
in several ways, and is isomeric with methyl-tropidine.
This tertiary amine C6H-.CH_,.N.(CHJ);, is a thin liquid
oil that can be distilled and mixes with an equal weight of
water. Hydrochloric acid is allowed to flow into such a
mixture cooled in ice until saturated, and then allowed to
stand 24 hours. A molecule of hydrochloric acid is
absorbed to yield hydroehlordihydrobenzjldiinethylaminc,
(.■„H.,('l.CH,:.N.(CH:t)2, which is separated by dilution
with ice-water and precipitation with soda-lye, when it
forms a thin colourless oil. On heating this on a water-
bath an isomeric change occurs and a tenacious syrup is
formed, which is the ehlormethylate of tropidiue —
CsHr(CH : CH2)C1N(CH3)8
the hydrogenated benzene nucleus being broken and a new
pyridine ring formed. When the temperature is still
further raised this methylate gradually splits up into methyl
chloride CHjCl, which evaporates, and tropidine —
CaH-(CH:CII,,)X(Cir,)
On boiling the tropidine for several hours in a vessel with
reversed cooler along with dilute soda-lye, a molecule of
water is absorbed by the unsaturated side chain and tropine,
CsIIr(CH.,.CH.,OH)X(CH3) built up. The latter is taken
up from the alkaline solution with chloroform. — F. \V. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of ( V ranular E fierce set tile
Mixtures. T. Kerfoot, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 12,998,
July 15, 1892.
Is granulating for the manufacture of such effervesciblc
mixtures as that commonly called citrate of magnesia, a
mixture of tartaric or citric acid and bicarbonate of soda,
by damping it, liberation of some of the carbon dioxide
takes place, thus reducing the amount of effervescence when
the mixture is finally used. To avoid this the inventor
proposes to granulate the acid and carbonate separately,
and to mix them afterwards in suitable proportions.
— C. 6. w.
Oct. si, 1893.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBT.
839
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS AND
PROCESSES.
Substances of the Aromatic Serifs capable of Developing
the latent Photographic Image. A. and L. Lumiere.
Monit. Scient. 1892, 30.
I'm authors have arrived at the following conclusions : —
1. A substance of the aromatic series in order to be a
developer must contain at least two hydroxyl-, or two
amido-groups, or one hydroxyl- and one amido-group in
the benzene nucleus.
2. The preceding condition is necessary, but only holds
good in the case of para-compounds. For example, orcinol
dues not act as a developer, but its isomeride toluquinonc,
does.
3. The developing property still remains when there is a
number of Oil and N1I; groups in the molecule, as in the
ease of diamido-phenol, &c.
1. When two or more benzene nuclei, or a benzene and
another nucleus are joined together, the above remarks
only apply in case the OH and XIL groups exist in the
same nucleus.
."). Substitution in the OH or SH2 groups destroy
■ lolloping properties, except when two or more of these
groups remain intact.
(i. Other substitutions do not seem to affect this property.
Sulphonation does not destroy the developing property, if
in the presence of an energetic base.
7. These remarks only apply to substances of the aromatic
series.
8. Phenylhydrazine is an exception.
In a recent communication to the French Photographic
Society the authors have compared paramidopuenol, hydro-
quinone, and eikonogen. Out of contact with air, the
aqueous solution of paramidophenol oxidises first, then
eikonogen, and lastly hydroquinone.
The product of oxidation of paramidophenol, probably
imidoquinone, is insoluble in water, but soluble in ammonia
and alkalis with violet coloration, and in nitric acid with
red coloration. The solution of eikonogen is coloured
dark brown, changing to green with ammonia and to red
with nitric acid. The oxidised solution of hydroquinone is
reddish, turning yellow with ammonia and decolorised by
nitric acid.
The products of oxidation of eikonogen and hydroquinone
give gelatin a yellow tinge, whilst in the case of parami-
dophenol it is uucoloured. By means of Keeb's method
the quantities of these substances required to reduce 1 grm.
of silver nitrate were determined as follows : —
Grm.
Hydroquinone iri>7
Paramidophenol 0'14
Eikonogen "':ju
The advantages of paramidophenol are as follows : —
It oxidises more rapidly and is therefore a more energetic
developer.
Its oxidation products are not detrimental to the image
or to the gelatin.
The authors give the following as the best developing
formula —
Water BOO
mate of potassium -10
Sulphite of sodium. loo
Paramidophenol 8
—J. C. C.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Producing Light.
.!.(.. Hudson. Loudon. Eng. Pat. 222G, February 6, 18*91.
See under II., page 806.
.1 Simplified Form of Magnesium Lump. P. Ellis,
Wellington. Eng. Pat. 17,586, October 15, 1891.
See under II., page 807.
XXII.-EXPLOSIYES, MATCHES, Etc.
Denitration of Pyroxylin . D. Woodman. J. Amer.
Chem. Soc.14, 1892, 112—114.
The author records experiments on the reduction of celluloid
to cellulose by means of ammonium suiphydrate and other
reducing agents.
Cellulose so prepared is said to be a suitable material for
the production of incandescent electric lamp filaments.
— T. Ii. B.
Xew Dynamite-Conreijing Plant at the Works of the
American Forcitc Company. Eng. and Mining J. July 23,
1892, 76.
A no it a year ago a serious explosion took place at the
works of the. American Forcite Company, iit Hopatcong,
N.J. It was then the custom to convey the nitroglycerin
from the tank house to the five mixing houses on the side
of the hill by means of slightly inclined pipes. A destruc-
tive explosion occurred in one of the mixing houses, and it
war communicated by the nitroglycerin through the pipes
to the tank house and to the other mixing houses. In
rebuilding the plant it was obvious that a new type of
conveying apparatus would have to be adopted, in order
that any subsequent explosion should be confined to the
particular locality in which it occurred. This was done by
the construction of an aerial rope tramway, which starts
from close to the tank-house and runs past the five mixing-
houses. The line consists of a double rope on which a
four-wheeled carriage travels, the framework of which is
provided with pivoted hooks which carry buckets containing
the nitroglycerin. The carriage is stopped at each station,
and the required number of buckets is unhooked. These
are returned empty on the return journey. The line was
designed for the Company by the Union Wire Hope
Tramway Co. — W. S.
The Analysis of Nitro-E-rplosices. P. G. Sanford.
Chem. Trade J. 11, 1892, 161—162.
See under XXIII., page 843.
Progress of the Match Industry. W. Jettel. Chem. Zeit.
16, 1892, 670.
Ix the first part of this article is 'demonstrated by various
examples the uselessness, so far, of the attempts to entirely
replace phosphorus by other substances or mixtures not
containing it for the heads of matches or rubbing-surfaces of
the match-boxes.
In order to reduce to the utmost the use of white phos-
phorus in the match manufacture, Switzerland is rapidly
approaching a solution of the problem involved in the
removal of the dangers of disease to the operatives in the
match factories, by means of Government monopoly, so that
the necessary restrictions may be thoroughly under control.
Scarcely any other branch of chemical industry appears to
be so exposed to monopoly as that of the lucifer match
manufacture. In France, Greece, Servia, and Koumania the
match monopoly is taken up by the State on financial
grounds. On the same grounds, since 1891, in Italy, and
since the beginning of the present year in Portugal, has this
same monopoly been arranged, whilst, as already stated, it
is to be adopted in Switzerland purely on hygienic grounds.
In the reports of the Swiss inspectors of factories there is
complete unanimity as to the spread of phosphorus-necrosis
of the jaw among the operatives of the match factories, and
in 1891 the Bundesrath adopted the evidence as a principle.
The gist of this united opinion embodied by the Swiss match
factory inspectors in their report, was briefly this : — That even
the newest improvements in the construction and working of
the match factories do not suffice to keep down the inroads
840
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1898,
of phosphorus-poisoning, and that the only possibility of
abolishing phosphorus-necrosis lay in the complete abolition
of the use of white phosphorus.
Since, moreover, experience acquired subsequently to the
prohibition of white phosphorus in Swiss factories had
taught the lesson that white phosphorus was still much
employed secretly in the manufacturing operations, and in
consequence the number of sufferers from necrosis still
increased, notwithstanding the prohibition, it was deemed
essential to prohibit this branch of manufacture as a private
industry, and the introduction of the State monopoly was
proposed, on the condition that only safety-matches, with
absolute exclusion of the use of white phosphorus therein,
shall be prepared under the control of the Bundesrath itself.
This proposal is just now receiving confirmation and final
and decisive reply. (September to October 11*92.)
As regards Germany, it is not alleged that the conditions
of the manufacture of lucifer matches could not be still
more efficiently guarded in German factories, so as to
renderit possible to obey completely the necessary hygienic
precautions laid down for the prevention of phosphorus-
necrosis, or its limitation to a minimum. However, so far
as statistical figures are concerned, the following are given
in the Govemmeut reports (" Jahresberichte der mit der
Beaufsichtigung der Fabriken betrauteh Beamten ") for
the whole of Germany: In 1886, no cases ; in 1887, eight
casts: in 1SS8, three cases of necrosis. The figures, as
reported, makiug it thus appear that for the whole of
Germany an average of four cases per annum of necrosis
result from the manufacture of matches. Assuming these
figures to he correct, the author suggests that Switzerland
might learn from Germany some of the hygienic precautions
aud improvements, as also strict factory surveillance, adopted
in the Fatherland '.— XV. S.
Poisonous Gases from Dynamite. P. F. Charon. Eng.
and Mining J. 1892, 269.
The author states that in practice a complete explosion of
nitroglycerin is never obtained, and that the gas produced
always contains the vapour of nitroglycerin, which renders
those breathing it liable to headache, nausea, and even
vomiting. Carbonic oxide and nitrous oxide are also
formed. The author advises in the treatment of the miners
poisoned in this manner, that they be given strong black
coffee, or better, that they should cautiously inhale ammonia,
sulphurous acid, or concentrated acetic acid. He also
suggests that the ventilation be made more perfect and that
the noxious gases be reduced in quantity by the use of an
increased quantity of detonator. — J. ('.('.
XML-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
On an Appliance for Autographically Recording the
Temperature of Furnaces. W. C. Roberts-Austen.
Iron and Steel Inst. Autumn Meeting, 18'.i2.
Tin author has for some years advocated the use of
thermo-junctions, which now appear likely to come into
general use, Sir I.owthiau Bell having led the way, but
hitherto a systematic method of obtaining autographic
records has been wanting, and the present device is the
result of attempts to simplify a piece of apparatus, already
described before the Institute, so as to render it serviceable
for use in works. The original form consisted of a camera
containing a reflecting galvanometer of the Depretz and
D'Arsonval type, and of about 200 ohms resistance. The
thermo-junction, placed where the temperature is to he
measured, is connected with this galvanometer, the amplitude
of whose deflection indicates the temperature to which the
thermo-junction is exposed. An autographic record can
then be obtained by allowing the spot of light from the
mirror of the galvanometer to fall upon sensitised photo-
graphic plate moved by clockwork or other suitable means.
For practical use it was necessary (1) to simplify the
portion of the apparatus recording the movement of the
spot of light, aud (2) to avoid the necessity for shifting a
single thermo-junction from furnace to furnace by having
a separate one in each furnace, provision being made for
placing each centre of heat' in turn in connection with a
single galvanometer and recording instrument.
The first object was attained by substituting for the
sensitised plate, a cylinder to move by internal clockwork at
the rate of one revolotioniu twelve hours. The cylinder was
covered with f sensitised paper, whilst the portion of the
camera containing it can be detached from the rest of the
apparatus aud removed to the dark room for the development
of the record. To attain the second object the apparatus
shown to the members was arranged for placing any one of
six different centres of heat, e.g., hot blast stoves or furnaces,
in connection with the galvanometer, the records being
intermittent. The duration of the test in each case is
according to the will of the operator, who by merely
turning a handle determines which centre shall be placed in
connection with the galvanometer and the duration of the
test. The shifting can also be performed by clockwork,
and is then entirely automatic. The method of indicating
which furnace is placed in connection with the galvanometer
is as follows : — For No. 1 furnace the light from the lamp
passes through a single slit and gives a single datum line,
while for No. 4 the light passes through four fine parallel
slits, and produces four fine parallel lines, of which the
lowest is the true datum line, and the deviation of the line
traced by the light from the galvanometer mirror from the
datum line when in use measures the temperature at
the thermo-junction at that instant.
During the discussion it was stated that the platinum-
rhodium junction was extremely durable and constant,
varying only very little after several weeks' continuous use.
Sir Lowthian Bell said that though they did wear out in
time, yet with 11 furnaces in work the)' had not lost more
than three or four, but the expense was so small as to make
this of no moment. Professor Roberts-Austen said that
the junctions might be covered by clay or not, but unless
exposed to a shower of fine metallic rain he believed them
best free, and the best resistance of galvanometer was
200 ohms.— A. XV.
Report by A. Carnot and II. Le Chatilier an a Study of
the Calorific Power of Combustibles used far Industrial
Purposes, undertaken by P. Mahler. Bull, de la Soc.
d'Encouragement pour l'lndustric Nat. 91 (1892),
317—374.
The report, which occupies 57 pages of the Journal,
consists of a description of researches undertaken by
M. Mahler under the auspices of the Society for the
Encouragement of National Industry. The object of the
Society was to obtain accurate values for the combustible
power of various kinds of coal, and for this purpose it
voted the sum of 3,000 francs. M. Mahler, however, was
not content with limiting bis researches to coal, but
exteuded them to several other combustible bodies, solid,
liquid, and gaseous. He used for the purpose a modification
of the calorimetric shell of M. Berthelot. The modifications
have the approval of M. Berthelot, which is the surest
guarantee that they in no way detract from the scientific
value of the method, while, on the other hand, the approval
of engineers and savants interested in the industrial appli-
cations testifies to the simplicity and manageableness of
the apparatus. M. Mahler's calorimetric shell is rapidly
being introduced into both scientific aud industrial labora-
tories. In thus placing in the lianas of manufacturers a
method by which they can themselves ascertain with
precision the calorific power of the combustibles they use,
M. Mahler has rendered to national industry a service
greater even than could result from the actual determinations
he has made.
The principle of M. Berthelot's method is this : — The
combustible body is enclosed iu a shell lined with platinum,
which is charged with oxygen under pressure and suspended
i), t. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
841
in a water-calorimeter. If the combustible is then fired by
aiiy suitable artifice, combustion is complete and practically
instantaneous. The beat of combustion is transferred irith-
mit (ini/ loss, to the water of the calorimeter. It is necessary
that the oxygen should be under pressure that combustion
may be complete. In M. Mahler's modification of the
apparatus ( pig. 1 ) the shell is made of forged steel, and
highly polished. The metal, which is very pure, is chosen
with great care in order to ensure strength, and to facilitate
the necessary enamelling. The shell has a capacity of
65 I cc, and with its accessories weighs 4 kilos. Its walls
are 8 mm. thick. The capacity of this shell is much
greater than that of M. Berthelot in order to ensure perfect
combustion, even when the purity of the gas leaves a little
to be desired. Moreover, since many gaseous combustibles
used for industrial purposes contaiu inert matters such as
nitrogen aud carbonic acid, it is necessary to take a large
quantity of them if it is wished to obtain a measurable
Fig- 1.
rise of temperature. By thus increasing the capacity of
the shell M. Mahler has united in a single instrument
M. Berthelot's high-pressure shell and the older shell used
by the same savant in his study of gaseous hydrocarbons.
The shell is nickel-plated on the outside. Inside it is
coated with a white enamel to preserve it from corrosion
or oxidation. This coat of enamel replaces the lining of
platinum, costing several thousands of francs, used by
M. Berthelot. The enamel being very thin does not
interfere with the transmission of the heat. The cover of
the shell (Fig. 2), is of iron aud carries on its inner
Fig. 2.
surface a ring of lead, 1', which fits into a corresponding
circular groove cut in the rim of the shell. The gas is
admitted to the shell by a conical stop-cock Ji, made of
nickel-iron, an almost unoxidisable metal. Through the
cap passes a well-insulated electrode, prolonged on the
inside by a rod of platiuum. The cap also carries another
similar rod of platinum, to which is attached the plate or
capsule upon which the combustible is placed. Attached
to the two platinum rods is a small spiral of fine iron wire,
and ignition of the combustible is caused by sending an
electric currrent through this at the desired moment.
The calorimeter, the outer vessel (A, Fig. 1), the arrange-
ment for supporting the shell, and the agitator all differ in
various details from the analogous parts in M. Berthelot's
apparatus, the object being to diminish the cost as much
as possible. The calorimeter is of thin brass, and owing
to the size of the shell is of considerable capacity.
M. Mahler uses 2 '2 kilos, of water, thus eliminating all
error due to evaporation, and to drops of water clinging
to the calorimeter. This makes the correction for loss of
heat during the experiment almost negligible. From a
scientific point of view the apparatus is thus very satis-
factory, and is well adapted for industrial use. The
agitator, of spiral form, is worked by a simple arrangement
which allows the experimenter to move it regularly without
fatigue. The only other parts of the apparatus that need
be referred to are the thermometer, which should indicate
one-hundredth of a degree, and the electric generator,
either magneto -electric machine or battery, which should
be capable of giving a current of 2 amperes under a pressure
of 10 volts.
For the supply of oxygen, M. Mahler uses one of the
cylinders of a manufacturing oxygen company. This
company supplies gas free from carbonic acid but containing
generally from 5 to 10 per cent, of nitrogen. The mode
described of filling the shell is easy of manipulation and
prevents the introduction of fatty matters such as might
occur from the use of an ordinary laboratory pump.
Method oj Determination. — A gramme of the substance
to be experimented upon is weighed out in the capsule C
(F'ig. 1), which is then placed in position, and to its support
is attached the fine iron spiral of known weight. This
spiral should be about No. 26 to No. 30 British gauge. The
lid of the shell is then firmly screwed down, and oxygen
admitted slowly by the stop-cock K until the manometer M
shows a pressure of from 20 to 25 atmospheres. The stop-
cock is then securely closed, the shell placed in position in
the calorimeter, and the thermometer and agitator properly
adjusted. The water, already measured out, is then poured
in and the whole is well stirred to obtain an uniform tem-
perature. The temperature is then observed from minute to
minute for four or five minutes in order to ascertain the law
of cooling suitable to the apparatus. At the desired
moment the combustible is ignited by connecting one pole
of the generator to the electrode passing through the cap of
the shell andthe other pole to auy part of the shell itself.
Combustion is practically instantaneous, but it takes some
time for the heat to pass through the shell. The tempera-
ture is observed from minute to minute until the thermometer
begins to fall regularly, and for about five minutes longer
in order to ascertain the law of cooling after the temperature
has attained the maximum, the water being well stirred
during the whole observation. On the conclusion of the
experiment the stop-cock is first opened, and then the shell
itself (which is washed out with distilled water in order to
collect the acid liquid formed during combustion). The
proportion of the acid carried out with the gas is negligible.
The quantity of the acid may be estimated volumetrically
by titration with potash. If the combustible contains little
hydrogen, and so is unable to furnish, by combustion,
sufficient water for the formation of nitric acid, it is well to
place a little water at the bottom of the shell. Having
made these observations, the calorific power Q can he
easily calculated. If A is the observed rise of temperature,
a the correction for cooling, P the weight of water taken,
P1 the water equivalent of the shell and its accessories, ^i the
weight of nitric acid, p1 the weight of the iron spiral, 0'2:f
cal. the heat of formation of nitric acid, and 1 ■ 6 cal. the
heat of combustion of 1 grin, of iron, then —
Q = (A -r o)(P + P1) - (0'23p + 1-6/j1)
The details given above are applicable when the com-
bustible is a solid, tar, or one of the fixed oils. If the
combustible, however, is a volatile liquid, it must be weighed
in a bulb of glass (C, F'ig. 1), through the tapering orifices
of which passes the iron spiral. Immediately before
842
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31,189;.
closing the shell the ends of these orifices are broken off in
order to allow a more ready access of the oxygen to the
combustible. Solid bodies must be reduced to powder
before weighing, and care must be taken when the oxygen
is admitted to the shell that none of the powder is blown
out of the capsule.
Determination of the Calorific Power of a Gas. — In
using the shell to determine the calorific power of a gas at
constant volume, its capacity is first exactly ganged,
It is then filled with the gas, exhausted, [and lastly filled
with the gas at atmospheric pressure and at the temperature
of the laboratory. The shell may then be considered
filled with pure gas. The rest of the operation is the
same as for liquids and solids, with this exception, that
the quantity of oxygen must not be more than sufficient
to make an explosive mixture. With ordinary lighting-
gas, five atmospheres of of oxygen are sufficient ; with the
gas of Siemens generators half an atmosphere should not
be exceeded. This must be measured by a mercury
nu.noro.eter, as metallic manometers invariably give false
indications for feeble pressures.
A very important part is played in these investigations by
the number representing the water equivalent of the shell
and its accessories. This may be calculated directly from
the weights and known specific heats of the various parts,
a method which would give 485 "6 for M. Mahler's appa-
ratus. It may also be obtained experimentally. M.Mahler
placed in the calorimeter 2,000 grms. of water at the
temperature of the laboratory, and then added about
200 grms. of water at 0° C. From the fall of temperature
observed the water-equivalent is at once obtained. The
mean of two experiments gave 477 grms. M. Mahler finally
adopted the mean of the numbers furnished by the two
methods, viz , 4S1 grms. He checked this value by deter-
mining the heat of combustion of naphtbaliue. A large
number of experiments assign to this body 9,692 eal. per
1 kilog. The details of three experiments with this substance
are given below.
1st 211.1 3rd
Experiment. Experiment. Experiment^,
1 srrm.
1 crm.
] grim
2,200 „
2,200 „
2,200 „
Water -equivalent of
calorimeter, shell, .Vc.
Corrected difference of
temperature.
Nitric acid formed
*S1 „
3 -1540"
O'll grin.
1*1 ..
3*637°
0*11 grin.
1-1 ..
0*11 grm,
"Weight of iron spiral . .
0-030 „
0-023 ..
0 02.-, .,
Heat of combustion'. . .
9-6855 cal.
9-6855 cal.
9*6835 est;
The mean of these three experiments gives 9,688 calories
per kilogramme, a value differing by less than 1 in 2,000
from the usually accepted value. M. Mahler therefore
considers that the water-equivalent can be thus exactly
determined.
The agreement of the three results is very remarkable,
and M. Mahler has repeated a large number of experiments,
and has found that, without exception, the result of the
second experiment agrees very perfectly with that of the
first, a fact which testifies to the value of the method.
Example of Method of 'Calculation. — 1 grm. of colza oil
is taken. The calorimeter contains 2,200 grms. of water,
and the water-equivalent of the apparatus is 481 grms. The
pressure of the oxygen is 25 atmospheres. The apparatus
being set up in the manner described, the temperature is
allowed to become uniform and then noted from minute to
minute.
Preliminary Period.
Min.
ii 10-23
1 1H-23
2 in "21
3 10-24,
t 10*25
5 10'25
The law of variation of temperature in the calorimeter
before the combustion is therefore expressed by —
lu-M -1023 =o.(M)43
a
The electric circuit is then closed.
Period of Combustion,
Mih.
.-■ lo'Sij
6 1290
7 13-79
8 13*84 mar.
Subsequent Period.
9 13S2
10 1S"81
11 18*80
12 l"-79
13 1.1-78
The law of variation after the maximum is therefore —
13-8- --,,•;. -
1 a
The apparent variation of temperature has been —
13-84= - 10-25° -= 3-59°
During the minutes (7, 8) (6, 7) the system lost an
amount of heat 2a, or 0*024°.
During the half-minute (5|, C) the system lost a quantity
of heat represented by —
£ (oj - 0*005) = 0*0035°.
But during the half-minute (5, 5i) it gained —
U„ = '7^0-nu2.
Hence, in the whole minute (5, C) the quantity of heat
lost is —
0*0035 - 0002 = 0-0015.
Therefore the total heat lost before the temperature
reached its maximum =0-024 + 0-0015orO*0255°. This
added to the 3*59° already found gives the corrected
temperature-variation or 3-615°. The heat of combustion
is therefore equal to 9-692 cal.
If a more exact result is wanted it is necessary to take
account of the nitric acid formed and of the iron spiral.
The heat of formation of 0*13 m-m. of Cals.
nitric acid is 0'13 X 0*23 = 0 0299
The heat of combustion of 0'U25 tn-m. of
iron is 0*02S x 1*45 = O'otoo
Total 0-0699
The final result is, therefore, 9*6918 - 0-0699 = 9*6219
cal. per grm. of oil, or 9621 * 9 cal. per kilog.
M. Mahler has carried out a number of experiments
before railway engineers, miners, and metallurgists, and
the opinion of these competent men is that the apparatus
is of great service for industrial purposes owing to the
accuracy of the determinations, the agreement between the
experimental results, and the ease with which it can be
used. The personal skill of the operator plays but an
unimportant part in the use of this apparatus, whereas it
seriously affects the results obtained in the most simple
analyses. — D. E. J.
PATENT.
An Apparatus to Produce Sulphuretted Hydrogen and
other Gases. M. ltoyon, Ostend, Belgium. Eng.
Pat. 5801, April 4, 1891.
The apparatus consists of two cylinders made of "enamelled
china "or other suitable material, one within the other. The
top of the outer one is opeu and the inner one is provided
with a neck to which is applied an india-rubber stopper,
through which passes a glass delivery tube fitted with a
pinch tap. A short distance from the bottom of the inner
cylinder is a perforated disc upon which the sulphide of
iron is placed. Four holes in the side of the inner cylinder
Oct. 31,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
843
below the level of the perforated disc establish a coininuni-
eation between the outer and inner cylinder. The acid is
placed in the outer cyliuder, aud raiding its way to the
inside of the inner cylinder when the tap is open, decomposes
the sulphide of iron liberating sulphuretted hydrogen.
— H. S. P.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUALITATIVE.
A Rapid Tint far Alkaline Bicarbonate*. G. Patein. J.
Pharm. Chim. 25, 1892, 448.
The conventional test with magnesium sulphate is fallacious
unless much neutral carbonate be present, as the latter
forms sesquicarbonate in contact with bicarbonate, as can
be proved by adding calomel to a solution of bicarbonate to
which neutral carbonate has been added, there being no
blackening, provided the amount necessary to form sesqui-
carbonate be not exceeded, although calomel, when treated
with neutral carbonate alone, blackens at once. The
author recommends the use of a very dilute alcoholic
solution of phenolphthalein, which is not coloured, or
only faintly coloured with a solution of bicarbonate. In
any case the colour disappears on the addition of a few
drops of an aqueous solution of carbon dioxide, or 1 per
cent, hydrochloric acid. The method of making the test
proposed consists in dissolving 1 grm. of the bicarbonate in
20 cc. of water and adding a few drops of the phenol-
phthalein solution. 20 drops of a 1 per cent, solution of
hydrochloric acid should be more than enough to discharge
any rose colour that may be produced. — 15. B.
The Analysis of Nitro-E.rplosices. P. G. Sanford.
Chem. Trade J. 11, 1892, 161—162.
The class of compounds that have come into the most
extended use for the purposes of mining, blasting, &c. are
the nitroglycerin compounds, more especially the gelatin
compounds, composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin,
and generally containing some admixture of nitrates and
wood pulp or similar materials.
KlESELGUHR DvXAMITE.
This material generally consists of 75 per cent, nitro-
glycerin and 25 per cent, of the infusorial earth, kieselguhr.
The analysis is very simple, and ma3' be conducted as
follows : — Weigh out about 10 grms. of the substance, and
place over calcium chloride, in a desiccator, for some six to
eight days, and then re-weigh : the loss in weight gives the
moisture ; this will generally be very small, probably never
more than 1 per cent. The dry substance may now be
wrapped in filter-paper, the whole weighed, and the nitro-
glycerin extracted in the Soxhlet apparatus with ether. The
ether should be distilled over at least twenty-four times. I
have found, however, that results may be obtained much
quicker, aud quite as accurate, by leaving the dynamite in
contact with ether in a small Erlenmeyer flask for some
hours— leaving it overnight is better — and then decanting,
and again allowing the substance to remain in contact with
the ether for a few hours, and finally filtering through a
weighed filter, drying at 100° C, and weighing. This gives
the weight of kieselguhr. The nitroglycerin must be
obtained by difference, as it is quite useless to evaporate
down the ethereal solution to obtain it, as it is itself volatile
to a very considerable extent at the temperature of
evaporation of the ether, and the result, therefore, will
always be much too low. An actual analysis of kieselguhr
dynamite gave — moisture, 0 92 per cent.; kieselguhr,
26-15 per cent.; and nitroglycerin, 72'93 per cent., this
last being obtained by difference.
Gelatin Compounds.
The simplest of these compounds is, of course, blasting
gelatin, as it consists of nothing but nitro-cotton and nitro-
glycerin, the cotton being dissolved in the glycerin to
form a clear jelly, the usual proportions being about 92 per
cent, of nitroglycerin to 8 per cent, of nitro-cotton, but the
cotton is found as high as 10 per cent, in some gelatins.
Gelatin dynamite and gelignite are blasting gelatins with
varying proportions of wood pulp and saltpetre (KN03),
mixed with a thin blasting gelatin. The method of analysis
is as follows : — weigh out about 10 grms. of the substance,
previously cut up in small pieces, and place over calcium
chloride in a desiccator for some days. Re-weigh ; the loss
equals moisture. This is generally very small. The dried
sample is then transferred to a small thistle-headed funnel
which has been cut off from its stem, and the opening
plugged with a little glass wool, and round the top rim of
which a piece of fine platinum wire has been fastened, in
order that it may afterwards be easily removed from the
Soxhlet tube. The weight of this funnel and the glass wool
must be accurately known. It is then transferred to the
Soxhlet tabe and exhausted with ether, which dissolves out
the nitroglycerin. The weighed residue must afterwards
be treated with ether-alcohol to dissolve out the nitro-cotton.
But the more expeditious method is, perhaps, to transfer
the dried gelatin to a conical Erlenmeyer flask of about
500 cc. capacity, and add 250 cc. of a mixture of ether-
alcohol (2 ether to 1 alcohol), and allow to stand overnight.
(Sometimes a further addition of ether-alcohol is necessary,
but not often). The undissolved portion, which consists of
the wood pulp, and potassium nitrate, and other salts, is then
filtered off, dried, and weighed.
Solution. — The ether-alcohol solution contains the nitro-
cotton and the nitroglycerin in solution. To this solution
add excess of chloroform, when the nitrocellulose will be
precipitated in a gelatinous form. This should be filtered
off through a linen filter, aud allowed to drain. It is useless
to attempt to use a filter pump, as it generally causes it to
set solid. The precipitated cotton should then be redissolved
in ether alcohol, and again precipitated with excess of
chloroform. This precaution is absolutely necessary, as
otherwise the results will be much too high, owing to the
gelatinous precipitate retaining very considerable quantities
of nitroglycerin. The precipitate is then allowed to drain
as completely as possible, and finally dried in the air-bath
at 40° C. until it is easily detached from the linen filter by
the aid of a spatula, and then transferred to a weighed
watch-glass, replaced in the oven, and dried at 40° until
constant in weight. The weight found, calculated upon the
10 grms. taken, gives the percentage of nitrocellulose.
The residue left after treating the gelatin with ether-alcohol
is, in the case of blasting gelatin, very small, and will
probably consist of carbonate of soda. It should be
dried at 40' C. and weighed, but in the case of either
gelignite, or gelatin dynamite, this residue should be
transferred to a beaker and boiled with distilled water, and
the water decanted three or four times, and the residue
finally transferred to a tared filter and washed for some
time with hot water. The residue left upon the filter is
wood pulp. This is carefully dried at 40° C., until constant,
and weighed. The solution and washings from the wood
are evaporated down in a platinum dish and dried at 100° C.
in the oven and weighed. It will consist of the potassium
nitrate, and any other mireral salts, such as carbonate of
soda, which should always be tested for by adding a few
drops of nitric acid aud a little water to the residue, and
again evaporating to dryness and re-weighing. From the
difference in weight, the soda can be calculated, sodium
nitrate having been formed.
The nitroglycerin is best found by difference, but if
desired, the solutions from the precipitation of the nitro-
cellulose may be evaporated down upon the water-bath at
30° to 40° C., and finally dried over Cad, until no smell of
ether can be detected, and the nitroglycerin weighed. It
will, however, always be much too low. An actual analysis
of a sample of gelatin dynamite gave the following
result : —
Pert'
Nitrocellulose 3*810
Nitroglycerin 66"69]
Wood-pulp l(i'26o
KN03 12 ' S00
Water 0-340
lOO'OOO
844
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1892.
Tliis sample was probably intended to contain 30 per
cent, of absorbing material to 70 per cent, of explosive
substances.
(inn-cotton. — Collodion cotton, and other forms of nitro-
cellulose, i.e., the hexa-nitrocellulose and lower nitro bodies.
The first thing upon opening a case of wet gun-cotton, or in
receiving a sample from " the poacher," that requires to be
determined is the percentage of water that it contains; it is
best done by weighing out about 1,000 grms. upon a paper
tray, which has been previously dried in the oven at 100° C.
for some time and become constant in weight. The tray
full of cotton is then placed in a water-oven, kept at 100° C,
and dried as long as it loses water. The loss gives tin-
percentage of water. It varies from 20 to 30 per cent, as a
rule, in what is known as wet cotton.
The Solubility Tot. — The object of this test is to
ascertain, in the case of gun-cotton, the percentage of
soluble (penta and lower nitrates) cotton that it contains,
or in the case of soluble cotton, the quantity of guu-cotton.
The method of procedure is as follows : — 5 grms. of the
sample, which has been previously dried at 100° C. and
afterwards exposed to the air for two hours, is transferred
to a conical Hask and 250 ec. of ether-alcohol added. The
flask is then corked and allowed to digest, with repeated
shaking, for two or three hours. The whole is then
transferred to a linen filter, and when the solution has
passed through, the filter is washed with a little ether and
pressed in a screw-press betw een folds of filter-paper. The
sample is then returned to the flask, and the previous
treatment repeated, but it will be sufficient for it to digest
for one hour the second time. The filter is then opened up
and the ether allowed to evaporate. The gun-cotton is then
removed from the filter and transferred to a watch-gla--. and
dried in the water-oven at 100° C. When it is dry it is
exposed to the air for two hours and weighed. It equals
the amount of gun-cotton and unconverted cotton. The
non-nitrated cellulose must be determined in a separate
5 grms. and deducted.
Estimation oe thk Xox-Xitratei> Cottox.
The sample is extracted with acetone or acetic ether,
and the insoluble residue left is weighed.
Alkalinity.
Five grms. of the air-dried and very finely-divided
sample are taken from the centre of the slabs or discs and
digested with about 20 cc. of " hydrochloric acid, and diluted
with water to about 250 cc, and shaken for about 15
minutes. The liquid is then decanted and the nitro-colton
washed with water until the washings no longer give an acid
reaction. The solution, together with the washings, are
then titrated with " sodium carbonate, using litmus as
indicator.
Xl'l ROGEN.
The estimation of the percentage of nitrogen in a sample
of gun-cotton or collodion cotton is perhaps of more value,
and affords a better idea of its purity and composition than
any of the foregoing methods of examination, and taken iii
conjunction with the solubility test, it will generally give
the analyst a very fair idea of the composition of his
sample. If we regard gun-cotton as the hexa-nitrocellulose —
Cl:IIuO,(OXO.>)6 the theoretical amount of nitrogen
required for the formula is 14 '14 per cent., and in the same
way for collodion cotton, which consists of the lower nitrates,
that is the penta and tetra-nitro bodies, the theoretical
nitrogen is ll- 11 percent, and 670 per cent, respectively \
so that, if in a sample of gun-cotton the nitrogen falls much
lower than 14 per cent., it probably contains considerable
quantities of the lower nitrates, and perhaps some
non-nitrated cellulose as well (C6H,0O5), which, of course,
would also lower the percentage of nitrogen. The most
expeditious method of determining the nitrogen in these
uitro-bodies is by the use of Lunge's nitrometer, and the
best way of working the process is as follows : — Weigh
out with the greatest care 0-6 grm. of the previously dried
cotton in a .small weighing-bottle of about 15 cc. capacity,
and carefully add 10 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid
from a pipette. Allow to stand until all the cotton is
dissolved. The nitrometer should be of a capacity of 150
to 200 cc, and should contain a bulb of 100 cc. capacity
at the top, and shouid be fitted with a Greiner and
Friedcrich's three-way tap. When the nitro-cotton has
entirely dissolved to a clear solution, raise the pressure of
the nitrometer, so as to bring the mercur3- in the measuring
tube close up to the tap. Open the tap in order to allow of
the escape of any air-bubbles, and clean the surface of the
mercury and the inside of the cup with a small piece of filter-
paper. Now close the tap, and pour the solution of the
nitro-cotton into the cup. Rinse out the bottle with 15 cc.
of concentrated sulphuric aeid, contained in a pipette,
pouring a little of the acid over the stopper of the weighing-
bottle, in case some of the solution may be on it. Now
lower the pressure-tube a little, just enough to cause the
solution to flow into the bulb of the measuring-tube, when
the tap is slightly opened. When the solution has run in
almost to the end, turn off the tap, wash down the sides of
the bottle, and add to the cup of the nitrometer ; allow it to
flow in as before, and then wash down the sides of the cup
with 10 cc. of sulphuric acid, adding little by little, and
allowing each portion added to flow into the bulb of the
nitrometer before adding the next portion. Great care is
necessary to prevent air-bubbles obtaining admission, and
if the pressure tube is lowered too far, the acid will run in
with a rush and carry air along with it. The solution being
all in the measuring tube, the pressure tube is again slightly
raised, and the tube containing the nitro-cotton solution
shaken for 10 minutes with considerable violence. It is
then replaced in the clamp and the pressure relieved by
lowering the pressure tube, and the whole apparatus allowed
to stand for 20 minutes, in order to allow the gas evolved to
assume the temperature of the room. A thermometer
should be hung up close to the bulb of the measuring tube.
At the end of the 20 minutes, the levels of the mercury iu
the pressure and measuring tubes are equalised, allowing
about three inches of the sulphuric acid to one inch of
mercury, and the final adjustment obtaiued by slightly
opening the tap on the measuring tube (very slightly), after
first adding a little sulphuric acid to the cup, and observing
whether the acid runs in or moves up. This must be done
with very great care. When accurately adjusted, it should
move neither way. Now read off the volume of the NO gas
in cc. from the measuring tube. Head also the thermometer
suspended near the bulb, and take the height of the
barometer in millimetres. The calculation is very simple.
Example Collodion Cotton.
0-6 grm. taken. Reading on measuring tube = 114-6 cc. X(>.
Barometer, 750 mm. Temperatnre 15° C.
Since 1 cc. NO =- 0- 0006272 grm. X
and correcting for temperature and pressure by the
formula —
7t>0 x il + dt) Id = 0-M366S) toi-teiii)* raUm-of lj = SOl'rS;
then
in i; x loo x 75o x u'i;272
1 1 • 22 per cent. N
-"1 7s X 0'li
Theory = IV 11 per cent, for C6Hs(NO,),< »,
The following is the analysis of a good sample of collodion
cotton suitable for the manufacture of blasting gelatin,
&c. :—
Soluble cotton = 90-11S per cent. ■>
Qon-potton = 0-642 ,. j =Nitrogen=lV<frpei c, ,,t.
Non-nitrated cotton = 0210 „ Total ash - 0'25
The nitrogen in nitroglycerin may, of course be deter
mined by the nitrometer, but in this case it is better to take
a much smaller quantity of the substance; from 01 to
0-2 grm. is quite sufficient. This will give from 30 to 60 cc.
of gas, and therefore a measuring tube without a 100 ce.
bulb must be used.
Example.
0-1048 grm. nitroglycerin taken ; barometer, 761 mm. ;
temperature, 15° C. ; ga\ e 92 ' 5 cc. NO
32-5 x 100 x 7iil x 0-6272
= 18-46 per cent. N
Theory for C3H5(ON02)3 = 18 -SO per cent.
801-78 x 0-104S
-w. s.
Oct. 3 1.1892. J
THE JOUKNAJj OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
845
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
The Accurate Determination of Phosphorus in Steel in
Tuo Hours. H. Wdowiszewski. Stahl. a. Eisferi. 12,
1892, 381.
Two to tive gnus, of steel are dissolved in 30 — 75 cc. of
nitric ueid of sp. gr. 1-2, brought to the boil and treated
with 10 — 25 ce. of potassium permanganate solution (1 per
cent.). The precipitate is dissolved by the addition of
hydrochloric acid (2 cc. for each grm. of steel) and heating
for 20 minutes. Strong ammonia and nitric acid arc then
added, as in Kmmertou's method, the liquid heated to
SSfi C, and precipitated with 25 — 30 cc. of lnolybdate
solution. The precipitating flask is stoppered, shaken for
tive minutes, the precipitate collected on a [filter, washed
with a 15 per cent, solution of ammonium nitrate, and then
two or three times with water. The precipitate is dissolved
in standard ammonia, and the solution titrated with hydro-
chloric acid in the manner prescribed by E. Tilo. The
results are found accurate when compared with the
gravimetric method. — If. B.
.1 New Direct Separation of Chlorine, Bromine, and
Iodine. P. Januasch and K. Aschoff. Zeits. auorg.
Chem.l, lS'J'J, 248 (through Chem. Rep.).
Thk process depends on the facts that sodium nitrite when
added to n solution of the salts of the three halogens,
slightly acid with acetic or sulphuric acid, liberates iodine,
and that no chlorine is evolved from a solution of an
alkaline chloride containing sodium acetate and acetic acid
on the addition of potassium permanganate, while in the
case of a bromide all the bromine is given off according to
an equation stated as follows :—
6 KBr + 2 KMn04 + 4 H2S04 =
:i V,r, + 2 JInO; + 4 Iv.SOj + 1 IIJ I'
The operation is carried out in a flask of about 1 litre
capacity with a ground-in stopper carrying an inlet and an
outlet tube, the latter being arranged so as to prevent
splashings from the contents of the flask passing into the
receiving cylinder with which it is connected. The receiver
lias a capacity of about 500 cc, and contains 50 cc. of pure
caustic soda solution and 50 cc. of hydrogen peroxide. It
is kept cool by a vessel of cold water, and is connected
with a second receiver to retain any traces of iodine that
may find their way over. The distillation of the contents
of the flask is effected by blowing in steam until all colour
has disappeared. At the end of the operation the contents
of the receiver is transferred to a covered porcelain dish
and heated on the water-bath with a further quantity of
hydrogen peroxide in order to oxidise any small quantity of
sodium nitrite that may be present, and after some hours
precipitated as silver salts until the colour of the precipitate,
which is at first dark (silver oxide), becomes yellow (silver
iodide). (No attempt is made to show that all the iodine
is pri scut as silver iodide.) The precipitate is treated with
nitric acid, warmed for some hours on the water-bath,
heated until the silver iodide has settled thoroughly,
filtered hot, dried, fused, and weighed.
The separation of chlorine and bromine is effected by
making the solution in the flask perceptibly alkaline with
caustic soda, concentrating to about 50 cc, and, after
cooling, adding fiO cc. of acetic acid (1:3) and a solution of
1 — 1 " 5 grm. of potassium permanganate in a little water.
Caustic soda solution is placed in the receiver, and the
distillation effected as before, by blowing in steam. All the
bromine is carried over in J to lj hours. The contents of
the receiver is heated for some time in a porcelain dish,
and precipitated with a 10 per cent. " silver solution " mixed
with an equal volume of concentrated nitric acid, (No
attempt is made to show that all the bromine is present as
bromide.) After standing for one or two hours on the
water-bath, the silver bromide is filtered off and estimated
as in the case of the iodide.
* The equation is given as stated althouirli the text prescribes
ac.'i ic aciil instead of sulphuric acid.
The chlorine is determined by reducing the excess of
permangauate with alcohol in alkaline solution, filtration,
and washing of the precipitate with lukewarm water,
acidulat ion with nitric acid, and precipitation with "silver
solution." The removal of the manganese can be effected
by the alternative method of treatment with ammonia
and hydrogen peroxide, the precipitate being washed with
a 1 per cent, solutiou of sodium nitrate to prevent the
occurrence of any trifling turbidity. Examples are quoted
showing the accuracy of the process. — B. B.
The Quantitatioe Separation of Iodine and Chlorine by
Precipitation with Thallous Sulphate. P. Jannasch
and K. Aschoff. Zeits. anorg. Chem. 1, 1892, 248
(through Chem. Rep.).
The process depends on the insolubility of thallous iodide
in dilute alcohol in the presence of ammonium salts, while
thallous chloride remains in solution under these conditions.
About 0-5 grm. of a mixture of salts of the two halogens
(e.g., NaCl and KI) is dissolved in 40—50 cc. of water,
and 50 cc. of a 20 per cent, solution of ammonium sulphate
and 30 cc. of alcohol added. A 4 per cent, solution of
thallous sulphate is then added until precipitation is
complete. The yellow thallous iodide separates on gently
warming. After standing 12 hours in the cold, it is collected
on a weighed filter by the aid of the pump, washed twice
with a solution of 5 parts of ammonium sulphate in 70
parts of water and 30 of alcohol, and finally with 30 — 50
per cent, alcohol dried and weighed. The chlorine in the
filtrate is determined by driving off the alcohol on the
water-bath, diluting with water to 300 cc, heating to
boiling, adding 10 cc. of concentrated nitric acid and
precipitating with silver nitrate. In order to avoid the
deposition of silver sulphate, the liquid and its precipitate
are kept hot over a lamp for some hours and filtered hot.
The process cannot be applied to the separation of bromine
and chlorine as the solubility of thallous bromide is too
great.— B. B.
A Modified Method for the Electrolytic Determination of
Copper. G. P. Drossbach. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1892, 818.
Mercury, silver, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, and tin arc
known to act disturbingly in the electrolytic separation of
copper. Copper can also be completely separated from
ammoniacal solutions, and that very quickly, when the
solution contains fairly good conducting salts ; hence it is
important to know how it behaves in comparison with other
metals. Silver, lead, quicksilver, and cadmium are separated
at about the same rate as copper ; then nickel is very
slowly separated. Antimony, arsenic, and tin are not
separated, that is, imder the conditions of the experiments
in which a weak current was used. The method adopted
was as follows : — A quantity of added salt and the metallic
copper were dissolved in heat in nitric acid, mixed with
excess of ammonia (after the addition of sulphuric acid and
filtration when lead and silver were present), filtered, and
electrolysed. In the experiments Nos. 1 and 2, aluminium,
antimony, arsenic, chromium, iron, cobalt, manganese,
uranium, bismuth, tin, and zinc were present ; and in No. 3,
silver, lead, and nickel also. In experiment No. 3 the
deposition took three hours, and in No. 2 from five to six
hours. With a strong current kept on for a long time (12
hours) weighable quantities of cobalt and tin are deposited
after the complete separation of the copper. If nickel is
present the current must be stopped soon, or it will be
deposited. Mercury and cadmium always act disturbingly.
Under the before-mentioned conditions : —
1. 0-1350 grm. electrolytic copper yielded ()• 1348 grm.
Cu.
2. 0- 1221 grm. electrolytic copper yielded 0-1220 grm.
Cu.
3. 0-062 grm., after the separation of the added lead and
silver, yielded 0-0622 grm. Cu.
4. A sample of pyrites yielded 23-47 per cent. Cu, which
by the other method had given 25-53 per cent. Cu.
-G. H. R.
84tf
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1SSI2.
The Determination of Zinc in Ores. Eng. and Mining J.
August 20, 1892, 178.
The Colorado Scientific Society some time ago appointed a
committee to inquire into the relative merits of the various
processes for the determination of zinc in ores, invented and
employed by Western chemists. This committee accord-
ingly carried out a series of tests with the methods of seven
chemists, viz. : Von Schulz and Low, of Denver ; Mr. L. W.
W. Jones, of the Pueblo Smelting and KefiningCo., l'ueblo,
Colo. ; Mr. E. N. Hawkins, of the Holden Smelting and
Kefining Co., Leadville, Colo. ; Mr. F. C. Knight, of the
Boston and Colorado Smelting Co., Argo, Colo. ; Mr. Mann
Page, of the Omaha and Grant Smelting Co., Denver, Colo. ;
Mr. F. Menzel, of the San Jr.an Smelting and Mining Co.,
Durango, Colo. ; and Dr. H. C. Hahn, of the Colorado
Smelting Co , Pueblo, Colo.
The tests were all conducted by Mr. L. G. Eakins, one of
the staff of assistants to Mr. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist
to the United States Geological Survey. Mr. Eakins also
analysed each ore chemically in order to compare the
accuracy of the various processes with an exact standard.
The ores treated were from five different and distinct mines
in Colorado, and they were chosen on account of their
difficulty of analysis. They consisted chiefly of mixtures
of galenite, pyrites and sphalerite, accompanied by greater
or less percentages of manganese in the form of rhodo-
chrosite, associated with a quartzose gangue.
The results of the tests are given in the following
table :—
Percentage ol Zinc.
No. 1.
No. •_'.
No. 3.
No. 4.
No. 5.
Standard (Eakins).
Von Schulz tb'W .
14-64
15-31
15-39
16-86
15-08
lflI2
14-30
21-11
24-34
21-53
24-23
23-80
2-J-oi)
23- 112
23-03
10-71
10-76
10-83
6-31
6-42
6-58
1(1-09
HiU
16-46
Hawkins
11-88 1 8-74
10-69 ] 6-85
10-50 1 6'SO
1
11-07 j 6-89
8-89 5-44
15-86
15-90
15-37
16-08
13-22
From this table it will be seen that Von Schulz and Low's
method gives the nearest figures to the chemical analysis.
Nos. 1 and 2 give rather high figures, but in these samples
Mr. Eakins detected the presence of cadmium, though
unfortunately he did not estimate it quantitatively ; so that
this discrepancy in Von Schulz and Low's figures is thus
accounted for. Dr. Hahn's method has the advantage of
giving the figures for manganese and zinc from one solution,
but his figures for zine are uniformly too low. If this
difficulty could be obviated the method would be highly
commendable. Mr. Menzel's method is open to objection
on account of the repeated use of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Mr. Jone's method is practically the same as Von Schulz
and Low's ; and those of Messrs. Page, Hawkins, and
Knight give very fair results.
Von Schulz and Low's Method. — Prepare a solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium by dissolving 44 grms. of the
pure salt in distilled water and diluting to 1 litre. Then
prepare a standard solution as follows : Dissolve 200 mgrms.
of pure oxide of zinc in 10 cc. of pure, strong hydrochloric
acid. Add 7 grms. of chemically pure chloiide of ammonium
(free from copper) and about 100 cc. of boiling water.
Titrate the clear liquid with the ferrocyanide solution until
a drop tested on a porcelain plate with a drop of a strong
aqueous solution of acetate of uranium shows a brown tinge.
About 10 cc. of ferrocyanide solution is required. When
the brown tinge is obtained, see if any of the previous
tests subsequently develop a similar colour, and, if so,
correct the burette reading accordingly. Usually the
correction for two previous drops has to be made. One
cb.c. of this standardised solution equals about 0-01 grin,
of zinc.
In the test take exactly 1 grm. of ore and treat it in a
3|-in. porcelain crucible with 25 cc. of a saturated solution
of chlorate of potash in nitric acid. Do not cover the
casserole at first, but warm gently until any violent action
is over and greenish vapours have ceased to come off. Then
cover with a watch-glass and boil rapidly to complete
dryness, but avoid overheating arid baking. A drop of
nitric acid adhering to the cover does no harm. Cool
sufficiently and add 7 grms. of chloride of ammonium,
15 ce. of strong ammonia water, and 25 cc. of hot water.
Cover and boil for one minute, and then, with a rubber-
tipped glass rod, see that all solid matter on the cover,
sides, and bottom of the casserole is either dissolved or
disintegrated. Filter into a beaker and wash several times
with hot chloride of ammonium solution (10 grms. to the
litre). A blue coloured filtrate indicates the presence of
copper. In that case add 25 cc. of strong pure hydrochloric
acid and about 40 grms. of granulated test lead. Stir the
lead about in the beaker until the liquid has become
perfectly colourless, and continue the stirring for a short
time, to make sure that the copper is all precipitated. The
solution, which should still be quite hot, is now ready for
filtration. In the absence of copper the lead is omitted
and only the acid added.
About one-third of the solution is now set aside, and the
main portion is titrated rapidly with the ferrocyanide until
the end point is passed, using the uranium indicator as in
the standardisation. The greater part of the reserved
portion is now added, and the titration continued with
more caution until the end point is again passed. Then
add the remainder of the reserved portion and finish the
titration carefully, ordinarily by additions of two drops of
ferrocyanide at a time. Make corrections for the final
reading of the burette as in the standardisation. In this
process cadmium behaves like zine, and must be separated
if necessary by some other method.
Dr. Hahn's Method. — Place half a grm. of ore in a
large porcelain crucible and treat it with 3 cc. dilute
sulphuric acid (1 acid to 2 water), 2 cc. concentrated nitric
acid and 6 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid. Heat the
solution to dryness or until fumes of sulphuric acid appear.
Then remove the crucible from the hot plate and allow it to
cool. Add 20 cc. of water and heat the solution to boiling
for about one minute. Transfer the contents of the
crucible to an 8-oz. beaker and nearly neutralise by
adding a saturated solution of carbonate of soda. Add to
the solution an excess of basic carbonate of lead suspended
in water, until after vigorous stirring the precipitated
hydroxide of iron settles quickly to the bottom, leaving the
liquid clear. The solution is then heated to boiling without
previous filtration and the manganese determined with a
standard solution of permanganate of potash (4*80 grms.
to 1 litre of water). After each addition of the perman-
ganate the solution should be briskly stirred, as it facilitates
the settling of the precipitate. If the solution appears
yellow or turbid continue the stirring until it is clear.
When the rose tint appears, indicating the complete
precipitation of the manganese, add a few grms. of
chloride of ammonium and 5 cc. of ammonia water, and
filter the solution without previous heating. Wash the
precipitate with water containing about -^th of its bulk of
strong ammonia water. Add to the filtrate 12^ cc. of
hydrochloric acid. If copper is present remove it by
means of granulated lead, after which determine the zinc by
titrating with a standard solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium and by using a uranium salt as an indicator.
— W. S.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
Reaction of Sodium Nitroprusside with Aldehi/dcs and
Ketones. B. von Bittd. Annalen, 267, 372.
In a recent work on the colour reactions of the carbon
compounds by E. Xickel (Die Farbenreactionen der
Kohlenstoffverbindungen ; this Journal, 1890, 904) an
account is given of various observations of reactions
obtained with sodium nitroprusside, which suggested to the
author the need of systematic investigation of the subject.
This he has carried out in regard to the aldehydes and
ketones both of the aromatic and fatty series.
Oct. si, 18W.] THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
847
It appears from his researches that (1) in the fatty series
colour reactions are obtained with all compounds in which
the CO or COH are directly united to a hydrocarbon
group ; and this holds further in cases where such hydro-
carbon group is on the other side united to a group in which
hydrogen is replaced by other elements or radicals. (2) In
the aromatic series the presence of CO or COH does not
determine a (colour reaction, excepting when there is
present in addition a hydrocarbon group replacing the
"aromatic" hydrogen (e.g., C3H7.CcH4.C0H), or where
the CO- or COH group is present in a side chain (e.g.,
C„H;,.CH:CH.CHO).
The method of observing the reaction is as follows : — A
fresh solution of the nitroprusside of 0-5 per cent, strength
is added in small quantity (I cc.) to the solution of the
body under observation. On making alkaline — using
preferably potassium hydrate solution of 1 • 14 sp.gr. — the
colour rapidly developes. On acidifying with mineral acids
the colour is weakened and disappears more or less rapidly ;
organic acids and metaphosphoric acids, on the other hand,
cause in many cases characteristic changes of colour.
Hodies insoluble in water may be dissolved in alcohol or
ether, which, however, must be previously ascertained to
be free from aldehyde or ketone. When ether is used the
colour reaction is usually observed only in the underlying
aqueous solution.
The reactions may be regarded as having rather a group
value than as individually characteristic. From a somewhat
extensive table of results we select the following as typical.
Compound.
Aldehydes:
A cet aldehyde, CH3.CHO
Valeraldehyde, CH,(UH2)3CHO ....
7)-Cuininaldehyde,C6H4.C3HrCHO.
Anisaldehyde.CsH4.OCH3.CEO ...
Ketones :
Acetone, CH3CO. CH3
Methylnonylketone, CH3.CO.CaH!,.
Acelophenone, CH3CO.C6H5
Colour with
Nitro-
prusside
and Alkali.
Change, of
Colour with
Organic acids
and Meta-
phosphoric
Acid.
Cherry red.
Violet red.
Yellowish red
Cherry red.
Eed.
Violet red.
Deep red.
Colour
gradually
weakened
and dis-
appearing.
Violet red.
Rose.
Indigo blue.
The author instances a number of compounds, more
particularly the carbohydrates, giving no colour reactions
under the above conditions : — On the other hand reactions
were obtained with the following sulphur compounds : ethyl
mercaptan (violet red) : ethyl sulphide (red) : ethyl
thiocyanate (dark red). — C. F. C.
The Chemical Examination of Hand-writing. A. Robertson and J. Hofmann. Pharni. C H. N. F. 1892, 13 225.
Tin: authors' method consists in drawing a goose feather, dipped in the tabulated re-agents, over the letters, &c, composing
the writing, and observing the alterations produced under a power of 100 diameters.
Varieties of Ink.
Re-agent,
Iron-gallic Acid.
Logwood with
Potassium
Bichromate
Logwood
with
Cupric Sulphate.
Nigrosin.
Vanadium Ink.
Resorcinol Ink.
Disappears.
Violet.
Orange-yellow,
Unaltered.
Bleached and
runs slightly.
Bright-red.
*< litric acid, Hi per cent. . . .
Bleached.
Violet.
Orange-yellow.
Runs
and becomes
dark-blue.
Bleached
and runs.
Disappears,
Hydrochloric acid, 10 per
cent.
Disappears but
leaves a
yellow colour.
Purple-red.
Blood-red.
Little altered.
Bleached
slightly,
runs slightly.
Bright -rose.
Sulphuric acid, l"> per cent.
Disappears.
Red.
Purple-red.
Unaltered.
Bleached
slightly.
Bright-red.
Nitric acid, 20 per cent
stannous chloride, i part. . .
Hydrochloric acid, l part. . .
Disappears.
> Disappears,
Bed.
Red,
Purple-red.
Magenta red.
Runs slightly.
Unaltered,
Bleached
slightly.
< Bleached )
I slightly. S
Bright-rose.
Disappears.
Sulphur dioxide (sat. sol.) . .
Bleached.
Grey-violet.
Red.
Unaltered.
Bleached
slightly and
runs.
Bleached.
Chloride of gold, 4 per cent.
Bleached
slightly.
Red-brown.
Brown.
Unaltered.
Unaltered.
Becomes brown
and runs.
Sodium rhiosutphate, 1 part
> Dark red.
Unaltered.
Dark-blue.
r Becomes "i
I dark-violet >
Runs freely.
Brown,
Potassium ferrocyanide, l
Hydrochloric acid. 1 part.. .
1 Blue.
Red.
Brick-red,
Unaltered.
Unaltered.
Rose.
Sodium hydrate, 4 per cent..
Dark red.
Brown.
Becomes
dark-red and
runs.
Becomes
dark-violet
and runs.
Becomes
dirty-brown
and runs.
Unaltered.
Chloride of lime, 2 percent..
Disappears.
Disappears.
Disappears,
leaving a
yellow colour.
Brown.
Unaltered.
Brown.
* Tartaric acid is specified in text, citric acid in table.
Fraudulent alterations of writing are alleged to be detectable by these means. — B. B.
848
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. SI, 18112.
The Colour Reactions of Furfurol and a Modification of
Weppen's Veratrine Reaction. E. Laves. Pharm.
Zeit. 37, 338.
The author shows that the colour reactions of sugar with
sulphuric acid and other reagents as a-naphthol are not
due to the sugar itself, hut to furfurol formed by the
action of the acid upon the sugar. In consequence of th:s
observation he points out the advisability of replacing
sugar in Weppen's test for Veratrine, by furfurol, since the
reaction is less likely to be disturbed or masked by the
formation of brown humin substances. He proposes a
modification of the tests as follows : — Three or four drops
of a 1 per cent, aqueous furfurol solution are mixed wiih
1 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid and brought to the
edge of the substance to be tested. If veratrine be pre-
sen*, blue to dark green streaks appear in the liquid,
which, when thoroughly mixed, assumes a dark green
colour, becoming violet on warming. — F. W. P.
Adulteration of Linseed Oil. Industries, 13, 1892, 212.
Boiled linseed oil, used in the manufacture of printing
inks and varnishes, is now frequently adulterated with resin
oil, and since the detection and estimation of this adulterant
is a problem of some little difficulty it is likely that this
form of sophistication may exist to a formidable extent.
Coreil has recently shown that if chlorine gas be passed
through the oil to be examined, it is rapidly blackened if
any appreciable amount of resin oil is present. — W. S.
The Oils of Lavender and Bergamot. J. Bertram and
H. Walbaum. J. prakt. Ghem. 45 (12), 590—603.
See under XX., page 838.
Detection and Removal of Protein Substances in Bret
Juice by means of Tannin. E. Bruck. Chem. Zeit.
16, 222.
See under XVI., page 830.
The Preservation of m-Phenylenediamine Solutions for
Nitrite and Hydrogen Peroxide Testing. G. Deniges.
Journ. Pharm. Chim. 25, 591.
The general application of this excellent reagent for
nitrites and hydrogen peroxide has been hitherto hindered
by the instability of its solutions. The author recommends
a solution of 2 grins, of hydrochloride of 7n-phenylene-
diamine in 100 cc. of ammonia, which will keep in a well-
stoppered bottle in which 5 grins, of animal charcoal have
been placed, for any reasonable length of time. The bottle
is to be occasionally shaken, and the solution removed by
means of a pipette when required. More concentrated
solutions of the base, or any aqueous or alcoholic solutions
of the salt, will not keep.— F. W. P.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITA TIVK.
Detection and Estimation of Lead in Commercial
Tartaric and Citric Acids. M. Bucket. Kepert.
Pharm. 48, 246.
The commercial acids are frequently contaminated with
both metallic lead and lead compounds, owing to their
preparation in leaden vessels. To estimate the metallic
lead a quantity of 200 grms. of the acid is dissolved in
three times its weight of water, a slight excess of Ammonia
being added to bring any crystalline lead sulphate present
into solution. After 24 hours the liquid is decanted and
the precipitate collected upon a filter, carefully washed,
and dissolved in nitric acid. The nitric acid solution is
evaporated and first sulphuric acid and then a double
volume of alcohol added. The precipitated sulphate of
lead is washed with alcohol, incinerated and weighed.
To determine the combined lead in the ammoniacal solution
of the acid, the solution is first acidified with hydrochloric
acid, the lead precipitated as sulphide, converted into
sulphate and weighed. — F. W. P.
The Analysis of Coal-Tar Preparations. H. Helbing
and F. W. Passmore. Helbing's Pharmacol. Rec.
July 1892.
In the absence of any concise description for the deter
mination of the individual value of tar preparations as
disinfectants by chemical methods, the authors publish a
method which they have employed in their laboratory with
considerable success, which consists in an adaption and
refinement of the usual commercial method of estimating
the hydrocarbons and tar acids. According to the con-
centration of a coal-tar preparation 50 or 100 grms. is taken,
and if a liquid, is shaken with a double volume of ether,
made strongly alkaline and extracted several times with
10 per cent, caustic soda, about 50 cc. being employed for
each shaking. The process is repeated until nothing more
is extracted from the ethereal layer, which can be del ermined
by the colourlessness of the alkaline layer or the absence of
turbidity when acidified. The alkaline liquors are then
shaken twice with about 50 cc. ether at each shaking, and
the ethereal layers added to the first. The ether now holds
the whole of the hydrocarbous and any bases present in
solution. The latter are removed by extraction with dilute
sulphuric (not hydrochloric) acid, the acid liquors neutra-
lised, evaporated to dryness and extracted with absolute
alcohol, whereby the organic sulphates alone go into solution
and can be removed and weighed. The ether is evaporated
from the hydrocarbons and the latter, which usually com-
mence to boil about 170 C. fractionally distilled in the
usual way. The tar acids contained in the alkaline liquors
are separated by acidification, extraction of the acid liquors
with ether several times, evaporation of the ether aud
fractional distillation of the products. Frequently large
quantities of resin acids are found to be present, which do
not commence to distil until above 250° C., whereas the
phenols usually present distil between 180° to 215° C. On
account of the relative poisonousness of carbolic acid as
compared with the cresols, it is also necessary to determine
the respective amounts of these, as a preparation of the
latter is far more valuable as a disinfectant on account of the
freedom from danger accompanying its employment. The
difference in the boiling points of these compounds not being
sufficient to separate a small quantity of carbolic acid, and
the usual tests for the latter being valueless in the presence
of cresols, the authors resort again to the principle of a
manufacturing process and fractionally precipitate the
alkaline solution of the tar acid with small quantities of
mineral acid, in which case the carbolic acid is concentrated
in the first fraction. In dealing with disinfectant powders
containing coal-tar constituents it is necessary to remove or
bring into solution the inorganic constituents and then
proceed as with fluids. It is also advisable before distilling
the ether from the hydrocarbons and tar acids to first wash
once or twice with water to remove adherent alkalis or
acids and then dry over calcium chloride. — F. W. P.
Testing Olive Oil for Adulterants. L. Paparelli. Chem.
Trade J. 11, 207—208.
The author states that the iodine absorption values for
olive oils may vary from 79 — 88 according to the state of
maturity of the olives aud to the age of the oil. The more
mature the olives are, the higher is the iodine absorption,
whilst old and rancid oil has a lower value. The method
of oil-making is not without its influence j oils extracted by
chemical solvents have a lower absorption than the same
obtained by pressure j oils obtained from " pits " absorb
more iodine than those prepared from the fruit. The
largest influence is due to the variety of olive fruit, some
genuine oils showing as high a value as 88. For the
detection of cotton-seed and rape oils quite a number of
Oct.3i.i8iB.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
849
valueless tests is given (this Journal, 1892, 637). Baudouin's
test for sesame oil is recommended. It is based on the
property which sesame oil possesses of turning crimson a
solution of sugar in concentrated hydrochloric acid. — J. L.
The Alcohols of Fusel Oil. Hi. C. Schiipphaus. J. Amer.
Chcm. Soe. 14, 1892, 45—60.
See under XVII., page 831.
I Method for Separating the Xylenes. J. M. Crafts.
Compt. rend. 114, 1110—1113.
A WEIGHED quantity (10 to 20 grms.) of the crude xylene
is poured upon 2.V parts of concentrated sulphuric acid,
contained in a tube of hard Bohemian glass. The depth
of the column of xylene is measured in millimetres, and
after sealing, the tube is heated to about 120° C. for one
hour, with occasional violent shaking. A saturated hydro-
carbon remains floating on the surface as an insoluble
layer, but before measuring it, 3 or 4 parts of a mixture of
equal parts of hydrochloric acid and water must De added,
with agitation and standing for an hour, in order to separate
a portion which has been dissolved by the sulphonic acid.
Complete cooling of this tube is avoided, so as'to prevent a
premature deposit of crystals.
The measuring and separation of the hydrocarbon are
effected in a tap-funnel, the solvent acid being returned to
the tube, which is sealed up again and heated to 122° C.
for 20 hours. By this treatment 97 per cent, of the meta-
xylene is separated in a layer, which can be measured.
The measurement is controlled by weighing, after having
distilled the metaxylene with water, to free it from certain
black substances, a process which yields about 0'2 grm. of
such matter.
The sulphonic acids of para- and orthoxylene and ethyl-
benzene only exhibit traces of decomposition at about
122° C, They are, however, easily and smoothly decomposed
when heated to still higher temperatures, and it is best,
after removing the metaxylene, to heat up the solution to
175° C. for 20 hours. It is true that the analysis can be
continued without this process, but the products are in such
case not so pure.
The three regenerated hydrocarbons are dissolved in
three parts of sulphuric acid, and to the cooled solution is
added one volume of concentrated hydrochloric acid. When
the metaxylene has been separated, only the sulphonic acid
of paraxylene is precipitated in beautiful plates, which can
be easily washed with concentrated hydrochloric acid on an
asbestos filter, to the point at which barium chloride solution
shows no longer any evidence of the presence of sulphuric
acid.
It is only necessary to expose the crystals to the air until
a constant weight is obtained, to estimate the proportion of
paraxylene.
The crystals melt at 88° C, and have the composition
represented by the formula (CsH9S03H)3 + 3 H20, and this
corresponds to 49 77 per cent, of paraxylene. The crystals
are nearly insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but they are
partially soluble in the sulphonic acids, and it is for this
reason that a portion of the paraxylene remains in admixture
with the orthoxylene.
It remains to separate the orthoxylene from the ethyl-
benzene. The only process for this purpose that is suitable
for exact analysis has been devised by the author and
M.Friedel. (Uictionnaire de Wurtz Suppl. 1655).
The xylenes, treated in the cold with 20 times the weight
of bromine, to which some iodine has been added, yield a
tetrabromide nearly insoluble in petroleum spirit, whilst
ethylbenzene yields a less brominated and very soluble
compound.
The first processes of this method of separation furnish
an excellent means for preparing pure meta- and paraxylene,
and it is evident that the preparation of orthoxylene and
ethylbenzene by crystallisation of the salts of their sulphonic
acids, is much simplified, when all the metaxylene and a
great part of the paraxylene have been removed from the
crude product.
For large-scale operations, it is preferable to operate in a
closed vessel, in decomposing the sulphonic acid of meta-
xylene by hot steam at 122° C, and after having twice
repeated the operation a very pure substance is prepared.
Even the product of a first decomposition crystallised at
— 52° C, instead of - 51° C. There is sacrificed about
one-tenth part of the metaxylene in each treatment, and
about one-fourth of the substance, which should be heated
by steam at 160° — 170° for its decomposition.
The sulphonic acid of benzene does not yield benzene on
heating its solution in sulphuric acid with steam. Very
pure toluene can be prepared by heating the sulphuric acid
solution of its sulphonic acid, with steam at 160° C. This
toluene does not crystallise even at — 95° C.
The results obtainable by applying these methods of
separation by fractional decomposition at fixed temperatures
and by precipitations with concentrated hydrochloric acid,
to the very complicated case of the higher homologues of
xylene, and to some products of substitution, will be
commuuicated later on.
The influence of the mass of the sulphuric acid or hydro-
chloric acid on the rapidity of decomposition of the sulphonic
acids, exhibit interesting phenomena which will also be
later on discussed. — D. B.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
Relations between Fat - Hydrolysing and Glucoside-
Resoleing Ferments. W. Sigmund. Monatsh. 13, 567
—577.
Continuing his researches on vegetable ferments (this
Journal, 1890, 959), the author has examined the action of
glucoside-resolving ferments on glycerides, and, further, the
action of oleaginous seeds (or of their isolated ferments) on
glucosides. As representatives of the first class, emulsin
and myrosin were chosen. It was found that they were
able to hydrolyse olive oil to some extent. In the second
series of experiments amygdalin and salicin were acted upon
by the triturated seeds of hemp, poppy, and rape, or by
emulsions prepared from these seeds. The presence of
hydrocyanic acid, benzaldehyde, and glucose on the one
hand, and of glucose and saligenin on the other hand,
pro red that amygdalin and salicin had undergone hydrolysis
under the influence of the ferments, special experiments
having shown that albuminoid substances have no such
effect. Experiments with pancreas have not been concluded
yet, but seem to point to the power of the pancreatic
ferment of resolving glucosides. — J. L.
The Interaction of Magnesium (Metal) and Chlorides.
K. Seubert and A. Schmidt. Annalen, 267, 218.
The results of a systematic investigation of the action of
magnesium upon chlorides of the elements of the first two
groups of each of the eight classes of the " periodic "
system of arrangement.
Generally it appears that in aqueous solution the magne-
sium replaces the elements in combination with chlorine,
with exception of the more strongly basic metals of the
alkali and alkaline earth groups. On heating magnesium
with the anhydrous chlorides these allundergodecomposition.
The reactions are recorded in detail, and a general
summary is given at the end of the paper. From the
results the authors select for special mention those which
point to the advantageous use of magnesium in the
laboratory (1) for the separation of tin and antimony from
the solution of their chlorides, e.g.,&s obtained in the course
of their separation from other metals, by the solution of the
sulphides in hydrochloric acid. The advantages of magne-
sium over zinc are — that the reduction is more rapid, the
excess of magnesium is easily and rapidly dissolved away
by dilute acids, and any disturbance resulting from the
presence of lead as an impurity is not to, be feared.
(2.) Magnesium is also to be recommended for the reduc-
tion of ferric salts in the process of volumetric estimation
of iron, and also in the Marsh's arsenic test. — C F. C.
E 2
350
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31, 1892.
Craur Import.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
Tiik ElKCTMCAt Industry and thk Future Si t>ci.y
of Gutta-percha,
Since 18-13, when Montgomery introduced gutta-percha
into European industry, and it was found to bean excellent
insulating material for electrical conductors, its use has
rapidly increased. In 1845 the import of gctta-percha into
Europe was about 9,000 kilogrammes, in 1851 it amounted
to 14,000, in 1855 it was 300,000, whilst in 1890 the import
was about 3,000,000 kilos. Strange to say, the electrical
industry did nut seem to be troubled much about the nature
and production of this material which it found almost
indispensable. All that was known was that gutta-percha
was the dried milky juice of a tree which grew on one of
the islands of the Malayan Archipelago, and on the
peninsula of Malacca, and which was extracted by the
natives and originally brought into commerce by the Chinese.
There was some discrepancy between the descriptions of
various travellers as to the process of preparing, and it is
only in recent years that the authentic gutta-percha tree has
been re-discovered — the Isonandra percha or Isonandra
gutta Hooherii, described by W. J. Hooker as far back as
1347. The reason may have been that the natives dreaded
having their industry spoiled, and therefore kept secret the
places where the tree was to be found. But it was more
likely that, by using a destructive method of extracting
gutta-percha, it really was a question as to whether the
original species was not gradually disappearing or had
already disappeared.
So it happened that, in consequence of years of careless-
ness on the part of the various interested governments and
commercial circles, the price of gutta-percha kept on increas-
ing— in 1887 it was 2*. 6rf. per kilogramme, in 1891,4s. 6d.
— and at the same time the market had to put up with
increasingly impure and bad products. These were at first
mixtures of pure gutta-percha and the juice of kindred trees ;
afterwards they consisted entirely of the latter. For certain
purposes, especially for the covering of conductors for sub-
marine cables, pure gutta-percha is really indespensable, and
long experience shows that it is quite proof against salt
water, which " eats " through the several coverings of
tarred hemp and iron wire. Its insulating capacity even
seems to increase with time. But there has been no lack
of experiments and suggestions respecting substitutes for
gutta-percha. For even the kindred india-rubber, which
insulates nearly as well, and is, therefore, extensively used
in the electrical industries, is not quite so good for cable
work. And other insulating materials, such as paraffin,
ozokerite, and various artificial mixtures, have partly been
recognised as unsuitable, and partly require further tests as
to durability. Now, the greatest care is necessary, when
the enormous cost and risk of manufacturing and laying a
submarine cable are considered. Two years ago the French
Government could nowhere obtain tenders for two cables to
Algiers, which were to be made to the original specification
as to quality of insulating material, simply because it was
impossible to get sufficient pure gutta-percha. Indeed we
are already hearing expressions of doubt as to the insula-
tion and consequent working of some submarine cables
laid in recent years.
The difficulties of this state of affairs have been
acknowledged for a series of years. In 1871 the Electrical
Congress in Paris pointed them out, and asked the French
Government to take measures to remove them. That
Government thereupon sent M. Seligmann, the telegraph
engineer, to the East Indies, to investigate the possible
cultivation of the gutta-percha tree in the French colonies,
and, in case of its non-existence there, to find out where
the tree grew, and to acclimatise it in the French posses-
sions. The whole of this mission was, however, only
preparatory. M. Seligmann found a species of tree in the
highlands of Assaham, on the island of Sumatra, which
apparently yielded excellent gutta-percha. He took a
number of young specimens of the tree to be grown in the
Botanical Gardens of Saigon ; these, however, were lost
soon after their arrival.
Whilst France applied to the Dutch Colonial Office for
further specimens, England, and, later on, Holland, sent out
expeditious, which brought to light much interesting matter
concerning the different varieties of the gutta tree and its
home, without, however, definitely solving the now burning
problem. Thereupon France again took the initiative, and
sent M. Serullas to the Malay Archipelago, where that gentle-
man had spent some time since 1887. After several failures
he was able to re-discover the authentic Isonandra yutta
Hooherii. Accotding to his experience he asserts that the
specimens of this name found in botanical gardens have
very little, if any, relationship to the real tree. The gutta
tree itself occurs in several varieties, which all belong to
the same species, and which furnish a very good product.
Hut there are besides quite a number of related kinds, the
products of which now almost exclusively fill the market.
The peculiarities of the authentic gutta-percha tree, accord-
ing to M. Serullas, consist not only in the characteristic
colour and structure of the leaves, but especially in the fact
that the milky juice which rlows from a cut in the tree,
immediately stiffens on contact with the air. This feature
distinguishes it from less valuable kinds, whose juice — like
that of the india-rubber tree — remains fluid for some time.
This also points to a different way of extracting the juice.
Whilst in Brazil india-rubber and the less valuable kinds
of gutta-percha are obtained by collecting the juice which
flows from a cut in the tree, this method is impossible in
the case of pure gutta-percha, because the very first drops
of juice harden and close the cut. The valuable juice can
only be obtained by cutting down the whole tree, and
treating its various parts. Even then the whole of the
juice is not obtained. The amount of gutta-percha obtained
from a whole tree is about 100 grins., rarely more than
250 grms. in the younger specimens. M. Serullas, who has
seen this method in operation, contradicts other reports of
travellers. During the last half century millions of trees
have been sacrificed in this fashion, and if, in spite of this,
the real gutta-percha tree has not quite disappeared, it is
solely due to the fact that it takes 30 years before the tree
can be used. But M. Serullas considers that the natives
might be brought to recognise a less destructive method of
extracting, if such a method were discovered.
The tree is found, according to the reports of the various
expeditions, on the south of the peninsula of Malacca, the
east coast of Sumatra and adjoining isles, and on Borneo,
excepting its northernmost part. We may presume that it
might grow anywhere in a zone formed by the latitudes
6° N\ and 6° S. of the equator. Ou the island Celebes, for
instance, the tree is not met with at all ; but this island,
though in climate akin to Borneo, has a flora and fauna like
the Australian continent, of which, as Wallace has shown,
it was at one time a part.
The problem before us is to try to acclimatise and
systematically cultivate the gutta-percha tree wherever
possible in the above zone, so that European industry may
again have a sufficient supply and pure quality of this im-
portant material. In the French possessions in the Indies,
especially in the neighbourhood of Saigon, efforts are now
being put forth ; and we may look to certain success in
those parts, provided the necessary care be taken. M.
Serullas, who has made a systematic study of the cultivation
of the gutta tree, and has experience extending over several
years, hopes to be able to grow the tree in other parts, and
has for this purpose brought with him from his last
expedition some hundreds of specimens, with which to
experiment in Algiers and in Guiana.
In any case, it will take some time before such plantations
will yield any results. Meanwhile it will be necessary to
adopt a more rational method of extracting the gutta, so
that existing trees shall not be altogether destroyed.
M. Serullas maintains that he and Mr. Jungfleisch have
really discovered such a method. In their communication
to the "Societe d' Encouragement," they declare that the
greatest part cf the gutta-percha is not contained iu the
trunk anil branches, but in the leaves of the tree, and can
be extracted from these by a chemical process. The dried
Oct. 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
651
leaves are treated with toluene, aud from the solution thus
obtained the toluene is removed by a jet of steam. Gutta-
percha remains, though sometimes it has a slightly green
colour, due to chlorophyll. Otherwise it is, according to
the discoverer of the process, perfectly pure, and in quality
cmite equal to that of the material obtained by the old
method. A single full-grown tree yields annually about
11 kilos, of dried! leaves, and these again 1 kilo, of gutta-
percha, whilst the life of the tree has in no way been
affected. It is hoped that the Malays may be induced to
exchange the felling of the tree for the easier collecting and
drying of leaves. The further treatment of the latter can
then be gone, through in Europe, since it has been found
that the leaves are not spoilt by storage. Deceit on the
part of the natives would be impossible, because the leaves
of Isanandra gutta are easily distinguished when dried, by
hy their structure and colour. In the interests of important
branches of telegraphy and electrical industry it is certainly
desirable that these hopes may be realised. At the same
time it is remarkable that cable manufacturers — especially
English — have been very sceptical, and have not as yet
conceded the claims of equal quality and durability to the
chemically-extracted gutta-percha and to that extracted
by the old method.
Nevertheless even in England it is granted that the
method now to be introduced will ultimately succeed, even
if it lakes some time, as M. Serullas states, before Erench
capital will make great profits by the cultivation and
preparation of gutta-percha, — Industries.
The Scotch Oil Trade.
Young's Paraffin Company, the Pumpherston Oil Com-
pany at Uphall, and the Broxburn and Holmes Companies
were the only establishments, of all the oil companies in
Scotland, working at a profit during last year, and even
at these works the keen competition in this industry with
American aud Russian oils has made the prospects for this
year of a very gloomy character, especially as the price of
American petroleum has still further fallen. The Scotch
industry exists, however, owing to the fact that necessity
has stimulated improvements in the recovery and utilisation
of the residuals, and, like the Scotch iron trade, by the
sale of sulphate of ammonia has been able to continue the
work without very serious losses. As each ton of shale
yields from 20 lb. to 60 lb. of sulphate of ammonia, those
works which are located in districts where the shale is
not only rich in oil, but also in nitrogen, profitable working
is possible, but those companies working shales which
only yield the smaller quantity of sulphate show less
favourable results. The Scotch shales also yield about
12 per cent, of solid paraffin scale, which has a net selling
price of about six times that of the average net selling
price of the refined oil. As the Kussian petroleum yields
no solid paraffin, and the American never more than
1 or 2 per cent., the maintenance of a high price for
scale by a combination of the Scotch shale companies
should give them a fresh lease of life. Without this
combination the price of scale has risen during the last
few years to nearly twice the selling price at which it then
stood, so that the individual companies have already adopted
this policy. The question of freight is also an important one
in connection with the future prospects of these companies,
as without doubt the reduction in freight of the foreign
petroleum brought about by the introduction of tank
steamers has contributed largely to the keenness of the
competition during recent years. Greater facilities of
transit over the Scotcli aud English railways would
immensely benefit the Scotch trade, and it is to be
hoped that a reduction in the rates may be looked for
in the future, seeing that a total stoppage of this industry
would mean a loss to the railway companies.
It is interesting also to note that of the four
works which, as already stated, showed a profit on
last year's working, Young's is the oldest, and still
employs in part of the works plant of the oldest
description, whilst the Pumpherston works has had new-
plant within the last few years. The Pumpherston Oil
Company has, further, been fortunate in securing a field
which contains shales of good quality and abundant in
quantity, and although the yield of oil is low, by working
with Young and Beilby's retorts a large yield of sulphate
of ammonia is obtained. As the Pumpherston field was
only leased to Mr. Fraser — the present managing director —
in 1883, it was possible to erect plant on the most modern
lines, and thus save the incubus of capital sunk in antiquated
machinery under which some of the older companies are
suffering. The shale is here worked by incline mines.
The daily output is equal to about 1 ,000 cubic feet per
hour, or 600 tons per day. For this large quantity of shale
42-1 retorts of 'the Y'oung and Beilby type are required,
each capable of dealing with 30 cwt. of shale per day, and
the ammonia obtained necessitates a sulphate plant capable
of manufacturing 20 tons of sulphate per day- This part
of the plant is very efficient, and shows a marked contrast
to the old fashioned " cracker boxes " which are still used
by Y'oung's Company for absorbing the ammonia. On the
other hand, this company sell their sulphate in lump, while
Young's company find that by crushing the crude sulphate
between rollers they obtain a white granular product
which is more acceptable to the farmer, and realises a
slightly higher price. The serious drop in the price of
sulphate from 18/. per ton, when the company first started,
to tl-e present price of about 0/. 15s., means a difference
in their receipts of about 40,000/. per annum, and had not
this loss been partially balanced by the increased value of
the scale, the company would have passed into the non-
divideud paying list.
In the whole of Scotland during 1891 the total quantity
TCf sulphate produced was equal to 43,695 tons, and,
excluding that obtained from gas liquor and iron works,
the amount derived from the shale works was no less than
26,600 tons, or upwards of half the total quantity. When
open curtained saturators— with which it is possible to
" fish " the salts directly instead of conducting a separate
evaporation in shallow open pans — are employed, a greater
economy in working, and therefore increased profit, on
sulphate is possible.
The oil refinery at Pumpherston is in close proximity
to the retorts, and has a capacity of about 120,000 gallons
per week.
At Addiewell the retorts are about the same size as those
at Pumpherston, and are made by Messrs. A. F. Craig and
Co., Paisley. At preseut only 320 out of the 480 retorts
are at work, so that, although the plant is larger, Y'oung's
Company at the time of the visit were not producing so large
a quantity of oil.
The refinery at Y'oung's is at present being fitted with
new refrigerating plant, consisting of a 25-ton ammonia
machine made by Messrs. Pontifex and Wood. Messrs.
Siddeley and Mackay's' ice-making machine is also in use
at this establishment.
The refining of the scale is similar in the two works,
and presents no novel features. At Y'oung's, besides
supplying any ' demands for the crude wax, as is well
known, the cotnpany manufacture it into candles and night
lights, and the! works are equipped with plant for this
purpose. At the Pumpherston Oil Works the paraffin
scale is sold to candle-makers and other users of it. Quite
recently a new departure is being made in utilising this
material, under the name of " Laundrine," as a cleansing
agent, for which it is well adapted, as, when used in small
quantities in conjunction with soap, it is very efficacious for
removing dirt from soiled linen, &c, and is said to render
the articles of a much whiter colour than when soap alone
is employed. Tablets of suitable size packed in small boxes
are now being introduced by the company. — Ibid.
The Shale Oil PrtonrcTrox in Scotland.
It is now some 80 years since Dr. Y'oung, of Edinburgh,
discovered that paraffin oil could be obtained by distilling
the shales which are found in close proximity to the coal-
fields in the south of Scotland. The deposits of this shale
si ill appear to be practically inexhaustible, although they
852
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 81. 1892.
have been worked for over 80 years. Of course the industry
is in very small compass when compared with the enormous
transactions in Russian and American oils, for during 1890
the total output of oil in Scotland was only one-fifteenth of
that in this country and one-twelfth of that in Russia. The
price per gallon obtained at the works is far higher, however,
than here.
Their market is a home one and there is no export
business, and they can obtain the same price as ihat of the
imported article. The retail selling price of petroleum for
lighting and heating purposes in Great Britain varies from
id. to 1.9. per gallon in different districts. Moreover there
is a large amount of sulphate of ammonia produced in the
distillation, and this chemical is sold at over 10/. per ton.
The cost of production is greater, however, than here and
in Russia, as the oil has to be distilled from the shale.
Mi. T. Moore, in a communication to the British Federated
Institution of Mining Engineers, expresses the opinion that
oil and gas may yet be found in these deposits, for in some
districts the geological formations present remarkable
fimilarities to those of Pennsylvania. To the same auihority
we are also indebted for the following official figures of the
output of shale and its products in Scotland during the last
1 9 years : —
Output of shale in tons of 2,240 lbs. in Scotland from
1873 to 1891—
Year.
Tons.
Year.
Tons.
Year.
Tons.
1873
521.0H5
lssu
73H.777
1887
1,390,320
1S71
331,(110
1881
912,171
1888
2,052,202
1S75
124,026
lssj
994,487
lss:.
1,986,990
1876
541,273
1883
1,130,72H
1*110
2,1M',4S3
ls77
GS4.11S
issi
1,469,649
1891
2,337,932
INS
645,939
1885
1,741,750
1S71I
712,428
1886
1,669,144
Products obtained from one ton of shale, and total price
realised at works from the refined products obtained from
one ton of shale —
Year.
Crude Oil,
Naphtha.
Sulphate
of
Ammonia.
Total Price
received per Ton
ofShalr.
1877
Galls.
30- 4'J
Galls.
Lb.
17-37
£ s. d.
13 2
lsv!
29-84
13-77
0 14 4
iss?
27-96
28*95
0 11 -''
1891
25-d!)
t*73
27-23
0 13 2
Yield of finished products from 100 gallons of crude
oil—
Year.
Lighting
and
Heating
Oil.
Lubricating
Oil.
Medium
Oil.
Bcali
Total.
1S77
Galls.
Ill 3.-,
Galls.
10-70
Galls.
4" 13
Galls.
8*26
Galls.
63-74
L882
31-61
11-35
11*08
10-u
67-48
iss;
3C12
13-45
6-25
13- 12
66-94
lSUl
J0-81
12 03
11*78
14*72
69*87
Net prices realised at works for products —
Burning
and
l.uhri-
Mntium
Sulphate
of
Year* Hating | <-*$,* "Oil"'" j Seale- -N'»P'-th"- Anna
Oil.
Per Ton.
1887
Pence
per Gall.
9*3
Pence
per Gall.
110
Pence
per Gall.
6*7
Pence
per Lb.
4-3
Pence
per Gall.
S s. d.
17 r, e
1SS2
4-3
n
1-1
2-1
18 2 5
1887
S*2
.,..,
1*1
2-1
10 3 0
1891
4-2
3-7
2-8
2-3 1 5-1
10 7 1
— E"g. and Mining Journal.
The Petiioleim Ixdi-stby in Russia.
The Journal de St. Petersbourg says that one of the
questions now occupying the attention of the press in
Russia is the crisis which has supervened in the petroleum
industry of that country.
In 1891 there were at Baku 77 companies for the
extraction of naphtha. The production was 288,500,000
pouds (poud = 36 lb. avoirdupois), extracted with the
aid of 6,000 permaneut workmen, without, counting day
labourers.
Comparing the results of last year with those of the
preceding year, it is remarked that in 1891 there were
obtained 48,000,000 pouds more naphtha than in 1890,
which is equivalent to an increase of 21 per cent. This
increased yield does not arise from the increase in the
natural wealth of the soil, but from the large number of
new wells which have been opened at great expense.
Certain fissures correspond to springs so rich in naphtha
that the liquid bursts out from the soil. But this is only
exceptional, and in the majority of cases recourse is obliged
to be had to mechanical meaus to extract it from the
fissures. The number of naphtha fountains diminishes
each year; in 1887 they formed 42 per cent, of the total
production ; in 1888 this figure was reduced to 40 per cent.,
and it fell to 22 per cent, in the course of the two following
years. In 1891 the fountains only gave 39,000,000 pouds,
or 14 per cent, of the general total.
Although this considerable diminution in the yield of
the fountains indicates that the extraction of naphtha will
meet with gi eater difficulties, the Revue (a report issued by
the Association of Russian Naphtha Producers) looks
upon this phenomenon with satisfaction for, thanks to it, a
certain equilibrium in the extraction of naphtha may be
hoped for. At present the annual production of the wells
varies to the degree that the results of some often exceed
50 and 60 times the quantity of naphtha extracted in the
adjacent wells, and this immense difference in the natural
conditions of production generally acquires some significance
in the years of over-productiou, as was the case at Baku
last year. In these conditions there is but little question
of regulating the production by the aid of an agreement
between ihe owners of the springs. At the end of 1891,
for example, prices fell to 1 1 copecks per poud of naphtha,
that is to say, to a rate less than the average cost of
extraction, and notwithstanding this certain producers
having realised large profits owing to the exceptional
richness of their wells.
The Revue mentioned above divides the producers of
naphtha into several groups : the first, which it calls " the
permanent beneficiaries of naphtha production," possess
the best lands, where each new well yields two or three
million pouds per annum. The latter do not think of
extending their operations, being contented with what few
million pouds they get for almost nothing (with the excep-
tion of one copeck per poud). In proximity to these large
companies, some small producers, having accidentally
discovered a rich fountain or a naphtha well, come and
establish themselves. I'p to 30 per cent, of the total
supply passes through the hands of these permanent or
temporary beneficiaries,
Oot.81. 1892.1
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF OHEMIOAL INDUSTRY.
853
The second group, which forms the business centre,
consists of a few large houses who obtain 50 per cent, of
the total naphtha. Being given the dimensions of their
production, even the discovery of new fountains has no
influence on the prices of production, which falls but little
below two copecks per poud.
The worse conditions are those of the third group of
operators, who have not discovered wells sufficiently rich in
naphtha.
Prices have undergone marked fluctuations during the last
10 years. By reason of a large diminution in production,
prices rose considerably in the summer of 1890, and reached
eight or nine copecks per poud, but the following autumn
a reaction set in, and the prices were reduced to four and
five copecks towards the end of the year. The following
year this tendency became more marked, so that the
average price of naphtha in 1891 was 2£ copecks. Not-
withstanding the evidence of over-production, digging
operations, far from diminishing, were largely extended in
1891.
In 1889, 6,500 sagenes (sagene = G ft.) were dug; in
1890, 15,000 sagenes; and in 1891, 20,000 sagenes.
This activity was kept up until July 1891, after which it
somewhat subsided. The expenses incurred in connection
with these works last year are estimated at four millions of
roubles. Such a considerable expenditure can only render
very critical the position of several companies in presence
of the large drop in prices.
Under the influence of the depreciation of naphtha and
petroleum the general results for 1891 have been very
insufficient in the industrial district of Baku. The average
profits have sufficed neither to pay the interest nor to
cover expenses. Taking into consideration the very
unequal distribution of the losses between the manufacturers,
it is seen that a number of the latter have suffered very
se verely. — Board of Trade Journal.
Mineral and Metallurgical Output of Austria
in 1891.
Gold ore
Silver ore
Quicksilver ore .
Copper ore
1890.
Metric Tons.
4,397
115,383
70(5,332
93,180
Iron oro ! 12,312,484
Lead ore
Nickel ore")
Cobalt ore )
Zinc ore
Tin ore
Bismuth ore
Antimony oro
Arsenic ore
Uranium ore
Wolfram ore
Sulphur ore
Alum and alum stone .
Manganese ore
Graphite
Asphalt
Lignite
Bituminous coal
133,607
288,282
7,205
10,833
3,331
42
225
567
:;u,ss.-,
343,943
52,793
213,462
1,800
161,830,762
91.928,840
1891.
1890.
Value in Florins.
15,108 14,446
1 11.941 3,180,885
707,299
75,032
13,615,478
112,736
826,322
5,692
7,929
7,701
256
378
51.223
588,381
80,068
237,283
1,808
153,290,565
89,310.649
1,035,561
354,575
2,854,889
1,068,512
575,547
3,600
25,476
42,575
391
19,311
21,380
37,201
20,950
70,7 13
693,327
2,808
'30,769,056
'32,681,693
73,465.432
18,619
8,167,179
891,687
813,122
3,105,765
969,622
318
558,S12
5,168
19,032
61,881
41.674
12,337
61,263
85,998
102,625
726,036
2,962
27,639,115
30,401,078
Metallurgical Output of Austria in 1891.
68,270,343
1891.
Gold, kilos 14,717
Silver, kilos.
Quicksilver
Copper
Copper vitriol
Pig iron
Forge iron
Lead
Litharge
Nickel sulphate .
Zinc
Tin
Bismuth
Antimony ,
Uranium salts ...
Sulphur
Vitriolstein
Sulphuric acid...
Alum
Copperas
Mineral paint
36,037-46
Metric
570-2
1,033-1
197-8
517,988-2
99,156-6
7,583-3
2,267-6
1-5
5,005-6
56-2
0-61
115-4
4-13
45-0
2,831-0
12.267-9
1,126-6
1,184-3
838-1
1890.
1891.
1890.
Value in Florins.
21,573
35,862-7
Tons.
541-7
992-5
338-4
574,711-4
91,558-9
8,297-0
1,912-7
5.HS-7
49-7
0-1K
200
3-95
37-3
3,717-0
11,333-8
1468-6
1,288-2
778-3
19,273 29,093
3,219,018 3,197,585
1,383,683
581,720
42,287
20,682,753
4,298,382
1,206,105
853,059
1,050
1,375,076
63,718
5,606
45,318
45,214
3,417
48,523
374,577
74,340
83,158
25,351
1,596.563
602,163
108,805
23,295,187
4,015,430
1,399,495
296,554
1,467,811
59,437
1,914
83,585
61,213
2,642
66,596
441,917
101,633
38,655
22,137
33,781,598 .36,891,477
Mineral and Metallurgical Output op Austria
in 1891.
The Austrian Government has shown commendable
promptitude in publishing so early the statistics relating to
her mining and metallurgical industries. The figures here
given are taken from the " Statisiumsches Jahrbuch " for
1891, recently issued by the K. K. Ackerminister, and for
them we are indebted to the " Oesterreichische Zeitschrift
fur Berg und Huttenwesen."
There was a notable increase in the total value of the
ores produced, due almost entirely to the increased amount
of lignite and bituminous coal mined. There was also a
slight increase in the values of silver, quicksilver, lead and
copper ores which was more than counterbalanced by the
decreased value of the output of gold, iron, manganese and
graphite ores. Metallurgical products show a decided
falling off, the value of the output but very slightly exceeding
that of 1889. — Eng. and Mining Journal.
Ground Mica Industry in North Carolina.
Western North Carolina has for many years been known
as one of the principal mica producers of the world. But
two years ago this valuable industry came to a sudden
termination by the importation of Indian mica. Within
the past year, however, many of the mines in Mitchell and
Yancey counties, North Carolina, have been reopened,
owing to the increased tariff on imported mica — 30 per cent.
ad valorem — and at present the outlook is good for a
complete revival of the mica mining operations in this State
on a larger and more extensive scale. As is well known,
the mining of merchantable cut mica is attended with a
great many factors of uncertainty ; and particularly when it
is carried on, as it has, been, without system, and hence
854
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 31. 1892
without regard to the future developments of the mines.
The nature of the deposits, the irregularity of the veins in
themselves, and the great irregularity of the vein matter,
carrying the large blocks of good mica, such as will do for
cutting merchantable patterns, greatly increases the cost of
mining ; there is much waste and consequently great
expense. This waste is now about to be turned to an
economical purpose by the grinding of the heretofore
alaiost worthless scrap mica, for use in the manufacture of
wall paper and lubricants, particularly the former. For
this purpose the powdered mica must he in a floating con-
dition, which is effected by wet grinding. The scrap is
first roughly hand-picked and washed, after which the
general principles of the prooess consist in a wet grinding,
drying, and finally bolting to different sizes or grades.
There are at present three mills in Mitchell county, N.C. —
at Plum Tree, Hanson's Creek, and Spruce Pine— in the
valley of the North Tae Kiver.
The Margarite Mica Company of North Carolina, with
New York office at 4. Gold Street, is operating a small mill,
having an output at present of about 10 tons per mouth ;
it is hoped to increase this yield in the near future. They
grind to five sizes— 80, 100, 140, 160, and 200 meshes to
the square inch. The quoted prices of these products
delivered iu New York are respectively 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10
cents per pound. The progress of this industry may he
watched with interest, and, in connection with the increased
use of the more inferior spotted or discoloured mica for
insulating purposes in electrical appliances, its importance
to the development of this mining district cannot be over-
estimated.— Eng. and Mining Journal.
Report of thk Principal of the Laboratory of
the Board of Inland Revenue.
The total number of samples analysed during the year
was 48,566, 130 more than in the previous year.
The increased facilities granted in the latter part of 1888
for the exportation on drawback of medicinal tinctures are
evidently developing an important branch of trade, as is
shown by an increase of no less than 872 samples sub-
mitted during the year for estimation of the amount of
spirit present.
A fresh investigation into the character of the milk now
•'cnerally produced, in order to ascertain whether any
material changes which would affect the standards of
quality hitherto relied on as a guide in dealing with sus-
pected samples, has been undertaken and will be continued
during the current year.
An important series of experiments on disinfectants
undertaken for the Hoard of Trade is mentioned. The
object was to fix a standard of efficiency for disinfectants
intended to be used on hoard passenger and merchant ships,
and to revise the list of disinfectants in the medical scales
of the Hoard of Trade. It was decided to adopt as
standards a solution containing 80 per cent, of carbolic
acid, and a powder containing 20 per cent, of carbolic acid.
Every disinfectant on the Board of Trade list was examined
bacteriologically, in order to determine whether it was equal
in value to the standard as an antiseptic and disinfectant.
The experiments extended over several months, the result
being that nearly every liquid disinfectant on the list was
found to be inferior to an equal bulk of the carbolic acid
solution, and in the case of powders to an equal weight of
the carbolic acid powder. Revised medical scales have
now been issued by the Board of Trade embodying the
recommendations of this committee.
An elaborate investigation was made as to the gas-
producing quality of a sample of Indian coal, to see whether
it was fitted economically for use in India. It gave about
three-fifths as much gas as ordinary Knglish coal and the
coke was very inferior.
< >f the 539 miscellaneous samples examined for the
Indian Government, 111 were either not genuine or inferior
in quality. Among these may be mentioned rape oil
adulterated with mineral oil, pearl barley faced with chalk.
white lead mixed witli barium sulphate, zinc white witli
white lead, lamp black witli a large excess of mineral
matter, brass tubing lined with so-called tin more than half
of which was lead, and two samples of verdigris mixed with
40 per cent, of sodium sulphate in one case and 25 per cent,
of cupric sulphate in the other.
810 samples of naphtha have been examined and of
these 64 were rejected as unfit for methylating purposes.
Pressure is stated to be put upon producers of naphtha by
methylators to supply a comparatively pure naphtha, such as,
from a revenue point of view, is unsuitable for the purpose.
Attempts to obtain approval for such naphtha during the
past year have been numerous, and have resulted in so
large a number of the samples being rejected.
Dr. Bell mentions the change made during the year in the
character of methylated spirits allowed to be sold by retail.
In order to prevent the use of such spirit as a beverage, the
Board decided, at his suggestion, that while methlyatcd
spirit for general use in the arts and manufactures should
be still allowed as hitherto, that portion sold by retail to the
general public should contain a small addition of petroleum.
This admixture renders the methylated spirit turbid when
diluted, and also more offensive in character. The retail
sales since its introduction have largely fallen off, and there
is every reason to believe that the practice of using such
spirit for drinking purposes has been extensively abandoned,
if not altogether stamped out. By the course adopted it is
further stated a more effective control can now be exercised
over the uses to which the spirit is applied.
From the requests made to the Board for the use of
ordinary methylated spirit, it has been evident in some
cases that the applicants had hitherto been making an
improper use of such spirit.
Xithate of Potash and Pn'HBAfio ix M\shonaland.
The British South African Company has received a
report from Mr. Griffiths, mining engineer of the I)e Beers
Syndicate, stating that he has made a valuable discovery of
nitrates near Mount Darwin, in the direction of the Hunyani
River. The deposit, which consists of pure nitrate of
potassium, lies in beds varying in thickness from 3 feet to
20 feet, and extending over an area of some 20 miles. He
has also discovered a rich bed of plumbago in the same
neighbourhood. This latter lies in the alluvium, but is very
pure, and he says there is a sufficient quantity to be worked
for 50 years. — Chemist and "Druggist.
Fertilisers in the West Indies.
Special reports from United States Consuls located in the
West Indies indicate that American fertilisers are not
making much headway in the West Indies. We give the
following extracts : —
Jamaica. — Intelligent and practical users of fertilisers
assure Vice-Consul Wright that if American manufacturers
will hold out the same inducements in regard to analysing
the soils and manipulating the manure to supply the
requirements thereof, as English manufacturers do, and in
addition thereto will sell at the same price fertilisers of the
same commercial value, the item of freights being so much
in favour of the 1'nited States, our manufacturers can turn
the tide in their favour,
Martinique. — There are no duties on fertilisers, and
wharfage is nominal. Small lots of sulphate of ammonia
and nitrate of potash have been recently imported from thu
1'nited States through a commission house.
Matanzas. — No attempt has been made to introduce
fertilisers from abroad.
St. Thomas. — There is no demand for fertilisers ; all
planters have home-made manure.
St. Christopher. — A few years ago the English fertiliser
companies sent out a chemist who analysed the soil and
prepared a special formula of a fertiliser for the sugar-cane
plant, which is very popular here and sells at the highest
price, 60 dols. per ton.
Trinidad. — The United Slates got somewhat of a foothold
last year: it is still not fairly iu the market. — ling, and
Mining Journal.
Oct. 31, 1893.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
855
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS.
Summary of Imports.
Month ending 3«Ui September
1891.
1892.
Metals
Chemicals ami dyestuffs
Oils
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports ....
£
£
1,837,262
1,570,592
nix,;:; t
530,529
575,161
535,865
■1,029,509
4 073,001
34,089,301
31,436,305
Summary op Exports.
Month ending 3oth September
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
3,011,307
722,206
2,629,592
£
2,837,408
741,709
2,360,083
20,793,5+3
19.101.S59
Imports op Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 3uth september.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tanners, 4c.) „
Brimstone ,
Chemicals Value £
Cochin9al Cwt.
Cutch and gambier Tons
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
Alizarine „
Other
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda.... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles. . . Value £
Total valucof ohemicals
6,501
46,561
29,922
918
2,278
1892.
4,311
45,715
49,917
334
1,319
316
3,019
1 18,206
13-1 927
16,557
20.9S2
929
2,013
£
4,216
21,453
8,848
101,348
5,753
50,718
18,254
22,911
967
5,196
66,553
15,455
17,860
158,899
£
3,237
ls.llOo
1 1,499
127,015
2,111
2S.164
12,513
37,130
47
47,331
55.802
17.675
26,271
140,425
498,734 530,529
Imports of Metals for Month ending 30th September.
Articles.
Copper :—
Tons
Rcgulus
Unwrought ....
Iron :—
Ore
Bolt, bar, Ac. ...
Steel, unwrought . .
Lead, pig and sheet
Pyrites
Quicksilver Lb.
Tin Cwt.
Zinc Tons
Other articles . . .Value £
Total value of metals
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
6,462
8,740
3,618
201,761
7,313
1,229
13,076
39,173
81,010
48,890
5,632
9,017
7,402
3.362
315,985
6,75s
583
15,651
34,310
51,965
46,839
3,312
Values.
1891.
£
67,489
224,281
202,931
154,852
70.S70
10,833
161,430
66,938
9,380
223,080
129,00*
513,167
1,837,262
1892.
£
48 915
167,016
153,998
229,156
66,167
5,917
169,107
62,790
4,784
222,084
70,591
369,977
1,570.592
Imports of Raw Material for Non-Textile
Industries for Month ending 30th September.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
Values.
1891.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian . . Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum : —
Arabic
Lac, Ac
Gutta-percha ..
Hides, raw :—
Ury
Wet
Ivory
Manure :—
Guano Tons
Bones „
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
Esparto
Pulp of wood
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin „
Tar Barrels
Wood:—
Hewn Loads
Sawn
Staves ,
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . .Value £
Total value .
4,973
5,601
£
12,377
535,024
2S0.258
68,415
14,937
20,920
153,937
3,767
5,932
10,712
5,827
3,622
23,332
4,827
4,006
48,781
31,500
24,517
85,530
62,206
37,771
144,723
980
1,014
49,914
1.731
1,101
10,174
3,737
4,281
17,600
45,271
43,254
67,10-1
2,258
618
22,615
8,799
14,147
45,859
14,340
12,011
75,460
121,824
127,296
30,170
. 73,572
90,920
108,075
29,633
36,071
10,916
258,257
268,045
1
549,364
037.24S
672,602
1,320,143
17,318
17,883
70,899
3,951
5,830
38,359
1,059.030
••
••
4,029,509
£
11,597
47,968
213,178
13,701
14,616
41.112
59,619
81,949
10,966
6,131
16,842
61,920
4,242
71,181
69,750
32,269
116,435
21,576
526,186
1,467,501
61,479
50,578
1,007,829
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 68,6962. were imported
as atrainst 58,5752. in September 1891.
856
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Out, 31, 1892.
Imports of Oils fob Month ending 30th September.
Articlei.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
120
1,489
81,433
10,212,369
1,874
2,009
29,275
2,097
1,525
81,278
7,154,843
2,143
2,403
71,501
£
291
58,177
94,578
221,024
53,243
41,104
40,601
62,843
£
2,159
56,974
82,686
136,952
55,292
48,062
Other articles . . Value £
74,857
78,983
Total value of oils . . .
••
••
575,161
535,865
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending 30th September.
Quantities.
Values.
Articles.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
£
£
10,084
8,166
45,782
33,714
Copper :—
Unwrought ,
411.351
66,171
124.852
160,932
27,0119
24,510
91,681
74,491
Mixed metal
23,566
22,310
67,078
54,072
..
..
220,059
182,337
Implements
• •
• •
104,462
99,300
283,806
267,603
2,085,691
1,933,965
3,991
3,900
55,467
36,413
44,405
Plated wares. . . Value £
30,710
Telegraph wires, Ac. ,,
• •
• •
78,662
68,914
9,388
8,638
11,763
14,337
44,840
9,261
56,571
12,764
Other articles . . Value £
••
••
77,056
85,173
••
3,011,307
2,837,408
ExroRTS of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
30th September.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1893.
£
£
569,000
519,098
220,522
46,285
184,714
67.118
Bleaching materials „
132,307
141,291
Chemical manure*. Tons
27,792
29,417
149,402
177,273
..
92,218
81,037
01 her articles ... „
••
213,829
211,237
••
••
722,306
744,709
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 30th September.
Articles-
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Military stores. . Value £
798,000
1,298,600
46,242
273,237
9,603
67,740
16,091
13,016
5,578
1,665,500
89,289
3,945
46,634
622,900
1,339,500
34,892
236,416
7,204
56,410
21,221
10,718
4,765
1,266,200
73,132
4,590
40,778
£
20,946
100,389
25,932
102,038
9U97
99,524
172,672
10,163
17,535
21,084
32,364
13,834
116,093
33,066
120,512
70,182
140,221
152,495
26,918
•16,842
£
19,259
87,957
25,419
101,935
82^88
Products of coal Value £
Earthenware ... „
Glass :—
104,508
156,721
11,308
S.901
20,518
28,328
Other kinds.... „
Leather :—
Unwrought.... „
17,779
98,229
87,883
91,133
Painters' materials Val. £
57,556
117,875
123,573
33,132
••
••
2,629,592
2,360,083
iffontblp patent list.
* The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two months of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
16,726. E. Tlieisen. Method of and apparatus for pro-
ducing intimate frictional action between liquids and gases
or vapours, by means of centrifugal force, for effecting
either the evaporation of the liquids of the interchange of
temperature between the liquids and gases, or the mixing of
the gases with, or their separation from, the liquids.
September 19.
17,301. D. W. Noakes. Improvements in gauges used
for ascertaining the pressure in compressed gas cylinders
and other reservoirs. September 28,
Oct. SI, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
857
17,458. W. W. Fyfe. Improvements in and connected
with furnaces and means for calcining and treating complex
ores. .September 30.
17,519. W. H. Westwood, E. T. Wright, and VV. W. S.
Westwood. Improvements in washes for washing gases.
October 1.
17,824. W. Mather. See Class VII.
18,325. F. T. Bond. An appliance for making infusions
or extracts of vegetable or other matters. (Jetober 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
18,488. J. Sutton.
1891.
See Class XVII.
18,959. A. Feldman. Distilling apparatus suitable for
the treatment of ammoniacal liquors. October 19.
20,142. J. C. Mewburn. — From The Maschinenfabrik
Grevenbroich. See Class XVI.
20,677. W. R. Jones. Furnaces. October 5.
20,788. E. Goedicke. Reverberatory furnaces. October 5 .
21,157. J. Dawson. Thermometers. October 19.
21,730. M. F. Purcelland G. Purcell. Apparatus for the
purification of gaseous fumes, air, and the like, and the
deposition of solid particles therefrom. October 19.
22,089. P. Laberie. See Class XVI.
1892.
7753. J. Morrison. Ejectors for ejecting water, thick or
thin, or tar and ammonia water. October 5.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
16,694. B. Ratcliff. Improvements in or additions to
carbon lamps or carbon burners for illuminating purposes.
September 19.
16,750. F. Grein. Charging machine for gas retorts.
Complete Specification. September 19.
17,067. H. Collet and M. Meriehenski. Improvements
in making gas, and a compound therefor. September 24.
17,262. R. M. Bidelman. Improvements in the manu-
facture of gas. Complete Specification. September 27.
17,394. H. E. Newton.— From R. N. Oakman, juii..
United States. Improved apparatus for the manufacture of
illuminating gas. September 29.
17,419. F. J. Collin.
Complete Specification.
Improvements in coke furnaces.
September 29.
17,484. P. Jensen. — From H. Stiemer and M. Ziegler,
Germany. Process of and apparatus for working up
organic fibrines of large and hardened form for the purpose
of procuring tar, oil, paraffin, asphalte, pitch, heating and
illuminating gases, and large coke. Complete Specification.
September 30.
17,519. W. H. Westwood, E. T. Wright, and W. \V. S.
Westwood. See Class I.
17,644. J. A. Yeadon and W. Adgie. Improvements in
retorts for the distillation of oil from shale or other
analogous substances. October 4.
18,047. N. McFarlane Henderson, J. S. MacArthur, and
E. Hunt. See Class III.
* See Note (.*) on previous page.
18,521. H. H. Lake.— From T. G. B. de Ferrari di G. B.,
Italy. Improvements in and relating to apparatus for
burning petroleum, naphtha, and other liquid fuels in
steam-boiler furnaces. Complete Specification. October 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,496. J. Lyle. The treatment of ingredients for the
manufacture of fuel briquettes. October 19.
19,758. Sir G. Elliot, Bart., and J. McGowan, jun.
Manufacture of coke. October 19.
20,780. A. Jabs. Method of manufacturing producer-
and water-gas. October 5.
21,249. E. Drorg. Apparatus for charging inclined
retorts for use in the manufacture of coal-gas, and for
similar purposes. September 28.
1892.
6697. J. Morley. Treatment of ingredients and the
manufacture of compound blocks for use as fire-lighters.
September 28.
7708. J. C. Chandler. Apparatus for washing, purifying,
and scrubbing gas. September 28.
12,762. E. A. Erb.
October 19.
Combustion of carbonaceous fuel.
16,322. C. Winter. Artificial fuel. October 19.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Applications.
17,484. P. Jensen.— From H. Stiemer and M. Ziegler,
Germany. See Class II.
18,047. N. McFarlane Henderson, J. S. McArthur, and
E. Hunt. Improvements in or connected with the destruc-
tive distillation of oil-yielding or gas-yielding minerals, and
the obtainment of products therefrom. October 10.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
16.814. II. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of triphenylmethan dyestuffs. September 20.
16.815. H. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new basic colouring matters. September 20.
17,070. Read, Holliday, and Sons, Limited, and J. Turner.
Improvements in the production of azo-colouring matters.
September 24.
17,147. B. Willcox.— From F. von Hcyden, "Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of chloro-para-oxy-
benzoic acids. September 26.
17,546. H. H. Lake. — From K. Oehler, Germany.
Improvements in the manufacture of colouring matters,
October 1,
858
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct. si.iap.
17,1)7:!. II. E. Newton.— From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture or production of dyestuffs. October 4.
17,674. H.E.Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vor-
nials F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufactuie or production of colouiing matters derived
from anthraquinone. October 4.
17,770. H.E.Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vor-
mals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new azo-colouring matters, and processes for
dyeing and printing therewith. October 5.
18,081. ( >. Imray.— From The Farbwerkc vonnals Meister,
Lucius, and Briiuing, Germany. Reduction of blue to
blue-green colouring matters of the triphenylmcthan series.
October 10.
Comtlete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,062. I!. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vonnals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture and production of colouring
matters. October 19.
20,275. .7. Y. .lohnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture and production of azo-dyes,
and of materials therefor. September 28.
21,717. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. The manufacture and production of
new derivatives of alizarin and its analogues. October 10.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
18,031. T. Briggs and E. Webb. Improvements in
apparatus for printing textile fabrics. October 10.
1 8,052. T. Lye and AY. T. Lye. Improvements in the
bleaohing or dyeing of " chip," " straw," and " chip-plait,"
and " straw-plait." ( tctober 10.
18,395. S. \V. Wilkinson and R. A. L. Hutchinson.
An improved method or process of sizing tibrous materials.
October 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
20,574. J. Longtnore and R. Williamson,
and other fibres. October 5.
Dyeing silk
1892.
11,41 6. F. F. Grafton and W. Browning. Process for
the production and fixation of colours in conjunction with
aniline black upon woven fabrics. September 7.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
16,935. R. Cottam. An improvement for more effectually
cleaning textile fabrics in the process of manufacture.
September 22.
16,951. C. E. Wright. An improved method of treating
silk textile fabrics for preventing the formation of mildew
upon the same. September 22.
17,055. I). Donald. Improvements in the manufacture
of jute yarns. September 24.
18,358. A. F. B. Gomess. A new or improved process
for the treatment of textile vegetable fibres, and in apparatus
connected therewith. October 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
Composition for treatment of
17,325. G. E. Armstrong,
fibres. September 28.
18,851. W. Golding. Compound of india-rubber and
fibre formed by treating fibrous fabrics, yarns, cords, &c.,
with rubber, so that the fibrous material is permeated by
the rubber, and the individual fibres are embedded therein,
constituting a new manufacture to be called " Rubbric,"
and processes, apparatus, and machinery for producing the
same. October 5.
19,710. F. G. Annison. Treatment of linen and other
textile fabrics, applicable to t lie manufacture of show bills,
show cards, posters, tablets, wall decorations and other
purposes. September 28.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
16,757. J. Rice. Improvements in or relating to the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. September 20.
16.873. C. L. C. Berton. Improvements in the process
of precipitating oxide of tin from solutions. September 21.
16.874. C. L. C. Berton. Improved process for the pre-
cipitation of tin from acid solutions containing same with
other metals. September 21.
16,922. J. S. MacArthur. Improvements in obtaining
cyanides. September 22.
17,216. H. C. Bull. An improved process for recovering
sulphur from sulphurous acid and for obtaining bisulphide
of carbon, ard apparatus therefor. September 27.
17,228. W. P. Thompson. — From T. Mayer, Germany.
A new or improved manufacture of double salts con-
taining fluorine and an always constant amount of antimony.
September 27.
17.240. A. Y. Newton. — From A. Nobel, France.
Improvements in the production of cyanides. September 27.
17.241. A. Y. Newton. — From A. Nobel, Krance. An
improved mode of producing nitrogen compounds. Sep-
tember 27.
17,661. H. H. Lake.— From E. Noriega, Mexico. .See
Class X.
17,824. W. Mather. Improvements in the dehydration
of ammonia and other volatile liquids, vapours, or gases,
and iu apparatus therefor. ( )ctober 6.
17,911. P. M. Justice— From E. G. Acheson, United
States. Improvements in and connected with cathonaceous
compounds. October 7.
18,232. A. Vogt and A. R. Scott. Improvements in
treating manganese nitrate for the recovery of nitric acid
and manganese peroxide. October 12.
18.496. J. Morris. New or improved process for the
production of crystals or crystalline masses. October 15.
Oct. SI, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
859
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,74.".. F. M. Lyte and C. H. M. Lyte. Production of
chlorine conjointly with the purification of lead and the
recovery of silver. October 19.
18,231. 1). Rylands. Processes for producing carbonic
acid gas. September 28.
18,481. J. E.Bott. Manufacture of salt. October 5.
18,695. W. Smith. See Class XIII.
18,959. A. Feldnian. See Class I.
19,375. C. Hoepfner. Manufacture of chlorine.
October 19.
22,018. A. Vogt. Manufacture of nitric acid.
October 12.
22,541. .T. Hrock and -J. T. Marsh. Manufacture of
carbonates of strontium and barium. September 28.
22,7o4. If. H. Lake. — From V. Hannetelle. Apparatus
foi use in the concentration of sulphuric acid. October 19.
1892.
192. A. S. Caldwell. Apparatus for evaporatiug and
incinerating spent or used alkaline lyes or similar waste
products. September 28.
2415. J. Wetter.— From II. and E. Albert and Co.
Process for obtaining alkali phosphates from neutral or
acid alkali sulphates. October 19.
827G. La Societe A. R. Pechiney et Cie. Apparatus for
the manufacture of a mixture of hydrochloric acid gas and
air. September 2S.
10,45(1. E. J. Barbier. Process and apparatus for the
production of neutral sulphate of soda and sulphuric acid
from bisulphate of soda. October 12.
10,599: E. I.uhmann. Process for producing pure
carbonic acid gas. October 12.
15,275. W. Stones and R. Bardsley. Method and
apparatus for the production of carbonic acid gus.
October 5.
15,513. H. J. Haddan. — F'rom P. Viscount Lambilly.
New process for the production of the cyanides of the
alkalis and alkaline earths by the simultaneous employment
of a hydrocarbon and ammonia gases, with the addition, if
desired, of free nitrogen. October 5.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
16,792. F. Shuman. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for manufacturing wire glass. Complete
Specification. September 20.
17,042. A. Horsfall. Improvements in frits for the
production of glazes, enamels, &c. applicable to china,
earthenware, metals, &c. September 24.
17,848. P. Sievert. Process for produc ing flat objects of
glass and means for carrying out such process. Complete
Specification. October 6.
18,135. L. H. Pearce. Improvements in the manufacture
of blown glass articles. ( Ictober 11.
18,178. J. Wade, W. Wade, and H. Wallace. A new or
improved process for decorating tiles. Complete Specifica-
tion. October 11.
18,313. J. 11. Adams. Improvements in the manufacture
of spherical bodies from glass or the like, aud apparatus
therefor. October 13.
18,448. P. Sievert. Process and means for manufacturing
glass pipes. Complete Specification. October 14.
18,510. J. C. Mewburn— From E. F. W. Hirsch,
Germanv. Improvements in the process of and apparatus
for melting glass composition in melting tanks or melting
pots. October 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,230. D. Rylands. Furnaces or retorts used in the
production of glass and for similar purposes. October 12.
19,777. T. 0. J. Thomas. Construction of tank furnaces
for the manufacture of glass. October 19.
20,280. Craven, Dunnill, and Co., limited, and F. 1!.
Smith. Manufacture of tiles and the like, and apparatus
therefor. October 5.
20,861. J. E. G. Meran. A new product to serve as a
substitute for pottery, for filtering purposes, aud for the
manufacture of tobacco pipes and the like. October 12.
1892.
16,241. J. C. Duntze. Process for producing colours on
glass surfaces. October 19.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
16,717. J. C. Bloomfield. Improvements in the manu-
facture of plaster. September 19.
18,234. W. II. Pochin. An improved method of making
Crofl, Adamant, Victoria, and similar concrete paving
slabs, kerbs, channels, window sills, steps, and tiles.
October 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,050. J. 1*. Kobertson. — From C. W. Kennedy. See
Class XIII.
19,106. I). Ward. Making coloured stucco, coloured
concrete blocks and tiles. October 1 2.
1892.
15,147. .1. E. Keseling and C. Fuchs, jun. Artificial
stone composition. September 28.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
16,800. J. Strap. A process for recovering copper and
nickel from ores or matters containing these metals.
September 20.
16,891. E. Ruck and F. N. Raggatt. Improvements in
or rela'ing to the smelting of zinc. September 21.
16,894. J. C. Montgomerie. Improvements in the
extraction of gold and silver from ores or compounds
containing the same. September 21.
17,081. A. Culley. A silver-plating compound. Sep-
tember 24.
860
THE JOURNAL Of THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oet.8i.MS3.
17.20C. .1. lolley and T. Twynam. Improvements in
the manufacture of ingot iron and steel. September 27.
17,339. G. F. Thomson. Improvements in or relating to
the manufacture of iron and steel. September 28.
17,521. J. H. Darby. Improvements in or appertaining
to furnaces for the manufacture of pig or cast iron.
October 1.
17,570. W. Mills. Improvements in the manufacture of
sodium. October 3.
17,C19. J. D. Gilmour and .1. Finlay. Improvements in
the extraction of copper or other metals from ore.
October 4.
17,661. H. H. Lake From E. Noriega, Mexico. Im-
provements in and relating to the preparation of reagents
for working gold and silver ores. October 4.
17,692. E. H. Saniter. Improvements in or relating to
the purification of iron or steel from sulphur. ( Ictober 4.
17,694. J. W. Kynaston. Improvements in the extrac-
tion of bismuth, (especially applicable to the treatment of
the flue dust of copper works. October 4.
17,825. H. Irnray. — F'rom La Compagnie Anonyme des
Forges de Chatillon et C'oinmentry, France. A process for
facilitating the fusion of mild steel and other refractory
metals. October 6.
17.90S. W. Smethurst. A new or improved furnace for
the reduction or smelting of zinc, lead, silver, gold, and
other ores. Complete Specification. October 7.
17,918. C. A. Netto, J. Pfleger, and L. Hausmanu.
Improvements in the production of easily separable metallic
deposits. October 7.
17,928. C. H. Hubbell. An improvement in the manu-
facture of mineral wool. Complete Specification. October 7.
17,951. T. Twynam. Improvements in the recovery of
tin from tin-plate scrap. October 8.
18,082. C. D. Abel. — From Hcerder Bergwerks-und
Hutteu-Verein, Germany. Process for the removal of
manganese from pig iron, ingot iron, and steel. Complete
Specification. October 10.
18,163. C. Allen and C. Davey. Improvements in the
manufacture of cast iron and steel, and apparatus therefor.
October 11.
18,275. M. Lewthwaite. An improvement connected
with the treatment of metals in a fluid state. October 12.
18,292. H. M. Hyndman. — From .1. Vandessluys, France.
A new or improved process for the production of aluminium.
October 12.
18,307. T. F. Hardour. Improved process for extracting
gold, silver, and other metals from ores. October 13.
18,394. W. Mills. Improvements in the manufacture of
aluminium and apparatus therefor. October 14.
18.494. .1. M. Stuart and J. W. Cohen. Improvements
in obtaining precious metals from their ores. October 15.
18.495. J. M. Stuart and J. W.Cohen. Improvements
in I In- apparatus to be used in obtaining precious metals
from their ores. October 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,273. .1. 11. Bibby. Process of smelting copper ores and
furnaces or apparatus applicable therefor. September 28.
17,745. F. M. Lyte and C. II. M. Lyte. See Class VII.
18,990. J. Oolley. Adding metallic and non-metallic
Bubstances to steel and iron. October 12.
20,461. E. K. Dutton.— From A.Mathies. Production of
hollow steel ingots, and apparatus therefor. October 5.
21,114. F'. Norton. Coating metals. September 28.
1892.
8612a. K. H. Saniter. Purification of iron. October 19.
15,058. E. Martin. Process for alloying the surfaces
of metal wires, strips, plates, sheets, and the like.
September 28.
15,248. J. W. Sutton. Wet process for the extraction
of gold or silver, or both, from pulverised ores or
other finely-divided material, and apparatus therefor.
September 28.
15,584. .1. W. Chenall. Extraction of metals from their
ores. October 5.
16,173. J. T. Wainright. Process of reducing un-
smeltcd ore, including roasted ore, furnace cinders, and like
material. October 19.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRT and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
16,822. T. Craney. Improvements in electrolytic appa-
ratus. Complete Specification. September 20.
16,866. A. Miiller. Improvements in electrode-plates
for secondary batteries. September 2 1 .
16,878. E. Bailey and J. Hall. Improved plates for
secondary batteries. September 21 .
16.892. D. Tommasi. Process aud apparatus for the
extraction, separation, and refining of metals by electrolysis.
Filed September 21. Date applied for, April 1, 1892, being
date of application in France.
16.893. D. Tommasi. Process and apparatus for the
extraction, separation, and refining of metals by electrolysis.
Filed September 21. Date applied for, May 21, 1892, being
date of application in France.
16,919. J. Swinburne. Improvements in and connected
with dynamo-electric machinery, alternating current motors,
transformers, manufacture of ozone and oxide of nitrogen,
recovery of tin from scrap, electro-plating with aluminium.
September 22.
17,099. H. T. Barnett. An improvement in carbon
electrodes. September 24.
17,169. C. Kellner. Improvements in or relating to the
electrolytical decomposition of metallic salts, and in
apparatus therefor. September 26.
17.222. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, Tinted
States. Improvements in or relating to electric metal
working or welding. Complete Specification. September 27.
17.223. W. P. Thompson.— F'rom C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in or relating to weldiDg or working
metals electrically. Complete Specification. September 27.
17.224. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in apparatus for electrically heating
and working metal. Complete Specification. September 27.
17.225. W. P. Thompson.- From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in the method of and apparatus
for electrically welding metals. Complete Specification.
September 27.
17.226. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in the method of and apparatus for
welding or heating metals electrically. Complete Specifi-
cation. September 27.
oot. si. 1898.] THE JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
861
17,227. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in or relating to electrically welding
or heating metals. Complete Specification. September 27.
17,246. T. J. D. Rawlins. Improvements in or connected
with electric primary batteries. September 27.
17,348. R. J. Crowley. Improvements in or relating to
batteries. September 28.
17,466. H. C. Bull and Gustavus, Baron de Overbeck.
An improved electro-metallurgical process. September 30.
17,922. F. King and E. Clark. Improvements in
secondary batteries. October 7.
17.930. J. Hirshfeld, W. Morison, A. P. Morison, and
W. Wright. Improvements in secondary batteries.
October 7.
17.931. J. Hirshfeld, W. Morison, A. P. Morison, and
\V. Wright. Improvements in battery compounds. October 7.
18,037. W. C. Mountain. Improvements in electric
welding apparatus. October 10.
18,039. J. Hargreaves and T. Bird. Improvements in
electrolytic cells and diaphragms. October 10.
18,215. J. Muter. Electro-plating ceramic, vitreous, and
similar non-conducting substances. October 12.
18,280. H. Gardnep. — From E. Francke, Germany.
Improved construction of grid plates for holding the active
material in secondary batteries. October 12.
18,516. E. N. A. Picard and J. A. Taniere. Improve-
ments in and relating to the electro-deposition of metals.
Complete Specification. October 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
16,934. H. H. Lake.— From P. Kennedy and C. J. Diss.
Secondary or storage batteries. October 5.
16,938. H. H. Lake.— From P. Kennedy and C. J. Diss.
Secondary or storage batteries. October 5.
18,256. A. S. Ford.— From H. Pottier. Process for the
electro-deposition of metal upon the surface of glass,
porcelain, china, earthenware, and other materials.
October 12.
19,704. J. C. Richardson. Application of depolarisers
in electrolysis. October 19.
19,775. A. Breuer. Diaphragms for electrolytic
decomposing apparatus. October 5.
20,312. J. M. Moffat. Form of electrical battery cells,
boxes, or vessels. September 28.
1892.
14,089. C. C. Lesenberg and J. von der Poppenburg.
Dry galvanic batteries. October 5.
14,814. E. P. Usher. Storage batteries. October 5.
14,816. E. P. Usher. Electric battery plates. Octobers.
15,477. A. F. W. Kreinsen. Means for and method
of melting metals and other materials by electricity.
October 19.
15,799. E. Nunan and J. W. Nelson. Galvanic batteries.
October 9.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
16,767. W.Mills. Improvements in and relating to the
recovery of soap and suint from wool-grease. September 20.
16,827. W. R. Lake.— From W. T. Cutter, United States.
Improvements relating to the cleansing of or extraction of
fatty substances from wool and the like, and to a method of
clarifying the solvent used therefor. Complete Specifica-
tion. September 20.
16,954. A. G. Petty. Improvements in the steam treat-
ment of oils and fats for purifying or distilling purposes.
September 22.
17,230. J. C. Lahusen. Improvements in or relating to
the production of a neutral wool-grease from suint or wool
washings. September 27.
17,478. J. C. Fell.— From H. Heller, Austria. See
Class XVIII.— C.
18,086. E. Hill, F. W. J. Webb, A. W. Machonachic,
and S. Roper. Improvements in cleaning and renovating
compositions. October 10.
18,451. M. Perls. An improved manufacture of soap.
October 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,224. W. Mills. Bleaching, deodorising, and purifying
fats and oil?.', and apparatus therefor. September 24.
20,590. E. J. T. Digby Manufacture of soap. October 5.
1892.
14,405. H. H. Lake.— From O. P. Amend and J. H.
Macy. Desulphuration of oils. October 5.
15,012. J. Trent and G. Henderson. Process of extracting,
purifying, and saving the fat or grease from wool, and for
cleaning the wool by the use of benzole (benzene) or any
other spirituous liquid suitable for dissolving the fat or
grease. September 28.
15,899. J. C Decker. Oil for general painting.
October 12.
16,018. W. H. Horton and E. M. Taylor. Dry soap or
soap powder for use for certain purposes. October 12.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
17,739. R. Hutchison. Improvements in treating or
preparing gutta-percha and rubber for various purposes.
October 5.
17,808. M. N. d'Andria. Improvements in the manufac-
ture of pigments. October 6.
17,872. R. J. White and J. C. Martin. Improvements in
oil and water colour paints. October 7.
18,346. H. C. Standage and C. Smith. Improvements in
the manufacture of pigments. October 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,050. J. U. Robertson.— From C. W. Kennedy. Pro-
cesses for making plastic compounds or compositions.
October 19.
18,693. W. Smith. Preparation of acetate of ammonia
for use in the manufacture of white lead by the acetate of
ammonia process. October 12.
18,709. T. H. Cobley. Treatment of lead ores and the
production therefrom of white lead, salts of and colours of
lead, as also simultaneously zinc white. October 5.
862
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Oct. 81. 1892.
18,895. C. H. Matthews.— From E. S. Matthews. Com-
pound for coating ships' bottoms, piles, and structures
subject to the influence of sea-water. October 5.
21,203. J. C. Chapman. — From J. M. James. A process
of and materials for coating metallic surfaces for the pre-
vention of fouling and corrosion, and reducing surface
friction. October 1 'J.
1892.
14,6jG. A. J. Smith. Manufacture of white lead.
( Ictober 12.
14,794. G. 1). Coleman. Process and apparatus for the
manufacture of white lead and other lead pigments.
September 28.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Application.
18,443. C. A. Jensen.— From \V. M. Walters. A new
or improved putty or marine glue. October 14.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
2(1,755. W. P. Thompson. — From F. Kranseder and
A. Lentsch. Apparatus or appliances for use in drying
sheets of glue, gelatin, and the like. September 28.
21 .774. G. van Haecht and C. Obozinski. A new process
for tanning, and apparatus relating thereto. October 19.
1892.
15,630. E, Brand. Manufacture of animal glue. Oct. 5.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
18,129. A. Macarthur. An improved fertiliser. Oct. 11.
1892.
15,897. A. Ruuipler. Process and
production of invert sugar and dextrose.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Application.
16,810. G. J. Epstein. The treatment of residue from
breweries, distilleries, or starch factories, or of grain, flour,
or other matter containing gluten or albuminates or gluten
or albumen and starch for the obtainment of useful
products therefrom. September 20.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
20,142. J. C. Mewburn. — From The Maschinenfa'nrik,
Grevenbroich. Centrifugal machines or hydro-extractors
for extracting sugar juice from crystals, ami for other
purposes. September 28.
22,089. P. Laberie. Apparatus for evaporating sac-
charine or other solutions or liquids. October 19.
apparatus for the
( Ictoher 12.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Ere.
Applications.
16,810. G.J.Epstein. See Class XVI.
16,896. F. E. V. Haines. Improvements in the treatment
of rice or other grain for the obtainment of a product
suitable for use in brewing and distilling, and for other
purposes. September 21.
17,258. E. Adam. Improvements in malt beverages
Complete Specification. September 27.
17,927. R. Ilges. Improvements in the method of and
apparatus for distilling mash for the purpose of obtaining
highly concentrated fusel oil and purified alcohol. Com-
plete Specification. October 7.
18,332. W. H. Willis. An improved apparatus for taking
samples of beer from fermenting vessels. October 13.
18,370. A.T.Harris. Harris's patent rectifier. October 13.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
17,374. J. Takamine. Production of alcoholic ferments,
and of fermented liquors thereby. October 19.
17,395. J. Hillyard and E. Dugdale. Manufacture of
beer and porter or like beverages. October 12.
18,488. J. Sutton. Process for filtering beer and other
liquids, and apparatus therefor. October 19.
25,566. W. P. Thompson. — From O. E. Nycander and
G. Francke. Process for the production of yeast and
spirit by the employment of ozonised air or oxygen.
October 19.
XVIII.— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
18,064. J. Berlit. New or improved manufacture of a
substance or composition suitable for use as a substitute
for cocoa. October 10.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
16.838. J. Burton. Improvements in the means for
drying, burning, and consuming the refuse and garbage of
towns usually burnt in destructor furnaces. September 21.
17,006. W. D. Scott-Moncrietf. Improvements in or
relating to the treatment of sewage. September 23.
17.255. C. G. Matthews and F. E. Lott. Improvements
in or relating to the treatment of sewage. September 27.
17,302. A. P. I. Cotterell. An appliance for facilitating
withdrawal of sludge or deposit in sewage tanks, applicable
also to clarifying water and other liquids. September 28.
17,815. V. J. C. Roulengier. Improvements relating to
the disinfection of cesspools and the utilisation of the
disinfected matter. Complete Specification. October 6.
Oet.si.1882] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
863
18,317. ,1. Watts. Improvements in apparatus for
generating and applying fames, smoke, or vapours for
disinfecting, deodorising, or fumigating purposes, or for the
testing of pipes or passages by what is known as the smoke
test, or for analogous purposes. October 13,
C«— Disinfectants.
16,807. W. Cooper. An improved disinfectant, insect
destroyer, and deodoriser combined. September 21.
17,178. J. C. Fell.— From II. Heller, Austria. An
improved disinfecting soap. September 30.
18,498. .1. Mclfardy and M. E. A. Wallis, Improved
disinfecting toilet-paper. October 15.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
21,706. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and I'runing. Process for preserving
organic substances and for disinfection. October 19.
14,349. G. Barker
food products. October i9
1892.
From It. 15. Beaumont.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1891.
17,536. S. Edwards. .Manufacture of corrugated paper,
October 12.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Application.
1(3. 942. W. P. Thompson. — Fiom 1{. Campani, Italy.
Improved process for extracting iodine from natural saline
waters, mother-liquids, or other liquids containing iodine.
Complete Specification. September 22.
Complete Specification Accepted.
"1891.
22,787. C. Fahlberg. Production of pure saccharine
October 12.
(ielati
B. — Sa?iitary Chemistry.
1891.
17.7(19. E. Grimshaw. A new or improved compound
for the precipitation and purification of sewage anil other
waste water, and drinking water. < )ctober 5.
19,157. E. Grimshaw and H. Grimshaw. The purifica-
tion of waste efiiuent waters from manufacturing processes.
October 12.
19,739. T. Wardle. Wardle's patent process for the
treatment of sewage and other refuse matters. October 19.
22,442. J. Hanson. Treatment of sewage and other foul
liquid or semi-liquid matters for the clarification, disinfection,
and deodorisation thereof. October 19.
1892.
9G85. C. II. G. Harvey. Manufacture of
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
16,778. D. McXae. An improved process of colouring
pictures, especially applicable to photographs. Sept-
ember 20.
17,723. A. Radcliffe and the Sun Camera Co., Limited.
Improvements in print washers used by photographers.
October 5.
17,766. R.G.Williams. Improvements in photographic
developing solutions. October 5.
17,707. R. G. Williams. Improved method of and
apparatus for developing exposed photographic plates in
day-light. October 5.
17,768. R. G. Williams. Improved solutions for toning
photographic prints. October 5.
magnetic ferric oxide filtering medium.
a porous
September 28.
C. — Disinfectants.
1891.
21,706. (I. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, und Bruning. See Class XVIII— (. I )
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Application.
18,498. .1. Mellardy and M. E. A. Wallis.
XVIII. —(G)
See Class
XXIL— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
10,993. G. C. Baker. Improvements in and relating to
ammunition. September 23.
17,305. T. P. Palmer. An improvement in matches.
September 28.
17."i2o. G. Gerrersdorfer. Manufacture of composition
to be used in substitution for wood for match sticks for fire-
lighters and torches. October 1.
18,183. A. V. Newton. — From A. Nobel, France.
Improvements in the production of nitrogen compounds.
October 11.
18,277. II. J. Haddan. — From The American Carrier
Rocket Co., United States. An improved dynamite rocket.
Complete Specification. October 12.
864 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Oct. si, 1892.
18,488. R.T Plimpton and M.W.Travers Animproved XX1II.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY,
manufacture of detonating compound. October lo.
Complete Specification Accepted.
Complete Specification Ac hi in.
1891. 189K
19,267. W. P. Thompson—From E. Landauer. Mann- 20 956 W. Johnstone. Detection of foreign fats in butter,
facture of explosive snhstanees. September 28. October 12.
Printed aud Published by Kvke and Spottjswoode, East Harding Street, London, E.G., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
Society of £fyemtcctl 3noustty:
A MONTHLY RECOED
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 11.— Vol. XL]
NOVEMBER 30, 1892. P**
Non-Members 30/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
€f)t £>orietp of Cfmm'cal Jnfcustrp.
Pail Presidents :
Sir 11. E. Roseoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 18S1-1882,
Sir Frederick Abel. K.C.B., D.C.L., P.R.S 1882—1883,
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1883—1884.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D.. F.R.S 1884—1885,
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1836
David Howard 1886—1887
Prol. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888,
LudwigMond, F.R.S 1888—1889,
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 1889-1890.
E. Rider Cook 1890—1891
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. 1891—1892,
COUNCIL FOR YEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President : Sir John Evans. K.C.B., F.R.S., 4c.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S. Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
Wm. Crowder. MD-. DSc- F'R-S-
David Howard. ■T"lln Spiller.
Hi-. F. Hurter.
E. K. Muspratt,
B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Turney.
A. II Allen.
Arthur Boake.
R. Forbes Carpenter.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus.
11. Grimshaw.
C. Clarke Hutchinson
Ordinary Members of Council:
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinson,
Boverton Redwood.
A. Gordon Salamon.
Edward C. Curtis Stanford.
Thos. Tyrer.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E. Rid) r Conk East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archlmtt.
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Joseph Bornays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. Y. Dent.
Clias. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J. J. Humini'.
Publication Committee :
The President.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
F. Hurter, Th.D.
C. Clark? Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors :
S. B. Asher Aron. IV., IX., X
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
D. Bendii III.
M. Benfey VI.
E. Bentz IV., V., VI.
Jos. Bernays.M.I.C.E I.
E. J. Bevan V..XIX.
Bertram Blount . f xjj 'j^if
Arthur G. Bloiam XIV., XV.
J. C.Chorley I., XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V. Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII.
C.F.Cross.... V., XII.. XIX.
W. P. Dreaper VI.
P. Dvorkowitsch II., III., XII.
W. M. Gardner V., VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P. J. Hartog, B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D. E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping,} II. and
D.Sc ) Gen. Chem.
ChaSp,*b!i.0.hn:.} G'«- Chem.
L.deKoningh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawsou, Ph.D. . IV.
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII. , XXI.
J. Lewkowitseh,') TIT ,,rT
Ph.D / III., XII.
A.R.Ling IV..XVI.
D.A.Louis IX., X., XV.
W. Macnab XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K. Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
F. W. Passmore,')
Ph.D.
:i
XX., XXIII.
H.S.Pattinson.Ph.D. VII., X.
Vann^} *VL. XVII.
W.J.Pope .... IV., X., XXI.
G. H. Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XI.
H.K. Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
J. G. Wells XVII., XX.
A. Wringham X.
NOTICES.
Foreign and Colonial Members are reminded tbat the
subscription of 25s. for 1893, payable on January 1st next,
should be sent in good time to the Treasurer in order to
ensure continuity in the receipt of the Society's Journal.
Any changes of address to appear in the new List of Mem-
bers now in co\wse of preparation, should reach the General
Secretar}' not later than January 15th, 1893.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at fho
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Kider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the'
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
866
THE JOUENAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. SO, 1892
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journals for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 23rd NOVEMBER 1892
Bunkell, H. B., P.O. Box 962, Johannesburg, S.A.R.,
mining engineer.
Crenshaw, S.D., Crenshaw Building, Richmond, Va.,
U.S.A., chemical manufacturer.
Pinlay, Kirkman, c/o Milne and Co., 123, Bishopsgate
Street, E.C., East India merchant.
Oibbs, R. P., 140, Manor Street, Clapham, S.W., works
manager.
Hamaguchi, K., Choshi, Chibaken, Japan, soy manufac-
turer.
Johnson, Albert C, 2106, E. Baltimore Street, Baltimore,
Md., U.S.A., chemical engineer.
Kellie, Jas. M., Straiton Oil Works, Loanhead, N.B.,
chemist.
Lester, J. H., 51, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester, analytical chemist.
MeArthur, Thos., Cairndhu, Kirklee Road, Glasgow,
drysalter and dyewood manufacturer.
McBretney, E. G., 24, Eastfield Road, Castleford, Yorks.,
bottle works chemist.
Madden, W. J. H., 7, Montalto, South Parade, Belfast,
wholesale druggist.
Pope, Erauk, 40, Pearl Street, Cauibridgeport, M;iss.,
U.S.A., chemist.
Salmon, Edgar II. R., Cachoeira, Rio Grande do Bui,
South Brazil, analytical chemist.
Sloan, Earle, Charleston, S. Carolina, U.S.A., chemical
engineer.
Smith, Ernest A., Metallurgical Laboratory, lioyal
College of Science, South Kensington, S.W., assistant
Instructor in assaying.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Best, Or. T. T., l/o (iambic and Sons; si. Helens,
Lancashire.
Billing, II. S., Journals to 5, Regent Terrace, Plymptou,
South Devon.
Breckon, J. P., l/o Fawcett Street ; 53, John Street,
Sunderland.
Brown, F. W., l/o Warminster; 14, Blenheim Terrace,
St. John's Wood, N.W. {temp.)
Chaney, H., l/o Kolar Road : Mysore Gold Mining Co.,
Ld., Oorgaum, Mysore, South India.
Dunn, Jno., l/o South Kensington ; Morgan Academy,
Dundee.
Dyson, Sept., l/o Leeds; 14, West Bank, Heaton,
Bradford, Yorks.
Ellis, Alexander, Journals to Skelton-in-C'leveland,
Yorks.
Entwisle, E., l/o Pendleton ; Woodlands, Ashton-upon-
Mersey, Cheshire.
Francis, Win., jun., l/o Chili ; 7, Shaftesbury Square,
Belfast.
Griffith, D. Agnew, l/o Commercial Court ; c/o Titan
Soap Co., Lydia Ann Street, Liverpool.
Hake, C. Napier, Journals to " Chief Inspector of
Explosives," Department of Trade and Customs, Melbourne,
Victoria.
Hersam, E. A., l/o Boston ; State University, College of
Mines, Berkeley, Cal., U.S.A.
Holloman, F. R., l/o Leyton ; 54, Russell Road, Custom
House, E.
Kerry, W. H. R., l/o Liverpool; Wheatlands, Winder-
mere.
Kingdon, J. C, l/o Mycenae Road; Devonshire House,
Hunter Road, Westcombe Park, S.E.
Leather, Dr. J. W., l/o Preston ; Land Revenue and
Agricultural Department, Government of India, Calcutta.
Leese, Jos., l/o Birkdale; 3, Lord Street West, Southport.
Love, Dr, E. G., l/o Columbia College ; 69, East 54th
Street, New York, U.S.A.
McFarlane, R. F., l/o Port Talbot ; 92, Cardigan Terrace,
Heaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Monroe, Prof. C. E., l/o Rhode Island ; Columbian
University, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Palmer, Thos., l/o London ; c/o Mon Van Cutsein and Co.,
Soignies, Belgium.
Peniston, A. II., l/o Upton ; Lyndhorst, Theydon Bois,
Essex.
Perkin, A. G., l/o Manchester ; 8, Montpelier Terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.
Perkin, Dr. W. H., jun., l/o Edinburgh ; Fairview, Wil-
braham Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Redwood, I. J., l'o 141 ; 104, Kent Street, Brooklyn,
N.Y., U.S.A.
Rideal, Dr. S., Journals to Hotel Culm, St. Moritz,
Engadine, Switzerland (temp.~)
Saint, W. J., Journals to Reuterstrasse 2a, Poppelsdorf
bei Bonn, Germany.
Schweieh, E., l/o Noi'thwich | Posie Re-taute, Kingston,
Jamaica.
2Beat6*
Evans, \\ . N>, Btackpole Road, Bristol
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
867
fconfcon Action,
The Royal Society's Rooms, Burlington House, W.
Chairman : Wm. Thorp.
Vice-Chairman: W. Crowder.
Committee :
C. F. Cross. P. G. Adair Roberts.
A. G. Green. A. Gordon Salamon.
D. Howard. G. N. Stoker.
C.C. Hutchinson, P. Napier Sutton.
W. Kellner. T. E. Thorpe.
I!. E. R, Newlands. T. Tyrer.
\V. Ramsay. Frank Wilson.
Hon. Local Secretary : John Heron,
Bllerdale, Oottenham Park, Wimbledon.
SESSION 1892-93.
Meeting held Monday, 1th November 1892.
MR. \VM, THORP IN THE CHAIR.
In opening the proceedings, the Chairman said that lie
would like to give a word of explanation as to why they
had met there. The Chemical Society had (not a moment
too soon) taken in hand the re-decoration and re-arrange-
ment of its rooms. The work had been in hand for some
months, and was now in a forward state, but the electric
light had not been connected, and, consequently, they could
not occupy their old quarters. The theatre in Jermyn Street
and that of the Royal Institution being already occupied,
they had, by the kind influence of the President, obtained
the use of the rooms where they now met.
TIIK FORMATION OF NITROUS OXIDE AND A
NEW METHOD OF PREPARATION.
BY WATSON SMITH.
Lecturer in Chemical Technology in University College,
London.
Nitrous oxide has been, until within the last few years,
chiefly a curiosity, because of its chemical and physiological
properties. It is only comparatively recently that it has
assumed distinct importance as an anaesthetic. Nitrous
oxide was discovered by Priestley in 1776, and called by
him " dephlogisticated nitrous gas." The associated Dutch
chemists examined it in 1793, and proved that it was a
compound of nitrogen and oxygen. For a full investigation
of its properties we are indebted to Sir H. Davy, who
published a full series of experiments on it in 1800, and he
gave it its present name, " nitrous oxide.'' It appears that
both Priestley and the Dutch chemists jumped to the
conclusion that nitrous oxide was irrespirable, but it was
Davy who, with characteristic boldness, inspired a quantity
of it and showed that it possessed the peculiar physiological
properties now so familiar to all chemists. I have spoken
of Davy's characteristic boldness ; it would have inevitably
cost him his life, as the late Professor Thomas Thomson
pointed out in his excellent, but now old, system of chemistry,
on a subsequent occasion, — when he essayed to inhale nitric
oxide gas, by first emptying his lungs of air, and then
calmly attempting to inspire the colourless nitric oxide
direct from a gas-receiver. Davy's rash desire was anticipated
by a spasm of the epiglottis, which, whilst very painful, still
effectually prevented the entrance of the gas into the lungs,
and so saved Davy from otherwise inevitable asphyxia.
The two old methods for the production of nitrous oxide
depend upon two reactions : the first, the reduction or
deoxidation of nitric acid and other higher oxygen com-
pounds, the second, by the decomposition of nitrate of
ammonium by heat, where a complete resolution of the
compound takes place, with formation of water (steam), and
nitrous oxide. A third, not a success, was by the decom-
position of a mixture of salts.
Deoxidation of Nitric Acid. — The deoxidation process,
so far as I can make out, was the first one known, and was
effected by treatment of nitric acid diluted with five or six
times its weight of water, with such metals as copper, zinc,
or tin. The gas obtained was not pure. Another deoxidant
proposed was ammonium chloride, according to Miller
(Elements Inorganic, 1864, 97). This isL. Smith's process,
and it is said that the gas is contaminated with small
quantities of chlorine and nitrogen.
Another deoxidant is stannous chloride dissolved in
hydrochloric acid. Campari (Comptes rend. 1888, 1569)
deoxidises nitric acid as follows : — A mixture of 5 parts of
stannous chloride, 10 parts hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1-21)
and 0-9 parts of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-38) is heated to
boiling, when it is claimed pure nitrous oxide is evolved in
a regular stream. Any alterations in the proportions may
cause explosions. The last statement spoils that of the
" evolution of the pure gas in a regular stream ! " Millon
states that copper treated with nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-217
yields nitrous oxide mixed with a small quantity of NO, if
the temperature be kept below — 10D.
Methods of Prefaration depending vpon the
Deoxidation of Lower Oxides of Nitrogen.
Deoxidation of Nitrogen Trioxide, N203. — Sir H.
Davy exposed " common nitrous gas " — I presume, N203 —
for a few days to the action of iron filings, or to that of various
other deoxidising agents. He adds the caution that " some
nicety and experience are necessary, that the decomposition
may be suspended before it has gone too far, when nitrogen
gas will be obtained, and he recommends the use of
potassium sulphite, which is incapable of decomposing
nitrous oxide.
Deoxidation of Nitric Oxiije. — Nitric oxide gas is
mixed with sulphuretted hydrogen, dry or moist " liver of
sulphur " (mainly K»S3), moistened iron or zinc filings,
hydrated ferrous sulphide, solutions of alkaline or earthy
sulphites, or stannous chloride. By passing NO through a
solution of sulphurous acid or an acid sulphite.
Decomposition of Hydroxylamine. — Silver nitrate
(AgN03) with NHX>H + aq. forms metallic silver, nitrous
oxide, and nitrogen. Iodine quickly decomposes NH, . OH
and its salts to N„0 and HoO, with collateral formation of
HI.
Ferric sulphate is reduced to FeS04, with evolution
of N.,0.
Sodium nitrate causes evolution of N;0 from — ■
2 NH.:OH.H„S04 hydroxylamine sulphate.
Decomposition of Salts.
Decomposition of Nitrosilfhate of Ammonia by Hot
Watek. — The most remarkable and probably least known
decomposition of a salt which yields pure nitrous oxide is
that of Pelouze's so-called Nitrosulphate of Ammonia, or, a
Gmelin has it, " Sulphite of nitric oxide and ammonia."
This salt is prepared by mixing a concentrated solution of
ammonium sulphite with five times its volume of aqueous
ammonia, cooling with ice, and then passing nitric oxide
gas through the liquid. Crystals of the " nitrosulphate "
are deposited. These are collected, washed with aqueous
ammonia, and dried between folds of blotting paper. The
salt is soluble in cold water, but on heating the solution
decomposition sets in with brisk evolution of pure N20.
Decomposition of Nitrate of Ammonium by Heat. — This
is the process known, I may now say, to every school boy,
though I do well recollect a time, about 1857, when sundry
play-books for boys recommended as a process for the
preparation of " laughing-gas " the treatment of copper
turnings with dilute nitric acid and collecting the gas in a
B 2
868
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, mx.
bladder. Then whilst closing the nostrils with the fingers
of one hand, and holdiDg the bladder with the other, the
gas was to be inhaled. The books in question contained no
record of any names with addresses of boys who had tried
the experiment, and had really laughed in accordance with
the description of pleasing symptoms which were to follow
the inhalation ; but I anticipate more wry faces and
choking sensations were the leading features of such
perilous experiments. I have no doubt our friend Dr.
Alder Wright could tell us something on this subject, for
he has been re-writing and rehabilitating a science play-
book, and has now presented to the public one which is
doubtless the best of the kind ever written.
The mode of decomposition of nitrate of ammonium by
heat has become a matter of great interest recently, since
that salt is now so much used in explosives. With regard
to the melting point, this is stated in Watts' Dictionary to
be about 152° C, decomposition commencing at 210' C,
and becoming explosive about 300° C. According toFleischl
(Gmelin's Handbook, Vol. II. 490) the salt fuses imper-
fectly at 56°, perfectly at 108° C. ; at 150° it evolves white
fumes condensing in drops ; at 175° it effervesces slightly ;
at 225° rapidly ; at 238° it begins to evolve nitrous oxide
and at 250D the gas is evolved in abundance. According
to Legrand, at 180° C. the salt "boils" without being
decomposed, decomposition not beginning until between 190°
and 200°. Dr. Henry, in his Elements of Chemistry of
1810, states, on the authority of Davy, that at 316° C.
(600° F.) the salt explodes and is entirely decomposed, and
hence was formerly called " Nitrumjtammans." It was
llerthollet who first examined the nature of this decom-
position.
According to Miller (Elements Inorganic, 1804, 4.">9) the
salt melts at 108° C, and at 249" undergoes complete
decomposition. We have thus rather a variety of melting
and decomposition points.
Melting
Point.
Inci pient Decomposi t ion.
Watts' Dictionai
and Jfuii') .
Pleischl { Gnu-lit
) ....
rley
°C.
152
HIS
153
210° C.
175° (begins to effervesce),
at 225° (effervescence rapid),
at 2'iS° (begins to evolve
NsO).
tion). Between 190' and
20u° decomposition begins.
Between 17ii° and 180 : 205'
Hi edtr Mil tin's
Kalendar.
Chem
ker
NaOfirst evolved distinctly
over water ; freely ot 215°;
oil cooling then continues
at 180°, though slowly.
At 170° begins to dccom] ose.
On heating pure ammonium nitrate in a bulb apparatus,
such as is used in distillations, the salt was found by me to
soften at 145° and fuse at 160° C. mean = 152° C. Decom-
position with slight effervescence began at about 170° C,
and nitrous oxide gas first came off over water at 205° C.
I observed no such phenomenon as I'leischl describes of
effervescence or boiling, without evolution of nitrous oxide.
At 215° C. the evolution was tolerably active. On dropping
the temperature to 180° C. it was found possible to continue
the decomposition with slow evolution over water even at
this temperature, though of course very slowly, yet un-
doubtedly with evolution of nitrous oxide. The water was
cold. The bulb apparatus used was heated in a paraffin
bath, and with thermometers in the fused salt and in the
oil-bath as well. The decomposition of the salt at 215° C. was
not accompanied by such exothermic effect as tended to
cause the reaction to become self-accelerating or to "run
away with one," if I may use the expression, but at 240° C.
the evolution became vigorous and decidedly strong
exothermic action was so manifested as soon to become
uncontrollable, the thermometer rising rapidly towards
:f(iu ( '. There thus appears to be a kind of equilibrium
below which a slower evolution can be maintained, but over
which it is upset, and the increments of exothermic force
are added in rapid progression, no doubt ever tending to the
explosion point, which means an ultimate point of another
and more drastic and complete reaction, in which oxygen,
nitrogen, and steam are formed. So much for the
ammonium nitrate method.
Decomposition or Mixed Salts.
Sal-ammoniac and Nitre. — -The only method I know of in
the text books is that of Grouvelle (Ann. Chim. Phys. 17,
351), who proposed to prepare nitrous oxide by heating a
mixture of three parts of nitrate of potassium with one part
of ammonium chloride. Pleischl states that by this means
a mixture of chlorine, nitrogen, and nitric oxide is evolved,
containing a small quantity of nitrous oxide. Soubeiran
(.7. Pharm. 13, 321, and Pogg. 13, 282) states that not a
trace is formed. I have tried the method, and can testify
to the abundance of chlorine and nitric oxide, but I could
detect no nitrous oxide, though I will uot say that absolutely
none was formed.
Ammonium Sulphate and Nitre. — I will now pass on to
the results of some attempts of my own to prepare nitrous
oxide. About a year and a half ago it occurred to me to
try if it was possible to ignite sulphate of ammonium or sal-
ammoniac by dropping small pinches of it in the dry state into
fused sodium nitrate, the hydrogen of the ammonia forming
the combustible material, and being directly fired by the
loosely combined oxygen of the nitrate. This was easily
done. When, however, the sulphate was damp, the steam
developed produced such local cooling effect that another
phenomenon appeared instead of the flashes of fire, viz.,
evolution of red nitrous fumes. The experiment is easily
sHown in an iron or platinum dish, the crystals of (NH4).:SU,
floating about in a blaziug condition, just like bits of sodium
burning upon water. On heating a mixture in equivalent
proportions of the dry salts in a pulverised condition, viz.,
sulphate of ammonium and nitrate of soda, it was found
that it was possible to obtain a large yield of very pure
nitrous oxide gas. The reaction proceeded very smoothly
and without tendency to any danger of explosive action,
even on reaching higher temperatures at the close of the
experiment.
The yield of nitrous oxide was slightly behind that
obtained from an equivalent amount of nitrate of ammonium,
in the proportion of about 2 ■ C : 3 by volume, but to set
against this, besides the residue of sodium sulphate, is the
convenience of safety in the moderate action that goes on
in the retort, and the fact that the average cost of raw
materials employed in the mixture is about 9/. to 1 ()/. per
ton to-day, as against about 40/. per ton for ammonium
nitrate.
In an American Specification, No. 173,961, February 22,
1876, relating to explosives, a certain Mr. Johnston states
that he has actually formed some nitrate of ammonium by
fusing together dry nitrate of soda and sulphate of
ammonia, but he does not say that he ever extracted the
nitrate of ammonia, or how he did so, or how demonstrated
its presence. One thing is certain, you cannot properly fuse
the mixture without evolution of N.O, and another thing
equally certain is you cannot get both N30 and also nitrate
of ammonium.
We have seen that the melting point of nitrate of ammo-
nium is about 153° C, and that incipient decomposition is
observed at about 180'' O, and that at 205° nitrous oxide is
first 'distinctly evolved and may be collected over water.
Now, the melting point of nitrate of soda is close upon 316
(Carnelly), whilst that of sulphate of ammonium is
decidedly not 140° C , as stated inGmelin, Vol. 2, 462, and all
the text-books; also in Hiedermann's Chemiker-Kalendar.
Sulphate of ammonium softens and finally melts when
considerably decomposed by heating up at nearly 330° C.
That is the plain fact. Now the mixture of the two salts
softens, it is true, below 300° C. indeed a partial softening
commences about 200° C, but even at 240° C. this fusion
is only semi-fusion. Incipient decomposition manifests itself
in the semi-fused mixture, at about 230° ('.. but the gas is
only evolved at what I might term a moderate speed at
240° C. and at fair speed at 250° C. On lowering the
temperature from this higher point gradually to 200°
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
860
at this temperature only a very faint and slight evolution
of gas occurred, in fact, evolution was only just perceptible,
anil after a short time ceased. But 240', the point at which
the mixture shows but a reasonable speed of evolution of
nitrous oxide, is one at which the nitrate of ammonium itself
has overstepped it equilibrium of stability, and tended to
violent evolution. Meantime it was ascertained that nitrate
of ammonium begins to evolve nitrous oxide between 170°
and ISO , and that the rapidity of evolution of the gas at
21fi was fully as great as that from the mixture at 240° or
2,r>0 C. The trials were made in the paraffin bath in
perfectly simihir bulb tubes, and with thermometers in the
bath and in the salts. Thus, to get the mixed salts so to
mutually decompose as to yield nitrous oxide with reason-
able rapidity it is necessary to acquire a temperature at
which nitrate of ammonium cannot exist. There is a kind
of critical point for ammonium nitrate, and that point is
much below 2 10 ('. ; it is even below 200" C. The way of
representing the change which takes place on heating the
mixture of equivalent weights of nitrate of sodium and
sulphate of ammonium for the production of nitrous oxide,
is to the best of my belief best represented as follows—
2 ( NaXO,,) +■ ( X U, ).. Si I, = Na-SOj + I H..< > +■ 2 N.< )
No doubt, when a portion of (XT1II)._,S0, is formed we have
present the nascent elements of ammonia and nitric acid, but
unite to form nitrate of ammonia at 240° or 250C. they
cannot. We have seen, moreover, that both NO and N.,();i,
by reducing agents form nitrous oxide, so that were these
gases present momentarily in the passing reaction referred
to, the change to the final nitrous oxide is perfectly
natural and intelligible. This only indicates, I think, the
ease and readiness with which the gaseous elements of
nitrate of ammonium under a variety of conditions of
temperature can adapt themselves in a variety of changes.
Nitrate of Lead and Sulphate of Ammonium. —
By heating nitrate of lead, PbN206, alone we adopt the
tolerably ancient and classical method for producing
nitrogen peroxide, NO.,, along with oxygen and oxide of
lead. On heating a mixture of nitrate of lead with its
equivalent of sulphate of ammonium, however, I find that
instead of the red fumes of NOj the colourless gas N.,0
is evolved. This experiment, along with that of heating lead
nitrate alone, I would suggest as a pair of instructive
lecture experiments to show side by side in illustration of
the degree of stability or instability of the N.,0-, molecule
under the influence of heat, alone, and in presence of such
a reducing agent as NH:1.
Sodium Nitrate and Ammonium Oxalate. — This
mixture did not yield nitrous oxide, the decomposition of
the ammonium oxalate apparently occurring at a tempera-
ture below that at which the necessary decomposition of the
sodium nitrate occurred. Such a result might be expected,
since oxalic acid decomposes just above 160°.
Sodium Nitrate ami Ammonium Phosphatb. — The
dry mixture, on heating, evolves nitrous oxide, but not so
effectively as the ammonium sulphate mixture.
Barium Nitrate and Ammonium Sulphate, also yield
nitrous oxide on heating, but with much more difficulty
than lead nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
I desire to express my best thanks to Messrs. S. Ernest
Linder and II. Pjcton, formerly students of University
College, and especially to my late assistant, Mr. Hamilton,
for their assistance in carrying out several of the details of
this experimental inquiry with me,
I am continuing the investigation of this subject, and
more particularly of the intermediate reactions, and hope
shortly to publish more details.
=«»,»^i»te~-
SCHURMANN'S KKACiIOXS.
BY WATSON SMITH,
Lecturer in Chemical Technology in University College,
London.
Tins paper deals with reactions which are the outcome of
an investigation forming the subject of an Inaugural Disser
tation conducted by Ernst Schiirmann in the laboratory of
Professor Lothar Meyer of Tubingen, the details appearing
in Liebig's Annalen, 249— 250, 1888— S9. 32G— 3B0.
Eor some time past in a somewhat desultory way I have
been examining sundry of these reactions to see if any, and
how many, are capable of any more practical application.
In this inquiry I have been greatly aided by my late
assistant Mr. Hamilton, as well as more recently by my
present assistant Mr. J. C. Chorley. The original title of
this investigation is, " Die Verwandtschaft der Schwermetalle
zum Schwefel," and it seems that the first man who
experimented as to the action of various solutions of metallic
salts on the insoluble sulphides of the silver, copper, and
iron groups, was E. E. Anthon in the year 1837, the results
appearing in the ./. fiir prakt. Chemie, 10, 353. In this
direction he investigated the metals Pb, Cd, Cu, Ag, Co, Ni,
Mn, and Fe. He caused, for example, silver nitrate to react
upon C'uS, and realised the following equation : —
Cuts + 2 AgN03 = Cu(N03)o + Ag2S
Thus he succeeded in arranging the metals referred to, in
a series such that the salt of any one of these is capable of
decomposing the sulphide of the metal following it, or the
sulphide by the saline solution of the metal preceding it.
His arrangement was Ag, Cu, Pb, Cd, Fe, Ni, Co, and Mn.
Schiirmann extended the investigation to the following
metals, Sb, As, Pb, Cd, Fe, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pd, Hg, Ag,
Tl, Bi, Zn, and Sn.
As regards the salts used, the sulphates of Cu, Cd, Zn,
Ni, Fe, and Mn, the nitrates of Pb, Co, Bi, Ag, and Tl, and
the chlorides of Sn, Pd, and Hg, were used. Besides these,
tartar emetic for Sb, and arseuious acid were employed.
In the experiments, so as to effect fairer comparison,
equivalent weights of such salts, &c, were taken, as produced
no precipitates in the solutions. One or two specially
striking reactions are worthy of note in founding the table
to be given. These are: (1.) That, between lead nitrate
with two equivalents of sulphide of zinc, lead sulphide and
zinc nitrate being very quickly formed, so that in less than
two hours the whole of the lead will be in the precipitate
and one equivalent of Zn in solution ; also (2.) Those
between arsenic trisulphide and tartar emetic, stannous
chloride and zinc sulphate, which latter completely decom-
pose the arsenic trisulphide.
I ought perhaps to mention that the sulphides experimented
upon in this research were not natural sulphides, but
sulphides obtained by precipitation. The total results are
collected together in a table in which the salts marked with
an asterisk only acted upon the adjacent sulphides in
sealed tubes under pressure.
Sulphides.
Completely
decomposed.
Partially
dceouip ised.
Not
decomposed.
Ag,S .
A.s2Sa
Bi,S3
CdS.
Hg(NO,)2
HBC12
I'll SO,
CH.O^bK'
i'l,(No..i.'
ZnSiV~
NiSO/
CuSO,
CuSO,
FeS04
rjsuci,]
CllSO,
('.ISO,
I'M NO,].,
CJE^OjSbK
Pb(CH,COj),
7,nSI)v
XiSO,
c(H,o.s:,K
870
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. SO, 1S02.
Sulphides,
CoS.
CuS
Completely
decomposed.
FeS.
1K-S .
M11S.
NiS.
PbS
pas
S1..S,
SuS.
II -S
ZliS.
I aS04
Pb(NOj)s
HgCl,
AgNO
Pd( i
ZnSO,
NiSO<
I NO
!■
NiSO,
I o Xii
Fi -i i
rixu
CdSO,
Pb(NO i
i u(NO
'
S i
HgCl,
CuSO,
Pb(>-03)3
/i i -i i
NiSO,
CuSO,
l'hixo.i,
CdSO,
Partially
decomposed.
ZnSO,
NiSO,
FeSO,
TlXOa
ZnS >.
i ,(NO,)a
FeSO,
Not
decom]
Fi -ii
' }acti™
H i -i i
MnSO,
i |S0
VgNO
TlXu.
\-<i
i i(SQ,),
Fei
T1X( ij
ttgl
AgX"
[CdSO,]
Mil 1.
ZnSO,
CH^OsSbK
Pb NO
ZnSO,
T1N03
The conclusion ilrawn as to the affinity of the metals
referred to for sulphur is that this affinity continually
diminishes from palladium to manganese in the following
series : —
Pd, Hg, Ag, Cu, Bi, Cd, Sb, Sn, Pb, Zn, Xi, Co, Fe,
L06 200 10S 63 20S 112 122 IIS 207 Go 59 59 5G
As, Tl, and Mn.
75 2HI 55
The author endeavours to show how by means of the
knowledge of relative affinities thus pourtrayed, certain
useful iesults may he attained, for example, in separating
a metal from a large excess of another metal, and even
going a step farther than this by means of fractional
precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen. Take one case,
6 '3 cc. HgCl2 were mixed with 6'3 cc. CuSO,, diluted to
50 cc, and when the solution was brought to boiling, 20 cc.
of sulphuretted hydrogen solution were added. The solution
was kept boiling for a quarter of an hour, and filtered.
Mercury alone remained in the precipitate, and copper in
solution.
In this way Schiirmann completely separated from each
other the following : —
Hg from Cd, Pb, Sb, and Ag.
Pd from Hg and Ag.
Cu from Sn and ( Id.
Ag from Cu,
It was also shown that thus in neutral solution nickel is
precipitated before cobalt.
Schiirmann has lastly arranged the metals according to
their greater or less affinity for sulphur in the periodic
system, and he expresses, by th.- -ign ]>, which of two
neighbouring elements has the greater inclination to form
sulphides, thus : —
A II.
VIII.
II.
III.
IV.
Mn < Fe < Co
55 56 50
Xi < Cu > Zn >
As
59 63 03
75
AAA
A
P,l>Ag>Cd> ..
Sn < Sb
106 103 112
US 122
A
V A
Hg > Tl
< Pb < Bi
21 in 201
2m7 208
Regarding the elements belonging to each family alone,
if his reasoning be correct, we see that those with the
largest affinity for sulphur also possess the largest atomic
weights. Group IV. forms an exception, for Sn is pre-
cipitated before Pb. A few other remarkable relationships
are referred to, though to these several exceptions have to
be added.
Xow, with regard to my own experiments, these were, as
I have already said, with the object of testing these reactions
to some extent to discover if any of them were likely to be
of industrial use, for I must add that several trials in the
use of the list given only brought failures.
For industrial purposes I desired to experiment not upon
precipitated sulphides alone, but upon mineral sulphides.
One of the first of these I tried was galena. Looking at
Schiirmann's table, we see that copper nitrate is set down
as a salt, the solution of which should effect a complete
decomposition of lead sulphide. On sealing up a quantity
of galena with a trifle less than its equivalent of copper
acetate in a strong glass tube, and heating up to 130° C. for
about a couple of days, the blue colour had quite dis-
appeared. A black precipitate truly remained, but it was
no longer one of lead sulphide but of cupric sulphide,
whilst the solution was one of pure lead acetate, on
evaporating which the beautiful specimen of pure lead
acetate I now pass round was obtained. On exposing the
precipitate in a damp state on the filter to the air, and
occasionally moistening, and finally washing with a little
hot water, this solution of copper sulphate was obtained.
Here is a possible useful application arising from a study
of such reactions. Xow, suppose silver was present in the
galena, let us see what should happen. On referring to Da-
table we observe that when using silver nitrate, silver
appears to have a greater affinity for sulphur than copper
has, and hence must remain as sulphide with the sulphide
of copper, or if the sulphide of copper be oxidised to
sulphate, the silver will remain in the residue.
The other double decompositions I have attempted and
effected are as follows ; —
In Aqueous Solution.
Results,
Copper sulphate with slight excess of
CoS, heated 120° for 20 hours.
Copper sulphate with slight, excess of
NiS, heated 130' tor i days.
Copper sulphate with slight excess of
MnS, heated 130° for 6 days.
Copper chloride with slight excess of
As2S3, heated 120° for 20 hours.
Lead chloride with slight excess of
As2S3, heated 15"° for 00 hours.
Copper chloride with slight excess of
SbjS3. heated 130° for 1 days.
Zinc chloride in excess, with As2S3,
heated 115° and It;.}3 fur 25 hours.
Antimony trichloride in t.vcess, with
dry As.s, fused together at 170° for
3—4 days.
i v.mpleie decomposition.
Partial decomposition.
Very little decompoBil ion.
Little decomposition.
With the remark that an inspection of the tabulated
reactions of Schiirmann will show that copper as nitrate,
chloride, or acetate furnishes at once the cheapest, the
most far-reaching reagents (salts) of any ; also with the
suggestion that metallurgical chemists may yet find con-
siderable value iu Schiirmann's table of double decompositions
both analytically and industrially, I will conclude with a
few critical remarks as to Schiirmann's scientific attitude
in viewing such reactions as these as due to the affinity of
Nov. SO, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
871
the sulphur of the sulphides for the metals of the salts
presented to them. Though I had in my experiment?
noted what Sehiirmanu might have regarded as differences
of affinity of the sulphur (vide my results as given where
l'h, Cu, Zn, and Sb, as chlorides, though sufficiently far
removed in Sehiirmann's list from the metals whose
sulphides they are set to decompose, exert but little action),
yet I had not at first the intention of applying any general
criticism to Sehiirmann's standpoint, but of limiting myself
to the bare experimental facts elicited for the sole purpose
of application, technologically, to the treatment of mineral
sulphides. My friend Dr. C. It. A. Wright, however, thinks
ilir opportunity should not be lost of demonstrating a
certain fundamental fallacy which lurks in Sehiirmann's
generalisation, and which leads him to attempt definite
scientific classification of the metals referred to. It were,
perhaps, another thing had such classification been put
forward as a rough technical guide with reference to the
results of the special reactions examined, but 1 thoroughly
agree with Dr. Wright that, since the attempt has gone
further than this, correction should be applied. Dr. Alder
Wright's views are as follows : —
The interesting cases of double decomposition between
insoluble sulphides and soluble salts described by Schiir-
niaun are apparently due as much to the difference in
affinity of the two metals present for the acid radical of
the soluble sail, as to the difference in their affinities for
.sulphur; and hence the experiments hardly warrant any
classification of metals based on their relative affinities for
sulphur as thus deduced. For instance, when lead sulphide
and copper nitrate solutions act on one another, copper
sulphide and lead nitrate are formed ; thus —
PbS + Cu(N03)., = Pb(N03)2 + CuS
l!ut it does not therefore follow that copper has a higher
affinity for sulphur than lead; in point of fact the reverse
is the ease, for according to Julius Thomsen's thermo-
chemical affinity values, the heat of formation of copper
sulphide is less than of lead sulphide, viz. (using Thomsen's
notation).
Calorics.
Pb, S 20,*S0
Cu,S ■ W60
Difference 10,670
If therefore lead could react on copper sulphide at the
ordinary temperature, it is to be expected that lead sulphide
would be found and copper liberated ; at any rate this
change should be brought about more readily than the
converse change, since the former would be accompanied by
a considerable heat evolution (10,670 calories), and the
latter would require an equal heat absorption.
The heat of formation of lead nitrate solution (from lead,
oxygen, and dilute nitric acid) is considerably greater than
the heat of formation of copper nitrate solution (from
copper, oxygen, and dilute nitric acid) ; hence a Daniell
cell may readily be obtained by placing lead in lead nitrate
solution, and copper in copper nitrate solution,* the energy
exhibited by the current being due. to the displacement of
copper from nitrate by lead, just as in the ordinary Daniell
it is gained by the displacement of copper from sulphate
by zinc. Thomson's values are —
Calories.
Pb, O, 2 HN03 aq 68,070
Cu, O, 2HN03aq 52,410
Difference 16,660
Hence it results that when lead sulphide and copper
nitrate solution act on one another producing copper
sulphide and lead nitrate, the action as a whole is accom-
panied by heat evolution to the extent of 15,660—10,070
= 4,990 calories. Hence the reaction takes place, not-
withstanding that the affinity of copper for sulphur is less
than that of lead for sulphur.
* I have also used thin, clean sheet lead, and still better spongy
lead, t" precipitate small quantities of copper from solutions of
ammonium acetate slightly acid with acetic acid.— W. S.
Since the heat of solutions of metallic oxides in dilute
nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic acids, &c, in
many cases differ but little, it follows that in such cases
the difference in heat of formation of a given pair of
salts containing different metals, but the same acid radical is
practically the same as the difference between the heats of
formation of the oxides of the two metals. Hence the
question as to whether the sulphide of a metal A will or will
not be decomposed by a soluble salt of another metal B,
will in such cases depend on whether the sum of the heats
of formation of the oxide of A, and the sulphide of B is or
is not greater than the corresponding sum in the case of the
oxide of B and sulphide of A.
Discussion.
The Chairman said that, for himself, he was not quite
convinced by the argument used as to the course of the
reaction with the sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
It seemed to him that the argument from temperature still
left it anrbiguous as to whether nitrate of ammonium
was not formed and immediately decomposed, the fact that
it could not exist at such temperatures being no argument
to that end. He had nevertheless a strong suspicion about
these reactions that were said to occur in two stages. He
had always held the opinion that they were simultaneous,
Sir. Oscar Guttjiann said that it might be of interest to
hear, in addition to Professor Watson Smith's highly
interesting experiments, that a friend of his had prepared
nitrate of ammonium by mixing solutions of nitrate of soda
and sulphate of ammonium, and exposing the mixture to
a temperature of — 15° C. He had seen a sample of this
nitrate of ammonium, about a year ago, after it had been
lying open on a writing table for several days. He saw the
same sample again about four weeks ago, and it was upon
both occasions perfectly dry. His friend preferred this
way of making nitrate of ammonium to that of absorbing
ammonia gas by nitric acid, as he thereby avoided the
impurities contained in the nitrate of soda ; and it was to
these impurities that he attributed the hygroscopic qualities
of nitrate of ammonia, whilst the sample mentioned above
was evidently free from that defect, There was still some
doubt whether this process could be worked on a large
scale, as the investigations were not yet completed.
Mr. C. F. Cross remarked that the author had omitted
mention of Ackworth and Armstrong's researches on the
reduction of nitric acid by metals (Cheni. Soc. J. 1877, 32,
54 — 90), in which these authors showed that nitrous oxide
was formed to the extent of from 1 to 85 per cent, of
the total gaseous products (NO.N2O.N) according to the
conditions of the action.
The equation proposed to account for the production of
N2( ) under the conditions described in the paper did not
attempt any explanation of the reaction. It appeared
probable that in the molecular re-arrangement which took
place ammonia was oxidised to hydroxylamine concurrently
with the reduction of the nitric to the nitrous group, and
it might be possible to prove the occurrence of this reaction
as the intermediate stage of the decomposition. Hydroxyl-
amine salts and nitrites reacted quantitatively in aqueous
solution according to the equation —
H.,NON + NOH.O = N,0 + 2 H»0
and the decomposition appeared to be realisable under a
wide range of conditions.
Mr. C'ressweli, asked whether auythiug had been done
with Sehiirmann's reactions in respect of the two metals,
magnesium and aluminium, the symbols of which he did
not see on the board. The main reaction of the Schaffner
and Helbig process depended entirely upon the want of
affinity of magnesium for sulphur. A patent had recently
been taken out — or rather an investigation had taken place
— as to the possibility of manufacturing aluminium from
aluminium sulphide because of the amenity of that body to
treatment by electrolysis.
872
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, isns.
Mr. Watson- Smith, in reply to the observations made
about the nitrous oxide process, said that it appeared to
him to be a matter of logic, — that if only partial fusion,
amounting to mere softening, could take place at certain
temperatures very high up in the scale, and if no proper
fusion took place, then there was no real chemical contact.
He could not understand in such a case that a chemical change
would entirely occur : it might, however, do so to a certain
extent. It appeared to him to be an extremely interesting
thing that the aqueous solution of these two salts should
decompose at the low temperature referred to. Krom the
drv mixture at 240° nitrous oxide came off somewhat
slowly ; but if nitrate of ammonia were there it would come
off vigorously, tending to explosion. But that was not the
case. In point of fact, if nitrate of ammonium were heated
by itself at 215°, the evolution was as rapid as from the
mixture heated to 240°. With regard to the hydroxylamine
reaction suggested by Mr. Cross, he did not think that
hydroxylamine itself would resist that temperature. It
these things did not exist at the temperature given, he
could not see that such a change would take place as one
could reasonably show by an equation. It would certainly
be a mixture of the elements of the substance; but he
did not regard that as the substance itself, especially when
one considered licrthelot's investigations on the seven
different reactions possible on heating nitrate of ammonium.
Referring to Mr. Cresswell's question, he believed that
Schiirmaun bad omitted aluminium and magnesium because
they did not form sulphides under the same conditions
as the other metals which be had included.
Tryjijrjoffc —
THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF WOOD.
BY JNO. C. CHORI.KV AMI WM. KAMSAY, PH.D., I'.l; s.
Last May we brought before the Society the results of
some experiments on the distillation of wood. We have
followed up these researches by investigating the behaviour
of compounds which have a greater claim to be considered
definite. These are jute and cotton-wool.
The sample of jute was purified by boiling it in a dilute
solution of caustic soda ; the cotton-wool was of two
qualities ; the samples A and C consisted of crude wadding,
while the sample I! was purified wool, and is sold tinder the
name of medicated cotton.
These substances were analysed without having been
dried; they were afterwards dried and the analyses
calculated on the drv material.
The results are as follow : —
JUTE.
II.
Mean.
Carbon . . .
Hydrogen,
Oxygen . .
4i;is
6-83
47'!>:i
ivi2
(j •:;-.
lfi-27
45 '65
mis
4S-27
Cotton- Wool.
Carbon
Hydrogen ....
Oxygen
A. and C
K.
I.
II.
Mean.
I.
II.
12-60
12-16
42-41
42-03
4-2-47
B"2S
6-16
6-20
6-33
6-07
51-08
51-6S
51-3(1
50-74
51-50
Mean.
12-711
G-20
51-10
The jute contained 1 1 -35 per cent, of moisture ; samples
A and C, 5 -34 ; and sample H, 5 '83 per cent. The moisture
was estimated by drying over sulphuric acid for four weeks
in a vacuum.
Although these bodies cannot be regarded as pure
chemical individuals, it is interesting to compare the results
of certain definite compounds with the results of their
analysis. Those which most nearly approach the above
composition are : —
II. O.
6-00 4S-1S
6-l7 49'38
6'66 53-33
6-215 50-10
Pentosanc or xylene (C ,IU>,i» 1.115
Cellulose (C6H10O5) 44'44
Grape-sugar, < '.,IIi A; tO'OO
Starch (]>robably) C;GHri.,031... 13-63
These samples were distilled in the manner described in
our first paper (this Journal, 1892, p. 395). As before, the
gas was collected and analysed ; and the distillate was
separated into three portions, viz., weak acetic acid, crude
methyl alcohol and tar.
The results are as follow : —
Jute.
Weight in grms
Charcoal, per cent
Distillate
Carbon dioxide
Other gases
Vol. of g:is, (<■
\ oh "I gas tiuni 100 grms...
Composition of gas per c< nt
Carbon monoxide
' txygen
Residual kxs
Tar, per cent
\- Btic acid
Methj 1 spii ii
II.
71
28-71
57-70
Lost
3,000
4.220
78-80
3-01
18-19
14-78
(1-4(1
73
S2-SJ
48-13
12-33
11-65
2,500
8,420
S5-29
1-73
12--.I5
6-85
1-40
-
Al.
A 2.
Cotton- Wool.
m.
45
33-33
55-33
G-GG
G-68
2,000
1,900
7ti-it2
3-66
19-42
60
30-00
51 '11(1
0-53
10-47
2,7""
4,5(111
S5-7I
2 si 1
11- in
s:;:i
2 H
67
34-33
13-32
5 ■ 22
17-13
t,S
2.2111
5111
S-50
37-SG
ll'7ll
175
3-94
45
,1-U
51-11
7 ' 77
6T.8
1,000
2,211"
52-41]
4 73
43-11
13 33
2 11
1021
C.
50
33-00
■Kf 0»
11-00
lO'OO
8,500
7. 1 H 10
70-20
S-3t
20-46
1 ■_■ ■ 1 . 1
1-31
7-l'i
Nov.so, 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
873
Iu contrasting these numbers with those obtained in
distilling wood, it is to be remarked that the percentage of
charcoal is considerably smaller than with such fibres ; that
of distillate smaller, and that of carbon dioxide larger
than with wood. The acetic acid is very much less ; and
that of the impure mixture counted as methyl-spirit is
particularly high, in almost every case.
In comparing jute with cotton wadding and with cotton
wool, it appears that the chief difference between them lies
in the amount of carbon monoxide which they 3'ield. While
jute and impure cotton wool give a gas containing as much
as 70 to 80 per cent, of this constituent, the pure cotton
wool yields only a little over ")0 per cent., the nitrogen and
residual gas being correspondingly increased. We do not
think that all of this .increase can be accounted for by
ascribing it to air present in the retort, though there is no
doubt that some may thus be accounted for.
We next pass to the thermal behaviour of the fibres.
The best idea of the changes of temperature distillation
is gained by a graphic representation of the temperatures
of the bath, contrasted with those of the substauce being
distilled, time being taken as ordinates.
J50
350
f
\
300
300
J
JS.
4?
Of
250
200
\Y
200
150
ISO
1O0
/
50
50 j
0
1
X.
0 z
0
3
4
0.
E
0
V
a
0
z
0
&
O 2
0
30
40 50 M
0
20
30
40
We give tables, however, showing the actual temperatures
in the air-bath (outside temperatures), and of the fibre
(inside temperatures), at different intervals of time during
distillation, for crude cotton-wool, and for jute ; the curves
are a graphic representation of these numbers.
Cotton-wool.
Jute.
Time. Outside. Inside. Time. Outside. Inside.
10.50
230
100
11.15
100
h
55
270
115
30
200
03
11.00
2S5
150
45
255
SO
05
295
190
12.00
278
150
20
323
275
05
202
2 10
25
321
205
10
302
240
SO
321
310
15
312
205
35
324
323
17
317
328
40
325
340
18
321
375
43
325
34S
10
323
372
IS
321
345
20
323
305
.-,1!
322
333
25
322
3111
55
320
320
1.1 III
317
320
12.00
319
322
05
319
310
1.45
325
324
With cotton-wool the temperatures are practically equal
at 11.35. Eight minutes later the wool is 13'J higher than
the bath. In 17 minutes the temperatures are again
practically equal. The whole rise and fall took place in
25 minutes.
With jute the temperatures may be considered equal at
12.16; at. 12.18, the jute had a temperature no less thau
)4 higher than that of the bath ; but the fall of temperature
in this ease was much more gradual ; it was not until
1.00 that the temperatures were practically equalised.
Hence the rise is a very sudden one, occupying only two
minutes, and I think that it will be allowed that this
approximates to an explosion. Gas was evolved with
great rapidity during this sudden rise of temperature, and
it is perfectly evident that the exothermic reaction is a
violent one.
With purified cotton-wool, there were no signs of
an exothermic reaction. The whole operation appeared to
be of the nature of an ordinary distillation.
The conclusion is therefore forced upon us that the
substance which decomposes in this manner is not cedulose,
but some substance which may be removed from woody
fibre by solvents. It appears not to be the same substance
as the one which yieids acetic acid on distillation, for jute,
which decomposes with such sudden evolution of heat,
gives a minimum percentage of acid. Nor does it appear
to accompany the mixture reckoned as methyl spirit in our
table, for both jute and pure cottonwool yield this distillate
in considerable quantity.
Uak and beech wood therefore must contain some sub-
stances which yield acetic acid on distillation, and which is
not (at least not wholly) the cause of the exothermic reaction
which accompanies their decomposition. That substance
has been removed in the purified wool, which yields a
minimum quantity of acid ; and with it the body which
causes the exothermic reaction has also been removed.
The direction of further research is obvious ; bat
circumstances have prevented the authors of this paper
from continuing the investigation ; moreover, the problem
is in the hands of others. Messrs. Cross and Bevan are
working with matters extracted from wood fibre by solvents,
and Herrn Flint and Tollens are engaged in determining
the nature of the decomposition products of fibre (Berichte,
1892, 2916). From the labours of these chemists we
may hope soon to obtain a satisfactory idea of the real
constitution of different varieties of woods ; and we are
content to leave the subject in such competent hands,
resting satisfied that if our experiments have contributed
even a little towards the solution of such a complicated
problem.
( Inly two points remain for mention. One is the striking
circumstance that the percentage composition of xylene and
jute are the same, viz., (C5H804)n. The other is the fact that
products removed from cotton-wool during its purification
appear to be the cause of the large amount of carbonic
oxide in the gases evolved. For, while jute and impure
cotton-wool yield amounts of gas varying from 3,42n to
871
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTEY.
[Nov.30, t892.
7,000cc. per 100 grms., purified wool yields only 2,200 cc.
Moreover, the former yields gases consisting mainly of
carbonic oxide (70 to 85 per cent.), while the gases from
the latter contain little over 50 per cent. It is possible that
some clue may be given by these observations to the
particular mode of decomposition of the chemical constituents
of the fibre.
Discussion.
Mr. A. II. M ISON wished to know whether the medicated
cotton was pure cotton, as the substance was sometimes
rendered impure in the process of manufacture by other
combinations.
Mr. C. F. Cross said that he had been engaged on
this subject some years, and knowing that it was to fall into
his hands, he had been fortunate in obtaining a gentleman
to undertake the prosecution of this question of determining
the reactionary agents, and also the variations in the
products themselves. As they had been asked to place the
subject before the Society at an early date they would
endeavour to do so.
Professor Rajisay said that he believed that what was
known as medicated wool was practically pure cellulose,
being cotton wool denuded of soda, acetic acid, &c.
Professor Foster said it was quite possible to get pure
cellulose in the form of cotton wool. He had been surprised
at its purity, for it burned clean away and left no acid
residue.
The Chairman said that it was a matter of regret that
Professor Ramsay and Mr. Chorley's paper was in a certain
sense the final paper on the subject. While he was very glad
to hear that Messrs. Cross and Bevan promised a contribution
on the same subject, it did seem a pity that Professor
Ramsay should drop it, as it seemed to him to provide an
ample field for both, from which useful results might have
been expected.
Meeting held Wednesday, November 2nd, 1892.
Itbrrpool &rrtton.
University College, Urownlow Street.
Chairman : H. Brunner.
Vice-Chairman : E. Carey.
Committee :
AY. Norris Jones.
A. II. Knight.
B. K. Muspratt.
G. Schack-Sommer.
A. Watt.
J. Campbell Brown.
E. Carey.
V. C. Driffield.
Jos. C. Gamble.
C. L. Higgins.
F. llurter.
Hon. Treasurer : W P. Thompson.
lion. Local Secretary :
Dr. Clias. A. Kolui, University College, Liverpool
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to he
sent to tho Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892-93.
Wednesday, Iv.cnilnr 7lli. — Mr. Hubert L. Terry. F.I.C.
"Critical Notes on the Chemical Technology of Iiidia-Rubrcr."
MR. HENRY BRUNNER IN THE ■ II \IIt.
CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS ON ARTIFICIAL
MANURES FOR FRUIT CULTURE.
(Abstract.)
The subject of fruit-growing for piofit is one that has
during the last few years had increasing attention drawn to
it, partly owicg to the hope that it may prove a meaus of
bettering the condition of the land cultivator, and partly
due to the growing demand for fruit as an article of food.
From figures kindly supplied by Sir James Whitehead,
Master of the Fruiterers' Company of London, it appears
that the total area devoted to fruit culture in this country
in 1891 was 208,700 acres. This would represent a value
of 9,000,000/., taking 30/. per acre as a low average value
of the produce. In fruit-growing it may be taken that,
roughly, one-fourth of the cost of production is due to tho
necessary supply of manure, and therefore it is evident
that if a large proportion of the natural manure used be
replaced by chemical manures, a considerble benefit to the
chemical industry of the country will accrue. It appears
that to-day the balance of opinion is against the total
replacement of natural manures by artificial, but there is no
doubt that a large proportion may be so substituted with
advantage to the crop and with economy to the cultivator.
The author's own experiments made with strawberries show
that by employing chemical manures far less potash,
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen is required per acre than is
the case with ordinary farmyard manure, as owing to their
soluble form they penetrate the soil more rapidly and
deeply.
The requirement of an acre of land planted with apple
trees would amount to about 20 tons of farmyard manure
once in three years, whilst the necessary ingredients
contained therein would be supplied by the yearly use of
500 lb. of kainit (at 13-5 per cent. K,0), 120 lb. of super-
phosphate (at 10 per cent, soluble P20,5), and 300 lb.
nitrate of soda, or a total for the three years of 20 cwt. of
material. From the above it is evident that in certainty of
effect, in convenience of handling, and in distribution over
the soil, chemical manures possess distinct advantages.
The author does not recommeud the complete discarding
of farmyard manures, but rather the adoption of some
system of rotation of manures such as that recommended
by Wagner of Darmstadt for the cultivation of vines, in
which farmyard manure is supplied in the first year and
supplemented by chemical manures only in the second,
third, and fourth years. It has been urged against chemical
manures that they render the soil poorer in organic matter,
whilst farmyard manure has the reverse effect, but it has
been shown by Joulie that the more abundant harvests
produced by the use of chemical manures leave a larger
proportion of residues in roots and otherwise in the soil, and
consequently that there is no impoverishment, but an
increase in the quantity of organic matter in the soil.* By
the use of chemical manures each ingredient can be adjusted
to the requirements of the crops, which is obviously not the
ease with natural manures, whilst Ville has shown that
more than one-third of the nitrogen contained iu the latter
is lost to the soil on account of the decomposition which
the manure must first undergo before it can exercise its
action.f The cost of carriage is also favourable to the
employment of chemical manures. Superphosphate is the
most suitable form of phosphoric acid for the fruit-grower,
aud it has the further advantage of supplying a considerable
quantity of a soluble lime salt necessary for the building
* Mercure Scientifique, Supplement du Moniteur Scienthlque
June 1892.
t Ville on " Artificial Manures," trans, by W, Crookes, p. 1","<.
Nov. so, 1882.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
875
up of healthy trees. Finely-ground basic slag is also likely
to prove of great value since it contains 18 per cent, of
phosphoric acid combined with lime in a fairly soluble
form. The latter should be applied in larger proportionate
quantity than the former, and will be found specially useful
in preparing the ground before planting young fruit trees.
Kuiint affords the cheapest form of easily soluble potash,
but contains only 13 per cent, of potash and as much as
■10 per cent, of sodium chloride. The composition of the
soil and the requirements of the crops must, to a large
extent, determine the best form of potash salt to employ.
Taking into consideration their relative price, one of the
following will be found most useful : —
(1.) "Jure sulphate of potash, magnesia, calcined.
Guaranteed minimum 48 per cent, sulphate of potash,
maximum, 2J per cent, chlorine." It contains usually
about —
Per Cent.
K.SO, 50
Ml-SO, 41
NaCl 3
(!'.) "Ground calcined manure salts. Guaranteed
minimum 31 '5 per cent, potash," containing usually —
Per Cent.
KC1 31
MuSO, 17
MgClj 7
NaC! 14
It must be borne in mind that potassium chloride tends
to decrease the calcium carbonate of the soil. Nitrate of
soda is the best and most economical nitrogen manure for
fruit cultivation : sulphate of ammonia is less suitable.
iWanrlKSter ^fttioiu
Chairman : Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-Chairman : Edw. Schuuck.
J. Anp-11.
G.H. Bailey.
F. 11. Bowman,
K. P. Carpenter.
B. E. Davis.
II. Grirusliaw.
Committee :
J. Grossmann.
P. Hart.
J. M. Irving.
E. Kneclit.
Sir II. E. Eoscoe, M.l'.
C. Truby.
Hon. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, Tlio Cliff, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
Notices of Papers and Communications for tlio Meetings to be
Bent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892.
Friday, 2nd December.— Dr. Carl otto Weber, "Cop Dyeing,"
Meeting held Friday, Ith November 1892.
Ml!. I. LEVINSTEIN IX THE CHAIB.
CHAIBMAN'S ADDRESS,
Address dhlivebed at the Opening of the Session
(November 1892) op the Manchester Section of
the Society of Chemical Industry.
Ten years have now elapsed since the establishment of the
Manchester Section of the Society of Chemical Industry,
and the results achieved have fully justified its formation.
Many interesting papers have been brought before us, ami
their nnmber, as well as the number of our members, has
been steadily increasing ; it has, moreover, brought together
and united in intimate association those engaged and
interested in the development of our industries. To the
action of this Section is due the fact that we are now
represented in the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, an
association which, until this took place, had been almost
exclusively occupied in the consideration of questions
relating to the cotton industry ; the formation of the
Chemical Section in the Chamber was the means of
breaking down this barrier of exclusiveness, and extending
the scope of its usefulness. That the principle of forming
special sections for special trades or industries was a sound
one is clear from the fact that the example set by the
establishment of the Chemical Section has been followed by
other trades. That section, although comparatively young,
has already had to deal with a number of subjects which
concern our industries, such, for instance, as the French and
Spanish Tariffs ; Patent Laws ; Smoke Nuisance; Building
Bye-Laws ; Weights and Measures Act ; Stills in Chemical
Works, Sec. Some time ago you referred to that section
certain clauses of the Building Bye-Laws of the Manchester
Corporation which you considered as injuriously affecting
our industries, and, as you have already heard from the
letter read by our secretary, bye-law 31, the building
committee of the Corporation has promised the Council to
recommend the amendment of this bye-law in accordance
with your representations and suggestions. As far back as
1890 that section furnished the Board of Directors with a
report on patent law amendment, as far as the regulations
of those laws concerned our industries ; this report has
been approved by our Society, and support has been
promised by other Chambers of Commerce. After repeated
discussions it has, however, been thought that the question
of further amendment is one which naturally concerns
the interests of all trades and industries, and that any
representations with regard to such amendment should
be on broader lines and not confined to one particular
industry, and for this reason the Board of Directors has
recently decided to form a special committee, consisting of
the chairmen of the various sections, with power to add to
their number, for the purpose of devoting its attention in
the first instance to the consideration of the advisability
of amendment, and if necessary to the eventual recommen-
dation of such steps as may be thought requisite. That
there is really need for amendment will scarcely be disputed
by those who have any acquaintance with the subject ;
difference of opinion may, however, exist as to what reforms
should be made. The Patent Law Keform Association in
Liverpool, for instance, is agitating for the substitution en
bloc of the American patent system ; how far such a
proposition is wise I am not prepared to say, but one
thing appears to me of paramount importance, and that is
a painstaking examination of the subject-matter and of the
specification of every patent before it is granted, as is the
case in America and Germany. Such an examination would
at once protect genuine and honest inventors, and by giving
a valuable title benefit both them and our trades and
industries, and would remove the large number of bogus
and " bluff " patents now in existence taken out by
unscrupulous patentees for the sole purpose of blocking
bona, fide inventions, thereby interfering with the legitimate
development of our industries. As far as chemical patents
are concerned, I hope that this committee will recommend the
suggestion also made in the report furnished to the Board by
the Chemical Section, viz., the necessity of distinguishing, in
the application of the law, between chemical and mechanical
patents. The present and past years have been productive
in the passing of certain Acts more or less concerning
our industries, such as the Building Bye-Laws ; Weights
and Measures ; Extension of the Alkali Act (Noxious
Trades) ; Smoke Prevention ; Rivers Pollution, &c. ; all
enacted for the protection of common interests, and
I believe that I am only expressing the views held
by the majority of our members in stating that we by
no means look upon the establishment of these Acts
with any dislike ; on the contrary, most of us have by
876
THE JOURNAL OK THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1892.
now found out that the enforcement of some of them, if
carried out with discrimination by competent and experienced
men, may lie of great advantage. Take, for instance, the
old Alkali Act ; this Act has been and still is a blessing to
manufacturers, its enforcement being in the hands of
accomplished and properly qualified experts, whose advice
ami suggestions have been of the greatest benefit to
manufacturers, and moreover, in no instance have those
gentlemen lodged a complaint without at the same time
suggesting practical means for avoiding and preventing the
alleged nuisance, and if all these Acts are only carried
out in a similar spirit and by men at ore; competent and
experienced, I have no hesitation in saying that we shall
give them a hearty welcome. No chemical manufacturer
endowed with ordinary common sense is desirous of
creating a nuisance ; more than this, he is thankful to
those who can point out to him a way by which he may
prevent the emission or discharge of matters which are
almost invariably of value to him. On the other hand,
no Act for suppression, mitigation, or prevention of any
alleged evil arising from the carrying on of trades and
industries can be enforced without serious injury to them,
unless practical means are available for such prevention.
If I may be allowed to advise our trades on this point,
1 would suggest that we use our utmost endeavours to
prevent, as far as is practically possible, the discharge of
any thing that is hurtful or annoying to others ; that we
consult and discuss together and advise each other with
regard not only to any grievance under which we may be
labouring, but also to the method and means for its
removal, and for that purpose there is no better opportunity
than those provided by the meetings of this Section. On the
other hand, I trust that the authorities in whose hands lies the
enforcement of these various Acts will remember the words
of Professor Huxley, uttered before a large audience some
years ago in the Town Hall when .the question of technical
education was coming to the front : — " We are at present in
the swim of one of those vast movements in which, with a
population far in excess of that we can feed, we are saved
from a catastrophe through the impossibility of feeding
them solely by our possession of a fair share of the markets
of the world ; and in order that that fair share may be
retained, it is absolutely necessary that we should be able
to produce commodities which we can exchange with food-
growing people, and which they will take rather than those
of our rivals on the ground of their greater cheapness or
their greater excellence." These words struck me at the
time as an admirable description of our present position and
of what our aims ought to be in the effort to retain it.
Manchester and its trade and commerce depend upon its
industries, and its present and future prosperity depend
upon their extension and development. Now one of the
Acts, the Rivers Pollutions Act, does not quite as much
concern ourselves, and as long as sewage is discharged into
our rivers and their tributaries, the liquid discharges from
chemical works will, if anything, in some instances lessen
the evils caused by sewage pollution, but the purification of
this sewage has afforded some of our members an oppor-
tunity of showing what can be done by chemical means to
effect that object. A number of interesting papers and
discussions have been before us during the past session, by
which the fact was established that if iron salts are added in
sufficient quantity and time be allowed for settling, an
effluent is produced of sufficient purity to allow of its
discharge into any river. The use of iron in one form or
another is by no means new, but the difficulty which is
involved in this question is one not only of efficiency, but
also of economy, and this latter is now in a fair way of being
overcome. We have in our immediate neighbourhood a
number of works in which iron, in some form or another,
and also the acids necessary for its conversion into the
requisite soluble salts, are obtained a- waste products, and
for the utilisation of these waste products a number of
patents have been taken out, and I hope that the outcome
may be helpful in solving a problem which has puzzled
many corporations and rural authorities.
Now. gentlemen, taking a general and brief review of the
position of out trades, 1 regret to say thai, with lint few
exceptions, manufacturers will have a hard struggle to
maintain their position and to make their business pay.
Outsiders generally think that anything chemical means
piling up money, but this is a complete fallacy. Our indus-
tries are not in a flourishing condition, and more than this,
our prospects are in no way encouraging, and if, with the
disadvantages under which we are at present labouring, any
undue pressure or harassing policy is adopted, the con-
sequences will be keenly felt.
There exist in our immediate neighbourhood many
branches of these industries, and if none of these indi-
vidually is so important as the cotton industry, yet taken
together they find employment for a large number of bauds
and contribute considerably to the maintenance of the com-
mercial greatness of cur city. Some our traders and
manufacturers have been adversely affected by the great
fall in the values of half-manufactured articles obtained
from the by-products of gasworks ; 90 per cent, benzol,
tor example, which last year was quoted at 3s. 6o\ and
3*. Hi/, per gallon, is worth to-day only about Is. od., and
there is every likelihood not only that this low figure may be
maintained for some time, but that prices may fall even
lower. We had, until lately, the poor consolation, so far as
the coal-tar colour industry was concerned, of knowing that
if Germany had outstripped us in the production of coal-
tar colours, we at least held the key of the situation in
supplying the principal raw materials, such as benzol,
toluol, carbolic acid, ammonia, &c, but those days are now
gone by. As a consequence of further improvements in
the recovery of these materials from the gases of combus-
tion produced in the conversion of coal into coke, Germany
is now already in a position to obtain these articles as a
by-product in quantities almost sufficient to meet her own
requirements ; and with a more extended application of the
improved process to the coke ovens, she will be able to
supply the whole of the benzol required at a much lower
price than tir distillers and carbonisers could accept at the
present market price for the crude material, and thus we
shall most likely lose an important article of export. The
consequences of this improvement will also be seriously
felt by our corporation and the rate-paying community ;
considerably'lower prices will have to be accepted by the
gasworks for their tar and ammonia waters, and there
appears little chance now of a reduction in the price of gas
for manufacturing and lighting purposes, for not only has
attention been directed to the regeneration of benzol, but
considerable quantities of ammonia are also being obtained
as by-products from the same source ; indeed the conse-
quence has already been that some of our carbonising works
have had to suspend operations. It is, however, not only
the coal-tar industry which has recently received a severe
shock, but it may be said, without fear of contradiction,
that the whole of the chemical industries of this country
are in a certain state of stagnation ; their progress and
development arc undoubtedly most unsatisfactory when
compared with those of our great rival, and this state of
things is perhaps not altogether confined to chemicals but
extends also to other articles of manufacture. Who would
ever have thought, say 20 years ago, that we were going to
import cotton goods, or cotton machinery, or perhaps still
less alkalis ? At that time anything appertaining to cotton
was of English origin ; when we spoke of an alkali industry
we had only England in our minds ; and even then, though
Germany was already making rapid progress in wresting
from us a large portion of the coal-tar industry, she at
least had then to depend to a large extent on us for the
supply, not only of benzol and other crude tar products,
but also for the alkalis required in the production of
colouring matters. To-day the unexpected has become a
fact ; we are importing some kinds of cotton goods and
certain cotton machinery, and we are importing alkalis ; it
is true the quantities arc not as yet large, but who shall say
that they may not rapidly increase, and that before we are
fully aware of the fact ? I cannot give a better example
of tin- unsatisfactory progress of our industries than by
selecting an article of very large consumption which enters
into use in multifarious branches of industry, and which
may be taken as a fair test of the expansion or otherwise
of other industries. I will refer you to a few comparative
figures relating to the export of alkali.
Nov. £0,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
877
Exports of Alkali from England to Gkrmany.
1881.
1891.
Cwt.
928,900
Cwt.
143,700
Exports of
Alkali from Germany.
1884.
For the half-year ended
30th June 1892,
Cwt.
351,402
Cwt.
433,824
without including potash. Assuming that Germany will
export only a like quantity in the current half-year, we find
that she has increased her exports, within a period of eight
years, from 351,402 to H07, 048 cwt., an increase of more
than 120 per cent. Now, looking at the exports of alkalis
from this country to all countries, say in 1883, and com-
paring the figures with those for 1891, we shall see that our
total exports of alkalis, instead of having increased, have
decreased by more than 10 per cent, during a similar period
of eight years.
Exports of Alkali.
1S83.
1891.
Cwt.
0,1147,000
Cwt.
6,225,953
These figures do not require elaborating, they tell their
owu tale ; the only redeeming feature in this ease is that
the decrease is due not so mueh to inferior skill on our part
us to the want of foresight on the part of our manufacturers,
who would stick to antiquated processes, trusting to com-
binations and artificial raising of prices, which, as experience
has taught us over and over again, could only result, as
they have resulted, in failure. The high prices ruling for
alkali during the last few years have not only reduced our
exports of the article, hut also injuriously affected other
trades, especially those of paper-makers, dyers, calico-
printers, bleachers, soap -makers, and chemical manufac-
turers, and with the small margins at which these trades are
and have been working of late they can ill afford to pay
more for an article largely used in their respective trades
than is paid by other countries with which they have to
compete in the world's market. New works have been
started during the present year for the manufacture of
ammonia-soda, and another new undertaking is shortly to
commence operations, and it may be assumed that the price
fur this important article will by and by be reduced to a
figure which will leave a fair working margin to the manu-
facturer, and compensate him for the difference in price by
an increased consumption. Gentlemen, German producers
can purchase to-day some of the principal raw materials,
such as alkalis, sulphuric acid, benzol, and other products,
at prices at least as low as those we have to pay ; we have,
therefore, in the future to reckon with a new factor, and one
that may have a material and important bearing on the
development of our industries. The battle for supremacy
will have to be fought henceforth with equal arms, and with
no advantage, such as we formerly had, on our side, and
the victory will rest with the nation that turns to best
account the materials at its disposal. Our whole aim
must therefore be to concentrate our thought, skill,
and energy on the conversion of etude and half-finished
materials into products of the highest excellence and
perfection, and in order to do so, we must give to the
people in this country similar, or even greater facilities for
acquiring the requisite scientific and technical knowledge
as are enjoyed by our rivals. As one for some years
connected with the former management of the Manchester
Technical School, I have regarded with great satisfaction
the acquisition of this school by our corporation, and
under the guidance of the able and energetic chairman
of the Technical Instruction Committee, seconded by
the eminent services of my friend, Mr. J. If. Reynolds,
its director, it may be expected that we shall, before
long, possess a technical school worthy of this »reat
centre of industry, affording opportunities for acquiring
technical knowledge as good as, or better than those
at the command of the people with with whom we have
to compete. A special feature in the new school will
he the silk - spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing
department, and the school for bleaching, dyeing, printing,
and finishing of all kinds of fabrics. So far, the teaching
of the tinctorial arts, especially the application of chemistry
to colouring fibres, has in all our colleges and schools
been only very partially successful. No doubt students,
on leaving, possess a fair amount of knowledge, but
of a kind a great deal of which is never required in
practice, and much that is required they have never been
taught. The reasou for such a failure is very evident.
Success in dyeing, printing, and the accessory arts does
not depend solely upon a sound knowledge of chemistry,
but to a large extent, just the same as applied chemistry in
general, upon chemical engineering. Hitherto, however,
the student, after having gone through a science, and a
so-called experimental course, in which no opportunity is
afforded of becoming acquainted with the engineering part
of his profession— his experience principally extending to
the handling of beakers, glass cylinders, china basins, a
few grains or grammes of drugs and colouring matters, and
correspondingly small quantities of yarn or cloth — has
found himself, on entering a dye or piint works, in a
similar position to a cow before a turnstile, not knowing
where to turn or how to move : he feels that every ordinary
workman in the place knows more about the complicated
machinery and other appliances before him than tit does.
The consequence is that the foreman or manager looks over
his shoulder, and the principal soon gets disgusted with
his new acquisition from which he had been promising
himself so much, and puts him down as a noodle only fit
for testing a few drugs and nothing else, and in this
opinion he shortly after becomes fully confirmed. Work
is going wrong, goods are being spoiled, they are either
spotty, or streaky, or " off shade," or have other possible
defects attached to them. For the time the foreman is
puzzled, he cannot account for the defect, and now here
presents itself a glorious opportunity for our friend from
the technical school or college. The principal consults
him, and requests his advice as to how to get over the
difficulty. The fact however, is, that in ninety out of a
hundred eases this scholar makes a fool of himself, and
ultimately the comparatively ignorant foreman solves the
problem, and our student, carefully trained at the college,
is sent back to the laboratory, apparently the only suitable
place for him. Now, what is the cause of this, and how
can such an ignominious failure be avoided ? The reason
is that the student has never, during the whole course
of his training, met with any such or similar problems,
and to solve these when met with one must possess, in
addition to scientific knowledge, a thorough knowledge of
the entire plant and machinery of a dye or print works, as
the causes of these difficulties are frequently of a purely
technical character, or of a chemical and technical nature
combined. If, therefore, we want to train in our schools
day-students destined to become foremen, or managers, or
masters of such works, we must teach them the application
of science to these industries with the appliances and
apparatus which they will actually meet with in practice.
We must have the school workshops equipped with the
very latest and most modern machinery of this or any
other country, which must be kept on a level with the
progress of discovery and invention ; we must have a
model bleach, dye, print, and finishing works, of course on
a small scale — but yet large enough to allow the yarns in
our spinning department to be made up, bleached, prepared,
dyed, &c, and the cloth woven in our weaving school to
be bleached, printed, and finished ; and the work turned
878
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov.80, 1892.
out must not be schoolboys' work, but equal to the best to
be found in the trade. Only thus shall we be able to put
our students in a position at once to confront and solve
all the difficulties and problems which he may encounter in
practice, and only thus will his scientific knowledge be of
real advantage to himself and the trade. Such a student
will at once command a higher salary, for he will, frequently
from the very commencement, be in a position to point out
to his employers any likely improvement, because his
knowledge of a varied class of appliances may often be
superior to theirs. A number of men thus trained will
soon produce a marked effect on the goods turned out in
our dye, print, and a finishing works.
That this view is practical one, is proved by the Dyeing
School at Crefeld — the only school, in my opinion, worthy
of the name — which has produced results so highly
appreciated by the community and the trade generally,
that the municipal authorities, supported by the Govern-
ment, have resolved to remove the already large dyeing
department from the school, and to erect a special building
to carry out the work on a still more extended scale.
We are exporting annually more than twenty millions'
worth of dyed and printed cotton goods, the largest portion
of which comes from Lancashire ; improved methods for
cheaper production, and still greater excellence would, we
may fairly take it, materially increase our exports of these
goods, and find increased employment for our working
classes, and towards accomplishing this important object
such a school would render invaluable assistance.
Discission.
M. Crii-pin said he felt very keenly the remarks made by
the Chairman upon the Patent Laws, inasmuch as he had a
patent which, had it not been that he had means wherewith
to tight, would probably have never come to the front. He
hoped that the Chairman as a member of the Chamber of
Commerce would obtain its influence in securing Government
protection, and reducing the Patent Law fees as in America
and Germany. With regard to technical education, while
he did not wish to discourage the Chairman and those
associated with him in their endeavours to bring about a
better state of efficiency, still he thought that the laboratory
work done in the technical schools of this country was not
brought to a practical issue. Unfortunately the men who
worked by rule of thumb knew a great deal more than the
student who had passed through a course of study at these
schools, and this was mainly due to the deficiency of the
teaching staff, and pupils not being in touch with practical
work, as was the case in Germany.
Dr. Hewitt said he appreciated most strongly the Chair-
man's remarks on technical education, and he enforced them
all the more, inasmuch as the previous speaker appeared
not to fully comprehend them. The Chairman had pointed
out the defects of the British system of technical training,
and called attention to the fact that most students were
quite unfit to guide men who had had a life-long experience,
and who had acquired a certain amount of practical know-
ledge by observation. What was required was a system of
technical education which would give students an opportunity
of seeing a piece of cloth pass through the various processes
of spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing, and of learning
something with regard to the laws of motion and physics.
Students were admitted into technical schools without
their having first of all received a preparatory training, and
regardless of their fitness to take up any particular class of
work ; and auother defect was mainly due to the common
notion that a student after three year's experience at Owens
College was competent to undertake practical work. Under
these conditions the great wonder was that British manufac-
turers had maintained their supreniacj- as long as they had,
and the only reason he could assign for it was the abundance
and cheapness of coal and iron. What was required in
England was something between the elementary school and
the university, and the university and the works. With
regard to the Rivers Pollution Act, he hoped the chemical
manufacturers in that district would not depend upon the
sort of defence set forth in the Chairman's address. He
should be sorry to think that it could be argued that two
blacks made one white, and that because towns sent sewage
into the streams and rivers chemical manufacturers ought
not to do their utmost to prevent pollution. With reference
to the alkali trade, he did not think they had much to fear
from German competition ; still it would be necessary to
march with the times and abandon antiquated processes.
Mr. Philip Haktog said they had heard a good deal of
the ridicule cast by manufacturers on the system of teaching
as carried out in university laboratories, but it seemed to
him that it was not so much the fault of the system as
the fact that manufacturers expected too much. They
expected that a student should not only know, but that he
should understand technical processes which could only be
learnt in modern works. After an engineering student
at Owens College had served three years as a student,
he was supposed to have at least three years' training in
a civil engineer's office before he was competent to fill any
position requiring a knowledge of that profession; and it was
the same with a chemical student, who, before he was called
upon to take a responsible position, should be taught the
technical part of his profession.
Dr. Dreyfus quite agreed with all that Dr. Hewitt had
said with regard to students receiving a secondary education
before passing into technical schools, and he thought one
of the greatest defects in the present system of technical
instruction was the inefficiency of the teaching staff which
was principally owing to the small salaries offered.
Mr. J. H. Reynolds (director of the Manchester
Technical School) said he endorsed all that had been said
by Dr. Hewitt with regard to the defects of the present
system of technical education. His experience proved to
him that the system of education as carried out in elemen-
tary schools was such that the majority of pupils were quite
unfit to receive instruction in any particular branch of
technical knowledge ; and moreover students seemed to
expect to attain proficiency in the course of a short session
or two, sufficient to earn money. So long as that spirit
| prevailed it was hopeless to expect anything like success in
technical education. Dr. Hewitt had referred to the
students in Switzerland who had served three years in the
works, and who were the very ideal of what students should
be, inasmuch as they had experienced the difficulties they
had to 'contend against, and had voluntarily gone back to
school to acquire the scientific knowledge they knew the
school was capable of imparting to them. Until a system
of secondary education was established in England which
would reach every child in the kingdom, both rich and
poor, the technical schools would be a failure. In Zurich
the pupils passed from school to school and were afterwards
drafted into industrial works. The Chairman had referred
to the proposed Manchester municipal technical scheme,
I which could only be made successful by allowing properly
trained students to enter, and by securing their attendance
| for a sufficiently long time to get thoroughly well grounded
in laboratory work before passing into the dyeing depart-
ment, where they could have an opportunity of seeing work
carried on in a practical manner. If technical education in
England was to be brought to a successful issue, we must
be prepared to spend money lavishly as in Switzerland, and
if the German Government could spend such large sums of
money, why could not Manchester if it were necessary? He
was afraid that manufacturers did not realise the importance
of this, and it was only when trade was bad that any effort
was made to alter this state of things. The only note of
opposition he wished to raise against Dr. Hewitt's remarks
was that to multiply technical schools, having regard to the
lack of teaching power in the country, would only end
in a considerable waste of money. They could only increase
their number in proportion as well-organised secondary
schools were established, and when they had achieved this
he had sufficient faith in the intelligence of the people not
to lag behind in the race of industry.
Dr. Hewitt was entirely at one with Mr. Reynolds as to
the danger of increasing the number of technical schools.
One of the practical difficulties was that every township
wanted a fair proportion of the money set apart for technical
( education, and this might tend to multiply inefficient schools.
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
879
The Cii mkm vn, iii reply, said the opinions expressed by
Dr. Hewitt and Mr. Reynolds were quite in accord with his
own. With regard to the pollution of rivers, he did not
wish to set up any defence on behalf of chemical manufac-
turers, as they were bound to do all they possibly could
to prevent the pollution of streams.
THE RECOVERY OF BY-PRODUCTS FROM COKE
OVENS.
BY CHARLES DREYFUS, PH.D.
Within the last twelve or eighteen months there lias been
a gradual fall in the prices of tar products, and specially
of those used in the colour industry, such as benzenes and
anthracene.
Prices.
I
90s 50s.
Bcnzenr. Benzene.
Anthra-
cene.
Sulphate.
1891.
s.
1
8
1
1
1
8
0
0
8
7*
<■■)
s.
s
0
1
1
1
1
ti
0
8
3*
3J
3i
s.
1
1
1
0
0
1
2
0
9
9
9
£ s.
10 10
10 5
10 10
10 0
10 0
10 0
(I.
0
0
1892.
0
0
0
0
Most people in this country have been at a loss to
account for this shrinkage in values, and various causes
have been given as the reasons for it ; our old friend,
depression in trade, and bad trade in the foreign colour
works have been trotted out by even responsible people ;
but the real reason of such depression — namely, a larger
production — has been overlooked. It is to give the real
reasons of this great shrinkage in values that I have pre-
pared this paper, and in order that I may not be accused
of over-stating the case, I will give you the sources from
which my information is drawn : the principal sources of
my information are the papers published by my friend
Mr. Fritz W. Liirmann, engineer, of Osnabriick, in Stahl
mill Eisen, 4, 1892, and 18, 1892 ; also a pamphlet
published by Mr. Ch. Demanet, C.E., manager of the
Havre Colliery, near Mons, and which I owe to the
kindness of Messrs. Semet-Solvay, and finally, private
information obtained from friends in England and abroad,
and which I have the right to use here to-night by
permission of such friends.
The real reason of the depression in prices of benzene
and anthracene is the large production of tar from the coke
ovens abroad, the production of large quantities of benzene
from such tar, and more especially from the gas of such
coke ovens, and though England has been up to now the
greatest producer and exporter of Benzenes and Anthracene,
in the future I fear this will not be the case unless the
English coke oven proprietors follow the example set to
them by their colleagues abroad, and carbonise the whole or
part of the " 15,000,000 tons* of coal annually coked for
the use of our ironworks " in ovens specially constructed
for the recovery of the valuable by-products : tar, benzene,
and ammonia.
Historical : Part. — I.
" More than one hundred years ago ' Stauf,' called the
' Kohlenphilosoph,' made a successful attempt to recover
* Siv Lecture by Sir Lowthian Bell delivered :it the Autumn
meet irig of the Iron and Steel Institute this year.
the tar formed in the coking of coal." The ironmasters,
engineers, and chemists all over the world have given
much time and great attention to the question of coke-
oven progress, with special regard to obtain by-products,
and their experimental work in this direction extends back
35 years (this Journal, 1884, 601 — 606; also 1835, 451 —
452.) " Appolt, Semet, Copp^e, and others have con-
structed ovens which have been for 30 years in very
general use in German}', Belgium, and France, whilst in
Great Britain nothing seemed to shake the belief of iron-
smelters in the infallibility of the bee-hive ovens. But
even on the Continent it was thought that any attempt at
condensing tar and ammonia must necessarily be fatal to
the quality of the coke. Only quite recently has this
belief been thoroughly shaken."
Thus, said Lunge, in his second edition of " Coal Tar and
Ammonia," edition of 1887, and I can only add my testi-
mony to his, that the coke produced in the ovens where
by-products are recovered is now declared to be equal in
quality to the coke from bee-hive ovens.
The French first, and the Germans afterwards, took up
this question, and it has made slow but sure progress with
them. The plant for the recovery of tar, benzenes, and
sulphate of ammonia is not simple, and requires the
greatest attention. The fear was entertained that by the
introduction of these methods the coalowners would have
to add chemical works to their mines ; this plant increases
considerably the primary cost of the coke ovens ; then
again, the coal-mine owners did not know what a ready
market existed for the disposal of the by-products. The
value of the recovery of the by-products has become
clearer and clearer within the last 10 years, and the
greatest praises are due to Mr. Hiissener and Dr. Otto
for their efforts in that direction. This latter gentleman
has erected, for account of his own firm, as well as for
others, a great number of Hoffmann-Otto ovens. These
ovens are now at work over seven years, and the installa-
tion is so carefully planned that they give everywhere the
greatest satisfaction.
II. — Progress made in the F.rection op such Ovens.
The Hoffmann-Otto coke ovens exist now in the greatest
number in Germany; they are the ovens worked in connection
with Siemens regenerators. The following figures will show
how this extension has taken place : —
— -
Ovens at \Vork.
Ovens in
Construction.
1831
1885
1889
1892
M
210
605
1,205
120
140
Of these 1,205 ovens there are at work : —
Ovens.
1. In the Ruhr district 470
2. In Upper Silesia 705
3. In the Saar district 311
1.2115
The firm of Dr. C. Otto and Co., of Dahlhausen, under-
takes the construction of a group of 60 Hofftnann-Otto
ovens with the necessary machinery and appliances for the
recovery of the by-products (of which steam engines, gas
exhausters, ventilators, and pumps are in duplicate) for
the sum of 700,000 marks (about 36,000/.), of which about
15,000/. are for the ovens themselves, and 21,000/. for the
condensation plant of by-products.
One Hoffmann-Otto oven can be charged with 6} tons
of coal, and requires 48 hours to work off ; therefore in one
830
THE JOURNAL Of THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 30, 18U2.
year the following amount of coal is coked, aud by-products
recovered : —
One
Hoffmann-
Otto Oven.
1. In the Ruhr district
2. In Upper Silesia
3. In the Saar district .
A Group
of
60 Ovens.
Tons.
6730
70,200
57.C00
The yield from the dry coal is:
1. In the Ruhr district ....
■J. [n Upper Silesia 63—70
8. In the Saar district i 68—72
PerCent. Per Cent.
23-3 1-1— f2
4—4-
4—4-
l'O-ri.i
O'S— 0-9
One ton of dry coal yields therefore au average of about
14J- cwt. of coke, 10 gallons of tar, and 25 lb. of sulphate
of ammonia.
One Otto oven produces, therefore, per annum an averrge
nt sun tons of coke, 44 tons of tar, and 13i tons sulphateof
ammonia.
The production, use, and surplus gas is per day and per
oven : —
Production.
Use.
Surplus.
Cub.lVi.
1. In the Ruhr district 1,000
2. In Tipper Silesia 1,150
3 In the Saar district 1,000
Cuo.M. Cub.M.
600 Jim
650
600
500
400
Per Day. Per Annum.
1. In the Ruhr district
2. In Upper Silesia
3. In tin- Saar district
Tons.
21
2o;
21
Tons.
7,560
9,458
7,56'J
Of this surplus must be deducted one-third for use by the
condensing plant.
II — Semet-Soi.vav Coke Ovens.
I come now to another system of coke ovens, which are
in use in Belgium, in France, in Germany, and in one works
only in England.
Tin- first ovens of this system were built in 1882 by
Mr. Semet, at the Bellevue Pit, Xo. 2, belonging to the
Ouest Mons Colliery Co., with a small set of six ovens,
which were worked on trial for about one year. Since
then the experiments have been carried out by the Solvay
Co., with a set of 25 ovens erected close to the Havre
Colilery. Finally, the Hois du Luc Co. have taken up on
their own account the working of this plant, which has
row been greatly enlanred ; the Semet-Solvay system has
thus entered definitely into industrial practice. The
following are the ovens at work of this system : —
It is reckoned that every 100 cubic metres of this surplus
gas replaces 87 • 5 kilos, (about 1 J cwt.) of coal in the heating
of Imilers. The saving in coal by the surplus gas for a group
of 6(1 Hoffmann-Otto ovens is : —
l-i i ovens ;it Havre, near Bfons.
2.;
21
30
Seranig (Societ ■ John CockeriH).,
Ghlin (Societe des Cliarbonnages du
Nbrd du Flenu).
Ruhrorl (Society Phoenii
.V'tiIim ich i Brunner, M!ond,andCo.)
205 i n ens.
There are in construction this year the following ovens of
this system : —
;." ovens :n Drocourl (at Henin Lietard, Prance).
15 „ Syracuse (Solvay Process Co.).
24 „ Ruhrorl (Society Phoenix).
26 ,. Seraing (Societe John CockeriH).
25 „ Jemeppe, near Lifeje (Charbonnages
des Kessales).
140 ovens.
From the fact that the Phcenix Co. and the Societe John
CockeriH are erecting a second set of these ovens, I would
conclude that the system gives full satisfaction. The
construction of the Semet-Solvay ovens permits of a
stronger formation of the covering masonry, a very high
temperature can be attained, and good coke can be obtained
from poor coal.
The cost of the oven itself, with fittings, steam ram, rails
for the same, &c, can be estimated at 160/. per oven.
This figure is not high, considering the large production of
coke, which amounts to 100 tons per month per oven. To
this estimate must be added the cost of the apparatus for
the recovery of the by-products, which is about 100/. per
oven. F^ach oven takes a charge of 4 tons of coal, and the
coking is finished in 22 hours; the yield of coke is a
maximum, and corresponds to the theoretical yield owing
to the air tightness of the ovens.
At the Havre works, with coal containing 16 to 17 per
cent, of volatile matter, the yield of coke averages 81 per
cent. : in this figure are not included small coke and breeze.
The coke is absolutely the same as that produced in ovens
of the ordinary type; the by-products vary in quantity,
according to the nature of the coal used. At Havre, where
poor coal is used, the average yields are : — sulphate of
ammonia, 13j lb. per ton of coal used, and 31 lb of tar.
Through the kindness of Mr. Mond, Mr. Gustav Jarmav,
managing director of the Xorthwich works, has communi-
cated to me the following figures of the average yield of
by-products obtained in the Semet-Solway ovens in use at
Xorthwich : — " For the last half-year we have recovered
ammonia equal to 12 kilos. (27 lb.) sulphate per ton of
coal, and 40 kilos. (88 lb.) of tar per ton. Our ovens are
the oldest type of Semet-Solvay, aud at present are out of
repair, as we intend to replace them by the new type of
Semet-Solvay ovens, and we quite expect that the yield of
ammonia and tar will be better after the alterations."
III. — Extraction of Benzene from the Gas or
Coke Ovens;
It is now about three years ago, that besides tar and
ammonia, benzole was directly recovered from the gas of
these ovens. The plant for this process has been devised
by Mr. Frank Brunk. C.F., of Dortmund. The process is
kept a secret, but my friend, Mr. George E. Davis, and
others who have studied this question years ago, will know
probably what that secret consists of. So much, however,
is known that between 3 kilos. (7 lb.) and 7 kilos. (16 lb.)
of 90 per cent, benzene are recovered from the gas of one
ton of coal coked. The quantity varies, of course, according
to the nature of the coal ; these figures offer nothing
abnormal when it is known that 12j kilos. (27j lb.) of
90s benzene can easily be obtained from the gas of one ton
of good coal, distilled in an ordinary gasworks retort. (See
Lunge, page 31.)
It is stated that the cost of erecting the benzene
recovery plant is 250/. per oven (the Brunk system).
Taking the present coke ovens as 1,205 (I have been
informed there are now 1,350 Hoffmann-Otto ovens :it
work in Germany only, and that more are in course of
construction). The quantity of coal these 1,205 ovens
SJov.Su, 1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
881
can coke per annum is 1,382,400 tons: taking only the
minimum yield of 3 kilos, of benzene per ton of coal, the yield
in benzene, from the gas alone, would be 4,147,200 kilos., or
over 1,000,000 gallons. 1 do not think there is quite as
much as this quantity produced in German}" from coke
ovens as yet ; all the ovens uot being arranged to recover
the benzene from the gas, but I believe if we take Belgium
and Germany together, there is not less than 1,000,000
gallons of benzene, and principally 90s quality, produced
at present already from coke ovens alone ; there is no
doubt that this production of by-products is on the increase,
because the Semet-Solvay system of ovens can be put down
at a moderate figure, including the recovery of all by-
products, tar, ammouia, and the extraction of the benzene
from the gas. The eost of an oven, including all, would
be about 260/. ; the by-products, after deducting supple-
mentary costs, yield 72/. per annum as net profit (this does
not include the extra profit from the extraction of the
benzene from the gas).
The recovery of by-products is not only of importance
to the tar and colour industries, but it is of enormous
value to agriculture. It' we take into consideration the
great profits realised in this industry (notwithstanding the
lower prices now ruling'), and which on tar and ammonia
alone are over 40 per cent, on the cost of the plant, as we will
show later on : it' we add to this the profits on the benzene
from the gas, we come to the conclusion that this recovery
of by-products from coke ovens must go on increasingly.
The demand for sulphate of ammouia and for tar is such
that all the coke ovens in Germany, and even in England,
if they were to recover their products, would find a ready
sale for them. The actual daily consumption of pitch in
Westphalia alone is 150 tons, which would take already the
tar of 3,000 ovens.
.Sulphate of ammonia is a valuable manure ; in Germany
the consumption of nitrogen containing manures has been
as follows : —
— -
1887.
1S8S.
1889.
1890.
Sulphate of ammonia . . .
Tons.
:j:>,s«5
Tons
30,564
Tons.
33.555
Tuns.
33,788
194,610
259,182
820,820
830,860
71,880
5S.2U1
54,062
40,111
If all the nitrogen in the above manures could be replaced
by sulphate of ammonia it would mean that 285,000 tons
of sulphate of ammonia would be required. The total
quantity of sulphate of ammonia produced till now per
annum from coke ovens is oidy 17,500 tons, and if all
existing ovens in Germany were to recover by-products,
the total annual production of sulphate of ammonia would
only be 120,00" tons.
II' we take the price of tar at 10s. per ton; of sulphate of
ammonia at 10s. per cwt. ; then the yearly income from a
group of 60 < >tto ovens would be : —
For Tar. For Sulphate.
Total.
l. Iii the liiiln (h-ti pi .
■:. In Upper Silesia —
3. In tile Saar district .
£
930
1,500
1,200
L
7,800
8,400
1,920
8,780
9,900
6,120
This would give for one Otto oven a gross income of : —
g.
1. In the Ruhr dial rid 145
2. In Opper Silesia 165
3. In the Saar district 102
From the above have to be deducted general expenses
and sulphuric acid used for sulphate making, which are
estimated at 50/. per oven, leaving therefore a net profit
of over 100/. for by-products per oven, not including
benzene.
There existed in 1892 in Germany, 10,047 coke ovens,
of which 15,721', were at work; there are, therefore, at
present barely 10 per cent, fitted up for the recovery of
by-products. It is estimated that the production of coke
in Germany was, in 1891, 7,700,000 tons ; if the whole of
this coke had been produced in ovens fitted up for the
recovery of by-products, Mr. Liirmann estimates the net
profit from tar and ammania alone (without taking into
account either the benzene or the extra gas useful for
other heating purposes) at 1,440,000/.
I would put the matter in a different way to prove how
profitable this industry would be to this country. The
best coke ovens without recovery of by-products give
60 tons of coke per month, according to information which
I consider reliable. Suppose that the construction of such
an oven costs 80/.; therefore the capital required for putting
up ordinary ovens producing 100 tons of coke per month,
would be, without recovery of by-products, 133/. 6s. f>d.
for the Semet-Solvay oven, with recovery of by-products,
the cost is 260/. for 100 tons coke produced per month,
126/. 13*. Id. more capital is expended ; these 100 tons
of coke yield in by-products, after deducting supplementary
cost. 6/. per month, or 72/. per annum, which is 57 per cent,
of the additional capital spent for the same production.
If to this we were to add the extra available gas of which
one-half is sufficient for heating the ovens, and the benzene
contained in the gas which can be extracted at very
small cost, then these figures would come out still more
favourably.
These figures apply to the poor coal used at Havre ; in
England, where better coal is available, better results are
obtained, which can be tabulated as follows : —
Sulphate
Dt Ammonia.
Tar.
Per ton of coal in England .
„ „ Belgium ,
Lb.
27
13}
Lb.
88
31
The available gas in England would be larger also than
in Belgium, our coal being so much richer in volatile
matter.
Bet us suppose that the 15,000,000 tons of coal which
are coked per annum in England were treated in ovens of
the Semet-Solvay type for recovery of by-products, we
should obtain sulphate of ammonia, 180,000 tons, and in
tar, 130,000,000 gallons ; we should have surplus gas
available, equivalent to one-fifth of the total coal consumed,
and benzene from gas in such quautity that I fear to
mention the figure.
The Hoard of Trade returns for 1890 (the last issued),
give the quantity of coal used for gas making as 10,242,317
tons. This applies to authorised companies, but as there
still are a large number of others, it is probable that the
above total would reach U,000,00r> tons. If instead of the
present system of working, gas were produced for sale by
Semet-Solvay ovens, the coke could be used for metallurgical
purposes, and the gas could be produced much cheaper than
at present. If, finally, all the coal used in factories, works,
and houses for heating purposes, and for the production
of power, were coked, the gas and the coke produced
would be available for heating and lighting purposes ; we
would do away with fogs and smoky towns, and the cost
would be less than at present. I throw these suggestions
out and they merit the consideration of all thinking men
whether politicians, sanitarians, engineers, chemists, or
manufacturers.
If we in England, using annually such an enormous
amount of coal, were to recover the by-products, our
profits would be great, our agriculture and industry would
greatly benefit by the progress, and our towns would have
a bright and clear atmosphere, where it would be a pleasure
to live, and 1 hope the time will come when this progress
which I foresee will be an accomplished fact.
882
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. 80, 1898.
Chairman .- A. Allhusen.
Vice-Chairman : John Pattinson.
Committee :
P. P. Bedson.
G. T. France.
G. Gatheral.
T. W. Hogg.
John Morrison.
B. S. Proctor.
\V. W. Proctor.
W. L. Reunoldson.
W. A. RoweU.
T. \V. Stuart.
John Watson.
Hon. Local Secretary and Treasurer:
Dr. J. T. Dunn, The School, Gateshead.
SESSION 1S92-93.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meeting to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
Meeting held in the Durham College of Science,
Newcastle, on Thursday, November 10th, 1892.
mi;, ai.fukd ai.i.hisex i.\ the chair.
Professor Bedson made an informal communication,
giving an account of some work undertaken by Mr. W.
McConnell and himself on the gases enclosed in coal and
coal-dust. The coal broken up into small pieces, and
enclosed in an exhausted vessel, was heated to 100° C. for
ovei 100 hours, and gave off gases amounting to 10 or 11
times its volume (about 300 cubic feet per ton), of which
about one-sixth was marsh-gas. After this treatment the coal,
crushed to dust, was similarly heated for 26 hours, and gave
off more gas (nearly 20 cubic feet per ton), of which 18 per
cent, consisted of marsh-gas and its homologues ; analysis
showed that members of the series at least as high as propane,
< ;lls, were present. The experiments seem to show that
the coal parts more easily with the lighter hydrocarbons
than with the higher homologues.
ON 1 UK PAET PLAYED BY CALCIUM CHLORIDE
IX THE WELDON PROCESS.
BY O. LUNGE.
Tin. late Walter Weldon knew very well that the presence
of considerable quantities of calcium chloride is essential to
the recovery of manganese peroxide by his celebrated
process. No doubt a good many observations had been
made on that point in various works with which he was in
communication, and probably many others have been made
since his time, but they seem to have remained buried in
the works' note books, and never to have been utilised for
deriving distinct quantitative rules therefrom. The only
quantitative statement on the amount of calcium chloride
required for the Weldon process which 1 know of is that
which I have received from Mr. Schaffner, of Aussig, and
which is found in my " Sulphuric Acid and Alkali," viz.,
that there ought to be from 2 to 2i molecules of calcium
chloride present for each molecule of MuCL. I thought
it therefore advisable to investigate this question as far as
possible, and this I havs done with the assistance of Mr.
B. Zahorsky. I shall now give a short description of our
results.
The most natural explanation of the auxiliary part of
calcium chloride is this, that it serves as a solvent for the
lime, which is so essential for the Weldon process. It is
well known that lime is more soluble in hot chloride of
calcium solution than in water, undoubtedly owing to the
formation of an oxyehloride. Crystallised calcium oxy-
chloride has the formula 3 CaO, CaCl2, 15 H„0, recently
confirmed by Mr. Zahorsky, who found that no other
crystallised oxyehloride can be obtained. Quantitative
statements on the solubility of lime in CaCl., solution have
only once been published (by Post, in " Berichte," 1879,
1541), but they are extremely fragmentary, since only four
observations were made, and the concentration of the
solution was merely established by the hydrometer. We
therefore commenced by making more complete observations
on the solubility of CaO in CaCk solutions of various
strengths and at different temperatures, of which the
following is a synopsis : —
Son liii.iTV of Lime in Solutions of Calcium Chloride
(expressed in grammes of Caliper loo ee. of CaClo
solution).
Liquid.
Temperature in Degrees C.
2e
in
60°
vn
100°
0-1374
0-116-2
0-1026
0*0846
0-0664
5 per cent. CaClg
0-1370
0-1160
0-1020
0'0936
0-0906
10 „
0-llilil
0-1419
0-1313
0-1328
0-1389
l.">
0-1993
IJ-17S1
0-1706
0-1736
0-1842
20
0-1857'
0"2249
0-2204
0-2296
0-2323
25
0-1661*
0-3020'
0-2989
0-3261
0-371 1
:i0
0-1630*
0-3684
0-3664
11-4112
IV4922
In the cases marked with an asterisk a precipitate of
calcium oxyehloride was formed which removed some CaCl=
from the solution.
We notice that the solubility of Cat ) in solutions
containing up to 10 per cent. CaCU at the ordinary or a
slightly raised temperature does not differ very much from
that in pure water, no doubt because no oxyehloride is
formed up to that point. At higher temperatures the
presence of CaCk. increases the solubility of CaO, aud this
takes place proportionately with the quantity of CaCL,
except where the phenomenon is complicated by a precipi-
tation of solid oxyehloride. Otherwise from 40° C. upwards
the concentration of the solution has more effect than a rise
of the temperature.
Apart from CaO, a solution of calcium chloride can also
dissolve protoxide aud peroxide of manganese, and we shall
have to refer to this later on.
After this preliminary work it was our task to construct
an apparatus in which the part played by calcium chloride
in the Weldon process might be experimentally studied
in the laboratory under conditions sufficiently resembling
those of actual practice. That this is no easy task is best
proved by the fact that Weldon himself did not succeed in
getting any satisfactory results so long as he worked on a
laboratory or even on a semi-grand scale; and it is also
proved by the complete failure of Post to establish a process
even remotely similar to that carried on on the large scale.
The task was, however, successfully accomplished, as we
shall see, by means of the resources of our technical
laboratory, which has indeed been expressly constructed
with a view to similar investigation-.
We possess a blowing-engine driven by steam-power, with
a network of pipes aud taps for distributing the compressed
air in the laboratory. With one of these taps I connected
a circular iron vessel, from which three vertical glass tubes
carried the air to the bottom of tall slass cylinders (40 em.
high) placed in a large common water-bath, heated to 55 —
60° C. The ends of the glass tubes were provided with
many small perforations in order to divide the stream of air
into many bubbles, and at the same time to thoroughly stir
the mass, just as in a Weldon oxidiser, As it was important
Nov. 80,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
ss::
to ascertain that, exactly the same quantity of air passed
through each of the three pipes, several check experiments
were made with exactly equal quantities of manganese
liquor and lime, keeping all other conditions as similar as
possible, and the product was tested for Mill )., in the usual
manner. The result of three such experiments, carried on
at the same time by means of the three branch tubes, was
as follows: — 66-14, fi;i '90, 65-90 per cent. Mn02. This
very slight difference, which is no greater than in the ease
of very good analyses, proved that my apparatus fulfilled
its purpose in this respect, viz., that tests made with it at
the same time are really comparable with one another.
The material employed for our experiments was ordinary
"still liquor" obtained from a works where chlorine is
made in the old style from native manganese ore and hydro-
chloric acid. This liquor was neutralised with an excess of
chalk and filtered; it. then contained MnCU corresponding
to 114-84 grms. per litre. For each test 800 cc. of this
liquor was in the end diluted to 2,000 cc, so that it now
contained manganese corresponding to 45*93 grms. Mn02
per litre, which is very nearly the. concentration usual on
the large scale. The 800 cc. of liquor was mixed with the
exactly necessary quantity of milk of lime for precipitating
all the manganese as Mn(0H)a, and then tested for CaCU,
whereupon the liquor was made to contain a certain propor-
tion of the latter by either taking away some of the clear
solution or else adding solid CaCU. Lastly, exactly 1 mol.
of CaO to 2 mols. of Mii(OH)a was added, and the mixture
was made up to 2,000 cc. It stood at the same height in all
three cylinders. During the experiments the water carried
away as ste?.m was replaced, and the same level of liquid
always kept up. When the temperature of the bath had
reached 55D or 60° C, the air-blast was started, and con
tinned for 10 hours. This is certainly much longer than is
ever done in practice, but it was necessary in consequence
of the low depth of the magma as compared with a Weldon
oxidiser, and the best proof that, in spite of this unavoidable
difference, our conditions of working sufficiently resembled
those of manufacturing practice, is given by the excellent
results reported below.
I do not quote several experiments made with turbid
liquors, which exhibit irregularities on the small scale
similar to those experienced in large work. The others are
summarised in the following tables, where I give the average
results of two parallel experiments for each single case.
In every ease the same quantities of manganese (= 45-93
gnus, per litre) and of free lime (= 14'78 grms. =: | mol.)
CaO to 1 mol. Mn(OII)„ and of water were used, but the
quantity of Cat I, was varied from 1 to 6 mols. to 1 mol'.
.Vln(Oll).,, and tests were taken every hour. The table
shows the percentage oxidation of Mill I to Mn02, giving
always the average of two experiments, which never differed
more than is unavoidable both on the small and the large
scale (at most 3 per cent. Mn02).
Miiiecules.
Hours.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
12.
l.Mn(OH)aiCaO:
56 '91
66-14
67-71
69"81
70-60
72' 111
78-78
75-23
76-11
77-2.5
..
+ liCaClj
54-95
60"68
115-82
69-22
71-41
73-81
75-00
77-20
78-30
79-24
50'66
58-23
64-31
69-93
73-89
76-59
78-52
79-,69
80-21
sil-117
+ SCaClj
12 'AS
53-13
61-78
70*06
76-17
79-05
80-45
81-62
82-53
83-32
38-53
29-43
IS-70
37-50
57-86
+4-37
68-35
49-77
76-02
52-82
79"68
6.5 '36
80-94
75-14
SI '75
81-08
63-27
84-11
84-75
85-20
+■ SCaClj
87"79
19-74
26-47
41-37
51-18
65-71
73-14
79-77
S2-36
SS-T.".
85-51
89-13
It is evident that in the first stages of the process the
oxidation of MnO and Mn02, or more correctly speaking
the formation of calcium manganite, is the more retarded
the more calcium chloride is present ; with 1 mol. CaCU it
is nearly three times as quick as with 6 mols. But this
proportion steadily changes with the duration of the blow-
ing process : after six hours there is an equilibrium among
all various proportions of CaCL, and further on the degree
of oxidation rises quite regularly in proportion to the
quantity of CaCt2 present. With 1 mol. CaCU we find,
after 10 hours' blowing, 77 '25 per cent., with 3 mols. 83-3
per i int., with 6 mols. 85*5 per cent. Two experiments
were continued for 12 hours in order to read the maximum
of oxidation, which was found = 89-13 per cent, with
6 mols. CaCU
In actual practice the oxidation at this stage (previous to
tin- addition of the " final liquor " which we did not make,
not to complicate the conditions) rarely exceeds 79 or 80
per cent. This is attained in very large oxidisers in two hours,
in smaller ones in three hours, and in our small apparatus in
six hours. It will be conceded that this is an exceedingly
good result and entitles us to draw conclusions not merely
for our small experiments but for actual practice. My con-
clusion is : that 3 mols. of calcium chloride to each mol. Mn
is tin: most suitable proportion for the oxidising process.
Below :i mols. the process is essentially retarded, an addi-
tion of more than 3 mols. is more difficult ta manage, and
does not give a very large gain. Still there is no doubt that
the operation ends all the more favourably , he more CaCl2
is present.
The next question is, what is the cause of this favourable
action of calcium chloride '! The explanation which suggests
itself from the first, and which was also given by Weldon
himself, rests on the fact that CaO is more soluble in hot
CaCU liquor than in water, and that the oxidation must be
all the more facilitated the more CaO there is in solution.
If this is the only and all-sufficient explanation, then other
similar solvents for CaO must act in a similar way. We
cannot employ the best solvent for lime, viz., cane sugar,
which, of course, entirely prevents the oxidation of Mn< '
and Mn02 ; the onlyr substances which I found applicable
lure are the chlorides of sodium and potassium. Solutions
of these, if not containing more than 5 or 10 per cent.
KC1 or NaCl, dissolve at 50 C. about 30 or 40 per cent,
more lime than pure water, or almost exactly as much as
a 10 per cent, solution of CaCl2, as proved by A number of
special determinations which I leave out here. We now
made three parallel tests, charging our three cylinders with
the same quantities of manganese and lime as before, but
adding to No. 1, 100 grms. CaCU ; to No. 2, 100 grms.
NaCl; to No. 3, 100 grms. KC1 per litre, which solutions
would dissolve almost exactly equal quantities of lime.
The three cylinders were heated in the same bath to 55° C, ;
air was blown through for eight hours, and the product
analysed with the following results : — No. 1, 77 "2 percent. ;
No. 2, 69-41 per cent. ; No. 3, 69-02 per cent. MnO,.
Although the same quantity of CaO was dissolved in all
three eases, the advantage shown by the CaCU in comparison
with KC1 and NaCl is much too large to be ascribable to an
accident, looking at the absolute uniformity of all other
o 2
881
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. 30, im
experimental conditions. This makes the assumption that
the calcium chloride acts exclusively as a solvent for CaO
very improbable ; nor would this in any way explain the
delay of the oxidation produced in the initial stage by an
increased quantity of CaClo.
We must therefore look for something else, and we
naturally turn at ouce to the oxides of manganese them-
selves, whose solubility in CaC!» solutions was very early
observed by Weldon (Chem." News, 20, '109). We
have confirmed this : we have, moreover, found that the
solubility of Mn(OH)s increases with the concentration of
the CaClo solution. The solution formed is col.. inks- and
turns brown on addition of chloride of lime. Weldon has
noticed that any manganous salt, whether MnCls or the
solution of MnO in CaClo solution, retards the oxidation
of the Mii(nll); suspended in the liquid, but that the
simultaneous presence of lime quickens the oxidising
process, by which a " port wine " coloured liquid is formed
which Weldon took for a solution of calcium mangauite in
calcium oxychloride solution.
We have prepared that port-wine solution directly from
t lie materials. In the case of a concentrated CaClj solution
it is amber-coloured, and there is no precipitate formed on
boiling. Exposed to the daylight the clear liquid becomes
gradually turbid and deposits a large, quantity of MnO.,
(or calcium manganite). By the addition of water the
colour is changed into dark brown, and it now yields a
precipitate when heated. Hydrogen peroxide produces an
evolution of gas and a vermilion-coloured precipitate.
Ammonia gives no precipitate. Hydrochloric acid gives
first a brown liquor, with evolution of chlorine, then the
colour turns lighter, a green colour being temporarily
formed. Sulphuric acid produces a precipitate of calcium
sulphate, which also shows a transient green colour.
Sodium sulphate produces a black precipitate.
Some of these reactions, especially the decomposition in
daylight, seem to show that we have not to deal with a
simple solution of manganese dioxide or calcium manganite
in calcium chloride, but with a manganese dioxychloridc,
perhaps of the formula Cl-Mn-02-( HI.
The. just-mentioned opposite behaviour of solutions of
manganese, monoxide, and dioxide in calcium chloride
during the oxidation of manganous oxide by oxygen seems
to permit us to give the following explanation of the
retarding action of an excess of calcium chloride in the
commencement of the operation. Calcium chloride dissolves
some Mn(OH)s, and this solution acts in a retarding way
upon the oxidation of the suspended MnOHI), by atmo-
spheric oxygen. The more CaCU there is present the more
Mn(OH).is dissolved, and the more the retarding action
of this solution is exercised. But as the oxidation is
merely retarded, not stopped, gradually more and more
MnO., (or rather CaMuO:() is formed, which is also parti}'
dissolved in the CaCI2 solution, an. 1 yields the " port-wine
solutiou " in which the oxidising action is accelerated.
Thus, after a certain time, the retarding action of the
MnO solution is compensated by the accelerating action of
the MnO., solutiou, and later on the latter becomes pre-
valent. But at this point the circumstance comes into play
that the quantitv of MnO, entering into solution is also
increased in proportion to the quantity of OaCf. present ;
therefore, in the latter stages the acceleration of the oxidation
must increase with the quantity of Cat 'I.,.
Several attempts were also made .to clear up the nature
of the ''stiff batches" which used to occur frequently
years ago, but are rare now, since it has been recognised
that their forinati jan be prevented by keeping a proper
quantity of calcium chloride in the mass, and by good
blowing. The idea (suggested by Post) that thick batches
were caused by the formation of solid oxychlorides is
utterly untenable. Oxychloride does not separate out
when calcium chloride is deficient, but only when it is
present in excess, and even then only in far more concen-
trated solutions (as shown in the first of our tables) than
ever occur in the Weldon process. Moreover, we found
by filtering a " stiff batch," accidentally obtained, that the
filtrate contained the full proportion of CaCI.,, but a
deficiency of CaO ; he ■ any separation of oxychloride
was out of the question. We obtained even a -tiff batch
by blowing air through a mixture of pure Mn(UH),, free
from calcium chloride, with a little more than its equivalent
of Ca(< >H)... The analysis of a filtered sample showed 30-12
per cent. Cat ), 11 ■ 11 Mil as MnO.,, 41 •:« total Mn, calculated
as MnO... There was thus more than :( CaO present to
1 real MnO.,. It seems that a combination of lime is
formed with manganese protoxide, or else a very basic
manganite, but we do not venture to pronounce a positive
opinion on this question, which will probably be further
investigated in the Zurich laboratory.
Discussion.
Mr. Stuart said that many years ago at HebbUrn they
made careful tests of batches worked on the manufacturing
scale with varying amounts of calcium chloride, and had
come to the conclusion that from 1 ' 7 to 2 equivalents of
calcium chloride to one of manganese chloride was the
most suitable proportion. Thick batches arose when the
proportion of calcium chloride was too small.
Mr. Martvx pointed out that two equivalents of calcium
chloride to one of manganese chloride was 3 of calcium
chloride to 1 of manganese hydrate, as the decomposition of
manganese chloride formed calcium chloride.
The Chairman said that excess of air appeared to act in
the way of preventing thick batches, and thus counteracting
the effect of a deficiency of calcium chloride.
Mr. Rennoldson thought the concentration of the
solution would probably have some influence on the result.
Further discussion was adjourned until next meeting.
I^otttncjfiam Section*
University. College, Nottingham.
Chairman: L. Archbutt.
Vice-Chairman: F. Clowes.
Committee :
F. J. It. Carulla.
J. B. Coleman.
C. H. Field.
H. Forth.
F.D.Mordle.
S. J. Pentecost.
H. J. Staples.
C. Taylor.
.Sir John Turiiey.
G.J. Ward.
J.T.Wood.
Treasurer: J. M. C. Paton.
Hon. Local Secretary :
R. h. Whiteley, University College, Nottinghami
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1S92-D3.
Wednesday, Dec. llili
Chemical Lead,"
-Mr. F. J. It. Carulla. "The I le ot
Sov.80.l88B.] THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
885
f^ortobire Action.
Chairman: Sir James Kitson, Bart., 11.1'.
Vice-Chairman i Dr. F. H. Bowman.
Committee:
A. H. Mien. J. Lewkowitsch.
J. B. Cohen. F.W. Richardson,
T. Fairley. Jas. Sharp.
A. Hess. G. W. Slatter.
K. Holliday. G. Ward.
J, J. Hummel. F. B. Wiklinson,
II")}. Local Secretary :
H. B. Procter. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Notices of Papers and Communications should ho addressed to
the Hon. Local Secretary.
A iviEii was read by Dr. Julius B. Cohen and G. Hefford,
A. l.C, entitled " A Preliminary Note on the Products of
Combustion of Coal," which will appear, together with report
of discussion, in a future number of the Journal. The next
meeting of the Section will he held at the Yorkshire
College, Leeds, on Monday, December 5th, when Professor
J. J. Hummel will describe some primitive modes of dyeing,
and exhibit specimens, and various recent forms of
apparatus will be shown.
#(a$g;oto aitii £>rottfsJ) &wtfon.
Chairman : C. A. Fawsitt.
Vice-Chairman: E.J.Mills.
Committee .-
G. Beilby. J. S. Macarthur.
W.J. Chrystal. T.P.Miller.
C. J. Ellis. T. L. Patterson.
Wm. Fouhs. J. Pattison.
J. Gibson. J. B. Readman.
R. A. Inglis. E. C. C. Stanford.
R. Irvine. R. R. Tatlock.
J, Falconer Kins.
G. Watson.
Hon. Secretary and Treasurer :
J, Stanley Muir, Chemical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1893-93.
Tuesday, Dee. nth (Edinburgh) : — Discussion on Mr. D. R.
Steuart's paper, " The Flash-point and Heat of Burning of Mineral
Oil."
Meeting held in the Societies' Rooms, 207, Bath Street,
Glasgow, on Tuesday, November 1st, 1892.
MR. CHA8. A. FAWSITT IN THE CHAIR.
the flash-point and heat of burning
()f mineral oils.
UV D. It. STEUART.
In examining a burning oil, the first thing to investigate is
whether the oil is safe to handle and to burn in ordinary
lamps, and after that, what light it gives, &c. The
safety of an oil is determined by taking its flash-point as
it is called. What the flash-point is meant to be is the lowest
temperature at which an explosion of the vapours given
off can take place when a light is applied to the mixture
of air an.l vapour. At this temperature there is a flash of
flame going immediately out. A somewhat higher tem-
perature is required to evolve vapour sufficiently fast to
keep up a constant flame. The lowest temperature for this
is sometimes called the firing-point. The old method of
taking the flash-point, fixed by Act of Parliament, was by
gradually heating the oil in an open cup, partly screened
from draughts, and applying a light at intervals. During
the experiment, the vapours first given off diffused away
into the atmosphere, aial a point far above the true Hash-
point was got, and this, of course, gave a false impression as
to the safety of the oil. This method was not rejected on
tliis account however, hut because different experimenters
could not or did not strike the same point. I do not know
the origin of this test, hut if it was not designedly invented
to deceive the public anil let dangerous low-flashing oil into
the market, that at any rate was the result of its adoption.
The preseut method fixed by Parliament is the close test of
Sir Frederick Abel. In this case the cup is kept covered
when being heated, and two little holes are opened for a
moment when the light is applied ; we get the true flash-
point, the lowest temperature at which we may expect an
explosion ; and different experimenters get the same result.
To fix 100° F. as the minimum safety point for oil iu
our climate, was, I think, a very reasonable thing ; but to
change the safety point when the correct method of testing
was adopted, was very absurd. 100° in the old test was
about 733 in the new, according to certain experimenters,
and the minimum for the new test was fixed at 73°; that is,
the old test, giving an indication false by 20° or 80 , was
used for fixing the new safety point as if it indicated t lie
truth. What naturally fixes the safety point for any
country is the highest ordinary temperature of the climate.
An oil flashing at or under ordinary summer temperatures
is dangerous to handle, let alone to burn. If temperature in
houses is for months at 80°, 73° flash-point oil is as dan-
gerous as naphtha. For safety in lamps we have to add the
heat developed by burning, and besides that, add a little for
safety to put the oils fairly out of the range of possible
explosions. The common high temperatures of this country,
70° at least, p/us the heat developed in the oil reservoir by
ordinary lamps in ordinary dirty order (20° at least if of
metal as recommended by Abel and Redwood) plus 111" to
put the flash out of danger, gives 100° as the lowest tem-
perature which can be allowed with any security for the
flash-point, Abel test, for oils for ordinary household use.
This takes it for granted that oils are safe in proportion to
their flash-points, which is a matter we must afterward
discuss.
The crude oils, whether shale or petroleum, from which
our burning oils are manufactured, contain a considerable
proportion of volatile oils, called spirit or naphtha, which
vaporise or boil at comparatively low temperatures. These
have to be separated in the refining of the oils, otherwise
burning oils would flash or give off combustible vapours at
ordinary temperatures. The separation of this volatile
spirit is a simple matter, happening of its own accord in
distillation ; and in Scotland in trfe manufacture of paraffin
oil from shale there is no temptation to let any pass into the
burning oil, for this spirit or naphtha is always in demand,
and often commands a better price than burning oil. As far
as I know, however, Scotch manufacturers have kept the
flash-point about 1(10° as a minimum, whether naphtha was
cheap or dear. Scotch paraffiu oil generally flashes between
100° and 125° F. In America and elsewhere matters are
different. Foreign petroleum is produced in such quantities
that the naphtha production is far beyond what is required.
There is therefore a great temptation to put in as much
naphtha among the burning oil as possible. A great bulk of
American petroleum is sent into this country between 73"
and 80° flash-point. The petroleum trade in America has
been practically in the hands of one great organisation,
which, of course, had no difficulty in believing that what
suited it was good for the world. Manufacturers and
merchants at home and abroad like to have freedom to sell
a low-flash consignment of oil if by any chance it should
be made, and the Government does not want to hamper the
trade, or do anything that would increase the cost of light
unless it sees undoubted danger. There is no great class
886
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. fNov. 30, 1898.
whose interest it is to see that the flash is kept high enough,
and u eat and powerful interests are all ranged on the other
side, so that the interest ami safety of the people are neglected
and the safety point fixed far too low.
The temperatures of 73° to 80' are common summer
temperatures, and even common winter temperatures in
rooms after the lamps are lighted and the doors shut,
particularly in the upper strata of the rooms, the position
in which "lamps are often placed, on the mantelpiece of the
poor or the brackets of the rich. At these temperatures
there is an explosive mixture over the surface of ordinary
petroleum, whether in ship tank, barrel, tin can, or lamp
fount.
For the poor, with the petroleum flashing at 75° or
so, there is constantly lying in wait the possibility of an
explosion. In hot summer weather it is always there,
only waiting for the accidental touch of a light ; and
throughout the year, summer and winter, with every lamp
using these low-flashing oils, as a general rule once every
evening, as the oil warms with the burning, the explosive
mixture exists tor some little time, and often it will
exist for hours. The danger is therefore not a rare one ;
it is a thing of every-day occurrence. So it is not at all
surprising that explosions and fires in petroleum ships
should not be rare; and that in Loudon and other towns
where cheap petroleum is much used, lamp explosions should
not be unfrequeut. The question rather is, why are
accidents not more frequent ? and the answer, I fear, is
that even the most ignorant people are more intelligent than
the Government, and have been taught by dire experience
to treat ordinary petroleum as a dangerous liquid. The
lowest flashing petroleum is in some respects more dange-
rous than gunpowder, for the powder only ignites on applying
a light directly to it, while the petroleum insidiously exhales
its vapour all rour.d where no danger could be anticipated.
But surely it is something approaching a national crime to
put into the hands of the poor, the least intelligent of the
people, a liquid which gives off an explosive vapour
at ordinary temperatures, and to give it practically a
Government certificate of safety. Vet that is exactly what
is done. There are many deaths every year from ordinary
petroleum, none of which would have happened if the safety
flash-point had been left at 100'. Now, who is responsible
for these easily preventable deaths, as well as all the destruc-
tion of property ? You and 1, gentlemen, if we don't speak
out.
The better brands of petroleum used by the rich, to be
got for a trifle more per gallon, are homogeneous in their
nature, and their flash-points range from 100° to 125 °F,
or so. With them, under ordinary circumstances, the ex-
plosive mixture is never lying in wait, and there is no
danger with them whatever if treated in anything approach-
ing a reasonable manner. Under such circumstances our
hope would naturally be in the Government, but unfortu-
nately it is there that the great impediment lies.
From Eyre and Spottiswoode .can be got for three half-
pence a Report by Abel and Redwood on lamp accidents.
How lamps may be mollified to prevent accidents is the
subject, but they fully discuss the influence of the oil.
They give details of 28 accidents, with flash-point of oil
as far as can he ascertained. They found only one high-
flashing oil 110°, and the accident was a case of over-setting.
The highest flash-point got besides this was 88". There
were 23 cases of lamp explosion all of which, as far as could
be ascertained, were from low-flashing oils. So their own
table proves that 73° and even 88° are far too low for
safety, and that over 100° is safe; yet they do not point
this out but talk as if the reverse were proved.
They fail to point out the danger in the ordinary every-
day handling of low-flash oils and talk as if the only risk
were explosion in the lamps.
They argue that 73°, or a lower point, is safer than
anything higher (page 5) and that this safest oil is at its
greatest safety when heated far above its flash-point, so that
the air is all expelled by the evolved vapours (pages 5 and 9).
Now any person of common sense can see that this for
common lamps and every-day use is very absurd. I quote
their words, " If the flashing-point of the oil used be below
the minimum (73 Abel test) fixed by law, and even if it be
about that point or a little above it, vapour will be given off
comparatively freely, but the mixture of petroleum vapour
and air formed in the upper part of the reservoir of the lamp
will probably be feebly explosive in consequence of the
presence of an excess of vapour. On the other hand, if the
flashing-point of the oil be comparatively high the vapour
will be less readily or copiously produced, and the mixture
of vapour and air may be more violent^- explosive, because
the proportion of the former to the latter is likely to be
lower, and nearer that demanded for the production of a
powerfully-explosive mixture." That is, they are of opinion
that the lower the flash the safer the oil. If there was
anything in the argument, 73° should be fixed as maximum
and not minimum. Their highest flash was only 88°, and
consequently the greater violence of their highest flashing
oil over their lowest was a matter of no moment, as even
88° is dangerously low ; but they make the statement as if
it were of great importance, and put it so generally as to
give the impression that the higher the flash the greater the
danger. ( 'ommon sense would advise a flash-point high
enough to be out of the region of danger altogether. They
do the very reverse. They go on to say, " Experiments
have demonstrated that the burning of an oil of com-
paratively high flashing-point is more likely to cause heating
of the lamp than the use of an oil of comparatively low
flashing-point, in consequence of the higher temperature
developed by the former, and of the greater difficulty with
which some oils of that description are conveyed to the flame
by the wick. It therefore follows that safety in the use of
mineral oil lamps is not to be secured simply by the employ-
ment of oils of comparatively high flashing-points (or low-
volatility), and that the use of such oils may eveu in certain
cases give rise to dangers, which are small, if not entirely
absent, with oils of comparatively low flashing-point."
I am quite sure that this is a mistake they have made, and
that as a general rule the very reverse is the truth. They
fail to state the rule it seems to me, and give a rare excep-
tion as if it were the rule. Mr. Fox, present chemist to the
Petroleum Association, and others, have made experiments
proving them to he wrong. In all my experience I never
found any corroboration of th sir statement. I give experi-
ments in the Tables, proving that the law of the matter is
that the lower the flash the more danger there is of a high
temperature being developed.
In summing up the results of their investigations, Abel
and Redwood say, " In one case the oil flashed at 73°, in
one at 74°, in one at 77', in one at 78°, in two at 79°, in one
at S'j , in one at 83°, in one at 84°, in one at 86°, in one at
ss , ami iu one at 110°. Therefore in one half of the cases
in which it was possible to determine the flashing-point of
the oil, it was about lo and upwards above the legal
standard. In some of these instances the explosion was
apparently of a more than ordinarily violent character."
Further on, iu advocating metal reservoirs, they sav,
" Moreover, the heating of the oil does not necessarily
increase the probability of the formation of an explosive
mixture ; on the contrary, any increased volatilisation
resulting therefrom would have the effect of increased
expulsion of air from the reservoir, so that the vaporous
contents would be rendered inflammable instead of explo-
sive. A lamp intended to be used with ordinary petroleum
oil, and having an unprotected burner, is in the safest
condition when the proportion of vapour to air is con-
siderably in excess of that required to produce an
explosion."
They say safest, when the oil according to their showing
is heated far above its flash-point 1 But they are wron" in
indicating that vapours would under ordinary circumstances
be evolved in sufficient quantity to expel the air to such an
extent as to prevent explosion. A certain temperature
merely demands a certain definite pressure of oil-vapour,
and when this is got evolution stops. Even with naphtha,
a half-filled oil-can or lamp would not cease to be explosive,
unless by the outward application of heat for the purpose.
They themselves pointed out that many accidents were from
oversetting, or from reservoir breaking. In the case of their
so-called safest condition, if such accidents happened, there
would lie a sudden evolution of vapour all round, an
explosion would certainly take place and vigorous conibus-
Nov. 80,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTF.Y.
887
tiou ensue. Moreover before this safest condition eoulil be
reached by the heating of the lump, in every ease the state
of greatest danger must be passed through. In a lamp full
of oil the danger of au explosion might not be very great,
vet still not insignificant ; but when a half-filled lamp is
lighted, as is habitually done by many people, the danger
remains a long time, probably for hours, and the explosion,
if it took place, might be the sharpest possible, whether with
7'. flashing oil or 88. This is not a matter in which it is
necessary for experts to instruct us.
Now, if a lamp of high-flashing oil were overturned, the
lamp would likely go out, or, if the wick continued to burn,
it would burn quietly on the pool of oil for some time
without inflaming, it would not cause alarm, and would be
easily extinguished. That is, unless the oil were highly
heated by the lamp, as it was in Lord Bomilly's ease. His
death was caused by a metal lamp without any non-conductor
between burner and fount, and evidently intended to heat
the oil to make it burn better, which it on that account
certainly does. The table was overturned with lamp anil
papers on it, and the burner was so insecurely fixed that it
fell out, allowing the oil to flow over the papers. In
Scotland here I have heard of many cases of paraffin lamps
oversetting, but I never heard of an explosion or fire
resulting.
No doubt oil of 73 flash eau be burned in proper lamps
with perfect safety, just as naphtha can, but no manipulation
of lamps would ever make naphtha or 73° flash petroleum
safe for ordinary handling. We need never even talk of such
a thing until the working man is able and willing to give a
guinea for his lamp instead of a shilling as at present.
.Mr. Redwood lately said : — " He had the honour of being
associated with Sir Frederick Abel iu some of his experi-
mental work, and well remembered his expressing in his
report a very distinct opinion that there was no grounds
for considering that the minimum legal flash-point was not
calculated to afford adequate protection to the public."
(.lour. Soc. Arts, xl., 217.) I, unfortunately, could not get
any such report from Eyre and Spoltiswoode, or I would
quote from the report itself.
Some time since I wrote to Mr. Gladstone on the subject,
and the other day I got an answer from the Home Secretary
" That he was advised that there are not sufficient grounds
cither of safety or convenience for an alteration of the
existing flashing-point for mineral oils.''
The oil required by the War Office has to be 105° flash-
point as a minimum ; lighthouse oil, 145u. Now, why does
the Government supply its servants with such dangerously
high-flashing oil if, according to the teaching of Abel and
Kedwood, 73°, or something lower, is safer ? If our intelli-
gent Government servants are not sufficiently protected
unless they have a flash of 105°, how are the ignorant poor
sufficiently protected by a flash of 73°? There seems to be
something very far wrong somewhere.
Mr. Redwood's remarks to the Society of Arts are well
worth reading. He appears to think the experiments made
by the million every night, are in favour of low-flashing oils,
vet, judging from his own report, accidents are practically
all from lew-flashing oils.
Abel and Redwood are of opinion that metal lamps are
In '*t. The problem they set themselves seemingly was —
how can ordinary dangerous petroleum be burned safely in
lamps ? Quite an impossibility. They suggest metal
reservoirs strong enough to stand an explosion, and have
low-flashing oil, well warmed by the lamp, to drive out the
air with oil vapours, as before mentioned. Metal reservoirs
are objectionable. You cannot see to fill the lamp without
overflowing it. The smear itself is dangerous with low-
flashing oils, particularly when it warms. It also causes
the oil to syphon out by surface attraction, which it does
with more speed than one would believe. Also, if the
reservoir is a little too full, warming rapidly as it does in
metal, the oil expands and must get out somewhere to
produce a blaze, either through some chink of reservoir,
or up the burner-tube to cause an alarming flare of light in
the chimney that cannot be controlled or extinguished by
screwing down the lamp. My opinion is we ought to have
high-flashing oil, and we should have a glass reservoir with
a non-conductor between it and the burner. Even although
the lamp'were smashed, with the oil 20° under the flash-
point, as it would naturally be in such a case, the danger
of tire would be very small. But the glass reservoir nii^'ht
be protected by met ;d. Their proposal to protect the
filling hole and burner-tube with wire gauze is very good,
but it would be difficult to enforce it universally, or prevent
it being torn out of cheap lamps. Then with a wick too
small, as often happens in places far from the market, or
with duplex lamp and one burner left without wick, as is
sometimes designedly done, the train is laid for an explosion.
The oil must be safe as well as the lamp.
The experiments I give were carried out to see the effect
of flash-point on the heat developed in burning, and to get
at that with certainty, I tried to make out the effect of other
qualities, such as heavy oil being present, chemicals left
in the oil, &c. When I commenced my experiments first
I wished to investigate the matter very thoroughly, but was
prevented. However, I tried a few experiments to satisfy
myself, and these are what I have to give.
My aim was to have all the results exactly comparable.
I used the same lamp with glass reservoir throughout.
The table I give of the oils of different Scotch companies
may possibly be an exception as they were tested previously ;
the lamp even in these cases was the same one, or one
exactly similar. I took a new piece of wick for eacii
experiment, clean and dry, and always of the same qualitv,
and in the cases of first division of Table 1. and first division
of Table II., even from the same coil. Changing the wick
each time was the ouly way to get comparable results, as
I could not continue the same oil for a length of time ; but
by this way we do not get the full difference of good and
bad oil, for some bad oils are cumulative in their bad
results, as the impurities accumulate in the wick.
I wished to get the highest temperature possible for each
oil, so as to get the differences accentuated. I soldered,
therefore, a little tube to the metal outside the chimney,
at the same level as the burner, put mercury in it, and a
thermometer bulb in the mercury. If I took only the
temperature of the oil in the reservoir I thought the error
of' experiment would be great from the effect of difference
in draughts on a windy day and a quiet one, &c.
In doing first division of Table I. I did not take
temperature of oil left in lamp at all. as I kuew it was
never high enough to be near the flashing-point of the oil ;
but having taken this in the case of petroleum, I supple-
mented these afterwards with the temperature results given
iu the second division of Table I.
The lamp with glass reservoir is a Young's duplex ; and
the metal lamp is a duplex exactly similar, I believe, to the
one which caused Lord Romilly's death. After adjusting
the flame of the lamp at first to its full height we did not
touch it afterwards in case one experiment would get more
care than another. The experiments and calculations given
were made by my assistant, Mr. Johu Woodrow.
When a lamp burns badly it generally develops more
heat than usual, the light is red instead of white, and the
combustion is imperfect, producing a bad smell. This may
arise from a bad lamp, the air supplied not being sufficient
or not properly reverberated on the flame, or from the
chimney being too short or so badly shaped as to give a
back current inside the widened part ; or it may arise from
the lamp being dirty and air-holes partly filled ; or from
the wick being bad, damp, or dirty ; or from the oil being
polluted with a trace of vegetable or animal oil in the dishes
used for measuring or filling ; or from the oil itself being
had from refining chemicals being retained or heavy oil
being present.
In the tables, I give the lamps burned with the air-holes
free and also with the air-holes partly filled with caudle-
wick, so as to imitate the effect of a lamp in bad order.
The result was often to decrease the light and always to
increase the heat.
I give also the specific gravity of the oil, and the flash-
point. The flash-point does not always rise in proportion
to th*.- specific gravity, comparing paraffin oils by themselves,
or petroleums by themselves ; for au oil of 800 sp. gr. say,
may be either a comparatively homogeneous oil of that
gravity, or it may be a mixture of lighter and heavier oils,
with 800 as the average. The structure of the oils tested '
888
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 80, 1892.
is given in the column? for fractionation. My rule for
fractionating is to make cuts with intervals of 25° or 50° C,
but working with Fahrenheit thermometers my assistants
erred from this a little, for which I am sorry ; but all are
done comparatively with each other. It is much better to
fractionate in this way than to cut into equal measures, say
In per cent, fractions, as one sees at a glance the structure
of the oil. The effect of oil being not homogeneous in
structure is shown in (7) where light special oil 782 is
mixed with heavy marine sperm 830. The light was pretty
well kept up, but the heat developed was much greater than
with either oil separate. If the wick had been of poor
quality the result would have been far more striking. A
closely-woven wiek fractionates the oil to some extent, and
the residue in the wiek and lamp tends to get heavier ; so
that an oil containing heavy oil with such a wick burns very
badly after an hour or two, while a homogeneous oil burns
well throughout. With a very good loose wick, the heavy
oil rises pretty well, and the burning of badly-fractionated
oil approximates to the well-fractionated. A well-fractionated
ml is nearly independent of wick, one with heavy residue
does not burn well unless the wiek is very good. The
burning oils (8 — 13) of first division of Table I. are all of
similar quality, with fractionation similar to the two given.
In testing an oil in the laboratory all that boils over above
300° O. (.">~2 F.) is looked on as hurtful to the burning in
ordinary lamps. Ordinary paraffin oil has sp. gr. 808 to
81 J, but special lamps can burn oil of 830 or 8-10 quite well.
and the flash of these is 220" or 230' F. They contain a
considerable residue boiling over ."i72 (See (3).)
The expression " treated " and " untreated " which I have
used refer to w hether or not the oils were treated with acid
and soda after the last distillation. Burning oils are greatly
influenced by a finishing treatment. It gives them a pale
colour and improves the smell. The oil settles quite clear,
but retains sulpho-compounds of soda, and these have to be
washed out as thoroughly as possible. Whether thoroughly
washed or not the burning of the oil is always somewhat
harmed by the treatment, and if much soda-coinpound is
left in the oil, the oil is much the worse. The sulpho
compound decomposes in the burner, giving free sulphuric
acid, which chars the wick, sometimes for an inch down the
burner-tube. The wick at the top becomes quite acid to
litmus. But sometimes the wicks are acid of themselves to
begin, and acidity in the burner is not always from the oil.
As a rough and rapid test for the amount of this decom-
posable sulpho-compound, I heat the oil rapidly to 330 °,
cool rapidly, and titrate the acidity. With care in doing the
experiments all alike, the results are comparable. If left in
the heat any time, the acid is given off as SO.,, and dis-
appears. I take 2,000 fl. gr. of oil and wash it afterwards
with 200 fl. gr. of water. I titrate the water with centinormal
soda, using methyl-orange as indicator, and the figures I
give are the number of fl. gr. used. Experiment No. 11
was made for the purpose of testing the effect of much
chemical retained. It was settled clear without further
washing. The average C'.P. is reduced from 19' 6 to 1 4 ■ i; .
Carefully fractionated homogeneous oils are low or high
in flash in proportion to specific gravity and boiling point.
To get at the influence of flash-point free from any confusing
element I tried paraffin oil of similar quality, but varying in
specific gravity, flash, and boiling point, and therefore
exactly comparable. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 of Table I., first
division, have flashes respectively 100°, 155°, and 230".
Burned with free burner the temperature was practically the
same in all, being at burner 102°, 103°, andl04D respectively,
giving the higher flash with the higher temperature. Even
this little difference, 1 concluded, was from error of experi-
ment, as I always got higher temperature with the lower
flash afterwards, as in Tables below. One degree at the
burner would only be a very small fraction of a degree when
conducted to the oil, and diffused over it. When I tried
similar oils with the air-holes partly filled, as lamps generally
are, I was much astonished to find the lowest flashing oil give
by far the highest temperatures.
The experiments being carried on at intervals as we
happened to have time, the circumstances as to the weather.
&c, varied, aud the results vary a little one with another.
I tried my very l>cst In invent means of getting a high
temperature with high-flashing oils, as Abel and Redwood
got for one experiment at any rate, bat I failed. I wrote to
Sir Frederick Abel, giving my experience, and asking him
to give me a hint as to how I could repeat his experiments ;
but he answered that " he was altogether precluded at the
present time to give any attention to the subject," and that
he had forwarded my letter to Mr. Redwood. Mr. Redwood
did not write in answer to my question, and I did not
trouble him with another letter.
I thought if the oil were supplied freely to a lamp burn-
ing well, that the higher temperature should be got from
the higher specific gravity and flashing-point, so I burned
comparable oils with oil supplied at constant level, 2| in.
below burner against 5 in., which is common enough in
lamps, and I got the old result, highest temperature from
lowest flash.
I tried American and Russian oils with the results shown
on Table II. I tried the crucial experiment given in the
last division of the Table. I distilled a sample of petroleum
all over, and added naphtha from one half to the otter half
with the naphtha, and thus got comparable oils, such as 1
had of the Scotch, differing only in flash, we may say, with
tie- result again of getting highest temperature with lowest
flash-point.
1 tried many experiments which I have not recorded, as
each would have had to have been detailed separately : but
all accorded with the results given.
My experiments leave no doubt on my own mind that
Abel and Redwood'^ observation s of a higher temperature
from higher flashing oil was a mistake, and that the oils
they compared had not been comparable. However high
a temperature their high-flashing oil gave, I have no doubt
a really comparable oil of low flash would have given a
still higher temperature in similar circumstances. To
render an oil flashing ai [00 as dangerous as an oil
flashing at 73°, it would have to produce a temperature in the
oil vessel of 27° higher.
I have no doubt if all our oils, home and foreign, were
made with high flash-point, it would vender them safer in
every respect, f have little doubt that to make all oils safe
in this way would be a blessing to manufacturers, as well as
to sellers and consumers. A demand for naphtha for
enriching gas, or some other purpose, wonld soon be
created ; and, with ensured safety in use, the consumption
of paraffin oil and petroleum would, I have no doubt,
increase enormously. We will soon have factories driven
by oil engines, working at the top of Highland mountains,
and other out-of-the-way places, where coal as fuel is
impossible. To give petroleum a chance of taking its
natural place in the world, freedom from explosive vapour
ought to be ensured, and I hope the manufacturers will
soon see that this is to their own advantage.
I think myself it is an immoral thing for either individual
or company to make or sell oil that gives off explosive
vapours at ordinary temperature of house or lamps without
labelling it as dangerous. If it were not for that report of
Abel and Redwood, I would think that nc sane man could
look on 73° flashing oil as anything else bat extremely
dangerous.
It is a fact, of course, that high-flashing oils, which
naturally burn cooler than low-flashing ones, can be con-
taminated (see 1.3 of Table I.) or burned in dirty lamps, so
as to produce a dangerously high temperature; but with
ordinary care of oil and lamps, I look on the 105° flashing
oil of the War Office practically as safe as colza, or any
other combustible oil.
More than a year since 1 tried to get samples of as many
Scotch oils as I could. I give the results of my tests,
showing all were of safe flash-point. Some, however,
retained too much chemical, aud would tend to char the
wick and heat the lamp, but the experiments were carried
out before the question of temperature was suggested to me.
They should have the oils better refined before giving the
final treatment, and be able to finish with less sulphuric acid.
I have not been able to carry out the series of experiments
1 originally planned, but I will continue to experiment as I
have opportunity. But others should experiment also, ami
publish their results. It is a matter of too much importance
to leave to the proclivities of a few individuals. Many
Nov. 30,1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
880
thoughts are suggested by my little array of experiments.
These or a better planned series should be carried out by
every oil chemist, so that the laws of the matter might be
made quite definite and beyond dispute, and out of the region
of mere opinion. Even educated persons have great diffidence
in forming an opinion where scientific questions are involved,
for although they are as capable of judging as experts, they
do not know it, and this is a question on which they have
been confused and misled. I have been greatly oppressed
by my own responsibility in the matter — a responsibility
brought painfully home to me by every death from lamp
accident— and I had resolved to speak out my mind whether
I was opposed or supported by the Scotch oil trade. I think
this Society should appoint a committee to draw up a series
of experiments to be carried out by each member of the
committee independently.
We should get from Parliament reliable and full returns
as to deaths and fires from mineral oil, with origin of oil
and flash-point as far as possible. I have no doubt what-
ever that all facts and experiments when collected and
interpreted aright will further prove what I hold is proved
already, that other things being equal, the higher the flash-
point the safer the oil, and that 100° P. is the lowest
flash-point that could with any oQUfjdonon be adopted.
Table I,
Scotch 1'araffin Oils.
Oil Tested.
3
4
5
6
7
s
9
10
11
12
13
Special nil
Lighthouse oil
Marine sperm, lull reated
Special oil
Murine sperm, treated
Marine sperm, treated
Special and marine sperm, half
and half.
Burning oil, untreated
Burning oil, treated
Burning oil, treated
Burning oil (extra O. V.) , treated
Burning oil, treated
Burning oil, treated, and i per
cent, bulled linseed oil.
Air-
Holes of
Lamp, j
Specific
Flash-
Gravity. Point.
Oil Tested.
Special oil
Lighthouse oil
Marine sperm, untreated.
Special oil
Marine sperm, treated
Marine sperm, treated. . . .
Frco
Free
Free
Clogged
Free
Clogged
Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Clogged
Fiee
782
Si i'. I
832
782
830
830
SOS
TIB'
707
799
803
799
800
°F.
101)
155
230
100
230
230
lit
!H
101
Candle Power.
After Burning.
$ Hour. 7i Hours.
Temperature of Burner,
Mean.
25-9
22-8
20-7
21-0
2fl
W4
22*2
21-5
22 -s
21-2
22-0
18-4
J8"S
19-0
19-0
10-2
17-S
9-3
IN-2
18-2
17'8
18-0
7-2
l(l'2
2-8
22-45
20 '7.-,
15'45
19-4
1.V2
12-65
20-2
19-85
20-3
19-0
14-G
14-3
10' 5
{Hour. 3! Hours. 7! Hours. Mean
'P.
1112
100
io ;
nil
HIS
122
110
112
115
in
119
121
121
°F.
Hit
1U5
108
130
1(15
123
115
115
119
115
115
127
HO
°F.
101
lOfi
103
130
102
124
111
109
lit
112
110
127
160
° F.
102-0
108"0
104'0
130-0
in., 'ii
123-0
112-0
112-0
llfi'O
113-Q
114-11
126-0
ill-:;
Oil consumed in Lamp
in 75 Hours.
Fluid
Grains.
Grains.
Special and marine sperm, half
and half.
8 j Burning oil, untreated
Burning oil, treated
Burning oi 1, treated
Burning oil (extra O.V.), treated
Burning oil, treated
Burning oil, treated, and \ per
cent, boiled linseed oil.
9,850
9,200
8,000
8,200
7,820
0,000
9,550
10.020
10,200
9,200
7.750
6.0UII
5,400
7,703
7,443
6,556
0.112
6,474
4,980
7,716
8,000
8,129
7,351
6,215
5,273
4,320
I
Grains
pei-
Hour
per
C.P.
Specific
Gravity
of
Residue
Left First
in i Drop
Lamp. IHistilled.
15-7
47-8
57-4
4t'l
50-8
62-5
50-9
53-8
53-4
50-0
56-8
Fractionation of Oil Burned.
783
809
832
782
830
830
809
sin
798
799
803
799
801
380
510
290
310
Up to 450° F.
Per I Specific
Cent. Gravity.
37-0
50-0
54-0
798
777
779
450"— 572° F.
Pel-
Cent.
61"
81"
Specific
Gravity.
Residue.
Per
Cent,
816
830
819
820
1-5
18-5
Specific
Gravity.
812
842
5-5
4-5
85
S52
Flash point of samples of burning oil was about 100^ F. Aoidit,
extra <>. V
;y after heating to 380°— Untreated oils, 0; burning oils treated, 2 ; No. n,
V. treatment, over 200,
890
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1892.
Scotch Paraffin Oils — continual.
Oil tested.
Special 792, untreated
Lighthouse oil 810, untreated
Marine sperm 830, untreated
Burning oil 800, treated
I i-l ill i. iii 1 800, flush ll.V F
Lighthouse andnaphtlia 738, mixture 807, flash 73 I
\ i.i can petroleum " Tea Rose," for comparison,
■ ■. [lash 75° F.
Temperature after bnrning Four Horns.
Glass Fount Lamp.
Metal Fount Lamp.
Room.
»"«• muLp.
Increase.
*»»*• in Ump.
Increase.
F.
52
° F. ° F.
128 72 '
F.
20
0 F.
150
B6
:,ii
121 HI
11
148
83
ss
:,1
112
58
7
132 78
27
52
m
l»
17
1 14 SI
29
56
116
,,;
7
136 72
16
5li
119 6 1
8
13S 72
16
so
120
68
'
111
80
20
Scotch Paraffin Oil op Different Companies.
nil Tested.
Si ific
Gravity.
A.M..
A.a..
803
803
La., excessive 806
(34 V O.V.)
treatment.
A.a.., unwashed..
A.:...
B.a..
B.l).
B.C..
C.b..
Da.
D.b.
D.c
E.a..
E.b.
E.c.
F. ..
17 G.a..
G.b.
G.c,
sol,'
804J
8053
806
SIS
SII2
70S
802J
son
798
805
809
813
805
B05
slu
Height
of
Burner
above
Oil.
Candle Power.
Inches
2.;
After Burning.
' Hour, f Hours. 7 Hours.
Average
Chimney.
Crusi on Wick.
Notes.
22-1
18'5
21-2
21/8
21 -6
22-0
18-S
22-0
21-5
21'6
Ill's
21-5
20'0
!:•-..
21'2
21-0
20'0
21-5 21'5 21'S
13-5 j ll'O ll-.'io
12-5 6-8 13-33
2 1 ■ 1 1 22-S 23-6
Clean.
i lean.
Dim, with white
deposit opposite
flame.
Clean.
19-0
16-8
is- 1 10-73
12-0 Ifi-S
20"6 19-11 20-53
17-1
l'.i-S
ls-0
L8-8
H-8
18-1
11-5 16-9
8*0 16'6
13'8 17-7
8-3
is-o
9-6
9-2
lO'l
16'8
11"2
l.v I
12M
7'4
13'8
5*8
19*06
15'27
18 '33
15' -2
11-73
17-7
12*23
11-5
12-2
Clean
Very dim
Clean
Slight deposit, ..
Clean
Dim
Had to be turned
down several
times.
Scarcely dimmed.
Slight deposit
A little dim
A little dim .
Very dim . . .
A little dim .
Very dim, worse
than any above.
Very dirty
Brownish deposit.,
worst i -full.
Very hard crust, .
A good deal of
crust, not so
hard as B.a.
Crust, suit, little
of it.
Crust consider-
able, soft.
Crust consider-
able, hard.
Crust hurdish.
Much hard crust,
Crusi consider-
able, soft.
Crust much and
hard, worse than
any above.
Great deal
crust, soft.
Greal deal
crust, hard.
Nov. 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
891
Scotch Para.fmn Oil of Different Companies — continued.
Fractional Distillation.
Oil Tested.
Flash Under 450" F.
Point. Firs!
!!n>|i
over. Per
Cent.
T.
i A.a ion
a La
3 A.a. excessive
.::' ' o.V.i
treatment.
i A. a., unwashed . . 106
5 .\.:i.
G B.o ,. mi
7 B.b 12s
s B.o 119
9 C.b 115
in D.a 112
11 II. 1) lis
12 D.c 120
13 E.u 108
11 E.b 115
15 E.e 1:3
HI F 120
17 O.ii 10s
is O.I, 112
19 O.c 117
Specific
Gravity.
150-572° F.
Residue.
Cent.
Specific I Per
Gravity CeDl
Smell mi
Distilling.
Specific
Gravity.
Tiutometcr.
°F.
2S0 57-0
MOO 15-0
300 43 '5
;hii 27"0
300 50'0
S00 58"8
800 50'0
310 30\5
300 51-0
B10 W0
820 37"0
820 l2-ii
310 15-u
315 EO-2
320 35-5
782
785
789
7: io
7 s::
786
7s I
7S^
7S5
780
794
7ss
7ss
700
t7-u
10-5
.V.l-S
H-||
311-5
l.vi;
50-0
tiro
52-5
511 -s
5li'5
5H-2
15-u
59'0
817
820
S21
820
si.;
818
819
816
si 5
S17
824
SI 5
SI 5
SIS
s-l,
7-0
13-2
9-0
4-7
ri
13 '5
6-0
7-5
12-2
1-5
4'8
|-s
5-5
Sill
350
sin
si: i
S51
SHI
sll
358
852
s.'.l
852
860
858
sill
500 52 50 Total.
Acidity
Deve-
loped
on
Seating,
0-375 0-75
1-0 7-7;
I'll 7-75
2'75
Strong smell SO. 0'5
No smell SOj... 0-5
No smell S02... 2-"
Strong smell SOj o-5
Strong smell SOj m
S II SOj 1-5
No smell SOa. . . ro 2'25
Strong smell SOj 0'5 2-e
Slight smell Sll, ro 4'25
Slight smell SOo l'O 2'25
(•'I. G. tis.
ri25
38
0-75
3
8'75
2
2-75
2
0-5
25
2-5
3
0-25
3
0-5
38
1-0
36
1-5
20
3-25
is
2-5
70
5-25
33
3-2-,
28
Air-
Holes of8***5*116
Burner. Gravit7-
Flash-
Point.
Burner 5 Inches above Oil-Level.
oil Tested.
Temperature,
After Burning \ Hour.
After Burning 3> Hours. After Burning 7
Hours.
Iii-
Room.
Burner.
Oil.
Room.
I |
Burner. Oil. Room.
Burner.
Oil.
Oil.
In 702
Free 80s.'
Clogged 702
i logged 8085
F.
116
158
110
158
°F.
6S
58
ill
no
°F.
Ill
110
121
125
°F.
02
58
01
60
F.
05
03
63
02
°F.
118
111
127
125
F.
71
70
68
00
66 '
05
06
on
F.
114
US
133
130
; F.
89
73
71
75
°F.
s
8
9
Oil Tested.
Burner 2' Inches above Oil-Level.
Temperature.
Alter Burning 5 Hour.
After Burning 34 Hours.
After Burning 71 Hours.
Room,
Burner, Oil,
Special oil
Lighthouse oil ,
Special oil
Lighthouse oil
°F.
62'
01
50
63
° F.
114
114
112
117
Room.
Burner.
Oil.
Room. : Burner.
02
61
50
64
c F.
64
of
62
64
F
118
120
123
121
74'
78
71
73
°F.
06 '
64
03
04
°F.
122
114
125
124
Oil.
°F.
011
80
91
89
Increase
Oil.
°F.
24
22
28
15
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov.
Table II.
Ameri. v\ Pi i roi i i m.
Candle
Oil Tested,
Air-
Holes of
plash After Burnng.
J Pi n!
American p,'trol»'ilin —
"Tea Rom"
Free
I
i
"Royal Daylight "....
Free
..
1 --
1
American Waterwhite, li gh
Test Petroleum—
Strange's A 1 Crystal
on."
-
perial Crown" . ..
„
Russian Petroleum —
Free
i lamed
" Nobel's '
Free
793
702
7'.' J
79S
796
7ol
7ss
7ss
701
701
334
1 .
78
22-5
78
22-5
;.-.
21-2
:.-.
175
77
21-5
i 7
2f0
7>;
20-0
7c i
lS'S
OS
21-6
no
21-2
11M
17-S
21-7
106
•20-0
si
si
16-2
-
203
-
1S-3
3 :
Hntir. Hours. Hours.
Mean.
■:•<■:,
17-3
80-16
21-0
18-0
lsl
is-fi
Is'!
13-2
13-4
15-86
17'i'
12 7
17-3C
16-8
HI
17-68
1C-S
■
15-00
17-".
14-0
l(i-7
21V-.
19-0
16"2
20-3
16-7
19-3
l.vi
17-0
12-0
13-6 18-1>
143
l.-l-n 15-6
16-2 19-KI
13-6 16*76
17-0
14-3 1520
16-8
10-9 12-13
Temperature.
I ' Burner.
Of Room.
S 7
Hour. Hours. Hours.
Of Oil
Left
1)7
r.
123
Us
121
Us
119
1W
727
117
117
124
126
Beginning. End. Lamp.
lis
110
121
111
119
122
127
118
132
111!
121
126
1 .
US
1
llli-:;
r.
l
67
P.
70
12"
119-6
63
7"
73
119
lis-,;
66
70
:-
127
127-0
-
71
110
mi;
68
123
121-3
64
68
70
117
117-6 63
US
12s
,;i
69
73
113 119
119 121
117 US
121 121
US
110
111'
115
123
123
122
117
121
121-;;
112:;
119-0
12011
126-0
120-0
121-0
117-3
121-0
03
• ■;
63
68
63
i-.-,
07
69
OS
57
-
70
69
71
71
C9
111 snmed in Lamp
in ~t I:
oil Left in
Oil Burnec
Drop
over.
Dp to ISO' r.
130 -
-.72 r.
lue.
Oil Tested.
Fluid
Grains.
Grains.
per
Hour
< r
Specific
Gravity.
Plash-
Point.
1.
of
Oil on
Per
Cent
Specific
Gravity.
Per
Cfllt.
Specific
Grai it.v.
Per
Cent
Specific
Gravity.
Heating.
American petroleum —
"Tea Rose "
1030
s 109
i
27o
270
270
16-0
10-0
405
49 5
■
766
707
707
7 -
33-0
31-0
31-0
SB-2
-
s„s
-
21-0
21-11
10-:,
10 5
17-s
s,„
SS7
S37
BSE
47-9
70
0
4
t
3
Royal Daylight "
'.•.7'»>
7.002
.",:'• 1
i
205
„
7,296
5.-, -2
263
17-0
■ -
17-s
3
Bear Creek "
•
oo-i
'
270
13-fl
Sl-o
S,|S
20-0
BS
10
9
270
300
4S-0
-7-0
31-0
SOI
260
B
10
3
A mericanWaterwhit
TV-.: Petroleum—
Strange's A 1 Crystal
- -
59-1
701
98
7s 1
9.900
7.soi
50-7
7ss
..
320
63-0
7-"
32-2
si 13
1-8
s
9,000
10,700
7.002
8,464
320
300
7s0
770
32-2
.-S9-5
so:,
-
rs
7-5
Sil
s
" Imperial Crown "
701
mo
$,600
7.S03
54-1
701
..
300
770
-
7'5
S81
•>
i. -■ petroleum —
9,500
52-2
*2I
51
iSi
-
■
846
1-7
873
4
7,400
7.260
-
B9-S
55-0
807
so,;
110
-0:
-
4-7
4-0
8!
-
4
2
s.soo
■
s7
■
52-7
826
290
55-0
S06
iro
843
l-o
.>
Nov. so, 1891] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
893
American Petroleum — continued.
Oil Tested.
Air-
Bolesof 's;Pecinc
Burner. Gravi,v-
Flash-
Point.
°F.
Lamp with Glass Reservoir.
Temperature.
After Burning i Hour.
Room. Burner. Oil.
After Buraing3i Hours. After Burning 7i Hours. jn
Room. Burner. Oil. Room. Burner. Oil.
en ase
Oil.
'F.
5S
•F.
liu
'F.
F.
60
'F.
109
'F.
61
P.
61
°F.
110
r.
Lamp with Metal Reservoir.
Oil Tested.
After Burning I Hour.
Temperature.
After Binning 35 Hours.
After Burning 7» Hours.
Room Burner.
R a
V.
58
CF.
130
Oil.
58*
Room. Burner. Oil. Room. Burner.
Oil.
r.
60
•F,
133
3 1'.
61
°F.
132
°F.
76
In-
erease
Oil.
1 .
15
Americas Petroleum, 789.
Distilled one Lot, keeping separate 5 per cent. Naphtha, which was added to another Lot which was Distilled all over.
Burner 5 inches above Oil-level.
Burner %\ inches above Oil-level.
Oil Tested.
Air-Holes
of
Burner.
Re Flash' Temperature after Burning
, „ . , 3 Hours. Candle
Temperature after Burning
3 Hours. Cand,e
Room. Burner.
Oil.
Increase Power-
Oil.
Room.
°F.
60
60
Burner.
Oil.
Increase Powel-
Oil.
Without naphtha . . .
Free
Free
1'. P.
703 12'.' CI
J8J 88 60
°F.
109
112
P.
71
-•
F. J F.
13 10
17 21
•F.
112
114
op
77
78
«F.
17 18
18 it
#I)ttuarj).
"nrtf.nKn/'/i/i^ " -.f« »-
I HAlil.Ks THOMPSON, P.I.C., F.C.S.
A MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
The subject of this brief memoir received his chemical
education in the first instance in' the laboratories of the
Pharmaceutical Society iu Bloomsbury Square, and sub-
sequently, in 1881, became associated with Dr.C. K. Alder
Wright,*!'. U.S., at St. Mary's Hospital, Eaddington, firstly
as articled pupil, and then as assistant. Iu 1SS5 lie was
appointed Demonstrator of Chemistry in St. Mary's
Hospital Medical School, which post he held for nearly-
live years. Daring this period of about nine years in all
he collaborated extensively with Dr. Alder Wright in
several branches of scientific research, as well as various
technical inquiries, as the result of which labours 18
memoirs and other papers were communicated by tin-
two authors conjointly to the Royal, Chemical, and
Physical Societies, the Societies of Chemical Industry
and of Public Analysts, and the British Association,
embodying the results of researches in various branches
of work, more especially in electro-chemistry, metallurgy
(alloys'), and the chemistry of the soap manufacture.
These latter researches led in the spring of 18'JO to his
being offered the general management and scientific
supervision of Messrs. Bloudeau and Cie.'s factories for
the manufacture of " Vinolia " products, a post the some-
what onerous responsibilities of which he ably discharged
until shortly before his death, when the state of his
health prevented his attending actively to work.
Charles Thompson died on Saturday, October 8th,
unmarried, at Ihe early age of thirty-one years,
after a somewhat brief but painful illness. Hi?* was
very successful as a teacher, his genial temperament
and patience causing him to be highly esteemed and
greatly liked by the students under his care. His
energy and capacity for work were remarkable, whilst in
private life his pleasing manners and social attainments
greatly endeared him to all his friends. The writer
especially looks back in memory to the nine years spent
in almost daily companionship with him with feelings of
pleasure mingled with regret that the career of one so
amiable should be thus early and painfully cut short.
— C. R. A. W.
S94
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1893.
Journal anU $attnt* literature*
('las-. Page.
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 894
II.— Fuel, Gas. and Light 396
III.— Destructive Distillation, Tar Products, &c 900
I V.— Colouring .Matters and Dyes '.
V— Textiles : Cotton, Wool, Silk, &c 902
Y I. —Dyeing, Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 90 1
V II— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 906
VIII.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 908
IX. — Building Materials, Clays, Mortars and Cements.. 908
X.— Metallurgy 909
XL— Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy
XII.— Fats, Oils, and Soap Manufacture 928
XIIL— Paints, Pigments, Varnishes, Resins, India-
Rubber, ic 929
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glue, and Size 980
XV.— Manures, & c —
XVI— Sugar, Starch, Gum, ic 930
XVI I.— Brewing, Wines, Spirits, 4c 931
XVIII.— Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chsmistrr, and
Disinfectants 932
XIX.— Paper, Pasteboard, Sx 934
XX.— Fine Chemicals, Alkaloids, Essences, and Extracts 935
XXL— Photographic Materials and Processes 936
XX 1 1.— Explosives, Matches, 4c 937
XXIII— Analytical Chemistry 939
I.-GENERAL PLANT, APPAKATUS, AND
MACHINEEY.
The Durability of India-Rubber Hot-Water Pipes.
E. Belleroehe". Rev. Univ. des Mines, 18, 1892,25 s
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 110 (iv.) 21.
See under XIIL, jiage '.12'.'.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Fillers. ]!. M. Santurio, Buenos Ayres.
Eng. Pat. 10,314, June 17, 1891.
This invention relates to what are known as " earthenware"
filters, the improvements referring principally to the con-
struction of the permeable cylinder or vessel, which is here
surrounded with permeable hollow screw threads leading
from one end of the cylinder to the other. The liquid
passes through the hollow screw in one direction, and
returns by the inner cylinder in the other. There are
arrangements for cleaning the filtering surfaces by flushing.
— B.
Improvements in Fillers. B. C. Saver, Bristol. Eng. Pat.
14,009, August 29," 1891.
In the improved filter the porous material is placed in an
inverted siphon, which may be attached to the bottom of
the water reservoir by bolts, so as to be suspended in the
filtered water reservoir, or, in large filters, where the weight
of the unfiltered water reservoir is considerable, may be
bolted to the sides of the reservoirs. By this means it is
claimed that the cleansing of the porous materials is facili-
tated. When upward filtration is not desired, a straight
tube is substituted for the siphon. Thus the siphon, or
straight chamber, and retaining chamber will be outside
both reservoirs, and either may be removed without disturb-
ing the other, or either reservoir, — ( I. II
' Any of these sp, ,i lira t ions may be obtained by post by remitting
ad.— the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Header Lack. Comptroller of tho Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
Improvements in Water - Filtering Apparatus. \\". C.
Henderson, London. Eng. Pat. 14,843, September 2,
1891.
The inventor claims " the combination, or arrangement and
use, of a water-filtering apparatus, comprising means of
supply of water, as from the stack pipe from a house roof,
a chamber for sediment, divided from the filtered water
chamber by sponges, sand, or other suitable filtering material,
and reticulate screens through which the water filters by
ascension, and means to draw off, overflow, and access for
cleansing." — O. H.
Improvements in and in the ( 'onstruction of Wood Trans
for Filter Presses. J. Teggin, Longton, Staff. Eng. Pat.
15,747, September 17, 1891.
This invention relates to certain improvements in the details
of the coustruction of wooden trays and grates used with
filtering presses, the object being to construct such trays of
less bulk and weight than hitherto. — B.
A New or Improved Filter. ¥. 1). Tippetts, Birmingham.
Eng. 1'at. 10,234, September 24, 1891.
The body of the filter consists of two "nearly similar semi-
ellipsoidal halves connected together by screwing." The
body or case is open at both ends, one end having a funnel-
shaped mouthpiece lined with india-rubber so that it can be
attached to the nozzle of an ordinary tap ; the other end
has a short delivery pipe. Each half is charged with animal
charcoal supported by layers of felt. For purposes of
cleansing the body may be unscrewed and the charcoal
replaced, or the rubber mouthpiece and delivery pipe may be
reversed and the impurities washed out by a stream of
water. — U. H.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for Treating
or Drying Artificial Manure, also applicable for
Drying Grain, Minerals, and other Substances or
Materials. B. L. Fletcher and J. Hoyle, Halifax.
Eng. Pat. 10,281, September 25, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel,
containing a series of horizontal hollon plates of different
diameters, one set of plates having central openings through
which the material drops, whilst the other set of plates
permit the material to fall over the outer edges. A central
shaft carries scrapers or distributors of bristles, wire, &c.
arranged at such angles that on one set of plates the
material is worked towards the centre and on the other to
the circumference. The plates are heated by steam or
other suitable heating medium, and the material is dried
during its descent through the apparatus. — O. H,
Improvements in the Construction of Vertical Stills for
the Distillation of Ammoniacal and. other Liquors or
Liquids. J. Wright, Stockton-on-Tees. Eng. Pat. 18,533,
October 28, 1891.
Tuts invention relates to columnar or vertical stills, in
which there are superimposed trays or plattens with caps,
over the edges of which the liquid flows downward, whilst
the heated gases or steam rise upward through central
openings. The improvement consists principally in making
the caps of annular form, either circular or of anj' other
shape, in order to enable the steam to rise on the inner as
well as the outer edges of the caps, after forcing its way
through the liquid on the trays, thereby considerably
increasing the effective working surfaces within the casing.
-B.
Nov. sn, iso:!.| THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCEETT OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
895
Improvements in Apparatus for Separating from Liquors
the Scum or Matter which rises to the Surface during
Boiling or Heating. A. Chapman, Liverpool. Eng.
Pat. 19,364, November 9, 1891.
The object of this invention is to secure the skimming
without loss of boiling liquids, more particularly of
saccharine solutions, by means of the interposition of a
Btrainer and a body of quiescent liquid between the scum and
the boiling liquid. The inventor endeavours to utilise the
fact that when liquids are boiled the scum or " fecnlencies "
retreat from the hotter to the colder parts of the vessel, one
of the arrangements being shown in the accompanying
illustration.
Apparatus fob Separating the Sct'M from Liquids
during Boiling.
A is the boiling vessel, W the heating steam coil, B a
partition reaching down within a short distance of the
bottom of the vessel, and some distance above the liquid
when not boiling. From the top edge a cover plate C
extends to another partition D in the skimming pan,
reaching down to near the bottom ot that pan. The
trainer F lies across the pan near the upper part of the
partition, and the side G of the pan near the boiling vessel
forms a ledge very little higher than the level of the
strainer F.
As the liquor in A boils, the froth and scum overflow
the partition B on to the strainer F, where the scum is
retained, and the purified liquor, becoming nearly quiescent,
at E, returns over the ledge G for further boiling. — B.
Improvements in Thermostats or Instruments for Regulating
Temperatures. A. Shiels. Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 20,368,
November 2-1, 1891.
These improvements relate to the regulation of the steam
valves of the refrigerating engines by a thermostat, the
upward movement of the piston of the latter opening the
steam valve of the engine by means of a slotted and
balanced lever, while a spring brings down the piston when
contraction takes place in the fluid in the thermostat
tubes.
"In cases where the temperature in the refrigerating
chamber, through an accident, rises far above the normal,
the piston-rod of the thermostat, or a projection on it, may
be made to strike a lever and open a valve leading to the
sensitive fluid tank, so that the excess of fluid in the pipes
may pass into the tank and thus prevent breaking or
bursting of the apparatus." — 1 1. H.
An Inexplodable Can for Inflammable Liquids. T. H.
Shillito, London. Eng. Pat. 21,086, December 3, 1891.
The can is so constructed that the neck is sealed by the
liquid in use. Within the neck a tube extends down-
wards, terminating near the bottom of the can in a large
mouth. From within the neck also, but lower down than
the top of the first tube, a second tube extends obliquely
upwards, terminating in a spout. Owing to the relative
position of these, the liquid, when poured from the can,
must pass through both tubes, so that when the can is
restored to the vertical position, there will always be
liquid in the neck. The inventor claims that, in the event
of the overflowing liquid taking fire the flame will not
be communicated to the interior of the can. — 1). A. S.
Improvements in or connected with Furnaces. T. W.
Williams, Swans a Eng. l'at. 2567, February 10, 1892.
Tins invention relates to certain improvements in the
furnace described in a former patent (No. 539 of 1878), and
its object is to obtain a more perfect combustion of the
fuel. This is effected by makiug an opening near the
bottom of the bridge of the furnace, and fitting into this
opening a cast-iron tube, which bends upwards at the back
of the bridge, and terminates in a somewhat contracted
horizontal nozzle. Air, admitted under the ashpit by means
of dampers placed at the front of the furnace, passes along
the ash-pit, where it becomes heated, and then to the back of
the bridge, where it mixes with the smoke and gases and
assists combustion. — F. S. K.
Certain Improvements in the Cages of Hydro-Extractors.
J. W. Collins and A. Kaye, Marsden. Eng. Pat. 2595,
February 10, 1892.
The patentees propose to make the cages of perforated sheet
iron or of wire and cover them with a porcelain enamel.
— O. H.
Neva or Improved Process and Apparatus for Concreting
Sugar or < 'rystallising Saline or other Solutions. \\ . P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From J. A. Morrell andW.lt.
Stringfellow, New Orleans, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 8336.
May 3, 1892.
The process consists in blowing compressed air through a
vertical column of the saccharine or saline solution kept
in violent agitation by rapidly revolving blades, in order to
" economically and quickly convert the solution into a solid
crystalline mass without boiling." — 0. H.
Improvements relating to Refrigerating Apparatus. H. E.
Newton, London. From W. Alsop and W. Blackall,
Newcastle, N.S.W. Eng. Pat. 11,250, June 15, 1892.
In order to dry the compressed air in cold air refrigerating
apparatus more efficiently than is usually done by the
ordinary coolers, and diminish the amount of snow which is
deposited in the expansion chambers and passages, the air,
after compression and passage through the coolers, enters a
series of tubes so placed that the expanded air, on its way
from the expansion chamber to the refrigerating chamber,
impinges upon the exterior of the tubes and deposits its
moisture upon them. The tubes, being slightly heated by
compressed air passing through them, the adherence of the
snow or ice is prevented, and the latter melt and drain away.
The compressed air, as it passes through the tubes, parts
with so much of its heat in the liquefaction of the snow or
ice which is deposited on or around the tubes, that it is
considerably reduced in temperature (eenerallv below
40° F.).— O. H.
Improvements in Apparatus for Evaporating, Concentrat-
ing and Distilling Liquids. W. J. Mirrlees and 6.
Ballinghall, Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 11,296. June 16, 1892.
By this invention the liquid which it is desired to con-
centrate, undergoes a preliminary concentration in a steam
boiler, in which high-pressure steam is produced for driving
a steam engine, and aiso for heating the liquor as it passes
through a tubular or other heater on its way to the
boiler.
A blow-off pipe is fitted to the bottom of the boiler to
allow the liquor, when sufficiently concentrated, to pass into
896
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, was.
a second vessel where the pressure is reduced. More water
is here evaporated in consequence of this diminution of
pressure, and the steam passes to the first vessel of a
multiple effect evaporator. The liquor likewise passes into
the evaporator and is then further concentrated by its own
steam. — ( (. H.
Improvements in Apparatus for Distilling Sni II ater
S. Smillie, Glasgow. Kng. Pat. 11.787, June 24, 1892.
The chief feature of this invention is the use of a duplex
steam-coil bolted to the removable bottom plate of the
distilling vessel, while the top rings of the coils rest on
stirrup brackets carried on vertical rods also bolted on the
bottom plate.
Both the steam inlet and outlet are flanged to the bottom
plate so as to leave " sufficient freedom for vibration of the
coils on the admission of steam to ensure dislodgment of
salt or scale adhering to them, frequent removal for cleaning
being thus avoided." — ( >. H.
Apparatus for Regulating the Flow of I olatile Liquid in
/m frigerating Machines. T. B. Lightfoot, London.
Eng. Pat. 14,047, August 3, 1892.
This improvement relates to apparatus under Eng. Pat.
Xo. 7712 of 1892 for regulating the flow of volatile liquid
from the condenser to the vaporiser of refrigerating
machines, and consists of a cylindrical valve with one open-
ing rotating in a chamber having several lateral outlets, each
communicating with a separate vaporiser. On the rotation
of the valve each vaporiser is successively put in communi-
cation with the condenser through the opening in the valve.
— B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Regulating the Admission
of Air and Steam In Furnaces for the Prevention of
Smoke. J. K. Ilroadbent, Salford. Eng. l'at. 15,095,
August 22, 1892.
In order to prevent the emission of black smoke from
furnaces immediately after stoking, it is usual to admit air
through suitable openings, and also to employ a jet of
steam, or " steam-poker," to produce a more rapid current of
air. In previous patents (Eng. Pat. 5,927 of 1887, and
19,983 of 1891 ). apparatus for automatically regulating the
admission of air have been described ; the present patent
refers to the admission of steam to the " steam-poker,"
which is now [regulated, simultaneously and automatically,
in the same way as the air supply. — F, S. K.
Improvements in Creators for Treating Liquids. R.
Andrew, London. Eng. Pat. 15,448, August 27, 1892.
I in improved " aereator" described, consists of a cylindrical
vessel for containing the liquid, having in its lower part a
perforated coil connected with an external vertical pipe, to
which .i sieve or strainer is attached. On the top of the
vessel a steam ejector is placed, and below the outlet to this
il baffle-plate is suspended. Air, purified by passing
through the strainer, is drawn by the ejector through the
perforated coil and passes in a continuous stream through
the liquid. — J. C. C.
II.-FUEL. GAS. AND LIGHT.
The Manufacture of Oil-Gas. J. B. Ball. Proc. of the
Inst. C. E. 1891—1892, 110.
[n this paper the author describes the plant used in the
manufacture of oil-gas at the Holloway works of the Great
Northern Railway Company, giving the dimensions of the
various buildings and apparatus.
Pintsch's system of gas making is employed and the
works are designed to produce about 60,000 cub. ft. of gas
per day ; at present the average make is only 15,00u — IS, 000
cub. ft.
The 10-in. D-retorts are made of 1-in. metal and are
6 ft. in length ; they are worked in pairs and are kept as
nearly as possible at a cherry-red heat. Each pair will
make 300—400 cub. ft. of gas per hour and 600,000 to
700,000 cub. ft. of gas before they require to be renewed.
Immediately before the gas enters the hydraulic main, a
f-in. iron pipe, provided with a stop-cock, is tapped in so
that the colour of the gas may be seen, this being the
practical test applied to ascertain the quality of the gas and
whether the proper quantity of oil is being admitted.
Another test for regulating the supply of oil is to drop a
small quantity of the tar from the gas main upon a sheet
of white paper ; if too much oil is being admitted to the
retort a greasy ring will be found round the spot of tar, but
if the right quantity is being used no greasy ring will appear.
The furnaces consume 160 — 180 lb. of coke for every
1,000 cub. ft. of gas produced. The oil used is a once-
refined shale oil ; it runs to the retorts from a galvanised
iron cistern, of 50 gallons capacity, through a 1-in. iron
pipe, at the end of which is fixed a gun-metal micrometer
cock for regulating the supply. From this supply pipe the
oil flows into a small funnel attached to a f-in. siphon
pipe, 12 in. deep, connected to the retort; it then falls on
to a loose tray, preferably made of steel, and is instantly-
converted into a dense brown vapour.
The gas issuing from the retorts passes to the hydraulic
main, then through air condensers, washers, and purifiers.
into the meters and gas-holders. The purifiers contain a
mixture of 2 parts of slaked lime to 1 part of sawdust,
placed oa wicker trays, and are recharged every week.
The cylindrical steel store-holders are 17 ft. 6 in. in
length and 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter : they are tested by
hydraulic power to 300 lb. per sq. in. and are provided with
a pressure gauge registering up to 200 lb. per sq. in. The
gas is forced into the store-holders through a 1-in. extra
strong lead pipe by compressing engines ; each holder is
provided with a cock at the bottom for drawing off the
condensed hydrocarbon, of which about a gallon is cbtaincd
from every 1,000 cub. ft. of comprested gas.
There are six men engaged at the works and the total
cost of buildings and machinery amounted to 1 1,740/.
— F. S. K.
Probabli Presence of Iron Carbonyl in Illuminating Gas.
(iuntz. Bull. Soc.Chirn. 1892, 7—8, 281—282.
It was noticed that the lamp glasses of gas burners at Nancy,
when used for a moderately long time, e.g., 40 to 100 hours
without being cleaned, became covered with patches which,
at first white, ultimately became red, and were found on
analysis to consist of oxide of iron. Similar deposits have
been observed on porcelain caps placed over gas burners and
on porcelain plates used in regenerative burners. The gas
must therefore contain a volatile compound of iron. This
becomes more probable having regard to the fact that coal-gas
is commonly purified by a mixture of calcium sulphate, oxide
of iron, and sawdust, which when it is saturated with sulphur
is revivified by the addition of iron turnings. The excess
of iron is acted on by the carbon monoxide always present
in coal-gas and iron carbonyl is formed in small quantity.
This hypothesis is borne out by the fact that in a town on the
outskirts of Nancy no ferruginous deposits of the kind
described were perceptible until the local gas works began
to use the iron purifier above mentioned. A few days after
the alteration had been made, the lamp glasses became
reddened from the deposition of iron oxide upon them.
— B. B.
Noy.so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
897
The Manufacture of Electric Light Carbons at Nuremberg.
Rev. Ind. 23, 384.
Retort carbon is the material used in the process except
in the case of cored carbons, which is manufactured
according to the process of Messrs. Siemens Bros., of
Berlin. The first operation is to break up the carbon in
a mill ; the coarser pieces from this process are crushed in a
mill with vertical stones, and the finer are passed through
a roller mill. The carbon which has been again broken up
is sieved to separate the coarse grains from the fine powder,
and the former are passed through roller mills. The fine
powder so obtained is moistened, and compressed into
moulds by hydraulic pressure, and the carbons are then
roasted at a very high temperature. In this process great
loss occurs, which at present appears unpreventable. The
remaining process is to point the carbons. The machines
necessary for an installation and their prices are given.
— G. H. R.
Coal IJiisI Explosions at the ZSnckerode Colliery. Max
Georgi. Jahrb. fur das Berg- und Hiittenw. im Konigr,
Sachseu. 1891, 1 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 108, 77.
See under XXII., page 938.
Recent Itn'estigalions on Ike Calorific Value of Coats.
Deutecom. Zeits. des Ver. deutsch. Ing. 1891, 1375;
I'roc. Inst. Civil Eng. 108, 40—44.
On the assumption that the heating power of coals could
be determined directly from their elementary chemical
composition, the following formula, due to Dulong, has
generally been used, the number of calories per unit of
fuel burnt being — *
8,080 C + 28,800 (H - -") + 2,500 S - 600 W ;
or, using more exact determinations for hydrogeu and
sulphur—
8,080 C + 29,300 (H - g) + 2,240 S - GOO W.
The factor W represents the latent heat of vaporisation
from water at the temperature of the air to steam at 100° C,
the oxygen in the coal being considered as combined with
hydrogen to form water, and only the disposable proportion
of the latter to be useful for heating purposes.
This formula would be undoubtedly true if coal were
actually a mixture of carbon, gaseous hydrogen, sulphur,
and water; but it is not actually so, the ultimate com-
position being np indication of the combination existing in
the fuel. In any case it is abundantly certain that the
carbon is not to any great extent present in the free stale.
The older form of calorimeters are very delicate pieces of
apparatus, in which the quantity of sample experimented on
varies from about 0*3 to at most 1 grui. ; so that the most
scrupulous care is required in order to obtain trustworthy
results. This difficulty has been met by the establishment
at the experimental station at Munich of a calorimeter of
sufficient size to allow the use of several cwt. of fuel in
oue test. It has a combustion chamber surrounded with
water, and the gases are carried through a series of cooling
tubes, until their temperature is reduced to that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This gives very concordant results.
The conclusion from a great number of different coals
tried in the large experiments is that Dulong's formula is
practically exact, the variations from the calculated and
observed results being at most 2 or 3 per cent., and in a
majority of instances about 1 per cent.
The average calorific value of pure coal, t.e., considered
free from ash and water, is about 8,000 calories.
* C, H. S. and W representing the respective proportions of
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, and water in a unit of coal.
The loss of heat by evaporation of contained water, and
by the heated ashes falling from the grate, is comparatively
small. A coal containing a per cent, of pure coal (free
from ash and water), b per cent, of ashes falling out at if
of temperature, and c per cent, of water leaving the fireplace
as steam at temperature t°, develops per 100 kilos. —
8,000 <z-0*2 (5 t,/)- [620 + 0-4750 <7,c-100)] c calories,
or for —
« = 80, b = 15, c = 5, t,,° = 700°, and t,a = 250°
(640,000 - 2,100 - 3,456) calories.
The losses from these sources is therefore less than 1 pef
cent, of the total available quantity of heat.
The most considerable item of loss in heat is that carried
off by the gases which depends upon their composition and
temperature. If pure coal be mixed with air in quantity
sufficient to give a gas with 21 per cent, of carbon dioxide,
1 kilo, requires 2'66 kilos, of oxygen, giving 3 • 666 kilos.
or 1*865 cubic metre of carbon dioxide, which in the
chimney gases will be associated with 8 '798 kilos, or 701*5
cubic metres of nitrogen. The heating of these gases to f C.
requires (3 • 66, 0- 21 64 + 8,798, 0*244) t = 2*93 t calories.
If the gases contain a per cent, less carbon dioxide than
21 per cent., unburnt air is drawn in over the quantity of
which x per 100 of coal is, when —
«:(l00 - a ]'") = 186*5:.r
x = ( ' — 888*1) cubic metres
= n»m _ 881-1) •
1 ■ 2937 kilos.
To heat this to t° requires —
(•I8.ii.5ii _ 888.j) j.2937 . 0.2377 calories,
and the total heat carried off in the gases is —
293 i
t + (M^so _ ggg.j) 1.2c(37 . 0,
= (20 -t •''•;;■) t calories.
2377 I
From the above formula the following table has been
calculated showing by bow much per cent, the heating
effect of the coal is diminished per 100° of temperature in
the gases, when the proportion of carbon dioxide in the gases
is reduced below the theoretical maximum of 21 per cent.
With the help of these figures it is easy to calculate
what quantity of heat is required in the daily working of any
industrial heating arrangement.
An interesting branch of the inquiry is the comparison
of these figures with those obtained from the thermo-
chemical data corresponding to the reactions going on in
the furnace, an example of which is given in the production
of salt-cake or sodium sulphate from salt and sulphuric
acid in alkali-making as follows : — >
S98
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 8", 1892.
a. Chemical reactions: —
Cilleries.
2NaCl + II. so, = Xa^so, + 2 HC1, this requires per
equivalent 142 kilos., 15.71" calories, or per mo kilos... 11,050
Separation ol sulphuric acid from diluting water 14,000
l>. Alteration of state of aggregation : — •
Evaporation of 20 kilos, of water 20 x 520 = 10,400
e. Heating of final products : —
100 kilos, of sodium sulphate to 500° 500 ■ 100 ■ 0"232 =11,600
:.ii kilos, of hydrochloric acid to W0° urn x 50 x 0-18:12 = 3,704
20 kiloi of water vapour to 400°... '. W0 20 n'175 = 3,800
350 kilns, of air to urn 4un x 350 x 0-2377 = 33 278
lotal 87,832
I n a similar manner the heat requirements for the following
chemical operations have been computed : —
Calories.
Conversion of 100 kilos, of crystallised magnesium
chloride into magnesia, hydrochloric arid, and water 116,020
( lonversion of mo kilos, of salt -cake into black ash with
coal ami limestone 131.453
Production of 100 kilns, of lime from limestone 87,795
Conversion of 100 kilos, of water into steam at 5 atmo-
spheres 62,665
Conversion of 100 kilos, of zinc blende into zinc oxide.. - 52,505
The last of these operations is therefore attended with a
development of heat.
Taking into account the temperature and proportion of
carbon dioxide in the gases, the effect obtained from the
combustion of 100 kilos, of coal in the furnaces used in
these operations may be determined for comparison with
that actually obtained in practice, as seen in the following
table :—
Furnace.
Working
Value of
, too kilos.
of Coal
in
Calories,
Coal required per
loo kilos, of Product.
By Thermo.
Chemical
Calculation
In
actual
Practice.
Difference.
r 500,000
(.550,000
Kilos.
,2-5|
114)
Kilos.
12-15
0-5-2-5
Lime kiln
( 150,000
I 576,000
19-1-1
15-3 j
18—30-43
27—11-21
Salt-cake furnace . ..
450,000
lll-l
35
16
Magnesia furnace .. .
450,000
2.V8
90-100
lit-71
Black-ash fumade. . .
350,111111
35 c;
00
24-4
Zinc-blende calciner
350,000
- 8-2
18
20
Apart from conduction and small uncalculated losses, the
greater part of these differences must be attributed to heat
dispersed by radiation from the furnace. The importance
of this factor for the different kinds of furnaces is computed
as follows : —
Furnace.
Daily Charge
or Yield.
Daily Consumption of Coal
in Kilos.
Actual. | Computed.
Difference, i
Radiating
Surface of
Furnace.
Daily
Radiation per
Sq. Metre
in Kilog
of Coal.
Salt-cake
Magnesia
Black-ash
Blende calciner
Steam boiler, 8 '3 fold evaporation
Steam boiler, 6*6 fold evaporation
Lime kiln, iron jacketed with L-as filing
Ci kiln with short Hue producer
Lime kiln, Dietzseh's form
Kilos.
3,500 sulphate
1,120 MgCla
.-.,101) Xa.Sn,
,7,000 ZnO
62,500 H,0
511,111111 III I
1. 1 ii ii i CaO
3,700 in"
20,000 CaO
1,225
1,060
3,240*
1.200
7,500
7,500
1,730
1,160
I :
289
1,922
- 57-1
7,125
6,250
788
729
3.060
557
771
1,318
1,834
375
1,250
\m
431
1,440
Sij Metres.
80
SO
12.)
24.5
215
210
100
650
6-9
9'li
10-5
15-3
1-5
5-1
5-0
4-3
2-5
* 60 per cent, of charge, 42 per cent, of which is burn!, and IS per cent, mixed for reducing
-w. s.
PATENTS.
The Utilisation of a certain Waste O.eide of Iron in Hie
Purification <ij Sen-aye, and for similar Purposes.
II. C. Sucre and II. Grimshaw, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
17,911, October 20, 1891.
See under XVIII., page 933.
Improvements in Apparatus fin- Carburetting Gas or Air.
The (ias Economising and Improved Light Syndicate,
Limited, and J. Love, Harking, Essex. Eng. Pat. 18,082,
October 21, 1891.
The apparatus to which this patent refers is that described
in a previous patent granted to Love (Eng. Pat. 14,031, 1889).
The improvements refer mainly to the carburettor which,
instead of being flat -bottomed, is now made curved or
hollow, and inclined to one end so as to form a well in which
the heavy hydrocarbons will collect ; from this well they are
drawn off into a closed drum by means of an air-pump,
which at the same time forces fresh liquid into the
carburettor from the supply tank. The lower chamber of the
carburettor is provided with an overflow pipe which runs to
the supply tank ; valves for controlling the flow of gas or
air, and locking gear for the various cocks or taps, constitute
the other improvements. — 1''. S.K.
Improvements in Apparatus far Washing, Purifying, and
Scrubbing Gas. J. C. Chandler, London. Eng. I'at.
7,708, April 23, 1892.
The apparatus described in this patent is a new form of
washer. It consists of a vessel, divided into a number of
water-tight compartments, in which are placed horizontal
perforated plates ; tubes are fixed in the perforations, and the
lower ends of the tubes dip vertically close to the surface,
or beneath the surface, of the water in the compartment, so
that as the gas passes from one compartment to another it
is caused to impinge on, or to bubble through the water or
liquor. Each of the compartments is provided with man-
holes so that the perforated plates and tubes can be easily
N,.v. an, i8MJ THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
899
taken out ; each compartment is further provided with
overflow pipes, the water or liquor being caused to flow
successively through all the compartments. — I'". S. K.
Improvements in the Manufacture nf Iron and in Fuel, nr
a Compound suitable therefor. W. A. Sugden, Keighlcy.
From \V. II. Sugden, Fall River, Wisconsin, U.S.A.
Eng. Tat. 18,442, October 27, 1891.
FOR use in smelting, puddling, or melting iron, the patentee
describes a fuel by the employment of which it is claimed
that the resulting iron is much improved in quality, chiefly
owing to its dephosphorisation.
The fuel is prepared by saturating 2 — 3 cwt. of slaked
lime with creosote or some other suitable oil, and then
mixing it with 8 — 9 cwt. of slack or fine coal. This
mixture is then sprinkled with a mixture of 1 lb. of
powdered oxide of manganese and one quart of methylated
spirit, and the whole thoroughly mixed ; fairly good results
may, however, be obtained without the addition of oxide of
manganese and methylated spirit. One part of the patent
fuel is used with 4 parts of ordinary coal or coke. — F. S. K.
Improvements Relating to the Manufacture of Gas, and to
Apparatus therefor. H. H. Lake, London. From
W. H. Harris, Boston, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 20.420,
November 24, 1891.
The object of this patent is to generate fuel gas from
coal, steam, and air, and then to obtain illuminating gas by
the addition of hydrocarbons. The two processes are carried
out simultaneously in the usual manner and the gas is
then passed through a continuous regenerating chamber,
which is filled with balls of silicate of alumina or similar
material. For the details of the process and a description of
the apparatus the original must be consulted. — F. S. K.
Apparatus for Quenching Coke. T. R. Osbourn, Phila-
delphia, Penn., U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4032, March 1, 1892.
A close chamber adapted for containing coke is con-
structed with double walls forming a compartment or jacket
into which water is introduced. By this means the heat
radiated from the coke raises the temperature of the water
and generates steam. The steam is led through suitably
arranged pipes and discharged into the coke receptacle.
The water-jacket may be sub-divided into a series of separate
compartments, in each of which a pre-determiued quantity
■ if water may be introduced, and each of which may be
provided with a separate steam-pipe. — 1). A. S.
Apparatus for the Manufacture of Coke. T. It. Osbourn,
Philadelphia, Penn., U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 4033, March 1,
1892.
This is a coke oven of a beehive pattern in which the hearth
is moveable and may be lowered at will. After coking,
the hearth is lowered od to a truck and removed, so that
the coke can be quenched in a separate receptacle. A
special quenching device is also described. It consists of a
box-like receptacle of sheet metal mounted on wheels, and
is designed to receive the contents of one or any number of
coke ovens. Spray pipes are arranged in it so as to
distribute water over the mass of coke.
The portable bottom of the oven is raised or lowered by
means of a jack mounted on wheels, and adapted to run
upon ways extending to or across the top of the oven. -P. A. S.
Improvements in Magnesium Flash-Light Apparatus.
H.J. Haddan, London. From E. Beste, Weimar, Germany.
Kng. Pat. 5996, March 28, 1892.
Tins is a lamp or device for producing a magnesium flash
light, in which the magnesium powder is fed to the charge
chamber from a reservoir by means of a spirally fluted
shaft, resembling a spiral drill, the forward end of which
projects into the base of the powder reservoir. The revolu-
tion of the shaft causes the powder to be forwarded along
the spiral groove and to fall out at a narrow slit, from
whence it is blown out and propelled through a flame by a
blast of gas. This blast is obtained by drawing gas from
the pipe by a special valve by use of a piston, which is
drawn down by a piston-rod by the operator or by a motor,
if the lamp is to act automatically. On releasing it the
piston is forced upwards by a spring when the charge
of gas passes into the powder chamber, carrying the powder
therefrom into the flame. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Method and Apparatus for Producing
Magnesium Flash-light. N. Browne, London. From
F. Wunsche, Dresden, Germany. Eng. Pat. 6269, March
31, 1892.
The object of this invention is to ignite the jnaguesium
powder by means of percussion caps, and so dispense with
ihe use of a flame. Hitherto the ignition by this method
has not always been successful. The inventor recom-
mends the substitution for the blow of a hammer at present
used, the prick of a needle to [perforate the fulminating
material. The ignition of the caps in this way ignites only
a small portion at first, so that the combustion of the
fulminant is comparatively slow, and may be communicated
with certainty to the magnesium powder. The percussion
cap to be used is placed on a flanged plate and some mag-
nesium strewed beside and upon it. By means of a lever
a needle, which is supported perpendicularly to the plate, is
forced downwards when desired, thus pricking the cap,
igniting it, and thus causing the combustion of the powder.
— D. A. S.
Improved Process uf and Apparatus for Making Seating-
and Illuminating Gas. A. Noteman, Toledo, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 12,716,' July 11, 1892.
For the production of illuminating and heating gas from
petroleum the following apparatus is employed : — The
petroleum is run from a small tank or reservoir by means
of a narrow tube provided with a stop-cock, into the lower
limb of a U-shaped tube, which is placed nearly
horizontally ; the petroleum pipe passes some distance into
the lower limb of the U-shaped tube, and, as the liquid
issues from the pipe, it is partially volatilised by a current
of hot air, which is caused by the combustion of a bat's-
wing flame, burning in a perforated cylindrical vessel, the
top of which communicates wTith the end of the U-tube.
The heavier portions of the petroleum flow through a
vertical pipe inserted into the lowermost portion of the
U-tube, into a reservoir, whilst the gas, hot air, and
products of combustion from the bats-wing flame pass
along the upper limb of the U-tube into a gas-holder.
— F. S. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Production of Fuel
Gas. J. M. Bailey, Washington, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
13,339, July 21, 1892.
Tins apparatus for the production of fuel gas is a very
simple form of carburettor containing crude petroleum
and broken stone, shells, or similar material ; it is divided
by two incomplete partitions into three chambers, of
which the centre one is the smallest. The centre chamber
is provided with shelves which extend alternately from
opposite sides nearly, but not quite, to the other side ; the
spaces between the shelves are completely filled with
broken stone, &c, and the latter is moistened with crude
petroleum whenever necessary. The two lateral chambers
are only filled to about one-third or one-half with broken
stone, which is then completely covered with crude
petroleum. Air, preferably heated a little, is Forced into
the bottom of one lateral chamber, then over one of the
incomplete partitions into the top of the centre chamber,
and finally into the bottom of the other lateral chamber.
The gas obtained in this way is stated to be so thoroughly
carburetted that it will not condense at the ordinary
temperature ; it is highly inflammable and develops intense
heat by its combustion. — F. S. k".
l> 2
900
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. :», 1862.
III.-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and Relating to 'Retorts for Distilling
Shale and like Minerals, and for Dealing with the
resulting Products. R. Orr and R. MacKay, Sutherland,
Linlithgow. Eng. Pat. 15,552, September 14, 1891.
(Second Edition.)
The improvements consist in a new mode of intermittently
discharging the burnt shale from the bottom of the retorts
into a lower hopper chamber, from whence it is delivered
through the door of a shoot or hopper to the removing and
conveying hutches. Two moving organs or apparatus fitted
within the lower delivery chamber are arranged so as to
move towards each other to hold the shale material or
other mineral " in vertical line up within the retort, but
when released will permit the whole column of material to
descend evenly and in a body by gravity within the retort
until the desired quantity has been passed through the lower
hopper chamber into the hutches." The patentees have
carried this idea into practice. Instead of leading the whole
of the oil and ammonia gases away together and thence
to condensers, there may be only partial condensation, and
the ammonia gases may be neutralised b}r direct coDtact
with acid, or the mixed vapours may be passed through
separators and acid saturators of suitable construction.
( )r shale from which the oil has been wholly or partially
distilled may be passed into other retorts or heating
chambers, and there subjected to further heat, and the
resulting vapours passed through acid saturators to form
salts of ammonium. — D. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture nf Mineral Oil and
Ammonia. W. Young, Lasswade, N.B. Eng. Pat. 1587,
April 12, 1881. Amended August 10, 1892.
This invention has for its object improvements in the
system of distilling shale or other similar substances for
the production of oil and ammonia, and consists in
destructively distilling the shale at two temperatures, in such
a manner that the oil shall be liberated and distilled
from the shale at a low uniform temperature, and the
remaining nitrogen liberated at a much higher temperature
as ammonia. This is accomplished by first distilling out
the oils from the shale at a low temperature in one
retort, and thereafter transferring the residue into a
second retort heated to a considerably higher temperature;
or the operation may be conducted in one long retort, so
divided that the shale shall be distilled free of its oil at
one end and the distillation for ammonia completed at the
other end, steam being employed for liberating the ammonia
in the hot end. — D. B.
R-COLOURING MATTERS AND DYES.
AmethylcdmpTidnitrbkelohe. M. P. Cazeueuve. Bull. Soc.
Chim. [3] 7, 1892, 327—331. (Compare this Journal,
1892, 512.)
The sodium derivative of aniethylcamphonitroketoue,
CgHioNa-NOj.O
is prepared by heating the uitroketone with soda in molecular
proportion at 100°, crystallises in dark red micaceous scales
containing 2 mols. H„0, dissolves in water and alcohol, and
deflagrates when heated on platinum foil. The ellu/l deri-
vative is formed when the potassium compouud is heated
for an hour with excess of ethyl iodide at 130°. It is a
yellow, unerystallisable, syrupy liquid, insoluble in water,
but soluble in alcohol and ether. It decomposes on distill
lation, and explodes when sharply heated. The sodium ethy-
derivative, C9H8NaC2H5.N02.0, is a red amorphous powder
formed by treating a toluene solution of the preceding
compound with sodium. It is soluble in water, and the
solution gradually decomposes in the cold. It is also
decomposed by carbonic anhydride. The acetyl derivative
is obtained by treating the dry potassium or sodium deriva-
tive with acetyl chloride at 110° or acetic anhydride at 150'.
It crystallises from alcohol in yellow hexagonal tables,
melts at 65°, and remains in supervision at the ordinary
temperature. It explodes when heated above 250°. A
sodium-acetyl derivative is formed by treating a toluene
solution of the preceding compound with sodium. This is a
bright red substance, soluble in water aud more freely in
alcohol ; the aqueous solution gradually decomposes on
standing. In conclusion, the author considers that the
reactions of amethvlcamphonitroketone point to the presence
in it of the grouping CXO,.CH2.CO.— S. B. A. A.
The Tinctorial Properties of Amelhylcamphonitroketone
and its Au.rochrome Group. If. P. Cazeneuve. Bull.
Soc. Chim. [3] 7, 1892, 331—332.
Amethylcahphonitroketone has already been described
(this Journal, 1892, 512) as possessing a golden yellow
colour and tinctorial properties. In dilute alcoholic solutions
it dyes wool and silk directly. When boiled with ordinary
water it decomposes the carbonate of lime present, yielding
a solution of the colour of the alkaline bichromates, which
dyes wool and silk on boiling. It retains its dyeing powers
in presence of tartaric acid, but not in alkaline baths. It
does not dye cotton directly, but the material is dyed after
one mordanting with tannin.
The author points out that whilst amethylcamphonitro-
ketone contains the chromophorie group NO.,, none of the
salt-forming groups OH, NH., COOH, SO,H (Witt's
" auxochromic " groups), which generally determine the
dyeing powers of a compound, is present, and suggests that
the acidic methylene group in the grouping CNO, .CH2.CO
may have a similar influence. — S. B. A. A.
Is Magenta Poisonous.' P. Cazeneuve. Mouit. Scient.
Aug. 1892, 557—500.
It is stated that for upwards of 29 years a workman of the
firm of Durand and Huguenin, of Basel, had sifted magenta,
as made by Coupler's process, without having suffered from
any illness. He only observed great thirst, caused by the
dust ot the magenta. It was estimated that this man
swallowed, in the form of dust, rosauiline hydrochloride in
quantities of from 1 to 2 decigrms. per diem. In view of
this fact, it is pointed out that since 1 milligrm. of mageuta
can dye 1 kilo, of sugar pink, the hygienic expert need not
fear the use of magenta for confectionery.
It is considered that the wine merchant who uses mageuta
in his wine is reprehensible as an adulterator, but not as a
poisoner.— M. B.
Reactions of the Addition-Product from Sulphur Dioxide
and Sodium Phenylate. Formation of ■' Rubbadine."
C. Schall and J. Uhl. Ber. 25, 1892, 1875—1901.
It was recently shown by Schall that the product of the
action of sulphur dioxide on sodium phenylate is presumably
unsymmetrical sodium phenyl sulphite of the formula
NaS(i,.()C„H, (Ber. 25, 1892, 1490). This substance
reacts with benzyl chloride and with carbonyl chloride in
accordance with the following equations : —
C6lI5.CHX:i + NaSO;.OC0BL5 = NaCl + SO, +
C0H5.CH2,OC0H5
COC1; + 2 NaS02.OC6H5 = 2 NaCl + 2 SO., +
CO(OC6H5)2
When sodium phenyl sulphite is heated with iodoform at
180°, a product having the composition CHH3.,S40 is
obtained, aud on account of its colour the author has named
Nov. 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
901
it " Rubbadine." It is a reddish-brown crystalline colouring
natter, which dissolves readily in alcohol, acetic ether,
phenol, and in caustic soda solution. It yields a diacetyl
derivative, ('^II^S,! >v OC.,Hj).„ and this on broiuination
gives CwHa4Br6S4< )3(OCaH3V Dimethylrubbadiiie—
C^HaaSACCHj).
forms reddish-brown microscopic crystals, insoluble in caustic
soda, readily soluble in chloroform, and moderately in acetic
ether.
A hexanitra-derivative, C44H2i;(NO.,')|.K..Os, obtained by
the action of concentrated nitric acid on rubbadine, is a red
crystalline dyestuff soluble in caustic soda with reddish-
yellow colouration ; also in ethyl acetate and acetone. A
tetra-nitrodiamido-product, C41H£3(N02)4(NH.. ).&..( ),, ob-
tained on reducing the hexanitro-compound, forms a black
powder soluble only in phenol and in caustic soda solution.
When rubbadine is heated at 200° in a sealed tube with
dilute hydrochloric acid, it becomes decomposed in accord-
ance with the following equation : —
C^HjjSA + 2H;() = 2SH2 + 2 e(1lI;,.oll + CjeHjoSsjOs
The product C32H2,,S.,< )s is a light brown crystalline sub-
stance extremely soluble in ethyl acetate and acetone, and
yielding a dark red solution in caustic soda.
When rubbadine is fused with caustic soda, it yields
dihydroxydiphenylsulphoxide (IK ),C6H4)2S( K together with
some phenol, salicylic acid, and sulphur. Dihydroxydi-
phenylsulphoxide is a crystalline grey .yellow powder melting
at 9">'5° and is readily soluble in caustic soda, ether,
alcohol, glacial acetic acid, ethyl, acetate, acetone, and in
amylalcohol. Its diacetyl-derivative, CwHs(C3H30)=S03,
melts at 110" 5°. Its polymeride (C,2 H^SI )3)2, obtained by
the action of dilute hydrochloric acid at 200°, is a reddish-
brown dye readily soluble in solutions of the alkalis and
their carbonates, also in alcohol and ethyl acetate.
In conclusion the authors discuss the theoretical bearings
of the reactions which they have investigated, and they
suggest the following formula as probably representing the
constitution of rubbadine : —
,HO
c6h/ /
\CH< |
Cr,H4< >
('l,"l
OCBH4 v. / C6H40 -
CH
OC„H4
/•- \
C6H40.0
>•
—A. K. M.
Azonium- Bases. ( ). N. Witt and C. Schmidt, lier. 25,
1892, 2003—2008.
In this paper the authors describe some reactions of
ethoxylpheuylnaphthostilbazonium chloride (Her. 25, 1892,
1013), the most interesting of which is the substitution of
the ethoxyl by an amido-group, thus bringing about the
conversion of an azonium base into a saffranine. This
reaction is effected by heating the stilbazonium chloride
with alcoholic ammonia for two or three hours at 120°.
The saffranine base crystallises out on cooling, and forms
thick garnet-red prisms. The product is dissolved in
boiling very dilute acetic acid, and the solution precipitated
by the addition of hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloride —
NH2.CHJH5<J
X-
-CCV.H,
+ ILO
NC1(CGH5).C.C6H5
obtained, forms scarlet needles, having a green metallic
lustre ; it dissolves in water and alcohol to scarlet solutions,
which exhibit a faint greenish-yellow fluorescence. Silk,
wool, and cotton are dyed bright pink by it. Its platiuo-
chlotide has the composition 2 (C3llHo2N3Cl)PtCl4.
The corresponding puratoluidine compound —
(•;H;NH.ChlH5/i
X-
-C.CfiHs
NCl(CliH5).C.C|.,Hf,
is obtained when the above stilbazonium chloride is heated
with paratoluidine for 8—10 hours at 110°— 120°. It forms
rectangular plates, dissolves readily in alcohol, sparingly
in water, and is insoluble in very dilute hydrochloric acid.
It dyes cotton a beautiful reddish-violet colour.
When the stilbazonium chloride is heated in a dry tube
it first melts, froths slightly, becomes suddenly deep blue-
red, and solidities on cooling to a crystalline mass. This
melts above 300' and at a high temperature sublimes
mostly unchanged. The product of this reaction possesses
the general characters of Fischer and Hepp's rosindone,
and is, in fact, phenylnaphthoslilborosindone—
./
N-
-C.C6HS
o;cu,ii-X
\NCCGH5).C.C0HS
its formation being represented thus :—
C32H2,,N2C10 = C8HSC1 + C30H20N2O
A better method of obtaining it is to boil the stilbazonium
chloride with six times its weight of dimethylaniline. It
crystallises in garnet-red needles, is insoluble in water and
dissolves only very sparingly in alcohol ; it dissolves readily
in phenol with orange-yellow colour, whilst concentrated
sulphuric acid yields a beautiful violet solution which
becomes yellow on dilution. The rosindone is a feeble
base. Its hydrochloride, C':)„II2clN20 . HC'l, crystallises in
orange-yellow needles and scales, but is readily dissociated
by water or by a temperature of 100°. The rosindone and
its sulphonic acid dye silk red. — A. K. M
Setoff's Buses.
W. v. Miller and J. Plochl. Ber. 25,
1892, 2020—2071.
In their paper on aldehyde-green (Her. 24, 1891, 1700),
the authors expressed the view that this substance is formed
by the addition of hydrogen sulphide to the group >C:N —
As this group is common to Schiff's bases the authors have
attempted to effect the addition of hydrogen sulphide to the
simpler members of this class of substances which they
have also submitted to a closer investigation. The bases
derived from the aromatic aldehydes, and of the type
C6HftN:C'H.C6Hs, are mostly well characterised crystalline
compounds, whilst of those derived from the fatty aldehydes
few are well defined and crystallised. With regard to
their molecular weights, Kaoult's method indicated a triple
formula for anhydroformaldehydaniline and double formula:
for anhydrovaleraldehydaniline and acetaldehydaniline.
Whilst, however, anhydroformaldehydaniline and anhydro-
valeraldehydaniline behave as simple bases in their reactions,
acetaldehydaniline and the corresponding propylaldehyde
derivative are shown by their abnormal behaviour to be
differently constituted. The latter yield acetyl-, benzoyl-,
and nitroso-derivatives, and consequently contain an imido
group. When acetaldehydaniline is heated with hydro-
chloric acid it readily breaks up into aniline and quinaldine,
whilst propylaldehydaniline similarly yields aniline and
a-ethyl-i8-methylquinoline. The most probable formula: for
these two bases are accordingly —
C6H5N:CH.CH2
C6H5.NH.CH.CII3
Acetaldehydaniline,
and
C6H5.NH.CH.CH2.CH3
Propylaldehydaniline.
Isobutylaldehydaniline can also be partially converted
into a similar polymeride, but all the other bases yield
polvmerides possessing a tertiary character.
All these bases can be obtained in their simple form —
as oils— but they polymerise on standing and yield mostly
solid products.
Of the hydra zones and oximes, only those belonging to
the fatty series react with hydrogen cyanide. An interesting
method of obtaining nitrites of the simple (i.e., unpoly-
merised) bases is to dissolve aniline (or other amine")
in ether, add hydrogen cyanide and then drop in the
aldehyde. In this way nitriles can readily be prepared
which cannot be obtained by other methods. This reaction
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov, ;;o, I8'.i2.
is of special interest as the nitriles yield important acid
amides and acids. By the action of hydrogen cyanide on
anhydroformaldehydaniline and subsequent hydrolysis of
the resulting nitrile, the authors readily obtained pheuyl-
amido-acetic acid, C6Hs.NH.CHs.COOH, and since the
yield is quantitative the reaction is of importance in
connection with the synthesis of indigo. — A. K. M.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Colouring Matter
II. II. Lake, London. From F. Keverdin and Ch. de
la Harpe, Geneva, Switzerland. JEng. Pat. 16,377,
September 26, 1891.
By the action of the air on a solution of /3-amido-a-naphthol
sulphonic acid in presence of an alkaline carbonate, a
colouring matter is produced suitable for wool-dyeing.
The oxidation is more rapid if the solution be heated whilst
a current of air is passed throuijli it. A solution containing
3 kilos, of amido-a-naphthol sulphonic acid —
(1.2.4 C,0H5.OH.NHs.SO3H)
and 2 ■ 3 kilos, of calcined sodium carbonate in .30 litres of
water is heated in an open vessel on the water-bath and
well stirred. For the first three hours the water which
evaporates is replaced and the solution is then evaporated
to about 20 litres, when it is allowed to cool and the
colouring matter separates out as a violet-black powder,
which, after filtering off, is washed with cold water and
dried. It dissolves in hot water and dyes mordanted or
unmordanted wool from an acid bath, giving dark shades
fast to light and fulling. The amido-naphthol sulphonic
acid is prepared by reducing azo - colouring matters
obtained from 1*4 a-naphthol sulphonic acid or else by
reducing the uitroso-eonipound obtained from the same
body or from the sulphonic acid of a-hydroxynaphthoic
acid, in the latter ease, the NOH group replacing the
carboxyl group. — T. A. L.
Y.-TEXTILES : COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
The Determination of Fibrous Materials in a Crude
State. S. Gabriel. ' Zeits. f. Physiol. Chem. 16, 1892,
370.
.See under WWX., page 944.
Manufacture of Colouring Matters from Protocateehuic
Aeid and Phenols. O. Imray, Loudon. From "The
Farbwerke vormals Meister, Lucius, uud Briiuing,"
Hochst-on-the-Maine, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,S47,
November 16, 1891.
By heating acetic acid with resoreinol or pyrogallol in
presence of zinc chloride, the following ketones are pro-
duced : resaeetophenone, CH3.CO.C6H3(OH)2, and
gallaeetophenone CH3.CO.(',H.(( HI v.. By applying
this reaction to two bodies which hitherto have not been
employed industrially, protocateehuic acid and pyrocatechol,
new products result yielding very valuable colouring
matters. When .34 kilos, of protocateehuic acid, 32 kilos.
of pyrocatechol and 50 — 100 kilos, of zinc chloride are
heated to about 150° C. for several hours and the melt
dissolved in hot water, a tetrahydroxydiphenyl ketone
crystallises from the solution and may be purified by
crystallisation from water. When pure it melts at 17.V C.
By substituting resoreinol for the pyrocatechol an isomeric
tetrahydroxydiphenyl ketone is produced, which melts at
93° C. A penta-hydroxydiphenyl ketone is formed in a
like mannner from protocateehuic acid and pyrogallol. All
the hydroxy ketones derived in this way from protocateehuic
acid can be employed for dyeing and printing chrome-
mordanted cotton and wool and give shades said to be
absolutely fast to fulling. — T. A. L.
Erratum.
This Journal, 1892, page 808, col. 1, 2nd abstr., six lines
from end, for " ;)-tolylg]ycoceine " read p-tolylglycocine.
Pita-Fla.r or Sisal-Hemp. Annal. Indnst. Paris, July 24,
1892 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. HO, iv. 63—65.
The plant from which pita-flax is obtained is a native of
South America and the West Indies, but it has been
naturalised and become almost indigenous to all countries
bordering on the Mediterranean — Algeria, Egypt, Sicily,
Spain, and Portugal — where it is much employed as a
boundary hedge for roads and fields. It is a species of aloe
with a fibrous root, a very short trunk, large fleshy leaves of
a sea-green colour, with prickly edges and pointed ends,
from 20 in. to 4 ft. in length. The leaves increase in size
year after year, and usually at the age of 20 or 30 years, but
sometimes as early as its eighth year, a tall shaft is thrown up,
which in about the space of a fortnight grows to the height
of from 23 to 28 ft., and produces a flower at the top, but
this so exhausts the plant that the effort usually kills it.
It is chiefly in the West Indies and Mexico that it is
cultivated for profit. With the exception of the outermost
and innermost leaves, of which the first are too coarse and
the latter too tender, the rest are cut as near to the root as
possible, and on being scraped and beaten with wooden
instruments produce a valuable fibre of great strength. That
from the exterior leaves is used for cordage and mats, from
the intermediate leaves coaree cloths are made, and the
inner leaves produce a fine quality of fibre from which
delicate tissues are woven resembling hue linen. It is some-
times prepared in Spain of a sufficiently fine texture to be
exported to Lyons for mixing with silk fabrics. The
Mexican varieties of aloe, called in that country " Maguey,"
produce not alone a fibre which in France is known as
Tampico horse-hair, and in England as Mexican grass, pita-
flax, or sisal-hemp, hut also a favourite intoxicating beverage
(pulque), somewhat resembling perry, which is largely
consumed in that country.
Hitherto the recovery of the fibre has' in almost all
countries been a tedious operation performed by hand, but
in Yucatan a considerable trade has been created during
the last few years by the application of machinery worked
by means of horses or steam. From 5,000 to 7,000 leaves
are daily crushed and the fibre separated by means of a
wheel fitted with metal blades which revolves in a circular
pan, each thousand leaves yielding from 55 to 90 lbs. weight
of dry fiax, and in this way the Yucatan production has
been raised to an average value of 200,000/. per annum.
This system, however, is in some ways objectionable, for it
occasions a great deal of waste and often injures the
attending workmen.
Mr. Berthet, who is already well known as the inventor
of useful machinery of a similar kind, has recently intro-
duced a greatly improved machine which, described and
illustrated iu Vol. 9, p. 33, of the " Bulletin de la Soc. ind.
de Rouen," consists of two parts. The leaves are first
crushed between fluted rollers, and are then made to pass
between a curved wooden support and a drum fitted with
many blades. This drum in revolving tears away the pulp
from the whole length of the leaves and lays bare the fibre,
but the operation is again repeated, whereby the separation
of the fibre is completed.
In his work on the" Fibrous Plants of India," Mr. Forbes
Eoyle gives the result of many tests made by him in India
of the comparative strength of pita-flax and other fibres.
He found it to be 70 per cent, stronger than Russian flax,
and also that it has greater resistance than cocoa-nut fibre ;
when wet it shrinks 25 per cent, less than ordinary hemp-
rope. (See Colonial Reps. Annual, No. 44, Bahamas,
paragraph 15.) — W. s.
Nov. 3d. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
903
PATENTS.
Improvement in the Treatment of Fibrous Plants for the
jiiii pose of obtaining Fibres therefrom. I). Stuart,
Loudon. Eng. Pat. 751, January 15, 1891.
Aloe, jute, pineapple ramie, flux and kindred plants in
their green state are crushed and steam and water are theu
injected through the mass, by which means the pulp is
speedily released and the gums are absolutely removed.
— E. J. IS.
Improved Process and Means for the Chemical Treatment
of Ramie Fibre, Flax, or Hemp, in either a Green or
Dried State. J. P. A. Blaye, Paris. Eng. Pat. 13,072,
August 1, 1891.
The process consists in treating the above-named fibres for
from 15 to 35 minutes at 95° to 100° C. in a bath composed
of water, 100 litres, slaked lime, 10 kilos., carbonate of
soda, 2.1 kilos., alum, 2 kilos. After such treatment the
til ires are easily removed by hand. — E. J. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Bookbinders1 Cloth.
T. A. Sutton and W. H. Sutton, Salford. Eng. Pat.
13,148, August 4, 1891.
The inventors take grey calico or other similar fabric and
raise upon one or both sides a pile or nap. They theu dye
or pad on to the pile the desired colour and then proceed
to stiffen, glaze, calender or otherwise finish, and if necessary
emboss a pattern. By this means the cloth is more evenly
dyed and gains in density and solidity. — E. J. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Floor Cloth and like
Fabrics, and Machinery therefor. K. Scott and W. J.
Beard, London. Eng. Pat. 17,081, October 7, 1891.
Describes a machine for the manufacture of linoleum or
similar fabrics in which a continuous pattern in various
colours runs through the piece. A strong canvas back
covered with an adhesive or sticky substance travels inter-
mittently over a heated table. During the periods of rest,
the various coloured portions of linoleum material are
stamped out above the table on to the cloth. For each
separate colour there is a special stamp and a special die-
plate which exactly correspond to the shape and size of
those portions of the pattern that are to be of that particular
colour. When the linoleum of one colour has been stamped
out and fixed in position on the canvas, the drum carrying
the stamps revolves bringing into work a new set of stamps
or punches and a corresponding die-plate. When the
pattern is complete, it may be by seven or eight colours,
the canvas moves on the length of the pattern and is ready
to receive the next length. Finally, the whole passes out
between rollers which firmly fix the segments of linoleum
to the canvas back. — A. J. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Gassing Silk and other
Yams. C. Ideson, Leeds. Eng. Pat. 17,562, October
14, 1891.
In order to effect au economy in time, gas, and power, the
inventor has devised a new finger bar for gassing frames.
At a point somewhat less than half way from the delivery
eud, the bar is bent into horse-shoe form ; the gas flame
playing across the centre of the bend. The straight portions
of the bar at each side of the bend are in alignment, and
along these are arranged at intervals pot friction tubes
working on steel spindles. Two of the latter are also
placed on each side of the bend and form equilateral
triangles with the end tubes of the rows. This triangular
arrangement is an essential feature of the iuvention, since
by threading in different ways it permits of the yarn being
passed from one to eleven times through the flame according
to requirements. — W. M. G.
Improvements relating to the Waterproofing of Canvas
and other Materials, and to Apparatus therefor.
L. Silverman, Bexley, and W. McLaren, London. Eng.
Pat. 17,977, October 20, 1891.
The material to be waterproofed is placed in a suitable
vessel from which the air is partially exhausted. The
paraffin wax or other waterproofing material is then intro-
duced under pressure. When thoroughly impregnated the
fabric is withdrawn and passed first through two hot rollers,
then between two revolving brushes, and finally between
two cold rollers. — A. J. K.
Improvements in Machineri/ for Washing and Scouring
Wool and other Fibrous Materials. J. Petrie and J.
Fielden, Rochdale. Eng. Pat. 18,384, October 26, 1891.
In this apparatus the principle is adopted of causing the
flow of liquid to carry the wool through the machine ; but
in order to secure the maximum effect the wool passes
through much less quickly than the liquid, and the method
of bringing about this retardation is a principal feature of
the invention.
The machine is constructed mainly on the lines of the
ordinary wool-scouring machine, being provided with a
long trough with perforated false bottom, feed and delivery
apparatus, squeezing rollers, &c. The novel features will
be understood by reference to the diagram in which a is a
Machinery for Washing and Scouring Wool.
feeding brat, and b the scouring trough over which is placed
a perforated pipe c, extending the whole width of the
trough. A continuous spray of scouring liquor from this
serves to saturate the wool and also to feed the scouring
trough. The revolving cylinder d depresses the wool
below the surface of the liquor, after which it is carried
forward by the latter until it comes into contact with the
retarding arrangement j, f. This consists of several (two
in the diagram) series of parallel bars placed horizontally
to the apparatus, and spaced so as to allow the overlapping
904
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1892.
ends of each series to fork into each other. By means of
suitable mechanism each scries of bars is alternately lifted
out of, and depressed beneath the stream of liquid, squeezing
the wool sufficiently to stop or retard its movement when in
the latter position"; but to prevent undue pressure, springs
r ii are inserted. The drum y at the delivery end of
the machine serves to express a great portion of the liquor
which flows through a perforated plate placed beneath the
drum. The circulation of the liquid is brought about by a
pump or injector. — W. M. G.
Improvements in the Treatment of Paper, Linen, and other
Textile Fabrics applicable to the Manufacture of Show-
Bills, Showr-Cards, rasters, Tablets, Walt Decorations,
and other Purposes. F. G. Annison, London. Fng. Pat.
19,710, November 13, 1891.
Trxtile fabrics in long or short lengths are, by a special
machine, which is fully described with reference to draw-
ings, impregnated with an opaque or white solution of
xylonite, celluloid, or ivoryine, and then passed through a
heated chamber to remove alcohol and camphor. The fabric
can then be printed in the usual manner, and is finally
glazed or varnished. — A. J. K.
Improvements in the Treatment of Rhea, and in Apparatus
therefor. E. Viarengo, Turin, and E. Casper, London.
Eng. Pat. 20,610, November 2G, 1891.
The roots and tops are cut off the stems of the China grass,
and the stalks sorted into three grades, thick, medium, and
thin : for separate treatment. The stalks are immersed in
water and boiled until the outer bark can be readily peeled
off, after which the stems are placed in a closed vessel and
boiled for about two hours under a pressure of at least 75 lb.
in the following solution: water, 50 kilos.; soda, 1 kilo.;
unpurified oleine, 500 grms. This removes all extraneous
matters, including the gum. After thoroughly washing by
means of a spray of water, the thoroughly-cleansed fibre
is dipped in water containing 1 per cent, glycerin and 3 per
cent, sodium carbonate, and dried in the open air. — W. M. G.
An Improved Hygienic Fabric, Tissue, or Material.
.1. Xyssen, Paris. Eng. Pat. 21,455, December 8, 1891.
An electric fabric is produced, which is very Irygienic, by
mixing a material capable of becoming electric, such as
cats' hair, with wool or other material. — E. J. B.
An Improved Shoicer-P roof Fabric. E. Briggs, Bradford
Eng. Pat. 3067, February 17, 1892.
The fabric is made of silk containing its natural gum, the
spinning, weaving, and dyeing operations being so regulated
as to retain this constituent. — E. J. B.
Improvements in or Relating to Apparatus or Machines
for Breaking, Washing, or otherwise Treating Vege-
table Fibres. W. P. Thompson, Manchester. From
S. B. Allison, New Orleans, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 14,528,
August 11, 1892.
The object of the invention is to provide a machine for
treating wood fibres or leaves, such as pine-apple, bear
grass, banana, or other plants, the whole machine consisting
of " moss and fibre brake," hackle and washing machine,
with pressure rollers adjusted by set screws, in combination
with a series of scraping blades, which interlace by means
of eccentrics. — A. J. K.
VI.-DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, AND BLEACHING.
The Weakening of the Fibre in Discharge Indigo Printing.
A. Scheurer. Lehue's Fiirb. Zeitung, 1891-92, 355.
(Compare this Journal, 1892, 33.)
Two samples of discharge printing paste having the follow-
ing composition were experimented with. (A.) : — Potassium
bichromate, 40 grms.; potassium chromate, 160 grms.;
dextrin thickening solution, 800 grms. (B.) : — Potassium
bichromate, 50 grms. ; potassium chromate, 300 grms. ;
dextrin thickening solution, 650 grms. Dark blue dyed
strips were used as in the former experiments (Joe. cit.).
The development was effected in the case of (A.) by a bath
containing sulphuric acid and oxalic acid (50 grms. of each
to 1 litre of water) ; whilst in that of (B.), glycerol
(50 grms.) was also added to the bath. After this treatment
the printed .strips were boiled with a solution of sodium
carbonate, and tested with the dy nanometer; —
Relative Strength
of Fibre.
Vat-dyed fibre mil
Sample printed with (A.) <;.">
ill. I in
These results prove von Niederhiiusern's statement (Fiirb.
Zeit. 15 Juni 1892) that the use of glycerol is superfluous
when the strength of the printing paste is properly adjusted ;
but it by no means follows that the addition of a reducing
agent to the developing bath is useless. In practice, how-
ever, the printing paste always contains more than the
necessary quantity of chromate, and the addition of glycerol
or of dextrin (10 grms. to the litre), to the oxalic acid bath,
minimises the weakening of the fibre, as previously stated
by the author (loc. cit.). — A. B. L.
The Tannins and Tanning Extracts and their Application
in Dyeing Cotton. V. H. Soxhlet. Lehne's Fiirbcr
Zeitung, 1891—2, 352—356, 378—379. (Continued from
this Journal, 1892, 744.)
Pink bark extract, in spite of its being the cheapest tanning
material in Germany, has a more limited use in cotton
dyeing than even oak wood extract. Extract of Hungarian
galls (" Knoppern ") can be used in many cases for bright
shades; the tannin-antimony compound is comparatively
faint-coloured. Hungarian galls can therefore be used as a
substitute for gall-nuts (or gallotannic acid), but of course
they contain less tannic acid, and the accompanying
colouring matters are stronger. The extract of Hungarian
galls reduced to 15° B. has a clear colour, and contains about
25 per cent, of tannin ; it produces no harshness with
cotton fibre.
Bearberry leaves (.folia uvie ursi) contain a considerable
percentage of tannin (also some gallic acid), but scarcely
any soluble colouring matter. The extract (15° B.) contains
12 per cent, of tannin. The tannin-antimony compound is
pure white, and the iron compound a beautiful bright blue.
White sea-rose roots were formerly employed as a substi-
tute for nut-galls.
Quebracho wood contains as much as 20 per cent, of
quebracho tannic acid, together with an intensely red-coloured
resin, which latter restricls its general application for dyeing.
It would, however, pay to decolorise the extract, and also
to use it in admixture with logwood extract, but for the fact
that the colours produced with it assume a foxy tone.
Hemlock extract contains even more tannin (at 30° B., 44
per cent.), than quebracho extract, and is used in Canada with
black d}*es for cotton ; the goods, however, invariably
exhibit a foxy tone. The so-called black dye preparation
sold in America is largely made up of hemlock extract.
Divi-divi extract comes into the market in a concentration
of 30° B. ; the author found 47 per cent, of ellagitannic acid
in a sample. The yellowish tint of the antimony compound
precludes its application for bright and medium shades ; <t
yields, however, with iron salts a very deep greyish-black
colour, and it can with advantage he used with all dark
coal-tar colours.
Wov.80,189B.]
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
905
Extract of myrabolans will unquestionably supersede
♦hat of sumac and other poorer tanning materials. This raw
material contains 45 per cent, of tannin, a certain quantity
of fat, and but little colouring matter; it is therefore well
adapted for tinctorial purposes. The author prepared an
extract by extracting the crushed substance five times with
distilled water, and evaporating the extract to 15° B. on the
water-bath. The tannin - antimony compound was very
similar to that from sumac, whilst the iron compound had a
beautiful full colour. The more tiery and intense tint which
is produced with red, violet, and green basic coal-tar dyes
tixed with myrabolans, as compared with sumac, is generally
ascribed to the fat which the former contains ; in most
large English dyeworks, myrabolans or the extract are
employed with predilection.
Jiablah pods yield an extract (15° B.) containing 18 per
cent, of tannic acid and some gallic acid, together with
colouring matters and resin. This material might, if
purchased at a moderate price, take the place of sumac ; its
chief application is for greyish-brown colours. Valonia
meal, containing as much as 42 per cent, of tannin, can be
purchased at -10 mk. per 100 kilos. ; it yields 87 per cent,
of extract (15° B ), and is a cheaper material than sumac
extract containing 14 per cent, of tannin.
( lajota bark, probably identical with Ecorce de paletuvier
(Hull. Sou. ind. Rouen, 1880, 187), contains 27 per cent, of
tannin, and yields an extraet resembling quebracho and
hemlock extracts.
Algarobella seed husks (Chili) contain G 1 per cent, of
tannin, and yield 43 per cent, of extract (30° 1!.) ; it is not
an advantageous tanning material for blacks, and the colour
of its tauniu-autimony compound precludes its use with coal-
tar colours.
The employment of gallotaunic acid is to be recommended,
but the cost is generally prohibitive. Next to it may be
placed the various extracts in accordance with the amounts
of tannin they contain, and their costs. Sumac extract, on
account of its high price and comparatively low percentage
of tannin, is to be placed last. All extracts should be
bought with a guarantee of their percentage of tannin. No
such guarantee can be given with the raw materials, as they
are liable to undergo changes by weathering, &c, and the
author is of opinion that they should not be purchased.
—A. E. L.
The Gilding and Silvering of Textiles. E. Odernheimer.
Lehne's Faib. Zeit. 1891—2, 375—377.
Two methods are in use for gold and silver printing on
textiles. The first consists in the employment of the metals
in the form of leaf or powder. On account of the expense
of metallic gold and silver, bronze powders have been used
as substitutes for them, with, however, somewhat unsatis-
factory results. The second method depends upon the
precipitation of metallic gold or silver on the fibre, from a
solution of a salt, by means of a reducing agent. Neither
of the methods in their present forms can be said to give
perfectly satisfactory results. The author then gives a
historical sketch of the development of the second method.
He finds that in order to precipitate gold and silver on the
fibre in a lustrous form, it is necessary to employ a gaseous
reducing agent. Sulphuretted hydrogen produces, on fibres
moistened with a solution of a gold salt, a brown or silver
grey metallic deposit, which loses its lustre on drying;
sulphurous acid gives no better result. Exposure of a fabric
moistened with gold salt to sunlight yields a brownish or
violet colour, whilst solutiou of ferrous sulphate gives rise
to a brown or grey colour. Hydrogen precipitates the gold
in a lustrous form, but its action is slow. By far the best
results are obtained with phosphoretted hydrogen.
Iieduetion by Means of Phosphoretted Hydrogen. — A
slow and continuous current of phosphoretted hydrogen is
evolved on gently heating red phosphorus and alcoholic
potash, and by this method the spontaneous inflammability
of the gas is avoided. It acts very quickly, a beautful
lustrous deposit of metallic gold being produced when a
small quantity of the gas is passed into a closed vessel in
which the fabric moistened with gold solution is suspended.
The fabric at first assumes a green colour, having a metallic
shimmer, and then passes through bluish violet to red ; it
finally has the lustrous metallic appearance above described.
If the fabric in the dry state is treated with the reducing
agent, or is insufficiently impregnated with gold solution, the
deposit is more or less red without metallic lustre, and gold
purple is formed when phosphoretted hydrogen at a high
temperature is made use of. After drying, the deposit on
the fabric loses its lustre, a result due to unevenness of
surface, but the lustre is to some extent restored by rolling.
The smoother the surface of the fabric, the more easy is
it to obtain a lustrous deposit. Silk is in this respect the
best material. The porosity and unevenness of the fabric
are therefore the chief difficulties in the way of obtaining
the desired effect ; these may be overcome, however, to a
certain extent by previously rolling. It is, however,
preferable, in the case of making gold designs, to print the
fabric first with a dilute solution of albumen, and sub-
sequently, after drying and steaming, with a thickened gold
solution, prepared by adding to 50 cc. of gum Senegal
solution 5 cc. of a 2 per cent, solution of sodium gold
chloride. and 2 — 3 cc. of glycerol (compare this Journal,
1892, 600). The moist fabric is then subjected to the
action of phosphoretted hydrogen, whereby lustrous gold
designs are produced which withstand brushing and rubbing,
but cannot be washed.
Silver behaves similarly to gold on reduction, aud gives
rise to various colours. Yellow is produced when the fabric
is moistened with a 0'04 per cent, solution of sdver nitrate
and warmed for some time in a glycerol bath or tannin
solution. Lustrous deposits of metallic silver are produced
in the same way as those of gold, and good results are
obtained with a 0'02 per cent, solutiou of silver nitrate.
When the silver solution is too dilute, a thin nacreous
metallic film is deposited. For printing designs, the follow-
ing mixture is employed : — Silver nitrate (0-1 grm.), gum
Senegal solution (50 grms.), and glycerol (2 grms.) For
silvering the entire fabric, a 0'02 per cent, solution of silver
nitrate is strong enough. After reduction the silvered fabric
is passed between heated rollers for the purpose of
burnishing. — A. R. L.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus for Cleaning
and Lustreing Dyed or Undyed Yarns of Silk,
Cotton, or other Fibrous Substances. S. Fisher and
A. Murgatroyd, Huddersfield. Eng. Pat. 18,878,
November 2, 1891.
In the usual machines for the above purpose the yarn
passes from the winding-off bobbins round the lustreing
cones, and finally through two sets of niches to thewinding-
on bobbins. In order to wind the thread laterally, one set
of niches is made to traverse backward and forward, which
has the effect of putting much more strain on the thread at
one period than at another, thus limiting the drag which can
safely be applied to the yarn. The use of niches at all is
objectionable, because they collect the fluff which is removed
occasionally by the thread, causing an uneven yarn.
The object of the present invention is to overcome these
defects by passing the yarn in an approximately straight
line from the unwinding to the winding-on bobbins without
contact with any eye or niche, thereby securing the entire
available amount of friction for the purpose of lustreing.
A rotating brush removes the fluff. — W. M. G.
Improvements in Machines for Printing Fabrics. J. Wood,
Ramsbottom. Eng. Pat. 19,174, November 6, 1891.
In some cases it is desirable that the cylinders of printing
machines should be capable of horizontal adjustment,
especially in duplicate machines, where both sides of the
fabric are printed upon. The inventor proposes to arrange
matters so that this can be brought about as follows : — -The
bearing blocks of the cylinders are fitted to slide horizontally7,
in planed ways, in carriages which are made to slide verti-
cally, aud are capable of being raised or lowered as occasion
requires. — W. P. P.
906
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1898.
Improvements in or Relating to the Dyeing of Silk and other
Fibres. J. LoDgmore and 15. Williamson, London. Eng.
Pat. 20,574, November 26, 1891.
The dyeing of silk in the higher qualities has only been
successfully practised after it has been spun into yarn.
The inventors propose the following method for dyeing it in
the sliver, either before or after it has been dressed or
combed. The sliver is wrapped round a drum by means of
a gill-box, and dyed in this form of a lap, by which means
it is possible to handle the silk in the sliver state without
damaging it.
After removing the laps from the drum they are placed
on a length of wire gauze, which is then rolled up and tied.
The sliver is then easily handled and dyed. The dyeing
operation may be made continuous. — W. P. I).
Improvements in or Relating to Means or Apparatus for
Dyeing Yarns, Piece-goods, and the like. S. Smithson,
Heckmondwike. Eng. Pat. 14,101, August 4, 1892.
The object of this invention is to keep the goods from
coming in contact with the dyewoods, or other solid
materials used in the process of dyeing. Also to prevent
any of the waste dyewoods, &c. from entering the drains,
and thus becoming a nuisance.
The dye tank is divided transversely into two or more
compartments, one of which contains the goods. A smaller
division holds the dye-wood, and the liquor can flow from
one to the other, through perforations in the sides, which
are, however, not large enough to allow the dye-wood to
get through and come in contact with the goods. Similar
arrangements are made to prevent the solid matter escaping
down the drains, when the tank is run off. A winch is
added for piece-goods dyeing.— W. P. D.
YII.-ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND SALTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Sulphuric Arid
during 1891. A. Schertel. Chem. Ind. 1892, 163— 170.
In the above year a work of considerable magnitude has
appeared, by .Alfred Retter (this Journal, 1891, 364),
offering singular interest from the fact that the results
given refer to the working of a one-chamber system. The
dimensions of this single chamber were 188 ft. x 27 ft. x
21 ft. high, equal to 105,850 cub. ft. capacity ; the capacity
of the Glover tower was 1,020 cub. ft., or 0-96 per cent, of
the chamber space. The pyrites burners, made in six
compartments, consumed 3 — 3"3 tons of pyrites per
24 hours. The gases were sampled — (1.) In the tunnel
between the Glover tower and the chamber. (2.) At two
points situated 4 ft. 11 in. from the front wall of the
chamber, about 3 ft. 4 in. from the floor, and 3 ft. 4 in. from
the top. (3.) 33 ft. from the front wall, near the bottom
and top. (4.) 92 ft. from the front wall, near bottom and
top. (5.) 158 ft. from the front wall, as before. (6.) In
the down-draught from the Guy-Lussac toner. The sample
tubes reached in each case to a depth of 5 ft. into the
chamber.
Working under normal conditions (i.e., consuming 3 tons
of pyrites and 132 lb. of nitre per day), there is a
remarkably sudden decrease of sulphurous acid in the
chamber gases. Even in rejecting the tests taken at
point (2) — the same being situated in a dead corner, away
from the gas supply — « e find only a slight reaction takin°-
place between points (2) and (It), and almost no reaction
past the latter. It was further remarkable that any
attempt to increase the output by charging more than the
above quantity of pyrites resulted only in irregularities in
the process and in increased consumption of nitre. The
tests show further, that nitrons oxide disappears along with
sulphurous aeid, as already pointed out by Lunge and
Xaef.
In reducing the air but increasing the nitre, the reaction
advances as far as the far end of the chamber, and
sulphurous acid along with nitrous fumes escape from the
Guy-Lussac. But the most curious fact is an increase of
oxygen from the point at which the gases leave the Glover.
In the chamber inlet there is a deficiency of 1 • 89 per cent,
(volume) of oxygen to completely oxidise sulphurous acid
into sulphuric acid. At test-hole 2 there is already an
excess of 0"36 per cent, (volume) of oxygen, which
increases to 1-16 per cent, at the 4th test-hole. It is
peculiar, too, that the proportion between nitrous aeid and
nitrous oxide remains uniform all through, although a
deficiency of oxygen would lead one to expect a strong
reduction of nitrous acid.
Increasing the air leads to an increased escape of
sulphurous acid from the Gay-Lussac tower, and in some
cases the chamber process is likely to be continued there.
The sulphurous acid causes evolution of nitrous acid, which
escapes. Under the above conditions it is very difficult to
regulate the supply of air and nitre, and the losses in the
exit gases are occasionally 30 times in excess of the
average loss.
The temperatures are not subjected to strong variations
and high figures, such as Sorel recorded ; these were not
observed here.
The output of this chamber being so very low, the same
was divided into two smaller chambers, measuring 121 ft.
long (68,607 cub. ft.) and 60-7 ft. long (34,417 cub. ft.)
respectively. A passage 6' 2 ft. wide divided the two new
chambers. The chamber space decreased thus by 3 • 3 per
cent., but the surface increased by 2' 8 per cent. As a
result of the alteration, 4 -2 tons of pyrites could be burnt
in 24 hours (i.e., this means an increase of 40 per cent.),
with a consumption of 4'4 nitre per 100 of sulphur. The
gas tests taken show that ihe sulphurous acid, when entering
the chamber, does not decrease as suddenly as was the case
in the one-chamber system. It decreases only very slowly
past the second sample hole, but rapidly, almost to zero, in
the second chamber. The samples taken on the top and
bottom differ to a greater extent thau formerly. The
temperatures are much higher after splitting the chamber
than formerly, even when burning the same quantity of
P3'rites, a circumstance which cannot be explained yet.
Nevertheless, although there is a considerable source of
heat in the chambers, one cannot help being struck by the
considerable difference in the temperatures in the Glover
tower and chamber (about 45° C.). Lunge and Xaef
observed in Uetikon a slight increase of temperature ; the
same was the case at the Oker and at the Mulden works,
whilst there was a considerable rise in the temperature at
the Freiberg works. The knowledge of chamber space and
chamber surface do not throw sufficient light on this matter,
and it is evident that the temperatures in the chamber system
are influenced by conditions which arc not yet recognised.
The behaviour of nitrous acid to sulphuric acid has been
subjected to further studies since it became probable that
the sulphuric acid vapours floating in the atmosphere of
the chamber combine with nitrous acid, and thus prevent a
further formation of sulphuric acid. The tension of the
nitrous acid of nitrous vitriol has been studied by Lunge,
Zalociecki, and Marehlewski (this Journal, 1891, 364 — 366 ).
The specific gravities of nitric acid of different strengths
were ascertained by Lunge and Key (this Journal, 1891,
543 — 546).
The estimation of nitrogen in nitrates is treated of by
Fricke, Alberti, and Hempel and Olsch. The method
employed by the latter is specially adapted to substitute
the usual indirect nitre determinations.
Among the patented processes, the following may be
mentioned : — Lunge and Kosmann electrolise a solution of
zinc sulphite (obtained by passing sulphurous acid gas
through a paste of roasted zinc ore) for the purpose of
obtaining zinc and dilute sulphuric acid. G. Leon obtains
fuming or anhydrous sulphuric acid by electrolising
concentrated sulphuric acid. Neuerburg proposes to
concentrate sulphuric acid in a copper apparatus, which is
lined with gold up to the point of contact with the sulphuric
acid.— II. A.
Hot. 80, 1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
907
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Apparatus for the Manufacture of
Bleaching Powder {Chloride of Lime) or Similar
( 'ommodities. J. M. Milnes and A. Millies, London.
Eng. Pat. 15,833, September 18, 1891.
An endless belt made of suitable material, preferably of
asbestos cloth, is caused to travel through a series of
chambers, and upon it is placed the material to be saturated.
In the case of bleaching powder the material is lime, which
is fed in at a hopper, and chlorine is admitted at the end
near the hopper and drawn through the chamber to the
other end of the series. Hanging from the roof of each
chamber are a number of combs which turn the material
over as it is carried along by the travelling belt, thus
continually presenting fresh surfaces for absorption of the
gas. Drawings of the plant are given. — H. 8. P.
Improvements in or Connected with the Production of
Monocarbonatcs from Bicarbonales of the Alkalis.
F. H. Gossage, Widnes. Eng. Pat. 15,822, September 18.
1891.
Thk bicarbonate of soda or potash is placed in a closed
vessel or series of vessels in a wet or dry state, and hot
gas or hot air is passed through it by means of pressure or
suction, the temperature being such as to convert the
bicarbonate into monocarbonate. The gases that may be
used are those that come from limekilns, in which cases
they are enriched by the CO., expelled from the bicarbonate.
When hot air is used it may be heated by passing through
an interchanging apparatus subjected to the hot gases from
the flues or furnaces of steam generators. — H. S. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Nitric Acid. R. E.
Chatfield, Sewardstoue, Essex. Eng. Pat. 16,512,
September 29, 1891.
The object of the invention is to obtain nitric acid free
from sulphuric acid by distillation of nitrate of soda with
sulphuric acid. To effect this a mixture of nitrate of soda
is heated with large, excess of sulphuric acid, preferably
two equivalents to one of nitrate, at a temperature not
exceeding 445° F. About 75 per cent, of the nitric acid
distils over under 300° F., and the remainder comes over,
save a slight trace, at about 445° F. A temperature a few
degrees higher removes the last trace. Owing to the low
temperature the nitric acid is free from sulphuric acid.
At the same time the resulting residue is liquid, and may
be run off at any temperature above 350° F., and may be
used with an equivalent of salt to form muriatic acid and
furnaced salt-cake for the manufacture of glass, soda, &c.
— H. S. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Acid Sulphites.
A. Hoake and F. G. A. Roberts, Stratford, Essex. Eng.
Pat. 16,647, October 1, 1891.
In the ordinary process of manufacturing sulphites,
sulphurous acid gas carries over from the plant in which it
is generated minute particles of sulphur which are not
removable by the ordinary means of washing, and this
sulphur forms an unstable compound with the lime or other
base, which even in minute quantities affects the value of
the final product, especially if it be intended for the purpose
of preserving beer. To obviate this the inventors first
liquefy the sulphurous acid gas by pressure, and then allow
it to gently boil off from the closed vessel in which it has
been liquefied. The gas thus evolved carries over no
sulphur, and is led through a suitable pipe into a solution
of alkali or milk of lime, and the usual process of manu-
facture of aciil sulphite solutions carried through.
— H. S. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for the Manufacture of
Chlorine. P. de Wilde, A. Reychler, Brussels, Belgium,
and F. Hurter, Widnes. Eng." Pat. 17,659, October 15,
1891.
In the De Wilde and Reychler process for manufacturing
chlorine (this Journal, 1890, 510), alternate currents of
air and hydrochloric acid are passed through one heater at
different temperatures. Considerable wear and tear is
thus caused on the apparatus. This can be remedied to a
certain extent by having separate heaters for the respective
gases, but there still remains a certain wear and tear on the
idle heater. The proposition is to work two heaters, one
for air and one for hydrochloric acid, each connected with
two cylinders, for containing the decomposing material, and
with means for putting either heater in communication with
each such cylinder alternately, and for drawing off the gases
from each such cylinder conjointly. This is managed in
such a way that air or hydrochloric acid can be turned on
either decomposer ; and whilst one of the decomposers
produces weak chlorine, the other turns out strong chlorine,
both uniting into a common main and giving a continuous
stream of chlorine of uniform quality. — H. A.
An Improvement in the Manufacture of Bay Salt. A.
MacNab, Cocanada, India. Eng. Pat. 10,851, June 8,
1892.
When salt is produced by evaporation of sea-water there is
always mixed with it other salts, chiefly magnesium chloride,
which being of a deliquescent nature absorb moisture and
render the salt damp. The invention consists in removing
this impurity by placing the damp salt in the drum of a
centrifugal machine having its outer wall of perforated
metal or wire gauze, which may be lined internally with a
porous fabric. The drum is then revolved and brine is
poured into it, which is caused by the centrifugal motion
to filter through the salt and to pass through the porous
drum, carry ing with it most of the magnesium chloride,
which is more soluble than the salt. When the salt is very
wet the addition of brine is unnecessary. — H. S. P.
Improvements in and Relating to the Manufacture of (.'rude
Acetone. C. Lowe, Reddish. Eng. Pat. 12,660, July 9,
1892.
It is proposed to submit to destructive distillation the
acetates of strontium or magnesium instead of the acetates
of potassium, sodium, calcium, or barium, hitherto em-
ployed. The resulting crude distillate is larger in quantity
and of higher quality as regards the percentage of pure
acetone present, and is also more free from empyreumatic
or other by-products of" decomposition. Any carbonic
anhydride simultaneously evolved during the process of
distillation, is separated by drawing or forcing the vapour
of crude acetone over or through aqueous solutions of the
alkalis or of their hydroxides, either in a pulverulent or
semi-fluid state contained in covered vessels, whereby the
carbonic auhydride is absorbed, afterwards condensing the
vapour of crude acetone in an ordinary worm or surface
condenser. Any crude acetone mechanically retained by
the alkali is subsequently expelled therefrom by a current
of steam or direct heat supplied in or to the vessels con-
taining the absorbing agents. The patentee further proposes
to utilise the by-products of the destructive distillation
either after separation by fractional distillation from or
while still mixed with the acetone of the crude acetone,
obtained by employing them for the solution of copal or
other suitable gums or resins for the preparation of
varnishes, paints, enamels, cements, and the like. — D. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Vinegar and in
Apparatus therefor. E. Kuehemneister, Zittau, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 12,884, July 13, 1892.
The apparatus consists of a wooden vat fitted with a cover
which is hermetically closed and nearly full of the usual
shavings.
908
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 18»
The vinous liquid to be acetified is discharged into the
upper part of the vessel in a state of very fine division, which
is produced by a current of a'r suitably applied, and which
may be heated to any required temperature.
The excess of air passes off through a tube, by which it
is first led through water to deprive it of any acetic acid or
alcohol which might be carried away by it.
It is claimed that complete acetification is attained by one
passage through the apparatus, so that a large quantity of
liquid can be dealt with in a very short time. — A. L. S.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of Sulphate of
Ammonia. W. Malster, Catford, Eng. Pat. 13,208,
July 19, 1892.
Fob the purpose of conveying ammonium sulphate from the
bottom of the saturator on to an elevated drainer, a lead
syphon is used, the vertical arm of which dips in the
saturator, whilst the other arm delivers on the drainer.
This end is closed with a metal plate valve hinged at the top.
The syphon pipe, somewhat past the bend, is connected to a
vacuum pump ; each upward stroke of the pump tills the
syphon with crystals, and each down stroke empties tin: arm
leading to the drainer. — H. A.
VIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
Oxygen in Glass Manufacture. Eng. ami Mining J.
54, 4i:«.
Recent experiments show that the introduction of pure
ox} gen gas in the crucible greatly facilitates the melting of
glass ; in fact, an economy in fuel of 30 per cent, is claimed.
The gas is contained in steel cylinders under a pressure
of 120 atmospheres, the flow being maintained at a uniform
pressure of 2j- atmospheres by a regulator. The gas is
introduced into the crucible through a platinum tube, which
terminates in a spiral perforated on its under side. The
gas is at first introduced very slowly, the quantity being
gradually increased toward the last. The effect is to hasten
the operation and promote the chemical combination of the
different constituents. According to the figures given,
100 kilos, of glass require 600 litres of oxygen.
The glass made by the aid of oxygen is claimed by the
workmen to be more easily workable, but the main advan-
tages of the method are rapidity of fusion, which permits of
an increased number of fusions per crucible, and in the
rapid clearing of the melt, giving a glass free from air
bubbles.— YY. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in /he Manufacture of Cloth used for Press
Sheets, Filtering Sheets and other similar Purposes.
Sir E. Armitage and Sons, Lim , and P. Dunkerley,
Pendleton, ling. Pat. 10,643, June 23, 1891.
Tins invention relates to the strengthening at various
places subjected to extra pressure the press sheets used
in the manufacture of porcelain. The object is attained by
using a double warp or weft, bj* doubling over and
stitching down the cloth, or bv sewing on an extra thickness.
' — E. J. B.
Improvements in and Applicable to Filter-Press Cloth,
chiefly intended for Use in Filtering " Slip "for making
I 'otters' Clay. W. T. Lucas, Burslem. Eng. Pat. 6224,
March 31, IS'.il'.
These cloths are made in one piece, and are strengthened
by a patch sewn on to the middle ; a hole is made in the
centre through which the slip-tap nozzle may be placed ;
the periphery of the hole is protected by two metallic
collars which are placed on opposite sides of the cloth
and clenched together.— J. C. C.
IX.-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS,
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS,
PATENTS.
Improved Fire-Extinguishing and Fireprooftng Compound.
(>. (i. Hunkel, Besingo, Austria. Eng. Pat. 13,117,
August 1, 1891.
A qviok, reliable, and trustworthy fire-extinguishing com-
pound may be obtained by mixing, and diluting to 22 gallons,
solutions of about : —
I.)..
Ammonium chloride in 4*4 gallons soft water 2*204
Burnt alum in -1 "2 gallons soft water 0'77<i
Cryst. ammonium sulphate in I'l gallonssoft water . 0*440
Sodium cbloridein 8*8 gallons soft water 4*408
Sodium bicarbonate in 1*1 gallons suft water 0*770
Sodium water-glass (liquid) 9*920
—II A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Artificial ^Yood.
P. A. II. Wehuer, Dresden. Eng. Pat. 10,196, May 28,
1892.
Artifk nr. wood is prepared by mixing together sawdust,
wood shavings, jute, flax, cotton, or waste animal matters
with a solution of magnesium chloride and burnt and
pondered magnesite. — E. J. B.
A New or Improved Heat-Insulating and Waterproof
Material. E. ISiernath, Charlottenberg, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 13,702, July 22, 1892.
Seventy parts of infusorial earth, 10 parts of woollen waste,
and 20 parts of " calf's hair " are worked into a thin paste
with water, and if desired a colloid solution of any suitable
kind. The composition is made into sheets about one-
fifteenth of a millimetre in thickness, the sheets being cast
on each other until a plate of about 4 millimetres in thick-
ness is obtained, and the composite sheet subjected to a
pressure of at least 1 2 atmospheres to free it from water,
any remaining being driven out hy heating. Ground
asphaltum is mixed with a little " asphaltum oil," brought
to its boiling point, and brushed on to the plates. Gravel
or stone chippings about the size of barley grains are then
strewed over their surface. The product is said to be
suitable for lining silos and covering damp floors and walls.
—71. 11.
An Artificial Stone Composition. J. E. Keseling and
C. Fuchs, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 15,147,
August 23, 1892.
225 lb. of sand are mixed with half a gallon of a solution
of asphaltum in turpentine, and with a mixture of 75 lb. of
magnesia and 5 gallons of a solution of magnesium chloride,
and 3 — 4 gallons of albumen dissolved in water at
15i I — 160= P., gradually poured in. The product is used
as an artificial stone. The proportions may be varied. — B. B.
Improvements in or Relating to Decorative Artificial Stone
for Forming Pavements and for other Purposes.
W. F. Thomas, Dolguan, Wales. Eng. Pat. 15,281,
September 9, 1891.
The process patented consists iu forming letters or devices
throughout the whole depth, from back to front, of artificial
stones, by the insertion of suitable moulds and mixtures of
ground stone with cement and the like, and the withdrawal
of the moulds while the matrix is in a plastic state. The
device may be used for the lettering of street names,
tombstones and advertisements. — B. B.
(lov. 30,18980 THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
909
X.-METALLURGY.
The Action of Carbon Monoxide upon Iron. Guntz.
Bull. Soc. Chitn. 13, 1892, 278—281.
Tue action of carbou monoxide upon iron has been studied by
many observers on account of its metallurgical importance.
Stammer found that on passing carbon monoxide over oxide
of iron heated to a temperature below the softening point of
glass, a considerable quantity of carbon in a bulky state '
was obtained as well as metallic iron. Deville has recorded
the fact that when iron is heated in carbou monoxide a
deposit of carbon is formed upon the cooler parts, while
those which are hotter are unaffected. Eowthiau Bell has
shown that when the oxides of iron, nickel, and cobalt are
reduced by carbon monoxide, carbon is always set free.
Some years later Gruner stated that pure iron does not
decompose carbon monoxide free from carbon dioxide, but
this was refuted by Schutzenberger. Deville's observation
is explained by the fact that the heat evolved by the
reaction Fe + CO = FeO + C decreases as the temperature
rises and disappears or becomes negative at high tempera-
tures. Failure to accept this view is due to the erroneous
assumption that a substance stable at high temperatures is
similarly resistant to chemical action. Thus carbon monoxide
is very stable at high temperatures, but it is easily decom-
posed by oxidisable bodies as its heat of formation is low,
14 '4 cal., a quantity of the same order of magnitude as
that of mercuric oxide, viz., 15' 5 cal. The reason why
carbon monoxide is less vigorous an oxidant than mercuric
oxide is that, on account of its stability, it is not dissociated
when heated, and therefore needs the expenditure of work
upon it to start its reducing action. If the metal to be
oxidised is obtained in a sufficiently fine state of divisiou,
the reaction is much aided. Manganese, for example, burns
easily in carbon monoxide when once the oxidation is
started. It may be said that the oxidising action of carbon
monoxide occurs at temperatures ranging between 100° and
400" C, and its reducing action from 300 " G. to a red heat,
the molecular state of the metal acted upon and its
chemical activity determining the precise limits. Examples
of both kinds of reaction are afforded by iron.
When carbon monoxide, at the ordinary temperature, is
passed over iron, obtained by distilling an electrolytic iron
amalgam in a vacuum at a temperature of about 250' G,
iron carbonyl is formed in sufficient quantity to give a
mirror-like riug of metallic iron, which is considerably more
marked than that formed when iron reduced from the
oxalate is used. On raising the temperature to 150 —
160" C. a part of the gas is absorbed with the formation of
ferrous oxide and carbon, the presence of the latter becom-
ing evident on dissolving the contents of the tube in acid.
When heating is effected rapidly to about 300° C, carbon
monoxide is at first absorbed almost completely, but
afterwards, as the reaction diminishes, carbon dioxide is
produced in small quantity, as a product of the reduction of
oxide of iron by carbon monoxide. The reduction is never
complete, as the action is reversible. Iron reduced from the
oxalate or oxide gives the same reaction, but more feebly,
its inertuess increasing with the temperature at which it was
originally reduced. Mechanically comminuted iron will
behave similarly, though still less vigorously.
By these results certain pheuomena in the smelting of
iron may be explained. In one zone of the blast furnace
spongy iron conies inlo contact -with carbou monoxide
yielding ferrous oxide and carbou ; in another zone this
ferrous oxide is reduced by carbon monoxide, giving spongy
iron and carbon dioxide; finally, on reaching a zone of
higher temperature, the finely-divided iron and carbou
unite to form carburetted iron. — B. B.
of 45° C, the gas, after passing over the iron, containing
sufficient iron to cause it to give a brighter flame than is
usual. The flame has a characteristic spectrum, and
deposits iron (partly oxidised) upon a piece of porcelain
thrust into it. On passing the ferruginous gas through a
narrow heated tube, a ring of iron, containing a little carbon,
is deposited. Evidence is thus afforded of the existence of
iron carbonyl (this Journal, 1891, 044), which helps to
explain certain metallurgical phenomena such as the
transference of carbon in the cementation process. — B. Ii.
Nickel Carbonyl.
Berthelot. Bull. Soc. Chim. 13, 1892,
431—434.
Iron Carbonyl. Berthelot. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7— 8, 1892,
434 — 135.
Metallic iron reduced from precipitated ferric oxide at
the lowest possible temperature, or from ferrous oxalate
by heating and subsequent completion of the reduction in
hydrog..n, is acted on by carbon monoxide at a temperature
The vapour tension of nickel carbonyl (boiling point 46° C.)
at 16" C. (this Journal, 1890, 808), is about one-fourth of an
atmosphere. A drop of the liquid allowed to evaporate spon-
taneously forms a certain quantity of crystals, which consist
of the solidified substance, and speedily volatilise on continued
exposure. It has no sensible tension of dissociation at the
ordinary temperature, but in contact with air oxidises rapidly.
The precise mechanism of oxidation varies according to the
conditions under which it takes place. For example, when
an inert gas, charged with the vapour of nickel carbonyl,
is passed through a strongly heated tube, the products are
metallic nickel and carbon monoxide, as observed by Mond
aud his colleagues (this Journal, 1892, 750). The same
chemists have found that when nickel carbonyl is heated
sharply to 70° G, at which point detonation takes place, the
same bodies are formed. The author, however, has observed,
that a certain amount of carbon dioxide and carbon is pro-
duced. He is of opinion that this reaction determines the
occurrence of the detonation, as the equation 2 CO = C02 + C
implies the evolution of 38'8 cal., i.e., 77-6 cal. for the
4 mols. of carbon monoxide in Ni(CO)4. The only assump-
tion necessary to justify this view is that the heat of
combination of Ni and CO is less than 77 ' 6 cal.
The reactions of nickel carbonyl are generally those
dependent upon the presence in it of nickel, but when they
are induced gently and at a low temperature, liodies
comparable to organo-metallic compounds are formed.
The vapour of nickel carbonyl is not sensibly soluble in
water or dilute acid or alkaline solutions or cuprous
chloride. Hydrocarbons are its natural solvents ; spirits of
turpentine is specially suitable, and can be used for
determining it. Explosion of a mixture of nickel carbonyl
aud oxygeu can be effected by violent agitation over
mercury as well as by direct ignition. Slow union takes
place when such a mixture is kept in contact with a little
water. In contact with strong sulphuric acid dry liquid
nickel-carbouyl explodes after a short interval, but if in the
form of vapour and diluted with nitrogen it is decomposed
gradually, the theoretical quantity of carbou monoxide
being liberated. Strong caustic potash has no perceptible
action on nickel-carbonyl. Gaseous ammonia does not act
immediately per se, but if a little oxygeu be added fumes
are produced, and if the action of oxygen be continued,
a whitish deposit of complex composition aud destroyed
with charring on beiug heated, is gradually formed.
Sulphuretted hydrogeu acts on nickel-carbonyl vapour,
mixed with nitrogen in the cold, a black sulphide (of
nickel) being precipitated. Bhosphoretted hydrogeu under
similar conditions gives a brilliant black deposit. Nitric
oxide gives rise to a very notable reaction. When nitric
oxide is mixed with nickel-carbonyl vapour, diluted with
nitrogen, or passed into the liquid itself, blue fumes, which
fill the whole vessel, are produced. The formation of nickel
carbonyl proves carbon monoxide to be capable of forming
organo-metallic compounds similar to those derived from
hydrocarbons, and is analogous to that of the salts of
rhodizonic and croconic acids produced by the union of the
condensed derivatives of carbon monoxide with an alkaline
metal. Further study may elucidate the relationship.
Nickel carbonyl serves as a fresh example of the tendency
of carbou monoxide to form loose combinations and
products of condensation, in virtue of its character as an
unsaturated body. — B. B.
910
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. an, 1892.
The Neuhausen Aluminium Factory. H. Weilding. Ber.
d. Ver. z. Befurd. d. Gewerbefl. 1892, 125.
Hr:i:ni lt's process, as employed by the Neuhausen
" Alurninium-Industne-Aktien-Gesellschaft," consists in
fusing and decomposing pure alumina by an electric current.
The vessel used for the reduction and fusing processes
consists of an iron box lined with charcoal, which is
connected by the copper wires a (see Figure) with the
Hki:mI"i.t's Psocess.
negative pole. The lower ends of a number of carbon-rods,
serving as anode, are placed vertically in the box, as shown
in the figure, the rods being held together by a frame c,
which is connected with the wire b. At the commencement
of the operation small pieces of copper are placed at the
bottom of this vessel, and fused by means of the current.
Then alumina is added, which is fused and decomposed by
the current. The aluminium produced is run off at d, as
shown in the figure, and cast into moulds. If aluminium
bronze is required, copper and alumina must be added at
the same time and in the necessary proportions. The
working capacity of the factory is 1,000 kilos, of pure
aluminium in 24 hours. — H. S.
Alloys of Iron and Chromium. Including a Report by
I'. ( Ismond. B, A. Hadfield. Iron and Steel Institute,
Autumn Meeting, 1892.
This paper is a most exhaustive treatise on the above
subject, commencing with a review of the early history and
experiments, dealing with the various methods of producing
ferro-chromium, its crystallisation, magnetic properties and
uses, the soundness, hardness, mechanical tests, and
applications of chrome steel, the electrical properties of
chrome steel wire, and the laws of cooling and fusion of the
ailoys.
Extensive tables of figures are given, with the results in
most cases plotted out into curves.
From a consideration of the methods of preparation it
appears that the first step in the production of malleable
iron-chromium alloys or chromium steel is to obtain reliable
and uniform ferro-chromium. Attempts to obtain chromium
steel by adding to, or melting with the bath under treatment
chrome ore have practically failed, and until Baur had made
a satisfactory ferro-chromium no success was achieved.
The production of the latter by the crucible method being
expensive it is applied only to making material containing
high percentages, the blast furnace being employed in other
cases. Alloys as high as 70 per cent, can now be bought
and percentages as high as 80 or even 90 have been obtained
experimentally. Chrome-iron ore is the most abundant
source, and is found in Shetland, Fist and Fetlar : near
Portsoy : at Var in France, Silesia, Bohemia, the Ural, New
Caledonia. Maryland, Sydney, and California. It contains
about -10 to 50 per cent, of the oxide. Large supplies also
come from Brusa and Harmanjick, in Asia Minor. In
California during the last seven years about 15,000 tons
were raised, but the production is falling off owing to
competition. The Tasmanian Iron and Charcoal Co.,
about 1872, produced in their blastfurnaces iron containing
7 per cent, of chromium, but as the chromium converted all
the carbon present into the combined form, and they could
get nothing but a hard white pig-iron, of little use for
foundry purposes, and which could not be puddled or
converted into steel, they came to grief. Several hundred
tons of the pig-iron were shipped to England, however, and
as an alloy its use was beneficial for special purposes. The
Ilfracombe (Tasmania) deposit is remarkable and on a very
large scale. The ore is valued at the mines at 5s. per ton,
and could probably be delivered in England for 15.«. to 20.«.
per ton.
In 1869, Baur, produced ferro-chromium of 21 to 26 per
cent. The ore was finely powdered, mixed with 6 to 8 per
cent, pure anthracite or charcoal, and a certain quantity
of flux containing calcium or sodium fluoride and lime or
borax, and melted at a high temperature in plumbago
crucibles. In 1875 Kern produced 74 per cent, ferro-
chromium by melting I'ralian chrome- iron ore with charcoal.
Brustlein more recently prepared 84 per cent, alio}' from
specially prepared ore, which added greatly to the cost.
28 to 30 per cent, ferro-chromium has been sold at 251. per
ton, while 66 to 70 per cent, metal prepared in crucibles
ranges from 90/. to 100/. per ton. The author found by
experiments made 8 or 9 years ago, how comparatively
easy it is to partially reduce chromium from the ore.
About 40 lbs. grey hematite pig-iron was melted in a crucible
and in an hour and a half 20 lb. of chrome ore was gradually
stirred in. 4 37 per cent, chromium pig-iron, showing
almost a spiegel fracture was formed. 15 lb. of chrome ore
produced a similar effect, while, singularly, with 10 lb. the
grey nature of the iron was unchanged, and no chromium
was reduced.
In the blast furnace, in the latest and best practice, it is
found easier to reduce chromium from its oxides than
manganese, but to obtain high percentages of chromium, e.g.,
30 to 40 per cent., is much more difficult than that of
80 to 84 per cent, ferro-manganese, and requires much
more fuel. The cause appears to be that ferro-chromium
requires a considerably higher temperature for fusion, and
through the practical necessity of allowing little or no
chromic oxide to get into the slag, for it is found that even
with so little as 5 per cent, the metal would not be fluid
enough to flow from the furnace. It has been suggested
that the presence of slag containing much oxide of chromium
in contact with the fused metal tends to decarbonise or
desiliconise it and so to decrease its fusibility. If so,
chromium behaves like iron rather than manganese. In
any case large quantities of fuel must be used, and the
reduction of the chromium oxide must be quite or nearly
complete. In the case of ferro-manganese or spiegel more
than 80 per cent, of the manganese is seldom reduced,
but its oxide fluxes readily into the slag. Holgate
found on reducing a mixture of iron and manganese
as well as iron and chrome ore with carbon and flux in
crucibles, all the iron and chromium were reduced in the
one case, but only about two-thirds of the manganese in the
other.
In practice more than three tons of coke per ton of ferro-
chromium are required, much experience being necessary
before high percentages can be obtained, and also very high
temperatures of blast, e.g., 1500 to 1600 F., to produce the
necessary temperature for fusion. To form the slag, large
quantities of alkaline carbonates, fluorspar, borax or lime
are necessary. It has been stated that some of the ferro-
chromium produced on the Continent is made by mixing a
good quality of Bessemer slag with the chrome ore.
F. Osmond reports that " it appears that the chromium
interferes with and impedes the crystallisation of the iron to
a considerable extent, in this way reacting upon the
structure : — (1) By the absence of Sorbv's alternating
lamella1. ( 2) By the absence or diminution of crystallised
structure as shown by Brustlein in his publications on
chromium steels." This action persists at all temperatures,
but is more marked when noi above about 1,000° than when at
1,200° C. or above. Small amounts under 0- 5 per cent, are
relatively more active than medium amounts ; in the former
case the chromium appears to be dissolved ; dilute nitric
acid dissolves the steel without leaving a residue. Accord-
ing as the amount of chromium increases, the compound
Nov. ni), mi.) THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
till
of chromium, iron, and carbon, only partially attacked by
acid and possessing great hardness, appears to be formed.
This hard compound may even be isolated in the form of
globules.
General conclusions. — It appears to result from all the
experiments that chromium may exist in at least three
states, separately or simultaneously: — (1), as dissolved
chromium; (2), as a compound of iron, chromium, and
carbon in the form of isolated globules ; (3), also the same
condition in the form of a solidified solution. Pure
chromium dissolved in pure iron seems to have no physico-
chemical action, and would not have any other effect than
that of interfering with the crystallisation of the iron, but
this is extremely interesting as regards the mechauical
properties. The triple compound as isolated globules
imparts to the more malleable matrix a certain degree of
hardness, combined with the relative plasticity of the matrix
itself. The same compound when dissolved, owing to the
introduction of carbon iuto the molecule, behaves like a
body of small atomic volume, from which results the
general or partial hardness of the whole, according to the
proportions of chromium and carbon, and the more or less
regular diffusion of the compound. The isolation of this
compound presents great difficulties, as it is more or less
attacked by all the reagents which have been tried.
However that may be, the behaviour of chromium from the
chemical poiut of view does not stand alone, for many
bodies combine with iron, or with iron carbide, forming
definite compounds which may be either dissolved in the
mass of iron, or separated as free constituents, when the
alloyed body is present in sufficiently large proportions.
( )ne of the peculiarities of chromium is its property of
remaining free or combining with carbon, so passing from
the class of bodies with high atomic volume to that of
bodies with small atomic volume. It is difficult to foresee
where these peculiarities will find new practical applications,
but it seems evident that the scientific study of chromium
steel, together with its mechanical properties, would intro-
duce a greater degree of regularity and certainty in its
manufacture. — A. W.
A New Process for the Purification of Iron and Steel
front Sulphur. E. H. Saniter. Iron and Steel Institute,
Autumn Meeting, 1892.
The author in September 1890 commenced a series of
experiments with the object of removing sulphur from iron.
At first lime was tried but the effect was very irregular and
imperfect. Remembering that many chlorides, e.g.,
aluminium chloride, are easily reducible it occurred to him
to try the action of calcium chloride, and he soon found
that calcium chloride and lime, which he calls the
" oxychloride," formed a very powerful desulphurising agent,
being very rapid in its action and reducing the sulphur in
the two experiments cited from 0 ■ 42 per cent, to a mere trace
in half an hour. A mixture of 90 per cent, lime, and 10
per cent, calcium chloride was used which did not fuse but
only softened.
The process on a larger scale is carried out as follows —
calcium chloride and lime are mixed, and ground to a
moderately fine powder in such proportion as to fuse readily
at the temperature of the iron to be acted upon. About equal
parts of each are required. The mixture is placed on the
bottom of the ladle or receiver, and consolidated by heat
or kept in position by any suitable means. At first a
blow-pipe arrangement, using blast and furnace gas, may be
used but when in continuous use the ladle retains sufficient
heat to consolidate the mass. The iron, which may be
drawn direct from the blast furnace, is run in, and the
mixture, becoming melted, rises through the molten iron
to the surface, carrying with it as sulphide of calcium nearly
the whole of the sulphur. About 25 lb. each of lime and
calcium chloride are sufficient for every ton of iron.
Three tons of iron were treated at one time, and even when
the first or coldest iron from the furnace was used, no " skull "
was made, hence it may be concluded that larger masses
would never " skull." The uniformity of the results was
very marked as shown by a number of analyses cited, the
results showing reductions from 0'220 per cent, sulphur to
0' 060 percent, from 0-300 to 0-060 per cent, and from 0-070
to 0-006 per cent, while the average of eight successive
experiments with basic iron was from 0-077 per cent, to
0-022 per cent. The average elimination of sulphur was
73-6 per cent, and of silicon 35-8 per cent. The percentage
composition of an average slag was calcium chloride 39-1,
calcium sulphide 5-8, lime 38-6, and silica 12-9. Much
of the calcium chloride in the slag can be washed out for
further use. The ladle was of 4 tons capacity and lined
with ordinary fire-bricks, but appliances are being con-
structed to deal with the whole product of the furnace as
the metal is run. The plant is simple and inexpensive in
character, consisting of ladles on wheels. The cost of
materials is about Grf. per ton of iron treated, but against
this cost may be set the cheaper production and enhanced
price of the purer pig iron.
The process can be used for the purification of steel in
the ladle after leaving the converter, aud for the purification
of hematite, b3sic, or common irons as they run from the
blast furnace or cupola, producing an iron low in sulphur
and silicon, suitable for direct steel-making. It is well esta-
blished that in the " basic open hearth " process as ordinarily-
worked no sulphur is eliminated, and when ore containing
much sulphur is used for feeding, sulphur is taken up, ami
the steel may contain even twice as much sulphur as did
the scrap and pig iron originally used. The author states,
however, that his process applied to the basic open hearth
not only prevents increase but causes elimination of sulphur.
For this to occur soon after melting a very basic slag,
containing 50 to GO per cent, of lime must be obtained, and
suitable quantities of calcium chloride be added, when under
these conditions irons and minerals containing sulphur may
be used.
In 14 samples before treatment the amount of silicon
varied from 0-04 to 0-65 per cent., the sulphur from 0-05 to
0-76 per cent., and the phosphorus from 0-05 to 3-5 per
cent. After treatment the silicon (average 0-23 per cent.)
was always reduced to traces, the sulphur from the average of
0-36 per cent, to an average of 0-045, and the average phos-
phorus from 2-3 percent, to 0-038, the proportional reduction
in the samples being very uniform. The steel has been sold
for all purposes for which open-hearth steel is used, and
found fully equal to that produced from the pure cast irons.
The commonest iron scrap and ore may be used, and the
use of common iron high in sulphur and low in silicon and
carbon has the advantage that less steel scrap and a smaller
quantity of ore for feeding are needed. The cost of
calcium chloride is about Is. per ton of ingots produced,
while owing to the saving in cost of materials and in the
quantities of scrap and ore there is really a saving of 4*.
per ton. Neither hearths nor brickwork of furnaces and
regenerators are affected by use of calcium chloride. This
process is referred to by Stead in his paper (see the follow-
ing abstract) on the same subject. — A. W.
The Elimination of Sulphur from Iron. J. E. Stead. The
Iron and Steel Institute, Autumn Meeting, 1892.
The author commenced his paper by a review of the present
state of our knowledge of the occurrence of sulphur in the
materials used in the smelting of iron ores, and the conditions
under which it passes into the iron. lu the coal the sulphur
occurs in two forms : — (1.) as pyrites, the amount in that
form being reduced by crushing the coal and washing out
the pyrites before coking, and during the coking process ;
(2.) as sulphate of lime.
The low price of pig iron, and small profits thereon,
prohibit the use of expensive methods of removing the
sulphur from the ores. Magnetic ores can be separated
from pyrites by crushing and the use of magnetic machines,,
but the powdered ore tends to check the driving of the
furnace and to choke the flues, whilst the increased blast
pressure would increase the amount of dust carried into the
flues. Calcining causes the elimination of sulphur as
sulphur dioxide, but careful observation at Eston has shown
that if carbonate of lime be present in the ore, the sulphur
dioxide expels carbonic acid and sulphate of lime is formed,
no sulphur being expelled, while the quantity is sometimes
increased by retention of the sulphur dioxide from the coal
used in calcining. There is no method of removing the
9 12
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 30, 18! 2.
sulphates of lime and baryta from the ore when diffused
through it.
The following general facts may be accepted as to the
behaviour of sulphur in the blast furnace: — (1) When
sufficient lime is present to combine with all the silica and
sulphur and the temperature high, practically all the sulphur
is retained by the slag; (2) other conditions being con-
stant, as the temperature falls, to produce iron of closer
texture more and more of the sulphur passes into the iron ;
(3) the more basic the slag, the smaller is the amount of
sulphur in the iron; and (4) if manganese be charged in
with the materials and the temperature be high enough,
less sulphur will pass into the iron and more into the slag,
this being constantly taken advantage of in producing basic
iron in Cleveland and other districts. In the blast furnace
when much below a red heat the sulphates of lime and
baryta are not materially affected, but near or at a red heat
they will be reduced to sulphides, and at a point in the
furnace just hot enough to produce the lowest class of white
iron capable of being fluid, we may assume that all the
sulphur present in any form in the ores passes into the iron.
As little coke is consumed before it comes in contact with
the blast near the hearth, we may regard its sulphur as
being locked up until then, and only when the coke is being
burnt can the sulphur pass into the iron. The higher or
lower the temperature, the greater or less will be the
reducing power of the coke and the greater or less the
distance above the tuyeres at which fluid cast iron is pro-
duced. During its passage downwards the fluid iron is
exposed to higher and higher temperatures, encountering
everywhere hot carbon, lime, and basic silicates. Hence it
is easily understood how if the reducing power and basic
material are sufficient, a high temperature favours the
passage of the sulphur iuto the slag.
After discussing the older puddling processes, the author
passes to the consideration of the sulphur in the acid
steel-making processes. While Wedding states that sulphur,
by the interaction of iron sulphide, silica, and carbon, is
eliminated even to the extent of over 90 per cent, as
sulphur dioxide, Bell, Howe, the author, and others state
that no elimination takes place. In the ordinary English
practice of melting in a cupola preparatory to blowing, the
sulphur is often increased by 0-01 to 0-06 per cent., and
the steel contains more sulphur than the original metal.
Baker found that the sulphur at the end of a blow had been
reduced from 0-107 per cent, to 0-093 per cent. At
Seraing, with metal containing 3- 75 per cent. Mn and 004
per cent. S, there was no change in the percentage of
sulphur, the loss of that element being equal to the loss of
metal in blowing. The author believes that the theory that
during the first part of the blow the silica oxidises the
sulphur must be abandoned, because there never is any free
silica present, for it is well known that the magnetic or
other oxides produced near the tuyeres are the main agents
in removing silicon, which they do at their own expense
with the formation of metallic iron and the immediate
production of silicate of iron.
In the open-hearth acid process. Snelus, Hardisty. and
the author agree that the sulphur is increased by absorption
from the furnace gases, and any sulphur in the ore also
passes into the metal. Willis found that 30 per cent, of the
sulphur in sulphate of baryta contained in the ore passed
into the metal. The siliceous slag always present in
contact with the metal approximates in composition to
that produced in burning out the silicon in the acid
Bessemer process, and its having no action in eliminating
sulphur in the opeu hearth completely demolishes the
theory that it may have that effect in the converter.
In the basie Bessemer process nearly all observers agree
that a notable amount of sulphur is removed. The estimates
vary. From an examination of all the results it is ascertained
that the larger the amount of sulphur present the greater
generally is the amount of elimination, thus —
PerCent. PerCent.
With 0"42 in the pin, the steel containsO'15 '» 64 p cent. lrss.
„ 0*307 „ „ 0 085,, ::> „
„ o-l(IO „ „ 0"10 » 37 „
„ 0-ua „ „
„ 005 „ ,, 0 OS ., ii" change.
Harbord says that in the basic-hearth process 45 to
50 per cent, of sulphur is eliminated, while Hardisty
estimates the average reduction at 33 per cent. It would
appear that desulphurisation results from one or more of
four causes :—( 1) that the manganese added in the metal
in passing out may carry some sulphur with it ; (2) that the
manganese reduced from the slag during dephosphorisation
effects an elimination of sulphur; (3) that the calcareous
slag in contact with the upper surface of the bath containing
carbon may absorb sulphur ; and (4) that some of the
manganese added in the ferro-manganese does, undoubtedly,
leave the bath again, carrying with it a small quantity of
sulphur.
The author next considers the processes for the removal
of sulphur from iron. Kollett's process consists "in melting
pig iron and maintaining it at a very high temperature
under a double action, slightly reducing and slightly
oxidising, in the presence of a slag obtained by admixture
of limestone or lime, iron ores, and fluorspar, in proportions
depending on the quality of the pig or castings employed."
He states that " the elimination is complete up to 99 per
cent, or even more." The process is carried out in a
jacketed or basic-lined cupola furnace, coke is the fuel,
and a large excess of lime with some fluorspar is used,
so that the silica in the slag is not more than 2 per cent.
The author considers that probably the very calcareous
slags employed are mainly responsible for the elimination.
Desulphurising with alkaline salts. — In Heaton's process
fluid iron was poured upon nitrate of soda placed in a
receiver and kept in place by a grating. Miller and
Snelus found the sulphur was reduced to a trace, and the
latter found a considerable amount of sulphate of soda
in the slag. In Warner's process a mixture of ground
limestone and soda-ash, and small quantities of other
materials are used instead of nitrate of soda. Flames of
what appears to be sodium burst out from the top of the
vessel, and the slags contain some soluble sulphides. In
two experiments cited the eliminations were 77 and 90 per
cent. In Ball and Wingham's process potassium cyanide,
sodium carbonate, or hydrate and metallic sodium were
used, showing eliminations from 83 to 100 per cent, (this
Journal, 1892, 751).
Massenez' process practically consists in mixing together
in a suitable metal-mixer, pig iron, poor in manganese and
high in sulphur, with iron containing more manganese and
little sulphur, the manganese of the one combining with the
sulphur of the other and the sulphide rising to the surface.
Analyses of the metal from three furnaces showed
respectively of manganese 1 • 72, 1-30, and 2-50 per
cent., and of sulphur 0-15, 0-20, and 0-08 per cent., but
after they were mixed the amount of manganese was
1-68 per cent., and sulphur 0-04 per cent. The author in
his laboratory melted together 100 parts of ferro-manganese
and a quantity of sulphide of iron in a plumbago crucible.
After fusion and cooling, the scoria on the surface contained
5f> per cent, of mangauese, 28 per cent, of sulphur, and
1 per cent, of iron, proving conclusively that the reaction
had taken place.
Ordinary foundry iron containing manganese, after
melting in a cupola and pouring iuto large moulds in which
it remains fluid for a considerable time, is ofteu richer in
sulphur and manganese in the upper portion than in the
lower. An analysis by Uidsdale gave iu the upper part
0-75 per cent, of sulphur and 1 "35 per cent, of mangauese,
but in the lower only 0" 112 per cent, of sulphur and 0'547
of manganese ; but strangely the upper part was not white,
hence it may be concluded that mangauese and sulphur
when combined and dissolved in the metal have not the
same influence in preventing the carbon becoming graphitic
as when in combination with the iron.
Saniter's process (sec preceding abstract) is next dealt
witli by the author, who recently was present during the
working of several charges at the Wigau steel works. The
limestone added with the pig and scrap is more than in
ordinary work, and as soon as the proper amount of calcium
chloride is added when the charge is melted, lime and mine
are thrown in. The following table illustrates the changes :
Nov. 80, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
913
Calculated
Analysis of
the Charge.
7-20
after
Melting
8-35
ji fter
ndding
CaCla
10' 10.
11-80.
Steel.
Carbon ...
Pei' Cent.
1117
I'lTl'l.
inn
PerCent.
0-83
Per Ct.
0-22
PerCt.
0-15
PerCt.
0-15
Silicon. . . .
II -I.'.
Trace
-
-
-
Trace
Sulphur . .
II'. '17
0-86
0'd'.l3
ii'OSi
0-068
iriit7
Phosphorus
1-67
l'J.i
1-106
0-348
0-065
0'OBll
Manganese
ii- 16
0'22
-
-
0-590
The slag, after adding calcium chloride, contained 10' SI
per cent, of phosphoric acid and 1'25 per cent, of sulphur,
and the steel slag 12- SO per cent, of the former and (1-65
per cent, of the latter. The sulphur removed in 1| hour,
after addition of calcium chloride, was 7:1 per cent., and the
total sulphur removed was 87 per cent. Another charge
showed reductions from 0-17 per cent, of sulphur, and
1 '07 per cent, of phosphorus, to 0'055 per cent. and 0-048
per cent, respectively, a reduction of 67 per cent, in the
amount of sulphur, but in this case there was a deficiency
of lime.
A series of small experiments bearing on this process is
then described. A small quantity of pig iron containing
4 per cent, of sulphur was heated to whiteness for two hours
with lime alone, when all its sulphur was removed. With
" the mixture," in one hour 97 per cent, was eliminated,
while in two hours 100 per cent, was removed. Ninety-eight
per cent, was removed by " washing " or pouring the molten
metal into an excess of the mixture, the reduction in this
case being from 1-86 to 0-04 per cent, of sulphur. An
experiment to ascertain the action of molten iron on
calcium chloride showed that oxide of iron formed on the
surface of the former, and that the latter was decomposed
to the extent that it contained over 14 per cent, of lime at
the end of the experiment.
Taking all the facts into consideration, desulphurisation
may he the result of one or more of the following reactions :
— (1.) The chloride of lime in presence of free lime may be
split up in contact with molten iron, the calcium in the
'• nascent " state may then combine with the sulphur in the
iron, the chloride of iron in contact with free lime being
converted into calcium chloride and iron oxide; (2) the
extra lime in the slag may assist in the change ; and ^3) the
sulphide of iron may simply be dissolved out by the
oxychloride. When ordinary slag in the open-hearth
process contains more than 0-25 per cent, of sulphur, some
of the latter is liable to pass into the metal, and if sulphur
is in the ore some of it also passes to the steel, but in this
process the slag may contain 1 ' 25 per cent, of sulphur, and
yet continue to abstract sulphur from the charge.
In a supplementary paper the author describes many
laboratory experiments undertaken to remove all doubt
from certain disputed questions. He finds that both at low
and high temperatures lime and sulphide of iron react, and
that when the fused mixture is melted with silica, sulphide
of iron is again formed. Pure iron will extract the sulphur
from basic furnace slag if that slag is rendered acid with
excess of silica. In smelting hematite with barium sul-
phate and an acid slag all the sulphur goes into the iron,
but the same with a basic slag gives a metal containing
only a small quantity.
Calcium chloride is incapable of absorbing sulphur
per se, but it reacts to a certain extent with sulphide of
iron, and in an iron containing 0-4 per cent, of sulphur
it reduces it to less than Oil per cent, in half an
hour. As the chloride on heating in air yields lime,
however, it is pointed out that the change in the two latter
cases might be due to lime. Strangely enough, calcium
fluoride reduces the sulphur in the above iron to the same
extent as the chloride when similarly employed.
The author states that it is certain that lime alone can
remove the sulphur, which is always found afterwards as
sulphide and not as sulphate of calcium. The lime is pro-
bably reduced to metallic calcium, which then decomposes
the sulphide of iron. This is supported by the fact that the
percentage of carbon is reduced also, which action in some
instances takes place in large excess of the proportion
required by the calcium sulphide reaction. This, the author
suggests, might be due to further oxidation by lime. He
inclines to the conclusion that in the Saniter process lime is
the acting agent, and that the calcium chloride acts as a
vehicle by which the lime is brought into intimate contact
with the molten metal. — A. W.
The Chemistry of the Cyanide Process. C. Butters and
J. E. Clennell. Kug. aiid Mining J. 54, 1892, 391—417.
Solubility if Gold in Potassium Cyanide.— Faraday pointed
out that gold leaf immersed in cyanide of potassium solution
became so thin that it transmitted green light. Prince
liagration observed (.1. pr. Chcm. 31, 367) that the very
finely-divided gold obtained by precipitating a solution of
the chloride with ferrous sulphate may be dissolved by this
reagent. Eisner showed, however (J. pr. Chem. 37, 333),
that the presence of oxygen is required for the solution of
the gold. A solution is obtained which, on evaporation,
yields colourless octahedral crystals of the composition
KAuCy_, (auro-potassium cyanide) which may be looked on
as a double cyanide of gold and potassium (KCy.AuCy).
The reaction which occurs may probably be represented by
the following equation : —
2 Au + 4 KCy + (J + H20 = 2 KAuCy2 + 2 KHO
There are two interesting points indicated by the above
equation which may be remembered in conjunction with the
application of potassium cyanide as a solvent for gold on a
commercial scale.
1 . That the quantity of cyanide theoretically necessary
to dissolve a given weight of gold is infinitesimal in com-
parison with the weight actually required in practice. We
see then that 130-04 parts by weight of potassium cyanide
should be capable of dissolving 196 '8 parts of gold, or,
approximately, two parts of the cyanide should dissolve
three parts of gold. The minimum actual consumption in
treating free milling ore, assaying, let us say, 10 dwt. per
ton, is about 40 parts by weight of cyanide for 1 part of
gold. In the leaching tanks alone a pound of cyanide is
generally consumed per ton of material treated.
2. That an extremely small quantity of oxygen is suffi-
cient to bring about the solution of the gold, 15*96 parts
being required for 396 ■ 6 parts of gold, or one part for Dearly
25 parts of gold. The quantity preseut in a porous mass
of tailings, to say nothing of that dissolved in the water
used in making up the solution, would be considerably in
excess of that actually required for the reaction.
Decomposition of the Cyanide. — How then does it happen
that such an enotmous consumption of cyanide occurs ? In
the first place there is the great instability of the simple
cyanides. The atmospheric carbonic acid is accountable
for a certain amount of decomposition, in which a constant
evolution of hj'drocyanic acid takes place according to the
reaction 2 KCy + C02 + H.,0 =- 2 HCy +■ K2C03.
Then, again, we must consider the proneness to oxidation
which the cyanides exhibit, and which, in fact, lies at the
base of most of their technical applications. Potassium
cyanide readily changes into cyanate, and ultimately into
carbonate —
KCN + O = KCNO; 2 KCNO + 30 = KaCOa + C02 + N,
The presence of alkalis, which always occur in commercial
cyanide, tends to induce loss by hydrolysis, which occurs
mainly in the zinc boxes, and seems to be induced by this
presence of the metal. In this reaction the alkali appears
to determine a chemical change in which water plays a part,
while the alkali itself is not in the least affected.
The hydrolysis of potassium cyanide, which undoubtedly
occurs to a considerable extent when excess of alkali is
present in the solution, or has been added to the tailings
before treatment with cyanide, gives rise to ammonia and
potassium formate.
The smell of hydrocyanic acid, generally noticeable in the
neighbourhood of the cyanide tanks, is partly accounted for
by the decomposition due to atmospheric carbonic acid. But
there are grounds for supposing that in dilute solutions a
914
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1898.
dissociation of the cyanide takes place, so that what we
term a weak solution of potassium cyanide is in reality a
mixed solution of potassium hydrate and hydrocyanic
acid Il.n + KCy = HCy + KHO.
The truth of this theory is supported by the extraordinary
fact that a distillation of hydrocyanic acid takes place when
a current of a neutral gas {e.g., nitrogen) is passed through
a cold dilute solution of cyanide. This being the case, it is
evident that hydrocyanic acid, which is an extremely volatile
body, must be constantly disengaged from all vessels in
which weak cyanide solutions are freety exposed to the
air.
Where the agitation or circulation systems are adopted,
the consumption must he still greater, since these methods
involve a constant exposure of fresh surfaces.
The tendency of the simple cyanides to form double salts
with each other, or with other metallic compounds, must
likewise be taken into account. Salts of iron, and to a
lesser extent, salts of aluminium, magnesium, calcium, and
the alkali-metals are liable to occur in tailings, especially
such as have been long exposed to atmospheric influences.
We have said euough to show that, even under the most
advantageous circumstances, an enormous waste of cyanide
must take place. Some of these losses are doubtless
preventable ; the use of closed tanks and careful attention to
the purity, both of the cyanide itself and of the water used
fur dissolving it, would reduce the extent of the decomposi-
tion in a very marked degree.
Action of Cyanide on Pyritic Material. — The surface
ores of the celebrated " banket " formation consist almost
exclusively of silica and oxide of iron. These occur in the
form of rounded quartz pebbles, imbedded in a softer matrix
highly charged with ferric oxide, which imparts its charac-
teristic reddish tinge. The gold is found in this matrix
associated with the oxide of iron, or sometimes iu small
scales on the surface of the pebbles. The pebbles them-
selves carry little or none. At a lower level this " free-
milliug " banket passes into an ore precisely similar iu
structure, but much harder, and containing the iron in the
form of sulphide instead of oxide, which gives it a peculiar
bluish tint.
There can be little doubt that the free-milling ores have
been formed by gradual oxidation of the pyrites through
the influence of air and moisture during a long period of
time, and iu fact we see this same change in progress when-
ever pyritic material has been exposed te the actiou of the
atmosphere.
The pyritic ores likewise contain small quantities of
arsenic, copper, and sometimes cobalt and nickel, but the
amount of these foreign metals has so far been so small
that they have not practically interfered in the cyanide
treatment. It is noted as a fact observed in the treatment
at the Robinson Chlorination Works of pyritic concentrates
purchased from the various gold-mining companies, that
copper and arsenic seem to occur in gradually increasing
quantities with the increasing depth of the working. These
elements may iu the future be a source of serious trouble in
the application of the cyanide process.
Suppose, now, that we attempt to treat a charge of
partially oxidised pyritic tailings directly with cyanide
solution. The moisture in the tailings has a distinct acid
reaction, chiefly due to the presence of free sulphuric acid.
This, of course, liberates hydrocyanic acid.
Ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) reacts upon the cyanide
with formation of ferrous cyanide, a yellowish-red flocculent
precipitate.
This, however, is under ordinary circumstances slowly
converted into potassium ferrocyanide by the excess of
cyanide present FeCy2 + 4 KCy = K4FeCy6.
If sufficient acid be present, the ferrocyanide reacts upon
an additional quantity of the ferrous salt, ultimately giving
rise to Prussian blue.
The appearance of a blue colouration on the surface of
the tailings, or in the solution, is a sure indication that acid
iron salts are present, and that an enormous waste of
cyanide has taken place.
Ferric salts, when present unmixed with any ferrous
compounds, decompose cyanide solution with evolution of
hydrocyanic acid, and precipitation of ferric hydrate, part
of which is in a finely-divided or possibly colloidal con-
dition, and is with difficulty removed by filtration, as it
chokes the pores of the filter.
A mixture of ferrous and ferric sulphates, such as is
probably always present impartially oxidised pyritic tailings,
causes the appearance of a blue colour on addition of
cyanide, after the free alkali of the commercial product has
been neutralised, Prussian blue being produced when the
ferric salt is in excess, and Turubull's blue when the ferrous
salt is in excess.
Preparatory Treatment of Pyritic Material. — Before
attempting to treat such ores or products with cyanide, it is
therefore necessary to get rid of the free sulphuric acid and
soluble iron compounds. This is generally done by giving
a leaching with water until the liquid running off the tanks
no longer shows a colouration with ammonium sulphide.
After the treatment, however, there still remain the insoluble
basic sulphates, which are gradually decomposed by water,
and would act upon the cyanide solution. A washing is
accordingly given with caustic soda or lime-water, which
converts the basic salts into ferric hydrate, and sodium or
calcium sulphates.
But the preliminary water-wash may be omitted with
advantage in cases where the quactit3T of free acid and iron
salts is comparatively small. Lime, in the dry state, is
sometimes mixed with the tailings before the cyanide
treatment commences. When this method is adopted, the
iron is precipitated as a mixture of ferrous and ferric
hydrates.
After the washing with alkali is complete, the tanks are
allowed to drain, and "strong cyanide solution" (about
f> per cent.) is pumped on. Even after this treatment, the
consumption of cyanide, with moderately pyritic tailings
which have been partially decomposed by exposure, is
found to be four times that which occurs with free-milling
material. The presence of a large excess of alkali in the
solution brings about various secondary reactions which
lead to a loss of cyanide, such as the hydrolysis, before
alluded to, and a peculiar action in the zinc box, to be
discussed later.
Lime, although slower in its action, is preferable to
caustic soda as a neutralising agent, as it is equally effective
in decomposing the iron salts, less active in bringing about
secondary reactions on the cyanide, and also less energetic
in attacking the zinc in the precipitating boxes.
Ferric hydrate does not appear to be acted upon by
potassium cyanide, but ferrous hydrate, which is formed in
the neutralisation of the iron salts by alkalis, reacts on the
excess of cyanide, with formation of ferrocyanide of
potassium Fe(OH)2 + 6 KCy = K4FeCy6 + 2KOH.
Deposition of Gold from Cyanide Solutions. — Under
certain conditions, such as the absence of sufficient oxygen
in the solution, a partial precipitation of the previously dis-
solved gold appears to occur. If by any chauce the solution
should become acid, there is a decomposition of the double
cyanide of gold and potassium, in which the gold is
generally supposed to be thrown down as (insoluble) aurous
cyanide, e.g. KAuCy-, + HC1 = KC1 + HCy + AuCy.
In working on the circulation and transfer system, it is
found that where pyritic material is under treatment, it is
not safe to transfer a solution already rich in gold to a fresh
lot of tailings, as the extensive decomposition of the solution
which takes place may lead to a final loss of gold.
Selective Action of Cyanide. — It is claimed by the pro-
moters of the McArthur-Forrest process, that in a mixture
containing metallic gold, silver, copper, and base metals,
cyanide of potassium exerts a selective action, dissolving
first the gold, then the silver, and afterwards attacking the
copper and base metals. The process, however, does not
appear to have been successfully applied to ores, such as
those met with in California and Australia, which contain
considerable quantities of foreign metals. Ores contaiuing
sulphide of silver and sulphide of copper produce consider-
able decomposition of cyanide, the copper being partially
dissolved as sub-sulphocyanide, the silver, however,
remaining unattacked. In two experiments carried out by
Mr. William Bettel, chief chemist of the Robinson Gold
Mining Company, on ore from the Albert silver mine con-
taining .'SO oz. of silver and 10 per cent, of copper.it was
Nov. 30, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
915
found that do extraction of silver occurred, this metal being
present as sulphide.
Action of the Zinc Shavings on the Solution. — Theoreti-
cally a simple substitution of zinc for gold occurs in accor-
dance with the following equation : —
2 KAuCv. + Zn = K2ZnCy4 + 2 Au
Taking Zn = 65*1, Au = 196-8, it follows that G5-1
parts by weight of zinc should be sufficient to precipitate
393'6 parts of gold, or I lb. of zinc should precipitate
about C lb. of gold. The actual consumption is about 1 lb.
of zinc per ounce (Troy) of gold recovered. It is evident
then that zinc is consumed in some other way than in mere
substitution for gold.
During the passage of the solution through the zinc boxes
a constant and vigorous evolution of hydrogen gas is
observed. The outflowing liquid is found to possess a
greater degree of alkalinity than it had on entering at the
top of the box, and a smell of hydroej-anic acid, and
sometimes of ammonia, is constantly observed in the
neighbourhood of the zinc boxes. It is clear, then, that a
decomposition of the potassium cyanide solution itself by
the zinc is in progress, and this is not to be wondered at
when -we consider the powerful electro-chemical effect
which must be produced by the contact of such a highly
positive metal as zinc with a strongly negative metal such
as gold. It is well known that the " copper-zinc couple "
produced by immersing zinc m a solution of a copper salt
decomposes water.
An analogous reaction of the gold-zinc couple accounts
for the evolution of hydrogen mentioned —
Zn + 2 H.O = 2 H + Zn(OH)a
The hydrate of zinc is at once dissolved in the excess of
cyanide Zn(OH)a + 4 KCy = K2ZnCy4 + 2 KOH.
which reaction explains the increase in the alkalinity of the
solution.
There are reasons for believing that the black deposit
formed on the zinc shavings is an actual chemical compound
of gold and zinc, which acts as the negative element in the
electric couple, the undeuomposed zinc forming the positive
element.
When strong solutions of caustic soda have been used
for neutralising the acid salts of the ore a white deposit is
frequently observed on the zinc. The alkali first attacks
the metal to form a zinc-sodium oxide —
Zn + 2 NaOH = Zu(OXa)., + 2 11
This then reacts on the double cyanide of zinc and potas-
sium always present in the solution, and precipitates the
white insoluble simple cyanide of zinc —
2 H.,0 + Zn(oXa), + KZnCy4 =
2'ZnCy;, + 2 NaOH + 2 KOH
This reaction is of some importance as affording one
means by which the excessive accumulation of zinc in the
solutions is avoided.
Affinity of Zinc for Cyanogen, — Potassium auro-
cyanide (KAuCy.,) appears to be one of the most stable of
the salts of gold, but the reaction in the zinc boxes shows
that the affinity of zinc together with potassium for
cyanogen is greater than that of gold with potassium for the
same radical. Hence a solution of potassium cyanide
cannot dissolve gold which is in contact with ziuc ; neither
can gold replace zinc in a solution of the double cyanide of
ziuc and potassium. So long as any zinc is present, there-
fore, we need not fear that the precipitated gold will
redissolve in the excess of potassium cyanide flowing
through the boxes.
It is evident also that the cyanogen contained in the
double cyanide of zinc and potassium is not available for
dissolving gold, and when a solution charged with zinc is
employed in the treatment of a fresh lot of tailings it is
only effective in so far as it contains a certain quantity of
simple cyanide of potassium or other alkaline cyanide.
New Methods of Precipitation. — The cyanides of sodium
and ammonium, and those of the alkaline-earth metals
(calcium, barium, &c), will dissolve gold, as well as
potassium cyanide. Sodium cyanide is more difficult to
manufacture than the potassium compound, but a given
weight of it should be more effective than the same weight
of potassium cyanide, since 49 parts of the former are
equivalent to 65 parts of the latter.
The advantage of Molloy's process and others which
employ sodium or potassium amalgam are undoubted. The
alkali metal is obtained by the electrolysis of the carbonate
between electrodes of lead and mercury —
Xa.XO., = Na2 + CO, + O
The sodium forms au amalgam with the mercury. Sodium
amalgam may also be manufactured direct from its elements.
It is claimed for this method of precipitation that the whole
of the cyanogen is restored to a condition in which it is
available for dissolving gold, as shown by the reaction
Na + KAuCy» = Au + KCy + NaCy.
Composition of the Zinc Slimes. — Any base metals which
happen to be in solution in the cyanide liquor are liable to
be precipitated by the zinc along with the gold. Hence
the " zinc slimes " are found to contain a certain per-
centage of copper as well as traces of arsenic and antimony.
Moreover, any impurities in the zinc will also find their
way into the slimes, as zinc will be dissolved by the
cyanide in preference to any less oxidisable metals {e.g.,
tin and lead).
Silver is dissolved by cyanide and reprecipitated by
zinc by a set of reactions precisely analogous to those of
gold—
2 Ag + 4 KCy + O + ll.:0 = 2 KAgCy., + 2 KOH,
2 KAgCyj + Zn = K2ZnCy4 + 2 Ag.
It has been observed that the proportion of silver to
gold is greater in the " cyanide bullion " than in the gold
from the batteries, and this is explained by supposing
that the loss of silver in amalgamation is greater than that
of gold.
Treatment of the Zinc Slimes. — The removal of the zinc
is a troublesome operation and is only very partially carried
out in smelting the dried slimes. The admixture of sand
is made for the purpose of forming a fusible silicate of
zinc. A portion of the zinc is volatilised, and burns at the
mouth of the crucible with a greenish flame, producing
the white oxide, ZnO, which is found incrusting the flues,
and doubtless carries with it no inconsiderable quantity of
gold and silver. The most promising method of treating
these slimes appears to be that suggested by Mr. I5ettel, of
fluxing with acid sulphate of soda and fluorspar.
Attempts to remove the zinc prior to smelting have
been only partially successful, as all such methods involve
the filtration of a slimy mass which retains soluble salts
with great tenacity.
The slags from the fusion of the zinc slimes contain a
considerable amount of gold, some of which is in the form of
round shots, and may be removed by pounding up the slag,
passing through a coarse sieve, and " panning-off." The
residue from the first fusion should always be fused again,
with addition of lead, to form an alloy with the gold. The
same lead-bars may be used for a number of successive
fusions of the slag, and when sufficiently enriched, the gold
may be recovered from them by cupellation.
Testing of Cyanide Solutions. — It is a matter of
importance to determine exactly what strength of cyanide
solution is used in treatment of tailings. The ordinary
method of testing depends on the fact that silver cyanide is
soluble in excess of potassium cyanide, with formation of a
double cyanide of silver and potassium —
KCy + AgN03= AgCy + KN03,
AgCy + KCy = KAgCy2
When silver uitrate solution is added drop by drop
from a burette to a solution of cyanide, a white precipitate
is formed, which quickly redissolves. At a certain stage
the precipitate becomes permanent, when, in fact, the
whole of the cyanide has been converted into the soluble
silver salt, and an additional drop of silver nitrate produces
a permanent precipitate of the insoluble simple cyanide of
silver, KAgCy., 4- AgXO.; = KN03 + 2 AgCy.
From these reactions 107-66 parts by weight of silver
are equivalent to 130-04 parts of potassium cyanide. A
916
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL LXDUSTRT.
I.N'ov.Se. 1892.
com enient standard silver solution is one of such a strength
that every ec, added to 10 cc. of the solution to be tested,
corresponds to 0' 1 per cent, pure K( v.
This method gives good results when pure cyanide
solutions are under examination, but when we come to test
solutions containing zinc, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
determine the end of the reaction. A white flocculent
precipitate occurs at a certain stage, probably consisting of
simple (insoluble) cyanide of zinc, formed by decomposition
of the soluble double cyanide —
KjZnCjj + AgNOa= KAgCy; + ZnCy2 + KN03
This precipitation occurs long before the whole amount of
potassium cyanide has been converted into the soluble
double salt of silver (KAgCy.O, for the solution, after the
appearance of the flocculent precipitate, still gives the
Prussian blue reaction with acidulated ferrous sulphate.
A standard solution of iodine in potassium iodide maj' be
used with great accuracy for determining the total amount
of cyanogen in a solution, whether in combination with
zinc or not, making use of the reaction —
KCy + I2 = KI + ICy.
The colour of the iodine is discharged so long as an
excess of cyanide is present. The sharpness of the end
reaction may be increased by adding a small quantity of
starch to the solution under examination, which gives a
permanent blue colour as soon as an excess of iodine has
been added.
What is most needed, however, is a rapid method
of determining the amount of cyanide available for
dissolving gold, for, as was pointed out already, the cyanide
in combination with zinc is not available for that
purpose.
The method of testing solutions containing zinc for
" available cyanide," which was introduced by Mr. Bettel
at the Robinson General Mining Company's works, is as
follows : — Two perfectly clean flasks of equal size are
taken. To each of these is added a considerable bulk, say
50 cc. of the solution tc be tested, and 50 cc. of water.
The liquid in both flasks will probably appear slightly
turbid, but the degree of turbidity will be the same in
each. Standard silver nitrate solution is rim into one flask
until the slightest possible increase in turbidity is observed
on comparison with the liquid in the other flask. This
point is taken as indicating the conversion of the whole of
the free potassium cyanide into the soluble silver salt, and,
therefore, as determining the amount of available cyanide
present in the solution.
The amount of gold in the solution is generally found by
evaporating a known bulk with litharge, fluxing the residue,
and cupelling the resulting lead button. Evaporation on
lead foil may likewise be employed.
Poisonous Properties of Cyanide. — The men employed
in the "clean-up" and in melting the slimes are subject to
a peculiar eruption, especially on the arms, and complain
of headache, giddiness, and general depression. Ferro-
cyanide of potassium has been recommended as a remedy
for the eruption ; it may be taken internally and also
applied as a lotion. Considering the dangerous nature of
the substance, it is remarkable how few fatal accidents
have occurred through the use of cyanide on a large scale.
In cases of poisoning, precipitated carbonate of iron, obtained
by mixing solutions of sodium carbonate and ferrous
sulphate, may be used as an antidote. This forms
internally an insoluble blue compound with the cyanide.
Hydrocyanic acid acts directly on the nervous system,
eausiDg instant paralysis ; hence any treatment which will
excite the action of the nerves, such as application of cold
water to the spine, iuhalation of ammonia, &c, may be
tried in cases of faintness produced by breathing the vapour
of the acid.
The disposal of waste cyanide liquors is a matter for
serious consideration. Solutions contaiuing 0-1 or 0-2 per
gent, of potassium cyanide must occasionally be discharged,
and are likely to contaminate the water of the dams or
streams which receive them to a dangerous extent. If
some effective means of precipitating the zinc, or, better
still, of dispensing with the use of zinc altogether coidd be
devised, there would never be any necessity for allowing
cyanide liquors to leave the building (this Journal, 1891,
93— 98).— W. S.
The Cyanide Process in South Africa. C. Butters and
J. E. Clennell. Eng. and Mining J., October 1892, 341—
342, and October 15, 365—366.
The following is a description of the process as carried out
by the Robinson Gold Mining Company : —
Solution of the Gold. — When the cyanide process was
first introduced about two years ago, it was thought
necessary to agitate the material under treatment with the
cyanide solution. At the present day the " percolation "
system is almost invariably adopted. The operation is
carried out by the African Gold Recovery Company, who
represented the patentees in South Africa, as follows : — The
damp tailings, taken from the tailings pits, are charged into
wooden vats of a capacity of 35 to 50 tons ; these vats are
usually square. The best works are now building circular
tanks. Those at the Robinson works have a capacity of
75 tons ; those now in use at the Langlaagte Estate have a
capacity of 400 tons, and still larger vats are being con-
structed for the cyanide works at the New Primrose mine.
The vats are filled to within a few inches of the top, and the
surface of the tailings levelled. Cyanide solution of 06 to
0-8 per cent, strength is then allowed to flow into the tank
until it is completely filled. The ore settles from 3 in. to
1 ft. below the rim of the tank (the amount of shrinkage
depending on the depth of the vat). This solution is
allowed to remain undisturbed, in contact with the ore, for
12 hours. Each vat is provided with a false bottom — usually
a wooden framework covered wiih cocoanut matting. Below
this is a layer of coarse sand and pebbles through which the
solution percolates. An iron pipe communicates with the
vat below the false bottom, and conveys the filtered solution
to the " zinc boxes," where precipitation takes place.
The dilute cyanide solution does not attack a wooden vat,
nor does its corrode the iron piping to any appreciable
extent. As to wear and tear of apparatus the use of
cyanide offers decided advantage over chlorine or chlorine
water. Brass plungers and valves, such as are in use in
ordinary pumps, are attacked, but not very rapidly. The
pumps at the Robinson works were in use for four months
with comparatively little wear, but iron is, of course,
preferable for all pump fittings where cyanide solution is
used. As the liquor is drawn off during the leaching
process it is replaced by fresh solution. This operation is
continued for a longer or shorter period, depending on the
value of the tailings (about six to twelve hours).
At the end of this period, which is known as the " strong
solution leaching," a weaker solution (containing 0-2 to
0'4 per cent, of cyanide) is turned on, and allowed to filter
through the ore for about 8 to 10 hours. This "weak
solution " is then drawn off through another zinc box.
Finally, a quantity of water is ruu into the tank, more or
less equivalent to the amount of moisture which the ore
contained when the tank was filled. This last water-washing
displaces the weak cyanide solution, so that the volume of
cyanide solution in use remains unchanged. The " weak
solution " is, in fact, the liquor which has previouslv passed
through the zinc boxes into the receiving tanks or " sumps,"
cyanide is usually contaminated with carbonaceous matter
and iron, but contains 72 — -78 per cent, of pure potassium
and has been pumped again to the leaching tanks. The
cyanide '
and iron
cyanide.
The actual amount of cyauide used is about half a ton of
strong (0-6to0'8 per cent, solution) and half a ton of
weak (0'2 to 0'4 per cent.) solution for every ton of ore
treated. As the amount of cyanide actually entering into
combination with gold and silver is almost infinitesimal in
comparison with the quantity consumed in the different
stages of the process, it will be obvious that there is still
considerable scope for inventive genius in determining the
conditions of economical working. When the final water-
wash has been added, and has displaced the weak solution,
the " exhausted tailings " or " residues " are discharged,
usually by the somewhat tedious process of shovelling out
over the side. A truck-line runs across the top, or by the
Nov, SO, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
917
side of the tauk to receive the discharged tailings, which are
then removed anil deposited outside the works. The tank
is then ready for a fresh charge.
The " percolation system " has been modified in various
ways.
One of the first difficulties in the application of this
process arose when tailings were treated containing a small
percentage of pyrites, which by exposure to the air had
become partially converted into sulphate of iron and free
sulphuric acid. The difficulty could be minimised by
treating tailings direct from the battery, first with water and
then with some alkaline solution, such as lime or caustic
soda, At the Robinson works lime was found to be in
every way preferable to the stronger alkali, as it is less
active in inducing the decomposition of the cyanide solution
in the tanks, and in attacking the zinc used in the subsequent
precipitation. It was, moreover, found that 20 tons of
solution sufficed to fill a tank holding the usual charge of
75 tons of tailings, covering the charge to a depth of 3 or
4 in. Instead of replacing this 20 tons of solution by fresh
cyanide, the solution filtering through was continually
pumped back again into the same tank for about 3G hours,
and then passed through the zinc box. The extraction of
gold by this circulation system was equal to that obtained
by the ordinary method, and the consumption of cyanide
was much less, since a much smaller quantity of solution
was exposed to the action of the zinc. A further modifica-
tion suggested itself, namely, the transference of the solution
charged with gold, from one tank to a second and third,
in order that it might take up an additional quantity of gold
from fresh tailings, before passing into the zinc boxes. The
advantages of this method are that the solutions from which
the precipitate is obtained are much richer in gold, giving
a cleaner deposit on the zinc, with much less consumption
of cyanide.
The usual practice, as we have pointed out, is to dissolve
the cyanide in a special tank set apart for that purpose.
At the Robinson works the strength of the cyanide solution
is kept up by adding cyanide in lumps, dissolving it under
the steam from the pump. By this method a cyanide
solution of required strength is formed in the leaching tank
itself, and not in the pump. This simplifies the operation,
and dimiuishes the number of tanks required in the treat-
ment. It also furnishes an easy means of getting rid of
the insoluble impurities of the cyanide (the so-called carbide
of iron), which would otherwise accumulate as a black slimy
deposit in the concentrated solution tank. This insoluble
residue is of course discharged with the tailings when the
tanks are emptied.
Another difficult}- frequently encountered in the application
of the cyanide process is the treatment of " battery slimes,"
i.e., the very finely-divided material produced during the
crushing, and which has a tendency to accumulate in pasty
masses. These either resist the penetrating action of the
cyanide or retain the dissolved gold during the leaching
operation. No satisfactory method of breaking such
material lias yet been devised— the evil may be lessened
by mixing the slimy tailings with clean coarse sand.
Various improvements have been introduced in the
mechanical details of construction. The large leaching vats
of the Robinson Company are rapidly and conveniently
discharged by means of a trap door placed in the centre of
the tank bottom, and which may be hermetically closed by
a patent screw fastening. The enormous underground vats
of the Langlaagte Estate Company are discharged by means
of a dredge, which appears to give perfect satisfaction.
Precipitation of the Gold. — The zinc shavings now in use
are prepared by turning thin sheets of zinc on a lathe.
These shavings are placed in wooden troughs, commonly
known as " zinc boxes," and the solution from the leaching
vats is allowed to flow slowly through them, depositing the
gold as a finely-divided black slime on the surface of the
zinc, while the zinc gradually dissolves in the liquid.
After passing the zinc box, the " exhausted solution," which
should not contain more than i dwt. of gold to the ton,
flows into a storage tank or " sump," whence it may be
pumped back to the leaching tanks, when a fresh charge
has to be treated. But the simple replacement of gold by
zinc is not the only reaction which occurs in the zinc box ;
it is found that a notable falling off in the strength of the
cyanide occurs, due to secondary reactions caused by the
gold-zinc couple.
The zinc boxes are usually divided into several compart-
ments so arranged that the liquid flows alternately upward
and downward through the shavings. The shavings are
placed in a tray, the bottom of which is an iron wire screen
of about four holes to the inch. This is supported a few
inches from the bottom of the zinc-box. The fine " gold
slimes " fall through this screen, and may thus be separated
from the undecomposed zinc when the " clean up " takes
place.
The zinc boxes in use at the Robinson works are about
20 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep, with inclined bottoms.
They are divided into compartments of about 20 in. in
length. Each compartment holds about a bushel of
shavings, weighing perhaps 40 lb. Seven compartments in
each zinc box are filled with shavings, a single compartment
at the head is left empty to receive any sand that may be
carried through the filters by the solution from the tanks.
A double compartment at the foot is also left empty to
allow any gold that may be carried away by the stream
of liquid to deposit before the solution flows into the sump.
About 60 tons of solution, which is the quantity required
for treating the ordinary daily charge of 225 tons of tailings,
are allow to run off through two zinc boxes in about nine
hours. This solution may carry from one to three ounces
of gold per ton of liquid ; after passing through the zinc
boxes it rarely contains more than 2 dwt., and should not
contain more than A dwt. if the precipitation has been
properly carried out.
There are two sets ot zinc boxes, one to receive the
" strong solutions " (0'fi to 0-8 per cent, cyanide), and one
for the " weak solutions " (0-2 to 0-4 per cent.). The
slimes formed in the weak boxes are as a rule much poorer
than those in the strong boxes, and less consumption of
zinc takes place in them.
The total amount of zinc consumed amounts to about
100 lb. a day. Two men are constantly employed at the
lathes, so that the turning is an arduous and somewhat
costly operation. It is desirable to use freshly-turned zinc,
as the surface rapidly oxidises and becomes much less
active in precipitating the gold.
The most vigorous action of course takes place in the
compartments which first receive the solution from the tanks.
It is here that the zinc dissolves most rapidly, and is
accordingly replaced by shavings from the lower compart-
ments, while fresh zinc is continually added as the last
compartment becomes empty.
The clean-up takes place once or twice a month. The
screens containing the undissolved shavings are lifted from
the zinc boxes. The boxes are then left undisturbed for an
hour so as to allow the zinc-gold slime to settle at the
bottom. The liquid is then drawu off by a syphon until
very little is left above the slimes. The box is then cleaned
out, and the slimes and muddy water allowed to drain
through a screen of 40 meshes to the inch. The mass,
consisting of water, finely-divided gold, and very fine zinc,
is rubbed through this screen by means of a short stick 5 or
6 in. in length, to the end of which is fixed a piece of india-
rubber.
The stuff remaining on the screen consists almost entirely
of unconsumed zinc, fine enough to pass through a screen
of 12 meshes to the linear inch. This is replaced in the
first divisions of the zinc boxes over a fresh lot of shavings.
The slime, consisting of finely-divided gold and silver,
with a large proportion of zinc and lead, and a certain
quantity of tin, antimony, organic matter, and other
accidental impurities, is allowed to settle in a small tank
placed beneath the 40-mesh screen, and is now ready to
undergo the drying and smelting operations necessary for
its conversion into bullion.
In the Molloy process alluded to already, the use of zinc
is dispensed with altogether. The solution passes through
a shallow trough containing mercury, in which is an inner
cylindrical vessel filled with solution of carbonate of soda ;
the edges of the cylinder just dip beneath the mercury, so
that its contents are entirely cut off from the outer portion
918
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. 30, 1892.
of the vessel. A rod of lead dips into the soda solution ;
the lead and mercury are connected with opposite poles of
the battery, and the solution is electrolysed by the passage
of a current. The sodium combines with the mercury to
form sodium amalgam, which at once decomposes the gold
cyanide solution with formation of ordinary gold amalgam,
sodium cyanide being simultaneously produced. It is
claimed tli;it much less decomposition of the cyanide takes
place than with zinc, and, moreover, that the outllowing
solution is better adapted for dissolving fresh quantities of
gold. It is obvious that in the ordinary method a large
accumulation of zinc in the solutions must take place, which
in time would render them valueless for gold extraction,
whereas sodium cyanide is just as effective as the potassium
compound.
Production of Bullion. — The slimes are now transferred
to enamelled iron pans, and carefully dried over a small
furnace. This is a tedious operation, and requires con-
siderable time. The pans in use at the Robinson works
contain about 5 or 6 gallons of dried precipitate. This may
contain as much as 150, or as little as 20 oz. of gold.
The precipitate, when nearly dry, is mixed with sand,
borax, and bicarbonate of soda, and melted ;in a Xo. 60
crucible at a fairly high temperature. The material melts
very- easily, forming a very liquid slag, which, however,
rapidly corrodes the pots, so that a good 60 crucible rarely
lasts for more thau eight meltings. The charge is not added
all at once, but as each portioi> melts and sink down fresh
quantities of the mixture are added. When the pot is full
of liquid slag it may contain from 100 to 1 50 oz. of bullion.
Large quantities of oxide of zinc are volatilised during the
melting, which carry off a very appreciable amount of gold.
The zinc fumes, together with the products formed by the
decomposition of the cyanide salts, render the operation
anything but healthy.
The bullion produced is whitish in appearance, and about
650 fine. It is very hard and brittle, and the bars are by no
means uniform, so that it is difficult to obtain an accurate
assay. In addition to zinc, they contain silver, lead, and
sometimes a little copper.
Scope of the Process. — In its present phase the limitations
of the cyanide process appear to be : —
(1.) That it is only completely successful with "free-
milling ores." Pyritic ores may be treated, but at a greatly
increased cost.
(2.) That it is not applicable to ores containing a con-
siderable percentage of coarse gold.
(3.) That it cannot be economically applied to rich
material.
On the other hand, the cyanide process is admirably
adapted for recovering the so-called " float gold," i.e., gold
in an extremely fine state of division which remains
suspended in the water for several hours, and cannot be
obtained by any process of amalgamation or concentration.
That the cyanide process is well adapted for the treatment
of Band ores is shown by the fact that although the system
has been in use little more than two years, over 40,000 tons
of tailings are now being treated per month. — W. S.
.1 Xiir Method of Assay of Antimony Oris. A. Car not.
Annales des Mines, 1, 1892, 303 ; Proc. Civil Eng. 100,
(iv.), 52.
See under Will., page 911.
The Action "f Sulphuric and Nitric Acids on Aluminium.
G. A. Le Roy. Bull, de la Soc. Ind. de Rouen, 1891, 232.
According to Deville, Wtirtz, Hunt, Langley, Roscoe, and
others, who have written on the subject of aluminium, that
metal is entirely unaffected by sulphuric and nitric acids,
whether dilute or concentrated. The author having in
consequence been induced to studj' the possibility of
replacing lead and platinum by aluminium in chemical
manufactories, has been surprised to find that these state-
ments are entirely incorrect, and further experiments have
therefore been made with four different samples of the
metal, the composition of which is given below, in order to
determine the rate of solution. Two of these, A and I?,
were made by Deville's process, at the former Xanterrc
works, by Messrs. P. Moriu and Co., the others were of a
more recent make : —
The samples which were cut into thin plates, and cleaned
from grease by a solution of soda, were exposed to the
action of acid for given periods, after which the loss of
weight was determined, after washing with water and
alcohol, and drying in an air-bath. Frotn the loss of
weight, the amount dissolved in the day of 12 hours, per
square metre of surface exposed, has been calculated as
follows : —
Solvent.
Quality.
Specific
Gravity.
Tempe
-ature.
Sample Treated.
A.
B. C. D.
Pure
Common
Pure
1 emmon
Tun'
Common
I 'ure
Common
r>i2
-
1-711
1-580
1-2C,:!
1-383
1-383
1-332
1-842
1 '842
1-383
1-383
°B.
in;
Co
53
30
10
•10
36
66
60
10
111
C.
15 In 'ill
150
150
100
1O0
Grins.
18-4
21-0
21-5
25-s
l'.i-o
1-6
17-0
1G-3
240-0
267-0*
Grnis.
18-9
21-3
25-0
25-7
18-0
lll'O
111-6
16-3
225-0
2E0-0
Grms.
16-4
17-5
22-0
21-6
170
2,
15-5
18-0
lfll
150-0
Grms.
16-6
16- 1
2O-0
22-1
16-3
3-4
1445
16-0
IS- 1
'inn -'in
..
* This corresponds t<> a thickness ol about ,,. millimetre per square metre.
Nov. 3», 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
919
From this it is evident that pure aluminium is so rapidly
attacked by strong acids, even the cold, as to be quite untit
for use in apparatus for the manufacture of these acids.
— W. S.
Tht Effect of Ileal on Mercury Compounds. V. Janda.
Oesterr. Zeits. fur Hern- and Hiittemv. 1891, 583 ; Proe.
Inst. Civil Eng. 108, 88.
The sulphide, oxide, sub oxide, sub-chloride, and basic
sulphate of mercury are completely decomposed by heat
when mixed with forge scale (magnetic oxide of iron) under
a covering of zinc oxide, but the chloride shows a loss of
8 per cent., and the normal sulphate of 4 percent, volatilised
unchanged by the same treatment. When the zinc oxide
cover is omitted the mercury obtained from cinnabar is
almost always blackened with amorphous sulphide.
Theoretically, the mercury contained in these compounds
is as follows : —
Per ('out.
Men-uric oxide HgO 9&"5
Merourons oxide Htr.O oii'i
AI en-uric sulphide II gS 86*2
Mercuric chloride HgCls (corrosive sublimate) 78'8
VI. I enrolls Chloride IIl*.' ']_. iciiloillol) si'."
Mercuric sulphate HgSOj 07 '5
Bjisic mercuric sulphate H&S' V, (Turbeth mineral) ■ . S2*4
These figures are realised in the new Idria method of
assay with iron oxide and zinc, using a gold dish for collect-
ing the mercury, except iu the case of the sulphate and
chloride, which gave lower results.
When heated without any reagents, the following facts
have been observed : —
Mercuric sulphide (cinnabar) is changed to metallic
mercury, sulphur dioxide, and, to a small extent, to black
sulphide.
Mercuric oxide darkens, and at very low red heat is
changed to mercury and oxygen ; the salts of this oxide
volatilise with partial decomposition. Mercuric chloride
volatilises almost without any change, only about 5 per
cent, being reduced to metal, as does also mercuric nitrate,
which is but very slightly decomposed by heat.
Mercurous oxide changes at 100° into mercury and
mercuric oxide, and by further heating is completely reduced
to metal with the separation of oxygen. The salts of this
oxide are all decomposed at a red heat. Mercurous chloride
is completely volatilised without decomposition. Mercuric
sulphate, which is white when cold, turns yellow and melts
to a brown fluid, which gives the original white salt when
solidified and cooled. At a higher temperature it is com-
pletely volatilised without change, but more slowly than any
of the other compounds.
Turbeth mineral, a basic sulphate obtained from HgS04,
by washing it with a large quantity of hoi water, which
results in the formation of free sulphuric acid and yellow
turbeth (:(HgS<>4 + 2H.:U = Hg3S06 + 2H..SO.,) is com-
pletely volatilised with decomposition when heated for
about four times as long as the oxide or chloride.
The mercurial flue-stuff (stupp of Idria, hotlines of
Almaden"), which is of the following composition : —
Metallic mercury strut" i
Mercuric sulphide 5 '76 !.g...-., H„
Basic sulphate 0*52 f
Mercurous chloride 0*12 J
Mercuric chloride ) Trace
Ammonium sulphide >
Calcium sulphate '-'71
Magnesium 0"2]
Hydrocarbon 2"66
Carbon (soot) U'4(5
Silieti OMS
decomposes by heat into metal and mercury-black, a finely-
divided mixture of metal and sulphide. This black powder,
when mixed with and distilled under a cover of lime, gives
metallic mercury, which also happens when the cover is
omitted, and only 25 per cent, of lime is used in the mixture,
but with a larger loss. The amalgam obtained on the gold
plate is bright, with only a slight covering of hydrocarbon
oil. Mercuric chloride and sulphate are not completely
decomposed by lime alone, and the deposited amalgam is
covered with a sublimate of the unchanged salt.
When cinnabar, or llue-soot is mixed with 25 per cent, of
lime and 25 per cent, of lamp-black, which contains both
carbon and hydrocarbons, and heated for 15 minutes, the
mercury is almost completely recovered, but the deposit is
coated with black. The oxide and lower compounds are
completely decomposed, giving a clear amalgam by the same
treatmeut ; but the higher chloride and basic sulphate show
a loss of 8 and 4 per cent, respectively, or the same as in
the method of assay with iron and zinc oxides. — W. S.
Smelling the. Phosphoric Ore of Gellivara. Stahl und
Eisen, 1892, 490 ; I'roc. Inst. Civil Eng. 110 (iv.), 37.
At Eiushytte, iu Sweden, experiments have been made in
smelting the waste ore of Gellivara, which consists chiefly
of apatite and maguatite with some rock, and contains from
20 to 25 per cent, of iron, being in fact a ferriferous apatite.
In order to prevent the slag from taking up silica by
corrosion of the bricks in the hearth and boshes, the lower
part of the furnace, to a height of 6 or 8 in. above the
tuyeres, was built of carbon bricks. The ore was for the
most part reduced to the size of coarse sand, which rendered
the working of the furnace so difficult that pieces of uut
size were added to keep the charge open. ( >nly 110 cwt.
of unroasted ore were smelted in four days, with air
heated to 120° or 150° C, both alone and with various
(luxes of quartz and lime. The best results were obtained
without lime, or with at most 10 per cent. The slag,
which ran very liquid, was crystalline when cooled, and of a
grey or greenish colour, with white euclosures consisting
chiefly of semi-fused pieces of apatite. The composition
was : —
A.
With Ore
alone.
II.
With 10 Per
Cent, of Lime.
Sdici 26*20
Alumina 4*59
Ferrous oxide 1*40
Mauganous oxide 0'2t)
Lime i.vsn
Magnesia 5" it;
Ph' .spin .ne :ieid 15*48
Titanic acid 2*30
Sulphur 0*16
21-45
3-62
0'1S
0'2S
is- ir,
5 '95
17 *38
2-110
0-21
The proportion of phosphoric acid is fully equal to that
in the slag of the basic converter, but the state of combina-
tion is somewhat different, only 7 ■ 5 per cent, being soluble
in citric acid, while in English and German basic slag the
soluble part is 14-5 per cent. Both kinds are, however,
much more readily decomposed by acid than apatite, aud
their solubility would probably be increased by using more
lime.
The metal corresponding to these slags contained —
A.
Phosphorus
Combined carbon
Silicon
Sulphur
W'heu tapped it ran very fluid without giving off sparks,
aud cooled to a silvery white metal, which was very brittle,
breaking with a wire-like crystalline structure, and very
;ii>o
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 80.1892.
similar in appearance to ferro-nianganese. The composition
is a very remarkable one, as, apart from the phosphorus, the
analysis is essentially that of a steel. — W. S.
Progress of the Metallurgy of Nickel. 1). Levat. Annates
des Mines, 1, 1892, 141 '; Proc. Inst. Civil Fng.110 (iv.),
54—60.
Nickel is found in New Caledonia in a single mineral.
Gurnierite or Noumeite, a hydrated silicate of nickel and
magnesium, of a bright apple-green colour when pure,
which is deposited in concretionary masses in the fissures
of serpentine rock. The mode of occurrence indicates
clearly thai the mineral has been deposited by water in the
form in which it is now found. The distribution of the
mineral through the serpentine matrix is not arbitrary, it
being always found at or near the contact of the rock
with the red clays, but never in the clay itself. These
masses of clay are products of the decomposition of the
serpentine, and contain all its constituents and in addition,
maDganese, cobalt, and chromium.
The nickel ore, which is newer in origin than those of
manganese and cobalt, is found as vein-matter in hollows
resulting from the shrinking of the red clay from the sides
of the rock funnel enclosing it. These veins vary very
much in size, the maximum breadth being about 8 metres,
but in some cases the whole of the rock is filled with small
veins of mineral, so that it may be worked as a whole up
to a thickness of 250 ft. By far the larger number of
the workings are in open cast, at altitudes varying from 300
to 600 metres above the sea level, where it is easy to follow
the richer developments, and with a comparatively small
preliminary outlay to make provision for some years of
quarry working in the same locality. The preliminary
working is mainly in the direction of removing the red clay,
which can only be imperfectly separated from the ore by
washing, and the iron ore it contains, if left behind, im-
poverishes the yield of nickel, besides being objectionable
in the smelting, by reason of its adding alumina to the
charge, which is refractory through the presence of silica.
The mineral is carefully sorted by hand at the quarries
ami divided into rich and poor qualities, the former contain-
ing 8 per cent, and above of nickel, and the latter all below
I hat limit. These are coufined to simply washing away
the red clay, and even this preparation cannot be carried too
far without risking considerable loss (up to 3 or 4 per cent.)
in the mud washed away. Hence the necessity of carefully
clearing the waste away before working the mineral. The
quarry waste, containing 3 to 4 per cent, of nickel, is not
utilised.
The treatment of the mineral has undergone several
modifications before arriving at the present practice. The
old method of concentrating the metal as sulphide by the
addition of pyrites or sulphur is adopted. The average
composition of the ere available for smelting was : silica,
45 to 50 ; iron, 16 to 14 : nickel, 8 to 7 ; magnesia, 12 to
10; alumina, 3 to 5 ; water and oxygen, 16 to 14 percent.
This requires from 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, of bases
(oxideof iron or limestone), besides a sulphurising material.
As neither gypsum nor pyrites, free from arsenic and copper,
was available for the latter purpose, the charge for the blast
furnace was made up as follows: —
Kilos.
Ore l.iiiKi
Coral 300
Sulphur :;:,
Small coal "l' coke 75
The greater part of the sulphur passed into the regulus,
and a fluid slag was obtained with 48 '0 per cent of silica,
12 to 13 of iron, and not more than 040 per cent, to 045
percent, of nickel, but the local smelting was given up
owing to difficulties in procuring coke, and now the ores
are for the most part smelted in England, alkali waste bein"
used as flux. The consumption of coke is about 20 per
cent, of the weight of the charge, or about 30 per cent, of
that of the ore treated. Small-sized water-jacket cupolas,
smelting from 25 to 30 tons m 24 hours are used. The
product contains nickel 50 to 55, iron 25 to 30, and sulphur
16 to 18 per ceut., the latter being necessary to make the
regulus sufficiently brittle to be easily powdered. The sub-
sequent concentration may be done either in the rever-
berator}' furnace or the Bessemer converter. In the former
two calcinations, followed by fusion with quartz sand, are
necessary for the removal of the iron. The furnace treats
2 tons in 24 hours, with the consumption of an equal weight
of coal. The operation, which lasts eight hours, is controlled
by sampling during the progress, and is stopped when the
iron has completely disappeared, in order to prevent loss of
nickel in the slags, which, however, are not thrown away,
but are returned to the ore-furnace as they fine an excellent
flux, besides containing 2\ per cent, of nickel. By the
first concentration the iron is reduced to 25to3-0per
cent., and by the second to 05 to 075 per cent., the
sulphur being kept to 16 per cent, at least. In the Bessemer
converter the concentration is more rapidly done, a charge
1 ton of regulus melted in a cupola is introduced into the
converter and blown with air at a pressure of about 40 centi-
metres of mercur}'. The temperature rises from the com-
bustion of the sulphur, and sand is added to flux the iron.
If the proportion of the latter metal does not exceed 36 per
cent, it may be completely removed in about one hour and
20 minutes, but with a larger quantity the bath should be
skimmed after blowing for 25 miuutes and fresh flux added,
as the fining will be imperfectly done if too large a quantity
of slag is retained in the converter. When the slags begin
to show signs of containing nickel oxide the refined metal
is poured into moulds. It contains less than 0'50 per cent,
of iron. Arsenic, antimon}', and silver are removed either
in the slags or by the blast ; cobalt remains with the nickel
sulphide.
The converter slags are much richer than those of the
reverberatory furnace, containing from 14 to 15 per cent, of
nickel, mostly as shots of diffused regulus, which may in
part be collected by running the slag into conical pots and
separating the cake of metal at the bottom. The whole of
it must in auy case be returned to the ore furnace.
Attempts have been made to continue the blowing up to
the complete removal of the sulphur to produce a material
that would only require a fiual reducing treatment to
obtain pure nickel. This has, however, been found to be
impossible, owing to the high affinity of nickel for sulphur,
the heat developed in such an aftcrblow being less than
sufficient to counteract the cooling effect of the air, and as
the product when free from copper has a high melting-point
approximating to that of iron, it sets very rapidly, and
blocks up the tuyeres.
The refined regulus, whether obtained from the reverbera-
tory furnace or the converter, consists essentially of nickel
sulphide (or nickel and copper sulphides, if obtained from
pyritic ore like that of Canada), with not more than 0 50
per cent, of iron, and the same proportion of other foreign
matters. It is crushed to pass a 65-mesh sieve, and charged
in quantities of 600 kilos, upon the bed of a reverberatory
calciner 10 meters long and 2 ■ 50 metres broad, with four
working doors on one side, forming a layer about 2 in.
thick, which is constantly rabbled and moved gradually
from the flue of the fire-bridge end. The operation lasts
eight hours with pure nickel sulphide, and only six when
the regulus contains copper.
The consumption of coal is 2,000 kilos, for 2,400 kilos,
of material roasted. The temperature is kept to dull
redness, except towards the end, when the furnace is raised
to bright red heat. The finished product, which should not
contain more than 1 per cent, of sulphur, is ground to pass
a sieve of 120 mesh, and subjected to dead roasting in a
furnace of the same breadth as the preceding one, but with
a shorter bed. The charge is 500 kilos, renewed every six
hours, and the temperature is kept at bright redness ; 3 tons
of coal arc burnt in 24 hours. The product is nickel oxide
or nickel and copper oxides, and should not contain more
than 0-40 percent, cf sulphur.
The reduction of the oxide is effected by mixing it to a
paste with flour or other organic matters, dividing into small
pieces when dried, and strongly heating with charcoal
powder. Formerly the paste was cut into cubes of 12 to
15 millimetres, but in France discs of regular shape, SO
Nov.sn, 1888.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
921
millimetres in diameter and about 15 millimetres thick,
made iii a press, are preferred. They must not be made
thicker, or the reduction will be imperfect in the centre.
The Chinese, who are somewhat considerable consumers of
nickel, prefer to have it moulded into ingots similar to those
used as money in China.
Formerly the reduction was effected iu crucibles holding
50 to 60 kilos, in a gallery or reverberator)- furnace, but
owing to the imperfect and irregular heating the process
was very wasteful of fuel, and the pots did not last for more
than live or six operations. This method has therefore
been abandoned in favour of furnaces working continuously.
The first of these is a large muffle 3'5 metres long and 1 -8
metre broad, heated by the flame of a gas-furnace, which
is passed several times round it by a series of spiral flues.
The shorter sides are closed by balanced doors, and the iron
pots containing the mixture of oxide and charcoal are
subjected to a gradually increasing heat for 24 hours, being
entered at the coolest side and pushed gradually nearer to
the fireplace. This, with mixed oxides, gives a coherent
product ; but pure nickel oxide, although it is reduced by
carbon at a comparatively low temperature, must be
subjected to a temperature of 1,100° or 1,200° for four
hours to obtain the coherent metallic character required by
the consumer ; and, as such a heat is unattainable in the
muffle, the operation must be finished in a crucible furnace.
Another and more improved plan of reduction is in a
regenerative furnace resembling that used for reducing
zinc oxide in Belgium, but having retorts open at each end.
The mixture of oxide and charcoal is charged by a semi-
circular scoop at one end, and when finished the charge is
pushed out at the other end into closed receivers, where
it is allowed to cool out of contact with the air. A furnace
with 22 retorts is capable of reducing 1,500 kilos, of nickel
oxide, or 3,000 kilos, of nickel copper oxides, in 24 hours,
the charge of 750 or 800 kilos, requiring 10 hours in the
furnace in the first and five hours in the second case.
About 2 tous of coal are required for heating in the
24 hours, and the work is done by two men per shift of
12 hours.
The reduced metal is sifted to separate the cubes or
discs from irregular and broken masses, which are after-
wards collected b3" a magnet. The former are polished by
friction upon each other on a rapidly rotating barrel, while
the latter is added in packing the barrels to make up the
exact weight of 100 kilos.
Among the more important recent applications of nickel
is that of the alloy (20 of nickel with 80 of copper) for the
casing of bullets for the small-bore rifles adopted in modern
armament. This combines a higher tenacity than that of
the best brass with a high coefficient of elongation, the
former being from 28 to 31 kilos, per square millimetre,
and the latter 25 to 35 per cent., and exceptionally as much
as 39 per cent., in the metal as cast. The coefficient of
elongation increases with the freedom of the alloy from
iron. By rolling cold, the tensile strength is increased to
liO or 62 kilos., and the elongation is diminished to 3 or
I per cent. When annealed under the most favourable
conditions the strength is 30 to 40 kilos., and the elongation
32 to 39 per cent., as compared with copper, where the
corresponding figures are 25' 1 kilos, and 34 • 1 per cent.
The annealing of this alloy is a very delicate operation,
requiring special manipulation, the details of which are
mostly kept secret by the manufacturers. The principal
object is to avoid oxidation, and this, according to the
author, may be most effectually done by separating the
sheets iu the annealing piles by sheets of cardboard, which
are carbonised during the process. If badly annealed the
mechanical properties are altered in a remarkable manner,
the burnt metal having a tensile strength of 30 kilos., with
enly 1 per cent, elongation. In a general way the annealing
is considered to be bad if the tensile strength is below
33 kilos., and the elongation less than 30 per cent. The
elastic limit is from 11 to 15 kilos, when well annealed,
and 45 kilos, when the metal is hard from the rolls.
The ready malleability of this alloy seems to render it
particularly suitable for locomotive fire-boxes, and plates
for this purpose were exhibited by the Societe des Metaux
at the last Paris Exhibition.
The production of nickel, which was about 400 tons in
1878, the period of the discovery of the New Caledonian
ores, rose to 1,200 tons in 1880, and 2,000 tons in 1884.
The application of the metal to military purposes in 1886
created an extra demand of 400 to 500 tens per annum, and
in ISS7 the total consumption of the world was about 3,000
tons, of which amount New Caledonia supplied about
2,600 tons. Since that date the mines of the district of
Sudbury have been largely developed, and at the present
time copper-nickel regulus is equal to the daily output of
12 to 15 tons of pure nickel, or from 4,500 to 5,000 tons
per annum. In New Caledonia arrangements are being
made for an equal production, so that in the near future
a total supply of from 9,000 to 10,000 tons of pure nickel
per annum is likely to be available from these two sources.
Id J 876 the price of refined nickel, which was then
18 francs per kilog., fell rapidly to 10 francs and 6 francs,
and ultimately, in 1886, to 5'50 francs to 5 francs, which
rates have been nearly stationary ever since. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Treatment of Iron and Basic Slag,
and in Extracting Silicon and Phosphorus. \V. P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From B. Talbot, Chattanooga,
Tennessee, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 10,583, June 3, 1892.
The iron is purified by pouring it while molten through a
deep column of basic slag contained in a suitable vessel
outside the furnace. The metalloids and other impurities
combine with the slag, so liberating the heat necessary to
maintain the slag in a fluid state. — J. H. C.
An Improved Process of or Means for Extracting or
Recovering Metal from Ores or other Metal- Bearing
Bodies. W. Noad, t'ptou Park, Essex ; C. Minns,
Westminster ; and 1'. II. Stevens, London. Eng. Pat.
9784, June 9, 1891.
A solvent is used which is prepared by mixing hydrochloric
acid, about 100 galls. ; saturated solution of calcium
hypochlorite, about 100 galls. ; sodium or potassium nitrate,
about 50 lb. (but varying according to the class of ore or
metal to be treated) ; water, about 750 galls. The clear
liquor, after settlement, is the solvent required, and the
finely-crushed ore is treated with it in tanks, at first
without, and afterwards with agitation and heating. The
metals dissolved are then recovered from the solution by
successive precipitation in separate tanks.
The chemical constituents of the solvent may be
compounded in a dry form for export by concentrating the
hydrochloric acid to about half its bulk, completely drying
the requisite proportions of the calcium hypochlorite and
sodium or potassium nitrate, thoroughly mixing them with
the concentrated acid, adding, if necessary, sodium chloride
or other suitable dry and absorbent material, and evaporating
the whole to dryness. — J. H. C.
Improvements in the Extraction of Gold and Silver from
Ores or Compounds containing the Same. H. Parkes,
Dulwich, and J. C. Montgomerie, Stair. Eng. Pat.
11,342, July 3, 1891.
According to this process the finely-divided ore is treated
with a chlorinating or oxidising solution containing
manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid, hypochlorite of
calcium, sodium, potassium or magnesium and hydrochloric
acid, or chromic or chlorochromic acid and hydrochloric
acid. Such solutions as these do not dissolve appreciable
quantities of gold or silver, but merely render the ore more
susceptible to a subsequent treatment with an alkaline
potassium cyanide ; solution. Any gold or silver which is
dissolved by the chlorinating or oxidising solution is
separated by ferrous sulphate or other precipitant. Ores
rich in gold may be advantageously treated with hydrogen
peroxide or oxygen under pressure in presence of the
chlorinating agent ; rich ores of a refractory nature are
922
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, M9&
treated in a similar manner, but with the addition of
potassium cyanide to the chlorinating solution. Some ores
are subjected to the action of a mixture of lead and sodium
chlorides saturated with chlorine or bromine. Ores which
arc treated with potassium cyanide or other solvent in the
presence of oxygen or hydrogen peroxide may, in the
same solution, be subjected'to the action of sodium chloride
saturated with chlorine or bromine ; copper chloride or
sulphate may also be added to the liquid. — W. .1. P.
An Improved Method of Smelting Complex Silver Ores.
C. James, Swansea. Eng. Pat. 13,740, August 14, 1891.
The inventor smelts silver ores rich in zinc in a reverberatory
furnace in place of in the blast furnace at present employed ;
loss of lead and silver is thus prevented. Sulphuretted
silver ores are pulverised and intimately mixed with the
quantity of litharge necessary to oxidise all the sulphur
present ; this mixture is smelted in the reverberatory
furnace, and the reduced lead is found to contain nearly
all the silver. Should the ore contain zinc blende, a
preliminary calcination is necessary to convert this into
zinc oxide ; galena is then added, and the whole smelted
just as when litharge is employed. Halogenated silver
ores are smelted with a mixture of galena and litharge in
such proportions that metallic lead is produced ; the
reduced silver then alloys with the lead and is extracted by
the usual methods. — W. J. P.
Improvements in the Process of Smelting Copper or
( 'opper Ores, and in Furnaces or Apparatus applicable
therefor. J. H. Bibby, St. Helens. Kng. Pat. 16,273,
September 24, 1891.
The ores and fluxes are melted in a cupola furnace and
then run off into a settling furnace where the ore separates
from the slag. After running off this slag, the regnlus is
exposed to blasts of air, preferably in a third furnace, till
it contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of copper, when it is
run into an ordinary reverberatory furnace to be finished
into blister copper. The furnaces all communicate by
channels or gutters. — J. H. C.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Wire,
Sheet Metal, and the Like. C. F. Claus, London. Eng.
I 'at. 16,553, September 29, 1891.
In the manufacture of iron or steel wire, the " wire-rod "
as usually obtained is coated with iron oxide, and has
therefore to be pickled before it can be drawn. The
inventor removes the oxide by subjecting the hot wire-rod
to the action of hydrogen, coal-gas, purified water-gas, or
other producer-gas ; the wire is then drawn in the ordinary
manner. This process also obviates the necessity of
frequently annealing and subsequently pickling the wire,
which is so great an inconvenience in the ordinary process
of drawing. Sheet metal also, if treated in the above
manner, may be rolled without annealing. — W. .1. P.
Improvements in Means or Apparatus for Extracting
Precious Melah from their Ores. F. Webb, Walworth,
Surrey. Eng. Pat. 17,636, October 15, 1891.
The crushed ore is agitated with an appropriate solution by
means of a hollow and perforated vessel or piston moving
to and fro in an outer closed vessel or chamber, which is
capable of being partially rotated on trunnions. These
may be hollow, so as to serve as channels for the solution.
Any required solution may be used, those containing
chlorine, bromine, iodine, or potassium cyanide being
Improvements in Basic Furnace Lining and Basic
Material. J. B. Alzugaray, London. Eng. Pat. 17,755,
October 16, 1891.
Basic bricks, when allowed to cool down, are acted upon
by the moisture and carbonic acid of the air, and develop
splits and cracks, and need frequent renewal. To obviate
this objection, the patentee uses, as the chief ingredient of
his basic lininss, barium carbonate, which is stated to be
free from these defects on account of its stability being
greater than that of the carbonates of the other alkaline-
earth metals, and because of its tendency to form barium
dioxide. It may be used alone or mixed with magnesia,
magnesium carbonate, alumina, bauxite, lime, or carbonate
of lime, dolomite, strontianite, ilmenite, wolfram, scheelito
" chromatate," oxides and carbonates of iron and man-
ganese, " magnetic iron," hematite, &c. The agglomeration
of the mass may be effected by the use of a little silicate of
soda, from 2 to 5 per cent, of the whole weight, and in
certain cases 20 to 50 per cent, of plumbago may be added.
— B. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, and in Fuel or
a Compound suitable therefor. W. A. Sugden,
Keighlev. From W. B. Sugden, Fall River, Wisconsin,
U.S.A. " Eng. Pat. 18,442. October 27, 1891.
See under II., page 899.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron. II. Le Neve-
Eoster, Brierley Hill, Staffordshire. Eng. Pat. 19,118,
November 5, 1891.
Ix preparing refined iron suitable for puddling a basic or
neutral lining is employed in a regenerative or other suitable
furnace. Calcined or shrunk dolomite, with or without an
admixture of basic slag or chrome iron ore, is used to
deprive common pig iron of phosphorus and silicon. — J.H.C.
Improvements in Leaching Oresaudiu Apparatus thtrefor.
S. II. Johnson and C. C. Hutchinson, Stratford, Essex.
Eng. Pat. 19,389, November 10, 1891.
A filter-press is used having chambers which can be
varied in depth according to the mechanical condition and
permeability of the ore under treatment, and this is worked
in conjunction with a pneumatic forcing receiver, with an
agitator for the purpose of working fine ores and slimes.
The material to be filtered should be supplied at sueli a
rate as to fill the chambers in about three minutes, and
under a gradually rising pressure, finally at about 50 to
60 lb. per square inch. — J. II. C.
An Improvement in Cupper Allogs. A. K. Huntington,
London, and J. T. Prestige, jun„ Deptford. Eng. Eat.
19,771, November 14, 1891.
Tins invention is based ou the particular property of nickel
which enables it to alloy in any proportion with either
copper or iron. The claim is for copper alloys containing
iron or ferro-manganese, increased by admixture of nickel.
Zinc also is included in tome instances. The proportions
may be varied according to the tensile strength, ductility,
or elasticity required in the alloy. For a strong ductile
metal copper about 50 parts, zinc about 40 parts, and irou
and nickel about 2 parts each are recommended. When
the quantity of zinc is lessened that of iron, with its due
proportion of nickel, is increased. Thus, if the zinc be
entirely omitted, iron may be employed up to 5 parts and
nickel up to 6 parts with the 50 parts copper. Ferro-
manganese containing about 80 per cent, of manganese
may be substituted for (be iron. — J. It. ( '.
Nov. 80, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
923
Improvements in Apparatus for separating Crushed
Pyrites and similar Heavy Substances containing Gold
or nther Metal. \Y . Scoular, Johannesburg, South
Africa. Eng. Pat. 19,782, November 14, 1891.
The washing tabls is suspended at the four corners by
metal straps from uprights on a suitable frame in such a
manner that a to-and-fro percussive motion can be given to
it by means of a triple cam in conjunction with a spring.
The cam, driven on a shaft, forces back the table which, on
being released, is pushed forward by the spring until the
stop-piece attached strikes the frame-work, when the cam
comes into play again. The jerk aided by a flow of water
causes the separation of heavy from light particles, the
former being discharged from an outlet at the side of the
table while the latter are washed away at the end. The
floor of the table is of uneven surface with a triangular
depression cut diagonally across it and in which the con-
centrates accumulate. The depression narrows and rises
towards the outlet in the side through which the heavy
particles are discharged and broadens out towards the end
where the outlet for the light particles is situated. — A. W.
Improvements
E. Norton,
December 3,
relating to
May wood, U
1891.
the
S.A.
Coating of Metals.
Eng. Pat. 21,114,
Tins patent is for an improvement in connection with the
ordinary process of manufacture of tin-plate. To avoid
the frothing and boiling over of the hot oil when the wet
sheets are inserted the oil-bath is discarded and the sheets
ara passed direct from the bath of water through one or
more pairs of heated rolls, the surfaces of which are
continuously supplied with a covering of heated oil or other
suitable material. In this way the water is evaporated and
the sheets are coated with oil and raised to the necessary
temperature for immersion in the molten metal bath at one
and the same time. — A. W.
Improvements in the Extraction and Treatment of Metals.
N. Lebedeff, St. Petersburgh. Kng. Pat. 2193.
February 4, 1892.
Hv this invention ores or metalliferous substances are
melted in a furnace and a saucer-shaped cup of plumbago
or other carbonaceous material placed on the molten mass.
A current of furnace gases is then passed over the hearth
aud the ore becomes reduced by the carbonic oxide which
diffuses through the saucer. This process may be also
employed for removing the last traces of sulphur and
similar impurities in the manufacture of steel. — W. J. V.
Improvements hi the Method of Desulphurising Zinc Ores.
P. Hart, Fairfield. Eng. Pat. 14,264, August 8, 1892.
The blende or other ore is ground to a fine powder and
mixed with sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1 ■ 750, generally in the
proportion of one equivalent of the monohydrated aeid to each
equivalent of metallic zinc present. The mixture is heated
in an iron or other suitable vessel to a temperature between
300° and 400' F., when gases consisting chiefly of sulphurous
acid are given off and are led into the vitriol chamber for
conversion into sulphuric acid. After the mixture has
been thus heated it becomes stiff and is then transferred
to a close or blind furnace aud the last of the sulphur
expelled by heating to a low red heat. The zinc is left
behind in a state of simple oxidation, or nearly so, and
ready for smelting or any other method of extraction. The
advantages are the quicker roasting with less expenditure
for fuel and the obtaining the sulphurous acid in a con-
centrated condition suitable for economic conversion into
sulphuric acid, whilst at the same time the ore passes into
a condition from which the metallic zinc can be readily
obtained. — A. \V.
Improvements in Smelting Furnaces. II. H. Lake, London.
From the Oliver Aluminium Companv, New York, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 14,406, August 9, 1892.
Thk principal points claimed by the inventor are " the
combination of a chamber, grate bars in the lower part of
the chamber, a pot at the lower part of the chamber and
having its bottom below the grate bars, provided with a
discharge outlet and apertures or tuyeres for admitting
gas through the top of the chamber to the pot." — F. S. K.
Improvements in Apparatus for Removing when < 'asting
Gases and Impurities contained in the Metal or Alloy.
J. L. Sebenius, Nykroppa, Sweden. Eng. Pat. 14,586,
August 12, 1892.
This is an improvement on a previous patent for obtaining
solid castings by swinging round in a horizontal plane the
mould containing the molten metal, the centrifugal action
forcing the gases and impurities to the surface of the
metal, which surface for the time being is vertical and
nearest to the centre of the circle.'of rotation. The apparatus,
of which Figs. 1 and 2 are' respectively vertical and
horizontal sections, consists of a shaft A carrying a
distributor a, which contains a circular channel, the bottom
of which is built with radial ridges h, which are steep in
one direction and sloping in the other. From the lower part
of these ridges holes with mouthpieces lead out, opposite
each of which a mould c is horizontally fixed in a suitable
framework ]?, attached to the revolving shaft A.
The mould consists of a central compartment h surrounded
with other compartments the shape of the castings to be
made, the communication between which is made by
channels in the bottom plate g. The whole is rapidly
revolved and the metal, which is poured into a, is by meacs
of the ridges h and the mouthpieces equally distributed
Fig. 1.
Apparatus fok hemoving, when Casting, Gases and
Impurities in the Metal or Alloy.
among the several moulds. It runs through the mouth-
pieces into the central chamber /) of each and thence
through the channels /' into the outer compartments which
are gradually filled from the bottom. The gases and
impurities by the centrifugal force are driven towards the
surface and the castings become clean, compact, strong,
and homogeneous. — A, W.
92 1
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1892.
Process for Alloying the Surfaces of Metal Wires, Strips,
Plates, Sheets, and the like. E. Martin, Paris. EDg.
Pat. 15,058, August 20, 1892,
The ingot, rod, or plate of metal, for instance, copper, is
cleaned and immersed in a solution of chloride of zinc or
other pickle to obtain a -first coating, after which it is
dipped into molten zinc until the metal deposited is of
the desired thickness. It is then withdrawn and heated in
a muffle or other furnace with exclusion of air, when the
zinc alloys with the copper and produces a brass surface.
The metal is then rolled iuto sheets or drawn into wire. A
bronze surface can be obtained by using tin instead of
zinc. The coating of metal may also be deposited electro-
lytically.— A. W.
Improvements in the Wet Process for the Extraction of
Gold or Silver, or both, from Pulverised Ores or other
finely-divided Material, and in Apparatus therefor.
J. W. Sutton, Brisbane, Queensland. Eng. Pat. 15,248,
August 24, 1S92.
The ore is chlorinated in a vertical cylindrical chlorinator
in which is a screw conveyor runniug in a smaller cylindrical
casing. The screw, on revolving at a moderate speed, carries
the ore upwards inside the casing, over the upper end of
which it falls into and through the annular space between
the casing and the wall of the chlorinator. Thus the
thorough and constant circulation of the pulverised ore
with the chlorine is effected. The mixture is withdrawn
into a closed reservoir, the excess chlorine removed, and
the liquid separated and the ore washed with the aid of a
hydro-extractor of approved form. The gold is precipitated
preferably with sulphate of iron, and separated by a small
hydro-extractor, the liquor being afterwards evaporated to
catch any gold that might have escaped filtration.
Silver can be extracted with the same apparatus, the
chlorinated ore being leached with hyposulphite after
separating from the chloride of gold. If no gold is
present the ore is roasted with salt and the silver separated
with hyposulphite in the hydro-extractor.— A. W.
Improvements connected with the Extraction of Metals
from their Ores. J. W. Chenhall, Totnes. Eng. Pat.
15,584, August 30, 1892.
A sulphate which will decompose on roasting is added, in
quantity from 1 to 10 per cent., in addition to common
salt to the ore before grinding and roasting. The sulphate
of iron or copper is preferred in cases where copper or
silver is present in the ore. It is stated that the calcination
or roasting is thereby quickened and that the. metal contents
become more soluble. — A. W.
XI.-ELECTRO-CHEMISTBY AND ELECTKO-
METALLURaY.
The Colours and Absorption Spectra of Thin Metallic
Films and of Incandescent Vapours of the Metals;
with some Observations on Electrical Volatility. VV. L.
Dudley. American Chem. J. 1892, 14, 185 — 190.
In the cases of potassium, sodium and lithium, volatilisa-
tion by boiling was resorted to. The potassium vapour
condensed in a film on the cooler portions of the tube, and
exhibited in the thinnest parts colours by transmitted light,
ranging from violet to blue, as the thickness increased,
while by reflected light the film had the usual silvery
metallic lustre of potassium. The brilliant colours com-
pletely disappear, and the film assumes a frosted appearance
owing to its breaking up into a number of minute globules.
Sodium gave a yellow brown film, lithium a red-brown
film, and in each case the glass was attacked, and the film
was permanent. The colour was a source of surprise since
it approached more or less closelyr to that of its incandescent
vapour. Perhaps it may be accounted for in the same
way as in gold " ruby glass," i.e., to the presence of finely-
divided metal distributed through the glass.
(2.) The application of electro-deposition is limited, gold
films, however, may be readily procured since it is easy to
separate the film from the metal on which it is deposited,
and the difficulties of the process may be largely obviated
by following the method of Kundt (Ann. der Phys. Wied.
34, 469).
(3.) The reduction of a thin film of the metallic salt was
unsatisfactory, although films of platinum giving a purple
colour by transmitted light could be easily obtained.
(4.) The electric arc between terminals of the metal to be
volatilised was successful in a few cases, but was usually
granular, and altogether unsatisfactory.
(.5.) The condensed spark (Wright, Am. J. Sci. (3), 13,
49 ; 14, 169 ;) (Hartley, Proc. Roy. Soc.46, 88;) (Crookes,
Chem. News, 63, 287) between the two points of metal
enclosed in an exhausted glass tube serves well in many
cases. No relationship has yet been discovered between
the degree of electrical volatility and any known constant,
but a relationship might be discovered if the volatilisation
were carried on under such conditions of temperature and
pressure as would insure molecular conditions in each case.
If the order of the electrical volatility of the metals as
found by Crookes be compared with Lothar Meyer's curve
of atomic volumes, it will be found that the volatile metals
lie at, or near the minima of the curves, close together on
the ascending sides in the periods IV'., V., and VII., alternat-
ing one from the other. Magnesium and aluminium, which
are practically non-volatile, lie on the descending side of
period III. Aluminium, which is less difficult to volatilise
than magnesium, is nearer the minimum of the curve. The
metals given in the order of their electrical volatility
alternate in the periods as follows : —
Metal.
Comparative Electrical
Volatility.— Crookes.
Period.
Pd.
Au,
Ag
Pb.
Sn.
l't.
Cu.
Cd.
Ni.
Ir.
Fe.
108-00
100-00
82-68
7.5-01.
56-93
1 f(M>
Hit
31-99
W99
10-49
5-50
V.
VII.
V.
VII.
V.
VII.
IV.
v.
IV.
VII.
IV.
A table is given for a number of metals, in which is given
the colour of the films by transmitted light, and the colour
of the incandescent vapour as observed, and as indicated
from the spectral lines. The colour of a film varies some-
what with the thickness, but each metal has a strong
tendency towards a characteristic colour, which is produced
when the film is as thick as it can be to transmit light.
Absorption Spectra of Metallic Films. — If the same
molecular conditions existed in the film as in the incan-
descent vapour, we would expect the same absorption ; in
every case examined, however, the films gave simply general
absorption, no bauds or lines being indicated.
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTFvY.
921
Metal.
Colour of Film.
i ibserver.
Colour of Incand.
Vapour,
f Pinkish, violet, blue, blue-green
Gold
Heated to :;it;
„ on glass. . , L
Silver.
Copper
Aluminium j
Bismuth
Platinum J
Palladium
Lead
Zinc
Cadmium
Magnesium
Tin
Iron
Nickel
Coball
Tellurium
Potassium
Sodium beated on glass
Lithium ,,
Green
Red }
Bed >
Deep blue
Faraday, Wright, and
others.
I Irookes and others
Faraday and Wright
Green
Observer,
Dudley
Colour of
Incand. Vapour
as indicated
by Spectrum.
Fim- blue
Brownish
Grey-blue
Bine-grey
Purple
Smoky brown
Smoky brown inclining towards
olive.
Grey-blue, less deep than Ag,
deeper than Bi.
Grey-blue about same asZn,
slightly less intense.
(J iey-blue, similar to Zn and
Cd, but less clear.
Brown -grey
Neutral tint with faint
tinge of brown.
Grey or brown-grey
Grey or brown-grey
Dull purple
Blue-violet
Brown -yellow
l)ark brown-red
Wright -j
Blue
Yellow-green in electric
arc.
Stas
Dudley-
Yellow-Green
Wright, Fleming
Green
Dudley
Green
Fleming }
Wright )
Green-bine
Dudley
< Jreen-blue
Wright
Blue, slightly greenish
Dudley
Blue-green
Wright )
Dudley $
Blue(f)
Dudley
Blue
Wright
Wright
Green
Bin.'
Devillo and
Debray (r
Dudley
Green
Blue
Wright
Green-blue
Dudley
< -I een-blue
Wright
( rreen
Dudley
Green
Wright
Green
Wright
Green
Wright
Blue (?)
Dudley
Blue-green (': 1
Wright
Green-blue
Dudley
Green-blue
Wright
Blue-green
Dudley
Blue-green
Wright
Green-blue
Dudley
Green-blue
Wright
Golden-yellow
< lernez
( Grange-yellow
Dudley
Violet
Davy
Violet
Dudley
Yellow
Davy
Yellow
Dudley
Red
Arfvedson (?)
Red
— G. H. R.
The Thoferhn Electrolytic Copper Refining Process.
I/Industrie Electr. April 10, 1892; Iron, May 6 ami 13,
404—405, 426.
The process resembles the method adopted at Hamburg
and Biache, but improvements have Been introduced
rendering the method more efficient and economical.
Amongst these are — (1) the arrangement of the tanks;
(2) the arrangement of the conductors ; (3), the composi-
tion, heating, and circulation of the electrolyte; (4) the
manufacture of anodes and cathodes ; and (5) the oxidation
of the anodes and the electrolyte. A description and the
measurements of the tanks are given.
The dynamos are installed for a normal production of
1 grm. per ampere per hour per tank. In factories where
several tons of copper are treated per day Thoferhn arranges
his bath in such a way that the loss of E.M.F. per tank is
not more than 1 ■ 4 volt, so that for 620 tanks an E.M.F. of
19 volts at the dynamo terminals would be required if the
conductors absorb about 5 per cent. In small workshops
the electrodes have a much smaller surface, and the loss of
E.M.F. is about 03 volt.
The conductors are calculated so as to absorb not more
than 5 per cent, of the total energy, or, in cases where the
refining is carried on at a great distance from the dynamos,
8 per cent. The current should not exceed 1 ampere per
square mm. of sectional area of the cable from the dynamo
to the first row of tanks. The bars piaced on the borders
of the tanks need be only half the cross section, as two
bars form one conductor. The bars are arranged on four
rows of wooden girders placed laterally en the right and
left of the tanks, the two external girders being at a slightly
higher level than the two others, so that the transverse bars
carrying the anodes rest only on two bars, as well as those
carrying the cathodes. The bars carrying the current to
the anodes in one bath transmit it to the cathodes in the
next. For this purpose each bar is twice the length of the
bath, and bent in the middle to pass from one set of
girders to the other. The groups of tanks are coupled by
bars of special form, the baths being thus connected in
series without soldering the conductors. Te transverse
bars supporting the electrodes are of iron, covered at the
top with thin copper ribbon, and having a section of
4 centimetres by 3 centimetres. The ribbon is bent beneath
the supports at each end of the bar to get contacts of copper
upon copper.
The liquid is caused to circulate by means of injectors,
pumps, or other apparatus continually raising it from a
lower to a higher reservoir, whence it flows to the first tank,
then from each tank in succession it is taken at a certain
distance from the bottom by siphons to the next tank,
successive differences of level of 2 centimetres between the
10 tanks of one group sufficing to ensure good circulation.
From the last tank of each group the liquid flows to the
collecting reservoir.
Thoferhn has devised the following mode of continuous
automatic purification from the impurities with which the
liquid becomes charged during working. He employs in
each particular case a special arrangement for oxidising the
impurities by sending a jet of air through the liquid at a
temperature of, or above, 35° C. If pumps are employed
to circulate the liquid, a ventilator is used to oxidise the
liquid at the moment of falling into the distributing
reservoir. If an apparatus similar to the one used in sugar
refining is employed, the air escape of the apparatus is
connected with the discharge pipe of the distributing
reservoir. The action is so energetic that red spots of ferric
oxide can be seen in the scum, and the reservoir should be
large so as to allow the impurities to settle and the scum
to disperse before passing the liquid into circulation.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, 1892.
The liquid is maintained at a temperature of 35 C.
throughout the system with little or no extra expense
by utilising the heat of coal cinders or waste steam. The
anodes are made of different qualities of copper and are
sometimes oxidised. In using them each one has two small
lugs formed in casting, which are pierced, and by which the
anode is hung so that the lug is kept above the surface of
the liquid, thus preventing it from being corroded and the
anode from falling to the bottom of the bath. The
expenditure for attendance and for replacing the hooks is
thus greatly diminished. If the plates were made large
enough and suspended by strong lugs from the main
conductors, all cross-pieces and hooks might be dispensed
with, but large electrodes occupying almost the entire
width of Ihe bath impede the circulation of the liquid and
cause the deposition on the cathode of the iupurities of the
anode.
To free the electrolyte from impurities a large quantity of
free oxygen must be provided in the bath, and through the
action of the current this accumulates near the anode,
oxidising or peroxidising the impurities, thus rendering them
practically insoluble. The oxidised substances form on the
anode a small layer of adhesive mud which slowly flows
down the walls and falls to the bottom without mixing with
the liquid. This mud, being then in the neutral zone
between the lower border of the anode and the bottom of
the tank, and not affected by the circulation, is not subject
to any chemical or mechanical influence. If the circulation
of the liquid be not sufficient, part only of the impurities is
rendered insoluble directly, and the remainder derives the
required oxygen from the liquid itself. This action takes
place throughout the entire space between the electrodes ;
whilst the mud produced is deposited everywhere, on the
cathode as well as on the anode and the bottom of the tank,
thus rendering the copper deposit very impure. The
impurities, in the form of salts which accumulate in the
tanks, impede electrolytic action and subsequently necessitate
complete purification of the liquid.
The author has used currents of 30, 50, and even 60
amperes per square metre, but it is believed it would generally
be well in refining copper not to exceed 50 amperes per sq. m.
of cathode, and to use that strength of current ouly
when all the precautions indicated by him are rigorously
observed.
The composition of the electrolytic solution varies
according to the quality of the copper treated and the
current employed, e.g., for raw copper (92 — 98 per cent. Cu)
and current of 30 amperes per sq. m., the composition is, — -
copper sulphate, 150 parts ; sulphuric acid, 50 parts ; and
water, 800 parts. For raw copper with oxidised anodes and
50 amp. res per sq. m., 200, 55, and 745 parts respectively.
Finally, for copper coming from the converter containing
98 — 99 per cent., and afterwards properly oxidised, a current
of GO amperes per sq. m. may be used with advantage, the
liquid then having the following composition: — Copper
sulphate, 250 parts ; sulphuric acid, 60 parts ; water, 690
parts.
The cupric sulphate is generally manufactured at the
works at the commencement of the electrolytic process, the
tanks being filled with a mixture of 110 parts of sulphuric
acid and 890 parts of water. If a current of 590 amperes
would normally be used, a current of 100 amperes is passed
until the composition of the liquid is that mentioned above.
It will be understood that only one-fifth the normal amount
of copper is deposited by this current, while the oxidised
copper, dissolving easily in the acid, rapidly enriches the
hath with sulphate, which is of excellent quality and is
produced at moderate expense. — A. W.
the Electrolytic Refining of Copper.
Electrical Engineer, New York, 13.
Practical Notes on the A.7.
V. II. Ka.lt. The Electrical Engineer, New York, 13
1892, 598; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 110 (iv.), 78— 79. '
This paper contains a tabulated list of the various refineries
electrolytically worked in the United States, the sum total
■i the output reaching 3,650 tons, and the capital invested
in the several undertakings being over 200,000/.
The most general arrangement of vats is the ordinary
multiple system of connection of plates as in secondary
cells, the anodes and cathodes being all in parallel in each
vat, and the vats being connecled in series and parallel to
meet the electrical requirements.
The crude material is in general black copper cast into
plates of convenient size, and containing 97 per cent, to
98 per cent, of pure copper, and in most of the works is
the raw material introduced, though in some the plates
are smelted and run from matte of 45 per cent, to 54 per
cent, copper.
The solution employed is sulphate of copper, and this is
in all cases purchased and not manufactured on the spot.
It should be noted that matte containing less than 30 oz.
of silver per ton sells at the market price of copper matte ;
but if the silver is over that amount, then it is also paid for
according to the assay results.
One pound of copper per hour is deposited by about
386 amperes ; but the efficiency of the plant can he
theoretically raised to any figure by increasing the
number of vats and the size of plates, though in practice
certain limits are reached which cannot be economically
surpassed.
The usual density of current adopted is about 10 amperes
per square foot, and this cannot be exceeded without
affecting the purity of the copper deposited.
Good circulation of the liquid is also indispensable, and
different methods for obtaining it are described ; the most
successful being afforded by two collecting tanks, into
either of which the liquid flows after circulating through
the depositing vats, fed from a storage-tank at higher
level ; these collecting tanks are used alternately, and when
one is full it can be closed, and the liquid forced up to the
storage-tank by air-pressure.
The scheme advocated for the dynamos is that of separate
excitation of the field magnets so as to avoid reversal of
current and fluctuation of the voltage.
The cost of a plant to deal with 1,000,000 lb. of refined
copper per month, and driven by water-power, is put
at about 25,000/., to which must be added the cost of
copper under treatment, say 16,000/., and if steam power
be required, an additional cost of 4,000/. must be
allowed. Electrolytic refining is, therefore, expensive as
regards the cost of plant, and should, therefore, be erected
on carefully prepared plans of both electrical and mechanical
details. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Extraction of Precious Metals from
their Ores. W. H. Martin and W. Pethybridge, London.
Eng. Pat. 14,823, September 2, 1891.
The pulverised ore, placed in a cylindrical vessel of wood
or iron containing a number of iron balls, is mixed with
water and ammonium formate, hydrocyanic acid, ammonium
cyanide, ammonia or mercuric cyanide ; a small quantity of
mercury is sometimes added. The cylinder is then rotated
at 100 — 500 revolutions per minute and an alternating or
continuous electrical current of high potential passed
through the material ; air or steam, under pressure, is also
forced into the cylinder. After 4 — 6 hours the solution
is separated from the ore by a pump of special construction,
the precious metals electrolysed on to carbon plates and
the amalgam distilled. — W. j. P.
Improvements in Secondary or Storage Batteries. II. II.
Lake, London. From P. Kennedy and ('. J. Diss,
Brooklyn, I'.S.A. Eng. Pat. 1 6,-934, October 6, 1891.
The electrodes are formed of slotted lead plates into the
openings of which are inserted the frames which hold the
active material which is preferably red lead. These frames
are constructed preferably of a material composed of one
part by weight of shellac incorporated with five parts, by
veight, of finely pulverised glass (see following patent),
and are provided with transverse openings expanding
inwardly, and are placed one on either side of a conducting
strip, and connected to it by heating them until they
Nov. 80,1892.] THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
927
become adhesive. The active material is filled into the
openings in the frames which are placed in position in the
slots in the plate and connected to it. — G. H. B.
Improvements in Secondary or Storage Batteries. H. H.
Lake, London. From P. Kennedy and C. J. Diss,
Brooklyn, U.S.A. Eng. I'at. 16,938^ October 6, 1891.
This invention relates to storage batteries in which the
electrical conductivity is provided by a conductor distinct
from the structures which supports the active material, the
latter being composed of materials which are practically
non-conductors (see preceding patent). Some suitable
bituminous, resinous, gummy or gum-resinous material
which is capable of being brought to a plastic condition, and
when in that condition of being mixed with some powdered
mineral substance and moulded and subsequently setting
into a solid mass which is a non-conductor. The best
results arc obtained with shellac and powdered glass in the
proportions of one part by weight of the former to five
parts of the latter.— G. H. 1!.
An Improved < 'ompoundfor Insulating, Covering, Moulding,
and Analogous Purposes. W. J. B. Banks, London.
Fug. Pat. 17,831, October 17, 1891.
Ai'pkoximatei.y equal parts of powdered slate, soap stone,
or French chalk, are mixed into a stiff paste with a solution
of potassium or sodium silicate, and moulded with light
pressure. The articles thus formed are slowly dried and
immersed in a saturated solution of calcium chloride, after
which they are again slowly dried. A bath of an alkaline
stearate, and theu one of " compound sulphate of aluminium
and potassium " may be substituted. The treated articles
may be immersed in tar, bitumen, or paraffin, and may be
glazed or polished by known methods. — B. B.
^4 New or Improved Portable Galvanic Battery. P. Stiens,
Berlin, Prussia. Eng. Pat. 4185, March 3, 1892.
According to this invention the battery is supplied with a
reservoir placed on a shelf above it. This vessel is pro-
vided with three openings, one of which is in connection
with the air, another is connected with the distributing
apparatus, and the third with the pipe and pump which
returns electrolyte from the vessel in which it collects after
passing through the cells. The cells are arranged in tiers
one over the other, and are hermetically sealed. The
overflow from each tier is led to a counterbalanced vessel
which tips up and discharges into the next lower tier of
cells, the overflow from which fills the same counter-
balanced vessel, and so on. The overflow from the last
tier of cells passes into the lower reservoir from which it
can be pumped up again into the upper. Means are
provided for regulating the flow of the electrolyte. — G. H. B.
Improvements in and Relating to Electrical Accumulators
or Secondary Batteries. D. Young, London. From
A. E. Colgate, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,562,
July 26, 1892.
The plates are made of thin strips or ribbons of metallic
lead which are perforated transversely in numerous rows.
The strips are then corrugated and twisted loosely like a
strand of yarn, and these strands are woven by any of the
ordinary methods into a band or series of plates. When
a sufficient number of the mats have been produced, two
or three, or more of them, are laid upon one another and
subjected to moderate pressure, whereby compound plates
are formed sufficiently compacted to hold together in
ordinary handling. The plates are then shaped by
trimming their edges and fusing them by a blowpipe
flame, and are then fitted into a cast lead frame by fusion
of the parts in contact. The plates are then in a finished
state and ready for the usual treatment or forming process.
— G. H. B.
Electrodes for Secondary Batteries. J. C. Fell, London.
From W. Morrison, Des Moines, Iowa, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 14,044, August 3, 1892.
These electrodes are made up of elongated coils of lead
ribbon which are compressed and set side by side
transversely in a frame. These coils have a hollow space
extending nearly their whole length, thus providing for the
free circulation of the electrolyte. — G. H. B.
Improvements in Dry Galvanic Batteries. C. C. Lesenberg,
Rostock, and J. von der Poppenburg, Berlin, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 14,089, August 4, 1892.
• The battery consists of a zinc vessel or cup filled with
finely-chopped or ground fibrous materials, such as straw,
chaff, and other vegetable matters which have been steeped
in hot water. Hydrates of carbon, such as dextrin, glucose,
or starch may be mixed with this, and water is added so that
the entire mass is moist, and yet will not give off any water.
In the centre of the zinc cup is placed a cylindrical hollow
carbon electrode which tapers at its upper end. This cylinder
has been steeped in an aqueous solution of hydroxide of
chromium which has been made by dissolving the precipitate
formed on the addition of sulphuric acid to bichromate of
potash solution. A small quantity of the hydroxide of
chromium is inserted into the carbon cylinder, and the
bottom is closed by a cork. When all the parts have been
inserted the cell is sealed up.— G. H. R,
Improvements in Electric Battery Plates. E. P. Usher,
Grafton, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 14,816,
August 16, 1892.
The improvements relate to battery plates which have no
internal supporting frame. Tablets of finely-perforated
lead filled with dry powdered oxide of lead, and having
central longitudinal conducting strips protruding from one
end, are taken, and these conducting strips are connected
together by a transverse strip. The series of united tablets
are held substantially parallel by transverse perforated
strips which surround the several tablets, and project
therefrom to ensure an open space between adjacent plates
and tablets for the free circulation of the electrolyte.
— G. H. K.
Improvements in Storage Batteries. E. P. Usher, Grafton,
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 14,814, August 16,
1892.
The bottom and sides of the battery elements are enclosed
by a flexible wrapper of vulcanised rubber or similar
compound, upon the surface of which inclined yielding lips
are formed with a grooved space between the adjacent lips
to receive the edge of the lead paste, or frame, and to hold
it vertical. The lips of each pair separate at the Hue of
meeting of their inclined surfaces to receive the edges of a
separator sheet interposed between successive positive and
negative plates. The battery plates are cast as a thin
sheet with a series of vertical ribs or flanges projecting on
opposite sides, between which ribs the active material is
introduced, intermediate wells or spaces being preferably-
left open for more free circulation. The active material is
in the form of tablets which may be introduced endwise
after the plates and separators are in place. These tablets
are preferably made. by wrapping the proper amount of dry
active material in an envelope of thin lead foil, and then
flattening and perforating the envelope. — G. H. B.
Improvements in Diaphragms for Electrolytic Decomposing
Apparatus. A. Breuer, Duisburg, Germany. Eng. Pat.
19,775, November 14, 1892.
The object of this invention is to substitute for the porous
partitions of clay, which soon lose their efficiency, particularly
when used in the electrolysis of alkaline chlorides, a
diaphragm formed of a porous cement substance which
928
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. LNov. so, 1892.
shall be unacted on. Four methods of manufacture are
given :—
First. — Sifted pieces of pumice stone or coke of from
4 to 8 mm. thick are carefully mixed with natural or
artificial cement, such as lime or magnesia cement, in equal
proportions, diluted with water to form a thick paste, and
put in moulds. After setting, the moulded pieces can he
used. The thickness of the pieces of pumice stone or coke
depends on the thickness of the moulded pieces to be
obtained. The pieces of pumice stone or coke mentioned in
this example are suitable for the manufacture of plates of
from 12 to 15 mm. thick.
Second 35 litres of reduced rock-salt are mixed with
65 litres of natural or artificial cement, such as lime or
magnesia cement, diluted with water to form a thick paste,
and put in moulds. In lieu of rock-salt use ma}- be made
of other soluhle salts. After setting, the moulded pieces
or plates are lixiviated with water.
Third. — 50 litres of natural or artificial cement, such as
lime or magnesia cement, are intimately mixed with 36 litres
of a solution of rock-salt, which contains about 25U grins.
of rock-salt per litre, and 14 litres of hydrochloric acid,
proceeding as stated in the second example. The solution
of rock-salt can be replaced by other solutions of metallic
salt, and the hydrochloric acid by other (inorganic or
organic) acids.
Fourth. — 100 litres of natural or artificial cement, such
as lime or magnesia cement, are intimately mixed with
2 kilos, of cow hair or woollen yarn cut to pieces, diluted
to form a thick paste and put in moulds. Such moulded
pieces or plates possess after they are set such a porosity
that in the use of the same a greater resistance to the
current does not occur ; in use the hair or the woollen
fibres are gradually dissolved in the liquor, thereby
rendering the plates still more porous. — G. H. R.
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Viscosity at Low Temperatures of Black Mineral Oils
Holde. Mitth. Konigl. Techn. Versnehs. 1892, 12G— 130.
See under XXIII., page 941.
The Determination of the Purity of Oliee Oils. F. Leng-
feld and L. Paparelli. Rev. Internat. des Falsificat. 5,
1892, 98.
■See under XXIII., page 943.
PATENTS.
Improved Composition for Treatment of Fibrous Material,
either during or after Manufacture, also Applicable as a
Household Article for Washing, Cleaning, and other
Purposes. G. E. Armstrong, New York, U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 17,325, October 12, 1891.
Vegetable oil or grease is saponified with caustic soda
of 1*16 sp.gr. From this saponaceous mass the glycerin
may or may not be removed. The material is, when cold, cut
into slices, thoroughly air-dried, and pulverised. It is then
mixed with sodium carbonate and rosin in the following
proportions : — sodium carbonate, 41 • 5 to 65 ; saponaceous
mass, 10 to 33-5 ; rosin, 25. A solution of the above may
he used for washing for household purposes, as a substitute
for soda-ash in bleaching, and fcr imparting certain desirable
properties to raw fibre.— A. .T. K.
Improvements in Bleaching, Deodorising, and Purifying
Fats and Oils, and Apparatus therefor. W. Mills,
Feckham, Loudon. Eng. Pat. 18,224, October 23, 1891.
The inventor purifies and bleaches non-drying fats and oils
by means of a mixture of hot air and volatilised sulphuric
trioxide (anhydride) which is passed by suitable pumps
and in a suitable state of sub-division (by means of per-
forated pipes) into a "mixer" capable of withstanding a
pressure of two atmospheres. The bleaching is said to be
specially efficient owing to the decomposition of the
sulphuric trioxide into sulphurous acid and oxygen, both of
which are acting as in statu nascendi. The bleached oils
are finally purified by well-known methods. Three sheets
of drawings illustrate the apparatus for carrying out this
invention. — J. L.
An Improved Fluid Soap. F. G. Haigh and W. C. Uaigh,
Manchester. Eng. Pat. 18,632, October 29, 1891.
The patent is claimed for a soap consisting of 20 parts of
water, 2 parts of paraffin, 2 parts of resin, 4 parts of fat,
and 1 part of caustic potash. — J. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Soap. J. Taylor,
Leith. Eng. Pat. 19,297, November 7, 1891.
The inventor combines a mixture of resin soap and sodium
sulphate with any ordinary soap, and adds finally borax or
sodium silicate. — J. L.
An Improved Cleansing Material. H. E. Walter, Brixton,
Eng. Pat. 20,445, November 24, 1891.
The improved cleansing material consists of ordinary soap
with which animal or vegetable fibres are incorporated.
—.1. L.
A Process of Extracting, Purifying, and Saving the Fat or
Grease from Wool, and for Cleaning the Wool by the
use of Benzole (Benzene) or any other Spirituous Liquid
suitable for Dissolving the Fat or Crease. .]. Trent and
G. Henderson, Christchurch, New Zealand. Eng. Pat.
15,012, November 2G, 1891.
Raw wool is soaked in benzene, &c. and the dissolved fat
removed by means of a press or rollers. The solvent used
is recovered by distilling off the volatile benzene, &c. from
the grease. — J. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Soap. E. .T. T. Dighy,
London. Eng. Pat. 20,590, November 26, 1891.
A sum' of "great hygienic and cleansing properties and
much cheaper than ordinary soap " is prepared by mixing
with soap, weight for weight, oyster or other shells which
have been cleansed by acetic acid, powdered and " boiled
with sulphate of potash, or soda, or other equivalent sub-
stance into a fine paste." — J. L.
Improvements in the Separation of Wool-Wa.r from Wool-
Fat, and in the Preparation of Lanoline from the more
Fluid licsidne. B. Jaffe and L. Darmstaedter, Charlot-
tenburg, Germany. Eng. Pat. 14,114, August 4, 1892.
The object of this invention is to separate the constituents
of the wool-fat into different groups of varying hardness,
the harder wax-like parts being recommeuded as a
substitute for bees-wax, the softer being worked into lanolin
by known methods. For this purpose the wool-fat is
dissolved in a heavier benzine (paraffin hydrocarbon),
benzene, toluene, xylene, ether, chloroform, bisulphide of
carbon, or turpentine oil, and to this solution is added
methyl- or ethyl-alcohol, which precipitates the harder
substances of the wool-fat. The hardness and quantity of
Nov.8<U892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
929
the separated wax-like substances may be varied by the
quantity of alcohol added ; the smaller the quantity
separated, the harder is the product, the harder substances
being the Hist to separate. The softer fats remain dissolved
and are recovered by distilling off the solvents. The same
result can be obtained in a cheaper way by dissolving the
wool-fat in fusel oil, acetone, acetic ether or its homologues,
ami cooling the solutions a few degrees below the melting
point of the hardest substances. Instead of cooling the
solutions alcohol may also be used for fractionally precipi-
tating the harder constituents, as described above. — J. L.
Improvements relating to the Desulphuration of Oils. H.
II. Lake, London. From 0. P. Amend and J. H. Macy,
New fork, U.S.A. Kug. Pat. 14,405, August 9, 1892.
I'm: patentees recommend the refinement of petroleum oils
containing sulphur compounds, as Ohio aud Canadian oils,
1>\ vaporising the oil, subjecting the oil-vapour, together with
the sulphur contained therein, to a temperature above the
boiling-point of the latter, and by this means vaporising
the sulphur, then exposing the latter to the action of such
chemical agents as will act upon or will combine with
sulphur, and finally condensing the oil. The patentees
prefer, in order to insure the complete vaporisation of the
sulphur, a red heat clearly distinguishable in daylight, and
have found temperatures between 700° and 1,200° very
successful in practice. They recommend the use of a
number of chemical substances that will unite with sulphur
when vaporised, as for instance, various metals, their
oxides, and sub-oxides. The oxides and hydroxides of the
alkalis also give good results, but preference is given to the
employment of oxidising agents, such as manganese
dioxide and other higher oxides of mauganese, barium
peroxide, the manganates and permanganates, chromates
and dichromates, chromic iron ore, and lead dioxide. — D. U.
In the second series of experiments it was proved that
the extension did not sensibly vary, for a given quality,
with the thickness or sectional area, and that the extension
did not in any case exceed 12 per cent, of the originat
length of the test-pieces.
The amount of ash was found to be independent of the
specific gravity and extensibdity. The colour of the ash
indicated the presence of certain metallic acids.
It was found that the extensibility multiplied by three
times the specific gravity gave a constant = 1 1 • 1 .
The solubility in bisulphide of carbon was determined
in Saouclete's apparatus, but did not give any practical
results.
After drying in a desiccator for three weeks, no samples
gave a loss in weight of exceeding S per cent.
The author deduces the following conclusions from his
experiments : —
(1) India-rubber should not give the slightest signs of
superficial cracks on being tent to an angle of 180° after
five hours' exposure in a closed air-bath to a temperature of
125° C. The test-pieces should be about 6 centimetres
thick.
(2) Rubber containing not more than 50 per cent, by
weight of metallic oxides, should stretch to five times its
length without breaking.
(3) Pure caoutchouc, free from all foreign matter except
the sulphur necessary for its vulcanisation, should stretch
seven times its length without breaking.
(4) The extension measured immediately after rupture
should not exceed 12 per cent, the original length of the
test-piece. The test-pieces should be from 3 to 12 mm.
wide, and not more than U mm. thick, and 3 cm. long.
(5) The percentage of ash gives a certain indication of
the degree of softness, and may form a basis for the choice
between different qualities for cettain purposes.
Moreover, any excess of sulphur over that required for
vulcanisation should be removed 2t the works, and should
not appear on the surface of any object. Also the sulphur
should not harden under the influence of frost. — W. S.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIGMENTS, VARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc,
Investigation of the Properties of India-Rubber and Data
for the Establishment of Rules for its Reception in the
( Russian) Navy. Lieut. L. Vladimiroff , Morskoi Sbornik,
.St. Petersburg, 1892, 57 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 109,
75 — 7G.
Owing to the want of an established system of testing vul-
canised india-rubber, aud to the fact that chemical anal} sis
gives no reliable results, the author was induced to make in
the St. Petersburg Technical Institute a series of experi-
ment-upon the best rueans of testing this substance. The
samples were supplied by the Russo-American factory of
St. Petersburg and by the Moscow factory of that city.
The experiments were comprised under the following
heads : —
(1) The behaviour of various qualities of rubber at high
temperature until the appearance of signs of damage.
(2) The determination of the extension at the moment of
rupture of test-pieces of various sectional area.
(3) The determination of the percentage of ash.
(4) The determination of the percentage soluble in
carbon bisulphide.
(5) The determination of the hygroscopic capacity.
The influence of temperature was determined by exposing
samples, several cm. long and from 3 to 6 cm. thick, in an
air-bath, to a temperature of 125° C. The samples were
then bent first to an angle of 45', aud then to 180°, and
were examined for cracks. It was shown that the best
qualities should withstand an exposure to 125J C. for five
hours without any external change.
The Durability of India- Rubber Hot -Water Pipes.
E. Belleroche. Rev. Univ. des Mines, 18, 1892, 25; Proc.
Inst. Civil Eug. HO (iv.), 21.
On the Grand Central Railway of Belgium the warming of
the carriages by hot water circulating through pipes
connected by india-rubber coupling tubes from carriage to
carriage, was introduced in 1882, and from that date
observations have been made in order to determine the
average duration of the connecting pipes. On the Charleroi
and Yireux section of the line, where the first experiments
were made, the number of pipes in use increased from
26 in 1883 to 89 in 1891, the ages of which at the end of
each year are given in a table, from which it appears that
no loss was experienced on the original number of 2G for
four years, after which they became worn out in increasing
numbers, and were entirely gone at the end of the ninth
year. The mean age of the tubes at work at the end of
1891 was 3-5 years. The author hopes the age will be
increased by the adoption of a new system of connections
which will materially diminish the wear aud tear incidental
to coupling and uncoupling the carriages. — W. S.
930
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Nov. 30, 1892,
XIV -TANNING, LEATHEK, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
Analysis of Commercial Yolk of Egg. F. Jean. Monit.
Scient. 6, Aug. 1892, 561.
See under XXIII., page 941.
PATENTS.
Improvements in or Relating to the Finishing of Leather.
B. J. Gibney, Nottingham. Eng. Pat. 18,951, November 3,
1891.
With the object of strengthening fragile skins or the thin
portion of split skins, a sheet of linen, canvas, paper, or
other material is cemented or pasted thereon. Thus pre-
pared the skins may he put through the ordinary finishing
operations which otherwise would be too severe. — W. M. G.
A New or Improved Process for the Production of Boron
Sulphate Compounds, and the Application of such
Products to the Unhairing of Hides or Skins, and to
the Prevention of Putrefaction. E. Edwards, London.
From H. Bauer and J. Gyiketta, Stuttgart, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 19,637, November 12, 1891.
The new compounds called " borol " are made by adding
by degrees an equivalent part of boracic acid to aii equiva-
lent part of a fused bisulphate — such as bisulphate of
potash or soda — and heating the mixture to 500° C. Or
under the same conditions heating a borate with a mono-
sulphate and sulphuric acid. Water is expelled, and the
new compound "borol" remains as a clear fluid mass,
which, on cooling, forms a transparent, glassy, brittle body.
Thus —
.OH
so/
\ONa
/OH -O— BO
+ B(- OH = 2H„0 + SO»<
\ OH \ ONa
The substance is soluble in water, and has an acid
reaction and taste. Although containing proportionately a
small quantity of boron it has greater antiseptic properties
than boracic acid. For these reasons it is well suited for
unhairing hides and skins, and for preserving animal and
vegetable substances from putrefaction.
For unhairing hides, " the pit of the tannery is to be
three-quarters rilled up with hike-warm water. To this
water is added and mixed therewith a proportionate quantity
of ' borol,' amounting to from i to j per cent, of the
water." " The hides to be unhaired should first be freed from
all impurities by soaking, and then placed so cleansed in
the said solution, and allowed to remain in it about a quarter
to half an hour according to the kind of leather. The hides
are then removed and worked in a fulling trough with
water, after which they are ready for tanning. For pre-
serving and disinfecting purposes powdered ' borol ' is to be
mixed with suitable indifferent substances," such as common
salt, Glaubers salt, &c. — H. S. P.
Improvement in the Manufacture of Animal Glue.
E. Brand, Kostock, Germany. Fng. Pat. 15,630, August
31, 1892.
The inventor adds to the glue a mixture of borax and
calcined potash, as borax alone is not sufficiently alkaline
to kill the corrupting bacteria in the glue gelatin. The
process is performed by dissolving 60 kilos, of ground
borax in 100 kilos, of boiling water containing 4 kilos, of
90 per cent, calcined potash, and then pouring this into
1,450 Kilos, of hot glue liquor showing 12° by the hydro-
meter. The product so obtained will keep for a long time
without developing any obnoxious smell. Printed work
when coated over with this glue is rendered more durable,
and it will also be found superior to cake glue in the carpet
and leather manufacture, also in bookbinding. — L. de K.
XVI.-SUGAE, STARCH, GUM, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Extracting Juice from
Sugar Canes. I). Stewart, Glasgow, Lanark. Eng. Pat.
16,464, September 29, 1891.
In the subjoined drawing, A is an open vessel supported
by pillars B above an upwardly acting hydraulic press C,
the plate D, of which is exactly adapted to the flanged
bottom edge E of the vessel A ; when D is raised it
closes A tightly. F is a perforated shell in which the canes
are placed vertically, it may have an inner perforated tube
G, thus making the space for the canes annular. The shell
is run on to the plate D by a truck, or on wheels H and
is thence raised by the hydraulic press C into the vessel A.
The piston J of the hydraulic press K is then forced down
upon the canes, whereby they are crushed and a large
portion of the juice expressed. This juice is then drawn by
£S3
means of pumps (not shown) connected with the pipe P,
into a closed receptacle L, which communicates with the
bottom of the vessel A by pipes JI and N— preferably by
several connecting branches round the circumference of A.
After drawing off the expressed juice, the piston J is raised,
and water or syrup of suitable strength (preferably hot) is
forced through pipes Q and N into A to extract the remain-
ing saccharine matter from the crushed canes. The
crushing operation may be repeated if necessary. This
improved apparatus thus consists of an inverted vessel, a
hydraulic press arranged for closing the bottom of the vessel
and lifting up into it a shell or basket containing sugar canes,
;; piston moved downwards by hydraulic pressure for
crushing the canes, a vessel to receive the juice, pipe con-
nections with pumps for producing vacuum, and pipe
connections for injecting water or syrup, the parts being
combined, and operating as described. — A. B. L
Nov.so.i892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
931
Improvements in Apparatus for Separating Impurities
from Sugar. J. Druinmond, Govau, N.B. Eng. Pat.
'20,119, November 19, 1891.
A series of perforated plates are arranged horizontally
round a vertical revolving axis. At one part of the circuit
the sugar is fed on to the plates and the movement takes it
under a horizontal bar which regulates the thickness of the
mass on the plates. At further stages the sugar is subjected
to the action of compressed air and of washing licpiors, and
is finally deflected off the plate by a scraper into a hopper.
—A. J. K.
Improvements in Centrifugal Machines or Hydro-extractors
for Extracting Sugar Juice and for other Purposes.
J. C. Mewburn, London. Kng. Pat. 20,142, November 19,
1891.
1!y a special design a centrifugal machine is constructed
which will work continuously and can be tilled and emptied
without stopping the machine. — A. J. K.
\< »>r//- Improved Process and Apparatus for Concreting
Sugar or Crystallising Saline or other Solutions.
W. P. Thompson. Liverpool. From J. A. Morell and
W. P. Striugfellow, New Orleans, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
833G, .May 3, 1S92.
See under I., page 895.
XVII-BREWIM, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
The Pentosans {Wood-Gum, Xylan, and Araban) of
Lignified Fibre. C. Schulze and B. Tollens. Annalen.
271, 1892, 55-59.
Dried brewers' grains were washed successively with 2 per
cent, ammonia and water, and dried. A portion was treated
with 5 per cent, soda-lye (6 parts) for two days, when a
gelatinous mass was obtained, which, when freed from the
liquid portion, and washed with alcohol, hydrochloric acid
and ether, left 7 per cent, of the original weight of material
employed as wood gum of specific rotatory power [a]D =
— 70*11 j this on hydrolysis with dilute sulphuric acid
yielded a mixture consisting mostly of xylose, but containing
a little arabinose. Another portion of the extracted grains
was boiled for six hours with 4 per cent, sulphuric acid
when a mixture of xylose and arabinose, similar to that
mentioned above, was isolated from the solution ; whilst the
residue on digestion with soda-lye partially dissolved, and
from the solution a brown gum — identical with Hoffmeister's
cellulose gum — was obtained. The residue after this treat-
ment was completely soluble in ammoniacal cupric oxide ;
it was not, however, pure cellulose, but showed, on warming
with dilute hydrochloric acid, the presence of pentoses.
It is therefore possible, by the above treatment, to dissolve
the lignified cells of the grains, and since xylose and arabi-
nose are found to be invariable products of hydrolysis, the
presence of the pentosans, xylan and araban, is demonstrated.
The complete separation of cellulose and the pentosans was
cot, however, accomplished, and the authors believe that
these compounds exist in combination in the original
material. E. Schulze has, indeed, shown (Zeits. f. physiol.
Chem. 16, 436) that a cellulose containing both dextrose
and xylose groups is present, together with lignin proper, in
lignified fibre. — A. E. L.
Note mi some Conditions under which the Fluorides exert
a Maximum Effect in Solutions of Fermentable Matter.
J. Effront. Mo'nit. Scient. 6, 1832, 81—85.
As the result of further investigations the author finds that
acidity is the most important factor that governs the anti-
septic action of fluorides on the lactic, butyric, and acetic
ferments. In a neutral or alkaline medium, fluorides and
even hydrofluoric acid, have no retarding influence. In
fact, the lactic ferment was found to develop in an alkaline
or neutral wort, containing as much as 50 — 100 mgrms. of
a soluble fluoride per 100 cc. The antiseptic action only
becomes evident in an- acid medium, and is proportional to
the amount of acid present. An addition of 3 — 0 mgrms.
of a fluoride to ordinary distillery wort suffices to arrest
completely the growth of acid ferments ; and the dose may
be reduced to 0'005 to 1 mgrm. if the wort contain 3 grms.
of acid (calculated as H2S04) per litre. Temperature is
auother factor, although only of secondary importance, the
maximum antiseptic effect being obtained at 50' — 60" C.
As regards the action of fluorides on yeast, the chemical
composition of the wort plays a most important part. The
author has previously shown that the addition of 6 mgrms.
of fluoride to a pure cane-sugar fermentation renders the
yeast perfectly inert. In the case of malt wort this
experience is completely reversed, a distinct increase in the
fermentative and reproductive power of the yeast being
observed. This difference in behaviour was eventually found
to be due to the phosphates, particularly potassium phos-
phate, always present in wort. Experiments illustrating
this fact were made with molasses. Similar results were
obtained when pure yeast was used in the fermentations. The
influence of phosphates is less marked when a large excess
of yeast is employed. The degree of acidity of a wort when
it exceeds a certain limit greatly accentuates the retarding
influence of fluorides on yeast. Thus, in a malt wort
containing per 100 cc, 540 mgrms. of lactic acid, 0'5 mgrm.
of HF produces a distinct effect, whilst in presence of
10 mgrms. fermentation and yeast reproduction are almost
completely arrested. In quantities up to 360 mgrms. lactic
acid has but little influence. (See this Journal, 1890, 748,
1055 ; 1892, 50, 626— 627.)— H. T. P.
PATENTS.
Improvements relating to the Production and Preservation
of Pure Yeast. H. B. Newton, London. From La
Societe Anonyme " La Levure," Paris. Eng. Pat. 13,088,
August 1, 1891.
Tin', fermenting vessel consists of a closed metallic vessel
with the necessary connections, attemperator, &c. Sterilised
wort is run in and seeded with a pure cultivation of yeast.
Sterilised air is blown through the wort as the fermentation
proceeds with the object of increasing the yield of yeast.
When the fermentation has ceased, the contents of the vessel
are led into a filter, consisting of a conical vessel of perforated
sheet iron or wire gauze, and covered with a cloth. The
yeast remaining on the cloth is mixed with wort containing
5 — 15 per cent, gelatin and run into sterilised vessels, which
are then sealed and may be kept with unimpaired quality
for some time. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Spirits. H. A.
Snelling, London. Eng. Pat. 17,558, October 14, 1891.
The object is to obtain a spirit with a fine flavour from
fermented wort prepared from raw grain.
Before fermentation the wort is mixed with hops, about
10 lb. to every 100 gallons of wort, and the fermented
liquor distilled. Before the second distillation, a further
amount of 4 — 5 lb. hops are added to every 100 gallons.
The hops are best prepared by first withering in the air for
4 — 24 hours, and then heated to 240° F. in a " Davidson's
sirocco" for 15 minutes. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for
Securing a Continutnis Time Record of the Rate of
Distillation and Direction of Flow of Distilled Fluids.
J. J. MeDaniel, Bandon, Co. Cork. Eng. Pat. 17,750,
October 16, 1891.
The condenser discharges into an open receiver, from which
pipes lead to the different vessels. The apparatus is so
F 2
932
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Noy.30, 1S92.
arranged that the distillate can only escape by one of
these pipes at a time. A small open vessel is in com-
munication with each of these pipes, and in it is a float.
The movements of the float are communicated by a cord to
a pencil, which marks on a rotating cylinder the variations
in the height of the float ; as this is proportional to the rate
of flow from the condenser, a continuous record is thus
obtained. — A. L. S.
Improvements in Drying and Calcining Uracils' Refuse
ami Grains and other Substances and Materials. E.
Barlow, Manchester. Eng. Pat. 18,833, October 31,
1891.
Tins is an improvement of the apparatus described in
EDg. Pat. 12,535 of 1890, for drying the above-mentioned
substances in a rotating cylinder heated in a furnace.
If hot air be supplied to the interior of the cylinder,
caking and burning of the substances are avoided, and a
better and more marketable product is obtained.
The air is heated by passing through a tube placed in the
upper part of the furnace, and is distributed in the interior
of the rotating cylinder by a psrforated tube concentric
with its axis. — A. L. S.
Improvements in Kilning Malt, and in Structures and
Apparatus therefor. R. H. Leaker, Bristol. Eng. Pat.
18,997, November 4, 1891.
The kiln is very similar to an ordinary malt kiln, and is
provided with two floors. The special arrangement is that
the heated air after passing through the malt on the lower
floor does not pass through the malt on the upper floor, but
escapes by a separate flue, and the heated air for the malt
on the second floor is conducted from the fire to the malt
by a flue, and after passing through the malt escapes
through openings in the roof.
The flues are provided with dampers so that either floor
may be used separately or both together. — A. L. S.
An Improved Process of' Finishing Beer. .T. F. W'itteman.
New York, U.S.A. Eng, Pat. 6531, April 5, 1892.
Tin: patent relates to the brewing of lager beer. It is
proposed to conduct the fermentation under a pressure of
air or carbonic acid gas and maintain or increase the
pressure until the beer has become brilliant and is racked.
—A. L. S.
Improvements in the Treatment of flops and their Use in
lin trin,/. 11. J. 11. Mills. London. From " The Brewing
Improvement Company," Maywood, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 9777. May 23, 1892.
Before using hops in the copper or cask, it is proposed to
subject them to the action of dry heat until they are parched.
It is claimed that there are many advantages in using hops
which have undergone this treatment.— A. L. S.
Improvements in Methods and Apparatus for Carbonaling
Beer. \'. .1. B. Mills, London. From " The Universal
Carbonating Company," Newark, New Jersey, I'.S.A.
I ng. Pat. 12,413, July 5, 1892.
This relates more particularly to lager beer. The cat-
enating apparatus consists of a tube through which the
beer passes at a pressure of 20 lb. on the square inch, and
into which carbonic acid gas is injected. The nnabsorbed
gas i- re-injected into the uncarbonated beer. After filtra-
tion the beer is racked at a sufficiently high level to reduce
the pressure to 5—8 lb. per square inch.— A. L. S.
XVIII.-CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITAKY
CHEMISTRY. AND DISINFECTANTS.
(A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
Note on the Optical and Chemical Analysis of Butler.
F. Jean. Monit. Scient. 6, 1892, 91—98.
See under XXIII., page 94 5.
The Reaction of Milk to Phenol phthulein. L. Vaudin.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 283.
The milk of all the animals that the author has examined
is acid to phenolphthaleiu when fresh. That of the sheep,
goat, and eow, is fairly strongly acid : that of the mare,
ass, sow, hitch, and woman, is feebly acid. By the former
term is meant an acidity corresponding to about 1 or 2 gnus,
of phosphoric acid per litre, whilst the quantities included
in the latter phrase range from 0' 1 to 0' 4 grm.
The author has also studied the differences in the acidity
of the miik of the cow at various periods before and after
parturition ; he has found that the acidity diminishes to
about one-half when the pregnant animal is on the point of
ceasing to give milk, and becomes two or three times as
great as usual when calving is about to take place. The
influence of fodder is small for the same animal. Evening
milk is always less acid than that drawn in the morning or
at midday. The variations due to differences of breed or
of soil are not great. In short, the greatest effect is that
due to individual peculiarities. — B. B.
PATENTS.
Improvements in .Apparatus for the Manufacture of Butter.
X. Holland and II. Francois, Brussels, Belgium. Eng.
Pat. 15,352, September 10, 1891.
The invention relates to apparatus for butter-making, and
provides improved means for the passing of bubbles of
purified air through the milk, which will cause the required
agitation and the complete separation of the butter.
The apparatus consists essentially of a suitable generator
of an air current, such as a fan or blower, a purifying
vessel containing a suitable material for filtering the air,
and a churn connected with the blower by a pipe which
delivers the air into a perforated box placed in the bottom
of the churn, and made of two flanged parts riveted or
bolted together, the said air escaping from the box and then
rising through the milk.
The cylindrical sides of the box are best extended
upwards and connected to an outer cylinder, so as to
provide an annular chamber communicaliug, by means of
perforations, with the box below and laterally with the
liquid within the upwardly extending sides so that the
milk is acted upon both in a horizontal and vertical
direction. The air purifier is constructed of a cylindrical
vessel provided with a covet fastened by means of a catch,
so as to renew the wadding. To prevent particles of
wadding from entering the air-pipe, the vessel is provided
at each side with a nozzle, in front of which is arranged a
sieve or grating allowing of the passage of the air.
— L. de K.
Improved Apparatus for the Production of Dry E.rlraet
of I 'off'ee or Tea. P. Meyer, Paris, France. Eng. Pat
17,3G3, October 12, 1891.
Tin process employed is an improvement on the one
described in Eng. Pat. 19,882, December 10, 1S89. It is
now also extended to the manufacture of dry extract of tea.
The process consists essentially in preparing an extract
of coffee or tea and flavouring this with the essential oils
derived from the roasting of either coffee or tea. — L. de K.
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
933
An Improved Blood-forming Substance and Method of
Producing the Same. E. B. Robert, Dorpat, Russia.
Eng. Pat. 19,859, November 16, 1891.
Tin-: invention relates to the preparation of a blood-forming
medicine superior to iron albuminates, iron peptonates, and
homoglobin preparations on account of the greater propor-
tion of available iron which it contains.
Fresh, delibrinnted blood suitably diluted with water is
mixed with a reducing agent, such as a saturated solution
of pyrogallic acid. A voluminous precipitate is obtained,
which is washed first with water and then with alcohol.
After lining, the preparation is ready for use; it contains
1 per cent, of iron.
If. instead of pyrogallic acid, other reducing agents, such
as zinc, iron, and the like, are used, the .precipitate must be
subjected to a purification so as to remove the last traces
of the reagent used. This is best effected by treating it
with a saturated solution of sal volatile, and after filtering
off from any deposit, it may be reprecipitated by cautious
addition of weak hydrochloric acid. It is thus obtained as
a brownish-red precipitate, which must be washed with
water and then dried over sulphuric arid or calcium
chloride. — I. de K.
Improvements in Fodder Cakes, A. J. I'oult, London.
From A. W. Rehnstrora, MtLlhammar, Sweden. Kng.
Pat. 10.26G, May 30, 1892.
This object of the inventor is to utilise the whey obtained
in dairies after the manufacture of cheese, and to obtain
therefrom a substantial, wholesome, and fattening food for
calves and other young cattle.
After the whey has been reduced to a small bulk by
evaporation, it is mixed in varying proportions with linseed
cake, maize, rice, peas, beans, or similar foods, to which a
little bone-dust ma}* also be added. The commingled
ingredients are then made into cakes of suitable form by
subjecting them to pressure. To obtain the cakes in a
more porous state, the ingredients may be mixed with
carbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid. They are
formed without being subjected to pressure, and after being
baked in an oven they are ready for use. — L. de K.
Improvements in Soluble Chocolate and the Process of
Preparing the Same. S. T. Achor, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
Kng. Pat. 13,615, July 26, 1892.
Tin: inventor has improved a composition which is a
confection and at the same time a basis to form a chocolate
beverage without boiling.
About 1 lb. of chocolate, 1' lb. cf sugar, and 1 pint of
cream or condensed milk is heated and made into a thick
paste, and finally stiffened by adding more sugar until it
can be handled and moulded into pieces of suitable size.
The pieces are then immersed in a thick syrup of sugar
and water until they arc covered with crystallised sugar,
when they are taken out and allowed to dry.
This produces a hard close covering of sugar all over
the central mass, excluding the air, and so preserving the
preparation indefinitely. The cakes readily dissolve in
warm water. — L. de K.
Improvements relating to the Production of Cheese. E. O.
N. Salenius, Stockholm. Sweden. Eng. Pat. 13,641,
July 26, 1892.
The liquid designed for making cheese, such as skim milk,
fatty milk, or cream, is heated to a suitable temperature
and introduced into a continuous butter-making machine.
Rennet or a suitable acid should be mixed with it either
before or after it is put into the apparatus. In the
production of fat cheeiC it is advantageous to agitate the
liquid during the centrifugal action, but this is not necessary
when meagre cheese is wanted. Colouring agents or
ft ivouriug matters may be added in drops or continuously
t.i the liquid during its treatment in the apparatus. The
curd or cheese mixture is finally treated in the ordinary
manner to obtain cheese, the curd and the whey having
been removed either together or separately.
The apparatus employed has been already described in
Eng. Pat. 21,068, December 24, 1890, but the liquid may
also be treated or agitated by other means. — L. de. K.
(O.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY
The Purification of Waste Water from Worlts by Alumina.
Rev. Ind. 23, 386.
Tin- waters, which remain clear for some days, contain 500
to sun grins, of fatty matter per cubic metre! If to 1 litre
of this liquid is added 1 grin, of alumina, together with
15 to 20 per cent, of water, the solution turns brown, and
a precipitate is formed which, when heated to 100° C,
leaves a residue weighing l'6grm., and containing 30 per
cent, of fatty matter. Also, if to a solution of soap in
distilled water to which a few drops of hydrochloric acid
had been added, a small quantity of alumina be now added,
the liquid is instantly cleared with formation of an abundant
precipitate. — G. H. E.
Is Magenta Poisonous.' P. Cazeneuve. Monit. Scient,
August 1S92, 557—560.
See under IV., page 900,
PATENTS.
Improvements in or Appertaining to Disinfectants for
II aler-i 'Insets anil other Places or Things where Water
is used. H. B. Thornton, Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 13,-~,6'>
August 5, 1891.
For details concerning this invention consult the inventor's
later patent (Eng. Pat. 17,421, 1891; this Journal, 1892,
365).— H. T. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Filtering Polluted Waters
and other such Liquids. V. P. Candy, London. Eng.
Pat. 16,604, September 30, 1891.
The special feature in this apparatus is the facility with
which the filtering material can be washed. The apparatus
consists of a cylindrical vessel provided with a perforated
false bottom on which the filtering material rests. A
vertical shaft, which can be rotated fr-pm the outside,
reaches down to the false bottom, and carries at its lower
end a number cf agitating blades, corresponding baffling
arms being attached to the wall of the cylinder. The
filtering material, if very light (cork), is pressed down by
means of a perforated cover, which can be raised to the top
of the cylinder when necessary. The apparatus is con-
stru:ted to filter downwards. When it is required to cleanse
the filtering medium, the perforated cover is raised to the
top of the apparatus, a stream of water is introduced below
the false bottom, and the central shaft with vanes is caused
to rotate. By this means the filtering material is violently
stirred up with a large volume of water, resulting in the
rapid elimination of all impurities, which escape through
the perforated cover and flow off through a pipe near the
upper end of the cylinder. — H. T. P.
The Utilisation of a Certain Waste Oxide of Iron in the
Purification of Sewage, and for similar Purposes.
H. C. Sacre, Pendleton, and II. Grimshaw, Manchester.
Eng. Pat. 17,911, October 20, 1891.
According to this invention, the ferric hydrate obtained as
a waste product in the purification of zinc chloride is
utilised for the production of ferrie chloride or sulphate.
These silts may be employed in the purification of sewage,
coal gas, and for many other purpose*. — H. T. I*.
f>34
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. 30, 1992.
An Improved Process for Oxygenating, Deodorising, and
Disinfecting Sewage or other Fermentable or Noxious
Matters. A. P. Hope, Mayland, Wellingborough, Norths.
Eug. Pat. 17,924, October 20, 1891.
The sewage. &c., is treated in suitable tanks with a current
of " antiseptic " steam until deodorised. The antiseptic
steam is generated from a solution of 1 gall, of " Bacillite "
(composed of cresvlic oil, 8 parts ; sulphur, i part; hydrate
of soda, 2 parts ; carbonate of soda, 1 part ; resin, 2 parts,
boiled for 2 hours) or other suitable disinfectant, _ m
200 galls, of water. This quantity is said to be sufficient
to disinfect 4,000 galls of sewage.— H. T. P.
Aew or Improved Method in Sewage Precipitation.
G. C. Purvis, Edinburgh. Eng. Pat. 18,286, October 24,
1891.
The sewage is charged with sulphur dioxide or carbon
dioxide, or a mixture of the two gases, thorough absorption
being secured by effecting the treatment in tanks fitted with
baffling plates, or by allowing the sewage to trickle over
coke, &c., arranged in towers through which a Icurrent of
the gas ascends. Milk of lime is then added, and also, if
desired, small quantities of aluminium and iron salts.
Sufficient lime must be employed to precipitate the dissolved
was or gases as insoluble calcium salts, to decompose any
iron and aluminium salts added, and finally, to neutralise
the acidity (if any) of the sewage. In treating neutral or
faintly alkaline sewage of average composition, the following
quantities of the different materials may be employed per
gallon :—S02, 7-5 grains; CaO, 7-5 grns. ; aluminium
sulphate, Ab.(S04)3 18 H;< >, 4 grns. In addition to the
above, 1 — 5 grns. of finely-powdered charcoal may be
added. Excess of lime should be avoided in order that the
effluent from the sewage may he as nearly neutral as
possible.— H. T. P.
An Improved Preparation for the Alleviation and Cure of
Open Wounds, Cuts, Sores, Burns, Scalds, and the like.
A. Eoth and A. Roth, London. Eng. Pat. 13,277,
July 20, 1892.
The preparation is made as follows : — j lb. of rosin and
3 oz. of clarified beef suet are boiled together for a quarter
of an hour ; 2 oz. of bees'-wax are then added, and the
whole is boiled for half an hour more. Subsequently the
mixture is allowed to set, when it is ready for use. — H. T. P.
(<?.)— DISINFECTANTS.
PATENTS.
An Improved Fluid Insecticide. H. H. Lake, London.
From A. G. Pummerer, Wels, Austria. Eng. Pat. 14,788,
September 1, 1891.
The improved insecticide is intended for the destruction of
parasites injurious to plants, vines, &c, particularly the
phylloxera vastatrix and dispar monacha. It may also be
used against the peronospora and other insects. The
preparation is made as follows : — The fruit of the horse-
chestnut is crushed to paste and digested with several times
its own volume of water. The resulting extract mixed with
about twice its volume of a resiu solution (resin, 3 lb. ; soda
crystals, 1 lb. ; water, 1 pint) forms the insecticide. It may
be employed, either as it is, or diluted with water, and is
said to have no injurious action on the health of plants.
— H. T. P.
Improved Disinfecting Compound. M. Syer, London.
Eng. Pat. 11,049, June 13, 1892.
Permanganate of potash is mixed with plaster of Paris, or
other cement or plaster, and cast into bricks, or balls, or
into perforated tin cases, the object being to economise the
permanganate. — H. T. P.
XIX.-PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Residue of Potato-Starch Works as a Material in Paper-
Making. W. Herzberg. Mitth. Konigl. tech. Versuchs,
1892, 124—126.
The residues of potato-starch works cannot he used as a
substitute for cellulose in paper-mills, but may serve as a
" filler," the soft parenchym of the potatoes not possessing
sufficient tenacity to yield a good paper felting. A Cologne
firm has used large quantities of potato-starch residues, but
mostly for the reason that the pulp from white potatoes
imparted to the paper a delicate ivory tint or a beautiful
pink hue, when coming from red tubers. The author has
examined a packing-paper made from wood-cellulose con-
taining 30 — 40 per cent, of potato-pulp. Its mean " tearing
length" was found to be 2-03 kiloms., the mean " elongation
at fracture " 1 ' 1 per cent. ; the resistance when crumpled and
rubbed could hardly be termed " indifferent." A microscopic
examination of the paper easily reveals the origin of the
filling material. — J. L.
Safety Paper. W. Herzberg. Mitth. Konigl. tech. Versuchs,
1892, 114—119.
The author has examined a new safety paper (for cheques,
securities, &c.) which had been submitted for approval and
adoption to the Austrian Government. The subjoined table
contrasts the results of the examination of this new paper
with those of a paper used hitherto for that purpose.
Mean
Resistance
againsl Material;
Crumpling
Old paper
New paper
Km.
3-77
tT.S
Per Cent.
2-6
ft
Ash.
Moderate- Wood
ly great, cellulose,
cotton,
linen.
Very great Linen and
1 cotton.*
Per Cmt.
0-39
2-09
Thickness.
Weight.
Mm.
0'08
Old paper
New paper I 0"13
firms. Sq. m.
57-0
83-3
Sizing.
Strong
Xot
strong.
Temperalurr and
Moisture of Air at
Time of Testing.
°0.
19-2
Per Cent.
65
* The embedded fibres are of tussur silk.
The new paper, which is characterised by a pinkish hue
and the embedded red silk fibres, is, as will be seen, con-
siderably superior to the old paper. The weaker sizing of
the former must be considered as an advantage, inasmuch
as the ink penetrates more deeply into the paper, and the
strokes of the writing cannot be removed so easily. The
reddish hue of the paper is due to a colouring matter which
is turned blue by the minutest quantity of an acid, and is
probably intended as a protection against malpractice with
acids, but the reddish tint can be restored by alkali. A
second table, for w hich the original paper must be consulted,
gives a number of experiments made with the purpose
of removing written characters by erasure or by washing
with water, alcohol, hydrochloric acid, caustic soda, chlorine
water, oxalic acid, oxalic acid and subsequently chlorine.
The author used for these experiments four kinds of writing
ink, viz., alizarin, anthracene, aniline, and gallotannic inks.
As a general result it may be stated that the new paper
proved also in this series of experiments much superior to
the old paper. In the second part of his communication the
author reviews the previous attempts that have beeu made
by several inventors to produce a safety paper. — J. L.
Nov. 30, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
935
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Bookbinders' Cloth.
T. A. Sutton and W. H. Sutton, Salford. Eng. Tat.
13,148, August 1, 1891.
See under V., page 903.
Improvements in or Relating to Apparatus for Glazing
Paper. A. J. Boult, London. From A. Bacheni,
A. Vogelsang, anil G. Tischer, Dresden. Eng. Pat.
13,322, Aueust 6, 1891.
In-tk id of glazing paper by passing it between a number of
heated rollers, the inventors cause the web of paper to pass
continuously between two zinc plates to which great pressure
can be applied. In this way the paper is glazed without
being subjected to any strain. — E. J. li.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Treatment of Paper
fir ( 'heques, Bank Notes, and the like. A. Schlumberger,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 14,897, September3, 1891.
A variegated or so-called "splash" paper is made by
mixing together white and coloured pulps. The colouring
may be done either with colours sensitive to acids and
chlorine, such as the aniline colours and wood colours, or
resistant to such reagents, e.g., indigo, alizarin, or chrome
yellow. Such papers are then printed with gummed water-
colours containing mordants or caustic substances. — E. ,1. 11.
Improvements in the Manufacture or Treatment of Paper
for Bank Notes, Cheques, and the like. A. Schlumberger,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 14,;>73, September 4, 1891.
By this invention cheques or bank-notes are printed on both
sides, the printing corresponding exactly, so that by trans-
mitted light only one print is visible. Each print is made
in two or more colours arranged in reverse succession, so
that by reflected light two or more colours appear, but by
transmitted light only one, the latter being that produced by
the combination of the separate colours. — E. J. B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Straining Paper Pulp.
.1. White, Edinburgh. Eng. Pat. 17,022, < letober 7, 1891.
Tins invention cannot be properly understood without
reference to six drawings which accompany the specification,
describing an apparatus for imparting an oscillating motion
to the vat, &c— A. G. B.
Improvements in the Treatment of Rhea to obtain Fibre
therefrom, and Appliance to be used in sueh Treatment.
E. J. H. Sampson, Sydenham. Eng. Pat. 17,642,
October 15, 1891.
Rhea is treated with a boiling solution of carbonate of soda
until the gum and resin are in a " slimy, semi-adhesive "
condition. The rhea is then removed from the bath and
immediately treated with a jet of boiling water and steam,
delivered from a nozzle of peculiar construction. — E. J. B.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Vegetable Parchment.
J. Robertson, Staines. Eng. Pat. 8473, May 4, 1892.
The paper is made to pass through a parchmentising bath
of sulphuric acid, then through baths of water to remove
the excess of acid, and finally through a bath of glycerin.
— E. J. B.
Improvements in and connected icilh the Manufacture of
( 'elluloid Balls and the like. P. Hunaeus, Hanover,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 10,675, June 4, 1892.
According to this invention a number of hemispherical
projections are stamped by means of a die in a sheet of
celluloid. By means of another die the flat portions of the
resulting sheet are removed, leaving the hemispheres ready
to be joined into balls. — E. J. B.
A New or Improved Method of Producing Flat-Reliefs for
Wall Papers, Decorative Mall Ornaments, and the like.
P. Klinka, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 11,357, June 17, 1892.
On the inside of a mould made of plaster of Paris treated
with shellac sheets of blotting paper damped with a weak
solution of casein and milk of lime are placed, and pressed
into the form of the mould by means of a hard brush. The
inside is then filled up with a putt}' made by mixing flour
paste with sawdust sud turpentine. — E. J. B.
-In Improved Carbon Product. L. S. Langville, Troy,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 13,847, July 29, 1892.
In the manufacture of paper pulp from wood or esparto
grass and the like, the raw materials are treated with caustic
lye, which dissolves the silica and saponifies the resinous
substances. The alkaline solution is evaporated to dryness,
calcined (" recarbonised "), and the residue taken up with
water. It is proposed to prepare a new form of carbon
from this residue, by neutralising the alkali with weak acid,
after which the material is dried and powdered. The
product so obtained is said to be pure enough and well
adapted for electric light carbons. — H. A.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS,
ESSENCES AND EXTEACTS.
On Citronellone, an Unsaturated Fatty Aldehyde.
E. Kremers. Am. Chem. Journ. 14, 203 — 207.
This paper is a continuation of the author's work read
before the American Pharmaceutical Association in 1887,
and the prime object of examining the audropogon oils at
present must be to study carefully the chemical character-
istics of the substances they contain. Since then two
chemists have taken up the subject of these oils : Mr. Erank
D. Dodge (Am. Chem. Journ. 11, 456 ; 12, 553), and Dr.
F. W. Semmler (Ber. d. chem. Ges. 24, 208), and the
discrepancies between the recorded observations are pro-
bably due to lack of uniformity in the materials and
processes of manufacture employed. The substance which
has furnished the subject for this preliminary paper is the
so-called citronellon from the oil of Eucalyptus maculata,
var. citriodora, which was isolated from the oil by the
chemists of Messrs. Schimmel and Co., Leipzig. The
citronellone from this source is a colourless, oily liquid, of
a lemon-like odour not at all disagreeable. Its specific
gravity isO'875 at 17-5°, and 0-871 at 20° (0-873 at 15 )
It rotates the ray of polarised light to the right 7-127° in
a 1-dm. tube. Hence [a]D = + 9-18°.
Citronellone and Sodium Acid Sulphite. — The citronel-
lone was separated from the other constituents of the
eucalyptus oil by means of its crystallisable sodium acid
sulphite compound (Schimmel & Co., " Bericht," October
1890, 21). From this it was regenerated with the aid of
sodium carbonate. That the compound had not suffered
any change was readily shown by the fact that it again
combined with sodium acid sulphite. The observation
made by the chemists of Sehimmel and Co., that the union
of the two compounds is accompanied by a considerable
036
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L Nov. SO, 1892.
ri<e in temperature
quantities of citro
triturated in a mort;
and upon the addit
eion-like liquid wi
addition product is
the use of a solut
attempt to add two
can also be confirmed. If molecular
nellone and sodium acid sulphite are
ar the latter will dissolve in the former,
ion of a few drops of water the emul-
congeal. This method of preparing the
not connected with the loss caused by
ion of the sodium acid sulphite. An
molecules of sodium acid sulphite failed.
— G. II. R.
The Alkaloids of Certain of the Solanacece. O. Hesse.
Anualen, 1892, 271, 100—120.
The author Suds that atropine prepared from the pure
commercial sulphate (Pharm. Germ. III.) melts at 115'5°,
and has a specific rotatory power [a]„ = — 0-4 (;> = 3'22;
t= 15°); whereas Will and Ladenburg believe it to he
optically inactive, and Bredig gives its rotatory power as
[a],, = — 1 - 89. Atropine sulphate —
(CirH„3NO:i")2H.,SOJ + H20
is employed for opthalmic purposes. Of three samples of
this salt, which stood the tests of the German Pharmacopoeia,
two were found to contain hyoscyamine sulphate. Pure
atropine sulphate separates on adding ether to its alcoholic
solution in lustrous white needles ; whilst when it is con-
taminated with hyoscyamine sulphate dull white crystalline
aggregates are precipitated. The anhydrous salt has a
specific rotatory power in 2 per cent, aqueous solution at
15' [a]D = - 8-8. The platinochloride melts at 19"°— 200°,
and the auroehloride at 138".
Hyoscyamine, C1-H03NO3, prepared from the seeds of
Ifyoscyamus niger and also from the commercial sulphate
forms white needles, melting at 108 5 ; its specific rotatory
power in 3 per cent, absolute alcoholic solution at 15° was
was found to be [a]D = - 20-3°. Will gives - 21-68
(Per. 21, 1722). The uulphate crystallises with 2 mols. H.,0,
melts at 201°, and the anhydrous salt has a specific rotatory
power in 2 per cent, aqueous solution [a]„ = — 28 '6. The
platinochloride melts at 206°, and the auroehloride at 159°.
A crystalline alkaloid comes into commerce under the
name of atropinum natural?; it is prepared from bella-
donna roots, and most of the samples of commercial atro-
pine sulphate are derived from this alkaloid. The base
forms white needles, melts at 109°, and has a specific
rotatory power in 2 percent, absolute alcoholic solution at
15° [a]0 = — 16-2. An optical analysis of the sulphate,
employing the above given constants, showed it to be a
mixture of hyoscyamine sulphate 68 ■ 2 per cent, and atropine
sulphate 31-8 per cent.
Hyoscine yitiS first isolated by Ladenburg from hyoscyamus
niger (Annalen, 206, 299). The author finds that'ithas
the composition represented by the formula C17lLnNO.|, and
its specific rotatory power in 2 per cent, absolute alcoholic
solution at 15° is [o]D = — 13-7. When hyoscine is heated
with hydrochloric acid or an alkali, oseine, C^HyjSO.,,
melting at 104 -5° and boiling at 242°, and atropic acid,
C]3H1805 are obtained.
The alkaloid obtained by E. Schmidt from Scopolia
alropoides, and named by him scopolamine (Apotheker
Zeit. 1890, 30) is identical with hyoscine. The author is
in favour of retaining the name hyoscine (compare E.
Schmidt, Archiv. d. Pharm. 230, 207).
The remainder of the paper deals with atropamine from
belladonna roots (Annalen, 261, 87) ; belladonuiue (Per. 22,
3183); and apoatropine, which closely resembles atropa-
mine in its physical characteristics, and those of its deriva-
tives, but is crystalline, whereas atropamine is amorphous.
Apo-atropine is obtained by the action of nitric acid on
atropine (Pesci, Her. 15, 530 ; Ladenburg, Annalen, 117
102).— A. R. [j.
Cincholine and Fluoroline. O. Hesse. Annalen 189'?
271, 9;,— urn.
( i\. mot ink, f '1„1I.,1X1. is a volatile base met with in the
preparation of cinchona alkaloids (Per. 15, 858); it is
identical with the base isolated by Weller from paraffin oil
(I've. 20, 2097 ), and is a highly refractive oil, boiling at
""■'' 2,38 It i> homologous with eonine, hut appears not
to be poisonous. Fluoroline, Cj^H^N, is an oily volatile
base obtained by the author in 1887 by the steam distilla-
tion of the so-called amorphous alkaloid of Trujillo coca ;
its solution in water exhibits a strong blue fluorescence.
The author has failed to isolate the base from either Trujillo
coca or Java coca, using purified solvents as extracting
agents, so that its production from Trujillo coca (Gisel,
Pharm. Zeit., 36, -120) was probably due to its presence in
the solvent used, viz., brown coal naphtha. — A. II. L.
O.rygcn in Glass Manufacture. Eng. and Mining J.
54,413.
See under VIII., page 908.
PATENTS.
An Improved Process and Apparatus for tin Manufacture
of Solid Carbonic Acid (CO~~). C. R. C. Tiehborne,
A. E. Darley, S. Geoghegan, and M. F. Purcell, Dublin.
Eng. Pat. 13,684, August 13, 1891.
Carbonic acid from brewers' vats (this Journal, 1891, 651),
or from any suitable source, is liquefied in a series of stage
compressors, the liquid cooled down in a surface condenser
and admitted in regulated quantities into an expansion
chamber. Part of the liquid volatilises here, and in con-
sequence abstracts sufficient heat to cause the remaining part
of the liquefied carbonic acid to solidify. The gaseous
carbonic acid may be returned to the pumps. The solidifying
chamber may be made fixed or moveable ; it is provided
with a discharging door for the solid carbonic acid, and is
coated with non-conducting material.' Poxes, hags, or the
solidifying chamber itself may be used for transporting the
solid carbonic acid. — H. A.
Improvements in the Preparation of Anhydrous Oxide of
Barium, or other Substances of Like Properties, for
Use in the Separation of Oxygen and Nitrogen of
Atmospheric Air. Brins Oxj-gen Company, Limited,
and K. S. Murray, London. Eng. Pat. 17,298,
October 10, 1891.
Pieces of fire-clay, pumice stone, or other inert material
are saturated with fused barium nitrate at a high temperature,
which is maintained for some time to drive off volatile
impurities. The pieces are allowed to cool in an air-tight
chamber. The barium oxide so produced presents a large
surface for subsequent action on air.— H. A.
XXI.-PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS
PROCESSES.
AND
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Washing Photographic
Prints and Negatives. H. Holeroft, Wolverhampton.
Eng. Pat. 19,706, November 13, 1891.
The improved apparatus consists in a cistern in which is
fitted a carrier, provided with narrow ledges or corrugations
to receive horizontal trays, upon which the negatives or
prints to be washed are placed, the carrier is made some-
what shorter than the cistern in order to leave a water
space at each end. The trays consist in frames on which
a netting is strung. To prevent prints being washed out of
the trays, vertical bars are fixed across the outflow end
of the carrier, the ends of the trays being notched to
correspond. Water is allowed to drip into one end of tie
cistern, flows over the surface of the prints or negatives,
anil escapes by an overflow. — J. ( .'. ('.
Nov.so,iB9S.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTKT.
937
The Use of Aromatic Amido- Compounds and of the
Derivatives of Pgrogallol for the Development of
Photographic Images. J. Hauff, .Stuttgart. Germany.
Bug, I'at. 2(1.690. November 27, 1891.
The inventor claims the use of the glycines of various
amidophenols, which are readily soluble in alkaline
carbonates, for developing photographic images, suju
compounds having the typical formula —
C„Hatt_sOH.:NR.CH2COOH
As an example of a developing solution the following is
given —
100 cc. of water.
-1 ■ 3 gnus, of crystallised sulphite of soda.
1 '5 grais. of glycine.
2'5 grins, of potash. — J. C. C.
Improvements in the Art of Producing Coloured Photo-
graphs. .1. YV. McDonough, Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat.
5597, March 22,1892.
This invention may be carried out in several ways, one
being as follows : — A glass plate is coated with varnish,
which will dry tacky. Coloured particles, consisting of
resin or shellac, stained by aniline dyes, &c, are mixed
and dusttd on the surface. If these coloured particles are
mixed in the right proportion, the plate will "reflect or
transmit a mixture of these colours, which will be white in
proportion to the purity of the colours, cleanliness of the
mixture, and the quantity of light." The plate is then
heated just sufficiently to melt the shellac. After sensitising
in the usual manner it is exposed in the camera, developed
and fixed, a coloured photograph resulting. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Magnesium Flash-Light Apparatus.
H. J. Haddan, Loudon. From £. Beste, Weimar,
(let many. Eng. Pat. 5996, March 28, 1892.
See under II., page 899.
Improvements in the Method and Apparatus for Producing
Magnesium Flash Light. X. Browne. From E. YViinsche,
Dresden, Germany. Eng. Pat. 62G9, March 31, 1892.
See under II., page 899.
An Improved Developing Tray cr Dish for Photographic
Purposes. A. Desboutin, London. Eng. Pat. 10,0215,
May 26, 1892.
This is a dish in which negatives may be developed in the
ordinary light. A sheet of glass of a nonactinic colour is
inserted in the bottom of the dish, and a closely-fitting lid,
also fitted with a coloured glass, is provided. At one end
there is a spout, across which a screen is placed, to prevent
access of light to the interior.
In using, the negative is transferred to the dish and the
lid replaced by means of a changing bag ; the developing
solution is then poured in by means of the spout ; after the
necessary time the solution is poured off, and the negative
may be examined by holding the dish up to a candle or
lamp.— J. C. C.
Improved Combined Substances for the Development of
Photographic Images. .1. Hauff, Stuttgart, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 14,542, August 11, 1892.
The inventor claims the employment of ortho-paradiamido-
ortho-cresol and ortho-paradiaruidometacresol in combina-
tion with soluble sulphites for developing photographic
images, and gives an example —
100 ccof water.
0- 5 grins, of diamidocresol.
5 gims. of the crystallised sulphite of an alkali.
—J. c. c.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES. MATCHES. Etc.
Substitutions in Groups Linked to ( 'arbon and lo Nitrogen.
Application to Explosives. C. Matignon. Compt. rend.
114, 1197—1199.
Bkkthei.ot has shown that the replacement of an atom of
hydrogen by an alcoholic radicle increases the heat of
combustion of the body by about 15.~> eals. for each (II
substituted. The author has recently found that the sub-
stitution of an alcoholic radicle linked to nitrogen increases
the heat of combustion to a greater extent than when the
same radicle is linked to carbon.
In the case of methyl linked to nitrogen the heat of
combustion is from 163—165 cal., being an increase of
8 to 9 cal.
Hitherto the nitro-compounds with the NO, group linked
to carbon have only been studied, and the heat of formation
of these mononitro hodies corresponds to 36 eals.
The author has thermally studied Guanidinc
NH3
( Nil
XH;
and its mononitro derivative, in which the group NO., is
necessarily linked to nitrogen, and finds that the formation
of nitroguanidine liberates 30 -3 eals. less than when the
XO; is linked to carbon, consequently the same law holds
good as in the case of alcoholic substitutions, viz. that the
introduction of the NOs group linked to nitrogen increases
the heat of combustion of the body by a larger amount than
when the XI >_, is linked to carbon.
This has an interesting bearing on explosives, for the
nitro-derivatives linked to nitrogen set free 6 eals. less in
their formation by nitric acid than those linked to carbon,
consequently they preserve the equivalent of the 6 eals. in
the form of potential energy which is transformed into
sensible energy at the moment of explosion, and conse
quently the explosive is more powerful when the NO„ group
is linked to nitrogen. Mononitro-guanidine is an energetic
explosive and behaves similarly to gun-cotton when heated.
— YV. M.
Jute as a Substitute for Gun-Cotton. O. Miihlhauscr.
Dingl. Polyt. J. 283, 1892, £8— 92, 137—140.
The crude fibrous material is placed in a solution of caustic
soda of 1 per cent, strength ; gently heated for two hours ;
allowed to stand for 12 hours ; and finally well rinsed with
water. Then the treatment with caustic soda is repeated, the
object being to obtain the cellulose as free as possible from
foreign matters, &c. Afterwards the fibres are immersed in
a mixture consisting of 1 part of nitric acid (of 1 -5 sp. gr.)
and of 1 to 3 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. As a
result of this immersion the fibres turn brownish-red, and
are soon disintegrated into many small hair-like parts which
probably represent single cells. These are collected, filtered,
washed, and diied, after which they appear as a yellowish
fibrous material which is analogous to gun-cotton in all its
properties. The author is of opinion that for certain special
purposes this "gun -jute" will be able to compete
successfully with guu-cotton.— H. S.
Methods Employed for Testing Explosive Substances.
P. Vieille. Compt. rend, de 1'Assoc. Franc, pour
l'Avancem. des Sc. 1890, 53 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 107,
124—125.
Until about 20 years ago our knowledge of explosives was
very limited, and it has only lately been possible to study
explosive phenomena iu detail. Delicate chronographic
methods have had to be devised registering hundred
thousandths of a second, and apparatus had to be
938
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so, isra.
constructed to withstand pressures of several thousand
amostpheres. During combustion the amount of heat pro-
duced by various explosives differs greatly ; for instance,
a platinum wire, which is not fused in the flame produced
by burning gun-cotton, melts readily when brought into
contact with (he flame of blasting gelatin.
The volume of gas produced by the decomposition of
explosives is very great. Explosives such as gun-cotton or
nitro-glycerol produce gas measuring 1,000 to 1,500 times
the volume of the original explosive when reduced to
ordinary temperature and atmospheric pressure. At the
moment of explosion, however, these gases are heated to a
temperature of 2,000° to 3,000°, and therefore occupy a
space 10,000 to 15,000 times as great as the explosive from
which they are derived. The pressures due to this sudden
disengagement of gas are enormous, and it is the utilisation
of these pressures for blasting and military purposes which
determines the value of each explosive. The theoretical
pressure which can be developed by an explosive may be
calculated from its chemical composition, but the actual
pressure produced can also be ascertained by direct measure-
ment. The most simple method of carrying out the latter
operation is to explode a charge of the substance to be
tested in a closed space with which a crusher-gauge is
connected. The crusher-gauge consists of a piston actuated
by the force of the explosion and compressing a small
cylinder of copper. The amount of compression of the
copper cylinder indicates the force which has beert developed.
The crusher-gauge is usually fixed in one end of a steel
tube. The other end is closed, and the charge of explosive
is ignited by means of a platinum wire rendered incandescent
by an electric current. After the gases produced by the
explosion have cooled, the tube is opened and the copper
cylinder removed and measured. The amount of compres-
sion produced by a known force having previously been
ascertained by direct experiment, it is possible to calculate
the pressure of the gaws which acted upon the test
cylinder.
Numerous experiments made with different explosives
have shown that gun-cotton, nitro-glycerol, and melinite
are the most powerful explosives at present known. The
pressures produced by them are three to four times as great
as those attained by black powder, and theoretical con-
siderations render it improbable that any more powerful
combinations can be produced. The pressure increases
very rapidly in proportion to the increase of the charge, so
that the strength of the apparatus fixes a practical limit to
the records obtainable. The greatest pressures produced are
when the explosives completely fills the cavity in which
explosion takes place. With gun-cotton a cavity of 1 litre
capacit}' will contain about 1 kilo, of explosive, while ihe
same space will take 1,600 grins, of nitro-glycerol.
In order to ascertain the duration of the explosive action,
the author has constructed a registering crusher-gauge, of
which an illustration accompanies the paper. A steel point
is fixed to the steel piston or plug, which compresses the
copper cylinder, and which is itself actuated by the explosion
of the substance under examination. This steel point rests
upon a sheet of blackened paper, which is rolled round a
revolving cylinder. At the moment of explosion the point
follows the crusher-piston in proportion as the copper
cylinder is flattened by the pressure of the gases, and a line
is described upon the paper. A comparison of the lines
thus obtained from different explosives shows the rate at
which the pressure increases in each case. The speed of
the paper is about 10 metres per second, each thousandth of
a second being represented by a length of one centimetre.
By means of this apparatus it has been found that not
only the duration, but also the manner of combustion varies
greatly. In some cases the rise of pressure is very gentle at
the commencement and increases suddenly towards the end
of the explosion, while with other substances the reverse is
the case. With some explosives, such as gun-cotton and
nitro-glycerol, the application of fire alone does not produce
an explosive action ; for these substauces a detonator
containing fulminate of mercury is used to initiate the
explosive wave. In a tube filled with nitro-glycerol the
explosive wave travels at the rate of about 1,000 metres ;i
second, bu* in its more porous form of dynamite this
substance propagates the explosion at the rate of 3,000 to
4,000 metres a second. With gun-cotton the speed is 5,000
to 6,000 metres.
In firearms, where explosives are used as the motive-
power, it is necessary to diminish the velocity of explosion
in order to avoid too great a strain upon the metal of which
the weapon is constructed.
It is in these eases especially that the apparatus described
by the author has been found of great assistance.— W, S.
Coal-Dust Explosions at the Zanckerode Colliery, Max
Georgi. Jahrb. fur das Herg-und Huttenw. in Kiinigr.
Sachseu, 1891, 1 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 108. 77 — 78.
The seam, 3 to 5 yards in thickness, worked at the
Zanckerode colliery in Saxony, yields a dust of the class
described by Atkinson as especially dangerous. Fortunately
the dust is present only in small quantities. Three explo-
sions, however, that have recently occurred, show that
under certain conditions this dust may be a source of danger.
The methods adopted in order to obviate its disastrous
consequences, consist in the employment of nameless
explosives, and of appliances for artificially moistening the
dust by means of a water-spray.
The nameless explosives in practical use are flameless
dynamite (Wctli'nli/iiamit), roburite, securite and carbonite.
The first of these contains, as aqueous salt, magnesium
sulphate. The best results with this class of explosive
were obtained with flameless kieselguhr dynamite with 40
to 45 per cent, of nitroglycerol. Experience showed,
however, that all flameless dynamites deteriorated with
keeping, and all evolved noxious gases. Roburite was
found to be uncertain in its action, and it was thought to
be not homogeneous, or to be subject to spontaneous decom-
position. The use of roburite and of flameless dynamite
has been abandoned at Zanckerode ; but satisfactory results
have been obtained with securite and with carbonite. The
latest form of carbonite is a nitroglycerol explosive mixed with
a sufficient quantity of carbonaceous matter to prevent the
formation of free oxygen or of carbonic ozide. Securite
consists, so far as is known, of nitrobenzene and ammonium
nitrate. With reference to the storing of these explosives,
the same precautions must be taken with carbonite as with
gelatin-dynamite. Securite, however, is not affected by
changes of temperature, but is very sensitive to the action of
moisture. Carbonite can be completely exploded by a
detonator with a charge of 0-8 grin, whilst securite requires
1*5 grm. The former is found to act best in coal and in
soft rocks, and experience at Zanckerode tends to show that
it may be used as a substitute for blasting powder in most
collieries, and that it must eventually entirely replace
dynamiie, which is still used here and there. Securite, as
a more powerful explosive, is not adapted for soft coal.
Its use is, therefore, confined to hard pyritic coal or to
hard rock. The amount of coal got by the miner is less
with carbonite than with powder ; but in narrow headways
the length driven is not affected by the use of flameless
explosives. The cost of blasting is in all cases higher than
when powder is used.
The second method of obviating coal-dust explosions
consists in the employment of appliances for moistening the
dust. The installation of pipes was begun in May 1890 in
the workings in the vicinity of the Carola shaft, where the
air is driest and the dust, as is proved by the explosion
that occurred there, most dangerous. The water was taken
from a drainage level some 270 feet above the workings in
question, and an ample supply was available. With the
exception of the cast-irom mains, all the pipes are of
galvanised wrought iron. The use of the spray, the con-
struction of which is shown in drawings accompanying the
paper, is confined to the actual workings. The installation
extends to sixty working places, and cost 1,700/. — W. S.
Nov. so. 1893.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
939
Explosive and Ordnance Material. Stephen H. Kmmens.
Proc. of the U.S. Naval Inst. 1891,355; Proc. Inst.
Civil Eng. 108, 113—115.
The explosion of what is known as dynamite No. 1, con-
taining 75 per cent, of nitroglycerol, is found to be more
effective than that of pure nitroglycerol itself. The author
explains this apparent anomaly by what he calls a ballistic
theory of explosives.
He calculates the pressure which would be exerted upon
the walls of a shell containing the explosive, which pressure
represents the aggregate of the impacts of the gaseous mole-
cules, and is directly proportioual to the vis viva of the mean
molecular movements. But since vis viva is composed of
two factors, mass and velocity, the determination of gaseous
pressure alone fails to indicate the character of the blows by
which it is produced. It tells nothing as to whether the
walls of the containing vessel have to withstand the shock
of heavy molecules moving with comparative slowness
or of light molecules moving at relatively high velocity.
The author shows that although the pressure upon the
walls of the shell is greater in the case of nitroglycerol,
both the intensity and velocity of the blows delivered by
the dynamite molecules are greater than those of the nitro-
glycerol, and the ballistic effect obtained in this manner
by calculation is in accordance with that found by
experiment.
The author describes a method of testing explosives
employed by him, which is as follows : A segment of a
sphere of lead is suspended in the air with the convex side
uppermost. To the flat base is attached a charge of the
explosive to be tested contained in a cylindrical cartridge
case of paraffined paper, the lead and the cartridge being
thus in the form of a mushroom.
The effect is measured by the amount of indentation
produced. The metal is scarred and pitted in such a
manner as to show that there is no approach to uniformit}'
of pressure produced by the explosion, the gas molecules
appearing to strike the lead like a charge of small shot.
When a cannon ball is driven along the bore of a gun
by the impact of a column of gas, the pressure sustained
by the walls of the gun is much less than that exerted on
the base of the shot. The column of gas must be con-
sidered as a stream of minute projectiles darting onwards
with a common movement of translation and not darting
in every direction as in a vessel filled with gas. For utilising
high explosives in firearms and ordnance, the author con-
structs cartridges lined with soft wood. The lining protects
the metal of the gun against a disintegrating shock, and by
its resilience enables the gaseous molecules to retain their
energy in the form of motion and to gradually join the
onflowing current along the bore of the gun.
The author gives tables of the comparative strength of
different explosive compounds, his method being to first
determine how much heat is set free by the re-arrangement
of the molecules after deduction of the heat absorbed in
breaking up the explosive to start with, obtaining in this
way a measure of the total mechanical force rendered
available. He then considers the mode in which the
explosive develops its strength — whether by a large volume
of gas at comparatively low temperature or by a small
volume highly heated, and is then in a position to
discriminate as to the particular use for which any explosive
is adapted. There follows a description of the composition
and method of manufacture of a number of so-called smoke-
less powders, and among them Emmensite and Gelbite,
invented and manufactured by himself, together with an
account of experiments made upon them in the United
States. The article concludes with an account of tests
made with different alloys of aluminium bronze, with a
view of ascertaining the behaviour of the material under
conditions of sudden stress. — W. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Fireworks. C. Huelser, London. From
G. Gillischewsky, Berlin. Eng. Pat. 18,439, October 27,
1891.
Twelve parts of steel chips are first dipped into a solution
of stearin and benzine in order to coat them with stearin.
These coated chips, along with 96 parts of lead nitrate and
12 parts of charcoal, are introduced into an alcoholic solution
of shellac. Wooden matches are then dipped into this
viscous mass and can be used for producing star fireworks.
— W. M.
An Improvement in the Manufacture of Pyroxylines. H.
de Chardonnet, Paris. Eng. Pat. 19,560, November 11,
1891.
This invention consists in the preparatory treatment of the
cellulose material intended for nitration, by heating it for
several hours to 150' to 170° C. The application of this
high temperature is said to increase the solubility of the
subsequently formed pyroxylines. — W. M.
Improvements in the Means for Blasting by Enplosives.
F. Pfeiffer, Goslar am Harz, Germany. Eng. Pat. 11,753,
June 23, 1892.
According to this invention the explosive is placed at the
bottom of the bore-hole, and water contained in a vessel
open at top and fitting the bore-hole is placed in the same.
The bore-hole and water vessel are then closed at top by a
priming cartridge, the explosion of which causes the
explosion of the charge at the bottom of the hole.
The cartridge may also be provided with an additional
compartment for containing water or other flame-preventive
for use in firing mines. — V7. M.
Improvements in Explosive Compounds. H. J. Allison,
London. From A. C. Rand, New York. Eng. Pat. 12,744,
July 12, 1892.
Nitrobenzene, or the light oil of coal tar, nitrated to have
a specific gravity of 24° to 34° B., is incorporated with
potassium chlorate in the proportion of one part of the
former to four of the latter. Instead of pure potassium
chlorate equal parts by weight of this substance and
manganese dioxide may be mixed with 15 per cent, of
nitrobenzene or 60 per cent, of potassium chlorate and 40
per cent, of an inert substance mixed with 15 per cent, of
nitrobenzene also forms an effective explosive. — W. M.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
APPARATUS.
Apparatus for Extracting Liquids and Pulpy Substances.
Holde. Milth. Kbnig. technl. Versuchs 1892, 130 — 132.
The working of the apparatus will be easily understood by
a glance at the annexed sketch. The substance to be
extracted must, of course, be at a sufficient depth below the
siphon a, so as to prevent the possibility of any particles
of the substances being conveyed into the flask A. Whilst
extracting fats emulsified by soap solutions, the author
found that air bubbles rising from the bottom of the soap
solution were apt to carry along with them parts of the
solution into the ether and therefrom into the flask A. An
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [-Nov. so, 189S.
Apparatus fob Extracting Liquids and Pulpt
Substances.
addition, however, of an easily soluble salt, as potassium
sulphate, did away with this defect of the apparatus.— J. L.
A Simple Apparatus for Evaporating tinder Diminished
Pressure. U. Schulze and B. Tollens. Annalen 1892,
271, 46— 48.
Thk purpose of the apparatus, shown in the Figure, which is
similar in principle to Yaryan"s vacuum evaporating appa-
ratus (this Journal 1888, 313) devised for the purposes of
the sugar industry, is to obviate the long exposure of a
solution during its evaporation under diminished pressure,
to a high temperature, whereby in some cases decomposition
occurs. It consists of a copper tube of 3 cm. inner diameter,
bent in the form of a worm, and heated in a water-hath.
The liquid to lie evaporated is drawn through this tube by
means of a water-pump e, which latter also serves to
maintain a partial vacuum within the apparatus. A piece
of wide glass tubing is fixed in the upper end of the copper
tube by a perforated rubber stopper, and a narrower glass
tube drawn out to a point and provided with a tap to regulate
the rate nt which the liquid is introduced, is fixed, also with
a perforated rubber stopper, into the larger tube. The loner
end of the copper tube, which projects beyond the bath, is
somewhat narrower than the other portion, and it is attached
to a glass tube, which is fused to a bulb at b, and connected
with a condenser c. The concentrated solution falls into the
desk/', and may be removed by means of the siphon, after
admitting air into the flask: whilst the condensed steam is
collected in the flask <l, the uncondensed steam being carried
off by the pump. Hy means of the apparatus 4 — :> litres of
a dilute solution may be concentrated to 1 litre in the course
of an hour. — A. 1!. L.
SCHULTZK LND TOLLENS' APPARATUS FOB EVAPORATING UNDEB DIMINISHED PbESSURE,
INORGA NIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
.\,ir Method for the Separation of Iron from other
Elements. T. \\r. Kothe. Mitth. Konig. tech. Versuchs.
1892, 132—142.
Tl i author bases his new method on the solubilitv of ferric
chloride in ether, in which the chlorides of other metals that
usually oecur in steel are irsoluble. The solutions from
which the iron is to be extracted must be strongly acid.
Foi convenient extraction, the author has designed an
apparatus the main feature of which consists in two cylin-
tractors beiog connected at the bottom by means of
a three-way tap, which allows of their being brought into
communication as well as their being emptied separately.
During the shaking out the top parts of the cylinders aie
also closed by taps. The conditions for a correct deter-
mination of the iron are the following : — (o) Suspended
substances as. , ,/., silica, carbon, fibres of filter- paper, must
not be present; (6) the hydrochloric acid solution must
contain the iron in the ferric state onlv : (c) exec-- of
chlorine, nitric acid, and other ether-decomposing substances
must be removed : i d) the quantity of a hydrochloric acid
present must be so hue.- that the extracted liquid contains
21—22 per cent. HCI ( i ,-., has the sp, gr. 1 ■ 100—1 ■ 105 at
IS (') The author proceeds in the analysis of steel as
Nov, 30,18»3J THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
941
follows: 5 grms. are dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the
silica separated as usual. The solution of iron is evaporated
down, until hydrochloric acid vapours escape, and oxidised
with 2 — 2 5 ce. nitric acid of 14 sp. gr., and finally boiled
down until basic iron chloride separates. The residue
having a volume of about 10 cc. is transferred into the
extractor and ">j — 60 cc. hydrochloric acid, 1*124 (at
111 I'. I, are added. Two extractions with ether are suffi-
cient to bring the iron into the ether. Minute quantities of
copper and cobalt, which sometimes pass into the ether
along with the iron, are easily removed by subsequent
washing of the ethereal layer with 10 cc. of hydrochloric
acid, 1*101 sp. gr. The author has used this new method
in the analysis of more than a hundred samples of steel,
iron, and ferro-manganese with satisfactory results. — J. L.
A New Method of Assay of Antimony Ores. A. Carnot.
Annates des Mines, 1, 1892, 303 ; Proc. Inst. Civil Eug.
110 <jv), 52.
The ordinary dry way of assaying antimony ore by fusion
with soda charcoal and metallic iron, gives a very inaccurate
idea of its metallic contents, the author having found
differences from the results obtained by analysis which
are rarely below 8 or 10 per cent., and in the case of poor
minerals may be as high as 20 or 30 per cent. The author
has abandoned the dry method of assay, and now substitutes
a method of solution and precipitation of the metal by tin,
which gives very satisfactory results. In dealing with
sulphide ores, from 2 to 5 grins, of the finely powdered
mineral are heated with 50 to 60 cubic centimetres of strong
hydrochloric acid, but not allowed to boil. When the action
ceases the liquid is decanted, and fresh acid is added until
the sulphide is entirely decomposed, a few drops of nitric
acid being sometimes added towards the end, and the
insoluble matter is washed clean with water. The several
acid solutions are united, diluted with an equal volume of
water, heated to 80° or 90", and a plate of tin is inserted.
The precipitation of the antimony commences at once, and
is completed, when the quantity is about 1 grra., iu one and
a half hours. The precipitated metal is washed by decanta-
tion, digested with weak hydrochloric acid to remove tin
salts, and is finally collected ou a tared filter, washed with
water and alcohol, dried at 100°, and weighed. The error
of the result, as determined b)' experiments upon mixtures
of native sulphide of antimony and quartz, is below 1 per
cent, on the amount found by more exact analytical
methods.
In the assay of oxidised ores which are usually mixed
with unchanged sulphide, there is often considerable difficulty
in getting the antimony completely dissolved, and there is
a further chance of loss by volatilisation. This may be
avoided by converting the oxidised minerals into sulphide
by passing a current of dry sulphuretted hydrogen through
it. This is done by exposing about 5 grins, of the mineral
forming a thin layer in a flat-bottomed flask, to the action
of sulphuretted hydrogen dried by chloride of calcium,
which is introduced from a bent tube nearly touching the
layer of mineral. The flask is placed on a piece of wire
gauze about 2 in. above the flame of a Iiunsen star burner,
so that the temperature may not exceed 300°. The gas
first reduces the oxide and then converts it into sulphide, a
small quantity of oxide and sulphur being produced, which
condenses in the cooler part of the flask, but there is no
loss of sulphide of antimony. The operation is complete
in about an hour, and the solution is effected in the manner
described above.
Iron and zinc have no effect upon the accuracy of the
result ; but when the ore contains lead, that metal is partly
precipitated as chloride, while part remains in the rotunda,
and is deposited iu the metallic state upon the plate of tin.
This may be estimated in the weighed metallic precipitate
by heating it to 50° or 60° in a solution of sodium peisulphide
(formed by boiling sodium monosulphide with flowers of
sulphur) when the antimony is rapidly dissolved, leaving a
residue of lead sulphide containing 86 per cent, of lead.
As, however, there is invariably some oxidation during the
lining of the precipitate, the surcharge will be somewhat
greater, and 90 per cent, of the weight of the sulphide may
he taken to be the proper correction to be made for the lead
present. Arsenic, when present in the ore, is precipitated
with the antimony, and its presence can be determined
qualitatively, but no method of estimating the quantity has
been devised. This, however, is of less importance, as
arsenical antimony ores are comparatively rare. — W. S.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITA TIVE.
Viscosity at Low Temperatures (KaltebestandigkeW) of
Black Mineral Oils. Ilolde. Mitth. Kijuigl. tech.
Versuchs, 1892, 126 — 130.
The author states that ihe test prescribed by the rules of
the German State Railways, viz., that iu which the criterion
is th? number of mm. an oil will rise in a (J -tube °'
5 mm. diameter, under an air pressure represented by
50 mm. water at a temperature of — 5° C, or — 15° C,
during one minute, may lead to discordant results for one
and the same oil even when repeatedly tested the same day.
The discrepancies are due to the fact that at the low tem-
perature solid particles of paraffin, &c, separate out which
do not redissolve when the oil is allowed to assume the
ordinary temperature. — J. L.
Analysis of Commercial Yolk of Eyy. F.Jean. Monit.
Scient. 6, August 1892, 561—563.
For the dressing of hides in the tawing process, a large
quantity of salted yolks of eggs is used, unmixed or mixed
with borax for preserving purposes. This material, com-
manding a high price and being of variable composition,
it follows that the method of analysis adopted offers
considerable interest.
The method adopted is as follows : —
Determination of the Water. — After having thoroughly
mixed the sample, a crucible (which can be connected with
a small agitator) is taied, and 10 grms. of the material are
weighed out, a few drops of acetic acid added, and the
whole is well mixed by means of the agitator. The
acidified yolk is now dried very slowly, at first at a tem-
perature of 50° to 60° C. (taking care to stir up the mass
with the agitator gradually as the substauce dries). The
drying process is completed at 110°, and the crucible and
contents are weighed with due precautions. The loss by
drying x 10 = percentage of water. The difference from
100 = dry extract.
Determination of the Fatty Matter. — The extract is
carefully removed from the crucible, pulverised, and
extracted hot with petroleum spirit. When the extraction
is finished, the spirit is removed by distillation, the fatty
matter transferred to a tared crucible, dried for one hour at
\\Q>" to 115° C, and weighed. The fatty matter thus
found = G.
1 'ite/lin, — By passing into the extractor a current of air,
the exhausted material is freed from the spirit it contained,
and then it is extracted in the same apparatus, after thus
replacing the petroleum spirit by distilled water. The
aqueous extract evaporated in a crucible, and then dried at
110° C, gives the extractive matter soluble in water, from
which the weight of sodium chloride and of other salts
which might have been added to the yolk for preservative
purposes, has to be deducted.
Ash. — Into a tared platinum crucible 10 grms. of the yolk
are introduced, dried, and then calcined at a moderately-
low temperature, until white ash remains. This residue is
weighed.
When testing salted yolk of egg the attainment of white
ash is difficult, for if the temperature be raised too much
some sodium chloride may be volatilised and lost. To
avoid this, carbonisation should be conducted at a low
temperature. The char is then treated in the crucible with
hot water, taking care not to fracture the carbonised mass,
and the aqueous saline solution is collected. The exhausted
charcoal is then calcined until white ash alone is left. The
942
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDTJSTKY. [Nov. 30, 1892.
wash-water from the charcoal is then added to the contents
of the crucible. The solution is then evaporated and dried
at 1 10% the ash weighed, and estimated.
In the presence of the boric acid it is difficult to avoid a
loss of sodium chloride during calcination, hence preference
is given to the weighing of the Xa CI not derived from the
ash, but by means of a new test.
It was found that the NaCl increases the solubility of
the vitelliu in water, and that with the salted yolk an
extract precipitated by tannic acid in a much higher degree
is obtained than is the case with unsalted yolks. As the
dissolved albuminoid matter also makes filtration very
difficult, the aqueous extract destined for treatment for
the estimation of XaCl is first precipitated with a little
tannic acid, then filtered and reduced to a definite volume,
and the XaCl is determined in this by precipitation with
nitrate of silver.
In another portion of the solution the sulphates are
determined, also boric acid, nitrates, salicylic acid, &c.
Knowing the amount of water, fatty matter, ash, and the
extract soluble in water, there is obtained by difference
the amount of the insoluble vitellin.
In order to determine exactly the proportions of the
different substances contained in the pure yolk, three
samples of pure yolk were prepared, which were analysed
separately by the method just described.
From the mean of these three analyses were calculated
the following factors : —
Per Cent.
Water aud normal ash WO
Water 62*6
Extract -H'rO
Fatty matter (G) 28-0
YiU-l]in V (including the extract by water) 18'0
G
Ratio of fatty matter to Vitellin y 1*5
100 per cent, reduced extract = G = 60 V 40"0
100 per cent, reduced extract 2 "91 normal.
With these data the composition of the yolk of commerce
may be found. If, for example, a sample analysis be taken
which gives the following results : —
Water 50-76
/■Normal ashes 1*112
Ashes 15*134 Sodium chloride 13-080
(- Boric acid, ic 0 • 938
Fatty matters .. 19"78
Vitellin 1*46
P.educed extract 100— (50-76 + 15- 13) = 34 -11, giving—
G 19-78
V 14*34
The ratio = = 1-375 instead of 1*5 is abnormal, because
for 100 of reduced extract it gives —
a.0} instead of {-,
37-9
42
60*0
Hi-0
28
= 70-6 for
( 'ahulation of the Quantity of Pure Yolk. — The oil
obtained from this sample gives with the oleorefractometer
- 1 1 as pure oil. Knowing that 28 G = 100 pure yolk,
the content of pure yolk can be calculated, according to
the content of the fatty matter G, by means of the formula
L10 x G ■ ,, , . loo x 19' 78
.,s , i.e., in the example given,
1 1 » i of pure yolk.
Calculation of Albumen in excess. — For calculating this
the amount of vitellin is sought that should correspond to
the fatty matter found by analysis, supposing the yolk were
pure.
Knowing that 28 G = 18 V we would have 1S *— = V
which means in the present example s - - — = 12-70 V
In the analysis there was obtained V 14*88
And by the calculation according to G V 12-70
Difference 1-63
This difference therefore represents the albumen in
excess.
If other matters had been added to the yolk they would be
found by means of the same calculation.
Knowing the quantity of pure yolk, the albumen in excess
and the ash by difference is found the added water, and the
composition of the analysed yolk could be formulated in the
following way : —
PerCent.
Pm-e yolk 70'6
Albumen 1"63
Add.il salts 14-01
Added water 13*76
Control of the Quantity of added water. — Knowing that
in the pure yolk at 28 per cent, of fatty matters, G corre-
sponds to 52-6 of water, and that the analysed sample
contains 50-76 per cent, of water, the formula, '*'* — -
5i).g x 1Q-7S
is calculated, i.e., — — 5^-2-r-f = 37 per cent. 10 per cent.
normal water.
We have therefore —
PerCent.
Total water 50-76
Normal water 37' Hi
Added water 13'66
Applying these calculations to the case of samples which
have given the following results by analysis : —
Determined
Matters.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Water
58*84
18-60
14-23
14*23
10-34
48-910
17*468
18*840
13*840
0*942
52' 194
18-740
15-530
11-460
1*656
•60
10-91
IS -52
13-78
1-24
50-7li
Oil
Vitellin
15-13
19*78
r'-87
1-4(5
100-00
loij-ooo
too-
100-00
100*00
Saline Matters.
A.
B.
C.
Normal ash
Sodium chloride. .
Boric acid, Sc.
X "Hi
l(i-71
0-78
1*112
14*850
1*500
1-07
17-80
17-80
1-112
14*420
1*478
1*112
13-080
0-988
Proportion
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Pun yolk 1-37 1*99 1*19
L-23
1-37
The following compositions are obtained
:—
A.
B.
C.
IX
E.
Pure yolk
Albumen in excess
tdded salts
Added water
Percent. PerCent. PerCent.
5(1-8" 67- 55-00
1*19
17-40
3IC52 17-32*
0-S90 :;-ol
14-782 18-74
23-25
PerO nt. Pei Cent.
65-00 70-00
3- 13 1-63
16'80 14*01
15-98 13-76
— M. 1!.
Nov. so, 1882.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
943
Estimation of Nitrogen in Inorganic and Ethereal
Nitrates, and in Nitro Derivatives, by KjeldahVs
Process. M. L. Chenel. Bull. Soc. Chem. 7—8 (3),
321—327.
Thk author has obtained satisfactory results in the estimation
of organic, ammoniacal, and nitric nitrogen . by working
Joldbauer's modification of the Kjeldahl process in the
following manner : — 0'5 grin, of the finely-divided substance
is digested in the cold with a solution of 1-2 grins, phenol
and 0-4 grm. phosphoric anhydride in 30 cc. of sulphuric
acid, and agitated until solution is complete. Zinc powder
(8 to 1 grms.) is then gradually added, and the mass kept
cool until it is completely reduced, mercury (0'7 grm.) is
then added, and the process continued as usual.
The following results were obtained in this way : —
Total Nitrogen.
Calculated. Pound.
Maximum
Error.
Mean
Error.
13 "SO
{
13 -91
LS-82
13-73
t3-96
l
rk
i
Unmonium aitrah .
35- (II)
{
:;.vsi
34-90
34-96
}
l~l3
i _
Barium nitrate
10-72
10-67
10-62
)
107
i
1 IO
Methylamine nitrate
29-79
{
29-65
29-68
}
3 i7
_1_
Nitroglycerol
18-50
18-45
■■
1 <
U7o
16'67
{
16-78
16-57
}
_1_
Too
Paranitrophenol ....
lu-07
10-03
• ■
1
18'34
f
I
IS -42
12-17
18-43
}
!
IDS
.v,
Ammonium picrate..
22-76
{
22*63
22-07
}
ih
•rh
21-1(1
{
21-00
20-69
}
1
JL
Ammonium picrarnate
25-90
;
26*45
25-75
}
_1_
A
Dinitro-orthocresol. .
14-14
[
14-10
13-98
}
1
Bo
_1_
Trinitrometacresol ..
17*28
17-57
17-27
}
l
i i i
_ l
The success of the operation appears to depend on the
complete conversion of the phenol into the mononitro-
derivatives ; this takes place whenever the organic nitro-
compound forms a clear solution in the cold sulphuric
mixture. Substances like collodion or gun-cotton must,
however, be very finely divided for successful treatment.
The above method cannot be applied to tri- and tetra-
nitrated naphthalenes, as these compounds do not dissolve
completely in the cold sulphuric acid mixture. Kjeldahl's
process may, however, be used if they are previously
converted into the naphthylamines. This is readily effected
as follows: — 12 grms. of iodine are gradually added to a
solution of 2 grms. of phosphorus in 15 or 20 cc. of
carbon bisulphide contained in a 250 cc. flask, the whole
is heated on the water-bath at 100° with constant turning
until the last traces of the solvent are expelled ; it is then
cooled, the iodide of phosphorus detached from the sides
of the flask by shaking, the weighed substance (0-5 or
0-G grm.) introduced, water (8 grms.) added, and the flask
turned round two or three times. When the reaction
becomes brisk, the flask is shaken. In about a minute
after the addition of the water, the reaction is finished ; the
flask is then cooled, 25 cc. of sulphuric acid (6G°) and
0-7 grm. mercury gradually added, and the flask gently
heated until the hydriodic acid is expelled. The operation
is continued as in the ordinary Kjeklahl process, except
that the flask is heated a little more strongly towards the
finish in order to volatilise the phosphonium iodide which
condenses in the neck.
This method, which may be applied to the aromatic
nitro-derivatives as well as to the nitro-naphthalenes, is
especially useful for the analysis of impervious substances
like collodion or gun-cotton, which dissolve so slowly in
Joldhauer's mixture that loss of nitrogen cannot be avoided.
The following results were obtained in this way : —
Total
Nitrogen.
Maximum
Mean
Calculated.
Found.
Error.
Error.
Dmitrobenzcne
10-67
{
16-70
10-52
}
1 l 0
tU
IS'31
{
18-26
18-18
}'
H -:
!
Ammonium picrate .
22-70
{
22-86
22-63
}
1
i ;"-.
1_
21-10
{
20-90
21-03
}
lllll
1
ISO
Ammonium picrarnate
25-90
25-00
..
_1_
Dinitro-orthocresol. .
14-14
{
14-12
11-02
}
1
*Jo
Trinitro-metacresol .
17-28
{
17-05
17-20
}
1
76
1
j to
Total Nitrogen.
Naphthalenes.
By
Schloesing's
Process.
I
By the
modified
Kjeklahl
Process,
Sample A.
Sample B.
Sample C.
Sample l(.
Sample E.
Sample F.
Sample G.
17-30
15-03
10-40
16-96
15-84
1O-08
15-52
17-08 1
17-15 I
17-22 |
n-2o y
17-17
17-11
17-33 J
r 15'28 1
I 15-28
-! 15-21
[ 15-01
I 1.5-04 j
If 1
Mean.
16-11 i
f 10-73 -,
I 16-80 i
\( 15-73 I
I 15-80 f
I 'I'll
15-44
17-19
15-16
10-17
10-77
15-SO
Maxi-
Error.
Mean
Error.
The figures given have been corrected for impurities in
the reagents ; this correction is obtained by making a blank
experiment with each batch of reagents, and may be
entirely neglected in the technical analysis of gun-cotton.
— S. B. A. A.
The Determination of the Purity of Olive Oils. F. Leng-
feld and L. Paparelli. Rev. Internat. des Falsificat. 5
1892, 98. '
The authors made a series of tests in order to compare the
accuracy of different methods employed for detecting adul-
terations in olive oils. The oils designated A, B, C, D, E,
F, I, K, P, Q, R were of Californian origin, and their purity
was beyond dispute. The origin of the samples marked
G, H, L, M, N, O was unknown. For comparison some
samples of cotton-seed oil and of oil of white and black
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov.80, 1892
mustard were likewise tested. It will be noticed that tin-
iodine number of the pure olive oil samples was between
77 '28 and 88" 68 The rising of the temperature was
effected by means of a sulphuric acid of 06° B. Among
the colour reactions, Bechi's test is especially characteristic
for cotton-seed oil. The results are as follows : —
Designation of Oils.
Rising of
i v a- Temperature by ,, ... . .,
Meansol Fatty Aeil;
Sulphuric Acid.
■ Meltu?u!e""US ,!-'"'s
" PattyAdds. *»■«*
Hauchecome's Brulle's
Reagent. Reagent.
A 80-80
1! 77-J-;
(' 87*15
I) S3 ;s,j
E 88-68
P 31*43
< I (union salad oil) ...'. 105*30
II 103-40
1 79-50
K 79-53
1 Sl'70
M
N 7S'52
<) 78-51
P 78-42
Q 78-45
11 85-44
Cotton-seed oil 107-00
oil of white mustard.. 97"6S
Oil of black mustard.. 103-07
°C.
37
35
39-5
37-5
H
38
86
34-3
34
S3
31
:;:;:,
:;:;•;,
36-5
79
49-5
53-5
Per ('•■lit.
94-3
94-11
96-05
95 50
95'63
95 93
96-66
96-59
94-80
95-92
95-77
95-86
94-84
95-97
95-87
95-68
95-93
96-17
96-70
•C.
lielow 2S
28-30
Below 28
28—30
Below 28
33— 36
No reaction No reaction No reaction
Reaction
Below 23 No reaction
Reaction Reaction
No reaction No reaction
37— 38 Reaction
34—36 No reaction
Reaction
llearlioll
-H. S.
'/Vic Determination of Fibrous Materials in a Crude Slate.
S.Gabriel. Zeits. f. physiol. Chem. 16, 1392, 370.
Tins test is a modification of Houig's method for the
determination of crude fibres and starch (this Journal,
1890, 978), and is effected by dissolving caustic potash in
glycerol and by heating this solution to 180° C. The
details of the test are as follows : 33 grms. of caustic
potash are dissolved in I litre of glycerol, and CO cc. of this
solution together with 2 grms. of the substance introduced
into a flask of 250 cc. capacity, and heated on the wire
gauze (not by means of a sulphuric acid bath, as Honig
proposes). The heating has to be carefully managed, as
the mixture is inclined to boil over. After the temperature
of 180° C. has been reached, the solution is allowed to cool
down to 140 C, and then poured into a vessel containing
200 cc. of boiling water. After stirring, the mixture is
allowed to stand, and, after some time, the liquid is drawn
off from the precipitate which has been formed. The latter
is once more treated with boiling water in the above-
described manner, and then washed with 200 cc. of boiling
water to which 5 cc. of hydrochloric acid of 25 per cent,
strength have been added. Finally, the precipitate is
washed with ether and alcohol. In many cases the very
small amount of nitrogen contained in the substance may be
disregarded. — II. S.
The Non-appearance of Multi-Rotation of Catbohydrates
in Ammoniacal Solution. C. Sehulze and B. Tollens.
Annaleh, 271, 1892, 49 -54. (Compare this Journal, 1891 ,
859.)
The authors, having found that when certain carbohydrates,
which in aqueous solution exhibit multi-rotation, are dis-
solvedinaq >us ammonia ofsp.gr. 0-924, and immediately
observed in the polarimeter, showed an optical activity even
below the normal one, continued their experiments, using
Aqueous Solutions.
Ammoniacal Solutions.
"
Tune alter Speoific
'•"I— 'power J
Solution. 1 ri
Tune after
Preparing
Solution.
Specific
[■otatoi'V
Power
[«]„.
Dextrose (hydrate)
( ll> minutes
( 20 hours . .
f 9 minutes
( I'll hours . .
i 7 minutes
(.20 hours ..
("12 minutes
( 211 hours ..
( 7 minutes
' 20 hours . .
\ 6 minutes
120 lurars ..
f 15 minutes
t 20 hours . .
\' 7 minutes
(.20 hours ..
V:;n minutes
120 hours..
90-69 i
4831J
67-4*1
18-82 j
143-991
103*76J
127-93 7
79-32)
0-171
7-86)
95-837
129-38 1
- 92-30 i
- 90-89J
37-112 )
54- 93 5
72-34 7
52-111.1
8 minutes
5 .,
5 >,
8
7 ..
7
0
7
9 .,
48-309
18-88
108-46
78-46
7'95
129-42
- 90-65
55*03
52-01
t ialactose
Maltose (hydra! -i
Semi-rotating milk
Ordinary milk
sugar (hydrate).
more dilute ammonia. Their results obtained in aqueous
solution and in 0-1 per cent, ammoniacal solution are
tabulated above. The solutions were mixed with cream of
alumina, when necessary, and after making up to the mark
filtered and polarised in a Schmidt and Haensch quartz
compensating instrument, the calculations being made by
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
Hi
the formula [a]„ =
n';;i:;,,.\
in which a = the observed
reading on the Ventzke scale, V the volume of the solution,
p the weight of dissolved carbohydrate, and / the length
of the observation tube. The solutions were all about
10 per cent.
Further experiments with dextrose proved that even with
001 per cent, ammonia, the specific rotatory power was
[o]D = 49-98 12 — 15 minutes after preparation, and
[o]„ = 48-34 20 minutes after preparation. To observe
abnormal rotatory power with carbohydrates which exhibit
these phenomena, it is therefore necessary to employ water
free from ammonia as solvent ; whilst by the employment
of 0*1 per cent, of ammonia as solvent, polarimetric work
may be much shortened, inasmuch as the normal rotatory
powers are obtained with the freshly-prepared solutions
without heating them. — A. II. L.
Note
on the Optical and Chemical Analysis of Butter.
F. Jean. Monit. iSeient. 6. 1892, 91—98.
In- this paper the author replies at length to a number of
objections raised against his method (this Journal, 1890,
218, 1072) of applying Amagat and Jean's " oleorefracto-
meter" to the detection of adulteration in butter. Of these
the only one of importance is, that perfectly pure butters
may in some instances yield oleorefractometer deviations
much below the normal ( — 30°), and would consequently be
regarded as impure. Butters which exhibit this peculiarity
have been found in all cases to be derived from ths milk of
cows fed on oil-cake; and there is no doubt that their
abnormal behaviour must be ascribed to the presence of
unaltered oil in the milk. The author admits that in such
cases the oleorefractometer, if exclusively relied upon, will
lead to erroneous conclusions ; but claims that if employed
conjointly with chemical tests it will yield complete informa-
tion concerning all doubtful samples. The quantity of oil
introduced into butter by the use of oil-cake as cattle food
is too small to sensibly affect its " saponification equivalent "
or the percentage of volatile acids ; and it is shown that
pure butter possessing an abnormal refracting power will
yield a percentage of volatile acids somewhat above the
accepted mean value (27 — 28 cc. alkali for 5 grms. of
butter). On the other hand, in impure butters the volatile
acids will be fouud below the mean value. The application
of chemical tests, is, however, by no means necessary in
every instance. Very many butters, especially of French
origin, exhibit normal optical properties, and a number of
samples may be rapidly sorted by means of the oleorefracto-
meter into different classes, thus : — Deviation observed,
32° — 36°, purity of butters, doubtful ; may contain palm or
cocoa-nut oil; 31°— 29°, pure butters ; 29°— 25°, purity
doubtful. Volatile acids must be determined. Below 25°,
impure butters. In the following table are given the
analyses of a number of pure and adulterated butters. The
letters above the columns represent : — A., oleorefractometer
deviation ; B., saponification equivalent in mgrms. of KOH
per 1 grin, of butter ; C, the number of cubic centimetres of
— alkali required to neutralise the volatile acids in 5 grms.
of butter. (Determined by the Reichert-Meissl-Wollny
process) (this Journal, 1887, 831) ; D., the percentage of
fixed fatty acids ; K., solubility of the butter-fat in glacial
acetic acid (sec this Journal, 1890, 113).
Sample.
Pure Touraine buttter
Butter containing cocoa-nut oil
Isigny butter plus 10 per cent.
cocoa-nul oil.
Jersey butter
Butter plus cocoa-nut oil
Carantan butter
[siguj butter
B.
229
11. E.
81-47
2ft
26-8
31- 'J
22-3
88-0
2S-1I S7'2
73
uil-fiij
113-33
63 33
Sample.
Eure butter
Brittany butter
t'lirl rente butter
Goumay butter
Gatinais butter ....
Loiret butter
Indre-et-Loire butte
Normandy butter...
Normandy butter...
*Ardennes
Rennes
Unknown butter
Unknown butter
Unknown butter
loiret butter
Loiret, No. 1
Loiret, No. 2
Loiret, No. 3
Loiret, Xo. 4
Ardennes butter
Unknown butter
Inill-e-et -Loire butler
Britanny butter
Unknown butter
Isigny butter, 4 frs. per pound.
Dairy butter
Suspected butter
Loiret butter
Unknown butter
Unknown butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Rennes butter, i salt
Rennes butter
Unknown butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Suspected butter
Margarine, Mouries
Crenie, Mouries
Oleomargarin
SO
30
30
30
30
311
31)
30
2! I
29
29
29
29
28
27
27
27
27
27
28
229
225
219
227
230-i
231
231
227
229
228
230
225
228
21;
2fl
20
..
25
229
25
229
25
25
231
25
224
25
222
25
215
2.-,
25
..
25
..
25
24
24
24
23
23
216
23
20
19
213
19
217
15
"
13
..
15
..
17
••
29
215
28-5
' 28-6
28-4
28-9
29-6
2S-4
28-9
27-5
30
2S-2
31
3ir8
26
29 ■
24-8
26'4
28-1
25-7
22
27-7
311
2ti
14-7
2s -s
24-5
26
9-85
20-1
24
23-9
25'7
20-3
25-3
23-1
21-8
25
23-6
14
15-1
14-3
3-21
4-78
0-3
E.
63-33
63-33
63-33
f>3-33
63-33
63-33
63-33
58-60
00
63-33
60
60
— H. T
31
26-66
P.
946
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 30, 1892.
Investigation of the Properties of India-Rubber and Data
for the Establishment of Rules for its Reception in the
Russian Nun/. Lieut. L. Vladimiroff. Morskoi Hornik,
St. Petersburg, 1892, 57 j Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 109, 75.
See under XIII., page 929.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
Persulphuric Arid and its Salts. Berthelot. Bull. Soc.
Chim. 7—8, 1892, 497—522.
Marshall's researches (this Journal, 1891, 1004") have
provided a method of preparing certain of the persulphates
in tolerably large quantity, and have enabled the author to
determine some of the more important thermo-chemical
constants. The following are some of the results obtained : —
Cal.
Beat of dissolution of potassium persulphate in
108 parts of water at »"1° C. per grin, molecule -14'36
Heat of dissolution of ammonium persulphate in
12.-, parts of water at 10*5° ('. per gnu. molecule ... — 9*72
Heat of dissolution of barium persulphate in "."> parts
of water a1 12 C. pergrm. molecule — H'38
Heat of neutralisation of persulphuric acid by barium
by. Irate 13-8
Heat of neutralisation of persulphuric acid by
potassium or sodium hydrate 13" 7
ll-at of neutralisation of persulphuric acid by
ammonia 12*4
Heat of decomposition of persulphuric acid according
to the equation :
HjSiO, (dilute) + H20 = 2 H2KO, + () (free) .. 3-fS
Heal of formation of persulphuric acid :
s. (octahedral) + Os + H2+water= H2S.,Osi dilute) 316'8
S2 + Or + water = H2SaOs (dilute) 2f7'2
From these figures it appears that the decomposition of
persulphuric. acid involves an exothermic reaction. It
occurs spontaneously in solution. The same remark
applies to the salts. The potassium salt being anhydrous
can only decompose with the formation of potassium
pyrosulphate and oxygen, provided moisture be absent,
and as this reaction gives rise to the evolution of only
half the quantity of heat that is produced when an excess
of water is present the. dry salt is sensibly stable. The
contrary tendency is exhibited by the barium salt as it
contains four molecules of water of crystallisation, one of
the products of decomposition being in consequence
sulphuric acid, which acts on the remainder of the salt
and forms a further quantity of sulphuric acid, so that the
decomposition increases in geometrical progression. With
regard to the mechanism of the formation of the per-
sulphates, it may be said that as they are the products
of an endothermic reaction they are necessarily formed by
the intervention of external energy, which may result
directly from the electric current employed or may be
obtained from the effect of secondary reactions which are
normal and exothermic. Hydrogen peroxide, for example,
may be an agent of the kind. In dilute solution the
reaction 2 H;S04 + H„0 = H2S2Os + 2 H.,0 is impossible
because it involves the absorption 1 3 • 2 cal", but when the
solution is concentrated its occurrence is no longer out of
the question as the heat of hydration of sulphuric acid is
36' 1 cal. for the two molecules required to effect the
reaction indicated in the equation quoted above. Experi-
ment confirms this surmise, as on treating barium peroxide
with strong sulphuric acid in a vessel cooled with ice and
pouring the product into water, a solution of persulphuric
acid is obtained. If barium peroxide be added little by little,
the mixture being kept cold, a point is readied at' which
the whole mass gives off vapours, the odour of which
resembles that of ozone and hydrochlorous acid (possibly
persulphuric anhydride?). If the residue be treated with
water no persulphuric acid is found, and only a little hydrogen
peroxide, the reaction resulting in the production of the
former only taking place within certain limits of concentra-
tion.— li. li.
The Oxidation of Nickel Carbonyl. Berthelot. Bull. Soc.
Chim. 7—8, 1892, 434.
Nickel carbonyl can be preserved under water, but if
contained in a bottle with an ordinary ground-in stopper
becomes slowly oxidised, and a layer of apple-green nickel
hydrate is formed, which the author has found to be free
from carbon. A portion of it, however, makes its way out
of the bottle and is oxidised, forming a fume which is
deposited on adjacent objects. In order to examine the pro-
duct of oxidation the author kept a bottle of nickel carbonyl
in a double casing of tin-plate and succeeded in collecting
a few decigrammes of a complex oxide, which appeared white
in small quantity, but had a greenish tinge when viewed in
mass. It was found to be the hydrated oxide of an organo-
metallic compound of nickel, and upon analysis gave
figures corresponding to the formula C:03Xi:i. 10 H.,0. It
therefore appears to be the oxide of a complex radical
analogous to croconic and rhodizonic acids. — B. B.
#eto <6ooK£(.
Taschenbuch fub die Soiia-, Pottasche-, VXD Ammoniak-
Eabbikation. Herausgegeben in Auftrage des Vereins
Deutscher Sodafabrikanten und unter Mitwirkuug der
Commissions. Mitglieder J. Stroof, Dr. Jaeobsen, Dr.
E. ltichters, Dr. L. C. Schwab and Dr. Siermanu. Von
Dr. G. Lunge. Professor der techn. Chemie am eidgeniiss
Polytechnikum in Zurich. Zweite, umgearbeitete Aullugo.
Berliu : Verlag von Julius Springer, 1892. London :
H. Grevel and Co., 33, Covent Garden. Is.
Tn in is the 2nd German edition of the work known in this
country as Lunge and Hurler's Pocket-Book for Alkali
Makers. It is a small 8vo. volume, bouud in leather, and
sufficiently strong and limp to go easily into the pocket.
The 14 engravings embellishing the text are beautifully
executed. In this second edition the author expresses his
indebtedness to the valuable contributions of Dr. Hurter
which, reproduced from the English edition above referred
to, appear here. Where any alteration in the methods and
numerical values given in the 1st edition have been made
Dr. Lunge states, that this has only been effected after a
complete understanding with all the members of the German
Verein deutscher Sodafabrikanten. The number of the
alterations is, however, somewhat great, and still greater are
the additions. A number of new tables, many estimations
of new materials, and several new chapters (Zinc blende,
Chlorate of Potash, Recovery of Sulphur (Chance), Beetroot
molasses residue, Gas liquor, &c). For the three acids and
for ammonia, the new Tables constructed by Lunoe and his
students are given.
In these Tables the Baume's hydrometer values in the
first column are replaced by the actual specific gravities,
and side by side are given the Baume degrees, and also the
Fleischer's Densimeter degrees, in the hope that ere long
the latter will quite replace the Baume degrees. These
densimeter degrees are at once in close relationship with
the actual specific gravities and with the English Twaddell
degrees, since degrees Densimeter x 2 = degrees Twaddell,
whilst on striking out the unit in specific gravity, the
remainder x 100 = degrees Densimeter, or more concisely
n 1) =- 1 + o-OIh.
Several improvements have also been made in the portion
relating to Gasometrica) estimations.
Nov. SO, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
9*7
JaIIKKSBEKICHT UEBEB BIB IjEISTUNGEN DER C'HEMISCHEN
TeciiNiii.ckiik, mit BESONDEEEE BeruCKSICHTIGUM;
DER GeWERBESTVTISTIK, FUR DAS JAHR. 1891. VON
Dr. Ferdinand Fischer. Mit 193 Abbildungen,
Leipzig : Verlag von ( Itto Wigand. 1892. London :
H. Grevel and Co., 33 King Street, Covent Garden. 24s.
This work, already long known in this country through
certain earlier translations, as " Wagner's Technology,"
has now for years past been conducted by Dr. Ferdinand
Fischer of Gottingen. The present volume is the Annual
Keport or Jahresbericht for 1891, of the progress of
Chemical Technology, and forms an 8vo. volume in paper
cover, which contains Table of Contents, subject-matter
extending over 1,187 pages, and Alphabetical Indexes of
authors and subjects, aud finally a Register of all the German
patents referred to in the pages of the work, with the pages on
which such references are made. The text is illustrated
by 193 engravings referring to apparatus aud plant, and
the treatment of the whole subject is gathered from the
following epitome of the sub-divisions of the same.
Group I. Chemical Technology of Fuel (pages
1—123). Wood, Peat, Coal, and Coke. Petroleum.
Ozokerite ; Paraffin. Illuminating Gas. Illumination.
Water- and Generator-Gases. Furnaces and Furnace
Arrangements, &e. Heating aud Ventilation. Processes
of Investigation. Calorimetry. Photometry. Statistics.
Group II. Chemical Metallurgy (pages 124 — 312).
Iron, Slags, their formation and utilisation. Preparation of
Pig iron. Casting Iron. Purification of Iron ; Steel.
Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel, Chromium. Aluminium.
Sodium and Potassium. Copper, Lead, and Silver. Gold.
Zinc and Cadmium. Other Metals. Alloys and Metal
plating. New Books. Statistics. Group III. Chemical
Manufactures : Inorganic (pages 313 — 577). Sulphur
and Bisulphide of Carbon. Sulphuric Acid. Ammonia.
Salt and the Salt Industry. Potash Salts. Soda. Hydro-
chloric Acid and Chlorine. Bromine and Iodine. Nitric
Acid, Nitrates, and Nitrites. Phosphorus, Phosphoric acid.
Phosphates Explosives. Magnesium-, Strontium-, and
Barium Compounds. Aluminium Compounds. Chromium
and Lead Compounds. Antimony and Arsenic Compounds.
Other Compounds, Oxygen and Hydrogen. Water and
Ice. New Books. Statistics. Group IV. Chemical
Manufactures : Organic (pages 578—754). Alcohol
preparations. Organic Acids. Aromatic Compounds.
Organic Colouring Matters. Naphthalene and Anthracene
Colours Azo Colours. Other Organic Colouring Matters.
Alkaloids. Ethereal Oils. Other Organic Compounds.
New Books. Group V. Glass, Earthenware, Cements,
Artificial Stone, &c. (pages 755 — 810). Group VI.
Foodstuffs (pages 811 — 1108). Flour and Bread.
Starch and Dextrin. Sugar. Statistics. Fermentation
Industries. A. Fermentation and Yeast. B. Wines.
C Beers. D. Spirits. Milk, Butter, and Cheese. Meats.
Coffee, Tea, and Cocoa, &c. Fodders. New Books.
Statistics. Group VII. Chemical Technology of
Fibres (pages 1109 — 1160). Fibrous Materials. Bleaching.
Dyeing and Printing. Paper. New Books. Group VIII.
Other Organic Chemical Industries (pages llfil —
1187). Fats, Oils, and Lubricants. Fatty Acids, Soaps,
Glycerin. Varnishes, Resins, Paints. India Rubber, &c.
Tanning, Glues. Manures, &c. Preserving Wood.
Commercial Organic Analysis. A Treatise ou the
Properties, Analysis, &c. of Organic Chemicals and
Products used in the Aits, Manufactures, Medicine, &c.
with concise Methods for the Detection and Determination
of their Impurities, Adulteration, and Products of Decom-
position. By Alfred H. Allen, F.I.C., F.C.S. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Vol. III. Part II.
Amines and Ammonium Bases, Hydrazines, Bases from
Tar, Vegetable Alkaloids. 1892. London: J. aud A.
Churchill, 11, New Burlington Street. 18*.
Tins work having grown through the recent extraordinary
development of the subjects treated of, the author has
been compelled to divide his Vol. III. into three parts,
each of which fills a good sized volume. The present
book is Part II. of Vol. III., and it takes the form of an
8vo. volume, bound in cloth, and containing Preface,
Table of Contents, and subject-matter filling 572 pages. Two
beautifully executed plates illustrate the appearances of
photographs of various leaves of the tea and coffee plants
aud also of others which are sometimes used to adulterate
teas and coffees. The book is completed by an Alphabetical
Index of subjects and a list of Errata.
The subjects treated of are as follows: — Amines and
Ammonium Bases. Monamiues. Ammonium Bases.
Hydrazines. Hydrazine. Substituted Hydrazines. Bases
from Tar. Classification of Tar Bases. Aniline and its
Allies. Naphthylamines and their Allies. Pyridine Bases.
Quinoline, Acridine. Vegetable Alkaloids. Character
and Classification of Alkaloids. General Reactions.
Isolation and Purification. Constitution and Synthesis.
Volatile Bases of Vegetable Origin. Aconite Bases.
Atrophine. Tropeines. Coca Alkaloids. Opium Alkaloids.
Strychnos Alkaloids. Cinchona Alkaloids. Berberine, &c.
Caffeine.
Under the head of the various poisonous as well as
medicinal bases, &c. not only is the chemistry of these bodies
treated of, but the best methods of preparation, analytical
reactions, toxicology and descriptions of medicinal prepara-
tions, are given in considerable detail. The classified and
systematically treated articles on Tobacco and Opium are of
much interest, and the subject of Morphometry alone covers
upward of 10 pages, if we include also the extract of opium
and its assay. With regard to the cultivation and use of
opium in smoking and eating in the East, &c, the author
quotes Dr. W. Moore of Bombay, who compares excess in
opium to that in the use of " spirits, of roast goose, or even
of fruit." The subject of the Cinchona Barks, their assay,
and the separation of the Bases, &c. covers some 21 pages.
The treatment of Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa occupies no less
than 73 pages, which are illustrated by many tables, analy-
tical and otherwise.
Explosives and their Power. Translated and Condensed
from the French of M. Berthelot by C. Napier Hake
and Wii. Mac-nab. With a Preface by Lieut.-Col. J. P.
Cundill, R.A. With Illustrations. London : John
Murray, Albemarle Street. 1892. 24s.
Large 8vo. volume, bound in cloth, containing Preface,
Table of Contents, Subject-matter containing 553 pages,
and Alphabetical Index. The subject-matter includes, from
page 543 — 553, an Appendix ou detonating gaseous mixtures,
on the rapidity of propagation of detonation in solid and liquid
explosives, and on the different modes of explosive decom-
position of picric acid and nitro-compounds. The work is
illustrated with between 40 and 50 wood cuts, and is
classified into three books, viz., Book I. General Principles.
Book II. Thermo-Chemistry of Explosive Compounds ; and
Book HI. Force of Explosive Substances in Particular.
These comprise the following courses of subdivision: —
I., Chap. i. The force and work done by explosive substances.
ii. Products of explosive decomposition, &c. iii. Heat and
energy disengaged, iv. Pressure of gases, temperature, &c.
v. Duration of explosive reactions, &c. vi. Explosion by
influence, &c. vii. Explosive wave. II. Chap. i. General
principles of thermo-chemistry of Explosives, ii. Calorimetry.
iii. Heat of formation of oxygenated compounds or nitrogen,
&c. iv. Heat of formation of the nitrates, v. Origin of
the nitrates. vi. Heat of formation of hydrogenated
nitrogen compounds, vii. Ditto of nitrogen sulphide, viii.
Ditto of compounds of nitric acid with organic substances,
&c. ix. Diazo-compounds. x. Heat of formation of
mercury fulminate, xi. Ditto of cyanogen series, xii.
Oxygenated compounds of chlorine, bromine, and iodiue.
Thermal formation of chlorates. Combustion effected by
potassium chlorate disengages more heat than by free
oxygen, &e. xiii. Metallic oxalates. Conditions under
which they are explosive. III. Chap. i. Classification of
explosives. Definition, &c. ii. General data respecting
employment of given explosive, iii. Explosive gases and
detonating gaseous mixtures. Their maximum work, &c.
iv. Definite non-carburetted explosive compounds, v.
Nitric ethers, &c. vi. Dynamites, &c. vii. Gun-cotton
918
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov. so. 1892.
and nitro celluloses, &c. viii. Picric acid and picrates, &c.
ix Diazo-compounds. x. Powders with a nitrate base, &c.
xi. Powders with a chlorate base. DaDgers of chlorate
powders, &c. xii. Conclusions. Summary.
Jahrbuch deb C'ukmie. Bericht iiber die wichtigsten
Fortsjbritte der reinen and angewandteu Cbemie, unter
Mitwirkung von II. Beekurts, R. Benedikt, C. A. Bischoff,
E. 1'. Diirre, J. M. Kder, E. Valenta, C. Haussermann,
G. Kriiss, M. Marcker, L. Biihring, W. Nernst,
F. Bohmann. Herausgegeben von Richard Meyer.
Erster .lahrgang, 1891. Frankfurt a/ M. Yerlag von
H. Bechhold. London : H. Grevel and Co., 33 King
Street, Covent Garden. Bound in cloth, 12s. Elegantly
bound, 13s. 6d\
Tins new Chemical Jahresberieht gives a resume of
the advance of Chemistry and Chemical Technology
during the year 1891, and thus a kind of retrospect
is afforded of the advance, both of pure chemistry and
its principle applications. The work commences with
a preface by Professor K. Meyer, a list of his collabo-
rateurs, and a Table of Contents. The subject-matter
covers 518 pages and the work concludes with Alphabetical
Indexes of subject-matter and authors. The sub-division
of the work indicates the mode of treatment of the whole
subject and is as follows: — I. Physical Chemistry. II.
Inoiganic Chemistry. III. Organic Chemistry. IV.
Physiological Chemistry. V. Pharmaceutical Chemistry.
VI. The Chemistry of Foods, &c. VII. Agricultural
Chemistry. VIII. Metallurgy. IX. The Technology of
Inorganic Chemistry. X. Explosives. XI. Technology of
the Carbohydrates and of Fermentation. XII. Technology
of Fats. XIII. The Chemistry of Coal Tar and Coal Tar
i olours. XIV. Photography.
The book is handsomely bound in cloth, and is of Svo.si/.e.
CraTjt Import.
Sheets of metallic alloys not distinguished. Assimilated
to metallic alloys in the raw state. — Category 221a.
Powder of jalap. — Category 62. Duty, 120 lire per
quintal.
Sulphate of barytes made up with water. — Category 4:i6.
Duty, 1 lire per quintal.
Extract of quebracho.— Category 30c. Exempt from
duty.
United States.
A case involving the basis of the duty on certain copper
ores was heard by the General Appraisers in New York
October 27th. The special point involved was the duty on
Bio Tinto pyrites imported by certain sulphuric acid
manufacturers. Expert testimony was taken, and the
Secretary of the Treasury will decide upon the question.
The present duty on copper ores is one-half cent, per pound
of fine copper contained. The importation of copper ore
reckoning on the basis of fine copper contained, for the
seven months ending July 31st, 1891, was fi,270,0O3 lb.,
and for the same period in 1893, 3,819,416 lb.— Eng.
and Mining Journal.
TARIFF CHANGES AND CUSTOMS
REGULATIONS.
France.
Customs Decisions.
The following decisions affecting the classification of
articles in the French Customs tariff have recently been
given by the French Customs authorities: —
" Carbonated crystal." — Category 247. Duty 4 francs
in cents, per loo kilos.
Tin precipitate, ir. fine powder, for the manufacture of
•■ silver " papers, i- dutiable as colours not distinguished.
Japanese varnish, consisting of acetate of amyl, methylic
alcohol, benzine, and pyroxyline or gun-cotton ; liquid
preparation consisting of acetate of amyl, methylic alcohol,
and benzine, used for diluting the above-named varnish
Category 2'JS, 2nd paragraph, duty, 30 francs per 100
kilos.
Oil-paper for tracing plans and drawings, and used for
the same purposes as sulphurised paper. — Category 461 ter,
cli it \ 2u frs. per 100 kilos.
Italy.
Classification of Articles in Customs Tariff.
Note.— Quintal = 220-4 lb. avoirdupois. Eire = 9^d.
The following decisions Effecting the classification of
articles in the Italian Customs tariff have recently been
given by the Italian Custom authorities: —
Glass bottles with stoppers for druggists' use Category
2586. Duty 15 lire per quintal.
Glass phials, polished with emery. — Category 2586.
Iiuty, 15 lire per quintal.
Demijohns of sheet iron, tinned, containing glycerin.
The recipients are charged, separately from the goods which
I ni v contain.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
The Japanese Camphor Trade.
The following particular* respecting the Japanese cam-
phor trade are extracted from a recent report by the United
Stairs Consul at Osaka: —
The camphor tree, from which the resinous gum is
distilled, i> a species of the laurel, and is found in the
provinces of Tosa, Hiuga, and Satsuma, in the south of
Japan. large groves of the trees are owned by the
Japanese Government, the wood being very desirable for
shipbuilding. The districts in which the camphor tree is
found are mountainous and situated far from the sea. No
reliable information can be obtained as to the cost of pro-
ducing the gum before being transported in junks to Hiogo.
The peasants who engage in distilling the roots and branches
of the trees are said to be poor, and employ the rudest
machinery.
The market value of crude camphor gum and of oil of
camphor per picul (133§ lb.) dining the past year was as
follows: — Drained, 38" 25 dols. ; wet, 37-00 dols.; old dry,
43-50 dols. : average, 36-50 dols. ; camphor oil, 5-25 dols.
The highest and lowest prices during the same period
were a-s follows — Highest, 40-00 dols. ; lowest, 33-00 dols.
Camphor gum is exported in tubs measuring about 6i
cubic feet ; oil in kerosene tins and cases. The grades are
from old dry down to new wet, and the various grades
depend upon the quantity of adulteration. In oil there are
two grades — white and brown.
Adulteration is practiced for the most part by adding
water and oil just as far as the buyer will tolerate. In some
cases 20 lb. of water will run out of a tub in 12 hours.
The unadulterated article, known as the good old dry, can
sometimes be bought. The only system of tests in deter-
mining value of the different qualities is by burning and by
absolute spirit. The percentage of pure camphor which
the crude yields when refined varies accordingly to the
quality of the crude. The average percentage of gum pro-
duced from the wood as compared with the original weight
of the wood cannot be accurately ascertained here, the only
foreigner known to have visited the camphor districts
having declined to furnish any information on the subject.
The total exports of camphor from I'iogo during 1891 in
catties of 1^ lb. each amounted to 3,850,400 catties con-
signed to the following destinations ; Europe (countries not
specified), 1,777,300 catties; London, 335,600 catties;
Germany, 209,200 catties; United States, 1,277,000 catties;
China, 51,900 catties ; France, 199,400 catties.
As regards the manufacture of camphor, the following
particulars are extracted from a report by the United States
Consul at Nagasaki.
Camphor is found alike on high elevations and in the
valleys and lowlands. It is a hardy vigorous, long-lived tree,
and flourishes in all situations.
Nov. so, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
9-1! I
Many of these trees attain an enormous size. There are a
number in the vicinity of Nagasaki which measure 10 and
12 Eeet in diameter. The ancient temple of Osuwa, at
Nagasaki, is situated in a magnificent grove of many hun-
dred grand old camphor trees, which are of great age and
size, and are still beautiful and vigorous. It is stat»d that
there are trees at other places iu Kiu Shin measuring as
much as 20 (t. in diameter. The body or trunk of the tree
usually runs up -JO and 30 ft. without limbs, then branching
out in all directions, forming a well-proportioned, beautiful
tree, ever grecu and very ornamental.
The leaf is small, elliptical in shape, slightly serrated, and
Of a vivid dark-green colour all the year round, except for
a week or two in the early spring, when the young- leaves
arc of a delicate tender green. The seeds or berries grow
in clusters and resemble black currants in size and appear-
ance. The wood is used for many purposes, its fine grain
rendering it especially valuable for' cabinet-work, while it is
used also for shipbuilding. The roots make excellent knees
for ships.
In the manufacture of camphor the tree is necessarily
destroyed, but by a stringent law of the land, another is
planted in its stead. The simple method of manufacture
employed by the natives is as follows: —
The tree is felled to the earth and cut into small pieces,
or more properly speaking, into chips.
A large metal pot is partially filled with water and placed
over a slow fire. A wooden tub is fitted to the top of the
pot, and the chips of camphor wood are placed in this. The
bottom of the tub is perforated so as to permit the steam to
pass up among the chips.
A steam-tight cover is fitted on the tub. From this tub
a bamboo pipe leads to another tub, through which the
enclosed steam, the generated camphor and oil flow. This
second tub is connected in like manner with a third. The
third tub is divided into twj compartments, one above the
other, the dividing floor being perforated with small holes,
to allow the water and oil to pass to the lower compartment.
The upper compartment is supplied with a layer of straw,
which catches and holds the camphor in crystal in deposit
as it passes to the cooling process. The camphor is then
separated from the straw, packed in wooden tubs of 133| lb.
each, and is ready for market.
After each boiling the water runs off through a faucet,
leaving the oil, which is used by the natives for illuminating
and other purposes. — Board of Trade Journal.
European Mineral Production in 1891.
Exports from United Kingdom
of America during
to United States
1891.
Articles.
1891.
1890.
Country.
Copper.
Lead. Zinc.
Steel.
Tons.
70,000
71,000
Tons.
68,000
235,1X10
100,000
Tons.
138,000
82,000
29,000
Tons.
3,5110,000
1,900.000
210,000
529,000
225,000
220,000
Country.
Iron.
Tons.
I'ual.
Tons.
Silver.
Gold.
Kilos.
Kilos.
8,500,000
180,000,000 '
00.000
3,000,000
85,000,000
102,000
1,000,000
20,000,000
••
1,600,000
21,000,000
80,000
"
••
35,000
Antimony
Beer, ale, and stout
Blacking
Bricks and tiles
Cement
Chalk
China clay
Coal and coke
Cocoa and chocolate
Colours, paints, and varnishes
Dings and chemicals
Pullers* earth
Glass, china, and earthenware ....
Glue and gelatin
Crease
Gums
Leather
Matches
Metals other than iron and steel . .
Oils
Paper
Paper stock
Perfumery
Pitch and tar
Plumbago
Quicksilver
Rubber, raw
„ manufactured
Soaps
Tin 401 -316
Tin plates 2,834,026
Dols.
68,575
Dols.
180,218
138,363
2,615
88,409
28 1. 1 12
371,820
lS.tlll
95,487
90,371
300,280
210,777
47.001
53,049
202,388
120,566
3,693,759
3,010,684
19.436
1,282,778
1,071,437
82,101
67,937
70,785
..
285,770
454,710
1.250
154,000
84,349
100,100
L68.11S
439,941
17.001
105.60.-.
1,505
320,361
074,737
344,688
41,985
64,330
Total of all Roods 42,407,671
376,559
6,947,195
44,174,692
Ibid.
Chemical Trade of the Tyne with United States
of America during 1890 and 1891.
Imports from United States of America.
Articles.
-U.S. Consular Reports.
Soaps
Chemicals (unenumerated)...
Glucose
Sugar and molasses
Drysalters' stores
Cotton seeds and linseed cake
Glass... ,
Hides, leather, and skins
Tons.
Tons.
.
28
127
594
256
786
41
35
728
103
950
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[.Nov. 30,1892.
Imparls from United Stales of America— cont.
Art:. -I. -.
< felours and litharge
Phosphates
Copper ore and copner
Oils : Petroleum
.. ( >ther
Paper
Tallow, fet, and grease
Bark, lanners'
Resiu
Exports from Tyne.
1890.
1891.
11.1M7
11
8
5,738
: 5S3
IS
4
757
10
2,420
12,153
6
0
39J
"
3,013
Articles.
1890.
Alkali and soda ash
Alum and alum cakes
Ammonia salts
Barytes, carbonate and sulphate
Baryta manufactures
Bleaching powder
Canst ie soda
Copperas
Hyposulphite of soda
Manganate ot soda
Manure
Magnesia
Nitrate of sola and potash
Petirl hardening
Sods crystals
Sulphate of soda
Vnenumerated chemicals
Cement
Fire bricks
Fire clay
Ferro-nianganese
Antimony
Litharge
Pig lead
Red and white lead
Sheel and pipe lead
Leather and skins
i
Plaster of Paris
n .in! yellow ochre
Venetian red
d Ileal
Tons.
l.olll
300
1
4,310
4.7 M
142
143
2.011!
19
42
L670
4,714
1,495
15
19.S01
1.7. r.
47
1891.
Tons.
2.-!,;2
34U
647
33
1,831
3.232
58
939
19
11
1,653
2,623
28
107
14.G76
:, t ; j
■1 C,
6
in
ins
212
501
860
13
is
500
125
126
17
152
15
1
23
32
12
16
— Ibid.
A New Oil Seed.
The Kew Gardens Bulletin for October publishes the
following notice : —
Amongst the numerous oil seeds that are constantly
being received at Kew, for the purpose of naming, from
Liverpool brokers and seed crushers, were some that made
their first appearance at Liverpool from the West Coast of
Africa in February 1891. They appear to have attracted a
considerable amount of attention, judging from the fact
that they were received at Kew from several different
brokers about the same time, and a month later, in ilarch
1891, samples were also received from Germany. Quite
recently the same seeds have again appeared, having been
sent to Kew by a seed-crushing firm at East Greenwich.
The interest attached to them from a commercial point of
view is probably due to the quantity of oil their kernels
seem to contain, rather than to its quality or properties, for
up to the present these appear not to have been tested ;
they ma3T, however, become an important source both of oil
and oil-cake, for though nothing definitely is known as to
the plant producing them, inasmuch as no other material
than the fruits themselves, without the fleshy coverings,
have been received at Kew, it is clear from these alone
that the plant belongs to the natural order Olacinex, and
probably to the genus Heisteria. The fruits as received
are hard and woody, requiring some force to break them ;
they are ovate in form, above 1 in. long and J in. in
diameter, of a dull earthy brown colour, marked by
irregular longitudinal striations, the inside being filled with
a whitish, fleshy, and very oleaginous kernel. From the
fact that the plants constituting this order are free from
auy poisonous or deleterious properties, and that the fruits
of some of the species are edible, it may be inferred that
this new oil seed may prove of some commercial value.
Xo locality has been given whence the seeds have been
obtained, the only information on that head being, as
before stated, that they were imported from the West
Coast of Africa.
A New Variety of Sugar Caxe.
The Kew Gardens Bulletin, referring to a new variety
of sugar cane which is stated to have been discovered in
the Tpper Niger region of Central Africa, says : —
"It is described as a giant variety possessing great
saccharine richness, and capable of being readily reproduced
from seed which in this variety is well developed. Several
inquiries have already been addressed to Kew in regard to
this cane, and it may be well to state at once that there are
grounds for believing that the plant mentioned is not a
sugar-cane at all, but the ordinary guinea corn or sorghum
(Sorghum vulgare), which is widely distributed over
Africa. This plant, it is well known, yields a useful syrup,
and strenuous efforts are being made in the United States
at the present time to extract a granulated sugar from it.
Should the Niger plant prove to possess any special merits
as a sorghum we shall, no doubt, hear more about it. It
can have, however, little or no interest to the tropical
sugar-planter."
Petroleum nj Upper Burma.
Dr. Fritz Noetling, Geological Survey of India, has
written a verj- interesting account of the petroleum industry
in 1'pper Burma. Dr. Noetling estimates that there are
now 602 wells, an increase of 92 since 1888. These produce
about 17,700 viss (viss is equivalent to 3J lb. avoirdupois)
per day, but there are, in Dr. Xoetling's opinion, distinct
signs of exhaustion. The fact that the aggregate produc-
tion of the richer wells has fallen off, while that of the
poorer ones has increased, although many new wells have
been opened, is regarded as the surest indication of the
approaching decline in the industry. The drilled wells
worked by the Burma Oil Company and the Burma Oil
Syndicate have given very satisfactory results. In 1890
the total out-turn amounted to over 3,670,000 viss ; but the
rate of progress during 1888, 1889, and 1890 has not been
maintained during the past two years. The history of the
industry shows that the production of the oil-field steadily
increased from the beginning of the century till about 1873,
Nov. 3IM892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
951
when it began to decline, rising again in ] 885, and coming
practically to a standstill in 1891. — Hoard of Trade
Journal.
Sc.ve Ijakk, Washington.
Professor J. C. Russell, of the United States Geological
Survey, gives the following information concerning the
water of Soap Lake in Douglas county, and compares it
with that of other alkaline waters. The sample analysed
contained sediment amounting to four parts in 1,000,000.
He says : " The absence of calcium carbonate is of interest,
since deposits of that salt are now taking place on the lake
bottom through the agency of low forms of plant life.
Compared with other alkali lakes of the West, Soap Lake
contains but a small quantity of the alkaline metals, as the
following analyses show : —
Constituents in
Parts
Per thousand.
Great
Salt
Lake,
Utah,
1869.
Sodium, Na
Potassium, K
Calcium, Ca
Magnesium, Mg...
Lithium, Li
Chlorine, t'l
Carbonic aria. en.
Sulphuric acid, s( t,
Nitric acid, NOs ..
Boracic acid, J>,< >7
Silica, SiOj
Hydrogen in biear-
bonstes.
Totals
19 -690
'.'■ In?
II '255
3-780
Trace
83-946
9-853
Trace
140-936
Soda
I :!.
near
Rag-
town,
Nev.
M «>ti< >
( >wen*s
Lake,
Lake,
C:ili-
Cali-
fornia.
fornia.
Snap
Lak«-,
Wash-
ington.
n
•632
mi
496
•650
771
285
27.'.
113-644
ls-llio
1-111
0-278
0-125
11-610
11-410
8- 120
0-153
0-268
19-680
21-iWi
2-751
Trace
Trace
Trace
13-440
13-140
9-362
Trace
d-164
Trace
0-0108
8-5262
9-6216
1-8624
0-1130
0-0534
6(1-507 2S-1915
— Engineering and Min. Journal,
The Iodine Convention.
We hear from an official and neutral source in lquiqne
(Chili) that, although the Iodine Convention is still in force
at this moment the agreement will not remain tenable for
long (the report was penned about two months ago), because
under the operation of the Convention the stock of iodine is
accumulating to such an extent that there will soon be
enough for three years' consumption. It is, therefore,
sought to arrive at an understanding upon a new basis, upon
which it it proposed either to stop the production altogether
for a period, or at any rate to limit it to such an extent that
the accumulated stocks will have a chance of absorption by
the ordinary consumption. The exports of iodine from
Iquique in 1891 were 9,114 quintals, of which 1,823 went to
Liverpool, 5,117 to Hamburg, 1,764 to New York, and 399
to other ports. The producers who do not belong to the 1 fnion
exported 74 quintals. The nitrate combination, which was
formed in 1891, will, so far as the present arrangements go,
remain in force until the end of 1892. There is hardly any
doubt that it will be renewed. — Chemist and Druggist.
Articles op Interest to Technologists and
Manufacturers.
The following articles, which appear in the Board of
Trade Journal for November, will repay perusal.
'• Foreign Competition with Great Britain in trade with
Uruguay" ■ ■ • • P- •,:11'
" Trade Requirements in Guatemala. ' p. 540
" Xew Customs Tariff of Porto Rico " p. 553
BOARD OF TRADE RETURNS.
Summary of Imports.
Month ending 3Kt October
1891.
Metals
Chemicals and dyestufls
Oils
Raw materials for non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports . . . .
£
£
1,803 088
1,427,118
134,685
475. 138
709,908
539,259
4.038,042
4,272,368
36,873,829
3I.726.S38
Summary op Exports.
Month ending 31st October
1891.
1892.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
3,179,(114
798,480
2,899,96(1
£
2.77:,.ii;i
2.497.SHI
21,166,113
IS 725, 160
Imports op Chemicals and Dyestuffs for Month
ending 31st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
1892.
Values.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
Brimstone ,
Chemicals Value £
Cochinaal Cwt.
Cutch and gambler Tons
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
Alizarine „
Other
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda.... „
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles. . . Value £
Total valuo of chemicals
£
£
10,485
5,075
5,786
1,102
U,31ll
18,905
20,086
3.538
18.1S3
31,338
6,096
8,072
..
115,775
146,765
827
487
5,101
2,911
2,370
1,538
63,892
32,381
..
..
18,304
21,786
••
• •
32,260
37,039
• •
..
188
434
3118
1,967
4,654
30,114
107.301
139,143
47,954
59,046
17,990
24,503
16,729
21.SS7
562
650
10,281
9,346
••
••
87,579
98.017
,,
..
4-34,685
475,438
952
THE JOURNAL. OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Nov.so,iS9a.
Impobts of Metals foe Month ending 31st October.
Quantities.
Values.
ArticleB.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
Copper : —
Tons
8,896
F.099
8,676
B.246
£
87,122
210,632
£
30.81 «
181,606
Unwrought ....
..
1,121
2,828
213,645
132,623
Iron :—
»
212,206
6,642
279,931
10,238
150,1*
61,716
191.0115
Bolt, bar, 4c. . . .
91,641
Steel, unwrought..
„
620
248
11,768
3.018
Lead, pig and sheet
„
16,651
11,286
209,785
115,489
Lb.
31,913
9*,256
4il,533
30,975
58,833
9,235
67,502
2,665
Cwt.
Tons
alue£
netals
39,253
5,101
46,162
3,872
184,212
119,037
491,963
214,639
73,873
Other articles ...T
295,588
Total value of 1
■•
1,803,088
1,427,118
Imports of Raw Material for Non-Textile
Industries for Month endlng 31st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
1891.
1892.
Values.
1891.
1892.
Bark, Peruvian . . Cwt.
Bristles Lb.
Caoutchouc Cwt.
Gum : —
Arabic „
Lac, 4c
Gutta-percha ...
Hides, raw : —
Dry
Wet
Ivory
Manure : —
Guano Tons
Bones ,,
Paraffin Cwt.
Linen rags Tons
Esparto
Pulp of wood .... „
Rosin Cwt.
Tallow and stearin „
Tar Barrels
Wood:—
Hewn Loads
Sawn
Staves „
Mahogany Tons
Other articles. . . .Value £
Total value .
9,635
9,041
£
10,231
105,038
280,844
26,543
22,949
21,919
245,494
6,578
8,250
14,700
7,879
5,976
82,572
3,125
3,033
41,848
34,410
21,156
95,270
55,540
48,254
123,866
1,717
1,061
83,812
3,644
2,034
25,880
5,003
2,870
22,843
39,725
39,306
60,202
2,745
510
28,090
15,260
10,744
76,172
9,026
12,859
82,168
03,124
58,186
16,831
69,598
97,024
91,805
16,961
19,899
1 1,.-:;.-,
230,321
259,684
510,743
666,035
730,783
1,176,145
15,660
17,036
70,8S3
3,512
4,051
82,409
1439,830
••
••
4,038,042
£
15,932
39,265
210,351
22,2S0
21,269
111, 70S
56,002
12,880
12.6S6
31,443
4,247
85,430
101,090
11,980
121,528
15,669
508,140
1,550,003
58.981
41,137
1,106,683
4.272,368
Imports of Oils for Month ending
31st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891. 1892. 1891.
1892.
Besides the above, dru^s to the value of tJ9.02i-/. were imported,
;is against 70,6362. in October 1891.
35,081
11391
£
47,003
£
13,96!
1,159
1,186
46,629
tf,682
110,123
90,343
129,238
91,016
... Gall.
12,112,813
12.093.704
251,200
201,335
1,968
1,616
2,4511
1,856
50,60 i
44,353
36,441
51,118
9,498
69,975
10,055
Other articles .
. Value £
of oils . . .
••
64,756
77,439
Total value
■•
709,908
539,239
Exports of Metals (other than Machinery) for
Month ending 31st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
£
£
11,146
65,947
8,504
69,693
49,500
179.962
35,125
Copper :—
Unwrought
171,061
30,911
24,247
102,037
72,233
Mixed metal
27,008
37,205
75.S20
88,526
• •
• •
226,828
189,688
Implements
••
•■
121,270
107,237
287,685
256,507
2,151,734
1,865,121
3,537
2,705
49,106
42,894
33,863
Plated wares. . . Value £
35,151
Telegraph wires, 4c. „
••
• •
38,167
31,198
11,079
10,908
12,221
15,069
52,832
11,753
77,110
58,694
14,352
Other articles . . Value £
72,607
3,179,014
2,775,161
Exports of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
31st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
664,721
100,303
25,551
640,884
158 180
24,483
£
250,486
48,528
153,546
99,401
246.524
£
227,485
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
Other articles ... „
66,506
13S.211
88,394
234,548
798,480
Nov. 30,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
i>53
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 3 1 st October.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
953,700
427,600
£
24,050
£
12,191
Military stores.
Value £
• •
• •
127,821
101.875
. Lb.
Value £
1,831,800
1,150,400
27,170
120,936
26 901
102.S19
Value £
10,4 tl
43,541
90.410
133,276
76,795
Products of coal
113,773
Earthenware . .
u
..
..
203,302
181,768
„
..
..
11,912
14,122
Glass :—
375,931
159,760
25.033
9,210
11.261
7,109
23,363
18,5)5
71,581
66,785
33,521
32,216
Other kinds..
• H
19,706
21,817
17,181
18,665
Leather : —
Unwrought . .
• »»
11,093
11,519
106,535
105,318
Value £
..
..
49,285
34,386
6,008
6,013
126,586
114,980
Floorcloth
Sq. Yds.
1,658,100
1,119,700
67,862
49,0 B
Painters' materials Val. £
..
..
143.6S1
110,657
83,889
71,180
143,384
126,539
4,812
6,335
32,108
43,879
45,971
43,086
49,754
49,861
••
••
2,899,900
2,497,840
iflontblp patent ZizU
♦ The dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two mouths of the said dates.
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
18,793. F. J. R. Carulla. Improvements in apparatus
for concentrating and evaporating liquids. October 20.
18,879. T. Thorpe and T. G. Marsh. Improvements in
or connected with gas condensers. October 21.
18,891. T. G. Webb. See Class VIII.
18,941. W. A. Swain. See Class XVII.
19,147. H. H. Lake. —From O. B. Stillman, United
State?. Improvements in evaporating apparatus. Com-
plete Specification. October 25.
19,149. H. W. Rappleye. Improvements in drying
apparatus. Complete Specification. October 25.
19,213. I. Levenstein. See Class VII.
19,558. A.Lappin. Improvements in distilling apparatus.
October 3 1 .
19,611. A. Gray and J. \V. Newall. Improvements in
the production of steam. November 1.
19,653. P. M. F. Laurent. A method and apparatus for
use in the manufacture of ice. November 1.
19,755. A. G. Glasgow. Improvements relating to
pressure gauges. November 2.
19,789. A. Boake and F. G. A. Roberts. Improvements
in vessels for containing sulphur dioxide. November 3.
19,837. A. H. Wendt. Improvements in apparatus for
controlling the flow of acid or other liquid to and from
casks or other receptacles. November 3.
20,299. W. W. Pope. Improvements relating to vessels
for containing gas under pressure. November 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
17,886. H. H. Lake. — From La Societe Anouyme du
Compresseur Jourdan, France. Apparatus for expressing
liquids from vegetable, animal, or mineral substances.
October 26.
19,486. D. B. Morison. Improvements in apparatus for
heating or evaporating liquids. October 26.
19,780. C. J. Schofield. See Class VII.
20,125. G. Y. Blair. Apparatus for evaporating, con-
densing, and the like. October 26.
20,904. C. H. Fitzmaurice. Apparatus and appliances
for softening, purifying, and filtering liquids. November 16.
21,507. J. Brotherton. Bottles or holders for the
storage and conveyance of quicksilver, gas, and other
fluids under high pressure, and method of manufacture
thereof. November 2.
22,248. J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthy. See Class XVII.
22,607. D. Rylands. Furnaces, retort chambers, and the
like. November 2.
22.655. H. Williams. See Class VII.
22.656. H. Williams. Method and apparatus for drying
malt, hops, grain, pulse, and other substances. November 2.
22,870. J. Pullman and H. Lane. Construction of
compressing machinery or apparatus for the condensation
and liquefaction of gases. November 16.
1892.
138. E. Brook. Furnaces. November 9.
765. S. Fox. Furnaces for the application of water-gas
for heating and welding purposes. November 16.
15,122. W. H. Beck. — From B. de Lissa, Australia. See
Class II.
15,69S. F. W. Golby.— From B. Jardin. Apparatus for
heating air. October 26.
16,308. W. Maybach. Apparatus for effecting a con-
tinuous circulation and cooling of cooling liquids employed
in motors and compressors. October 26.
16,403. C. W. Cooper. Apparatus for evaporating
liquids. November 16.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
18,581. D. Terrace. An improved apparatus or appliance
for heating inclined gas retorts. October 17.
18,605. G. Hiittemann and G. Spieker. Improvements
in the manufacture of blocks or briquettes of fuel from
small coal, slack, coal-dust, and coke-dust. October 18.
951.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. SO, 1892.
18,615. W. Fiddes. Improvements in the method and
apparatus for charging gas retorts. October 18.
18,680. J. Yonge. An improvement in night lights,
candles, and similar means of illumination. October 19.
18,904. J. Hodges. .Sec Class III.
18,990. L. H. Armour. Improvements in the manufacture
of illuminating gas. October 22.
19,078. L. Chapman. Improvements in and apparatus
for the production of oxygen and nitrogen from atmospheric
air. October 24.
19,477. R. Campion. The employment of certain
ingredients and means for the manufacture of fire-lighters
therefrom. Complete Specification. October 29.
19,483. A. W. Wells.— From F. Venue, Belgium. A
new or improved apparatus for carburetting gas and air for
illuminating and heating purposes. Complete Specification.
October 29.
19,630. H. Galopin. Improvements in and connected
with apparatus for using liquid fuel for lighting and heating
purposes. Complete Specification. November 1.
19,655. H. G. O'Neill. Improvements in and relating to
a method of and means for heating by electricity. Complete
Specification. November 1.
19,753. A. G. Glasgow. Improvements relating to
apparatus for the manufacture of water-gas. November 2.
19,997. J. Goetz. improved apparatus for separating
tar and ammonia from gas. November 7.
20,341. P. A. Fichet and R. Heurtey. Improvements in
the production and the use of gaseous fuels. November 10.
20,373. W. G. Hay. Improvements in and connected
with the manufacture of fire-lighters. November 1 1 .
20,429. A. J. Eli.— From M. A. Braconnier, France. A
new or improved process for utilising the waste heat of zinc
works. November 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
20,573. J. Hargreaves. Feeding fuel to gas producers
and generation of combustible gas. November 2.
21,563. W. Bagley. Apparatus for feeding coal to gas
producers. November 16.
22,106. C. E. Bell. Improvements in coke ovens to
facilitate the cooling of the eoke before drawing. October 26.
22,292. J. A. Yeadonaud W. Adgie. Heating retorts or
furnaces for the distillation of coal or other analogous
purposes. November 16.
22,340. J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthy. Process for the
manufacture of carbonic acid gas and hydrogen gas, and for
the separation of the two gases, and apparatus therefor.
October 26.
1892.
24. H.Williams. Gas purifying apparatus. November 9.
15,122. W. H. Beck. — From B. de Lissa, Apparatus for
making and storing a mixture of infiammabie gas and air.
November 16.
17,262. R. M. Bidelman. Manufacture of gas. Novem-
ber 2.
III.— DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Application.
18,904. J. Hodges. Improvements in the treatment of
paraffin scale and other crude paraffins. October 21.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
18,721. R. J. Friswell and F. H. Leeds. Improvements
in the manufacture of copy able inks. ( Ictober 19.
18,762. H. S. Elworthy. An improved method of and
apparatus for oxidising indigo liquor. October 19.
19,246. H. E. Newton. — From The F'arbenfabrikeu
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new colouring matters. October 26.
19,411. R. W. E. Mclvor and A. Cruickshauk. A process
for the production of blue ultramarine from the material
known as green ultramarine. Complete Specification.
October 28.
19,557. H. E. Newton. — From The Earbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new colouring matters. October 31.
19,743. H. E. Newton. — From The F'arbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new a/.o-colouring matters. November 2.
19,820. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Briining, Germany. A new manu-
facture of red colouring matter. November 3.
19,826. J. Sniechowski. Improvements in the production
of black and brown colours. November 3.
19,891. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, Limited, and A. G.
Green. Improvements in the manufacture of azo-colouring
matters. November 4.
20,423. J. Rohner. Manufacture of new colouring
matters of the series of the indulines by the action of the
diamido-di alkyltbyoureas on the aromatic amines. Com-
plete Specification. Failed November 11. Date applied for
April 14, 1892, being date of application in France.
20,506. B. Willcox. — From The Badisehe Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
and production of dyestuffs, suitable for dyeing vegetable
fibre with or without a mordant. November 12.
20,512. G. M. Keevil.
of ink. November 12.
A new or improved manufacture
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,641. B. Willcox F'roin The F'arbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of new colouring matters.
November 2.
22,641 a. B. Willcox. — FVom The Earbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Production of azo colours on fibre.
October 26.
1892.
277. C. D. Abel.— From The Actien Gesellsehaft fiir
Anilin Fabrikation. Manufacture of new colouring matters.
November 9.
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
18,572. P. Jensen.— From E. Stiemer and M. Ziegler,
Germany. Process of and apparatus for working up organic
fibrines for producing sheets, roofing and wall felts, matches,
torches, and the like. Complete Specification. October 17.
19,737. H. W
Improvements
No\ ember 2.
Godfrey, C. F. Leake, and C. ¥j. Lucas.
a the manufacture of floor - cloth.
Not.S0,18W.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
955
19,770. E. Ostlere and W. F. Denholm. Improvements
in the manufacture of tesselated or inlaid floor-cloth.
November 3.
19,776. F. Doller and R. Wolffenstein. Process and
apparatus for waterproofing woven fabrics. Complete
Specification. November 3.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,470. C. Gr. Hagemann. Manufacture or production of
cellular substance and textile fibre. October 26.
19,185. L. E. Vial. Treatment of China-grass, and
other plants adapted for employment in the textile industry.
November 16.
1892.
477. G. Hagemann. See Class XIX".
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
18,843. J. E. L. Roche. An improved process of dyeing,
dressing, and waterproofing fabrics. Filed October 20.
Date applied for March 21, 1892, being date of application
in France.
18,973. D.Jackson. Improvements in the method of and
apparatus for hank dyeing. October 22.
19,079. F. Schreurs. A new process and apparatus for
printing and dyeing fabrics. Complete Specification.
October 24.
19,359. L. Ettl. A new or improved process and apparatus
for dyeing, bleaching, and boiling. Complete Specification.
October 28.
19,790. J. Rhodes, sen., and J. Rhodes, jun. Improve-
ments in machinery for dyeing, washing, or treating with
liquids, hanks or skeins of yarn, stubbing or other fibrous
material. November 3.
20,444. P. A. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
E. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in the production
of fast colours on fibres by means of dyeing and printing.
November 1 1 .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
20,103. P. G. Wild, G. Bentley, J. B. Jackson, and A. A.
Whitley. Method of stamping and tinting textile fabrics
and apparatus for effecting same. October 26.
22,538. E. Zillessen, sen. Dyeing silk or half silk goods.
October 26.
22,641a. B. Willcox. — From The Farbenfabriken vormals
F. Bayer and Co. See Class IV.
1892.
148. A. Dreze. Dyeing vats. November 9.
4278. H. Thies and E. Herzig. Bleaching. November 9.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
18,598. F. P. Candy. Improvements in and in connection
with the manufacture of iron sulphate, and of mateiials for
nse in the filtration and precipition of sewage and polluted
waters. October 18.
18,810. H. Steinem. Improvements in the manufacture
of carbonic acid gas. October 20.
18,871. J. Hargreaves and T. Bird. Improvements in
the manufacture of alkali and in apparatus therefor.
October 21.
18,900. C. H. W. Heepfner. Improvements in the manu-
facture of cuprous oxide. October 21.
18,917. O. J. Steinhart. Improvements in the production
of cyanides of the alkali and alkali -earth metals.
October 21.
19,143. J. S. MacArthur, R. W. Forrest, and W. Forrest.
Improvements in obtaining cyanogen compounds. Octo-
ber 25.
19,180. J. M. Milnes and A. Milnes. A new process or
means for the production of chloride of lime. Complete
Specification. October 25.
19,213. I. Levinstein. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for concentrating sulphuric acid and other
liquids. Complete Specification. October 26.
19,4+7. R. Ashton. Improvements in the preparation
of compounds for making vinegar. October 29;
19,812. L. Mond. Improvements in obtaining ammonia,
chlorine, and hydrochloric acid from ammonium chloride.
November 3.
20,055. W. J. Fraser and L. McGregor Fraser. Im-
provements in the manufacture of bleaching powder and
like compounds, and in apparatus therefor. November 7.
20,070. W. T. Thorp. Manufacture of improved sub-
stances from salt. November 8.
20,202. T. Hyatt and T. Rickett. Improvements in the
preparation of acids and alkalis, and in baking powders and
self-raising flour prepared therewith. November 9.
20,269. M. P. Hatschek. Improvements in the manu-
facture of sulphurous acid and its compounds, sulphites
and bi-sulphites of lime, soda, and the like. November 10.
20,284. P. de Wilde, A. Reychler, and F. Hurler.
Improvements in apparatus for the manufacture of chlorine.
November 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,482. J. E. Bott. Manufacture of caustic alkalis.
October 26.
19,780. C. J. Schofield. Apparatus for concentrating
sulphuric and other acids. November 16.
22,340. J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthy. See Class II.
22,655. H. Williams. Method and means for recovering
salts from brine and solutions, and for concentrating
solutions.
22,828. J. J. Meldrum and T. F. Meldrum. Supplying
liquor to ammonia stills. November 9.
1892.
2604. J. Morris. Process for the production of crystals
and crystalline masses. November 16.
'.'56
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 80, 1892.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
18,891. T. G. Webb. Improvements in the manufacture
of open glass retorts or vessels used in the concentration of
sulphuric acid, and in apparatus therefor. October 21.
19,361. A. S. Ford. See Class X.
19,39"). P. A. Moreau. Improvements in the production
of ornamental stones artificially coloured. Complete
Specification. October 28.
19,970. J. A. Yeadon and W. Adgie. Improvements iD
the manufacture of fire-bricks, retorts, crucibles, and other
analogous articles. November 5.
20,441. S. D. Pochin and II. D. Pochiu. Improvements
in the manufacture of tiles. November 1 1 .
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
46. R. F. Yorke. Earthenware pipes. November 16.
117. D. Rylands. Jars and similar receptacles for
sterilised milk and similar preparations. November 9.
16,792. F. Shuman. Apparatus for manufacturing
sheet glass having wire or wire netting embedded within
it. November 9.
17,848. P. Sievert. Process for producing flat objects
of glass, and means for carrying out such process.
November 16.
IX.-
-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
18,575. H. J. Haddan.-
States. Improvements i
disintegrating clay and
Specification. October 17.
18,803. K. Alsdorff. Improvements in fireproof walls
and ceilings. Complete Specification. October 20.
19,009. J. Thomlinson. Improvements in the manu-
facture of non-efflorescent white cements from calcined
sulphate of lime. October 22.
19,622. J. A. Yeadon and W. Adgie. Improvements in
the manufacture of cements or other analogous materials.
November 1.
19,716. J. L. Rawbone. An improved compound or
treatment of clay to produce a compound for modelling
designs. November 2.
19,813. O. Boklen. Improved process for making
cement or cement mortar. Complete Specification.
November 3.
19,908. C. G. Picking. Improvements in or relating to
fireproof buildings. Complete Specification. November 5.
19,947 W. Gutmann de Gelse. Process for preserving
timber. Complete Specification. November 5.
20,132. H. D. E. Earl. Improvements in paving for
streets, roads, and other places. November 9.
20,414. P. A. Moreau. The manufacture of variegated
or veined artificial stone and imitations of natural marble.
Complete Specification. November 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,111. E.Nelson. Material for use 'as a damp course
in building foundations. November 2.
1892.
16,911. E. Edwards. — From E. Goetz. Process for
producing liquid clay or slip for casting in moulds.
October 26.
From F. D. Cummer, United
the process of drying and
similar materials. Complete
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
18,892 F. O'Connor Prince.— From J. Dixon, F. J.
Blades, W. S. Douglas, and 1). Garlick, South Australia.
Improvements in and connected with the smelting of the
sulphurets or sulphides of certain metals, and in apparatus
to be used therewith. October 21.
18,928. G. L. Morris and J. Williams. Improvements in
machinery and appliances for coating metal sheets with
tin, terne, and other metals or alloys. October 22.
19,125. J. Kirkwood. Improved process and apparatus
for separating iron, silicon, and such like impurities from
other metals and alloys. October 25.
19,155. W. A. Baldwin and F. G. Wheeler. An
improved method of and apparatus for decarbonising iron.
Complete Specification. October 25.
19,175. A. J. Boult. — From F. Grassmann, Belgium.
Improvements in or relating to the fining of pig or crude
iron. October 25.
19,215. C. M. Pielsticker. Improvements in the method
and apparatus for coating metal with a protective covering.
October 26.
19,330. N. J. F. Romanet duCaillaud. An alloy for use
in textile machinery. October 27.
19,361. A. S. Ford. An improved process of electro-
plating glass, china, &e. October 28.
19,371. W. P. Thomas and R. Davies. Improvements
in coating metal plates or sheets with tin, terne, and other
metals, and apparatus therefor. October 28.
19,467. J. Clark and G. W. Clark. Improvements in or
relating to the manufacture of steel and iron. October 29.
19,600. J. Buchanan, jun. Improvements in apparatus
for charging furnaces with metal. Complete Specification.
November 1.
19,727. H. J. Phillips. A process for the elimination
of sulphur and phosphorus from molten iron or steel.
November 2.
19,769. E. Hunt.— From B. Hunt, Mexico. Improve-
ments in cyanide processes for extracting precious metals
from ores. November 3.
19,801. W. S. Rawson and Woodhouse and Rawson
United, Limited. Improvements in and in connection with
pickling and preparing iron or steel plates for tinning or
galvanising. November 3.
19.844. H. S. Denny and J. T. Garrick. Improved
process for the recovery of gold and silver and utilisation of
by-products from ores containing the sulphides of antimony,
arsenic, tin, zinc, lead, and copper, either individually or
collectively. November 3.
19.845. H. S. Denny and J. T. Garrick. Improved
process for recovery of gold and silver from their ores.
November 3.
20,014. H. Pidot and H. Charlier. A new process for
hardening cast iron, and manufacturing cutting tools or
other articles of tempered cast iron. November 7.
20,025. F. G. Fuller. Improvements in the treatment of
ores and recovery of metals contained therein, and appliances
therefor. November 7.
20,040. C. H. Ridsdale and The North-Eastern Steel Co.,
Lim. Improvements in the manufacture and treatment of
ingot iron and steel. November 7.
Nbv.so.MBa.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
957
20,151. H. II. Lake.— From E. W. F. Abbe, United
Status. An improved process for treating oxidised or
corroded lead, and apparatus therefor. Complete Specifica-
tion. November 8.
20,189. F. Feldhaus and J. C. Ollaguier. A process for
augmenting the resistance of iron, steel, and other metals.
November 9.
20,208. \V. A. Briggs.— From J. W. Richards, United
States. An improved solder for aluminium. Complete
Specification. November 9.
20,318. A. Guthrie and R. F. Macfarlane. Improvements
in the treatment of complex ores containing sulphides of
zinc, lead, iron, copper, silver, gold, or other metals.
November 10.
2U.419. Woodhouse and Rawson United, Lim., and W. S.
Rawson. Improvements in pickling iron and steel plates
and apparatus therefor. November 11.
20,130. I. J. Monger and R. Monger. Improvements in
means or apparatus for use in smelting copper or copper-
producing materials. November 11.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,573. G. Selve. A process of separating cobalt from
nickel. November 2.
1892.
1443. R. I!. Thomas. Coating sheets or plates of iron
and steel with lead. November 9.
8612. E. H. Saniter. Purification of iron or steel.
November 2.
16,168. K. Wittgenstein. Process for manufacturing
thin steel or iron sheets direct from ingots or welded
faggots. November 9.
17,908. W. Smethurst. New or improved furnace for the
reduction or smelting of zinc, lead, silver, gold, and other
ores. November 16.
17,928. C. H. Hubbell. Manufacture of mineral wool.
November 16.
XI.-
-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
18,807. E. Audreoli. Electrodes for secondary batteries.
October 20.
18,817. J. A. McMullen. Improvements relating to
galvanic batteries. October 20.
18,844. II. Roller. Improvements in dry cells or galvanic
batteries. October 20.
18,966. Siemens Bros, and Co.,Lim. — From Siemens and
Halske, Germany. Process for the electrolytic decomposi-
tion of compounds of metals and sulphur. October 22.
19,170. H. Blackmail. Improvements in the production
of chlorine, soda, and other products by electrolysis, and in
apparatus employed therein. October 25.
19,220. E. Freund. — From E. Freuud, Austria. Im-
provements in electric batteries. October 26.
19,236. G. Wilkinson. Improvements in and relating
to the generation and distribution of electrical energy.
October 26.
19,282. W. Walker. An improvement in or connected
with galvanic batteries. October 27.
19,393. T. Froggatt. Improvements in electric battery
apparatus. ( )ctober 28.
19,451. H. F. Joel. Improvements in voltaic batteries,
electrodes, and connections. October 29.
19,655. H. G. O'Neill. See Class II.
19.880. T. Parker and A. E. Robinson. The manufacture
or production of an improved anode for use in electrolytical
processes. November 4.
19,953. J. C. Richardson. Improvements relating to the
construction of electrodes for electrolytical purposes.
November 5.
20,348. R. J. Black. Improved electric-battery cells.
November 10.
20,489. A. B. Woakes. Improvements in apparatus for
sterilising and oxidisiug liquids by electricity. November 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,477. O. Schlesinger. A depolarising liquid for galvanic
' batteries. October 26.
21,959. E. Hermite and A. Dubosc. Apparatus for the
manufacture of alkaline or earthy alkaline bases and of
their salts or compounds by electrolysis of saline solutions.
November 2.
22,339. N. Wladimiroff. Primary and secondary batteries.
November 9.
22,708. W. Helessen. Manufacture of porous carbon for
galvanic batteries and for filters. November 2.
1892.
372. N. Benardos. Soldering, melting, and coating metals
by the aid of electricity. November 16.
16,461. W. Main. Secondary batteries. October 26.
16,822. T. Craney. Electrolytic apparatus. Novem-
ber 16.
17.222. W. P. Thompson.-From C. L. Coffin. Electric
metal working or welding. November 2.
17.223. W. P. Thompson.-From C. L. Coffin. Welding
or working metals electrically. November 2.
17.225. W. P. Thompson.-From C. L. Coffin. Method
and apparatus for electrically welding metals. November 2.
17.226. W. P. Thompson.-From C. L. Coffin. Method
or apparatus for working or heating metals electrically.
November 2.
Erratum.
20,312 of 1891 (p. 861). Erroneously announced as com-
pleted in Official Journal, 28 September 1892. Please
cancel.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
18,527. J. Brown. Improvements in the manufacture of
soft soap. Complete Specification. October 17.
18,533. J. Brown. Improvements in the manufacture of
hard soap. Complete Specification. October 17.
18.744. A. Teal. An improved method of and apparatus
for brightening rape, linseed, and similar oils. October 19.
18,918. I. R. Burns. Improvements in the manufacture
of lubricating grease. October 21.
19,191. J. W. Chenhall and W. S. Chenhall. Improve-
ments in effecting the solidification of mineral, vegetable, and
animal oils and fats. October 25.
19.745. C. H. Freyer.— From F. Korn, Germany. The
" Excelsior " oil-purifying apparatus. November 2.
"
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
COMPLETE SPECIFICATION ACCEPTED.
1892.
16,827. W. R. Lake.— From W. T. Cutter. Cleansing or
•on of fatty substances from wool and the like, and
method of clarifying the solvent nsed therefor. November 15.
XilL— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, ii'D
Applicat.
18,735. H. H. Lake.— From L. Enrieht, Unite:
An improved manufacture of paint or cement. October 19.
I. ,T. E. Hartley and H. E. Hart'.ey. A newer
implored dead or non-glossy coating or vanrish. October29.
H. J. Donnadieu. An improved process of
manufacturing turpentine. October 31.
19,539. J. F. Thompson and C. F. Baker. An improved
colouring and burr : position for boots and shoes.
Complete Specification. October 31.
,. H. P. T. Denny- aril W. L. L. Grant. An anti-
fouling and protective paint for preserving the bottoms of
iron or wooden vessels and other submerged surfaces.
November 12.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
i. W. R. Earp. Material which may be
I manufactures in the =tead of india-rubber, gutta-
percha, and other similar - and pro-
making the same and for the utilisation thereof of waste
liqnors from tannerie-. Noreml
1892.
- - " J. Burbridge. Prepariog variegated rubber for
manufacturing purposes. November 9.
XIV.— TANNING, LEATHER, GLCE, isd SIZE.
Applicat
51. C. 8. Boy and C. S.Sherrington. A new and
improved process for obtaining blood albumin for com-
mercial purposes. November 1 1 .
Complete - ricot Accepted.
- T. J. Haslam.
mber 1 C.
tnte for whalebone.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Application.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Complete Specification- Accepted.
1891.
19,702. R. Morton and T. Morton. Pans for boiling or
heating sugar or compounds thereof or similar substances.
-
20,887. D. Stewart. Evaporating or concentrating
saccharine liquids and apparatus therefor. October 20.
:- .
15,816. C. M. Lafontaine. New or improved process
and apparatus for the treatment and purification of raw
sugar, and its conversion into blocks or ingots. October 26.
18,648. 3. Carter.
manure from sewage.
Improvements
Octob-
in manufacturing
XVIL— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Eic.
Applicat:
18.6C" : J. H. Howell. Improvements in
attemperators and skimming appliances for use in brewicg
and fermenting I r 19.
18,814. C. F. H. UaUett An improved refrigerator or
heater for cooling or heating wort or other liquid. October 20.
18,911. H. Gardner. — From Vau Laer, Belgium.
Improvements in or connected with apparatus for the
cultivation of pure yeast. October 21.
- vain. Improvement- in strainers for the
purification of malt liquor or other liquid*. Octob".: --
19,25-f. A. Brin. An improved process of flavouring,
impregnating, or modifying alcoholic liquid-. Octob
I. A. Brio. An improved process of distilling a>jd
rectifying alcoholic liquids. Octob- -
I. A. Brie. Improved apparatus for di- tilling,
rectifying, flavouring, or modifying alcoholic liquids.
15. B. Dukes. — From ¥.. Rriesemeister and W. A.
Seyberlieh, Germany. Improvements in the manufacture
of grape sugar. October 31.
- - ,-iire. Improvements In the manufacture
of yeast. November 10.
20,317. .V- Kerschbaum, Y. J. '/.. B. Strassnicky, and
meideL Improvements in the manufacture of malt
liquor. Complete Specifica" amber 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18. J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthy. A method of
and appliance for the collection, purification, and utilisation
of carbonic acid gas given off during fermentation of
saccharine and other substances. Octob- 2
.. -. W. P. Thompson.— Froi. under. Pre-
paration of extracts for use in the manufacture of yeast and
spirit. Novemb
1892,
301. H. Prior. Apparatus for cooling and attempe-
rating beer during fermentation. November 2.
17,258. E.Adam. MaR beverages. November 2.
Nov. so. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
969
XVILL— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHKMISTKY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
18,535. 1!- W. Leftwich. Improvements iu cocoa and
chocolate. ( tctober 17.
30,095. C. H. R. Christie.— From C. J.Christie, Argentine
Republic. Improvements in and connected with the treat-
ment of milk. November 8.
20,202. T. Hyatt and T. Rickett. See Class VII.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
18,598. F. P. Candy. See Class VII.
19,198. R. Stanley, An improved method for the puri-
fication of sewage waters and waters from chemical and
other manufactures. October 26.
19,247. W. D. Scott-Moncrieff. Improvements in or
relating to the treatment of sewage. October 2D.
19,5S7. F. P. Candy. Improvements in the treatment of
sewage and polluted waters, and in connection with the
manufacture of materials for use in the treatment of sewage
and polluted waters. November 1.
19,783. A. S. Ramage. Utilisation of human excreta.
November 3.
19,785. W. Oldtield. Improvements in the method of
purifying sewage and trade effluents. November 3.
19.S29. L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley. Improvements
iu apparatus for purifying water. November 3.
19,830. 1!. M. Deeley and L. Archbutt. Improvements
iu apparatus for purifying water. November 3.
19,860. J. Hanson. Improvements in means or apparatus
for cooling and purifying liquids discharged from works or
the like. November 4.
C. — Disinfectants.
18,957. S. 1'. II. Statham. A new or improved disinfecting
and deodorising paper. October 22.
19,277. \V, G. Daniell. A new or improved composition
for preserving articles of food, and for disinfecting and
purifying purposes. October 27.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
20,694. B. Corrick. New or improved manufacture of
substances or compositions for use as condiments. Novem-
ber 9.
1892.
16,548. C. Blackmore. Process for incorporating malt,
or the aroma therefrom, with coffee, tea, and similar
substances used as a beverage or food. November 2.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
1891.
17,844. A. Wollheim. Plan for the construction of
works for the treatment of sewage and other foul or waste
liquids. October 26.
20,682. J. Price. Treatment of sewage. October 26.
1892.
16,333. W. F. Goodhue and C. Paulus. Apparatus for
filtering and purifying sewage or other matters. Novem-
ber 2.
C. — Disinfectants.
1892.
S. Yingling, J. K. Pf alt zgraff, and G. K.
Chemical compound for treating tobacco.
16,202. G.
Pfaltzgraff.
November 9.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
19,675. F. Greening, jun. Improvements in the manu-
facture of compositions and treatment of the base nitro-
cellulose or pyroxiline for various commercial uses.
November 1.
20,290. P. Smith. Improvements in apparatus for the
manufacture of paper. November 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,135. L. E. Vial. .See Class V.
1892.
477 G. Hagemann. Manufacture or production of
cellular substances suitable for paper-making and fibre
suitable for spinning. November 16.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
19,329. L. F. Riedel. A new compound or derivative of
para-tolyldimethyl pyrazalon, and process for obtaining the
same. Complete Specification. October 27.
19,648. L. F. Riedel. Manufacture of para-phenetol-
carbamide. November 1.
19,878. H. Thorns. Process for obtaining ;)-phenetol-
carbamide. Complete Specification. November 4.
20.497. P. A. Newfon. — From The Farbenfabrikcn
vormals F. Bayer aud Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new pharmaceutical compounds. Novem-
ber 12.
20.498. C. II Abel. — From The Ilaarmaun and Reimer
Vanillin-Fahrik, Germany. Manufacture of /3-cymidine,
C6H3(CH3. NIL,. C3H7), (1:2:4) from the orims {? oxinies)
of certain camphor species. November 12.
20.499. C. D. Abel From The Haarmann and Reimer
Vanillin-Fabrik, Germany. Manufacture of mono-carbon
acids having the composition of C,HuO.:, of di-carbon acids
having the composition C,Hu04, and of anhydrides of the
latter having the composition C,,H, />,. November 12.
9«0
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Nov. 3H.186?.
Complete Specification* Accepted.
1892.
361. C. D. Abel.— From C. F. Boehringer and Sobne.
Manufacture of vanillin. November 9.
16.942. W. P. Thompson. — From R. Campani. Process
for extracting iodine from natural saline waters, mother-
liquids, or other liquids containing iodine. November 2.
XXL— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Application.
19,5:51. H. J. Shawcross. Improvements in or connected
with the production of sepia or like coloured photographic
pictures and sensitised paper films and other media
therefor. October 31.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
18,548. J. Somerville and I). Morrison. Improvements
in and relating to matches for lighting purposes. October 1 7.
18,572. P. Jensen. — From E. Stiemer and M. Ziegler,
Germany. See Class V.
19,322. C. H. Wolf. A process for the manufacture of
fuses, such as firework fuses, and apparatus in connection
therewith. Complete Specification. October 27.
20,231. R. V7. Sedgwick and C. Lamm. Mode of
exploding high explosives without the use of fuses, and
also apparatus therefor. November 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
19,068. C H. Curtis and G. G. Andre. Manufacture of
gunpowder. November 9.
12,415. W. E,
less Powder Co.
1892.
Gedge. — From The United States Smoke-
Explosive compound. October 26.
PATENT UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Complete Specification Accepted.
11,174. W. Read, jun. Solvent compounds, and method
of making same. October 26.
Printed and Published by Etre and Spottiswoode, East Hardinir Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
Society of (O^mtcal 3n5ustry:
A MONTHLY RECORD
FOR ALL INTERESTED IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES.
No. 12.— Vol. XI.]
DECEMBER 31, 1892.
"Non-Members 80/- per annum ; Members
21/- per Set of extra or back numbers ;
Single Copies (Members only) 2/6.
€bt £>owtp of Cbemfcal Itftustrp.
Past Presidents :
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., LL.D., V.P.R.S 1881—1882
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S 1882—1888.
Walter Weldon, F.R.S 1883—1884.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.E.S 1884—1885,
E. K. Muspratt 1885—1836.
David Howard 1886—1887.
Prof. James Dewar, F.R.S 1887—1888
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S 1888—1889,
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S 18S9-1890,
E. Rider Cook 1890-1891
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. 1891-1892
COUNCIL FOR TEAR ENDING JULY, 1892.
President: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., ic.
Vice-Presidents :
Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S.
Win. Crowder.
David Howard.
Dr. F. Hurter.
E. K. Muspratt.
B. E. R. Newlands.
Dr. V. H. Perkin, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
John Spiller.
J. C. Stevenson, M.P.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
Sir John Turncy.
A. H Allen.
Arthur Boake.
R. Forbes Carpenter.
Dr. Charles Dreyfus,
H. Grimshaw.
C. Clarke Hutchinson
Ordinary Members of Council :
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S.
John Pattinson.
Bovertou Redwood.
A. Gordon Salamon.
Edward C. Cortis Stanford.
Thos. T.yivr.
With the Chairmen and Secretaries of Sections.
Honorary Treasurer:
E . Rider Cook East London Soapworks, Bow, E.
Honorary Foreign Secretary :
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
General Secretary : Charles G. Cresswell.
Offices :
Palace Chambers, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.
THE JOURNAL.
A. H. Allen.
L. Archbutt.
Q. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Joseph Bernays, M.I.C.E.
H. Brunner.
E. Rider Cook.
W. T. Dent.
Chas. Dreyfus, Ph.D.
Percy Gilchrist, F.R.S.
John Heron.
D. B. Hewitt, M.D.
David Howard.
Prof. J.J. Hummel.
Publication Committee :
The President.
Prof. A. K. Huntington.
F. Hurter, Ph.D.
C. Clarke Hutchinson.
Wm. Kellner, Ph.D.
Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
B. E. R. Newlands.
John Pattinson.
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S
H. R. Procter.
Boverton Redwood.
John Spiller.
Wm. Thorp.
Thomas Tyrer.
Editor :
Watson Smith, University College, London, W.C.
Assisted by the following Staff of Abstractors :
H.Auer VII.
T. L. Bailey, Ph.D. Gen.Chem.
I). Bendii III.
M. Benfey VI.
E. Bentz IV., V..VI.
Jos.Bernays.M.I.C.E I.
E. J. Bovan V., XIX.
Bertram Blount . {xil XHI
Arthur G. Bloxam XIV., XV.
J. C.Chorley I., XXI.
J.H.Collins X.
V. Cornish... VIII., IX., XIII.
C.F.Cross.... V., XII., XIX.
W. P. Dreaper VI.
P. Dvorkowitscli II., Ill,, XII.
W.M.Gardner V..VI.
Oswald Hamilton I.
P.J.Hartog.B.Sc. Gen. Chem.
Prof. D.E. Jones, B.Sc. XI.
W.E.Kay VI.
A J. King, B.Sc. . . . VI., XVI.
F. S. Kipping, 1 II. and
D.Sc i Gen.Chem.
Chas. A.Kohn, )p.„ P,.m
pi p. t ben. v^nom.
L.deKoningh XVIII., XXIII.
T. A. Lawsou, Ph.D. . IV.
F.H.Leeds. III., XIII., XXI.
J. Lewkowitsch,") TIT TTT
Ph.D j III., XII.
A.R.Ling IV..XVI.
D.A.Louis IX..X..XV.
W. Macnab..... XXII.
K. E. Markel, Ph.D. . . XII.
A. K.Miller, Ph.D.. III., IV.
N.H.J. Miller, Ph.D. XV.
F. W. Passmore,} TY -tvttt
Ph.D 5 -\\.. XX1I1.
H. S. Pattinson, Ph.D. VII., X.
W.J. Pope .... IV., X., XXI.
G. H. Robertson XI.
F. W. Renaut . . . Patent Lists.
A. L. Stern, B.Sc XVII.
D.A.Sutherland... II., III.
Eustace Thomas XL
H.K.Tompkins, B.Sc. X.
V. H. Veley, M.A. Gen. Chem.
C. Otto Weber, Ph.D. IV., XIII.
J.G.Wells XVII., XX.
A. Wingham X.
NOTICES.
Members are reminded that the subscription of 25*. for
1893, payable ou January 1st next, should be sent in good
time to the Treasurer in order to ensure continuity in the
receipt of the Society's Journal. Any changes of address
to appear in the new List of Members now in course of
preparation, should reach the General Secretary not later
than January 15th, 1893.
Post Office Orders should be made payable at the
General Post Office, London, to the Honorary Treasurer,
E. Rider Cook, and should be forwarded to him at Bow,
unless it be desired to notify a change of address.
Members who require extra sets or back numbers of the
Journal are requested to make application to the General
Secretary only, to whom also changes of address should be
communicated.
962
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
Authors of communications read before the Society, or
any of its Local Sections, are requested to take notice that
under Rule 41 of the bye-laws, the Society has the right of
priority of publication for three months of all such papers.
Infringement of this bye-law renders papers liable to be
rejected by the Publication Committee, or ordered to be
abstracted for the Journal, in which case no reprints can
be furnished to the author.
Notice is hereby given, for the information of members and
advertisers, that the advertisement columns of this Journal
have been contracted for by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,
the Society's printers and publishers, to whom all commu-
nications respecting them should be addressed.
The Secretary is prepared to offer 5s. apiece for copies of
the Society's Journal for January 1883 in saleable condi-
tion.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED, 23rd DECEMBER 1892.
Annandale, C. J. P., The Briary, Shotley Bridge, Co.
Durham, paper manufacturer.
Bruce, Geo., 11, New Gravel Lane, Shadwell, E., analyst's
manager.
Bruckmann, Gustave T., 192, 18th Street, Brooklyn,
X.Y., U.S.A., chemical engineer.
Danglade, Ernest, Vevay, Indiana, U.S.A.
Dunn, Fred., Flinders Lane, Melbourne, Victoria,
analytical chemist.
Fellowes, F. \V., 61-62, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.,
brewer's chemist.
Goodall, Walter, Alma House, Pudsey, near Leeds,
analyst.
Hopkins, Erastus, 12, Linden Street, Worcester. Mass.,
U.S.A., chemist.
Karslake, VVm. J., State College, Centre Co., Pa., U.S.A.,
assistant in chemistry.
Langer, Dr. Carl, 5, Redesdale Terrace, Canfield Gardens,
N.W., analytical chemist.
Rhodes, Jos., Blane Cottage, Blanc-field, near Glasgow,
printworks chemist.
Roberts, Ernest H., 15, Herndou Road, East Hill.
Wandsworth, S.W., analyst.
Selkirk, Wm., Beekcrmet, via Carnforth, mining engineer.
Southern, Thos. Jr. Jr., YVheathill Chemical Works, St.
Simon Street, Salford, manufacturing chemist.
Stone, Win., 345a, Swanston Street, Melbourne, Victoria,
analytical chemist.
Whitehead, .las., 266, Liverpool Road, Patricroft, Man-
chester, dyer.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS.
Allen, Walter S., I ■> New Bedford; 24, West Street,
Boston, ila^.. U.S.A.
Anderson, (i. 11., l/o Felling; 630, Scotswood Road,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Babington, 1'.. l/o Dardanelles; 6, Grange Terrace,
Weymouth.
liainbriilge, 11. A., l/o Manchester Sqnare; Union Club,
Trafalgar Square, S.W.
Barbour, T. F., l/o Coatbridge; 35, Robertson Street,
Glasgow.
Barclay, Hugh, l/o Harrington; Calder Ironworks,
Coatbridge, N.13.
Barrie, D. McL., l/o Poilok Patents Co.; P.O., Box
1657, Johannesburg, S.A.K.
Bird, II., Journals to 95, Durnford Street, Stonehouse,
Plymouth.
Bloomer, F. J., l/o Boundaries Road; Sunnyside, Byrne
Road, lialham, S.W.
Burrough, Horace, juu., l/o Boston: 1130, Lafayette
Avenue, Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
Field, W. Eddington, l/o Hawthorne ; 65, Sutherland
Road, Armadale, Melbourne, Vic.
Fletcher, R. Jaques, l/o Halifax ; The Hawthorns,
Bromley, Kent.
Freestone, J. W., l/o Rock Ferry ; 9, Clark's Terrace,
New Ferry, Cheshire.
Gatheral G., l/o Hepburn ; 174, Soho Hill, Handsworth,
Birmingham.
Haines, Reuben, Journals to Haines Street, Germautowu,
Philadelphia, Pa., U S.A.
Hall, J. A., Journals to Victoria Chemical Co., Victoria,
British Columbia.
Hoskins, A. Percy, l/o London ; Corporation Gas Works,
Belfast.
Innes, M., l/o Alameda; 76, Donohoe Building, San
Francisco, Cal., U.S.A.
Jackson, Samuel, l/o Nether Thong; 7, Brook Street,
Mold Green, Huddersfield.
Jackson, Walter, Journals to 24, Sydenham Avenue,
Sefton Park, Liverpool.
Joseland, W. H., l/o Talke ; Mitchell's Wood Cottage,
near Chesterton, Staffordshire.
Ling, A. R., l/o Thames Ditton ; 45, Lambton Road,
Wimbledon.
Macfarlane, Jas. A., l/o Mexico; 917, Vender Street,
Vancouver City, British Columbia.
Marks, E. G., l/o New York ; Belleville, N.J., U.S.A.
Martino, F. W., l/o Broomhill ; 107, Montgomery Road,
Sharrow, Sheffield.
Myers, W. S., l/o New Brunswick; 251, North 6th
Street. Newark, X.J., U.S.A.
Nishigawa, T., l/o Tokyo; Chemical Works, Kawa
Kitamura, Osaka, Japan.
Pitblado, L., Journals to 39, Washington Street, Toorak,
Melbourne, Victoria.
Powell, A. E., 1 o Stockport Hoad; 8, Guardian Building,
3, Cross Street, Manchester.
Sanderson, T. C, l/o New Mexico; 53, Cardiff Road,
Norwich.
Shaw. Geo., I/o Temple Street; 35, Temple Row, Bir-
mingham.
Steel, R. Elliot, l/o Shipley ; Science, Art, and Technical
Schools, Plymouth.
Taubman, R., I/o 33, 124, Southampton Row, London,
W.C.
Warner, II. G., l/o Walham Green; 5, St. Ann's Park
Terrace, Wandsworth, S.W.
Will, W. Watson, l/o Newington Terrace; 1, St. Agues
Place, Keimington Park, S.E.
Wilson, A. Poole, l/o Birkenhead ; Sutton Copper Works,
St. Helens.
Wynne. W. I'., l/o Tyneside Terrace; 35, Parson's
Green, S.W.
CHANGES OF ADDRESS REQUIRED.
Judd, G. M., 1 o 207, Burdett Road, Bow, E.
McDonald, A., I o 10, Cochrane Street, Glasgow.
Bowler, G. S., Crystal Palace District (las Co., Lower
Sydenham, S E.
Brunner, Jos. 1'., 28, Exchange Street Fast, Liverpool.
Schofield, Christ. J., Whalley Range, Manchester.
Thomson, Robt., at 79. Hereford Road, Bayswater, W.
December 1st.
Winstone, A. B., 7, Gray's Inn Square, W.C, Nov. 5th.
Deo. 81, 1892.1 THE JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
963
Zoirium ^fctt'om
The Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House, W.
C. P. Cross.
A. G. Green.
D. Howard.
C. C. Hutchinson.
W. Kellner.
B. E. R. Xewlands,
\V. Ramsay.
Chairman : Win. Thorp.
Vice-Chairman : W. Crowder,
Committee:
F.G.Adair Roberts.
A. Gordon Salomon.
G. N. Stoker.
F. Napier Sutton.
T. K. Thorpe.
T. Tyrer.
Frank Wilson.
Hon. Local Secretary : John Heron,
Ellerdale, Cottenham Park, Wimbledon.
SESSION 1892-93.
1893 :—
Monday, Jan. 9th :—
Mr. Arthur <;. Green. F.I.i'. " Qualitative Analysis of Artificial
Colouring Matters."
Mr. Bernard Dyer, D.Sc., F.I.C. "Notes on the Proportion of
Fatty Acids in Oil Cakes."
Mr. Watson Smith, F.I.O. Farther Notes on the Preparation
of Nitrous < htide."
Monday, Feb. 6th:—
Mr. Oscar Guttmann. " The Manufacture of Nitric Acid."
Mr. C C. Hutchinson, F.I.O. "A New Form of Laboratory
Filter Press."
Meeting held Monday, bth December 1892.
ME. WH. THORP I.V J II i-: c'HAIIi.
ON THK ELECTEOLYTIC PRODUCTION OF
CHLORINE AND SODA.
BY C. T. CROSS AND E. J. SEVAN.
The electrolytic production of caustic soda and bleaching
powder has of late years occupied a good deal of attention.
The subject is one of very considerable technical interest,
and the commercial future of electrolysis in this direction
of application being at the present time under serious dis-
cussion, we have availed ourselves of an opportunity of
bringing the matter before the Society.
The problem of the economical manufacture of alkali and
bleach by the electrolysis of salt solution is a very enticing
one, and for many years past it has attracted the attention
of inventors. It is, however, only within the last few years
that any considerable advances have been made.
The chief difficulties have hitherto been (1) the devising
of a diaphragm of such low resistance as would allow the
electrolysis to proceed with a reasonably low electro-motive
force, and which would at the same time effectually prevent
the recombination of the products of electrolysis ; and (2)
the construction of an anode which would stand wear and
tear.
These difficulties have, we venture to think, been very
largely overcome, and we think there is a fair prospect of
success in the near future.
We do not propose in the present communication to
advocate any one of the many processes that are before the
public, but to discuss the problem in general terms in the
hope that we may be able to show the feasibility of an
economical electrolytic process.
We shall, however, have occasion to describe somewhat
in detail two processes with which we have had some
practical experience. These are the Greenwood and the
Le Sueur processes, and their essential features are shown
in the diagrams on the wall.
In the former, the electrolyser consists of a rectangular
tank of slate or other suitable material divided into com-
partments by means of diaphragms. These are made of a
number of V"snaPetl shelves of glass or slate placed in a
mahogany frame. The spaces between the shelves are
tilled with asbestos. On one side of the diaphragm is the
cathode made of iron, and on the other side is the anode.
This is of peculiar construction, being built up of a number
of pieces of hard retort carbon cemented together bv first
impregnating with tar and subsequently heating" to a
high temperature. The inside is tilled with type metal.
The cathodes and anodes in every electrolyser are connected
together in parallel, the electrolysers themselves being in
series. Arrangements are made by means of pipes for
allowing the salt solution, which is about half saturated, to
flow through all the anode and cathode sections respec-
tively.
The chlorine which is evolved passes into the chlorine
main. The caustic solution, after passing through a
sufficient number of electrolysers, is evaporated, and the
excess of undecomposed salt removed. The subsequent
treatment of the chlorine calls for no special remarks.
In the Greenwood process no arrangement is made for
the renewal of diaphragms or anodes, as both are believed
to be practically indestructible. Time, however, can alone-
settle this point.
In the Le Sueur process the arrangements are very
different.
The electrolysers consist of an iron tank fitted with a
sloping floor, on which rests the cathode. This is formed
of a ring of iron filled with several pieces of iron wire
gauze. Several small holes are drilled in the top part of
the ring to allow of the easy escape of the hydrogen. The
floor of the tank is also sloped for this purpose. The
diaphragm rests on the cathode. It consists of two parts,
viz., a sheet of ordinary parchment paper and a double
sheet of asbestos cemented together by means of coagulated
blood albumen.
The diaphragm being placed in position, the inner vessel
of earthenware is placed on it, and by its own weight makes
a watertight joint. There are usually 6 — 12 electrolysers
in each tank. Inside the vessel has been previously placed
the anode. This consists of pieces of ordinary retort
carbon imbedded in a mass of lead, through which electrical
contact is obtained.
The object of the lutes is of course to prevent escape of
chlorine. The lute, which is made of porcelain, is in order
that any one electrolyser can readily be electrically dis-
connected from the others in the same tank. Without
this it would be necessary to remove the cell entirely if
anything happened to go wrong with it.
The cell being in position, a saturated solution of salt
is run into the outer vessel until it reaches just above the
upper edge. The anode section 4s filled with similar
solution to a level about half an inch above that of the
solution in the cathode section. The object of this is to
prevent any transference of solution from the outer to the
inner vessel, this being more harmful than the reverse.
The diaphragms are renewed every 48 hours ; to effect
this the whole of the inner vessels in any tank are simul-
taneously raised.
As the carbon of the anodes wears away they are
lowered by means of the screws, so as to bring them as
near as possible to the cathodes. After working for 6 — 8
weeks they have to be renewed. For this purpose the cells
are taken to pieces and the lead melted and recast.
When the electrolysis has been continued long enough
for the solution of caustic to reach a strength of about 10
per cent., the liquor is run away and the alkali precipitated
as bicarbonate.
Having now briefly described the Greenwood and
Le Sueur apparatus, we will proceed to discuss the problem
from the point of view of cost. In doing this we shall base
our estimates on figures obtained from the actual working
of the Le Sueur system on a scale of half a ton of bleaching
powder per day.
With the exception that the cost of plant would vary
with every process, the figures may be taken as fairly
representative of other processes.
In calculating the cost, the most important item is the
power. Opinion varies considerably as to the cost of a
horse-power ; we believe, however, that it may fairly be
taken at not more than \d. per hour. We arrive at this
estimate in the following way : —
Taking as our basis an output of 2,400 indicated horse-
power hours, employing two engines of 1,200 horse-power
each.
964
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, 1892.
Cost of power per 24 hours : —
l. Coal.— This, with modern engines, we may safely take
mi i! lb. per horse-power hour. * »• <•■
2400 x 24 x 24 hours = 64 tons at 10s S2 " °
g. Labour— 8 day men and 8 night men, at 30s too
s. Depreciation at 10 per cent, for 300 dayson
£ s. a.
HmrinflS 10.000 0 0
BoSf.'.'.................' 7.0011 0 I) 514 0
.fcl7.0l.iQ (I 0
4. Oil, waste, &c 1 ° "
£42 It 0
12/. 14s. 0s.=40,992 farthings, which, divided by 24 hours
and again by 2,400 horse-power Rives us 0'71 of a
farthing as the o si of one horse-power hour.
At this point it may he interesting to quote the estimate
given by Dr. John Hopkinson. In an address recently
delivered to the Junior Engineering Society, this authority
states his opinion that a Board of Trade unit (1,000 watts)
can be produced at a cost of one-third of a penny, which is
as nearly as possible equal to 1 farthing per horse-power
hour.
Now this 2,400 horse-power when converted into electrical
energy and delivered at the terminals of the electrolysers
will he equivalent to only 2,000 electrical horse-power on
the basis of a loss in conversion aod leakage of 17 per cent.
We now have to consider what amount of electrical
energy can be got from 2,000 electrical horse-power. This,
of course, will depend on the electro-motive force at which
the current is employed. In practice, it has been found that
with arrangements, such as the Greenwood and Le Sueur
processes oiler, the decomposition of the salt can be effected
with a current working at 4i volts. As a matter of fact,
3 volts or less is sufficient, but in that case the amount of
decomposition per unit of plant, if we may vise the expression,
is small, and the saving of power thus effected would probably
be more than counterbalanced by tbe stauding charges on
the extra plant required. 2,000 electrical horse-power x
740 = 1 492,000 watts. Dividing this by 4i volts we
arrive at a current of 331,555 amperes equal to 7,957,320
ampere hours.
Each ampere hour is theoretically capable of producing
0-00292 lb. of chlorine, therefore 7,9J7,320 x 0-00292 =
23,235 lb. of chlorine per 24 hours. Taking a practical
efficiency of 80 per cent, we find that our current of 331,555
amperes will yield 1S,.">SS lb. or 8-3 tons of chlorine per
24 hours, equal to 22-43 tons of bleaching powder
containing 37 per cent, of chlorine.
Each ampere hour will yield 0-0033 lb. of caustic soda
(NaOH). Going through a similar calculation we get a
yield of 9-378 tons of caustic soda or 12-426 tons of ash
per 24 hours.
These products at present selling prices would be worth —
£ s. cl.
23-43tons bleach at 71. 10s 168 4 6
9*378 tons caustic at 12* 112 10 ii
£280 15 3
22-43 tons oleach at 11. 10s 168 4 6
12-428 tons ash at 61. 15s 71 9 0
£230 13 6
Now as to the cost of production. This we arrive at in
the following way :—
Cost of production of 23 tons bleaching powder and
9-378 tons of caustic or 12-426 tons ash per 24 hours : —
£ s. </.
18 tons sail at 12s 10 w 0
12tonslimea1 L2s 7 i 0
Power, 2,400 x 24 57,600 horse-power hour at id. . 60 0 0
Labour lo 0 0
Casks and packages is o 0
Depreciation :ii 10 per cent, for 800 days on —
£ s. </.
Electrolysers 12,000 0 o
Dynamos 8,000 0 0
Tanks, pumps buildings, &c 10,000 0 0
630,000 0 o 10 0 0
Superintendence l o o
General expenses i 0 <•
£121 0 0
Where the diaphragms and anodes require renewal, as in
the Le Sueur system, a further sum must he added. This
will amount to 30/. The carbonic acid for converting the
caustic into carbonate, we may put at the outside figure of
2/. We arrive at a total cost of production of 153/.
When caustic soda is the product required it will be
necessary to increase the cost of production by the expense
of evaporation. This should not amount to more than 1/.
per ton. It is probable that even with the most perfect
anodes and diaphragms a certain sum will have to be put
aside for renewals. What this should be experience only
can tell. Where the rate of disintegration is known, as in
the Le Sueur system, it can be fully discounted.
It must also be borne in mind that caustic soda obtained
by evaporation of solutions of salt and soda still contains a
certain amount of salt, which will render it less valuable
than purer products. The margin of profit is, however,
sufficiently large to allow for such contingencies.
Such then is briefly the present position of electrolytic
soda and bleach. We have tried to show that under by no
means extravagant conditions they can be produced at a
price which at the present selling prices leaves ample
margin for profit.
It may be of interest to members of the Society to
know that the Le Sueur process is now in operation at
Kumford Falls, U.S.A., on a scale of 3 tons of bleach
per day. We may also mention that the Hermite
Electrolytic Bleaching Process, which we had the honour
of bringing before the notice of the Society in 1887, ami
to prove the utter absurdity of which a considerable
amount of energy was devoted by a distinguished authority,
has proved itself highly successful on the Continent. At
the present moment it is replacing 3,000 tons of bleaching
powder per annum.
Notwithstanding the very confident predictions of certain
authorities as to the utter impossibility of an electrolytic
soda process pa}'ing, we venture to think it is destined to
play a very important part in the future development of
the alkali industry.
Discussion.
Mr. W. T. Reid said that he had taken a good deal of
interest in this subject. He had watched the operation of
the Greenwood process, and the result of his observations was
this, that he knew alkali was produced. He had heard it said
that it could not be made by the electrolytic method. But
there was no doubt that it was produced chemically by the
process described. There were, however, some points not
mentioned in the paper, which he had observed, and he
thought it would be well if these points were discussed.
One of them was the by-products which were produced.
This was a very important matter. During the electrolysis
of chloride of sodium a considerable percentage of
other matters than caustic soda was produced, especially
chlorate of soda. Another by-product which was pro-
duced to a considerable extent was hydrogen. As soon as
the current was turned on they saw a very copious
evolution of hydrogen, so copious that it might be used as
a source of heat to evaporate the liquors afterwards. Still
at the same time this would involve a loss of power, as they
could get that heat by a very much better process. They
saw on the table before them one of the anodes used, and
it was a very ingenious way of getting over the difficultv.
Such anodes lasted a long time, but they did not last for
ever. They had in one process a certain amount of retort
carbon which lasted a definite time, he thought it was
mentioned as being from six to eight weeks. A certain
percentage should be allowed for the renewals of these
anodes. The diaphragms were as perfect as they could
be made . They worked extremely well, and the asbestos
stood very well indeed. With regard to the diaphragm in
the Le Sueur process, it was rather troublesome to change
it so frequently as once in the 48 hours. It added to the
cost of production and seemed to be a great disadvantage.
Then again, the outer vessels in that process were rather
liable to he acted upon. He did not think the cast iron
would be a permanent substance in connection with these
liquids. Then it had not been mentioned in connection with
l)oc.si,i892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
965
extracting caustic soda how that soda could be got in a
commercial form. The liquid was rather dilute and there
was with it not only the residual chloride of sodium but
also the chlorate of soda and other substances, and they had
to boil all these substances down and extract the chloride
from them before they could make use of it. The chlorate
of soda and other by-products would be concentrated in
that solution as they returned it for electrolysis again;
so that there would be a continual accumulation of the
by-products. With regard to the strength of current,
he thought that although Mr. Greenwood had said that
a certain current was the best under certain con-
ditions, the whole question had got to be worked out. He
thought any estimate as to the cost of energy based on
present data would be, to a certain extent, hypothetical.
There was no doubt in his mind that the cost of producing
caustic soda by the electrolytic process would be very much
less than that of producing it by any other process. Given
electrical energy at a cheaper rate, and electrolytic soda
would completely supplant soda produced by the ammonia
process and other methods.
Mr. Bertram Blouht said that the impression made on
his mind when he inspected the process at the beginning of the
year was that the diaphragm was a very ingenious apparatus,
and that the anode had been devised with great care ; but
he remembered asking Mr. Creenwood at that time whether
he made any attempt to deal with one of the by-products
mentioned by the last speaker, viz., the hydrogen. By
the production of that bod}' part of the energy was lost;
anil if it could be suppressed and the restitution of the
energy accomplished, or if some industrial use could be
found for it, it would be a distinct advautage. Whether
this was possible or not he could not say, but possibly
the authors, who hail been intimately connected with the
process for some time, would be able to give them some
information on the point. lie would, therefore, ask them
to say whether any attempt had been made to use the
hydrogen or suppress it.
Mr. W. Crowder inquired whether the process was at
work in London, and whether on an experimental or a
practical scale.
Mr. Bevax replied that it was in operation in London
on an experimental scale at present, but that a company
was being formed to work it on a large scale.
Mr. P. MacEwan said that when he saw the process at
work he understood from the gentleman who had explained
it to him that 10 per cent, only of the salt was decomposed ;
therefore, they had to add 'JO per cent, of waste to the figures
which had been given in the paper. The expense of working
it was very great, for he was informed that a man was
engaged in doing nothing else but plying a small brush to
keep the joints of certain parts of the machiuery cleared;
and he wished to know whether that would be the case
in actual working. He might remark that he was not
interested in any of these electrical enterprises. He under-
stood that the process before them was likely to be
adopted only by paper-makers and other people who used
caustic soda in solution. In fact, the expense of removing
the salt, and evaporating the solution after in order to
get caustic soda for commercial purposes, would be quite
equal to the ordinary cost of producing it by the Leblanc
process. Where, therefore, was the advantage ? He
thought that the figures on the tables before them were
hardly reliable, and must be taken with a good deal of
reserve, especially in view of the fact that the selling
prices quoted were the prices of bleach and caustic in
London.
Mr. Crdwiikr said that if it was a fact that a certain
quantity of soda, and certain products, were made by the
process in America, he wished to know whether this
was done under the circumstances described, and at the
cost quoted, or under those which Mr. MacEwan had
spoken of.
Mr. Sxdmei Eversiied wished to call attention to one
or two features of the paper from the point of view of an
electrical engineer. The authors had referred, as one or
two of the speakers had done, to the economy of production
of electrical energy. He did not think there was very much
hope of the production of electrical energy at a lower rate
than as carried on now in many of the central stations
supplying the electric light in London, and he must say
that the figures given on the blackboard seemed to him very
fair and reasonable. He would point out that engines
might be produced, and were being produced now, to give
an indicated horse-power for considerably less than 21, lb.
of coal per hour: he believed he might say at 1-8 lb. "per
indicated horse-power. They had to transform that indicated
horse-power into electrical energy, and that was being done
at the central stations in London at an efficiency of 85 per
cent. When they came to deal with the consumption of
that energy, it was rather astonishing to him to find that
the inventor of the process willingly sacrificed more than
50 per cent, of the power (Mr. Cross: "No, no"). He
thought that the author of the paper said that ti- volts were
used in the electrolyser. He was speaking off-hand, but
he thought that the electromotive force of decomposition
of the solution was something like 2 volts. He would like
to be informed whether that was so or not (Mr. Cross :
" Yes "). He need hardly remark that the electromotive
force of decomposition multiplied by the force of the
current gave the useful energy of the current, while the
remaining energy was spent in overcoming resistance, and it
certainly seemed possible that the energy so spent might be
looked to in future for reducing that amount of 60/. which
figured so largely in the authors' estimate.
Mr. A. Shearer wished to know on what data the
figures given had been arrived at, whether the process had
been carried out to the extent of actually making a ton of
caustic soda — working to the bitter end — or whether they
had assumed from certain short experiments that the desired
end could be attained. If so, they were entirely wrong.
If they took certain periods of time, for example, they
would find that for the first six hours everything went on
swimmingly ; but if they carried on the process they would
discover that at the fourth period of six hours they consumed
nearly three times as much electrical energy as they used in
the first ; so that it was important to know whether these
figures had been made up from one run of six hours or
from the results extending over a period of time. If they
had to make only a ton of caustic it would no doubt be
a very different thing from carrying on the process
continuously.
Mr. C. F. Cross thought that the last speaker was the
victim of the " practical " superstition. The high officials of
Alkali Union were not people likely to trifle with a matter
of this kind. He himself had the running of an official
test of the Le Sueur process before their chemists, who were
present, and they were asked to do such things as would
satisfy those gentlemen. The only tests which they asked
to be applied were as to the percentage of chlorine in the
gases liberated and the contents in alkali and salt of the
resulting solution, showing the absence of hypochlorites and
similar bodies. He ran that test for 12 hours. Their
efficieucy curve was a straight line, showing that there was
no falling off. They ran up to 5 or G per cent, of sodium
hydrate and the test was at an end. Dr. Hurter never
criticised them on any other hypothesis than the cost per
unit of power. They knew that with a solution containing
6 or 7 per cent, of sodium hydrate and a definite proportion
of common salt, the total cost of prepariug a ton of caustic
soda therefrom was a matter of simple calculation.
The Chairman thought that the figures on the black-
board showed a very comfortable margin indeed, but some
doubts had been expressed as to whether that margin
existed or not. It was a process that would require much
working out, and it was in one sense, therefore, in the
experimental stage. It had occurred to him that from a
mixture of caustic soda and chloride of sodium containing
only 10 per cent, of caustic it was very doubtful whether it
would pay to separate the former. Perhaps the authors
would be able to give some information on the point.
Although it was pointed out that the prices given were the
Loudon prices of bleach and caustic, still they probably
would not differ very materially from the prices in places
where coal was cheaper. It was obvious, however, that
the juice quoted for coal was not a Loudon price,
96S
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBT.
[Dec. 31, 1892
Mr. Bevax, in reply, said, referring to Mr. Beid's remarks
as to by-products, with a properly constructed diaphragm
only a small quantity of hypochlorite or chlorate would be
formed. After many hours' running of the Le Sueur
process, the solution gave no reaction with starch paper.
Eventually some hypochlorite might be formed, but this was
not a very serious matter after all, because it was all
accounted for in the 20 per cent, loss which they estimated.
As regards the accumulation of the by-products as the salt
went round and round, it would pay to throw away the salt
occasionally ; it was not a large item in the total cost. Be
did not know whether Mr. MacEwan was serious when he
put his questions, but that gentleman had got an utterly
erroneous idea as to the 10 per cent, decomposition. If the
salt was not decomposed, it was there to be used again, and
it was absurd to talk about 10 per cent, only being used.
They had made every allowance for waste. Mr. Beid
seemed to think that the evolution of hydrogen was a loss
of power. There was no doubt about it. It must be.
There was no other way, so far as he knew.
Mr. Bloumt : It has been suppressed, I believe ?
Mr. Bevan replied that it had been suppressed in the
Richardson process, and no doubt if arrangements could be
made for utilising it. it would be a very considerable set-off
against the cost of coal and the cost of power. Mr. Reid
had mentioned that some allowance ought to be made for
the disintegration of the anodes. He had not said they
would last for ever. What he had said was that this anode
as constructed was a very ingenious apparatus, and there
was a strong probability of its lasting much longer than any
anode that bail ever yet been made; and as he had pointed
out, in the Le Sueur system a very large allowance was made
for this, and also for the diaphragms. Every loss was
thoroughly accounted for, and the renewal of a diaphragm
like this was made perfectly simple. He did not think
there was any danger of the raustic solution acting on the
outer vessel. As to the cost of electrical energy,
Mr. Evershed bad stated that the figures given in the
paper were very fair. He (the speaker) was very glad
to hear this from one who had given so much attention
to the subject. That gentleman had spoken of 50 per
cent, of the power being wasted. He (the speaker)
pointed out that decomposition would take place at very
much less than 4j volts, but in that case a very large plant
would be necessary to produce a certain amount of caustic.
They must have plant two or three times the size that they
would have if they worked with 4| volts, so that it was
found in practice that a current of 4i volts was the most
economical to work with. As regarded the basis of calcula-
tion, certain of the numbers were of course hypothetical,
because they had not — and nobody had — made 22-43
tons. The process was being worked at present at the
Bumford Falls in America, on a scale of 3 tons of
bleach per day, and arraugements were being made for
working the Greenwood process. It was obvious that if
they could make 3 tons at a profit they could make three
millions. If they could do it on a big scale they could do it
on a bigger, until they reached a gigantic enterprise. So far
as he knew, 1 ton of electrolytic caustic soda had never been
made in this country, but it was not necessary to show from
the facts which he had given already that it might be done.
Mr. Thorp had spoken of the process as being in the
experimental stage. As he (the speaker) had said, it was
being worked on a much larger scale than an experimental
one, and no doubt as the work proceeded various im-
provements would be made. The process was sufficiently
well developed now to induce large financial gentlemen in
America to invest their money in it and to put up the works
he had mentioned. With regard to the utilisation of a
solution of 10 per cent, of caustic soda, he did not think
that was a difficult matter. They must not forget that in
the production of caustic by the Le Blanc process the
solution was not much stronger, and a very large quantity of
water must necessarily be evaporated. The caustic soda :i~
it was made at present was at one time in a state of weak
solution. He therefore did not think it was a difficult thine
to deal with a 10 per cent, solution when the bulk of it—
99 per cent. — could be thrown down as bicarbonate. With
regard to the prices quoted, he had taken them from the
Chemical Trade Journal of that day, and they did not
represent the prices in London ; but then they did not pro-
pose to establish a manufactory in London. If Loudon were
in a less favourable position for working, they would go
wherever local circumstances favoured them.
ON THE PRODUCTION OF ACETIC ACID FROM
THE CABBOHYDBATES.
BY C. F. CROSS, E. J. BEVAN, AND J. F. V. ISAAC, B.A.
The chemistry of the carbohydrates has been greatly
advanced in recent years, and the constitutional relation-
ships of the members of this group are being rapidly
elucidated.
While the finer points of molecular structure are being
brought into the field of clear vision, and all the refine-
ments of modern theory and method are being applied to
the work of differentiating them, there is still much to be
learnt in respect of the more general questions of molecular
equilibrium common to the group. Thus the alcoholic
fermentation of dextrose, which may he regarded, in a
sense, as a property of the carbohydrate molecule itself,
remains unexplained, as well as many other instances of
molecular rupture of a similar character, similar in this
respect, viz., that they may be regarded as determined by a
migration of hydrogen atoms in the one, and of oxygen
atoms in the other direction within the molecule. The
production of lactic acid and of acetic acid from dextrose
by the action of alkalis in dilute aqueous solution are
decompositions of this order, and although they may be
expressed, after the manner of text-books, by the simplest
equations, viz., —
(a) C6H1206 = 2 C3H603 (0) CcH12Oc = 3 G.HA
it is known that they are very much more complex in fact.
To the latter of these changes, as a subject for investiga-
tion, we have been attracted on the ground of technical as
well as theoretical interest.
During the progress of our research work on the general
question of the formation of acetic acid in various decom-
positions of the ligno-celluloses, our friend Mr. W. II.
Higgiu, B.Sc, who had been independently investigating the
subject from the technical point of view, took out a patent*
for the production of acetate of soda from the alkaline
waste liquors from straw and esparto boiling, and in the
work of developing this process we have joined Mr. Higgin,
and we shall have a few words to say on this new, or rather
newly recognised, by-product of paper manufacture.
It will simplify the work of recording our investigations
if we note a few of the theoretical considerations which have
guided us.
The simpler carbohydrates appear to owe their character-
istic properties to the one oxygen atoiu which they contain
united to carbon atoms only, i.e., either as CO or C-O-C.
If we take, as a general case, the following as the consti-
tuent groups of a molecule, CO(CHOH)4CHi, we should
assign variable functions to the OH groups, according to
proximity to the CO or acid grouping, or the CH2 or basic
grouping, and the equilibrium of such a body, or its hydrate,
in aqueous solution would be somewhat similar to that of
the salt of a weak acid and weak base. There are many
reactions of dextrose and the carbohydrates generally in
aqueous solution, or otherwise, which correspond with this
view of their constitution. Thus dextrose combines in
aqueous solution with bases such as lime, magnesia, lead
oxide, and zinc oxide, giving weH-defined compounds. It
combines with acid radicles under dehydrating conditions,
i.e., to form acid ethers or esters, and it also shows a
tendency to combination with acids in aqueous solution.
This is perhaps better seen, at least more easily demon-
strated, in the case of the complex carbohydrates such as
* Euk. Pat. 18,409, 1891.
Dec.si.1899.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
067
cellulose and its allies, which withdraw both acids and
alkalis from aqueous solution, evidently as a result of
miction with the OH groups of the fibre substance, acid and
basic. Direct evidence of combination of such carbohydrates
as dextrose with acids in aqueous solution is afforded by the
phenomena of acid hydrolysis, e.g., the inversion of cane
sugar. A. Wold (Ber. 1800, 2086) has recently shown that
this anhydride can be completely ' inverted' by treating with
•Minii)"1 °' 'ts weight ol' hydrochloric acid, and this result
cannot be explained without assuming the occurrence of
combination between the acid aud the sugar molecules.
Lastly, we may cite the ' molecular ' compounds which
dextrose forms with neutral salts such as the chlorides and
bromides of the alkali metals. These compounds are of the
nature of double salts, and in their formation the saline
character of dextrose in aqueous solution is apparent.
If we adopt this view, we may regard these carbohydrates
in aqueous solution as under a species of electrolytic strain,
and this is perhaps the simplest explanation of the mobility
of oxygen and hydrogen withiu the molecule which we
notice in the presence of exciting causes of such different
character as the living yeast cell on the one hand and the
alkaline oxides on the other. It is the latter condition with
which we are concerned in the investigations we are about
to describe,
We have subjected a number of typical carbohydrates to
treatment with the caustic alkalis under various conditions
witli the object of determining —
A. The maximum yield of acetic acid.
11. Whether this maximum has reference to the constitu-
tion of the compound, and if so,
t '. Whether the result confirms the view above elucidated.
Before describing our experiments in detail, we would
premise that the method adopted for determining the acetic
acid formed is exhaustive distillation and titration. The
result was controlled in many cases by conversion of the
volatile acids into silver salts in which the Ag was deter-
mined, and in all cases by examination of the distillate for
the presence or absence of other bodies. The method of
carrying out the decomposition was as follows : — The
substance, generally in quantities of 2 grins., was mixed with
the alkali dissolved in the minimum of water, and treated as
described. The product was dissolved in water, the solution
carefully acidified with sulphuric or phosphoric acid, and
distilled.
A. — The Maximum VTield of Acetic Acid.
1. Digestion of the Carbohydrates with Alkalis at 110° C.
The digestion of the carbohydrates with alkalis at a low
temperature has already attracted the attention of several
observers, but more especially from the point of view of the
formation of lactic acid. Thus Kiliani (Her. 15, 699)
obtained lactic acid by heating together invert sugar and
soda to 70' C. (see also Nencki and Sieber, J. Pr. Chem.
24, 498), and yields of 25 per cent, to 40 per cent, of this
acid have been obtained under various conditions of digestion
with weak alkali. The mechanism of this reaction does not
appear to have been investigated. The reaction is complex,
and the formation of other products has been noted
Amongst these we find acetic acid. Several experiments
were made with cane sugar and with hydrocellulose at 100°
— 110° C. Of these we give the results of two as typical.
Substance.
Potash.
Sugar
llyill'Occllulose .
3:1
3:1
Percentage,
C2H4O2.
lfii
Continuing these observations at 120° — 150° C, and
extending them to other substances, we obtained the
following results, the alkali used being sodium hydrate
(3:1):-
Substance.
Percentage, C3HV <■.
Cane sugar
Cellulose (bleached cotton)
Hydrocellulose (cotton) . ..
Jute
Pine w.n hi ("wood-wool ")
9-0
7-u
ll'O
37-0
lvo
The formation of the relatively large quantities of acetic
acid from the more complex, i.e., the: fibrous carbohydrate,
is especially noteworthy.
It should also be noted, as of technical interest,
that the alkaline liquors from liuen cloth boiling, the
temperature of which does not exceed 110° C, has been
found to contain acetic acid, of which we have observed as
much as 7 per cent., calculated on the organic matter in
solution.
Experiments at 150° C.
The conditions of our next series of observations were as
before, but potassium hydrate was emplo3'ed as the alkali,
and the temperature of digestion was kept constaut at
150° C. The duration of the experiment was 48 hours,
the yields obtained were as follows : —
Substance.
Cane sugar
Hydrocellulose
Jute
Wood
Percentage. C.11,1)..
WO
1!>\5
1.V0
18-0
We must note here the bearings of these observations
upon the general questions of the action of alkalis upon
cellulose.
Thus Lange has proposed (Zeit. Physiol. Chem. 14, 217)
as a method of estimation of cellulose in ligno-celiulose,
e.g., woods, a process of digestion with strong solutions of
caustic alkalis at 185° C. Amongst the products of
decomposition other than cellulose, which he assumes to be
unaffected by the treatment, he notes the formation of
formic and acetic acids. It is, however, quite clear, from
our observations, that the cellulose molecule may be
entirely decomposed under alkaline treatment of a certain
degree of severity, and cannot remain unaffected under the
conditions of treatment prescribed by Lange. As a
method of estimating cellulose, it may therefore be
dismissed.
Experiments at 200°— 250° C.
The process of treating the ligno-celluloses (wood, saw-
dust, &c.) with the alkaline hydrates at this temperature is,
as is well known, one of the standard methods for the
commercial production of oxalic acid. An exhaustive
investigation of the method was made some years ago by
W. Thorn, and the influence of the several factors, time,
temperature, nature of alkali, and proportion of alkali to
organic substance, carefully determined in regard to yield
of oxalic acid (Dingl. Polyt. J. 210, 24).
In this paper we find only a passing relerence to the
formation of acetic acid as a product, of their decomposition.
The greater number of our experiments have been made at
this temperature. The heating in some cases was carried
out on a sand-bath, in others we employed the form of
air-bath described by Chorley and Kamsay in their recent
paper (this Journal, May 1892).
At this temperature the decompositions are rapid, and the
probable effect of atmospheric oxidation may be regarded
as excluded. Under these conditions the maximum fields
968
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1802.
from the several carbohydrates examined are approximately
33 per cent, as the following tahle shows: —
Substance.
( ' sugar ....
Mill, sugar —
II \ drocellulose
Jute
Pino wood
Percentage, C2Hi02,
S3
31
20
37
23
It appears in fact from these experiments— which are
only a few from amongst the very large number carried
out — that from all these carbohydrates we obtain about
one-third of the molecule as acetic acid. Assuming these
to be made up of Cc units, each containing a CO.CHo
" residue," and the acetic acid to be a product of resolution,
rather than of more complex reactions, the percentage
yield would in effect be approximately 33 per cent. The
results therefore are a satisfactory confirmation of the
a priori view from which we starter).
With regard to the remaining products of decomposition
they are for the most part bodies of low molecular weight.
Hydrogen is evolved in quantity, as is well known. In
order to see whether this gas was accompanied by gaseous
carbonic compounds, we carried out two experiments, in
which the gaseous products, after passing through tubes
rilled with caleium chloride, were led over heated copper
oxide, and the products collected in the usual way. In
these experiments we employed cane sugar, 2 grms.,
KOH, 6 grins., water, 4 grms. Temperature 200°— 250°
and we obtained —
!
1
0-131
0-104
from which we get the approximate atomic ratios — •
I.
II.
and the conclusion that gaseous carbon compounds
(( Hi or CO) are only formed in relatively small
quantity : —
It will be noted that the hydrogen evolved is about
2 — 3 per cent, the substance or from one-third to one-
half the total.
< 'xalie acid we found present in some quantity, much
more being formed from the complex than from the simplex
carbohydrates.
Thus, on heating for eight hours at 250° in a closed
vessel, using three parts KOH to one of substance, we
obtained the following yields :—
Substance.
Sugar
I [ydrocellulose
Jute
Beechwood ■ . ,
Per Cent. c.IUJ,
( if bodies of higher molecular weight formed in the
reaction one only appears t" !"■ specialty characterised, that
is a compound dissolving to a strongly (orange-green)
dichroic solution, of which we shall have more to say in a
subsequent communication.
In the course of these experiments we have in certain
cases obtained exceptionally high yields of acetic acid,
which appears to be due to two causes : — (1) the
prolonged duration of the heating ; (2) to atmospheric
oxidation. We have made a number of experiments in
which oxidising agents have been added to the alkali-carbo-
hydrate mixture. The results of these additions, of which
we may mention potassium ferricyanide and ferric oxide
have been, an increase of yield from the complex carbo-
hydrates ( fibre-substances) at the lower temperatures, i.e.
l.'iii and helow. Then in one experiment we took with
1-8 grm. hydrocellulose, 4 grm. NaOH and 4 grm. Fej03
in the form of the precipitated hydrate, and obtained after
48 hours heating at 150' 42 per cent, of its weight of acetic
acid j whereas on heating with the alkali alone under
similar conditions we obtained 20 per cent. only.
We mention this result as of some technical importauce.
The " terderins " of textiles produced by the joint action of
alkali and iron oxide is a common experience of linen and
cotton bleachers, and it finds some explanation in these
observations.
In addition to the above we have also investigated the
effect of addition of alkaline nitrates :— The mixture of
cane sugar (2 parts) potassium hydrate (4 parts) and
potassium nitrate (2 parts) with sufficient water to bring
about an intimate mixture of the reagents, deflagrates at
14ii — 150 if rapidly raised to that temperature.
If, however, the mixture be heated for some hours at
130° — 140° the decomposition may then be finished at
200° — 250° without any explosive manifestations.
In this way we obtained 40 per cent, of its weight of
acetic acid, and 2- 5 per cent, of hydrocyanic acid. This
transfer of nitrogen to carbon under the conditions of the
experiment is its most noteworthy feature. The yield of
acetic acid does not appear to be affected.
We have given our experimental evidence for regarding
the acetic acid as formed in the primary decomposition of
the carbohydrate ; but it is obvious that there are
secondary reactions which may contribute in this direction.
To throw light on this point we have subjected other bodies
having a " carbohydrate " formula (C„H2„Om), e.g. lactic
acid and phloroglucol, to alkaline fusion under the con-
ditions described above.
" Fermentation " lactic acid in the form of the purified zinc
salt heated at 250° for 6 hours with three times its weight of
KOH gave 28 per cent, of acetic acid. Phloroglucol,
similarly treated, gave 34 per cent, of its weight of acetic
acid, and from the products of the fusion we recovered 33
per cent, of the original quantity unaltered. The yield
of the acid, therefore, upon the weight decomposed is
very high, as of course might be expected from other
decompositions of this " aromatic carbohydrate."
The experiment was repeated, substituting sodium for
potassium hydrate and the same yield of acetic acid, viz.,
34 per cent, was obtained.
With regard to the question of the oxidation of the
alcoholic groups C'HOH and CH„OH, we have so re-
investigated only one of the polyhydric alcohols of low
molecular weight, viz., glycerin. From this body, heated
with three times its weight of sodium hydrate at 150" for
16 hours, we obtained but a small quantity of volatile acid,
which gave none of the reactions of acetic acid ; and the
silver salt was found to contain 45 per cent. Ag (acetate =
64*7 Ag) ; evidently therefore an acid of much higher
molecular weight (or a polybasic aci.l ).
Experiments in the higher alcohols will be undertaken
in due course, as the comparative evidence to be drawn
from such observations is required to show conclusively the
influence of the CO.CHo residue — not present in these
bodies — in determining the acetic decomposition.
To draw conclusions as to the influence of the several
factors of the decomposition is, of course, one of the
purposes of this investigation, but these we reserve for
subsequent communications, in which also the carbohydrates
of known constitution will be compared in regard to
Dec. 31,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
969
yield of acetic acid. In regard to the influence of the
alkalis, we may say, however, that our results confirm, for
the production of acetic acid, those obtained by Thorn and
and others for oxalic acid, i.e., the yield of acid is increased
as the proportion of alkali to carbohydrate increases from
1 to 3. The yield is greater, ceteris paribus, with potash
than with soda, and intermediate yields are obtained with
mixtures of the alkalis. Generally the " potash fusions "
are more fluid than with soda, and the molecular disintegra-
tion of the organic substance takes place at a lower
temperature.
In conclusion, we have to say a few words upon the
technical departure in the direction indicated by these
results, independently initiated by Mr. W. II. Higgin. This
chemist has patented the process of preparing acetate of
soda from the waste liquors from pulp boiling in the paper
works. Esparto liquor, for instance, is evaporated by any
of the ordinary methods, and charred by heating on a floor,
finishing the process by heating at 350° — 400°. Acetate
of soda is formed during this process, chiefly at between
150° and 200°, but the higher temperature, which does not
affect the acetate under these conditions, is necessary for
the complete carbonising of the fatty and waxy bodies, the
presence of which interferes with the lixiviation.
The course of the decomposition may be seen from the
following statistics of the process : —
100 of esparto give: —
46 parts soluble with
It! parts caustic
62 Total bolids.
100 of evaporated extract charted according to the
process give : —
37'2 water, cas, and volatile
;iS ' 0 soluble extract
24*8 spent char
The soluble extract contains the acetate, with a certain
proportion of carbonate. The yield of the former is 5 — 6
per cent. (Na.C,H302) of the weight of the original
esparto.
The spent char is composed of : —
Ash (.-,0 per cent. Nat II 40
Sodium acetate 16
Carbon, &o 44
100
This process has been worked experimentally on the
large scale with satisfactory results, and the yields of
acetate have been several times confirmed by independent
observations.
Difficulties have, of course, been experienced in the
working details of the process, but these are in a fair way
towards being overcome.
With acetate of soda (Na.C2H30,,.3 H,0) at 16/. to 18/.
per ton, the unfortunate paper-maker of these latter days
has a new objective opened out for the increase of profits,
and we hope to see the recovery of this product established
as a part of the routine of the paper mill.
Discussion.
The CiiAiiiJivx said that he would like to ask Mr. Cross
whether the presence of oxide of iron increased the bleaching
action. He did not think that Mr. Cross had pointed out
exactly the reason for this. Again, it seemed curious to
him that such a substance as jute or cellulose should be
treated as if it were a homogeneous body of definite
composition. It might be uniform in composition, hut the
authors had seemed to deal with it as if it were a definite
chemical substance. Further, with regard to the distillation
of the acetates, was that process likely to be remunerative,
apart from geographical considerations? He understood
that it might be under certain conditions, but he wished to
ask whether it would be a matter of general application ?
Mr. Watson Smith thought that as acetate of soda cost
16/. to 18/ per ton, it would be interesting to know at what
price these chars could be produced, containing acetate of
soda at so much per cent., because then an idea would be
given to the acetic acid manufacturer as to what he would
be likely to have to pay for such residue at so much per
cent. He would like to know whether Mr. Cross had
experimented with the sulphite cellulose liquors obtained
in the manufacture of paper pulp. A large quantity of
such liquors was produced, and created an intolerable
nuisance. They were generally allowed to run down the
brooks, giving off most unpleasant odours. If these liquors
could be evaporated down, he knew that they would yield
a rich sort of gum of mixed character, having strong
adhesive properties, though smelling disagreeably. He had
never been able to discover an economical method of
deodorising them. He thought it possible that by charring,
acetic acid would be obtained.
Mr. F. G. Adair Kobekts asked what was the per-
centage of the residue left after evaporation. Mr. Cross
had mentioned that 37 per cent, was water and that there
was 38 per cent, of soluble substances ; but he did not state
whether he examined what the residue consisted of, or
whether he had examined it.
Mr. Cross, in reply, said that with regard to the Chair-
man's first question as to the bleaching action of ferric
oxide, it was obviously due to a transference of oxygen to
the fibre constituents, extending to the cellulose itself,
and that amounted to disintegratiou, or as the bleacher
called it "tendering." With regard to the complexity or
simplicity of jute, he begged to refer the Chairman to
papers in the Journal of the Chemical Societj', 18S0 — 1892.
No doubt jute was an aggregate, but it was not complex in
the ordinary sense of the term. It was not a mixture ; it
was an aggregate of bodies of varying molecular weights,
but remarkably constant, and for all practical purposes it
might be regarded as a homogeneous body. With regard
to the Chairman's third question as to the general appli-
cability of this process, what he had said was that the form
in which the paper-makers would ultimately produce acetic
acid would depend on local circumstances.
Mr. Watson Smith had asked about the cost of production.
If they could get acetate of soda they could sell it for 16/.
to 18/. per ton. The cost of producing it could be easily
calculated by individual makers. It depended, of course,
upon variable circumstances, upon the method of evaporation,
and the price of coal, which might be 6s. or IGs. a ton. It was
a question of circumstances ; but taking into consideration
the cost of evaporation and other matters, and the value
of the product obtained, anyone would be enabled to arrive
at something like the net return. With regard to sulphite
liquors, Tollens had shown that these liquors were definite
! sulphonates containing the group OCH3. Of course any-
1 thing like a distillation process was necessarily a complex
matter ; but the conditions were there for acetic acid
being formed. It was a question for investigators ; it
j was not for them to lay down any general a priori idea as
! to what might be got from destructive distillation of the
j mixture. With regard to the composition of the char, he had
given a typical case. He had said that in the spent char
a great deal of the soda remained in association with the
carbonaceous residue. When that carbon was burned off
they got pure ash, or carbonate of soda, and the percentage
of anhydrous acetate in the char was 16, and of these 16,
15 were dissolved out by the lixiviating process.
970
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1802.
Siberpool £>ectt'om
University College, Brownlow Street.
Chairman : H. Brunner.
Vice-Chairman: E. l
Committee :
J, Campbell Brown.
E. Carey.
V. C. Driffield.
Jos. C. Gamble.
C. L. Higgins.
F. Hurter.
W. Xi.nis Jullrs.
A. H. Knight.
E. K. Muspratt.
G. Schack-Sommer.
A. Watt.
Hon. Treasurer : W P. Thompson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
Dr. Chas. A. Kohn, University College, Liverpool
, of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to l>e
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892—33.
1898 :—
Wednesday, January 11th.— Mr. Chas. A. Kohn, Ph.D., B.Sc,
andMr. A. V. Fryer, B.Sr. " The Cause of the Red Colora-
tion of Phenol."
Meeting held Wednesday, December 1th, 1892.
KB. HFXUV P.RVXNEl: IN THE CHAIR.
CRITICAL NOTES ON THE CHEMICAL TECH-
NOLOGY OF INDIA-RUBBER.
BT HUBERT L. TERRV, E.I.C.
It is perhaps superfluous to say that the greater part of our
imports of rubber, especially from South America and West
Africa, come to Liverpool. No doubt the strange-looking
lumps of material which come under more or less barbarous
names to the auctioneer's hammer, are familiar to rnauy
business men. The natural history of this raw rubber
does not materially concern the merchant but rather the
manufacturer, though it must be confessed that it would
not take the merchant long to learn all that the average
manufacturer knows on the subject. To begin with, the
question of future supply, it may be asked whether this is
inexhaustible, or whether there is any danger of the raw
material failing us. This may be answered by the state-
ment that although 20 years ago there was a feeling
akin to anxiety on this score the discovery in recent
years that the basin of the Orinoco in Northern Brazil
contains vast forests of unworked trees has served to
dissipate this anxiety. The steps also taken by the Indian
and Colonial officials in conjunction with Kew at home in
interesting our Consuls and Colonial Governors in the
matter have been, to some extent, instrumental in averting
the threatened calamity. Forests of trees are no longer
decimated, but are tapped in a methodical manner, and
young trees are everywhere being planted. The acclimi-
tisation of the Hecva Braziliensis, of Para, is being
carried out in East Africa, and notably in the Charduar
Forest in Upper India. Colonial-grown rubber does not
as yet enter into competition in the open market with the
ordinary product, jet samples of rubber from young trees
have been received for examination. It struck me that
there was a lack of tensile strength about a sample of Para
grown in Mergui, and I shall await future samples with
interest. It is important that where rubber trees are
transplanted the climatic conditions should coincide as
nearly as possible. Some doubt has been expressed as to
whether the South American tree will ever come to
maturity in Ceylon, where it has been planted. How are
m to explain tin- difference between "island" and "up
river" Para rubber, except as resulting from climatic
conditions. The same species of tree yields them both,
but while the trees yielding the former grow on partially
submerged land in the neighbourhood of Fara, the latter
is derived from trees growing on the hill sides of the
Amazon tributaries. No doubt such instances might lie
multiplied in the case of other trees. Undertakings in
forestry are not as a rule expected to yield any immediate
return, but even if Colonial-grown rubber does not turn out
the success anticipated, the matter is certainly of sufficient
importance to warrant the attention it has received. Of
course should any partial stoppage of supply occur through
failure of trees, "trade corners" or otherwise, it would
seriously cripple not only an important industry itself, but
also the numerous trades — and are they not legion ? — where
rubber in some form or other finds application. It has
been suggested that should the supply from South America
fail, we have still the vast forests described by Stanley as
existing in Central Africa to fall back upon. Anyone,
however, proposing this must be set down as being
lamentably deficient in knowledge of the subject, for there
is very little rubber to be obtained in Africa that can
compare at all with that from Brazil. That there are good
aud dry qualities obtained from Madagascar, Mozambique,
and the Gambian coast I do not deny, but the majority of
the African rubber, especially that from certain districts of
the Congo basin, is sadly deficient in tensile strength, and
contains impurities in the shape of resins and albumen
which are almost entirely absent from the rubber of the
Amazon and Orinoco basins. Why this should be, why the
rubber milk of different species of trees should vary so
much in its physical properties, when the hydrocarbon
itself is always of similar composition, has not yet been
explained, and the explanation is likely to be retarded
owing to the difficulty of keeping the milk in its natural
condition after its arrival in civilised parts. The following
analyses of rubber-milk may be of interest.
I.
Product of the Hevea braziliensis, 1'sra.
PerO nt.
Caoutchouc 31*9
Resin 1*5
Albumen 0'5
Water 06*1
100*0
No. 1 milk had been sent in bottles from Para, having
been previously mixed with some ammonia. It was liquid
on arrival but soon coagulated when the bottle was
opened.
No. 2 milk came to me through the Colonial Office two
years ago, having been collected by the then Governor of
Lagos, Sir Alfred Moloney, who wished for a report on the
same. Altogether 15 ginger-beer bottles of this milk were
received, representing five varieties of the Ficus vogelii, a
tree growing extensively on the Lagos coast. Although
nothing had been mixed with the milk to prevent coagula-
tion it was liquid in all but three cases.
There was a considerable pressure of carbonic acid gaS
in the bottles, and the milk had a very acid reaction. It
contained a small quantity of tannin, glucose, and albumen.
Deo. 81, 1898.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
971
It should he mentioned in respect to the above figures,
that the milk was collected at the wrong time of year and
would therefore be under strength.
Owing to the large percentage and low melting point of
the resins contained in this rubber, I could uot but form au
unfavourable opinion of it, and this was borne out by a
practical trial in the works. Of course some uses might be
found for it, but it certainly could not be looked upon as
anything like a good quality, which the Colonial authorities
had supposed it might be.
The question may be asked what is the probable value of
the rubber forests discovered by Stanley. Are the trees the
Vahea of Madagascar, the Landolphia of the Congo, or the
Fictu Vogelii of the Lagos coast? If the latter the
discovery is of little value. Putting aside, however, the
actual worth of the rubber, the question of transport is
really the crucial point. At present prices it would not pay
to bring rubber thousands of miles before shipping it. All
things considered, any great augmentation of our rubber
supply from Central Africa need not be looked for in the
immediate future. The concession of a licence to work rubber
forests in West Africa on Government lauds to Mr. Meiter of
London claims some attention. Mr. Meiter is himself superin-
tending the gathering of the rubber, which is a step iu the
right direction, as there is room for improvement in the
whole system of rubber collecting and exporting in Africa.
If the operations were more generally directed by men con-
versant with the modes and requirements ofthe manufacturers
at home, the coagulation of the milk would no doubt be
carried out in a better way than is usual. If the coagulated
rubber also were sorted out into lots of equal elasticities it
could be bought in Liverpool or Loudon iu a more satis-
factory manner. Manufacturers know from experience that
separate lots of rubber bought under the same name
frequently turn outof anything but the same qualityas regards
strength after being washed and sheeted. How often do we
see part of a washed sheet hanging in the drying-stove and
part lying ou the floor, showing that the sheet is made up
of a substance of varying degrees of strength, or what comes
to the same thing, of varying melting point. An object of
special inquiry with respect to African rubbers is, how to
coagulate the milk so as not to include the resins with the
rubber. In a previous paper I have detailed the different
percentages of resin found in various rubbers of
commerce, and I showed that the quality of the rubber
varied inversely as the percentage of resin. This statement
must not, however, be taken as showing that African rubber
if separated from its 20 per cent, of resins is equal to Para
rubber. There are differences iu the two products which
cannot be explained away as being caused only by au excess
of resin iu the one case.
The question of the day then is, how can we so improve
the inferior qualities of African rubber as to increase their
market value ? At the same time we must not lose sight of
the fact that there is a considerable demand for rubber in eases
wdiere its elastic properties are but slightly brought into play,
and therefore any treatment which increased the cost as
well as improved the quality of low-class rubbers, would
only meet with partial favour at the hands of manufacturers.
It cannot be said that the initial stages of the rubber
manufacture owe much to chemistry, as it is the mechanical
engineer whc has had most to do. As an example of the
perfecting of mechanism the wide tine sheet-cutting machine
may be mentioned, whereby sheets of rubber are now cut
160 to an inch. The rule of the chemist, it must be said,
has been more in connection with trade disputes, and a good
deal of the chemical work that has been done ou rubber has
been first brought to light in the Law Courts. The
court has to decide whether the premature decay of a
waterproof coat is to be put down to bad work on
the part of the cloth manufacturer or the rubber manu-
facturer. Elaborate analyses are produced in court tending
to show for one side that the cloth contains grease, oxide of
copper, or other injurious matter, while the other side
retorts that the rubber-proofing is a bad one and the cause
of its own decay. The fact is these analyses are very little
good. Under certain conditions, no doubt, a little grease
or R few hundreths per cent, of oxide of copper may he
injurious, but not necessarily in every case, and decay may
he brought about in goods by some irregularity in the
manufacture quite undiscoverable by analysis. The investi-
gation of these cases requires special experience, as there
is extreme difficulty, when goods have gone bad, in fixing
on which of the ingredients the blame rests.
In a paper read at the British Association Meeting, 1890,
Mr. W. Thomson, in dealing with the action of oil on
rubber, startled some manufacturers by the statement that
the oily matters which were dissolved from oxidised or
sulphurised oil by ether were not only not injurious to
rubber, but iu many cases were actually beneficial. The
conclusion was thereupon arrived at by some manufacturers
that the oil bogey had no foundation in fact. A little
consideration, however, will show that the results obtained
by Mr. Thomson are only what might be expected. Iu the
oxidation, chlorinatiou, or sulphuration, if I may use the
term, of fatty oils it is extremely rare that any oil is unacted
upon. The portion soluble in ether is then not free oil, but
only a modification of the matter insoluble in ether, which
indeed is clearly shown by its containing sulphur, chlorine,
&c. Its action then on rubber would resemble that of
glycerin rather than that of a fatty oil. This of course only
refers to the sound oxidised oil. If this has undergone
decomposition back again to its original state, or, at any
rate, has altered its physical condition, then the matters
soluble in ether would not be so harmless in their action.
Iu a more recent paper,* with which the name of Mr. F.
Lewis is also associated, Mr. Thomson has detailed at some
length his observations of the action of metals, acids, salts,
&c, on rubber. He finds that chromium salts are not inju-
rious, a fact which might seem somewhat superfluous to those
of us who have been accustomed to use chromium regularly
were it not that Mr. Tatlock had recently published a letter
showing that chromium had a destructive action. It was
hardly necessary to republish the actiou of acids on rubber,
and although the inimical effect of small quantities of acid
in rubber goods has, I feel sure, been exaggerated, it is
not safe to judge, by the action of a bath of dilute acid on
a sheet of rubber, what the action would be if acid were
produced in situ in the goods. Mr. Thomson finds with
some surprise that the action of hydrogen peroxide on
rubber is nil. I thiuk, however, that if he had tried au
ethereal instead of an aqueous solution of this reagent he
would have obtained a different result. Mr. T. Bolas,
amongst others, has used this solution for years in rubber
analyses.
With respect to the action of nitric acid on rubber I
have gone into the matter at some length, and my experi-
ments are yet in progress, a preliminary report only having
been published.! The most dilute acid acts injuriously,
but the action if allowed to proceed slowly results in the
formation of a more or less nitrated body, and not merely
of a resin. A yellow brittle powder obtained by the action
of dilute HNOj on sheet rubber for six weeks gave the
following figures on analysis : —
Per Cent.
Calculated for
Ci(,HBNOa
Carbon ...
Hydrogen
Oxygon . . .
Nitrogen . ,
60 'SO
66'29
6-13
8'28
37 "M
17 '70
5-43
7-73
100-00
100-00
This body has explosive properties and is evidently a
mixture of au oxidised and a nitrated substance. The
practical bearing of these experiments is to show that nitric
acid, even if very dilute, cannot be used in connection with
rubber articles with impunity, aud this fact should be borne
in mind by chemists.
With regard to Mr. Thomson's experiments on textures
it should be mentioned that the method of testing their
* Proc. Man. Lit. and Phil. Soc. 1801.
t Ibid.
972
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
life so to speak by exposing them to temperatures higher
than they are intended to stand, cannot be considered a
satisfactory one. Rubber is very susceptible to heat, and
I have found that there is absolutely uo connection between
say, the hours that rubber will remain sound at l.jO F.,
and the months or years it will remain so at 60 F. I own
that this seems to be the only available method of testing
if one does not wish to wait a year or two for results,
but nevertheless I feel sure that it leads to erroneous
conclusions.
The paper published by Gladstone and Hibbert, although
of scientific interest, may be passed over as devoid of technical
bearing. A paper by Hcinzerliug and Pahl (Chem. Zeit.
16, 15) gives details as to the compounding of chemicals
with rubber and gutta-percha, but does not advance any-
thing of great originality. Hein/.erling also (Chem. Zeit-
16 84) has summarised recent improvements in the
manufacture, but this paper is mostly a compilation of
patents.
A paper of some interest dealing with the analysis of
complex rubber mixtures has just been published by
R. Henriquez ((hem. Zeit. 16, 86, 87, 88), and may prove
of interest to the analysts. He deals chiefly with the
estimation of the different forms of " gummi ersatz " or
"gomme factice" as it is variously called on the Continent.
It is not my purpose on this occasion to discuss the matter
of rubber analysis, but it should be borne in mind that bj
following out the plan of extracting rubber compounds with
solvents as advised by the author, discrepancies are likely to
arise if care is not taken to distinguish between organic
matters such as resin, which are naturally a part of the
rubber, and bodies of a similar nature which may have j
been added. The work is characterised by great attention
to detail, more so, I think, than is required or which the
ordinary analyst could find time for. Authors of papers
on these and kindred technical analyses should not take
it for granted that because no methods have been published
thev have not been wrorked out. I have no doubt that I
am not alone in saying that there is little that is novel in
Henriquez' paper. Analyses of manufactured articles
should, in my opinion, always be performed by experts
who, by the selling price, would know pretty well what
to look for and whether a foreign body was to be classed
as an adulterant or not. Chemists who have to read up
should not attempt these analyses. A treatise, I may say
the first of its kind, has just been published iu Paris on
rubber and gutta-percha.* The book, as a compendium of
general information respecting the trade, is of great interest,
especially in its botanical portion, which is very fully treated.
The space in the book devoted to the manufacture of toys
aud small articles is an indication of the department where
our neighbours do more than hold their own against our-
selves. The figures for the export of sheet rubber to the
Continent and our imports of German balls to be found in
Hoard of Trade returns will emphasize this allusion. We
have the engineering skill ; they have the art of producing
a nice-looking article out of poor materials. Perhaps
technical education will put us right.
The promised work of Dr. Arlidge on Diseases of Occu-
pations has appeared and gives an immense number of
statistics relating to the hygiene of our trades. It is not to
be expected that such a work written by one man could be
free from errors — and, indeed, the author asks the reader's
indulgence in the preface on this account — -but if the
descriptions of the industries generally are so vague as
that of the vulcanisation of rubber, I am afraid the credit
of the book will suffer. I am glad to see that beyond ■
bisulphide of carbon he has little complaint against the
rubber works. There are indeed some vague invectives
against steam and sulphur vapour, but these seem to me to
be put in as padding. I do not wish to deny anything said
about bisulphide of carbon, but it should be said that the
really serious cases where the brain has been affected have
occurred, not in the ordinary vulcanising process as carried
out in the larger works, but rather in small ill-ventilated
workshops and in processes where dipping the goods into
the liquid takes place. Hospital authorities in Paris, New
• Le Caoutchouc el la Gutta-percha par v.. Chapel, Pai s, 1892.
York, and Manchester, have had their say on the serious
symptoms produced by this mephitic liquid and it is therefore
with pleasure that I am able to announce that its use is
being much restricted, inasmuch as it has found a rival in
its chief application. Is it too much to hope that chemistry
will find some harmless substitute for it in its remaining
applications ?
With respect to chloride of sulphur, though this is a
very disagreeable substance to work with, I have never
found it to undermine the health of the operatives. This
is probably due to the fact that it is impossible to breathe
much of it without following out a desire to remove from
its neighbourhood. With naphtha vapour, the smarting
of the eyes warns us when the fumes are getting too
strong. I have never seen any one really overcome by
naphthaf because in the ordinary manufacture the vapour
could not be inhaled strong enough. Sensational stories
reach us sometimes from abroad of whole factories
of workpeople getting light-headed, and though these
statements may or may not be highly coloured, I suppose
there is no doubt that strong naphtha vapour if inhaled does
produce a species of intoxication something akin to that of
opium.
It is not until the process of vulcanisation is reached that
chemistry begins to play a part in the rubber manufacture.
Here various reactions take place, all however, where steam
or heat is employed being effected by the agency of sulphur.
Tlie action of sulphur on rubber is the principal one, while
subsidiary actions leading to the formation of sulphuretted
hydrogen, lead sulphide, &c, also take place. I am not
aware that any paper has appeared settling the vexed
question as to the nature of the vulcanisation process, and
I do not propose to say anything myself on the matter on
this occasion beyond a brief reference to the point of how
much sulphur is really taken up and fixed. It is customary
in books to state that 3 per cent, of sulphur is chemically
combined and the rest mechanically held. It is supposed
that the latter is soluble in caustic alkalis and the former
not so. However, by repeated boiling I have brought the
sulphur down ton- 6 per cent, without destroying its pro-
perties. Thus the figure usually given is too high.
A piece of sheet rubber immersed in a bath of melted
sulphur for four hours at 135° C. was found not to be
vulcanised. It then contained 3 per cent, of sulphur. After
five hours* immersion it was quite vulcanised, being found
then to contain 5 ■ 5 per cent, of sulphur. It may be shown
in many ways that although only a very small amount of
sulphur is really fixed by the rubber, yet it is impossible
to get this amount fixed unless a considerable excess is
present. Rubber will absorb free sulphur from its solution
in alkaline polysulphides, but it is found impossible to get
articles properly vulcanised in this way. Notwithstanding
this, this process, known as Girard's, may be found religiously
described iu all text-books, ancient and modern. With
respect to the action of sulphides on rubber it has been
found in ail cases that where these have been used as
vulcanising agents their action has been due solely to the
free sulphur they contain, generally in the amorphous
condition. Owing to the formation heat of most of the
metallic sulphides being above the melting point of
sulphur, t'.ie sulphide of lead may be taken as the only
one formed during ordinary vulcanising processes. This
is rather to be regretted as the formation of sulphides is a
means of fix;ng the excess of free sulphur which we have
seen is essential.
Our Society had an interesting paper last session
from Mr. Fawsitt respecting the dry heat vulcanisation
of rubber by means of metallic iodides. The paper is
in our Journal (this Journal, 1891, April 332 — 336),
aud I need not therefore abstract it for the purpose of
reference. Without going into the important question
as to its commercial success, a subject of interest to only
a limited number of our members, I shall confine myself
to the scientific importance of Mr. Fawsitt's paper. Un-
fortunately lack of time prevented him from working out
the chemical action supposed to take place. Gladstone
aud Hibbert and I think some authority before them
t This lias occurred in naphtha works.
Dec. 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
m
have shown that iodine has no action on rubber in the
sense of forming a definite compound with it, and people
have therefore jumped to the conclusion that it is sulphur,
which always accompanies Mr. Fawsitt's iodides, which
after all brings about the reaction. As far as 1 have
gone into the matter myself I think that some substi-
tution of hydrogen by iodine certainly does take place,
but not to anything like the same extent as in the cases
of chlorine and bromine. Though the combinations of
rubber with these latter, as shown by the specimens on
the table, are solid stable bodies prepared directly, yet it
is quite possible that some body may be formed by the
action of heat on the iodide and rubber during the
■vulcanising process. The formation of hydriodic acid
cauuot be taken as proof that substitution of hydrogen in
the rubber has taken place, because hydrogen would be
liberated by the action of sulphuV present. These are
points, however, for Mr. Fawsitt to clarrf up.
The use of halogens in the vulcanisation of rubber is not
a new idea, a patent having been granted in 1846 to
A. l'arkes for this purpose, though not for dry heat purposes.
Chlorine and bromine, however, alone are too powerful
in their action, and at the present time the only agent
used on the large scale is chloride of sulphur. With
regard to the action of this body, I think there can be no
doubt that it is due to the chlorine, and that although some
sulphur must necessarily be absorbed at the same time by
the rubber, yet that this latter does not play any part in
the reaction. Sulphur in the cold has no effect on rubber
and chloride of sulphur must be looked upon as merely
chlorine in a diluted form. The action of chlorine in
whatever form applied may be measured by the amount
of hydrochloric acid produced ; in the case of chloride of
sulphur, no doubt secondary reactions take place which do
not occur in the case of chlorine alone.
The action of nitric acid on rubber has been already
referred to. That of the gaseous oxides of nitrogen is
somewhat similar. I have found that while the monoxide is
without action and the dioxide has little action, the higher
oxides act energetically. If a sheet of rubber be placed in
a bottle containing air and higher oxides of nitrogen the
yellow colour will soon disappear and the rubber be found
to be surface-vulcanised to some extent. These vapours
have been employed in practice for the vapour cure of
rubber sheet but they cannot be said to show auy advantage
over chloride of sulphur, while a very little over-exposure
destroys the rubber.
There seems to be some misconception as to the part
which bisulphide of carbon plays in the cold cure process
of vulcanising rubber goods, but there can be no doubt that
it acts merely as a solvent and takes no part in the reaction.
Substitutes for this liquid have been proposed 20 years ago,
but none of these have been successful until quite recently,
when the success which has attended the use of a product
obtained from benzol refining, certainly warrants the
assumption that the days of CSa are numbered for most of
its former uses.
The problem of the devulcanisatiou of scrap and old
rubber has been before the trade since vulcanisation was
first practised, and cannot be said to have yet been solved.
Of course rubber, especially of poor quality, has been
" recovered " by the action of oil and heat, but it is not the
original hydrocarbon reproduced. There being no doubt
that during the process of vulcanisation with sulphur hydro-
gen is given off, it becomes necessary to return this
hydrogen to the rubber. Mr. Lascelles Scott has proposed
to do this by the zinc-copper couple, but I do not know
whether he has auy solid grounds for believing that this
would be successful. The greater part of the sulphur in
vulcanised rubber can be removed as H2S by heating with
petroleum oil of high density. In all cases of this sort,
however, the rubber itself goes into semi-solution and it is
doubtful if the very small amount of sulphur actually
combined is removed. In one respect the recovery of
rubber from vulcanised scrap resembles that of the recovery
of tin from tinplate scrap and old plate. Where the waste
is all pure rubber and when the iron is coated with pure tin
the recovery process is of commercial importance. As,
however, at the present time the greater part of the waste
which requires treatment is not pure rubber, and the
majority of tin plates are not coated with pure tin, the
aspect of the question is altered.
Although under the strict title of my paper I am pre-
cluded from extending my observations to gutta-percha, yet
in the minds of most people, and 1 think of most chemists,
the two substances are so closely associated that I shall
close these notes with some references to a substance that
can claim at any rate a chemical, if not a physical, kindred
with rubber.
The future supply of gutta-percha is a subject of grave
import at the present time, and it bejioves our countrymen
to be up and doing on the matter. The Isonandra gutta
is not a tree to be found all round the equator. Its home
is in the Malay Archipelago, though it seems likely that
the historian of the future will have to use the past tense
in this connection if rigorous measures are not enforced to
prevent the wholesale destruction of the trees. Under the
title of " Borneo caoutchouc," an interesting description
of the gutta trees appeared in the abstracts of our Journal
recently. This had reference to the work recently carried
on by M. Serullas, descriptions of which have appeared in
the Bulletin of the Societe d'Encouragement. He is an
advocate of the method of collection proposed by .lung-
fleisch. This briefly is to extract the gutta-percha from
the leaves of the trees by boiling solvents instead of cutting
down the tree and extracting the milk from the stem as is
usually done. The tree is said to yield as much in this
way as before, and, of course, it lives to afford a further
yield. The process, however, strikes one as being more
adapted to pharmaceutical preparations than to commercial
products, and it should be remembered that a very similar
process was proposed by L. Wray in 1886, which, on being
tried by the Silvertown Company, was reported upon as
unsatisfactory. As the composition of the chemicals used
by M. Serullas have not yet been divulged, it is of course
too soon to speak confidently as to the process.
Supposing that the supply of gutta did really fail, would
its loss be severely felt by the principal users, the cable
manufacturers ? 1 think not ; rubber, both pure and
vulcanised, is replacing gutta more and more for electrical
purposes. The triumphs of synthetic chemistry are not yet
exhausted, and it should not be so difficult to obtain au
artificial body with the required attributes. Again, though
there seems no chance of the real gutta tree being found in
the Brazilian forests or the African groves, yet there is
evidence that trees of a somewhat similar nature exist, and
small quantities of bodies closely resembling gutta and
Balata have from time to time come into the hands of
experts. The latter body, perhaps I should explain,
resembles gutta-percha in that it contains a hydrocarbon of
the same constitution associated with a large amount of a
peculiar resin. It is the product of the Mimucops Balata,
or bullet tree of South America, though it is probable that
what comes into the English market is a mixture of the
products of more than one species of tree.
Some discussion has recently occurred in a scientific
serial as to the amount of resins in sound gutta-percha.
Now if the commercial product were all of one quality and
from one species of tree, a definite percentage could be
looked for. Generally speaking, any percentage from 30
to 55 may be found ; the former from a soft, and the
latter from a hard sample. Of course, unlike the case of
rubber, the resins form a part of the gutta, and help to
determine its peculiar properties ; they must in no sense
be looked upon as au impurity.
The following figures may be of interest as showing the
fluctuations in the supply and price of gutta-percha as
compared with rubber.
Gutta-Percha.
Imports
Average price.
, . Cwt.
Per Lb.
1887.
24,145
.S'. il.
1 2
C0.911
s. J.
974
THE JOURNAL OE THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
Caoi cchouc.
1887.
Imports
Average price .
Cwt.
235,537
s. d.
Per Lb. 2 0
1891.
^7s.s;i7
The increased figures for gutta-percha are, of course, due
to the electric lighting movement, and had not the supply run
short, the imports would have reached a much higher figure.
The above prices derived from official statistics must not be
taken as representing all the market changes ; great fluctua-
tions may occur in the price of South American rubber,
which may not show themselves prominently in the annual
statistics as calculated for the whole imports over the year.
Before concluding I should like to say one word regarding
nomenclature. Caoutchouc is not a gum in any accepted
chemical sense of the term, though I am afraid the terms
" gum," '• gomme" and "gummi " are too strongly established
in American and continental usage to give way easily to
more correct ones. It is difficult, however, to see on
what system of classification they depend. To my mind
caoutchouc is distinctly sui generis. This could be sharply
subdivided into the two species of caoutchouc and gutta-
percha, the distinguishing property of the latter being that
it is softened by hot water. Any other means of distinction
such as those founded on the behaviour of solvents, will be
found to be due to accident rather than any specific property
of these two bodies.
Discussion.
Mr. Brvxner said that Mr. Terry had given them an
interesting paper, and he had no doubt there were many
points upon which they would be glad to get further infor-
mation. What Mr. Terry had told them had been new to
him. Chemistry had not hitherto played any very large part
in rubber and gutta-percha manufacture; but it seemed
to him that the question of the recovery of old rubber was
more or less a chemical problem. Then gain there was a
possibility of some of the supplies of gutta-percha running
short, and of the price going up very much in the market,
anil that ought to stimulate chemists to try, if possible, to
invent some substitute that might take the place of either
one or other of these materials.
Professor Campbell Brown said that why chemistry
had little to do with the manufacture was because the
chemist did not know anything about india-rubber. He
should first find out what india-rubber and gutta-percha
were, and what position they held in the system of classi-
fication of carbon compounds ; this knowledge would aid him
to understand better their real properties and their behaviour
with other chemical substances. He would like also to know
what was the nature of the process called coagulation. "Was
it an oxidation process, or merely a molecular change ?
Dr. Kohn said that several questions occurred to him
during the reading of the paper, the answers to which might
be of interest to others. In the early part of the paper
Mr. Terry had told them that the quality of the rubber was
in proportion to the amount of resin present, and he
would like to know what information was to be had in
regard to the nature of those resins. Another point was the
action of chromium salts on the rubber. They were told
that they had no injurious action, and it would be interest-
ing to know whether the action was beneficial or neutral.
Chromium salts in the presence of organic matter were
known to undergo change themselves on exposure to light,
and in addition to affect the organic matter with which they
wen in contact, in regard to the nitro-compound which
Mr. Terry had passed round and which he told them was
a mixture of an oxidation product and a nitro-compound he
would like to point out that the explosibility of the com-
pound might be due to its being an ester of nitric acid rather
than a nitro-hody. He did not quite follow why the formula
CmHuXO/; was assigned to that nitro-compound, was it the
result of analysis ? Another point was the inefficiency of a
two days' test tor rubber, and the efficiency of a four years'
test, in order to make out the quality of rubber. It brought
out the necessity for much more inquiry into the chemical
nature of rubber, and especially into the conditions under
which certain reagents affected rubber. By finding out the
active substances in the destruction of rubber, it would
surely be possible to make this test both more rapid and
more effective. He would also like to ask what gutta-
percha was used for beyond making cables for electric
light, and whether it could be employed instead of india-
rubber for any of the purposes for which the latter was used ?
Dr. Rawson asked whether Mr. Terry wonld kindly
again mention the name of the liquid used instead of carbon
disulphide as a solvent for sulphur. He was rather surprised
to learn that chromium salts were not injurious to rubber,
for in their action on gelatin was very marked, as evidenced
by the rapid strides which the chromium process of tanning
was making. It would also be of interest to learn what
was the difference between india-rubber and gutta-percha,
other than that they were the expressed juices of different
trees, say in their chemical composition, behaviour with
reagnts or from a physical standpoint.
Mr. Terry, in replying to Prof. Campbell Brown, said
that there was no chemical action involved in the coagulation
of the rubber milk. The action was similar to that of
separating the casein from milk by an acid, In Africa solu-
tions of vegetable acids were much used for that purpose.
In reply to the various points raised by Dr. Kohn and Dr.
Rawson, he said that there was very little information to be
got about the resins occurring in the various rubbers of
commerce, but he would refer Dr. Kohn to a paper by himself
(the speaker! in the Journal for 1889. Surprise had been
expressed that the action of chromium salts on rubber was
not injurious. Whatever the case was with leather he could
only repeat that nothing had been proved against chromium
in the case of rubber, even the red chromic acid having no
action. Chromium salts were not used in the manufacture
and it was in the case of mordauting cloth for textures thai
a question as to their action had arisen. The uses and
manufacture of rubber and gutta-percha were quite distinct,
and although for certain purposes mixtures of the two might
be used to a small extent yet the great bulk of the latter
was used in the insulation of cables.
In regard to the substitute for carbon bisulphide in the
cold cure vulcanizing process he was precluded from saying
anything very definite as to its composition, but it was a
hydrocarbon of the aromatic series. It was not so volatile
as carbon bisulphide and this precluded its general use, but
at the same time its use had put an end to the fires which
so often occurred with carbon bisulphide.
Dr. Kohn had referred to the question of testing by heat.
What he had meant to express in the paper was that there
was no royal road to the rapid testing of rubber goods for
the uninitiated to follow. In some cases, notably in the heat
tests as adopted by the Admiralty, information could be
gained in a few hours as to whether mechanical goods were
up to a certain standard. But this did not apply to cases
where the goods had been manufactured in the cold and
were intended to be used at ordinary temperatures. Light
was the chief factor that determined the life of rubber : a
piece of elastic thread which would keep sound for many
years in a dark cellar would go rotten in as many months
if exposed to sunlight.
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
H75
iHanrbraitfr ^fttioiu
Chairman: Ivan Levinstein.
Vice-CJiairman : Edw. Schunck.
J. Angell.
G. H. Baitey.
F. II. Bowman.
R. F. Carpenter.
G. E. Davis.
H. Griuishaw.
Committee :
J. Grossmann.
V. Hart.
J. M. Irving.
E. Knecht.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P.
C. Truby.
Hon. Local Secretary :
J. Carter Bell,
Bank House, The Clilf, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to be
sent to the Local Secretary.
SESSION 1892.
Meeting held Friday, 2nd December 1892.
nil. v.. .-< Ill N. IC, F.R.8., I.N" THE CHAIR.
ON COP-DYEING.
Si CAKL OTTO WEBER, PH.D., F.C.S.
Fob a number of years experiments on a more or less
extensive scale bare been carried on, with a view to
accomplish the dyeing of textile fibre, especially cotton,
at the most advantageous stage of their manufacture into
yarns. The efforts, more or less successful, to dye cotton
and wool in the raw or loose state, to dye the sliver,
rovings, carded or combed wool, and cottou and wool in
the cop, are all exertions in the same direction. At first
sight it might appear that the simplest and most rational
solution of this task would be the dyeing of the fibres at
the earliest stage of their manufacture, i.e.. in the form of
loose cotton or wool, but this is not so for various reasons.
Tn the first instance all the colours requiring long-continued
boiling cause the loose fibres to become in the process of
dyeing entangled to such a degree as to cause very
considerable loss in spinning, far in excess of the losses
incurred when the undyed fibre is spun, leered into hanks,
dyed and wound hack again into pirns, ready for the shuttle,
fibres dyed in the loose state are moreover generally very
much harsher and stiff er than the natural fibres and therefore
give infinitely more trouble in spinning than the latter, and
to these drawbacks must be added the fact that the
spinning, particularly of dark grey, brown, blue and
black shades is an operation which proves exceedingly
trying to the eyes of the operatives and very naturally
les the production in proportion. There are even
cases on record where the operatives refused to work on
that account. Nut even supposing that all these difficulties
could be overcome the fact would still remain that of the
hundreds of different shades required for weaving only a
very few are used in such quantities as would allow a
spinner to keep his plant regularly employed, who could
not afford to execute orders of a few hundredweights of
fancy shades, owing to the loss of time incurred through
frequent cleaning of a number of machines for each new
colour. Difficulties of a similar nature arise whenever we
attempt to dye the fibre at one of its manufacturing stages
previous to that when it is obtained in the shape of
cups, so that we come to the conclusion that generally
speaking the dyeing of the textile fibres cannot advan-
tageously be proceeded with before the actual conclusion
of the spinning operations. This shows clearly the
importance and advantage of cop-dyeing as against the
dyeing of the raw or partly-manufactured fibre on the one
side and hank dyeing on the other side. The fact that
large quantities of cotton are dyed in the raw or partly-
manufactured state does not in the least affect these con-
clusions, as this is done for the purpose of spinning mixed
yarns or colours as in the manufacture of vigogne.
In this case the dyeing of raw or partly manufactured
cottou being the only way to produce the desired effect,
we are compelled to put up with whatever drawbacks the
process may possess. From this it is further evident that
cop-dyeing by no manner of means enters into competition
with the rightful dyeing of unspun or half-spun cotton,
although yarn and warp dyeing is bound to be considerably
affected by it ; and it is further likely that the production
and dyeing of half-woollen goods will also more or Iks
be influenced, although it may be difficult to judge the
probable extent of this influence at the present time
considering the splendid results obtained by Messrs.
Cassella & Co., with their diamine colours in the dyeing of
half-woollen goods.
The great importance of cop-dyeing is generally
admitted at the present time, so that T need not say any
more in this respect. But quite as well known is the great
difficulty of this kind of dyeing, especially if it be desired
to apply all the colouring matters and dyeing methods
which are at present used in hank dyeing. There is a
number of different cop-dyeing machines now being
experimented upon, and the results achieved by the various
inventor- are watched with the keenest interest. The time
has not arrived to award the prize in this competition to
any one of these machines ; but there is at the same time
no doubt that the principles which have to be observed
in the construction of a cop-dyeing machine of general
applicability are already fairly established. Similarly the
characteristic methods and operations by which cops can
be dyed in these machines are developed to such an extent
already that a fairly complete record of both of them may
be said to be of general interest, and I believe that an
exhaustive description of the present state of this new and
most important dyeing industry will be welcomed by many
who take an interest in this new departure in dyeing. I
may say that I am in no shape or form interested in the
eventual triumph of either of the various machines over
the others, but what information I am able to convey to
you on the subject is derived from actual experience and
practical working. I can, however, not refrain from giving you
niv well-considered opinion that as matters stand at present
British enterprise seems likely to carry off the prize in this
fierce struggle for supremacy in a new and important
industry ; the results of the severest tests, and of continuous
practical working on the machine of two English inventors
being far ahead of anything achieved either at home or
abroad.
I.-
-Tin; Mechanical Principles of Cop-Dyking
Machines.
In examining the mechanical or engineering side of the
question of dyeing cops, we find ourselves at once confronted
by three points of fundamental importance : —
1. Perfect evenness of the dye throughout each cop.
2. Perfect evenness of shade in and between the different
lots dyed.
To these must be added a point of specifically economical
bearing : —
3. Time required for each dyeing operation, i.e., working-
capacity.
We can safely say that the machine answering the above
requirements by means of the simplest mechanical appliances,
will be the best. Of the above points, 1 and 3 depend
entirely upon the construction of the machine, while point 2
is as much a question of mechanism as of dyeing methods.
If we immerse a cop in cold water, the latter slowly
penetrates into the former, but the complete impregnation of
the cop by the water is a matter of many hours, and even
days with the very fine counts. The rate at which the
water penetrates into the cop can easily be observed by
adding to the water some dye, which on cutting an immersed
cop parallel or in a right angle to the core, at once shows
how far the water penetrated in a given time. In the first
976
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, is92.
instance this difficulty of impregnating is caused bj the
particular build of the cop which renders it very difficult
for the occluded air to escape and make room for the water
to get inside, but a great obstacle is also to he found in the
vegetable, oily and resinous impurities contained in the grey
cops. If we immerse the cops in hot water we observe in
the first instance, that the air escapes much more rapidly
owing to its expansion by the heat of the water, at the same-
time a considerable quantity of the impurities of the cops
becomes dissolved or emulsified, and consequently the water
penetrates much more rapidly. But even under these
favourable conditions, in using a hot solution of some
suitable dye the cop could not be dyed in a satisfactory
manner, as it would become much darker on the outside
than inside, chiefly owing to the fact, that although the hot
dye-liquor has expelled the air from between the threads of
the cops, there remains still the air which fills the central
channel of each cotton fibre, and the complete expulsion of
which requires either long-continued boiling or treatment in
vacuo, also preferably at" higher temperatures. This leads
to the formulation of the first important principle reqaired
in a cop-dyeing machine : —
I. Perfect displacement of the airfromtheinside and outside
of the cotton fibre is an ess ntml requirement of the thorough
penetration and saturation of the cops by the dye-liquor, and
i- bi *t obtained by treating the nips with the dye-liquor in
vacuo.
We shall see later on, that in many cases the non-obser-
vance or misunderstanding of this important principle led
the inventors to substitute pressure for the vacuum. All
machines of this description are wrong from the start, and
if they did not turn out a downright failure, they are of
very limited applicability ouly, and are generally conspicuous
by the great amount of waste they produce in working. It
is evident, however, that in complying with principle I., we
obtain practically only the complete impregnation of the
cops with the dye-bath, and under these circumstances the
cotton would simply take up the dye contained in the
absorbed quantity of bath, after which the cops would
merely contain more or less colourless water. Taking into
consideration the usual concentration of dye-baths, which
very rarely exceeds 0' 3 per cent, of colouring matter, it is
evident that mere impregnation of the cops with such baths
could not produce dark shades ; and moreover, the outside
of the cops being much longer in contact with the dye-
liquor, would be much darker dyed than the inside. To
overcome this difficulty we have to adopt another means
which therefore forms the next important principle of
cop-dyeing machines, namely : —
II. In order to obtain perfi ct evenness of dyeing through-
out the cops, it is necessary for the dye-bath to circulate
freeli/ through the cops, so that at any time the concentra-
tion of the' dye-bath is the same at every depth of its
penetration into the cops.
This point is of very great importance in a cop-dyeing
machine, as a slow circulation at a low hydrostatic pressure
will allow the concentration of the dye-bath to vary in
different parts of the cops. Likewise the quantities of
dye-liquor passing through various parts of the cops will
differ verv widely, especially if the cops contain hard and
soft places. In both these cases the result will be that the
cops are unevenly dyed.
The principles I. "and II. contain everything required to
fulfil the first of our conditions, namely, to dye the cops
perfectly even, and any machine carefully designed on these
two principles will be satisfactory in that respect. Out-
second condition demands perfect evenness of shade in and
between the different lots dyed, or in other words the
maintenance of the standard shade for any number of cops
dyed in successive operations. The observation of our two
first principles does not ensure this, although they contribute
very largely to the possibility of achieving this feat. I have
stated above that our condition No. II., is as much a point of
the mechanical principles upon which a cop-dyeing machine
has been constructed, as of the methods of dyeing employed
with the machine, and we shall now have to examine
how far this second condition is dependent upon the con-
struction of the machine. The part the dyeing methods
plaj in t Iiis respect will be discussed in the third part of
this paper.
In dyeing yarns in the hank in the ordinary dyeing
be.k, the uniformity of the dyed shades in different lots is
regulated by the concentration of the dye-bath, the tem-
perature, and the time of the immersion. As far as cotton-
dyeing is concerned the volume of dye-bath used is of
comparatively little influence, as with mordant-dyeing
colours the maximum quantity of dye is stechiometrically
fixed by the quantity of mordant previously fastened upon
the fibre, while with the substantive dyes the obtainable
depth of shade is entirely a'question of concentration, tem-
perature, and time. These three factors are, of course, of
the same importance in cop-dyeing as in every other branch
of dyeing. The maintenance of the original concentration
of the dye-bath requires to be considered in the con-
struction of cop-dyeing machines ouly in so far as every
precaution ought to be taken to prevent any alteration of
the concentration of the dye-bath from other causes than
that of the actual dyeing itself. For this reason it must be
considered a great mistake to heat the dye-bath with direct
steam, as the dilution of the bath in this manner is ex-
ceedingly difficult and troublesome to compensate for and
consequently makes it almost impossible to maintain the
standard of shade. This difficulty can generally be avoided
by heating with indirect steam through coils. Of course
the concentration of the dye-bath can also he altered in an
opposite manner, i.e., through evaporation, but provided the
temperature of the dyeing-bath always to be kept at the
same point, the evaporated quantities of water for equal
intervals of time will remain constant, and it is certainly
much easier to dilute the baths than to restore again the
higher concentration of diluted bath, especially if the
degree of dilution attained from time to time is such a very-
variable quantity as in the case we have been considering.
As regards the immersion of the cops in the machine, this can
be either performed by a continuous or intermittent process.
In the first case the dye-bath circulates through the cops
during the whole time of the dyeing operation, and the
machine ought to be so constructed that, the operation
can be interrupted at any moment. In the second case,
working with intermittent immersion, it is essential that
every immersion should require the same time. In both cases,
whether the immersion be continuous or intermittent, is it
desirable that during each immersion of the same duration
equal volumes of the dye-bath should circulate through
equal weights of the cops. This requirement may not be
of such eminent importance in the dyeing of cotton cops,
although it undoubtedly very materially assists in the
important task of obtaining all consecutive lots of standard
shade. But so soon as woollen cops have to he dyed this
requirement is of paramount importance. From the above
we deduct the two further principles. —
III. The dye-bath must not be subject to dilution through
direct steam.
IV. The immersion of the cops can be. cither continuous
or intermittent. The immersions must be of equal, duration,
and the volume of liquor circulating through equal weights
of cops must be the same for each immersion.
The time required for each immersion is a point of very
great interest as it is a verv- important factor in determining
the working capacity of a cop-dyeing machine. All the
more so as the large majority of these machines operate
with comparatively very small quantities of cops at a time.
There is, up to the present, only one cop-dyeing machine
in which large quantities of cops arc treated in each
operation, but it appears that the results obtained are far
from satisfactory with regard to quality. The difficultv of
obtaining perfect circulation of the dye bath through the
cops increases very considerably with the quantity of cops
dyed in each operation, and in ptoportion, of course, in-
creases the difficulty of dyeing the cops even. This
observation seems to have been made by everv individual
designer or inventor of cop-dyeing apparatus, as, with one
exception, all operate with very small weights of cops at a
time, With regard to the possible output of a cop-dyeing
machine everything depends therefore upon the time
required for each dyeing operation, and this, of course,
n.u. 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
977
varies with the different classes of dyes employed.
Generally speaking we know that the process of dyeing with
the substantive dyes is finished as soon as the intercellular
cavities of the cotton fibre appear to be filled with the
colouring matter, and it is evident that the first principle we
established with regard to cop-dyeing machines, demanding
the expulsion of the air from the cotton fibre, will reduce
to a minimum the time required for this dyeing piocesSj
which, in dyeing in the open beck, requires about 30
minutes. In dyeing mordant colours the question of time
required is chiefly a question of how long it takes to
produce upon the fibre the chemical compound of dye ami
mordant, i.e., the colour-lake. Hut these points belong
already to the matter of cop-dyeing proper, and will be
discussed later on. In certain publications attempts have
been made to compare the merits of the different systems
by giving the quantities of cops which can be dyed in a
working day in the various machines. At the present
stage of cop-dyeing machines and cop-dyeing anything
more misleading can scarcely be imagined. Cop-dyeing at
the pros lit d.iy is eminently a question of quality and
let of quantity. It is to-day a matter of absolute
indifference whether a machine will dye 500 or 3,000 pounds
of cops; the only question of actual importance is whether
the machine will dye any quantity of oops dyed in suc-
cession perfectly even and without injuring the build of the
cop. The machine that will do this, and, at the same time,
can be applied to all the various dyeing processes is a
perfect machine.
There remains only one more point to be mentioned with
regard to the construction of cop-dyeing machines, but one
the importance of which cannot be exaggerated. The cops
possess a certain build or structure, which is the result of
the particular mechanical winding action of the mule, and
upon this build or structure, its mathematical regularity,
depends to a great extent the behaviour of the cops in the
loom. Every alteration in this normal build of the cops is
at once noticeable in the weaving, by the frequent breaking
of the thread, and the unwinding of the yarn in coils.
This makes it evident that all cop-dyeing machines ought
to he so constructed as to prevent any deleterious mechani-
cal interference with the normal build of the cops. Thus
we obtain as last principle :
V. Tim unavoidable .mechanical influence upon the cops
lit/ lln- circulation of the dye-baths through them ought I"
tic nf such a nature ox to preclude any alterations in the
shape or structure of the cops.
The mechanical action to which the cops are subject
while being dyed is that of the forced circulation of the
various baths employed through them, so that with regard
to principle V it is important to decide which mechanical
influences, incidental to forced circulation, are liable to
injure the cop. Iu Fig. 1 I give the section of a cop.
Fig
In causing the liquor in a cop-dyeing machine to circulate
through the cops in the manner indicated by the arrow s,
it is obvious that the resistance offered by them to the
passage of the liquors will cause the cops to bend or bulge
in the manner indicated by the dotted lines. Such i -
siiled pressure will have a most deleterious action upon the
build of the cops. The only rational way to avoid this oi'.e-
sided pressure is to arrange the circulation in such a manner
that the circulation radiates in a right angle to the core of
the cops either to or from the centre of the cops (Fig. i i.
The cop then suffers a slight compression, or expansion
respectively, but no disturbance in the build is caused
thereby, owing to a compression or expansion in one direc-
tion being exactly counterbalanced through an exactly
similar action in the npposite direction.
•m> — >
# I N
II. — The Cop-Dyeing Machines or the Present.
It might be interesting to critically examine some of the
most important cop-dyeing machines from the point of view
of the principles we have just laid down. In doin<* this w?
shall, perhaps, not arrive at a certain conclusion as to which
of the cop-dyeing machines of the present is the best, but
there will not be much difficulty in finding out which of those
machines answer all the requirements contained in our four
principles. I am fully aware, that in attempting in this
manner a sort of criticism of the existing cop-dyeing
machines, I am undertaking a not altogether pleasant task,
as on the face of it there is no doubt whatever that only a
small minority of these machines will survive the experi-
mental stage ; the rest are doomed to oblivion. Considering
Fig. 3.
that cop-dyeing is as yet surrounded by a halo of deep
mystery, chiefly for reasons best known to the cop-dyers
themselves, an impartial discussion of the features, merits,
and failings of the various cop-dyeing machines can iu the
end only serve to promote the cause of cop-dyeing.
I propose to discuss the various machines in the order in
which application for letters patent has been made for them.
Onermaier's machine heads the list. The construction of this
machine (Eng. Pat. 2181, April 30, 1883) is shown in Fig. 3.
The space M between the two perforated cylindrical vessels
T> and C is uniformly and densely packed with the material
to be dyed, any hollow spaces caused by the irrregular shape
of the cops or bobbins are filled with loose textile material.
978
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
In order to keep these materials in their position, the piston
cover E is screwed down upon them. By means of the rotary
pump G the dye-bath is then forced into t lie cylinder (' from
where it penetrates through the textile material contained in
space M, and subsequently flows through the perforations
of the vessel R in the collecting vessel A, from where it
again enters into circulation.
From this short description of the working of Obermaiers
machine, we learn in the first instance, that the impregnation
of the textile material is not performed in vacuo, hut
simply by means of a force pump. The perfect displace-
ment of the air, especially of that part of it contained in the
cotton fibre itself, will therefore occupy considerably more
time, than if working in vacuo had been preferred. This
disadvantage is of course much more noticeable in working
with cold baths than it is with hot baths. It is probable there-
fore that the mordanting of textile materials in this machine,
with cold baths (alumina, chrome, and iron mordants) will
offer very considerable difficulties as regards thoroughness
and evenness of impregnation. The possibility of the perfect
impregnation of the textile material will also depend very
essentially upon the care with which the machine has been
charged, otherwise principle II. cannot be complied with,
and the circulation will differ in intensity in various parts
and sections, rendering thus the observation of principle
IV. impossible. The observation of our principle III.
offers no difficulty in this machine. The fact however that
iu this machine the cops to he dyed are subjected to not
inconsiderable lateral mechanical pressure through the
piston cover E is a very serious drawback. The great
sensitiveness of cops against lateral or axial pressure, makes
it almost impossible to guard the cops in this machine
against detrimental or structural alterations, this all the more
so, as after the dyeing operation, the vessel R C containing
the cops is hydro-extracted on a centrifugal machine, in
order to get rid of the superfluous dye-liquor retained by
the textile material, which in this process will be pressed
towards the outer wall of the vessel. I have no doubt
that, in the dyeing of loose and partly manufactured fibres
and yarns in the hank, Obermaier's machine gives very
good results, but for cop-dyeing it is, to say the least, of
minor importance only.
Graeniiger's machine (Eng. Pat. 11,J97, August 2:!, 1887)
has been constructed as a cop-dyeing machine essentially.
The cops are put upon hollow perforated skewers which arc-
then fixed upon the perforations of a conical or cylindrical
drum (Fig. ^) which revolves air-tight round a similarly
shaped receptacle. The latter is divided into chambers which
are connected respectively with a pump and an exhauster,
the former in the first phase of the revolution drawing the dye-
bath through the cops, the latter in the second phase of the
revolution drawing air through the cops, iu order to remove
the excess of dye-liquor. The impregnation of the cop
Fig
Dec.3i,i892J THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
979
with the dye-liquor and the circulation of the latter through
the cops, is performed in this machine by means of the
above-mentioned pump, which here lias upou the cops the
same effect as a slight vacuum, and as far as this is con-
cerned, the machine ought to work very well.
Unfortunately it possesses a very weak point, which
consists in those two concentrically arranged drums of which
the outer one is supposed to turn air- tight upon the inner
one. As long as the gliding surfaces of these two drums
have not suffered from corrosion, their air- and liquor-tight
lit can easily he ensured 6nd the machine will work satis-
factorily : but as soon as through the unavoidable friction
these drums and chambers lose their air-tight fit the working
of the machine necessarily becomes deficient. This
corrosion very quickly becomes noticeable, especially if
mordant baths be employed. Hot baths of tannic acid,
baths of acetate a::d sulphate of alumina and alkaline
solutions of alumina and chromium peroxide, and in a lesser
degree, all dye-baths arc sure to cause this corrosion, and
the progress of this corrosion is greatly assisted by the
friction between the working parts. The circulation of the
dye-liquor under these circumstances is bound to become
deficient and irregular, and the contamination of the baths
by the products of the corrosion must also have a very
deleterious influence upon many of the shades dyed. In
a later patent (Graemiger, Whitehead, Mason and Leigh)
this drawback has been somewhat minimised by a reduction
of the total area of the gliding surfaces, but it still forms a
very weak part oft his machine, upon the construction of which
a very great amount of ingenuity and skill has been brought
to hear. If the inventors should not succeed in remedying
the above fault radically, there is very little prospect of this
machine ever becoming of any importance.
.Mason and Whitehead's cop-dyeing machine (Eng. Pat.
14,019. Sept. 29, 1H8H) consists o'f the dye bath r (Fig. 5)
placed under the rectangular frame n\ which carries the
cylinder r, which is connected with the pump f, and
tiie vacuum cylinder h. < In the lower end of this cylinder
a stuffing box b., is arranged in which the tube m, moves
vertically. The lower end of this tube carries the cop
plate a, which consists of the chamber a' and the plate
a. The latter is perforated and in the holes are placed
the cops which have been put on hollow perforated skewers.
By means of the cogs c. the cop plate may be immersed
into the dye-bath v, or be withdrawn from it. If the
cop plate has been immersed in the bath, the former is
connected with the pump a3, by opening the valve p.
I'he dye-liquor then circulates through the cops, passes
into the chamber a,, rises into the tube <f:i, and travels
through c and <l to the pump /. from where it returns to
the dye-bath through the pipe v. If the cops are dyed
the cop plate is raised above the surface of the dye-hath,
valve /> is closed, and valve s opened, thus connecting
the cop plate with the vacuum cylinder h. whereby the
superfluous dye-liquor is removed from the cops. In
order to expel the air from the cops previous to
their impregnation with the dye-bath, a hood with valves,
through which afterwards the dye-liquor is admitted, can be
placed over the cop plate. From this description we see
that the apparatus is fairly well in accordance with all our
principles, hut, at the same time, it must be said that the
construction of the machine is exceedingly clumsy and a
very cumbersome appliance for practical working.
due of the most interesting cop-dyeing machines of the
present as regards its manner of working, is Mommer's
machine (Eng. Put. 276:f, Feb. 20, 1890). This machine is
not constructed upon principles which would be applicable to
the treatment of individual cons, as is the case with all those
machines working with the cops fixed in hollow perforated
skewers. In this machine, which is in this respect identical
with ( Ihcrmaier's, an attempt has been made to form as it
were a solid block of cops offering in all its parts the same
resistance to the dye-liquor penetrating into and circulating
through it. The machine (Fig. 6) consists of the dye-vat A,
the box (t in which the " cop block " /> is inserted and the
pump E. These three parts arc connected with each other by
means of the pipes B B', D D', and F. The circulation of
the dye-liquor through these pipes and subsequently through
the cops can be reversed by means of the valves C C. The
Fig. 0.
cops are put on solid skewers and then inserted into rect-
angular wooden frames in the manner shown in Fig. 7, each
Fig. 7.
yyyyyyyyyyyyt
yWvwWWvV
/U^UvJvAtUv-AaAA^
frame thus forming a screen or diaphragm of cops. A
number of these frames are inserted face to face into the
box a. It will be noticed that the circulation of the dye-
liquor through such a cop block proceeds in the horizontal
line, penetrating all cops from one side and passing through
them in a right angle to their cores, while in till other systems,
except Obermaier's, the circulation radiates to or from the
core of the cops. Mommer's machine is therefore the only
one working with solid skewers, all other machines, as long
as they emplov any skewers at all, use them hollow and
perforated.
This machine does not work with a vacuum as our prin-
ciple I. demands, but this in itself will uor prevent the
perfect impregnation of the cops, although it will make the
process rather a slow one. There is no dcubt, however, that
the circulation of the dye-bath (principle II.) through the
cops in Mommer's machine is very unsatisfactory. It is
unquestionable that the dye-bath will penetrate the cop block
in the machine, but it is utterly impossible for the amount
of circulation to be the same in every part of the block.
This being admitted, it necessarily follows that many of the
cops will he unevenly died. Such an irregular circulation
will be caused in Mommer's machine by the solid skewers
upon which the cops are fixed, and the effect of which upon
the circulation will be readily understood by anyone
acquainted with the laws regulating the forced circulation of
liquids through cops. In Fig. 7 is shown a diagram illus-
trating the circulation of the dye-bath through the cops in
Mommer's machine. In the diagram a x b y is the section
of a cop, c the corresponding section of the solid skewer.
930
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. 31,1892.
The circulation of the dyebath through the cop is supposed
to proceed iu the direction indicated bv the arrow, i.e., from
the left to the right. The zones a a' a- and h 61 /<-' then
Fie. 8.
indicate those parts of the cop in which the circulation
proceeds under normal conditions. In the zone x c the circu-
lation proceeds much slower owing to the diversion of the
liipiid on the skewer and for the same reason no circulation
whatever is possible in the zone 1/ c anil the impregnation
of this part of the cop is merely due to capillary action.
Prompted, perhaps, by a knowledge of this fact the inventor
of this machine provided for the reversion of the circulation.
But, as will be easily seen, this reversion will only have the
effect of eliminating the difference between zones x c and
1/ c, but will only increase the difference between zone x c 1/
on the one hand and zones a dl a- and b // b" on the other
hand. It is probable that as long as only light shades are
dyed these differences are rather insignificant, but in the
dyeing of medium and dark shades unevenness is sure to
result. Also the fact that in this machine the dye-liquors
arc forced through a number of cop diaphragms of very
considerable depth or thickness does not very well agree
with our principle II., as to the high importance of which
scarcely any doubt can exist. I mentioned before that of
all the mechanical actions deleterious to the build of the
cops, none is more dangerous than lateral unbalanced ; res-
sure, and considering that in Mommer's machine the cops
are during the whole of the time exposed to very con-
siderable pressure from one side only at a time, this looks
anything but hopeful with regard to principle V. The
above mentioned difficulties and doubts ace probably least
noticeable when dyeing with the substantive dyes, but they
will certainly almost entirely prevent the dyeing of mcrdent
colours in this machine.
Surprising simplicity is the most striking feature of Crippiu
and Young's machine (Eng. Pat. 1 1S7, Jan. 22, 1890), "which
consists mainly of the dye-vat a, the cop chamber li and
the receivers 0 and/ (Fig. 8). The cops are put on hollow
perforated skewers, which are then inserted into corre-
sponding holes in the cop plate. The cop plate is then
transferred into the cop chamber. The latter by means of
pipes is connected with the vacuum cylinders or receivers
b and/, and by simply pushing a lever acting upon a steam
jet exhauster, a vacuum is created in b, drawing the dye
liquor from vat a into the cop chamber, through the cops
and into receiver 6. Pulling the lever back into its normal
position at once interrupts the circulation, and the dye-
liquor returns from the receiver b automatically into the
vat. Another movement of the lever produces the vacuum
in/ which now. extracts from the cops all the superfluous
dye liquor, which is subsequently also again discharged
into the bath. The waste steam from the exhauster passes
through a coil in the vat a, heating the dye liquor. Iiy an
improvement in this arrangement (Eng. Pat. 4028, March 19,
1891) it is possible to let the dye bath circulate from the
outside to the inside of the cops or vice versd.
With regard to the construction of this machine it will
be noticed that it contains no moving parts whatever and
especially none that would move in contact with the dye-
liquor. The importance of this advantage, as compared
with the arrangements in Graemiger's, Mason's, and
Whitehead's and Mommer's machine cannot be overrated.
By this total absence of moving parts the wear and tear of
the machine, and consequently repairs of it are reduced to
insignificance. The machine further allows a continuous
control of the actual amount of circulation of dye-liquor
through the cops, wdiich in a high degree assists in
obtaining identical shades in consecutive operations. The
machine works with a vacuum of from 12 to 15 pounds,
and it will be easily understood, that this will induce a
most energetic eireuHtion, which as a matter of tact
amounts to nearly a gallon of dye-liquor per cop, and per
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Dec. si. 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTBT.
981
minute. In the presence of such an energetic circulation
the existence of hard and soft places in the cops is no
longer able to exert any influence upon the evenness of
dyeing, so that this difficulty has uo practical existence in
this machine. The capacity of this machine with regard to
the output of dyed cops i- considerably less than in
Obermaier's and Mommer's machines, and about the saun-
as in Graemiger's maehiue, hut in its rational construction,
universal applicability to all dyeing processes, safety and
simplicity of working, Crippin and Young's machine stands
far ahead of all others.
In A. and M. Koblenzer's machine (Ger. Pat. 55,787,
March 26, 1890) the cops arc fixed upon a sort of filter-pl ites
lih which are then placed in the chamber or cylinder a
I Fig. HI). The cops are then first treated with steam, by
means of the perforated steam coil d and subsequently the
dye-bath contained in the reservoir e is forced into the
cylinder a by means of steam pressure. The cops are thus
simultaneously treated with a current of steam from below
and the spray of dye-liquor from above, the dye-liquor
gradually running to all the filter-plates carrying the cups.
Any excess of dye-liquor eventually leaves the cylinder
through the pipe K. It is certainly not easy to understand
thia peculiar dyeing process, and the manner in which
anything like an efficient circulation of the dye-liquor
through the cops is obtained. Neither of our principles
bearing on this point is applicable to the machine, and if it
is at all possible to dye cops satisfactorily in this machine,
it is certain that this can only be achieved with the
substantive dye-:. To dye basic or acid mordant dyes,
indigo or aniline black in this machine is an utter
impossibility. I have seen a number id' cops dyed in this
machine with substantive dyes, but the surprising softness
of these cops, although perhaps accounting for the evenness
of the dye throughout the cops, is not very promising
with regard to the result of the subsequent use of these
cops in the loom.
P. Kornfeld's machine (Ger. Pat. 56,369, July 17, 1890)
avoids the use of skewers altogether. Each cop is inserted in
a tubular ease H (Fig. 10), iu which little projecting plates
are provided ill order to compel the dye-liquors to penetrate
Fig. 11.
into the cops. The apparatus may be useful for ex-
periments ou a laboratory scale, but is quite useless for
practical cop-dyeing, owing not only to its output beiDg
infinitesimally small, but also to its management being trouble-
some in the extreme. A great deal of injury must be done to
the cops by the projecting resistance plates. Herzfeld and
Stommel's machine (D P. A. 11,325) is very much like
Kornfeld's machine, but those dangerous resistance plates
are avoided. But the use of this machine on a large scale
is quite as hopeless as that of Kornfeld's machine.
Although there is quite a number of other patents for
cop-dyeing machines in existence, it would be needless to
occupy space with their description, as they offer no
essentially novel points for our consideration.
Trorn the above we necessarily come to the conclusion
that only very few of the numerous cop-dyeing machines
have before them any prospect of success as soon as they
are used to dye other than the substantive dyes. And it
must not be forgotten that the substantive dyes answer the
actual purpose of cop-dyeing very badly, the great majority
of them " bleeding " so excessively that in many eases cops
dyed with these colours can not be used together with
cotton, wool, or silk in the grey or bleached state, or dyed
in light shades. Cop-dyeing will never become of any
importance unless it is able to work with all the mordant
dyeing colours, including tlie alizarin dyes, and also indigo
and aniline black. But all these dyes are a very much
severer test on the efficiency of a cop-dyeing machine than
the substantive dyes.
I have remarked before that, the question of the capa-
bility of production or the output of the various cop-dyeing
machines is rather premature. It has been stated tliat in
lo hours Crippin and Young's machine will dye 25,000,
Graemiger's 80,000, and Mommer's machine 360,000 pin-
cops, but at the present stage of cop-dyeing this statement
is useless for the purpose of weighing the intrinsic merits of
one machine against those of the other, and can only serve
to grossly deceive the uninitiated. Those figures are rendered
still more valueless, owing to the cost of working of the
different machines not being known ; and in view of the
almost absurd secrecy observed by the cop-dyers, there is
little prospect of these data being obtainable in the near
future.
III. — The Practice of Cop-Dyeing,
The methods employed in the dyeing of cotton depend
upon the chemical nature of the colours employed, and can
accordingly be divided into three classes : —
A. Direct dying (substantive) colouring matters ;
B. Mordant dyeing (adjective) colouring matters ;
(a. ) Acid dyes ;
(&.) Basic dyes ;
C. Pigment colours.
A. — Direct Dyeiny (Substantive) Colouring Matters.
The application of the direct dyeing benzidine and dia-
mine dyes in cotton -dyeing is so very simple that these
products appear particularly well suited to cop-dyeing. As
all these dyes are dyed in one bath there is also one machine
only required to dye them on cops, while all other dves
require two or more baths, anil, consequently, as many cop-
dyeiDg machines, thus considerably reducing the output of
ready dyed cops per machine. Unfortunately, the fastness
of the substantive dyes against washing and milling is
almost without exception so unsatisfactory that their appli-
cation on cops is comparatively very limited.
The chemical reasons, if there are any at all, for the
affinity of these dyes to the cotton fibre are unknown at
present. It is well known that the cotton takes up these
dyes from the dye-bath at or near boiling temperature, but
this absorption arrives at a standstill long before the dye-
bath is exhausted. It may even be found with certain dyes
that prolonged boiling causes the cotton to again lose part of
the dye which it previously absorbed. For the production of a
certain shade with these dyes a knowledge of the percentage
of colouring matter is utterly insufficient, the final result
depending quite as much upon the corcentration of the
dye-bath, its temperature, and the time allowed for dyeing.
We find, therefore, that a bath made up from 3 lb. of dye
and 50 gallons of water produces a much stronger shade
than a bath made up from 3 lb. of dye and 100 gallons of water.
This important fact is not of the same consequence in
yarn and piece-dyeing, where it is comparatively easy to dye
up to sample either by adding more of the dye to the baths,
or interrupting the process as soon as the desired shade is
obtained. In cop-dyeing this is not practicable, even in
the machines of Graeniiger and Mommer, which operate
with comparatively large quantities of cops at a time. The
reason of this is that during the dyeing operation the cops
are practically beyond the control of the dyer, and, further,
that dyeing is done in these machines iu only a minute
fraction of the time which it requires iu the open bath, so
that before any alteration of the bath could be made the
cops arc already finished. If, on the other hand, such weak
9S2
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Bee. 31, 1m.
dye-baths were employed that the production of the attain-
able shade would require as much time as has to be allowed
in the open beck, namely, from 20 to fiO minutes, the
output of all cop-dyeing machines would be so small as to
render the process commercially impossible. It is, there-
fore, necessary to employ dye-baths of such concentration
and temperature that the desired shade is obtained in the
minimum of time. The latter is. as 1 showed in the second
part of this paper, determined by the construction of the
machine, and' is identical with the duration of each immer-
sion, which is six minutes in Momnier's machine, two
minutes in Graemiger's machine, and half a minute in
Crippin ami Young's machine. < hving to the extraordinary
shortness of each immersion in the last-named machine,
generally four immersions are given to complete the dyeing
process, which therefore requires two minutes altogether.
The fact that in Crippin and Young's machine dyeing isdone,
so to speak, in a number of very small instalments is of very
<rreat importance. The dyeing process can be interrupted, if
required, in one-twelfth of the lime from Mommer's, and
one-fourth of the time from Graemiger's machine, thus
depriving cop-dyeing almost entirely of its awkward
mechanical rigidity, which in many cases places the dyer in
a rather helpless position. It is further worth mentioning
that the depth of shade obtained with the same hath in
different machines varies not inconsiderably, and will he
found lightest in Mommer's machine, darker in Graemiger's,
and still fuller in Crippin and Young's machine. An
advantage of one machine against the other cannot be
inferred from this fact, as proportionally stronger dye-baths
will remove any differences of this description, although 1
might perhaps mention that the cops, when they are
removed from the machines after dyeing, contain about
70 per cent, of their dry weight of dye-liquor, and the
proportion of free or uncombined dye contained in this
liquor of course increases in proportion with the strength
of the dye-bath, and, if not washed out, causes the yarns to
bleed excessively ; if washed out it represents a not incon-
siderable loss of dyestnff. It is, therefore, desirable to dye
each shade in as weak a dye-bath as possible, whereby also
very much clearer and brighter shades are obtained.
In each operation we abstract from the bath a certain
quantity of dye which has become fixed upon the cotton, and
a further quantity of dye contained iu the 70 per cent, ot
dye-bath which is mechanically retained by the cops. In
other words, in the process of dyeing we reduce the
concentration of the dye-hath as far as the percentage of dye
it contains is concerned, and at the same time we reduce the
volume of the dye-bath, containing all its constituents, in
proportion to the quantity of it mechanically retained by the
cops. A further alteration of the concentration of the dye-
bath is caused either by evaporation or -condensation of
steam. The former is always the cr-.se in Graemiger's and
Crippin's machines ; the latter is a particularly disagreeable
feature of Kohlenzer's machine. It is evident that in order
to obtain all the lots dyed in succession, of the same shade,
we must always, before starting the treatment of a new lot,
bring the dye-bath to its original volume and concentration.
The restoration of the volume is very simple in all those
machines in which the volume decreases during the dyeing
operation. If how ever, as in Kohlenzer's machine, the volume
of the dye-hath is increased, we can only bring it to its old
concentration by adding to it fresh quantities of the dye and
other constituents. The quantities i" he added are, however,
very difficult, to calculate, and, moreover, the dye-hath is
constantly increasing in bulk. For this I consider dilution
of the dye-bath in working one of the greatest drawbacks
a cop-dyeing machine can possess, as it introduces in its
working an element of great variability and difficulty.
For the restoration of the concentration and of the dye-
hath the following data are employed: —
1. The strength of the shade dyed, or percentage of
dyeing ; this factor is best experimentally established for
every shade.
2. The quantity of dye-hath mechanically retained by the
cops.
3. The evaporation taking place at a fixed temperature in
dyeing given weight of cops.
The use of these data is best shown by giving an example
which might be directly applied to Graemiger's, Crippin
and Yonng's or Mommer's machines :
i Iriginal dye-bath : 1 lb. Benzopurpurine.
4 „ Soap.
4 „ Soda crystals.
100 gallons ol water.
Dyed i 100 Hi. of cops, 2 p.e. shade.
Loss of dye-bath 2 lb. Benzopurpurine.
Dye-bath me-- ,70 lb. Water.
chunk-ally re-} ;,m |D. con- \- „ 4.5 oz. Benzopurpurine
taincd by thef taudng- - 1 — „ 4*5 oz. Soap,
cops - -' ^— „ 4*5 oz. Soda crystals.
Loss of water through evaporation : :::I0 lb, of water.
Total loss per 100 lb. of cops : too lb. of water.
2 ., 4*5 oz. Benzopurpurine,
4*5 oz. Soap.
4*5 oz. Soda crystals.
From this it follows that for every pound of cops dyed
per operation, we have to add to the dye-hath a mother-hath
consisting of —
4 lb. of water.
0*045 oz. Benzopurpurine.
0'0*5 oz-Soap.
0*045 oz. Soda crystals.
There is a slight error in this calculation, owing to the
neglect of the specific gravity of the dye-hath. This error
is so small that it is not worth considering, although there
is no difficulty in eliminating it.
This question of replenishing the baths becomes much
more complicated if the dye bath contains more than one
of the substantive dyes, because they are not taken up by
the cotton in the same proportions in which they are
present iu the hath. At first sight this difficulty appears so
great that the dyeing of mixed shades on cops has been
pronounced altogether impossible. If not altogether im-
possible, it certainly will offer enormous difficulties in
machines of the type of Mommer's, where large quantities
of cops are treated simultaneously, and when- the cops are
not at any time at the same stage of impregnation. This
difficulty does not exist in Graemiger's or Crippin and
Young's machines. The best way to arrive at the respec-
tive proportions of the mixed dyes taken up by the cotton
is to compare the baths before and after dyeing colori-
metrically. The results of this test, together with the
total percentage of dye put on the cotton, enable us to
calculate the necessary composition of the replenishing or
mother bath.
I have recommended above the use of the colorimeter for
baths containing more than one colour, and I may say that
such an instrument will often he found of great assistance
in the cop-dye house. There is, however, also a direct
dyeing test for estimating the, various proportions in which
several dves participate in a compound shade. In carrying
out this direct test standard solutions of the various colours
are prepared, and very gradually added to a weighed hank
of cotton, which is kept iu a boiling 30 per cent, strong
solution of common salt. By this means only traces of the
dyes remain in the hath, and the quantities of the different
dye solutions which have been used to produce a given
shade at once supply us with the figures showing the total
percentage of dyes taken up by the cotton, as well as the
proportions in which the various dyes are present. The
method requires some practice, but the results are very
reliable. Iu many cases it may be desirable to ascertain
the correct management of a dye or mordanting batli by a
short test. For this purpose a simple hydrometer often
answers very well. It will he hardly necessary for me to
observe that for the testing of hot or boiling baths in this
manner hydrometers registering below 1000 sp. gr. must
be used.
Altogether it may he said that the difficulties of dyeing
cops with benzidine or diamine colours are very small indeed
as long as only single dyes are employed, and as long as not
exceptionally heavy shades have to be produced. The
difficulties in the way of dyeing compound shades with these
colours are also of such a nature as to be readily overcome
Dec. 31, 18»2.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
983
by careful aud judicious manipulation. These direct
dyes, moreover, all dyeing in one single bath, and thus
requiring one machine only to carry out the dyeing procss,
it will be easily understood why the cop-dyers paid
them such particular, almost exclusive, attention. On
the other hand, however, it was found, that very heavy,
brown, blue and black shades cannot satisfactorily be
obtained with these dyes, so long as the circulation of the
dye bath through the cops takes place in cue direction only.
Fnder this condition many of the cops will be found to be
very unevenly dyed. This can be remedied by constructing
the machines in such a manner that the circulation can be
reversed between alternate immersions. Mommer's machine
is the first which provided for this emergency in a practi-
cable manner, although I am afraid that the advantage to be
gained by this mechanical arrangement cannot be realised
in Mommer's machine owing to tiie inevitable bulging of
the caps in bis machine in the direction of the circulation.
On reversing the circulation this bulging would of course
be hound to be thrown on the other side of the cop, and if
such a rough treatment of the cops does not. destroy their
build altogether, it •will certainly cause an outrageous
amount of waste in the loom. Also Graeniiger speaks in his
patents of the reversion of the circulation, but there is little
doubt that it is quite impracticable in his machine, and if
applied would prove utterly unmanageable in regular work-
ing. Crippin and Young also provided their machines with
a reversing arrangement, and their machine is at present
the only one which works equally well in either direction.
In dyeing very heavy sha les in this machine irregularities
in the circulation, say. from the outside to the inside of the
cops, and caused through irregularities in the build of the
cups, are most efficiently compensated by a reversion of the
circulation during each alternate immersion, and the heaviest
shades dyed in this manner are obtained perfectly even
throughout each cop. This is a very important point in
favour of Crippin and Young's machine
Unfortunately all the substantive colours known at
present, with the only exception of the ( Ixyphenine of the
Clayton Aniline Company, possess the great drawback of
bleeding most excessively in washing and milling. This goes
so far that cotton dyed with these colours cannot even
be said to be fast against hot watef. The reason of this is
no doubt that there is no chemical bond or affinity between
these colours and the cotton fibre, the nature of their union
being what Kneeht called " rigid solution." The bleeding of
these dyes could te prevented by converting them upon the
fibre into fast lakes ; but the only lake forming group in
these dyes being Ike sulpho group, which is not capable of
forming lakes fast against alkalis, the solution of this
problem otters considerable difficulties, although I have
reason to believe that they can he conquered. The above
seoms not to be in accordance with the well-known fact that
Bayer and Co., of Elberfeld, by treating certain of their
colours after dyeing with the solutions of certain metallic
salts, preferably copper salts, obtained dyeings the fastness
of which to washing is very satisfactory. But 1 am not of
opinion that this treatment results simply in the production
of a copper lake wiih the dye fixed upon the cotton. The
shade of the colour is so much altered in this treatment as to
suggest a much more complicated reaction. This treatment
has only proved successful with thobenzo-azurines manufac-
tured by that firm. The bright blue shade they produce on
cotton is thereby altered to a dull indigo blue, which is quite
fast to soap as far as bleeding is concerned, but the soaping,
and in fact any other alkali changes this dull indigo shade
into.a still duller puce. This renders the process a rather ques-
tionable success. Of more importance is the fact that some
of these dyes can be converted into other shades by diazo-
tising them upon the fibre aud combining them afterwards
with various phenols, naphthols or amines. The shades
produced in this manner are all fast to washing and milling,
many of them also exceedingly fast to light. This process,
also an invention of Bayer and Co., cannot be considered as
a solution of the above mentioned problem, as it results in
shades more or less different from the original ones, and is
only available for browns, dull blues, greys, and blacks. By
a similar process Green obtained on cotton, dyed with his
primuline, shades ranging from yellow to scarlet, maroon.
and purple. These are also absolutely fast to washing and
milling ; unfortunately they are wretchedly fugitive. The
only drawback of these developed colours in eop-dveing is
the circumstance that they require three machines, corre-
sponding lo the three different baths used; but, on the other
hand, it must not be forgotten that if the cop-dyers have to
fight shy of the fast colours on account of the greater
number of machines required for their production this new
branch of dyeing would certainly be very narrowly confined
in its field of working. Happily this is not so. It is evident
that the number of machines which a dyer can afford to
employ for the production of a certain shade is eminently a
question of capital, that is of the price of a machine. If
the cheapest machine should turn out to be at the same time
the most efficient, the dyer will not be obliged to restrict
himself to the dyeing of one bath colours. Of those
machines that are at ail efficient and generally applicable,
Crippin and Young's machine is by a long way the cheapest
and I am satisfied that it is also the simplest aud safest in
working.
IV. — MOBDANI DvEING (ADJECTIVE) Coloiks.
A. — Acid Dt/es.
The mordant-dyeing acid colouring matters are far
superior in fastness to the substantive dyes, but their appli-
cation in cop-dyeing offers difficulties of the most intricate
description. Everything of course depends in the dyeing
of these colours upon the level fixing of the mordant upon
the fibre. In the first instance, to accomplish this, it is
absolutely indispensable that the mordanting baths must
always remain pel fectly clear. Any disassociation of the
mordanting salts taking place either by working the bath at
too high a temperature, or by working the baths too basic,
causes a more or less thick film to be deposited on the out-
side of the cops, which renders them altogether imperme-
able, and under any circumstances leads to such unevenness
in the subsequent dyeing process as to make the cops
absolutely useless. Another very serious difficulty is the
great insolubility of most of the alizarine and other mordant
dyeing colours in water. Jt is true all these colour-, will
dissolve in alkalis or certain alkaline salts, but it seems
that the affinity- of these dyes in such solutions to the mor-
dant fixed upon the cotton is at best considerably weakened
and often practically altogether destroyed. Further, if the
mordant has not been perfectly fixed upon the fibre . nume-
rous small particles of it are washed into the dye-bath,
remaining suspended there in the form of a colour-lake
which eventually again is deposited on the outside of the
cops, thus greatly impeding the circulation of the dye-bath
and producing, moreover, unevenness of the worst kind.
Taking all these points into consideration, it is quite evident
that the dyeing of alizarine colours on cops is a matter
bristling with difficulties, the ordinary methods of dyeing
the e colours failing us altogether.
The mordants we have to deal with in working with these
dyes are the oxides of alumina, chrome and iron, the
aiumina mordant being undoubtedly the most obstreperous
of the three. If we treat cops in a cold bath of acetate of
alumina of the usual strength (from 6° to $° Tw.) no
precipitation of alumina either in the cops or in the bath
takes place ; the cops simply absorb about 75 per cent, of
their own weight of the bath. Working at higher
temperatures is prohibited by the disassociation of the
acetate in the bath. If those impregnated cops are now
dried, disassociation of the acetate of alumina takes place,
alumina being fixed upon the fibre ; but at the same time,
owing to the evaporation of the water from the surface only
of the cop, an osmotic action takes place by which un-
deeomposed acetate of alumina is slowly but constantly
conveyed from the central to the peripheral parts of the
cops. When perfectly dry the cops are found to be
mordanted all through, but the mordant is very unevenly
distributed, being much stronger on the outside, than in the
inside. As regards evenness better results are obtained by
passing the cops impregnated in the alumina bath without
delay through a soda-bath, but the mordanting is very weak,
as it will be easily understood, that on circulating a soda-
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. 31, 1392.
bath through the cops already filled with the alumina hath,
the latter is simply pushed out of the cop in front of the
soda-hath, without mixing with the latter within the ccp.
By treating, however, these ireakly mordanted cops with a
solution of aUiminate of sol;:, the mordant becomes much
heavier owing to the property of the aluminate of soda to
disassociate into alumina hydrate and caustic soda in the
presence of free alumina hydrate. The alumina mordant
si> obtained is very well fixed 011 the fibre and very even,
and although rather tedious on account of the many
operations required, this is the only method so far to produce
a strong and even alumina mordant on cops.
The baths being all used cold anil no combination of
any of the chemicals with the cotton, as in the case of
dyeing, taking place, the loss of the bath consists simply
in the quantity of bath absorbed by the cops, and this
loss is made up in adding to the working bath from time
to time from a mother-bath of exactly the same composition
as much as is required to maintain the former tit its
original level.
The application of chrome mordants to cops is much
simpler on account of the very decided affinity of
chromium oxide to cotton, and especially the solutions of
chromium hydroxide in caustic alkalis, known as chromites,
readily give up their chromium hydroxide to the cotton
fibre. It is sufficient to treat cops in an alkaline solution
of chromium hydroxide at a temperature not exceeding
50 C. in order to' obtain the cops very satisfactorily mor-
danted. The mordanting takes place' much quicker at
higher temperatures than with cold baths, and the strength
of the mordanting is directly proportional to the concen-
tration of tin1 baths and about inversely proportional to
the excess of caustic alkali employed for dissolving the
chromic hydrate. These chrome baths have a very great
tendency to spontaneous decomposition, this tendency in-
creasing with the concentration of the bath and with the
decrease of free alkali. It is also possible, however, to
produce chrome mordants on eottou by means of neutral
and basic chromic salts, the behaviour of which irgainst the
cotton fibre has been thoroughly investigated by Liechti
and Suida, and was found to be greatly different from that
of the similarly constituted alumina salts. Least suitable
for the purpose are the neutral (violet)* chromic salts. Bv
treating cops with the solutions of such salts, followed by a
passage through some alkali or alkaline salts, chromic
hydrate is precipitated upon the fibre, but it is only very
imperfectly fixed. Better results are obtained by drying
the cops after the impregnation with chromic sulphate,
when 128 per cent, of the quantity of this salt absorbed
by the eops firmly combine with the cotton fibre in the
form of chromic hydrate. Owing, however, to the
necessity of drying the impregnated cops, the mordanting
has a tendency to become uneven, for reasons mentioned
above. Basic chromic sulphates are much more satis-
factory and, differing from solutions of basic sulphate of
alumina, they can be heated without disassociation taking
place. Treating the cops with solutions of such salts at
a temperature of about 70° C, the cotton is very evenly
mordanted and chrome mordants of about medium strength
can easily be obtained iu this manner. But it ought not
to be forgotten that the dissociation of basic chromic
sulphates is very considerably retarded, or even entirely
prevented by the presence of sulphate of soda of potash.
This makes it advisable to prepare such mordanting baths,
not by partial alkaline decomposition of solutions of
chromic sulphate or chrome alum, but by dissolving freshly
precipitated chromic hydroxide in solutions of chromic
sulphate. The strength of the mordant obtained with such
baths depends upon the concentration of the hath, its basicity
and temperature. The latter of course can easily be kept
constant, but the maintenance of the basicity is a matter of
considerable difficulty and requires one to start with a know-
ledge of tin- quantity of chromic hydrate fixed upon a definite
weight of cotton, in using a hath of known concentration
and basicity.
• 'I'lie s<». called "green modification " of chromic sulphates need
not beconsidered here ^, ai rding to recenl investigations these
compounds possess :i constitution entirelj different from that
attributed t" chromic sa H s.
In the same manner as the chromic sulphate, the chromic
acetates and chlorides may be employed. The latter give
excellent results, especially if the commercial " Chlor-
ehrome " of the formula Cr2Cl2(< III), is used. Of course
there also exists the difficulty with regard to the management
of the baths, and although this difficulty is by no means
insurmountable it is a matter requiring great care and
foresight.
The iron mordants are in their chemical behaviour closer
related to the alumiua mordants than to the chrome mor-
dants and accordingly disassociate nunc easily than the
latter. For mordanting cotton the so-called nitrate of iron,
i.e., ferric sulphate, is almost exclusively employed. The
neutral salt produces only very weak mordants, but by
adding to it acetate of soda or carbonate of soda basic sa'ts
are obtained producing, according to their concentration and
basicity, very strong mordants. The cops are treated in the
cold baths, then left to lie for from 6 to 12 hours, when they
are thoroughly washed. The mordants so obtained are
perfectly even. Very frequently the iron mordant is used
in the production of a " black bottom," by treating cops
after first mordanting them with tannic acid or sumac in the
above mentioned ferric baths. This important mordant is
very easily applied and it is only necessary to prevent the
iron bath from acquiring a neutral or acid reaction. It is
best kept alkaline by adding to it from time to time small
quantities of acetate ot soda.
( Hhcr metallic mordants arc very seldom applied to cotton
and arc of no interest in cop-dyeing. But there remains a
point of very great importance in connection with the mor-
danting of eops, namely, the washing of the cops after the
operation of mordanting. I have repeatedly pointed out
above that in cop-dyeing, in order to maintain the standard
of shade through any number of consecutive operations, it is
absolutely necessary to maintain the initial concentration of
the working bath by means of a suitably composed mother-
bath. Accordingly, under whatever conditions we dye or
mordant, after withdrawing the cops from the machines they
retain, as I have shown, a quantity of bath equal to about
70 per cent, of the dry weight of the cops. This quantity of
of bath, containing of course all the components of the
working hath, must he washed out of the eops. This is
important enough in withdrawing the cops from a dye-bath,
as the mechanically-absorbed dye-bath, if dried in the cops
would cause them to bleed and rub very badly. But still
more important a matter is the removal of these mechani-
cally-absorbed liquors after mordanting operations. If not
renoved. larger quantities of the mordanting bath will get
into the following dye-bath, thus almost at once rendering
it unfit for further use. The cop-dyeing machines are as a
rule not very well adapted for the purpose of washing
the eops, as they are mostly so constructed as to return
the water circulated through the cops in the bath, which
thus very soon becomes inefficient for further washing
operations. There is, however, no difficulty to so construct
the washing machines that the water after circulation through
the eops is discharged from the machines.
Many of the mordant-dyeing colours are either totally
insoluble or only imperfectly soluble in water. In
order to employ them for cop-dyeing where always
absolutely clear dye-baths are required, these dyes must be
brought in solution by means of caustic alkalis, alkaline
carbonates, soaps or salts possessing an alkaline reaction,
such as acetate, phosphate or borate of soda. Soaps and
neutral Turkey-red oil give very good results in many
cases. The caustic alkalis certainly give the clearest
solutions, but deprive the colours of almost all their
affinity to the mordants, and the alkaline carbonates are
scarcely any better. Ammonia can be used in a few-
exceptional cases only, as the primary lakes of many of
the mordant-dyeing acid colours ore soluble in it, so that
by using ammoniacal solutions of such dyes not onlv no
dyeing takes place, hut very frequently the eops ' -ire
altogether stripped of their mordants. This can be pre-
vented b\ changing the primary mordant, previous to
dyeing, into a compound mordant bv means ,,t acetate of
lime nr zincate of soda, cimpound lake« being insoluble in
ammonia.
Dec 31,1392.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
985
For the dyeing of the mordant -dyeing acid colours on
cops Erban and Specht's process (Ger. 1'at. 5-1.057, IK'.iO),
might appear to be particularly well adapted. In this
process the cotton is first treated with an ammoniacal
solution of alizarine and then dried. This drying, which is
absolutely necessary in order to fix the' alizarine insoluble
upon tlie fibre, make- tlie process unavailable for cop-
dyeing, as mi dryiug the greater part of the dissolved
alizarine is deposited on the outside of the cops. The
cause of this phenomenon has already been mentioned. If
on the other hand the cops without drying are treated vi itii
alumina salts all the alizarine is washed out of tlie cop,
owing to the great solubility of alizarate of alumina
AU >_,(_<', ,11 (i< >a \ in diluted ammonia.
B. — Basic Dyes.
Some of the basic dyes, such as Bismarck browu and
chrysoidiue, dye the cotton fibre without any mordant
and can be used on cops in this manner for the dyeing of
light brown and orange shades. Such dyeings, however,
possess very little fastness, the basic dyes only dyeing
fast shades upon the tannin-antimony or tannin-iron com-
pound mordants. For the production particularly of
brilliant light shades alumina or tin mordants fixed with
snap or Turkey-red oil are frequently used, but, as regards
fastness to light and washing, colours dyed upon these
mordants are very much inferior to the sanr shades ou
tannin mordants.
The mordanting of eops with tannic acid is carried out
under the same conditions under which this operation is
performed upon yarns, i.e., at a temperature of from So
to 90° C. As is well known the yarns remain in this bath
for from 6 to 12 hours, or until it lias become cold. In this
manner the process is of course impracticable in cop-dyeing
machines, but neither is there any necessity for it, as iu
all cop-dyeing machines working with a vacuum, the
tannin is taken up by the fibre with astonishing rapidity,
only equalle 1 by the rapidity with which dyeing with
the substantive dyes proceeds in vacuo. An immersion of one
minute in vacuo in a five per cent, strong tannin solution at
'.in i !. produces the same effect as an immersion of four
hours' duration with hanks in an open bath. The strength
of the mordant entirely depends upon the concentration of
the tannin baths, to which it is directly proportional. After
tlie impregnation of the cops, air is drawn through them, as
is usual after each bath employed for cop-dyeing, in order
to remove as far as possible the excess of hath absorbed by
the cops. These contain, then, first the quantity of tannic
acid directly fixed by the cotton, and, further, the quautity
of tannin contained in that portion of the bath which could
nor be removed from the cops by drawing air through them
after the immersion. I have mentioned several times
already that alter impregnation in the cop-dyeing machine,
hot or cold, the cops retain 70 per cent, of their dry weight
of the bath, and this quantity cannot be removed by drawing
air through them. According to this, 100 lb. of cops
treated with a J per cent, strong tannin bath will retain 7(1 lb.
of this bath, equal to about 3'5_per cent, of tannin. On
extracting the tannin from such cops, 3-898 per cent, were
recovered, so that about 0'5 per cent, of tannin were fixed
direct by rbe cops. But there is no doubt that the whole of
the tannic acid nrieinally contained in the eops, in the form of
mechanically-absorbed bath, is eventually assimilated by the
cotton as the cops become cold. This assumption is sup-
ported by the fact that of the 4 per cent, of tannin contained
iu those eops only about 0- 3 percent, can be readily extracted,
while for the complete extraction of the remaining 3'7 per
cent. 21 hours are required. In precisely the same matter
as tannic acid, all the other tannins used in dyeing may be
applied. An important feature in the mordanting of eops
with tannic acid is the extreme economy of the process as
compared with the same operation on yarns. To produce
a i • S per cent, strong tannin mordant ou eops 1 ■ 5 per cent.
of tannic acid is required, but to produce the same mordant
on hanks lo per cent, of tannic acid is used, or rather
wasted.
The cops impregnated in a tannin 'oath ought lo lie and
cool lor from five to lo hours, but they must not be dried.
After lying for some time they are passed through a bath of
tartar emetic and subsequently well washed. The various
antimony fluorides ami their double salts cannot be used iu
pla:e of the tartar emetic owing to the enormous corrosion
ihey cause if in contact with metals. If tin- cops have not
been standing long enough before being treated with the
tartar emetic, larger quantities of tannate of antimony are
washed into the baths, lendering them unfit for further use
or necessitating their filtration. It is, however, impossible
to keep the tartar emetic bath- absolutely clear, and it is
therefore inevitable to prevent some of this free t innate of
antimony from being filtered by the circulation of the bath
upon the outside of the cops, which then in the subsequent
dyeing results proportionately darker than the inside of the
cops This defect will not occur in Kobknzer's machine,
on account of the filter-plates separating each layer of cops,
while in Mommer's machine it will render the application of
the basic colours an exceedingly awkward operation if not
prohibit it altogether. Iu Crippiu and Young's machine,
this difficulty has been met with in a very simp' e and efficient
manner by placing over each plate of eops in the machine a
hood made from perforated metal and covered with some
filter cloth, though which the tartar emetic hath has to pass
before teaching the eops. If for tin- ."xing of the tannin in
the fibre a hath of ferric sulphate is employed instead of a
tartar eniet'c hath, the most important point is to prevent
it from ever acquiring an acid reaction, by adding to it
from time to time some acetate or carbonate of soda. After
tin- fixing of tin' tannin, the eops are thoroughly washed and
are then ready for die dyeing.
The dyeing of the basic colours on cops mordanted with
tannin is exceedingly simple, especially if the dyes used do
not possess any affinity for the unniordanted fibre. The
concentration of the dye-baths requires almost no control,
as the quantity et dye which can be fixed by the cops is
unalterably determined by the percentage of tannin mordant
which they contain. In the inteiest of greater purity of
shade it is advisable to work with rather weak baths at a
temperature of from SO" to Go' ('. Rather more care is
required if such colours like Bismarck brown, chrysoidine,
rhodamine or indoi'n blue are used which possess a distinct
affinity to the unniordanted fibre. It is necessary in this
case to maintain the original concentration of the dye-baths
in the manner already described. I have shown above that
the exact quantity of tannin present in mordanted cops is
always kuown and the equivalent quantity- of any basic dye
can be estimated with mathematical accuracy according to a
method previously (this Journal, 1891, 794) described by
me. From the data so obtained it is then very easy to
calculate the composition of a suitable mother-hath. \Vc
will suppose the cops to contain 1 -25 per cent, of tannic
acid, and to be dyed with rhodamine B for which (loc.
cit.) a tannin equivalent of 41 pel- cent, was fouud. If
then we dye in a bath containing 5g of rhodamine per litre
of water, the quantity of dye used for each kilogramme
of cops is found as follows : —
1 kilo, of cops containing 12-,'ig of tannin
conibiue with : 29g rhodamine 11.
1 kilo, of cops retain 0-7 litre of dye-bath
containing : 3-5g „
Dye used for 1 kilo, of cops : 32 -5g „ II.
From this we find that after each operation, and for each
kilogramme of eops dyed we have to add to the dye-bath 32 • 5g
of rhodamine dissolved in the quautity of water lost in each
operation through evaporation and absorption by the cops,
the latter item amounting to 0'7 litre of water for each kilo-
gramrae of cops. The loss through evaporation, shows its
amount in the falling level of the dye-bath, and is very con-
siderable in all those machines working under reduced
pressure. In Crippiu and Young's machine, for instance, the
loss through evaporation amounts in boiling dye-baths to
3 litres of water for each kilogramme of cops. This loss of
course decreases with the temperature of the baths, and in
cold baths it is practically nil.
Such careful management of the dye-baths, as I have
said before, is only required in the dyeing id' the few basic
colours which are capable of dyeing unniordanted cotton.
Loss of colour from that source appears not to have been
986
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
accounted for in the above calculation, but it is represented
by part of the colour retained by the cops in the form of
mechanically retained dye-bath. The fact is that no dye is
directly assimilated by the cops as long as there is any
uncombiued mordant, so that the direct dyeing capability
of these dyes can only be exercised by that quantity of
dye-bath remaining in the cops after each operation, which
has been admitted already in the above calculation. As
the effect of this direct dyeing action is proportionate to
the concentration of the dye-bath, it is necessary to keep
tin- concentration of the latter coLstant.
Alter dyeing it is absolutely necessary to wash all uncom-
biued dye out of the cops, and in many cases it will be
advisable to follow this washing by a second washing in a
warm soap bath. Also a neutral solution of Turkey red oil
may be used for this purpose.
C. — Pigment Colo"i rs.
By the term of pigment colours I understand all those
dyes, which can be fixed on the fibre neither direct, nor by
means of mordants, but only in statu nascendi. Dyes of
this description are : —
(((.) Developed colours ;
(6.) Mineral pigments;'
(c.) Vat dyes ;
(d.) Aniline black.
Most of the dyes of these four classes are eminently
important in the dyeing of cotton on account of their great
fastness to light, washing, and milling.
a. — Developed < 'olours.
The term of developed colours is applied to azo colours
produced upon the fibre from their components, but there is
little doubt that also colours of other composition and the
formation of which is based upon simple quantitatively
proceeding reactions will be available before long. The
formation of the azo colours depends upon the well-known
reaction of some diazotised base with phenols, uaphthols,
amines, and their derivative's. In cotton-dyeing only such
combinations command general interest which are absolutely
insoluble in water, dilute alkalis, soap, and acids. The
components used are either the so-called half-products
of the coal-tar colour industry, or colouring matters them-
selves if they are either diazotisable or capable of combining
with diazo compounds with formation of azo colours.
We shall see later on that those especially of the substantive
colours which can be diazotised are in their great impor-
tance in cotton dyeing only equalled by the alizarine dyes.
The formation of azo colours upon the fibre can be
effected in two ways. We can first treat the cops with the
solution of a diazo salt, and subsequently immerse them in
the alkaline solution of some phenol or naphthol, or iu the
solution of some amine in hydrochloric, or preferably-
acetic acid, or we may first immerse the cops in the solution
of the developer, and then treat them with the solution
of the diazo salt. Both methods, particularly the last one,
give very bad results upon cops; in fact, they cannot at all
be applied to them, although some Continental dyers employ
them with very good results on piece-goods and yarns in the
hank. The reason of the process giving bad results on
cops lies in the fact that neither of the above-named
compounds has any affinity to the cotton fibre, and arc
simply washed out of the cops in the process of developing
the colour. To this must further be added, that solutions
of diazo compounds are very unstable, and decompose so
quickly as to make their use in cop-dyeing practically an
impossibility. It is obvious that the process of forming
azo colours upon the fibre can only be applied to cops if it
should be possible to fix either the base to be diazotised or
the developer upon the fibre after the manner of a mordant
and fast against cold water. Developers of this kind are
scarcely known,* nor could they be of much use in cop-
dyeing, as the prospect of having to treat them in the baths
of the exceedingly unstable diazo salts is not very
* Chrysoidine could lie used in this manner, as it is capable of
cbmbfnal ion wiili diazo compounds.
encouraging. Diazo compounds, which could be fixed upon
the cotton fibre in the manner of a mordant, are, strictly
speaking, not known, but there are some substantive dyes
which can be dyed upon cotton in the well-known manners,
and being amido-azo compounds of a certain order or con-
stitution, they can be diazotised upon the fibre, forming
diazo compounds insoluble in water, which by combination
with amines, phenols or naphthols, form upon and in the
fibre azo colours which are almost without exception fast to
light, and all uncommonly fast to acids, alkalis, washing,
and milling. Substantive dyes of this kind are primuline,
diamine black BO, RO, and B H, diamine blue black E,
liamine brown V and H, cotton brown A and N.
These dyes are dyed upon the cops in the manner before
described, and the dyed cops are then well washed. This is
of great importance, as otherwise the dyes finally obtained
would rub off in an excessive degree. It is advisable to
use warm water for washing if the cops have been dyed with
colours difficultly soluble in water, such as diamine black
R 0 for instance, otherwise cold water may he used
The perfectly cold cops are then treated in the diazotising
hath, containing about O'j lb. of nitrite of soda and 0'!) lbs.
of hydrochloric acid (1'50 sp. gr.) in every 10 gallons of
water. It is desirable that these baths should always
contain about the same quanity of free nitrous acid. The
quantities of nitrite and hydrochloric acid to be added to
the bath after each operation are calculated in the identical
manner as the mother-baths used in dyeing. The diazotised
cops are carefully washed, and treated in the developing
baths without delay. The latter may with advantage be
kept more concentrated than is usual in hank- or piece-
dying; solutions containing from 3 to 5 per cent, of the
developers answer very well. Of course after developing
the cops are washed again.
Yarns d}-ed with primuline produce in this treatment,
with various developers, fine shades of j-ellow, orange,
scarlet, maroon, brown, and purple, which are all exceed-
ingly fast to washing. Unfortunately their fastness to
light is worse than bad, and 1 have no doubt that the
discovery of a substitute for primuline would amply
repay anyone for the trouble of searching for it. The
developed colours obtained with the above-named or
Cassella's diamine colours are also absolutely fast to
washing and milling, aud at the same time they rank,
almost without exception, amongst the colours which are
fastest to light.
(6.) — Mineral Pigments.
Before the introduction of the substantive dyes and of
the coal-tar colours generally, the colours of this group
were of very considerable importance in cotton dyeing.
At present they have only their cheapness and, in some
cases, their great fastness to light to recommend them. It
is very doubtful, however, whether in eop-dyeing they
will assume even the moderate importance which they still
possess in hank dyeing.
Of all the minend pigments used in cotton dyeing the
"iron buff" is probably the most, ancient. It is produced
upon cops in the same manner and with the °ame materials
as the iron mordants, namely, by treating the cops with
cold solutions of basic ferric sulphate, aud a subsequent
passage through soda carbonate. In dyeing in this
manner light "Nanking" shades, they become frequently
uneven iu the following soda bath. To avoid this the soda
carbonate bath may be omitted altogether, instead of which
a small quantity of gaseous ammonia is drawn through
the cops. This operation offers no difficulty in most
machines, and directly after the ammonia treatment the
eops can be washed.
More important than the "iron buff" are the chrome
yellows, which, even to this day, are largely used in
hank dyeing, although there is no scarcity in yellow cotton
dyeing colours. The chrome yellows are dyed by first
handling the cotton in a solution of some lead salt, pre-
ferably sugar of lead, aud subsequent treatment in a bath
containing bichromate of soda or potash and sulphuric
acid or some sulphate, either sulphate of soda or alumina.
The dyeing of this yellow on cops is exceedingly difficult.
Of course the impregnation of the eops with the solution of
Deo. si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
987
the lead salt is simple enough, but in the subsequent opera-
tion with tin- chrome bath large quantities of lead chromate
are unavoidably washed out of the eops into the bath,
rendering it at once unfit for further use. This difficulty
might be avoided by fixing the lead salt upon the fibre in an
insoluble form ; for instance, by impregnating with the lead
salt eops previously mordanted with tannic acid. Hut this
would be found too expensive. Attempts to fix the lead
salt by treating the impregnated eops with gaseous ammonia,
or alkaline sulphates, or carbonates, gave very unsatisfactory
results.
Prussian blue is easily obtained upon cops by treating
cops mordanted with ferric sulphate, after washing them in
au acidulated bath of fevrocyanide of potash. The blue
shades so obtained, although very beautiful, are not very
fast to light anil still less fast to washing.
Cadmium yellow, arsenic orange, ami antimony orange,
which are fixed upon the fibre in the form of their sulphides,
also the brown manganese pigments or bisters, are very little
used at present, partly owing to the poisonous nature of
some of them, and there is no prospect that these colours
will ever become of any importance in cop-dyeing.
Sugg siions as to applying these colours to cops would
therefore he useless.
From the above it will be seen that mineral pigments
are of very little, if of any, importance for cop-dyeing. In
most cases the baths are rendered useless after the first
operation, owing to the great quantities of loose pigment
terming in them,
(e.) — Vat Dyes.
There exists a number of natural and artificial colouring
matters which are capable of forming a " vat " suitable for
the dyeing of cotton goods, but only the indigo vat and the
indigo-'mdophenol vat are of such importance as to be
worthy of consideration with regard to their application to
cop dyeing. The dyeing of indigo on cops is, of course, in
the first instance a question of the reducing ag.nt to lie
employed, only perfectly clear and limpid vats being
applicable at all. For this reason all those vats working
with insoluble reducing agents, such as the ferrous hydroxide
(ferrous sulphate) vat, the zinc-dust vat, or the fermented
vats, cannot be used. Of course it would be possible to
filter from the insoluble sediments in these vats the clear
solutions of indigo white, but as these solutions would then
no lunger be in contact with reducing agents, oxidation of
the indigo white would result in a considerable degree
during the circulation of the vat in the machine and through
the cops, which would be badly dyed, aad contain a large
amount of loose dye. To avoid this we shall have to use a
vat which is working with a soluble reducing agent, and
which accordingly accompanies the indigo white everywhere.
This condition hydrosulphite of soda fulfils in the most
excellent manner, and, indeed, all attempts that have been
made up to now to dye indigo upon eops have been made
with the hydrosulphite vat. T >e preparation of this vat is so
well known that we need not concern ourselves with it, and,
moreover, there are now concentrated solutions of hydro-
sulphite in [he market which reduce the preparation of the
vat itscli to a very simple operation.
The dyeing of the cups by means of this vat is performed
by drawing the absolutely clear vat one or more nines
through the eops, the eops between each immersion being
submitted to oxidation by drawing air through them. The
formation of sonic indigo blue outside the fibre is unavoidabe
in this process, nor can this indigo be prevented from
getting subsequently into the baths. Most of it is there
reduced again, but it is certainly advisable to provide some
filtering arrangement, so as to prevent any of this suspended
indigo blue from being deposited upon the outside of the
cops. The oxidation of the indigo white fixed in the cops
appears to offer no difficulties whatever, and from a purely
chemical poini of view this is indeed so, the mere drawing
of air through the cops being quite sufficient to produce
complete oxidation. It is somewhat surprising, however,
that the blue obtained under these conditions is greatly
lacking iu beauty and "bloom."
Another process of performing the oxidation in indigo
dyeing has lately been recommended by Flick and
Micbaelis, who propose to immerse the yarns in hot
ammoniacal water. Also in this method absorbed atmospheric
oxygen is the oxidiser. The process, which is said to give
excellent results, can also lie adapted for cops.
Somewhat remarkable is the great tendency of the
indigo vat to dye the cops very unevenly, and also fre-
quently numerous lighter or even white spots are notice-
able. These latter invariably appear if the cops are dyed
in the grey state. This, of course, is scarcely surprising
and can be stopped at once by submitting the cops
previous to dyeing to an efficient scouring in alkaline
liquors. Much more difficult is it to secure evenness of
dyeing, especially in the high-priced dark coppery shades,
and I do not believe that the production of these shades can
be carried out in a satisfactory manner on any one of those
machines circulating the dye-liquor in one direction only
through the cops. The unevenness disappears at once if we
reverse the circulation alternatively, and the great case with
which this can be done in Crippin and Young's machine I
consider one of its most noteworthy features.
For the dyeing of cheap indigo shades the yarns are
given, before the vat treatment, a " bottom " of logwood
or some suitable coal-tar colour. This principle, of
course, is also applicable to cop-dyeing. But it must not
be forgotten that it is almost impossible to wash eops as
thoroughly as yarns or piece-goods. For this reason only
such dyes ought to be employed for these bottoms which
are absolutely fast to washing and do not bleed in contact
with alkaline liquors, otherwise the vats soon get badly con-
taminated by dye bleeding off the eops, and I need hardly
remark that indigo shades dyed in vats contaminated in this
manner lack more or less in brightness. But, altogether,
I believe that in the majority of cases it is very much to be
preferred in cop-dyeing to produce the cheap shades by
topping light indigo shades, instead of dyeing them on a
bottom. Better results are obtained in this manner and
any possible contamination of the vat is avoided, which is a
matter of no small concern.
The indophenol vat if used by itself is scarcely capable
of dyeing cotton iu a satisfactory manner, the shades being
altogether wanting in body and brightness. If, however,
a vat be employed containing indigo and indophenol in
certain proportions excellent results are obtained, the
shades dyed being brighter than with indigo alone and
much faster to rubbing and soaping. At the same time the
fastness to light is quite as great as that of pure indigo.
The management of this vat, as well as its preparation, is
identical with that of the indigo vat, but there is. of course, a
very substantial economical advantage iu the use of the
mixed vat, indophenol being so much cheaper than indigo ;
and as, on the other baud, these mixed shades are in every
respect at least equal in fastness to the pure indigo shades,
this iudigo-indopheuol vat deserves much more attention
than it has hitherto obtained.
(<!.)- Aniline Blank.
The production of aniline black on cops has not passed
yet beyond the experimental stage, but We shall not have
to wait long for the solution of this important task.
The method of aniline-black dyeing, known as the one-
bath process, which is so extensively useil in yarn and
piece-dyeing, cannot be applied to cop dyeing uwing to the
unavoidable formation of free aniline black in these baths.
Considering the small quantity of cops dyed iu one opera-
tion in a comparatively very great volume of dye-bath,
which applies to all cop-dyeing machines, the one-bath pro-
cess, through the spontaneous decomposition of the baths,
would be exceedingly expensive, and complicated filtering
arrangements would he required in order to prevent large
quantities of loose aniline black from being deposited on the
outside of the cops.
Oxidation aniline black offers no difficulties of the above-
mentioned description, but it has not been produced yet on
coos in a satisfactory manner. The impregnation of the
cops with the bath is, of course, an easy matter, but the
difficulties begin with the drying and ageing of the cops,
which in the manner previously referred to, causes the con-
stituents of the both to migrate from the inner to the outer
988
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1898.
paits of the cops. If then, subsequently, the aged cops are
oxidised in the bichromate bath, a very uneven black is
obtained. Apart from this difficulty, the ageing of the
impregnated cops proceeds very satisfactorily provided the
temperature and moisture of the air be judicious];' regu-
lated. Too high a temperature or too low a moisture of the
air in the ageing chamber will tender the fibre more or less ;
and I may say that cops want in this respect more care
and precaution than hanks or piece-goods, owing no doubt
to the heat accumulating through the oxidation in so non-
conducting a material as cotton cops. A temperature of
45" C. on the dry and from 38 to 40° C. ou
the vret bulb ought never to be exceeded. An excellent
black is obtained by the use of aniline fluoride, but the
starch which is contained in the aniline-black bath as
recommended b\ Messrs Bayer & Co. must be omitted, it
being impossible to force such a bath through the cops. Of
the beneficial action of the starch there is, however, no doubt,
and I recommend therefor to use in its place for cops
dextrine, glucose or glycerin. Unfortunately aniline
fluoride possesses properties which render its application in
the present cop-dyeing machines absolutely impossible.
Wherever this salt comes in contact with iron, copper,
brass, phosphorbronze, lead, silicates, (glass, enamels,
earthenware) it exerts a most vehement corrosive action.
Strain aniline black applied to cops shows the same
difficulties as oxidation black Also the steaming of the
dried cops is much more difficult as might be expected.
Considering however, that tins black is by far less injurious
to the cotton fibre than the oxidation black, I have no
doubt that the difficulties preventing its application to cops
will be conquered before long.
Some recent aniline black patents of Jageuburg (Fr. Pat.
220,031, 1892), and Mommer are not likely to become of
importance in cop-dyeing ..wing to the unavoidable turbidity
of the baths used in these processes, while the casein used
in M. .miner's process will produce such viscous baths, that
it will be almost impossible to force them through the cops.
Discussion.
The Chairman said Dr. Weber had explained the subject
of his paper in such a clear manner that it could not fail to
be intelligible to everyone. Still it was a subject so entirely
out of the range of ordinary experience that they could
hardly expect him (the Chairman) to make an;- remarks
upon it. Looking at the subject from a general point of
view it seemed to him that the process depended much
more upon mechanical than upon chemical principles. The
gnat difficulty seemed to be to get uniform shades of colour
Through the dense masses of raw material, and he presumed
this was the great difficulty which presented itself to those
wentlemen who had occupied themselves in the construction
of these machines. He was very much interested in
Dr. Weber's remarks about substantive colours as applied
to cottcn. He bad always been of opinioH that cotton had
no chemical affinity whatever to any dye, and he was very
much interested with the cursory remarks with regard to
substantive dyes, in the course of which the author stated
that the dye was contained in the cell which exists in the
centre of the cotton fibre. He would like Dr. Weber to
explain how any colouring matters could enter the cotton
fibre without affecting the surrounding substance.
Dr. Webeii, in reply to the Chairman's question with
regard to the penetration of the dye into the cavities of the
cotton, said he had absolute proof of this in some micro-
scopical slides he bad prepare! showing a section of the
thread with the interior entirely filled with dye, but how the
dve got into the cell he could not say. It might be that
the penetration was due to an osmotic process, but this
might hardly be considered a satisfactory explanation. In
order to dye cotton perfectly with the substantive dyes,
they bad to get the dyes into the cavities of the cotton, but
before this could be done the air or water in the cavities
of the cells must, be removed either by producing a
vacuum or expelling the air or water by pressure.
In reply to Mr. Thomson, he could only say that dyeing
cotton in the grey was certainly more difficult than
dyeing bleached cotton, for reasons he could not fully
explain. With regard to Mr. Thomson's further remarks
as to the boiling off of the substantive dyes, he could give
as an absolute fact within his experience that in a
case where tne ordinary wood dyes were used they w ere
given up in favour of the substantive dyes. In dyeing
drab shades in this manner, dyeing was started at a very
low temperature in order to prevent uneveuness of the dye.
The black fell on splendidly, but when they proceeded to
fix it by raising the temperature all the colour came out
again. His explanation of this was that dyeing with sub-
stantive dyes was not dyeing at all — it was simply staining.
They got the colour inside the cotton fibre and there it
stuck, but as soon as they treated the hank with water
sunir nf the dye came out. They were never able to
abstract the whole of the colour There always seemed to
be two antagonistic attractions with regard to these dyes,
preventing the complete exhaustion of the dye-baths ; and
he believed Witt's well-known theory of dyeing was based
upon observations made in the dyeing of substantive
colours. Thej could always prove a substantive dye to be
present in the cotton iu an absolutely free state. If they
treated benzidine colours with acid they would change colour.
For instance, Congo red turned blue ; because while the
free acid of Congo red was blue, other benzidine colours
bad colour acids of the same colour as the dye itself;
and that was the reason why some of them are said to be
fast to acids, which they are not in a strictly chemical
sense. With regard to Mr. Thomson's remark as to dyeing
the cotton before it goes on the cops, this was rather a large
demaud. He would remind Mr. Thomson of the tremendous
speed at which the thread travelled in the mule, and
which would give no reasonable time for the dyeing. In
winding the cops into hanks waste was incurred by break-
ages and otherwise, and in winding the hanks back into
pirns there also was loss. If they dyed in the cop there was
no shrinkage possible, and, further, there was no appreciable
risk of breakage. In r<mly to Mr. Hurst he believed he had
noticed the effects of some peculiar substances in cotton
(tin- nature of which he did not know) which prevented
the dve from entering the fibre.
^elurastle Section.
Chairman: A. AJlhusun.
Vice-Chairman : John Pattinson.
Committee :
P. P. Bedson.
G. T. France.
G. Gatheral.
T. W. Hogg.
John Morrison.
B. S. Proctor.
\V. \V. Proctor.
"\V. L. Reimoldson.
W. A. Rowell.
T. W. Stuart.
John Watson,
lion. Local Secretary and Treasurer:
Dr. J. T. Dunn, The School, Gateshead.
session iSM-:i;f.
Notices of Papers and Communications for the Meetings to he
sent to the Local Secretary.
Dec. 3i.is.j2.] THE JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
989
Meeting held Thursday, December Sth, 1892.
PROFESSOR P. P. BEDSON IX THE CHAIR.
THE VALUATION OF SULPHURIC ACID, CHIEFLY
FROM A COMMERCIAL ASPECT.
BY JOHN MORRISON.
Though the production of pyrites vitriol is a process not
less than fourscore years old, 1 question whether there is a
manufacturer to-day who can prove that he knows, by any
positive method of estimation, and within, say, 10 per cent,
of its present commercial value, what his acid costs him per
ton ; and it is something to be regretted that in detailing
Leblanc process results, the only recognised practical course
is to ignore the vitriol chambers altogether, and to tabulate
merely the quantity of salt-cake or alkali which a given
amount of sulphur consumed will produce. This — even if
in other respects unobjectionable — is somewhat unfair,
inasmuch as it debits to sulphuric acid instead of to sulphate
of soda — or in ether words to vitriol made instead of to vitriol
consumed — the acid volatilised in the salt-cake process.
There are of course considerable difficulties in the way of
estimating large process bulks, and chamber areas of liquid
of such variable density and temperature ; for even sup-
posing— which is very far from the case — that the acid in a
single chamber is of uniform specific gravity, a " dipping "
error of a single tenth of an inch may involve a discrepancy
of 10 or 15 cwt. of " O.V."
Yet bearing in mind, that in many processes cheap vitriol
is the real hinge upon which financial success turns ; that,
as regards the chemical manure trade, the sale of super-
phosphates is little more than a dry way of selling sulphuric
acid ; and that the vitriol traffic in this country is of con-
siderable importance ; it must surely be regretted that some
standard and universally acceptable method ha? not ere this
been devised for estimating, otherwise than negatively, and
within reasonable limits of accuracy, the cost of a ton of
vitriol in terms of itself. For until the manufacturing cost
of vitriol becomes correctly determinable, the sale price can
never be perfectly equitable.
One of the first difficulties perhaps, is an agreement as
to the calculative standard of strength. If absolute H^SOj
be fixed on, then there is the objection that it is practically-
non-existent, and that its specific gravity is uncertain ; and
in fact any strength over 150° Tw. has the disadvantage of
representing what I might term a rectified rather than a
chamber or a Glovertower standard. Thisobjection possibly
is not serious, yet it would certainly have some weight where
the manufacture and sale of both these acids was simul-
taneously carried on. But whatever universal standard be
selected, it should at all events not only meet both buyers'
and sellers' views, but be one to which all acid process
results could be systematically reduced. I question, there-
fore, whether any other than an " O.V. " or absolute ILSO,
standard is ever likely to be generally enforced.
Then there is the hydrometer difficulty. The hydrometer
in common use is, I am afraid, distinguishable rather by its
cheapness than by its reliability ; for when compared with
standard instruments, errors of 2° or 3° are by no means
uncommon. And besides this, its paper scale — as is well
known — occasionally glides from its allotted position, and
under the most favourable circumstances its register is, I am
afraid, decidedly agaiust the vitriol consumer.
Next come the calculating table difficulties, and it is some-
thing of a disgrace that no standard tables are in universal
adoption. Probably the best published tables are those of
Lunge and Isler, given in the Journal of May 1890. These
have been, 1 believe, introduced into some of the I*. A.
Co.'s works, but the tables in more general use are for the
most part extremely antiquated. Indeed all the tables with
which I am familiar yield excesshe results for commercial
acid, because of their ostensible reference to chemically pure
vitriol only. If there were but one existing table, the
position would not be so bad, but there are to the front not
only the tables of various original investigators, but sundry
illegitimate offspring of which the parentage is exceedingly
difficult to trace. And surely the time has arrived for the
elaboration or selection of a set of tables fairly applicable
to the denitrated Spanish pyrites of commerce, the purity of
which at ordinary merchantable strengths cannot be very
variable.
The tables in use are not only discordant, but exhibit also
unequal ratios of variation between successive specific
gravities. That any substantial irregularities really exist,
seems hardly likely, and if they do not, surely their
elimination from accepted tables is highly desirable.
As illustrating these discrepancies, I may take five of
these tables : A = one used in a Tyneside works ; B =
Kolb's table as given by Lunge ; C = Otto's table in
Bay ley's Chemist's Pocket Book; D = an unidentified table
from the Chemical Trade Journal of September 24, 1892;
and E = the Lunge and Isler table already mentioned.
From these several tables, therefore, we obtain the following
particulars : —
Tw.
Specific
Gravity.
Lb. of HjSG, in One Cubic Foot
°T\v.
Increase in Lb. HaS04 per cubic Foot.
A.
B.
C.
D.
K
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
100
1-500
67-45
55-94
56-22
55-99
55-97
ioo;nii
6-40
6-45
5-9!
6-31 6-28
llu
1-650
G3'85
02-39
62-19
62-30
62-26
110/120
6-30
6-33
7-16
6-ltl 6-26
120
1-600
70-15
ci<'72
69-35
68-46
68-51
120, 130
6-84
6-67
5-88
6-58 li'58
1 :*.< >
1-650
76-99
76-39
75-23
75-0*
75-09
130/140
(i-84
0-21
6-08
7-31 6-90
140
1-700
1-750
SS-83
90-93
81-iiO
89-20
81-91
88-84
82-35
88-88
81-99
89-20
140,130
7-10
7-60
6-93
6-53 7-21
1=0
100/150
33-48
33-26
32-62
32-89
33-23
Tables B, C, and E deal with a temperature standard of
15 C.(= 59° Fahr.), but the standards for A and D are
not stated. Also tables A, C, and I) assume a cubic foot of
water to weigh 62-:!t> lb. or thereabouts, while tables B and
F: put it at 62 \ lb.*
For commercial purposes the temperature standard of
this country is 60' Fahr. And this will be perfectly con-
venient so long as the F'ahrenheit scale remains in favour.
* Some manufacturers Iinay remark, use as :i sort of calculative
starting point I cub.ft. 120c Tw. acid = loo lli.,'atul contains 70 lb.
••<>. V."
The water standard also for that temperature is G2i lb. per
cubic foot, which is equally convenient, if only it be
reasonably accurate. That it is so I am unable to say.
But inasmuch as the steam entering the sulphuric acid
chambers, either direct or from the Glover towers, cannot
vary very much in purity, I think the water standard might
with advantage be reinvestigated and verified, as it is in all
probability somewhat high.
The handling and transit of sulphuric acid are now
accomplished by far different methods from those prevalent
25 to 30 years ago. At that time delivery in fragile carboy
tubs, weighing nearly half as much as the liquid they
990
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
contained, was customary. Hut now carboys have to a large
extent given place to wrought-iron tanks lined with lead, or,
more recently, to unlined tanks of steel, from which the acid
can quickly and tidily be discharged by gravity or com-
pressed air.
This change has necessitated the estimation of weight by
gauging and calculation, and it is here that a correct water
standard, as well as an accurate hydrometer observation, is
of importance.
Having first carefully taken the strength of the acid, and
ascertained the quantity in cubic feet discharged into the
tank, it is only necessary to multiply the latter by the lb. of
water in 1 cubic foot at 6tf F.. and the result by the specific
pravity calculated from the hydrometer strength. This gives
the dead weight in lb., so that the only question left is the
determination of the selling strength. Here a temperature
correction is usually needful, because the acid is presumably
sold on the definite temperature basis of the water, in
relation to which the acid weight has been computed. If
this were not so, it would be to the seller's interest to
refrigerate the acid, and to the buyer's to have it delivered
hot. Hence commercially the acid is assumed to rise 1 Tw.
in strength per 10 F. fall (or vice versa) in temperature.
And in accordance with this, all necessary strength adjust-
ments must be made. But of course the corrections must
be made after the ascertainment of the weight, because the
weight of acid obtained (as just mentioned) from the
specific gravity at the actual temperature at the time of
observation, gives the weight as compared with the 60° F.
water standard adopted, and variations in the acid tem-
perature beiug inversely proportionate to variations in the
specific gravity, the two neutralise each other, and so have
no ultimate effect upon the acid weight.
So far. therefore, the vitriol selling business is pretty fair
sailing. But the chief difficulties are yet to be described.
If sulphuric acid be sold (as it almost invariably is) at
so much per Twaddell-degrce-ton, I think it may fairly be
d that Chamber and Glover tower acids possess
commercially a purely H^SOj strength pro rata value, and
that the loss of nitrogen to the manufacturer selling
chamber acid (from at all events the strong chamber)
something like counterbalances the extra expenses involved
by the sale of denitrated vitriol.
I am of course aware that this does not fully represent
matters in the ease of a salt-cake and bleaching powder
maker disposing only of his surplus vitriol, inasmuch as
for decomposing purposes the stronger acid of the Glover
tower is naturally the acid he prefers retaining for his own
use. But with this trifling exception, which is technical
rather than commercial, I think the assumption may pass.
In fact, that acid from .say 120' to 15u: Tw. posse- -
commercially an even pro rata H;S04 strength value, is
proven to a pretty conclusive degree (though iu a negative
way) b_\ the adoption of high standards in those selling
centres where acid is cheapest. For vitriol has to my
certain knowledge been sold this year in quantity at 2s, 6af.
per ton less for 140: Tw. in one district, and only 3</. per
ton more for 148" Tw. in another district, than the lowest
price at which I believe it has been sold in a third district for
120° Tw. ; all of these districts being of substantially equal
importance, and the last-named — as regards the economy
of production — beiDg, I am satisfied, the most favoured of
the three.
Sulphuric acid then is sold upon a Twaddell basis which
varies iu different localities. In some, 120' Tw. prevails,
and in others, strengths varying from 140° to 150 Tw. are
customary.
( (ccasionally inequalities in delivered strengths are
reduced to the fixed basis before invoicing. But far more
usually variations of strength are charged at the pro rata
price per Twaddell degree (or unit) ton.
Thus, if the agreed price be, say, 22s. 6(7. per ton of 120
acid (= 2jrf. per unit), the cost of the acid = 24s. ihil. on
130°; -26s. 3d. on 140 ; 28s. I'ii. on 150 Tw. : and pro-
portionally as regards the strengths between.
The reduetion-to-a-fixed-standard method is, however, by
far the best, as a variety of invoicing strengths greatly
confuses and prejudices the manufacturing accounts of both
buyer and seller.
But to show the effect of the already quoted tables upon
the usual method of acid selling, 1 will give the figures
from 100° to 150: Tw. at 10; intervals on the price basis
just mentioned.
Tw.
Cubic Feet in one Ton of Acid,
ID. B. amlE.
Lb. of Absolute HJsO, in one Ton Acid.
B.
' .
100
23 94
•
1375*35
133C4"
1345-90
1340*40
1339 92
no
28-17
23-12
1470-40
1442-4."
1440-94
144.:- 19
1442
|»0
22*45
22-40
1574-^7
1539 32
1556*91
1536*93
1538*05
130
21-77
21-72
1676*07
1637-47
1037-75
1633*62
1634-71
110
a* 13
21 'On
1771-33
172H-13
1730 76
174H-05
1732-45
1511
WEB
20-48
1865-88
1826-81
1822-99
1823*82
1830*38
Tw.
100
110
120
ISO
140
150
Toil on
s. <l.
is g
20 71
22 6
24 i;
26 3
28 14
Price per Ton at i2.s-. 6rf. on 120° Tw. Acid
on Basis of actual H2SO» according
to Tables.
A.
s. ./.
19 71
s. d. |
19 6}
21 11
21 1
22 ti
22 6
as ni
23 11
25 34
25 1J
26 72
26 81
s. ,1.
19 5}
22 6
23 8
25
1!' 7J
s. d.
19 7!
21 15
21 1
22 6
22 6
23 11
23 103
25 4
26 91
Average
per Ton in
favour of
Seller on
Vmt Basis
of Sale.
s. d.
*0 9{
•0 5
Basis
1 0
1 0
Price per Tou at 28s. lid. on 150 Tw. Acid
on Basis of actual H .SQt according
to Tables.
11.
Average
per Ton in
favour of
Buyer 1 in
Unit Basis
of Sale.
S. (I.
20 B|
24 1{
26 -
s.
20
(1.
7
s.
20
22
21
22
•-'
24
ti
21
5i
25
23
25
3
2.1
5i
26
2 s
u
2s
H
S. ft.
20 8
22 3
24 l:
25 21
26 in
28 11
S. ./.
20 7
22 2
23 4
25 1!
2S 11
s. d.
1 11
1 71
1 61
0 11
0 5}
Basis.
* Of course in the two below basis strengths given in the first section of this table, the variation is in the same
direction (i.e., against the seller) as that in the second section of the table.
Deo. SI, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
991
These figures shew an average of £1 6 71= Is. 6^d.
per ton against the buyer, where the standard is 120° T\v.,
and the delivered acid is 150° Tw. ; or CI 0 8=l.s-. 1 1</
per ton against the seller where the standard is 150° Tw.,
and the delivered acid is 120° Tw. And as will be also
observed, the error is slightly erratic in one or two of the
intervening strengths.
Tin' discrepancy is of course due to the degrees Tw.
varj ing one-third more rapidly than the percentage of
O.V. in the successive specific gravities which they indicate.
And the remedy appears to me to lie in the direction of the
entire abolition of tbe Tw. degree pro-rata method of sale ;
the selling universally on H.SO.,; and the correction of all
acid deliveries before invoicing to their H3S04 or " O.V."
equivalent.
It may be said that the discrepancy is not serious, but
ii will be serious when the price of pyrites is advanced, and
thai of vitriol follows suit. Indeed it is already serious in
the chemical mauure trade at a time like the present, when
every penny saved in the production of a ton of super-
phosphate is of importance. And in any case, the mere
pecuniary assessment of the value of chemical discrepancies
is too often a depraved and unjust judgment. Besides, it
must be recollected that the maximum possible error is not
the difference, but the sum of the several possible erroneous
elements contributed by the use of inaccurate hydrometers,
incorrect water-standards, and doubtful tables never in-
tended for commercial oil of vitriol.
It may be also urged that the selling basis is usually
fixed at somewhere near the average delivered strength of
the particular contract or district. But vitriol is frequently
sold on a simple minimum Twaddell guarantee, with no over-
strength restrictions, so that the deliveries oscillate between
the acids of the chambers or Glover Towers, just as suits
the variable convenience of the manufacturer. To most
large buyers, the higher sp. grs. are solely of consequence
from the saving in transit which they secure. And what
chiefly rules the minimum strength is the action of acid
under 186° to 130° Tw. upon the steel tanks in which
deliveries are made. Indeed to the manure maker, streugths
approaching 140° to 150° Tw. are positively objectionable,
inasmuch as strong acid is not quiekly miscible with water,
and so results in irregularities in the superphosphates for
the production of which it is supplied.
There can then I think be no question that vitriol should
universally be sold and invoiced at per ton of " O.V." ; the
margins of delivery strengths being arranged to suit both
buyer and seller; and of course an extra charge being
made for rectified and non-arsenical acids ; and carriage
being charged in all cases on dead weight. It may be
pleaded that this would introduce extra calculations, but
they would be avoidable with suitably prepared reduction
tables. And even for some slight additional tax on clerical
forbearance, there would be the abundant reward of greater
accuracy and consistency in the process and costs books of
both makers and consumers.
But in the event of such a wholesome reform being
agreed on, all the more need would arise for standard
calculating tables, showing as far as may be evenly pro-
gressive variations of H.SO, between the several Twaddell
degrees. And towards the furtherance of such a reform,
I for one would like to see the appointment of a strong
representative committee of acid manufacturers, sellers, and
purchasers, to legislate not only upon the tables, but upon
the hydrometers, and the temperature and water standards
of the future.
f)orksI)tre £>«ttoit.
Chairman : Sir James Kitson, Bart.. M.P.
Vice-Chairman •' Dr. F. 11. Bowman.
Committee :
A. H. Allen.
J. B. Cohen.
T. Fairley.
A. Hess.
R. Holliday.
J. J. Ilumrae].
J. Lewkowitscli.
F. W. Richardson.
J as. Sharp.
G. W. Slatter.
G. Ward.
F. B. "Wilkinson.
Hon. Local Secretary :
H. R. Procter, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
Notices of Tapers and Communications should be addressed to
the Hon. Local Secretary.
Meeting held at the Yorkshire < 'olUge, Monday,
December 5th, 1892.
MR. JAS. SHARP IX THE CHAIR.
PRIMITIVE MODES OF DYEING.
BY PROFESSOR .1. .T. HUMMEL.
(Abstract.')
Professor Hummel gave a communication with regard tc
primitive modes of dyeing, which he illustrated by specimens.
He first described the methods of dyeing practised by the
Timanees and Mendis races of Africans living about 200 miles
inland from Free Town on the Sierra Leone coast. Yov vat-
blue ou cotton yarn they employ the leaves of a large forest
shrub, Lvnchocarpus cyanescens, which are rubbed in the
hand till they become blue, and then dried. In use, the
dried leaves are mixed with water and the ashes of some
plant which no doubt yields the necessary alkali, so that in
principle the process is similar to that employed in Europe.
Yellow and brown cotton are dyed by simply steeping in
infusions of certain barks, the origin of which is unknown.
The natives have no knowledge of the use of mordants, and
do not apply camwood, which abounds in the district,
although they hive no red dye.
.V brief description of the methods practised by the
Maoris (this Journal, 1, 1882, 170) was next given, and
samples of dyed mats, of the barks used, and of the black
mud of certain swamps were shown. The barks yield small
percentages of tannic acid, and the mud contains iron,
partly in solution. The colours produced on the Phorminm
tenax fibre are various shades of grey and black, and the
methods are interesting as showing in all probability the
origin of the application of mordants, the principle involved
being that still in use in Europe for the dyeing of tannin
and iron blacks.
The " Batick " dyeing of the Javanese, and the " knot
dyeing" of the Hindoos were also described and illustrated
by specimens. In the first of these the dyeing of certain
portions of the fabric is prevented by a wax resist painted
on by hand ; in the second by tying up with thread ; and
in both cases effects are produced which prove impossible
to imitate satisfactorily by the processes in ordinary use in
Europe.
Discussion.
The Chairman commented upon the specimens of
primitive dyeing exhibited, and made mention of methods
adopted in England to achieve the same results. The
method of " knot-dyeing " finds a limited application here,
being used to mark the ends of the pieces with symbols
indicating the quality of the material, or with the trade-
mark of the manufacturing firm. The goods for the Java
market are mostly in loose colours, " steam-work " being
largely used.
992
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. LDec, 31,1892.
Mr. Rawsom inquired how the fermentation of the dye-
stuff was started on the West Coast of Africa.
Mr. Sutter thought that the " alum-water " obtained
by the West Africans from the ashes of the leaves of a
certain tree could hardly contain alum, clubmoss being the
onlv plant at present known to absorb aluminium.
Mr. F. W. Richardson enquired if there were two
separate fermentations in the process of indigo-dyeing
employed by the natives of West Africa. Had the microbe
of the indigo ferment been isolated ?
A Member asked how the black in the Japanese specimens
were obtained. It had rather the appearance of a brown
possibly owing to fading of the colour.
Mr. Procter remarked that the tanekeha bark used for
dveing yellow in New Zealand was identical with the
"golden-tan " bark used in this country for dyeing leather,
especially kid.
Professor Hummel, in reply, stated that he had no infor-
mation as to how the fermentation of the dye was induced
on the West Coast of Africa. As to the " alam-water,"
mordants were unknown in this district, and it was probably
the alkali in the ashes of the leaves that acted as a developer
of the dye. In the indigo-dyeing there were two distinct
fermentations : one when the leaves were rubbed in the
hand and stored, the indican being broken up and indigo-
blue formed : and a second when the leaves were steeped in
water along with the fabric to be dyed : in this latter process
the indigo-blue was reduced and rendered soluble. As to
how the black in the Japanese specimens was obtained he
could not say ; Chinese black was not dyed, but painted on.
Mr. Eawsok then described a new form of dyeing-vat
designed by Messrs. Smithson and Whittaker ^see Journal
of the Society of Dyers and Colourists, January, 1893).
At one end the dyewood is contained in a perforated box,
and at the other steam is blown in. and the water is thus
heated to boiling, and a current created which is directed
so as to flow over and through the fabric to be dyed, and
then through the dye-wood in the bos and back again.
If the water is already boiling when fresh wood is put in,
<J0 — 66 per cent, of the colouring matter is removed in
four mini
ScurnaJ antJ patent* literature.
p ■-
I.— General Plant, Apparatus, and Machinery 992
II— Fuel, Gas, and Light M5
III.— Destructive Distillr.tion, Tar Products, ic —
IV — Colouring Matters and Dy.-s 996
V— Textiles : Cotton, Woo!, Silk, ftc 1002
VI.— Dveing. Calico Printing, Paper Staining, and
Bleaching 1002
VII.— Acids, Alkalis, and Salts 100*
V I II.— Glass, Pottery, and Earthenware 1007
IX.— Building Materials, Clays, Mortars and Cements..
X.-Metallurey 101s
XI — Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Metallurgy 1014
XII.— Fats. Oils, and Soap Manufacture 1017
XIII.— Paints. Pigments, Varnishes, Kesins, Jndia-
Rubber.ic 1017
XIV.— Tanning, Leather, Glne, and Size 1018
XV.-Manures, ic 1018
XVI.— Sugar, Starch, Gnm, 4c 1018
X VII .— Brewing, Wines, Spirits, ic 1M9
XVIII— Chemistry of Foods, Sanitary Chamistry, and
Disinfectants 1023
XlX.-Paper, Pasteboard, ic 1"'-';
XX.— Fine Chemicals. Alkaloids. Essences, and Extracts 1026
XXI.— Photographic Materials and Processes 1031
XXII.!-- Explosives, Matches, tc 1032
XXIII.— Analytical Chemistry 1033
I— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS,
MACHINERY.
AND
PATENTS.
Improvements in anil relating to Apparatus for Expressing
Liquids from Vegetable, Animal, or Mineral Substances.
H. H. Lake, London. From I. a Societc Anonyme
du Compresseur Jourdan, Paris. Kng. Pat. 17 ■
October 19, 1891.
See under XII., page 101 7.
iftbltlMtlK
WILLIAM NATHANIEL EVANS.
A MKMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL ENDTtSTRY.
William Nathaniel Evans, of Bristol, was born in
821 at Ottery St. Mary, and came of an old Devonshire
family. The greater part of his life was devoted to the
manufacture of leather, but his strongly developed
scientific tendencies led him early to study chemistry,
and to apply it to the trade in which he was interested
and in the technology of which he became a considerable
authority. He started, and for some time edited the
journal Leather, and was the writer of the article on
■ Leather " in Mackenzie's " Chemistry applied to the
Arts and Manufactures," and also of a very useful
text-book on " Butt Tanning " and made and published
many analyses of new tanning products, and especially
of those collected at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition.
He was an earnest advocate of scientific and technical
education, and his kindliness and readiness to impart
information to others will make his death felt as a
personal loss by many outside the circle of his immediate
friends. He died at Bristol on Sundav, October 23rd.
— H. R. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Evaporating, Condensing,
and the like. G. Y. Blair, Stockton-on-Tees. Eng. Pat.
20,125, November 19, 1891.
This patent refers to means for cleaning or changing the
coils in evaporators or similar apparatus in which special
coils are used enclosed within an upright vessel. The coils
are placed around a common centre upon a revolving
trunnion with arms through which the steam has free access
to them, and they may be successively brought opposite a
door or opening in the vessel when required for examina-
tion, cleansing, or removal. — B.
Improvements in Apparatus for Producing Cold in or
Freezing Liquids. J. W. Bowley, London. Eng. Pat.
20,563, November 26, 1891.
Im this apparatus the vessel holding the freezing mixture
is traversed by horizontal tubes through which the liquid or
material for cooling is passed. Each rube is provided with
a scrf>w conveyor, which in revolving effects a rapid equali-
sation of temperature and acceleration of the process. — B.
• Any of these sjiecifications may be obtained by post by remittus;
!v/. — the price now fixed for all specifications, postage included— to
Sir Henry Header Lack, Comptroller of the Patent Office, South-
ampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. London, W.C.
Dec. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
993
Improvements in Thermometers. J. Dawson, Rochdale.
Eng. Pat. 21,157, December 4, 1891.
The object of this invention is to provide a thermometer
better adapted to withstand the rough usage and sudden
changes of temperature to which the}' are liable to be
exposed in dye-vats, &c. A collar is formed on the glass
thermometer tube about one-third of the length from the
top ; the lower part of the tube is mounted in a metal
casing by means of india-rubber washers ; the upper part of
the tube is fitted with a scale in an enlarged continuation
of the metal casing, and an index finger is provided, which
may be adjusted from the outside by means of a key fitting
the end of a traversing screw. — J. C. C.
storing quicksilver or gases under high pressure. The ends
of the cylindrical tubes forming the holder are drawn or
forged into a conical shape so as to leave the ends into
which the plugs are fastened of smaller diameter than
that of the tubes. These holes are slightly bell-mouthed
and sometimes beaded, and the end pieces made to fit, when
they are welded together with the aid of tools of special
shape. — B.
Improvements in Bottles or Holders for the Storage and
Conveyance of Quicksilver, Gas, and other Fluids under
Hiyh Pressure, and in the Method of Manufacture
thereof, J. Brotherton, Wolverhampton, and W.Griffith,
Sheffield. Eng. Pat. 21,507, December 9, 1891.
This invention relates to an improved method for securing
the tops and bottoms to metallic holders or bottles used for
Improvements in Filleting Apparatus. P. A. Xewton,
London. From M. Weigel, Tetschen, Bohemia, Austria.
Eng. Pat. 21,714, December 11, 1891.
In this apparatus the filtration is effected by means of
fibrous material, or cellulose, which at the commencement
is added to the water to be filtered, and is deposited on
the side surfaces, so as to form filtering beds for the
remainder of the liquid. The accompanying illustrations
show the arrangement recommended.
In the tank a are placed filtering frames s covered on
both sides with wire gauze and fitted with perforated drain-
age tubes /, which communicate with the exit chamber <■.
Fig. 1.
., Lju^fe,,.,... ;.^...^4- .-...-^■■■,...-.>^=5i
,; " '"— — " t—
• • •: ' ;.•--•• ' -• ■
""•r
s a-
bo
iJ
W.SV-- ■ f/rrr.v ' \'^\t-,^.\\\snxs*
' - ■ . rr.
:..., '•' ■■, ;~~~~""~' "
Fig. 4.
Improvements in Filterino Apparatus.
Here there is an outlet tube /, fitted with sluice k and
an outlet with plug m. The inlet chamber b is fitted
with sluices q and r for regulation of the supply, and with
openings for cleaning. At starting, the outlet m is left open
in order to allow turbid liquid to be drawn off separately,
until the actual filtering surfaces have been formed, when
the liquid commences to run clear and is allowed to leave
through the pipe I, — B.
Improvements in Air Compressors. S. H. Johnson and
C. H. Hutchinson, Stratford. Eng. Pat. 3, January 1,
1892.
In order to avoid the waste spaces between the reciprocating
piston of au air compressor and the cylinder covers when
it reaches the end of the stroke, the patentees allow the
piston to come in contact with the end covers. In order to
accomplish this without danger of breakage they construct
994
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
the body of the piston in such a manner as to allow the end
to yield on striking the covers, as will be seen from the
accompanying illustration. They also use large gridiron
Improvements in Air Compressors.
valves of light construction, having a low lift, in order to
secure a high piston speed, with little wear on the valves. — B.
Improvement!; in Stores or Apparatus for Drying S/ti?is,
Malt, Phosphates, and Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral
Products. A. Riibenkamp, Dortmund, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 9992, May 26, 1892.
The object of this invention is to avoid the great loss of
heat from drying stoves when the products of combustion
and the hot air are allowed to escape directly into the
atmosphere, and to effect a gradual cooling of the goods
under treatment.
The air for drying the goods passes through pipes or
channels arranged in a closed furnace chamber. The air
thus heated having been led through the drying chamber is
brought back to the closed furnace, where it effects combus-
tion of the fuel. The products of combustion are not
conducted directly to the chimney, but are passed through
the heating tubes of a second apparatus, to which it gives up
portion of its heat. When the goods in the first chamber
are dry they are allowed to cool slowly by diverting the
heat to the second chamber, which is then brought into use.
The drying chambers may be arranged in series and the air
heated by a central furnace. One advantage of the apparatus
is that the noxious gases, given off by the goods under
treatment, are burnt in the furnace, and thus rendered
-D. A. S.
innocuous.
Improvements in Apparatus for
Pulverising, or Disintegrating. J.
Eng. Pat. 14,663, August 13, 1892
The described improvements are in
roller centrifugal class of machine.
describes detachable wearing surfaces
drical grinding paths formed in parts,
feed-hoppers, to avoid their removal
machine. — J. C. C.
Grinding, Crush in g ,
U. Askham, Sheffield.
grinding mills of the
The specification
for the drivers, cylin-
and arrangements of
during repairs to the
Improvements in Strum Superheating Apparatus and
Appliances n> connection therewith. L. Uhler and H.
Cadische, Bale, Switzerland. Eng. Pat. 15,308, August
25, 1892.
This specification proposes certain improvements in the
apparatus described in Eng. Pat. 12,372, 1890. The tubes
arc ]. laced horizontally instead of vertically, and by a scries
of tubes or bars are protected against excessive heating;
the fire may therefore be brought nearer, and a better
utilisation of heat effected. Besides other improvements,
an apparatus is described for drying and purifying the
steam before entering the superheater. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Furnaces. J. Sargent, Rochester, U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 15,514, August 30, 1892.
This patent relates to furnaces in which, when the doors
are opened to apply fresh fuel, a jet of steam is turned on
over the fire and air is admitted over the fire to produce
combustion of the smoke. The improvement consists in the
application of a time mechanism, whereby steam is turned
on ; a supplementary furnace door is opened, and the time
mechanism wound up by opening the main door of the
furnace. The time mechanism is provided with suitable
connections for turning off the steam and for closing the
supplementary door at the end of a given period. — F. S. K.
Self-Acting Apparatus for Poising Liquid by Compressed
Air or other Elastic F/uiil under Pressure. P. Kestner,
Lille, France. Eng. Pat. 15,648, August 31, 1892.
B is a vessel supplying the liquid to be raised to the
cistern C by means of compressed air supplied by the
pipe T;i. On the vertical limb of this pipe, within the
vessel A, is a float X, which closes the pipe T3, unless it is
buoyed up by liquid, and when raised by the liquid which
enters the vessel A closes the inlet from the pipe T2. The
action is as follows : When the vessel A is being filled by
Self-Acting Apparatus for Raising
Compressed Air.
LlQtin BY
liquid from the pipe T2, air escapes by T, until the float
X closing Tj and T2 opens T3. Compressed air now
enters A, and forces the liquid up the pipe T until A is
emptied of liquid, and air escapes up T, relieving the
pressure in A, whereupon the float X drops, closing T3 and
opening T, and T2; and the action is repeated. — J. C. C.
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
995
An Improved Universal Thermometer. E. Edwards,
London. From H. Haiti, Kciehenbcrg, Bohemia. Eng.
Pat. 12,553, July 7, 1892.
The object of this invention is to provide means by which —
1. The temperature indicated by the thermometer may
be read off directly.
2. This indication may be registered at a distant room or
station.
3. The thermometer may be adjusted for any temperature
so that a rise or fall of the mercury of 1° — 2° C. also
may be indicated at a distant station.
The details of the invention cannot be described without
reference to the drawings. — J. C. C.
II.-FUEL, GAS, AND LIGHT.
Calorific Power of Coal, and Formula by which it is
Calculated. Scheurer-Kestncr. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7 — 8,
1892,475—480.
Tni'. experiments of the author aud Meunier-Dollfus have
clearly demonstrated that it is impossible to determine
accurately the calorific power of a combustible mineral,
except by experiment, and that any value, calculated from
the composition of the substance, is in every case uncertain.
In the present paper the author controverts a statement
made by Bunte in Schilling's Journal, that the calorific
power of a coal can be calculated with a sufficient degree
of accuracy by employing the old formula of Duloug; he
gives specific instances, showing that the calculated value
is sometimes as much as G per cent, higher or lower than
the actual value determined experimentally. He also
describes experiments which prove that Berthier's method
of determining the calorific value of a coal is most
inaccurate. — F. S. E.
On the Formation of Petroleum. Engler. Austrian Society
of Chemical Industry, Meeting of June 4, 1892. Chem.
Zeit. 16, 1892,813—844.
There have been a number of theories put forward to
account for the formation of petroleum ; Mendelejeff con-
siders it to be formed by the decomposition of a carbide of
iron by steam, ferric oxide and a hydrocarbon being pro-
duced : Sokoloff , by a combination of carbon and hydrogen ;
l!oss by the reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen and calcium
carbonate; Daubree by the decomposition of vegetable
matter. The author is inclined to consider it produced by
the decomposition of animal substances ; it is possible to
obtain petroleum by distilling animal matter under pressure.
(This Journal, 1891, 753, 979, and 980.)— A. L. S.
The Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures. P. Askeuasy and
V. Meyer. Aunalen, 269, 49—72.
See under XXIII., page 1039.
The 'Behaviour of Ethylene on Explosion with less than
its own Volume of {Oxygen. B. Lean and W. A. Bone.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1892, 115, 144.
\ iii. giving a brief account of previous observations, the
authors describe a series of experiments in which mixtures
of ethylene with its own or a less volume of oxygen were
fired in a leaden coil. Their results are in agreement with
those of Dalton, Kersten, and E. von Meyer, and show that,
when fired with about its own volume of oxygen, ethylene
yields mainly carbouic oxide and hydrogen as the final
result ; but they have also observed that methane, acetylene,
and carbon are produced.
The following are the tabulated results of the analyses : —
Composition of Mixture.
Ethylene
( Ixygen . .
Nitrogen
01
D.
E.
E.
66-03
51- IS
m -77
48-64
■:.:<■ ic.
11-52
to'Sl
•15-81
4-51
■i-30
4 ■ 12
5-62
G.
40 41
47-69
2-90
Composition of Product.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Methane.
Carbon dioxide
„ monoxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
C.
D.
E.
F.
5-53
3-77
2-78
2-11
5-96
3-77
2-52
2-55
1-63
2-SO
1-21
0-94
38-85
■14-84
47-79
46-53
43-30
41-72
W32
45-35
5'16
3-10
2-35
2-49
G.
1-01
0-33
49-11
48-78
1-01
Incidentally it is shown that oxygen is appreciably
absorbed by fuming sulphuric acid, but that neither strong
potash nor alkaline pyrogallol solution appreciably affects
ethylene.
PATENTS.
Improvements in or Relating to the Manufacture of Coke.
Sir G. Elliot, London, and J. MacGowan, jun., Stoke-
on-Trent, Staffordshire. Eng. Pat. 19,758, November 14,
1891.
By employing the apparatus and method of coking described
in this patent it is claimed that the percentage of sulphur
in coke can be reduced and the commercial value of the
fuel increased ; if desired the sulphur may be recovered.
Any convenient form of coke oven may be employed.
The fumes from the chimney at the top are first carried
to the end of the furnace, and are then caused to pass
through a series of flues underneath the floor of the oven
so that their heat may be utilised ; they then pass away
into the main flue. The flues underneath the floor of one
oven are connected by bye-pass flues to those of the other
ovens, so that the waste heat can be utilised for maintaining
the temperature when necessary.
" In the lower portion of the oven is a pipe connected
with any suitable form of exhaust fan or suction apparatus,
by which the sulphur and heavier gases, which would
collect in the lower part of the oven and would not be
removed by the upper flue, can be drawn off. This drawing
off we prefer only to effect at the termination of the coking
process, and, if desired, after the admission of steam and
water to the contents of the oven."
In the lower corner of the oven a number of tiles are
arranged obliquely at slight intervals apart, " so that the
heavy sulphurous fumes may readily have access to the pipe
provided for their removal at or below the level of the
floor."— F. S. K.
Improvements in Feeding Fuel la Gas Producers, and in
the Generation of Combustible Gas. J. Hargreaves,
Widnes. Eng. Pat. 20,573, November 26, 1891.
The fuel is fed into the producer from the bottom upwards,
at a point preferably above and in front of the nozzle,
through which the air and steam are supplied, in such a
manner that the fuel piles itself up into the body of the
producer. The inventor claims also the combination of
this system with the supply of measured quantities of air
and fuel, and with steam to gas producers, so as to obtain a
desired quality of evolved gas.
Any suitable feed and measuring appliances for solid
fuel and air may be used. — I). A. S.
D 2
996
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
Improvements in Coke Ovens to Facilitate the Cooling of
the Coke before Drawing. C. E. Bell, Durham. Eng.
Pat. 22,106,'December 17, 1891.
Thk. usual method of cooling coke prior to its withdrawal
from the oven is to spray water over it from the top by
means of a long perforated pipe coupled to a flexible water
supply main and worked by hand. In this patent the
method of cooling is improved by making use of a water
pipe which is fixed within the arched radial passage of the
oven, or introduced into the opening at the top of the
domed roof of the oven : this pipe is provided with a rose or
perforated end so that after opening the oven and turning
on the water the spray falls over the whole upper surface
of the coke.— F. S. K.
Improvements in Supplying Heated Air to Steam Gene-
rating and other Furnaces. G. W. Hawksley, Sheffield,
Eng. Pat. 22,208, December 19, 1891.
The object of this invention is to supply a stream of heated
air in such a manner as to cause the more perfect combus-
tion of the unburn! gases, and so reduce the production of
smoke and increase the draught.
An air tube or conduit is fixed near the crown of the flue
and runs longitudinally with it over the fire-box, terminat-
ing in a nozzle or spreader at some little distance from the
bridge. The front end of the tube is conveniently formed
to receive a small jet of steam or compressed air. When
the jet is turned on a current of steam anil air. or of air
alone, is forced along the hot pipe and expelled from the
nozzle in a sheet across the heated gases. — D. A. S.
Improvements in Artificial Fuel. C. Winter, Tottenham.
Eng. Pat. 16,322, September 12, 1S92.
In the manufacture of this artificial fuel any kind of refuse
vegetable matter is used, in combination with lime or
cement, and refuse cocoa-nut fibre or refuse tan, and coal or
coke dust. The selected ingredients, when intimately mixed
together, form a plastic compound, which is pressed into
blocks and allowed to set hard. The inventor claims that
one ton of these blocks will give off, during combustion, an
amount of heat equal to that emitted by a ton of the best
household coal. — D. A. S.
Improvements in Apparatus for Simultaneously Burning
both the Light and Heavy Portions of Vaporisable
Oils at one Burner. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From
G. H. Harvey, G. F. Perrenond, J. Getty, and G. D.
Bayaud, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 16,359, Septem-
ber 13, 1892.
In the apparatus pipes lead from the top and bottom of the
carburettor to the burner. Air, which may be heated before
entering or when passing through the carburettor, is forced
in at sufficient pressure to maintain a flow of heavy oil to
the burner from the bottom pipe, while a supply of
carburetted air passes from the top, both of which can be
regulated by suitable valves. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Gas. K. M. Bidel-
man, Adrian, Michigan, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,262.
September 27, 1892.
In this process air is passed through a liquid hydrocarbon,
which has already been deprived of all vapours which
condense at the ordinary temperatures of a gas main, and
the resulting gas is used for heating purposes, or with
Welsbach burners for the production of li^ht.
The inventor recommends the use of a distillate of
petroleum oil of specific gravity approximately 0 • 698, from
which all the more readily condensible hydrocarbons have
been removed.
The liquid hydrocarbon employed is forced from a
suitable reservoir into the generating receptacle. This
receptacle consists of a cylindrical metallic shell capable
of resisting considerable internal pressure. A few inches
above the bottom there is a perforated false bottom, upon
which rests a packed body of absorptive solid porous
material such as wood charcoal or its equivalent. These
receptacles are connected in series by pipes leading from the
top of one receptacle to below the perforated false bottom of
the next. The above-mentioned distillate is forced into the
receptacles until the space below the perforated diaphragms
is rilled, and the liquid rises well up into the body of the
charcoal. Compressed air is then forced through the series
to the point of storage or use. Analyses show that the gas
produced contains about 3 per cent, of fixed hydrocarbon
gases, of which marsh-gas is the principal constituent, the
other constituents being defiant gas and other heavy hydro-
carbons intermixed with air. — D. A. S.
Improvements in the Combustion of Carbonaceous Fuel.
E. A. Ebb, Appleton. U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 12,762, July 12,
1892.
In the combustion of carbonaceous fuel the formation of
carbon dioxide, which is a non-supporter of combustion, has
a tendency to check the process of combustion while being
drawn up through the fuel.
The object of this patent is to remove the carbon dioxide
by taking advantage of the fact that this gas is specifically
heavier than air. This is done by introducing a pipe into
the centre of the ash-pit and connecting the pipe with an
exhaust fan. As, when bituminous coal, or coal-dust is
employed its caking obstructs the passage of the carbon
dioxide cubical perforated blocks of iron or short tubes of
iron are mixed with the fuel in any quantity desired ; these
afford a free passage to the gas so that it may be drawn off
from below. Steam is injected into the fuel chamber
whenever the iron blocks are red hot.
The patentee claims: " The improvement herein described
in the combustion of carbonaceous fuel, the same consisting
in running off the generated carbonic acid gas by its own
gravity, assisted by an exhaust fan or other exhaust pump
J device, and further assisted by feeding the fuel mixed with
I perforated iron cubes, or other forms of perforated iron,
and further assisted by injecting steam in the fuel chamber."
— F. S. K.
IV.-COLOUKINa MATTERS and dyes.
Indothymol : Preparation of Thi/moquinone. P. H. Bayrac.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 97—99.
Indothymol —
N<
C6H4N(CH3)S
CcH2(CH3)(C3Hr)0
the indophenol of thymol, is formed on mixing a dilute
solution of ^-amidodimethylaniline with a dilute alkaline
solution of thymol, adding potassium bichromate and
faintly acidifying with acetic acid. It is purified by
washing successively with water and a small quantity of
cold alcohol, and crystallising from alcohol, being thus
obtained in long violet-green dichroic needles, which melt
at 69-5' C. and are slightly sublimable. It is insoluble in
water and alkalis; soluble in alcohol with a fine .blue colour,
and in acetic acid with a green one ; it is reduced by zinc
and acetic acid to its easily oxidisable leuco-derivative ; is
unacted upon by aqueous solutions of alkalis, but is
decomposed by mineral acids quantitatively into dimethyl-
aniline, ammonia, and thymoquinone. This reaction
furnishes a ready method of preparation of the last-named
compound, which is obtained with difficulty by the methods
in general use : — The indothymol is decomposed by gently
heating for a few minutes with 10 times its weight of dilute
(1:10) sulphuric acid, and the solution cooled. The
Doc. si, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
997
thymoquinoue is then extracted with ether, the solution
evaporated and the residue dissolved in a mixture of ether
and alcohol, and filtered. On evaporation pure tbymo-
cjninone is obtained. — E. B.
Some Derivatives of Chrysaniline. A. Trillat and I)e
Rackowski. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 257—259.
Tetrazophenylacridine —
N
/\/\
N:N.C10H4(OH)(SO8liJa)a
\y\y\/
I
K:N.C1(,U4(OH)(S03X;l);
is formed (the sodium salt of the naphthol disulphonic
acid) by the action of nitrous acid on a cold dilute
solution of diarnidophenylacridine (chrysaniline) which
is obtained, probably along with higher homolognes, by
precipitation with sodium carbonate from a dilute solution
of phosphiue. It combines readily (although perhaps in
two stages like other tetrazo compounds') with phenols
and amido compounds ; thus, with the sodium salt of
naphthol disulphonic acid R it yields a compound which in
the dry state appears green, but when in solution lias a
splendid red colour. Salt G similarly yields a pink dye
(sec above formula). These two compounds dye silk .very
well, but give only poor colours on cotton and wool.
Alky] derivatives of chrysaniline are produced on heating
it in alcoholic solution with alkyl iodides. The dibenzyl
derivative is obtained by the action of benzyl chloride. in
the form of a sparingly soluble brown paste which appears
to be uncrystallisable. It dyes silk, cotton, and wool dull
red, the methyl and ethyl derivatives dyeing a similar
shade. None of these derivatives possesses much technical
value. — E. B.
The Ail inn <>/' Hypochlorous Acid on fi-Naplithaquinone.
E. Bamberger and M. Kitsobelt. Iter. I89f. 25, 133—
136 and 888—898.
/3-.\MUi'ni MfUiNONE is converted by hypochlorous acid,
according to the conditions obtaining, either into a colouring-
matter isomeric with napbthazarin, or into a mixture of acids,
amongst which phthalic acid and the 5-lactone of o-carhoxy-
phenylglycerie acid have been recognised.
The colouring matter is formed by adding 2'5 to 5 grms.
of the quinone, in the state of very fine powder, to a solution
of hypochlorous acid, prepared by grinding 35 grms. of
bleaching-powder with 135 of water, adding a solution of
26 grms. of potassium carbonate in 40 of water, filtering,
adding 20 grms. of boric acid to the filtrate, and, after an
hour's rest, filtering from the potassium borate which has
crystallised out. Considerable heat is evolved when the
quinone is added. The action is assisted by 8 or 10
minutes' agitation, after which the quinone will have
dissolved with an olive-brown colour, which rapidly changes
to orange. As soon as this change has taken place, con-
centrated hydrochloric acid is added and the solution is
heated until its colour suddenly turns dark red, when the
heating must be discontinued. The solution is now allowed
to stand for several hours to enable the colouring matter
to crystallise out. Some boric acid simultaneously separates,
but is easily removed by washing the crystals with hot
water. The mother-liquor still contains a not inconsiderable
amount of the colouring matter, which is precipitated by
copper acetate and liberated in an almost pure condition
from the dark-blue copper compound thus formed, by
pouring hydrochloric acid over it. Both quantities of the
colouring matters so obtained contain traces of a second
one, probably a monohydroxynaphthaqninone, which dis-
solves in alkalis with a red colour. It is removed by
crystallising from acetone or, less satisfactorily, by sub-
liming. The yield of the chief colouring matter amounts
to 45—50 per cent, of the /3-naphthaquinone employed.
This colouring matter, on account of its close resemblance,
both chemically and physically, to napthazarin has been
named Isonaphthazarin. It crystallises in splendid orange-
red plates with a green surface-lustre, and is obtained by
sublimation in needles of a metallic lustre, which differ
from those of napbthazarin by their paler appearance. It
melts at 276° ; is sparingly soluble in hot water, and very
sparingly in cold, but still appreciably more so than its
isomeride. Acetone dissolves it readily, chloroform and
alcohol with moderate 'ease, and ether and benzene very
slightly: each with an orange colour. Concentrated
sulphuric acid dissolves it with a dark red colour. Sodium
and potassium hydrates dissolve it easily with a blue
colour ; carbonated alkalis and ammonia with a violet-red.
Its acidity is greater than that of napbthazarin : for while
a solution of the latter is unaffected by the addition of
sodium acetate, one of isonaphthazarin is coloured red-
violet ( = the red-orange of the free dyestuff + the blue
of its sodium compound), the acetic acid being partly
displaced by it. Its aqueous solution, also, reddens litmus
strongly. The alkaline solutions are decolorised by a
month's exposure to light. The sodium compound is
precipitated by common salt from its aqueous solution in
voluminous indigo-blue flocks. Isonaphthazarin yields
coloured precipitates with salts of the following metals :
copper, lead, cadmium, and nickel, dark-blue ; zinc and
barium, pale-blue ; mercury and cobalt.g ; ccn-blue. It also
dyes very well on metallic hydrate rrordants, giving on
chrome, for instance, a beautiful purple-grey colour. Its
want of fastness to light, however, will stand in the way
of its technical application. The above detailed properties
of the- substance correspond with a compound containing
hydroxyl groups in close proximity to a quinoue complex,
thus —
O — ,
OH
OH
Us analysis accords with this view. The formation of
this compound probably takes place in the following
phases : —
O O 0 (>
/VN o
/
II. oil
II. CI
OH
YO
I
II
\/~
o
OH
OH
The lactone compound is produced by the action of sodium
hypochlorite on jS-naphthaquinonc. — E. B.
Oxidation Compounds of Amidonaphthol Sulphonic Acids.
E. Keverdin and C. de la Harpe. Ber. 1892, 25, 1400—
1409.
I. — Derivatives of o-Naphthoi..
1:2:4 ( = OH:NH.,:SO:iH)-Amido>i(ipli/liol sulphonic acid
yields a purple dye when heated in sodium carbonate
solution in the presence of air. The alkaline solution has
at first a green tint, but gradually turns brown and deposits
a purple powder which is filtered off. A compound whicli
dyes wool red-brown remains in the filtrate. The latter
is produced in larger amount when the free sulphonic acid
is oxidised, and is probably, therefore, a sulphonic acid of
a-naphthaquinone (this Journal, 1892, 155). The purple
compound is sparingly soluble in cold water, but more
readily in hot, and easily in alkalis. It is precipitated by
acids from its alkaline solutions in chocolate flocks, which
after some time becomes green and crystalline. Sulphuric
acid dissolves it with an olive colour. It dyes wool from
an acid bath purple to black shades according to the pro-
portion employed, and, dyes cotton which is mordanted with
998
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. SI, 1898.
metallic oxides, the shades produced being in both cases
very fast. A compound possessing the same properties is
obtained by sulphonating iinido-oxynaphthalene, the oxida-
tion product ot 1:2 amidonaphthol. From this it would
appear that the purple dye is an imido-oxynaphthalene
sulphonic acid of the constitution —
0— ,
/\/\ NH
S03H
A body which closely resembles this dj'e as regards its
behaviour in wool dyeing, but which does not dye so well
on mordanted cotton, is produced by adding sodium acetate
to a dilute solution of the above amidonaphthol sulphonic
acid, and allowing to stand a considerable time in the cold,
or more rapidly by treating with a current of air.
1:4:2- Amidonaphthol sulphonic acid, when heated in
sodium carbonate solution, is coloured golden-brown by the
air ; in sodium acetate solution it is coloured red-purple.
The body produced cannot be precipitated with either
common salt or acids, and dyes wool in an acid bath a
worthless yellow-brown.
Two amidonaphthol sulphonic acids are obtained on
diazotising Witt's 1 : 5-uaphthylamine sulphonic acid, boiling
with dilute acid, combining with diazobenzene chloride and
reducing. The azo -compounds were separated by taking
advantage of the difference in their solubilities. The more
soluble compound which was of a yellower colour, gave on
reduction a sparingly soluble product, whose solution in
sodium carbonate was oxidised similarly to the 1 : - : 4-
amidonaphthol sulphonic acid, while the little soluble
reduction-product of the other compound oxidised fnto a
brown dye of no value, thus resembling the l:4:2-acid.
The first reduction-product would, therefore, seem to be the
1:2:5-, and the second the 1:4: 5-amidonaphthol sulphonic
acid.
1:4: S-Amidonaphthol sulphonic acid in sodium car-
bonate or ammonia solution, becomes brown on exposure to
air ; in sodium acetate solution it becomes red-brown and
eventually purple. The compound formed gives a brown
colour on wool but is of no technical value.
1 :i:2:7- Amidonaphthol disulphonic acid is converted by
the atmospheric oxidation of its sodium carbonate solution
into a red purple dye, which is precipitable by common
salt, and gives a fairly-bright purple on wool in an acid
bath, but dyes imperfectly on cotton mordanted with
metallic oxides, yielding greenish-olive shades.
II. — Derivatives of /3-napbthol.
2:1:6- Amidonaphthol sulphonic acid (Eikonoyen)
becomes coloured olive-green when exposed to the air in
sodium carbonate solution. The addition of common salt
produces a voluminous precipitate of a compound which
dissolves in water with a green colour, but is changed to
red by acidifying. This compound dyes red-purple on
unmordanted wool, green on chrome-mordanted wool, and
grey or grey-olive on mordanted cotton.
2:1:8- Amidonaphthol sulphonic acid yields a similar
product which does not, however, dye mordanted cotton so
well as the preceding compound.
2 -.1:5- Amidonaphthol sulphonic, and 2:l:S:6-amido-
naphthol disulphonic acids give brown oxidation-products of
no value as dyes. The 2:l:6:8-disulphonic acid (from
orange G) gives a small quantity of a dye resembling that
obtained from the 2:1: 8-acid, its formation being probably
duo to the presence of this acid. — E. 15.
The Nitration of 0-Naphthylamine. P. Friedljinder and
St. Szymanski. Ber. 25, 1892, 2076 — 2083.
The authors undertook this research in consequence of a
statement by Hirsch (Ger.Pat. 57,491) that the nitration of
/) nitronaphthylamine followed a different course from that
supposed bj Levinstein (Ger. Pat. 30,889). They find that
at a low temperature /3-naphthylamine nitrate is converted
by sulphuric acid essentially into a mixture of two new
nitronaphthylamines, namely, the 2 : 5- and 2 : 8-derivatives.
The nitration is effected by gradually adding finely-
powdered yS-naphthylaniiue, dried at about 100° C. (a higher
temperature causes decomposition), to 10 parts of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, at a temperature not exceedingi 5°.
The low temperature is important, as considerable quantities
of resinous matters are formed if it be allowed to rise. Thus,
in an operation conducted between —22° and —12" only
10 per cent, (of the nitrate employed) of resinous matters
was formed, while between —11" and +2°, 18 per cent.,
between —5° and + fi°, 26 per cent., between —7° and +10°
31 per cent., and between 0 and 11° C. 42 per cent, were
produced. The resinous matters were removed by diluting
the sulphuric acid solution with 6 to 8 volumes of water
and filtering. On cooling, the greater part of the nitro-
products crystallised out as a brown-yellow mass, a further
small quantity being obtained on neutralising the mother-
liquor. From these salts the nitro-bases were liberated by
ammonia and dried on the water-bath, a mean yield of
60 per cent, of the theoretical being obtained. The dried
mass was then separated by fractional crystallisation from
benzene or alcohol into a sparingly-soluble compound,
recognised as the 2 : 5-derivative, and a more soluble 2 : 8-
compound, which is produced in smaller amount. The
latter body is best isolated by acetylating the mixture of
bases and repeatedly crystallising from a large volume of
alcohol until the crystals obtained are uniform and melt at
195 "5°; the free base being then obtained in the usual
manner. The alcoholic mother-liquors contain the acetyl
compounds of other bases (of lower melting point) than the
above, which have not yet been identified.
2 : 5-nitro-$-naphthylamine forms beautiful red needles,
melting at 143°, which dissolve readily in hot alcohol (with
dark red colour) and in benzene (with pale yellow) and
acetic acid, sparingly in hot water, and scarcely at all in
cold water and light petroleum. The hydrochloride of the
base dissolves easily in hot water and crystallises in nearly
colourless needles. The 6ulphate is sparingly soluble, and,
when slowly crystallised, forms pale yellow lamina. Both
salts undergo partial dissociation when heated with a large
quantity of water or alcohol. The acetyl-derivative crystal-
lises in stellate aggregates of melting point 185 "5°; the
benzoyl-derivative in needles, melting at 181 "5°. Nitrous
acid converts the amido compouud into 2 : 5-nitro diazo-
naphthalene. This is readily soluble in water, and combines
with naphtholsulphonic acids, forming brownish - red to
purple dyes.
2 : o-nitro-0-naphthol is prepared by boiling the aqueous
solution of the last - mentioned compound with a small
quantity of urea until the evolution of nitrogen has ceased.
After filtering off the resinous matters which are simulta-
neously formed, and cooling, it crystallises out as a pale
yellow acicular mass. It melts at 147°, and is sparingly
soluble in cold water, but readily so in hot, and dissolves
readily in dilute alkaline solutions and in the customary
organic solvents. Its potassium salt is precipitated by an
excess of potash in red laminee.
2:5-amido-fl-naphthol is formed on carefully reducing the
nitro - compound with excess of a mixture of stannous
chloride, tin, and hydrochloric acid. The stannous double
salt which separates is conveniently decomposed by dis-
solving in the minimum quantity of hot water and adding
concentrated hydrochloric acid, the hydrochloride of the
amido-compouud being precipitated in an almost pure state.
On decomposing this precipitate with sodium bicarbonate
and extracting from the filtered aqueous solution, the free
base is obtained as a white, crystalline mass, easily soluble
in acids, alkalis, and organic solvents. When exposed to
the air, it suffers oxidation and darkens.
2 : h-naphthylenediamine is obtained by the reduction of
the above nitronaphthylamine. It is easily soluble in hot
water, alcohol, benzene, and acetic acid, sparingly so. in
cold water and ether, and crystallises in short, white needles,
of melting point 77 ■ 5°, which darken on exposure to air. Its
aqueous solution shows a blue fluorescence, and is coloured
purple by ferric chloride or bleaching powder. When
heated on the water-bath with fuming sulphuric acid it
Dee.Si.U93d THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
999
yields a sparingly-soluble sulphonic acid. This description
of the properties of 2 : D-uanhthylenediamine does not
agree with that given by Ewer and Pick (Ger. Pat.
45,788), who considered they obtained the body in question
(which they stated to be uncrystallisable) by heating
1:6 (= 2 : 5)-dihydroxynaphthalene with ammonia under
pressure. Also the assertion that the tetrazo-derivatives of
this naphthylenediamine dye unmordanted cotton is found
to be incorrect (this Journal, 1889, 278).
iib-dichlornaphthalene. The constitution of the above
compounds was proved by converting the diamido-eompouud
into the corresponding dichlor-derivative by diazotising and
treating with copper powder (this Journal, 1890, 923).
The dichloro-compound, which was isolated by distillation
with steam, melted at 48 and possessed the properties
ascribed to the 2 : 5-compound by Erdmann and Kirchhoff
(Ann. 247, 379).
2 : S-nitro-B-nuphthylamiue, produced as above described,
forms red needles melting at 103 '5°, and soluble with
difficulty in hot water (in which the compound melts), and
very sparingly in light petroleum, but easily in other organic
menstrua. Its sulphate and hydrochloride are rather less
soluble than the corresponding salts of the 2 : 5 compound,
and like these are partially dissociated by heating in dilute
aqueous or alcoholic solution. Its acetyl compound crystal-
li>es in long yellow needles melting at 195 • 5'. It is con-
verted by the diazo reaction into 2 : 8-nitro-B-naphthol, a
considerably better yield of this substance than of its
isomeride from the 2 : 5-nitronaphthylamine being obtained.
This compound crystallises in dark red needles which melt
at 142°, and is easily soluble in alcohol, but with difficulty
in water. It dissolves in alkalis with a dark red colour, and
its potassium salt is precipitated in red needles on the
addition of a large excess of potash.
2 : S-amido-B-naphthol was prepared and isolated in the
same manner as its above-described isomeride. It crystal-
lises in small white needles which darken on exposure to air
and decompose, without melting, at 212° — 218°, and is
soluble in acids and alkalis, as well as in water, alcohol, and
ether.
2 : S-napktkylenediamine is formed on allowing an
alcoholic solution of the corresponding nitronaphthylamine
to flow gradually into an excess of a mixture of stannous
chloride, hydrochloric acid, and tin. It is easily soluble in
acetic acid, alcohol, and benzene, less so in water, and very
slightly so in ether and light petroleum, andj crystallises
from benzene in white plates, but from water in feathery
clusters of needles, of melting point 117'5°. The surfaces
of the crystals rapidly darken when exposed to the air.
The aqueous solution of this compound shows a faint
fluorescence, and is coloured violet by ferric chloride. Its
tetrazo-derivative combines with uaphthol-sulphonic acids,
forming purple-brown dyes, and is converted by copper
powder and hydrochloric acid into 2 : 8-dichlornaphthalene
(Erdmann and Marchand, loc. cit.), of melting point 61°.
— E. B.
Metho.ryamido-\:'A-Dimethylbenzene and some of its
Derivatives. W. K. Hodgkinson and L. Limpach. Proc.
Chem. Soc. 1892, 115, 166.
II \vix<; devised a method of separating 1 : 2 : 4-metaxylidine
from paraxylidine, &c., with which it is mixed in commercial
xylidine, the authors have had the opportunity of preparing
1 : 2 : 4-metaxylenol in large quantity. An almost theoretical
yield of this phenol was obtained by diazotising a solution
containing only 5 per cent, of the xylidine sulphate and
then steam distilling ; the product did not solidify even at
— 20: ; but a considerable quantity was caused to crystallise
by adding some solid obtained by cooling a small portion by
means of carbon dioxide and ether. The presence of a
trace of water was found to prevent crystallisation. On
nitration, metaxylenol yields almost the theoretical amount
of a nitroxylenol in which the N( fs group is contiguous to
the hydroxyl. The authors have prepared the corresponding
amido- and hydroxy-xylenols and their methylated deriva-
tives (dimethylanisoils) ; they also describe a quiualdiue
derivative, formed by condensation from the methoxy-
amidoxylene and ethylic aceto-acetate. — \Y. S.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Alpha-Naphthol
Sulpha Acids and Din.,-,/ Naphthalene Sulpho Acids,
and of Dyestuffs therefrom. li. Willcox, London. From
" The Farben fabriken vormals F. Haver & Co.," Elber-
feld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 3397, March 4, 1890. '(Second
Edition.)
The specification describes the preparation of two new
a-naphthol disulphonic acids, a new trisulphonic acid and new
dihydroxy naphthalene sulphonic acids therefrom. The
following methods are given for the formation of these new
products. A certain weight of a-naphthol sulphonic acid
(OH: S03H = 1: 5) is dissolved in three times its weight
of sulphuric acid of 66° B., the temperature is slowly raised
to 90 C, on the water-bath and kept at this temperature
until a change in the fluorescence shows that the sulphona-
tion is complete, when the melt is limed and converted into
the sodium salt which crystallises in spikes from a con-
centrated solution. This a-naphthol disulphonic acid
differs from those described in Ger. Pats. 40,571 and 45,776
as it does not give a nitroso compound. Other sulphonatino-
agents may be employed such as sulphuric acid monohydrate
or monochlorhydrin. When a-naphthol sulphonic acid
(OH : S03H --1:4) is dissolved in three times its weight
of fuming sulphuric acid and slowly raised to the temper-
ature of a water-bath, the mass stiffens at about 75' C,
forming naphthyl sulphuric acid, and at about 90° the melt
is in the form of a thin clear liquid. It is converted in the
usual way into the sodium salt which precipitates in the
form of jelly. This a-naphthol disulphonic acid only
combines with difficulty with diazo compounds. The new
a-naphthol trisulphonic acid is obtained by sulphonating the
naphthosultone or naphthol mono- or disulphonic acid S
described in Ger. Pat. 40,571, or from the naphthosultone
monosulphonic acid. Any one of these acids is mixed with
4-5 times its weight of fuming sulphuric acid containing
25 per cent, of anhydride and allowed to stand at the ordinary
temperature until a sample ceases to form a colouring matter
with diazo compounds, which is generally the case after
about twelve hours. At higher temperatures the sulphona-
tion is completed more rapidly, but not at temperatures
above 100° C., or when acid containing more anhydride is
,used. The melt is converted into the sodium salt and
precipitated by adding hydrochloric acid and salt to the
hot concentrated liquor, when it forms a heavy sandy powder.
A characteristic property of the new acid is that it does not
combine with diazo compounds. The neutral sodium salt
dissolves easily in water with a green fluorescence. Nitric
aeid forms a nitro-naphthol sulphonic acid. By fusion
with caustic alkalis at high temperatures all the above-men-
tioned acids are converted into new dihydroxy naphthalene
sulphonic acids. The new a-naphthol disulphonic acids are
fused with three parts of caustic soda at about 250° C.,
until a sample shows no fluorescence and smells strongly
of sulphurous acid when acidulated. The a-naphthol disul-
phonic acid obtained from the l-5 a-naphthol mono-
sulphonic acid gives a dihydroxynaphthalene monosulphonic
acid, the sodium salt of which crystallises in thin shining
plates containing water from solutions saturated with salt.
Ferric chloride gives an unstable blue-green solution and
chloride of lime produces a reddish brown colour which does
not change on adding an excess. Theo-naphthol disulphonic
acid from the 1 • 4 a naphthol monosulphonic acid yields a
dihydroxynaphthalene monosulphonic acid of which the
sodium salt crystallises from acid solutions saturated with
salt in tine white needles. Ferric chloride gives a permanent
blue green solution and chloride of lime a bluish-red solution
which turns yellow and then colourless. By heating the
a-naphthol trisulphonic acid with concentrated soda-lye to
200° C. in an open vessel it is converted almost instantly
into a new dihydroxy naphthalene disulphonic acid. The
reaction is complete when a sample no longer fluoresces or
when it gives a colour with diazo compounds. The melt is
then dissolved in water and saturated with salt when the
new dihydroxynaphthalene disulphonic acid crystallises
out in white needles. The a-naphthol disulphonic acid
obtained from the 1 • 5 a-naphthol monosulphonic acid and
the dihydroxynaphthalene mono- and disulphonic acids
above mentioned can all be employed in the manufacture of
III! Ill
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1S92.
colouring matters by combining them with diazo and tetrazo
compounds. A variety of shades can be produced accord-
ing to the particular amine employed. Blue to blue-black
colouring maters, for instance, are obtained from;>-phenylene
diamine by diazotising acet-p-phenjdene diamine, combining
it with ct-naphthylamine or a-amido-a-naphthol ether,
rediazotising, combining with one of the above-mentioned
dihyilroxynaphthalene sulphonic acids splitting off the
acetyl group, again diazotising and combining with a phenol,
amine or one of their derivatives. — T. A. L.
Improvements in the Manufacture and Production of
Sulpha Acids and of Colouring Matters. B. Willcox,
London. From " The Farbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer
and Co.," Elberfeld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,062,
November 4, 1891.
When either methyl- or ethyl-benzylaniline is heated with
monohydrated sulphuric acid or with fuming sulphuric acid
of a moderate strength at a low temperature, it is converted
into a mono-sulphonic acid, in which the sulphonic acid
group is in the benzyl nucleus. By using fuming sulphuric
acid of sufficient strength the bases are converted directly
into disulphonic acids, one of the sulphonic acid groups
having entered the phenyl nucleus in a meta position to the
arnido group so that the body has the following formula —
H03S.t',JI4.CHK.NH
Where R stands for C'H;( or C,H5.
Ten kilos, of ethylbenzylaniline are dissolved in 20 kilos,
of cold fuming sulphuric acid containing 20 per cent, of SI tp
and the solution mixed with 25 kilos, of fuming sulphuric
acid containing 80 per cent, of S03 and heated to 60° C. The
sulphonation is complete when a sample partially neutralised
with sodium carbonate gives no precipitate on treating with
an excess of sodium sulphate. The melt is then poured into
water neutralised with lime, and the filtrate evaporated to a
syrup which becomes solid on standing. The barium salt
will crystallise from a concentrated aqueous solution. By
decomposition with alkaline carbonates the corresponding
alkaline salts are obtained, which can be precipitated by
adding salt or potassium chloride. No precipitate is, how-
ever, produced by adding hydrochloric acid to the aqueous
solution of the disulphonic acid, differing in this way from
the monosulphonic acid. The position of the sulphonic
acid group in the phenyl nucleus was determined by fusing
the disulphonic acid with potash, when, after acidulating,
an oil was obtained which gave a rhodamine on heating with
phthalic anhydride aud zinc chloride. These disulphonic
acids condense with tetra-alkyldiamidobenzhydrols, forming
leuco-compouuds which on oxidation yield colouring
matters. Two examples for the formation of blue to viole!
dyestuffs are given in the patent. 27 kilos, of tetra
methyldiamidobenzhydrol are dissolved in 400 kilos, o!1
dilute sulphuric acid (containing 5 per cent, of H.,S04), and
after adding 40 kilos, of sodium methylbenzylaniline
disulphonate the melt is heated on the water-bath until the
condensation is complete, when, after neutralisation with
sodium carbonate, the leuco-compound is salted out with
sodium sulphate. This is then dissolved in 200 kilos, of 50
per cent, acetic acid and oxidised by adding 48 kilos, of a
lead dioxide paste containing 50 per cent, of Pbt)2. The
lead is precipitated with dilute sulphuric acid, and after filter-
ing, the colouring matter is precipitated from the solution by
adding sodium sulphate, when it separates in small brassy
crystals very easily soluble in hot water, less so in cold, and
dyes wool blue from an acid bath in a similar shade to that
produced by " Cotton blue K." Another colouring matter
is obtained by dissolving 27 kilos, of tetramethyldiamido-
benzhydrol in 135 kdos. of dilute (10 per cent.) sulphuric
acid and adding 20 kilos, of dimethylaniline-m-sulphonic
acid dissolved in 80 litres of water. When the condensation
is complete the solution is neutralised with sodium carbonate,
and the sodium salt of the hexamethyl-p-leucaniline mono-
sulphonic acid separates on cooling in characteristic
lustrous scales. It is oxidised by the same quantities
"tic acid auf J'l ( l given above, and the lead is
precipitated by adding 20 kilos, of sulphuric acid of 66° B.
The filtrate from the lead sulphate is evaporated when the
colouring matter separates. It possesses both basic and
acid properties, and dyes cotton mordanted with tannic acid
or wool from a neutral bath. All these dyestuffs are said
to be valuable on account of their fastness to alkalis, and
those which contain benz-vl-groups dye wool from acid
baths.— T. A.'L. _J
Improvements in ami relating to the Manufacture and
Production of Azo-Vges, and oj Materials therefor.
.1. Y. Johnson, London. From the " Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik," Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,275,
November 21, 1891. (Second Edition.)
In Eng. Pat. 9676 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 538) 1*1'
amidonaphthol monosulphonic acid is described, which
combines with tetrazo compounds, giving however, dull
colours. The benzoyl or acetyl derivatives of the acid give
bright shades with tetrazo compounds ; but in order to
enable the djestuff to be applied in a soap or soda bath the
tetrazo compound must contain a sulphonic or carboxylic
acid group, as otherwise the colouring matters will only dye
from a bath containing a caustic alkali. In the present
specification an isomeric 1 ■ 1' amido-naphthol sulphonic
acid is described which yields colouring matters similar to
the above, but does not require that the tetrazo compound
shall contain an acid group, as the benzoyl or acetyl
derivatives of the bodies produced from diazotised tolidinc,
for example, will dye cotton from an ordinary soap or soda
batb. The starting point for the new acid is the naphthyl-
amiue disulphonic acid obtained by sulphonating that 1*1'
naphthylamine sulphonic acid which forms a slightly soluble
sodium salt. It is the so-called naphthylamine monosul-
phonic acid S of Eng. Pat. 15,775 of 1885 and of Ger Pat.
40,571. About 1 kilo, of the sodium naphthylamine
disulphonate is mixed with 3 kilos, of caustic alkali and a
little water, and heated from 200° — 230° C. until no increase
in the quantity of the 1-1' hydroxynaphthylamine mono-
sulphonic acid formed is observed. The melt is then
allowed to cool, dissolved and acidified with dilute (3 per
cent.) hydrochloric acid, boiled until all the S< >., is given
off, and filtered hot. ( In cooling, the new acid separates
out in light grey crystals. The acid is slightly soluble in
water or alcohol. The alkaline salts are readily souble in
water, and when alkaline have a bluish-green fluorescence.
The substance combines with diazo and tetrazo compounds,
which, however, are only dull colouring matters. By
employing the benzoyl or acetyl derivatives of the new acid
for combination with tetrazo compounds, bright and useful
dyestuffs are obtained. About 10 kilos, of l'l' hydroxy-
naphthylamine sulphonic acid and 7 kilos, of calcined soda
lire dissolved in 90 litres of water. After cooling to 5° C.
5 '2 kilos, of benzoyl chloride are added and the mixture
agitated below 1 0° C. for about one hour. The sodium salt of
the benzoylated derivative is filtered, washed with brine,
pressed and dried. A blue colouring matter is obtained
from it by dissolving about 20 kilos, of the sodium salt and
15 kilos, of calcined soda in about 650 litres of water, and
after adding 100 kilos, of ice. running in the tetrazodiphenyl
chloride solution from 4-6 kilos, of benzidine, 16*5 kilos, of
30 per cent, hydrochloric acid, 250 litres of water, 50 kilos,
of ice, and 3' 5 kilos, of sodium nitrite. The mixture is then
agitated for 24 hours at the ordinary temperature, after
which it is boiled, precipitated with salt, filter-pressed and
dried. The dyestuff forms a dark brown powder with a
slight metallic sheen. — T. A. L.
The Manufacture and Production of New Derivatives of
Alizarin and its Analogues. B. Willcox, London.
From the " Farbenfabriken vormals F. Bayer and Co.,"
Elberfeld, Germanv. Eng. Pat. 21,717, December 11,
1891.
This patent describes a number of compounds derived from
alizarin, and is an extension of several previous specifica-
tions. Some new reactions of the polyh) droxyanthra-
quiuones are also described. A new alizarin derivative is
formed by applying the process described in Eng. Pat,
S725 of [890 ("this Journal, 1891, 537) to the pentahy-
Dec. 31, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
I Ol.ll
droxyunthraquinone obtained from symmetrical dihydroxy-
benzoic acid and gallic acid. A sulphuric ether of the
dyestuff is obtained as an intermediate product capable of
dyeing mordanted wool, and can be converted into the dye-
stuff in the well-known manner. About 10 kilos, of penta-
hydroxyanthraquinone are mixed with 200 kilos, of fuming
sulphuric acid, containing 80 per cent, of SO;i, and allowed
to stand at 30° O. for 24 hours. The solution is poured on
to ice, heated to boiling, and the precipitate filtered off. In
order to convert it into the dyestuff it is dissolved in soda-
lye, boiled, and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid added in
excess, when the new dyestuff separates as a fine precipitate
which is filtered off and washed. It dyes wool reddish-
violet when mordanted with alumina, and violet when
mordanted with chromium salts. According to Eng. Pat.
13,677 of 1891 (this Journal, 1892, 7401 the hexahydroxy-
anthraquinone there described is produced from anthra-
chrysone by oxidation with sulphuric anhydride. It has now
been discovered that the oxidation may be performed with
manganese dioxide, the anthrachrysone being dissolved in
ordinary (06° B.) sulphuric acid. The oxidation may be
performed at high or low temperatures, but in the latter case
more manganese dioxide is required, and an anthradiquinone,
identical with the diquinone of hexahydroxyanthraquinone
of Eng. Pat. 4871 of 1891 (this Journal, 1892, 513), is
formed as an intermediate product. It is converted into
the hexahydroxyanthraquinone by heating with water or
reducing with sulphurous acid. By applying the reaction
described in Kng. Pat. 12,715 of 1890 (this Journal 1891,
759) to the sulphuric ether of hexahydroxyanthraquinone,
viz., by dissolving this body in concentrated liquid ammonia,
a new dyestuff is obtained which dyes wool mordanted
with chromium salts a pure blue. Certain of the polv-
hydroxyanthraquinones can be converted into dyestuffs
soluble iu water by the action of strong nitric acid. The
following bodies have been treated in this way : the tetra-
hydroxyanthraquinone of Eng. Pat. 8725 of 1890 (this
Journal, 1891. .ri37), the penta- and hexahydroxyanthra-
quiuoues of Kng. Pat. 4871 of 1891 and the hexahydroxy-
anthraquinone of Eng. Pat. 17,712 of 1890 (this Journal,
1891, 917), obtained from alizarin bordeaux according to
Eng. Pat. 18,729 of 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 917) or from
anthraquinone according to Eng. Pat. 13,077 of 1891, or
from anthrachrysone by oxidising it with strong fuming
sulphuric acid or by other processes. The following are
the stages of the reaction. The compounds are first nitrated,
and on'; hydrogen is replaced by hydroxyl, and finally the
bodies are oxidised by the nitric acid into quinones, so that
they belong to the class of the so-called anthradiquinones,
and are known as " nitrohydroxyanthradiquinones." The
process is carried out by adding concentrated nitric acid of
sp. gr. 1-5 to the alizarin bordeaux suspended in an
indifferent solvent such as glacial acetic acid, petroleum
ether, or chloroform, or else by exposing the dry powder in
shallow trays to the fumes of concentrated nitric acid.
The colouring matters dissolve in water to a dark red-
coloured liquid, which, on standing, boiling or reducing with
sulphurous acid gives a precipitate of a nitrohydroxy-
anthraquinone which crystallises from acetone and alcohol
in red needles with a metallic lustre. Hexahydroxyanthra-
quinone in this manner yields a dinitrohexahydroxy-
anthraquiuone, whilst alizarin bordeaux and alizarin penta-
cyanine yield the same mouo-nitropentahydroxyanthra-
quinone. The dyestuff soluble in water obtained from the
hexahydroxyanthraquinone of Eng. Pat. 17,712 of 1890,
18,729 of 1*890, and 13,677 of 1891, crystallises readily.
Ammonia dissolves it with a greenish-blue colour, whilst
sodium carbonate and caustic soda dissolve it to a blue
solution, and give a greenish precipitate on adding an excess
of the reagents. It differs from the hexahydroxyanthra
uuinone in not showing an absorption spectrum when
dissolved in sulphuric acid, the colour of the solution being
blue. It dyes wool mordanted with chromium salts
greenish-blue to bluish-black, whilst alumina produces a
heliotrope colour. The other colouring matters of this
class dye from bluish-red to greenish-black, and on account
of their solubility in water can also be used for printing.
— T. A. L.
The Mantifctcture of New Colouring Matters. B. Willcox,
London. Erom the " Earbenfabriken vormals E.
Bayer and Co., Elberf'eld," Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,641,
December 28, 1891.
According to Cleve three a-naphthylamine-/3-monosul-
phouic acids are obtained by nitrating naphthalene-0-mono-
sulphonic acid or sulphonating a-nitro-naphthalene and
reducing the mixture of nitro-derivatives thus produced.
The following are the acids according to Cleve's nomen-
clature : —
NH.,
NH.,
S( ),H
SO.H
tS-aci<l.
8-acid,
NH,
y-acid.
Of these the 3- and 5-acids are of particular value in the
formation of colouring matters, since, when combined with
tetrazo-compounds they yield dyestuffs which can be
diazotised on the fibre and combined with phenols or
amines, &c, a property not possessed by other ct-naphthyl-
amine sulphonic acids. A variety of dyestuffs can be
obtained from these compounds in a manner similar to the
processes described in Kng. Pat. 16,484 of 1887 (this
Journal 1888, 619). The following are some typical
examples. 1. One molecular proportion of tetrazoditolyl
is combined with two molecular proportions of Cleve's /3-acid,
forming the dyestuff —
CH3 - C(1H3 - N = N - C10H5(SO3lSra)NHa
I
CH:, - CUH3 - N = N - C„,H5(S( ).,Na)NH3
This is diazotised and combined with two molecular
proportions of naphthionic acid in presence of acetic acid,
and gives a colouring matter which dyes unmordanted
cotton a deep bluish-black. 2. The tetrazo solution from
o-diamidodiphenol dimethyl ether is combiued as before
with two molecular proportions of Cleve's /3-acid, forming —
CH,0 - C,,H3 - N = N - C10H5(SO,H)NH,
I
CH,0 - CPH3 - N = N ~ CluH,(SO:,H)NH.,
This compound is then diazotised with two molecules of
sodium nitrite and combined with one molecular propor-
tion of 1*4 naphthylamine sulphonic acid in presence of
sodium acetate. When the combination is complete an
alkaline solution of one molecular proportion of 1*4
naphthol sulphonic acid is allowed to run in, the solution
being kept alkaline by means of sodium carbonate. A
bluish-black dyestuff for unmordanted cotton is thus
obtained. In the above process other amines and phenols,
&c. can be substituted for the naphthol and naphthylamine
sulphonic acids in the second stage, and other tetrazo
compounds can also be used. The colours obtained dye a
greenish and blue-black. 3. Tetrazo-diphenyl chloride is
combiued with one molecular proportion of Cleve's /3-acid.
The free amido group is diazotised and the tetrazo chloride
so obtained is combined with two molecular proportions of
1-8 dihydroxynaphthalene-amonosulphonie acid. 4. In
the preceding example the intermediate tetrazo compound
maj' be combined first with one molecular proportion of
/3-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid E and afterwards with one
molecular proportion of the 1'8 dihydroxynaphthalene-
a-monosulphonic acid. Both these colouring matters dye
unmordanted cotton bluish-black from an alkaline soap
bath. 5. Valuable disazo colouring matters, which dye wool
bluish-black from an acid bath, are obtained by combining a
diazotised amine with Cleve's j8- or 8-acid, rediazotising the
amido-azo compound formed, and combining this with a
phenol or amine, &c. As an example, 9*3 kilos, of aniline are
diazotised by means of hydrochloric acid and 7 kilos, of
sodium nitrite and added to a solution of 24-5 kilos, of the
sodium salt of Cleve's /3-acid and 50 kilos of sodium acetate.
The resulting amido-azo-compound is diazotised with 7 kilos,
of sodium nitrite and hydrochloric acid, and combined with
26 '2 kilos, of l-8 dihydroxyuaphthalene-a-monosulphouic
lOdii
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTKY.
[Deo. 31, 1892.
acid in an aqueous solution, together with about 50 kilos, of
sodium acetate. When the combination is complete the
solution is made alkaline and the dyestuff salted out, filter-
pressed, and dried. It has the following formula —
C6H3 . X : X . C,0H5(SO3Xa) . X : X . C10H4
/
Si ),;Xa
1 (OH),
and dyes unmordanted wool bluish-black from an acid bath,
whilst the shades on wool mordanted with chromium salts
are greenish-black. 'When used for printing it gives a pure
black.— T. A. L.
V.-TEXTILES : COTTON. WOOL, SILK, Etc.
The Specific Gravity «] Textile Fibres. L. Vignon.
Bull. Soc. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 247—250.
The author has determined the densities of the more
important textile fibres with a hydrostatic balance sensible
to -!- of a milligramme. As the fibres occlude gases and are
to some extent water-repellent, benzene was employed
instead of water as th^ immersing fluid. The gases were
eliminated by placing the balance in a suitable apparatus
and reducing the pressure of the enclosed atmosphere to
50 mm. for 5 to 10 minutes. The following results were
obtained : —
Specific Gravities at 18° of Textile Fibres
containing their normax amount of moistl re.
Fibre.
dition.
Specific Gravity.
Cotton
Wool
Spun
1-50
1-51
Wool
Combed
Spun
rso
1-30
Mohair
Combed
1'30
Hemp
i arded
ri>
Ramie
Carded
Spun
1-52
1-51
Linen
Spun
1-50
Jute
Spun
1-4S
French silk
Raw
1-.33
„
Uugummed
1-34
1 1 ss wool
2'72]
—KB.
The Specific Gr
Chit
villi of Silk.
a. 7—8, 1892,
L. \
249-
ignon.
-250.
Bull. Soc.
The density of silk in various states, namely, raw, un-
gummed, dyed, and weighed, was determined in the manner
described above (preceding abstract). The results are as
follow.
The presence of tannic acid very slightly increases the
density of the fibre. Metallic compounds cause a con-
siderable increase. (See also this Journal, 1892, 600 and
140
Condition of Silk.
Silk Dyed other mis Black.
Souple :—
■' Pure "
Increase or
Decrease in
Weight caused
by Treatment
Indicated.
Sp. Gr.
Weighted with tannic acid
Weighted with stannic oxide ..
Weighted with stannic (annate
Boiled off:—
" Pure"
Weighted with tannic acid
Weighted with stannic oxide . . .
Weighted with stannic tannate.
Black-dyed Silk.
Eaw
Souple :—
Weighted with tannic acid
Weighted with stannic oxide ...
Weighted with tannic acid ami
metallic salts.
Boiled off:—
Per Cent.
- f-43
W28
+ 71 'Tu
+ 70'3<j
- 2.V72
- 7'0t
+ 58*64
+ 32-82
1-33
1-37
T91
1'tiG
1-34
1-37
2-01
1-60
31-G
1-39
52-30
2-10
63-70
T-e.l
+
21-10
7:>-:>0
l'3t
1-30
Weighted with stannic oxide
+
tl-50
2- till
Weighted with tannic acid and
metallic salts.
+
>;t- in
1-52
-B. B.
PATENTS.
An Improved Water and Grease-proof Packing Material.
J. A. Turner, Lancaster. Eug. Pat. 1!>,899, September
19, 1891.
Paper and canvas or other suitable woven fabric are united
together by means of size or other similar grease-proof,
adhesive material ; the surface of the woven fabric is then
coated with tar or other waterproofing material. — A. G. B.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture or Pro-
duction of Paper Pulp and Textile Fibre. C. G.
Hagemann, Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,470,
October 27, 1891.
See under XIX., page 1020.
YI.-DYEING, CALICO PRINTING. PAPER
STAINING. AND BLEACHING.
Cause of the Greening, during Milling, of Logwood- Black
on Wool. O. Waither. Fiirb. Zeit. 1892, 305—308.
The greening or lightening of logwood-black on wool,
which takes place to a greater or less extent during the
milling and finishing operations, has been attributed to the
omission of tartar from the mordanting bath, and to
inefficient oxidation of the logwood. But it cannot be due
Dec. SI, 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1003
to either of these circumstances, for logwood-blacks of
satisfactory fastness are obtained without the use of tartar,
ami it is well known that a good black cannot be obtained
with logwood which has been injuriously or insufficiently
oxidised, so that the defect in shade exists, in the latter case,
prior to milling. The author traces the cause to difference
in the dyeing characters of the various kinds of wool, to
imperfect removal of the wool-yolk in scouring, and to
prolonged milling necessitated by the deterioration of the
felting property of the wool by the chromic acid mordanting
bath, such prolonged exposure of the colour lake to a heated
alkaline solution being the chief factor in its destruction,
which is aided by the friction of the rollers or other
apparatus employed. The effect of the first of these causes
is seen on mordanting and dyeing together a number of
samples of various kinds of wool, the blacks produced being
of various shades and exhibiting a slight difference in their
ability to withstand milling. The effect of the presence of
grease in the wool is to prevent the colour-lake depositing
in an intimate state in or upon the fibre. To show this and
also the injury to the felting property accruing from the
employment of chromic acid in mordanting, samples of
imperfectly-eleansed and of well-cleansed wool were severally
mordanted with iron and chrome, dyed with logwood, and
milled. The samples dyed iron-logwood black were suffi-
ciently milled in 6 J hours, those dyed chrome-logwood black
required 16 hours. The latter were fouud to have lost
more colour than the former, and the imperfectly-scoured
samples much more than the well scoured. The difference
in the two lots of wool dyed iron-logwood black was less
apparent. This injurious action of chromic acid on wool
has induced many dyers to replace it in part by copper
sulphate, or to employ a smaller proportion than usual, and
to supersaturate tbe mordanted material with colouring
matter to obtain the desired intensity of shade ; or, again,
to sadden with ferrous sulphate the material thus super-
saturated. The last of these methods yields a colour-lake
which is to a large extent superficially deposited on the
fibre, and heuce readily detached on milling. The excess
of colouring matter absorbed according to the second
method is also readily removed. The first method alone
gives a satisfactory result. Thus, an excellent black of a
superior degree of fastness to both milling and light (see
also this Journal, 1891, 460) is obtained by mordanting
with 3 per cent, of potassium bichromate and 2 to 2J per
cent, of copper sulphate, of which one-third can be
advantageously applied after dyeing. — E. B.
Peroxide of Sodium and its Application in Bleaching.
Prud'homme. Monit. Scient. July 1892, 495—496.
Until a short time ago this substance was only known as a
rare product of the laboratory. The peroxides of potassium
and sdtlium were first described by Gay Lussac and Thenard
in 1810. In 1876 Fairley obtained the sodium compound in
a crystalline form of the following composition NajOo.HnO
H. Carringlon Bolton prepared it in 1886 by dropping
sodium into potassium nitrate.
The peroxide has lately been put on the conti-
nental market at a price of 5 francs per kilo. The
German Patent deposited on 3rd February 1892, is not
yet published and therefore the mode of preparation is at
present unknown. The substance as sent out is of a
yellowish-white colour, partially powdered, and dissolves in
water with a notable rise in temperature and the dis-
engagement of a certain amount of oxygen. It is very
hygroscopic, gaining 20 per cent, in weight after 24 hours'
exposure to the air. On heating it with aniline, azobenzene
is formed. If water be added to the mixture, or to a
mixture of peroxide and benzene, flames are produced, and
in the latter case an explosion.
The peroxide contains about 20 per cent, of oxygen
available for bleaching purposes, corresponding with the
formula Na.,0., (20- 15 per cent.). This percentage is very
high, barium dioxide containing 8 per cent., and peroxide
of hydrogen (12 vols.) only 1-5 percent. It is decomposed
by dilute acids, and a solution of peroxide of hydrogen may
in this way be prepared.
Cellulose is strongly attacked and turned yellow by a
15 per cent, solution. If it be then washed and treated
with dilute aeid, it wdl take a darker shade when dyed with
Methylene blue, in this way resembling " mercerised "
cotton.
The sodium compound, on account of its strongly alkaline
reaction, cannot be directly employed in the bleaching of
fibres of animal origin, such as wool or silk. In this case
de Haen recommends that peroxide of magnesium be
employed. The author has previously studied its action in
bleaching (this Journal, 1891, 834) and showed that it
possessed greater stability than peroxide of hydrogen. In
application, 3 parts of sulphate of magnesia, which must be
free from chlorine, are added to 1 part of sodium peroxide
proportions which allow a slight excess of the former salt,
as shown in the following equation—
MgS04.7 HoO + Na.20, = Na^O, + MgO„
250 78
Method of Bleaching, (de Haen.) Wool — Well scour
the wool and enter into a bath containing 30 kilos, of
sulphate of magnesia to every 100 kilos, of wool. Tem-
perature of bath 30° C. Turn several times, lift, and add
10 kilos, of the peroxide, re-enter, and heat up to 60° — 70° C.,
and keep at that for one hour ; lift and pass through a
weak sulphuric acid bath to get rid of magnesia, rinse, and
dry as usual.
Tussak Silk. — Prepare silk in usual way, taking care to
remove all soap by repeated washing. For every 100 kilos.
of silk use 2.5U0 litres of water at 30°— 35° C. Dissolve
90 kilos, of sulphate of magnesia in the bath, give silk
3—4 turns, and lift. Add in 2— 3 lots, 30 kilos, of peroxide
and note that the bath be well stirred after each addition.
Heat up to 80°— 95° C. and keep the silk in the bath for
lj — 2 hours. Remove magnesia by passing through weak
sulphuric acid, wash and dry, or pass on to dyer. This
method is applicable to ivory, feathers, bone, or hog's
bristles.
" Chappe " Silk. — Clean the silk in the ordinary manner
and enter into a bath containing 2,500 litres of water to
every 100 kilos, of silk to which have been added 36 kilos.
of sulphate of magnesia ; give several turns, lift, and add
in small quantities 12 kilos, of the peroxide, stirring well.
Work for f hour at 95° C. and once or twice bring just up
to a boil, and take out after 1 to lj hours. Acidulate with
sulphuric acid as above, wash, and dry.
Half-Silk Goods. — (Wool and silk, or cotton and silk).
Prepare the goods before bleaching and remove all soap by
repeated washing. Enter into bath containing 30 — 36 kilos,
of sulphate of magnesia, according to colour. Give several
turns and add the peroxide, 10 — 12 kilos., and keep for
I hour at 95° C, finally arriving at a boil. Pass through
sulphuric acid. For 100 metres of cloth, 60 centimetres
wide, and weighing about 5 kilos, use 250 litres of water.
W. P. D.
On the Resistance of O.rycellulose to Colouration by
Telrazoic Dyes. M. G. Saget. Monit. Scient. September
1892, 640—641.
Witz in 1882 found that oxycellulose was dyed by basic
colouring matters but not by acid colouring matters. In
view of this, experiments were made to ascertain the effects
of the tetrazoic dyes, which are of an acid np.ture.
The author has experimented with several dyes of this
kind and find that they stain oxycellulose hrt sliehtlv, if at
all.— A..L. S. * '
A New Process for Photo-Dyeing. A. Villain.
L'Amateur Photographe, 1892.
See under XXI., page 1031.
1004
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec 31, 1892.
PATENTS.
A Xeiv or Improved Machine for Dyeing one or more
Warps. E. Brook, Slaithwaite. Eng. Pat. 22,060,
December 17, 1891.
The machine consists of a central shaft, carrying two discs
or wheels, capable of being rotated partly in and partly out
of the dye-vat. Between the two discs are cross bars or
plates arranged in radial series, and these carry the warp
which is wound round them in a continuous manner. These
bar- or plates ate provided with curved or rounded edges
and are capable of oscillation (whereby the plates of one
radial series come into contact with those of its neighbouring
series) for the purpose of gripping or holding the warp as it
emerges from the dye-liquor. — TV. E. K.
Improvements in Colour-Printing and in Apparatus to be
Employed therein. J. I.. Davies, London. Eng. Pat.
22,093, December 17, 1891.
The object of this invention is to apply printing ink in a
circular, elliptical, or curvilinear direction to blocks or
surfaces for the production of rainbow or irridescent
effects, in a circular or elliptical form. Eor this purpose a
taper or conical inking roller suitably mounted on a circular
inking slab is employed. — W. E. K.
Improvements relating to Rollers for Printing Fabrics and
Wall Papers. H. H. Lake, London. From La Societe
Evesque and Cie., Lyons. Eng. Pat. 16,958, September 22,
1892.
The design is drawn upon a lithographic stone or in fat-
inks upon transfer paper, and then transferred to a plate of
zinc or other metal, which is subsequently immersed in an
acid vat, whereby the parts not covered with fat-ink are
etched to the depth required. From this plate an impression
is pulled off on either paper or lead, and this impression is
then wound on a roller of wood and placed in a two-part
cylindrical mould, which is heated by gas or steam. The
roller of wood is next withdrawn, the axis of the roller put
back in its place, and then into the mould thus prepared a
mixture is poured of fused unattackable metal or plastic
material, such as india-rubber. After hardening, the roller
is removed from the mould, and is ready for use. The
design may be prepared either in relief or intaglio, as
desired. By a modification, the rollers, when made of zinc,
copper, or other metal attackable by acid are engraved
direct by gently rolling them with pressure against the fat-
ink transfer of the design, and then submitting them to the
etching process by means of aeid. — W. E. K.
Improvements in Dyeing Silk or Half-SHIt Goods.
K. Zillessen, sen., Crefeld, Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,538,
24 December 1891.
Uothrown silk, to be used for the warp of a fabric (the
weft of which may be silk, wool, or cotton, dyed or undyed)
is prepared before weaving with fat and a metallic mordant.
The prepared and uDprepared fibres are then woven
together in any optional pattern, and on dyeing up the
fabric the warp and weft give shades or colours different
the one from the other. — W. E. K.
Improvements in the Production of Azo-Colours on Fibre.
1!. Willcox, Loudon. From the " Farbenfabriken vorm.
E. Bayer and Co.." Elberfeld. Eng. Pat. 22,641a,
December 28, 1891.
I'nmordaxted cotton is dyed with the tetrazo-dyestuff
formed by the combination of one molecular proportion of
a titrazo-compound of benzidine, its homologue or analogue,
with (a) two molecular proportions of Cleve's alpha-
napthylamine-mono-sulpho aeid (either beta- or delta), or
(6) one molecular proportion of each of these acids, or
(c) one molecular proportion of either of these acids and
one molecular proportion of an amine, phenol, &c. of the
benzene or naphthalene series. The dyestuff thus fixed
on the fibre is next diazotised by immersion in an acidified
solution of sodium nitrite ; and the resulting diazo- or
tetrazo-product is then coupled with an amine, phenol,
amidophenol, &c. of the benzene or naphthalene series, by
immersion in its acid or alkaline solution. — W. E. K.
TIL-ACIDS, ALKALIS. AND SALTS.
PATENTS.
Process and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Cyanides.
G. T. Beilby, Slateford. Eng. Pat. 4820, March 18, 1891.
In this process ammonia gas is caused to pass over or to
bubble up through a fused mixture of anhydrous carbonate
of an alkali and finely -divided carbon, to which a sufficient
proportion of alkaline cyanide has been added to make the
mixture fuse at a low temperature. When carbonate of
potassium is used, the reaction goes on satisfactorily at a
temperature somewhat below the melting point of pure
carbonate of sodium. The cyanide may be tapped from
the bottom of the vessel in which the operation is conducted,
and the mixed materials are fed iu at the top. In this
way cyanide containing 70 per cent, of potassium cyanide
can be obtained. Or the temperature and duration of the
operation may be adjusted so that the cyanide is sublimed.
Various forms of apparatus are described and drawings of
them are given. A melting pot of cast iron may be used,
with an inlet tube at the bottom for the ammonia and a
delivery tube at the top by which the gases escaping are
carried away. These are subsequently treated to recover
sublimed cyanide and unaltered ammonia. Another form
of apparatus is fitted with revolving arms, which move the
melted mixture over a series of superimposed shelves, so
that it drops downwards from shelf to shelf, meeting a
stream of ammonia gas as it falls. The carbon may be
supplied by charcoal, lamp-black, gas-black, coke, or pitch,
&c. By using pitch or coke made from the basic tars or
from the crude oils of shale, coal, or peat, a large part of
the nitrogen they contain may be recovered as cyanide.
The specification also provides for the use of " volatile
alkaloidal bases " as a source of the nitrogen. — H. S. P.
Improvements in Generators to be used in the Production
of Hydrogen Gas. W. Hawkins. T. Hawkins, H. Fuller,
and W. H. Fuller, Portsmouth. Eng. Bat. 13,379,
July 21, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a copper or lead box divided into
four partitions, the upper two containing the solution of an
acid, and the two lower ones the zinc or other metal to be
acted upon. — H. A.
New Solid Compounds of Sulphur Trioxide, Water, and
the Bi-Sulphates or Acid Sulphates of Sodium or
Potassium. G. F. Brindlev, Handsworth. Eng. Pat.
1 7.706, October 17,1891.
The object of this invention is to obviate the difficulties of
transporting sulphuric acid, aud for this purpose it is
proposed to heat sulphuric acid of various strengths with
potassium or sodium bisulphate ; the mass is then carefully
evaporated at temperatures between 200° — 300" C. The
hot liquids aie run into drums and allowed to set. The
resulting compounds have the composition H.-,S04.XaHSO.
or 3 HjS04.2 XaHS04, with 1 molecule of wa'ter.— H. A.
Dec. 81, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1005
Improvements in Means or Process for Producing
Carbonic Acid Gas. I). Rylauds, Stairfoot. Eng. Pat.
18,231, October 23, 1891.
Ca&BONIC acid may be economically produced by first
carbonising coal in retorts, collecting the illuminating gas
given off, and then lowering the temperature to about
1,100° F. Air is now admitted in quantities " which cau
be regulated to the greatest nicet}" for securing the best
results." The carbonic acid so evolved is taken by means
of a separate main to a scrubber, and after cooling is
passed through a tower provided with shelves, where it
meets with a shower of sodium carbonate solution. The
resulting sodium bicarbonate is fed into a boiler, the
carbonic acid boiled off and collected in a holder, whilst
the solution is pumped back on the tower for absorbing
fresh quantities of carbonic acid.
An alternate method consists in burning in the retorts a
mixture of coke and limestone. — H. A.
Improvements i?t the Manufacture of Salt. J. E. Iiott,
Stockport. Kng. Pat. 18,481, October 27, 1891.
The invention refers to the evaporation of brine. The
apparatus consists of a cylindrical evaporating vessel
suspended on hollow trunnions. One of these acts as
part of the main flue from a furnace, in which air is heated
under pressure ; it is then continued to a chamber formed
in the evaporating vessel by means of a diaphragm acting
like a false bottom. The air thus heated, now passes through
vertical perforated pipes which are covered with the
solution. The other hollow trunnion serves for carrying
away the steam and air, and for this purpose is separated
from the rest of the vessel by means of a pocket reaching
almost to the top lid. The waste heat may be utilised for
heating up fresh quantities of solution in similar vessels
arranged in series. After sufficient evaporation the vessel
is disconnected, the lid unscrewed and the vessel discharged
by tilting it over on its trunnions. — H. A.
Improvements in the Manufacture of the O.cidcs of the
Alkaline Metals. II. Y. Cashier, London. Eng. Pat.
20,003, November 18, 1891.
The metallic sodium or potassium is placed in aluminium
dishes or trays, which are placed on tram carriages running
through an iron tube. The tube is built into a furnace
and its ends are tightly closed by end-plates. Air is
admitted at one end of the tube, passed through the tube
and out at the other end. The tube is heated to about
300° C. The air is first freed from moisture and carbonic
acid, and by its means a gradual oxidation of the alkaline
metal takes place, the metal at the end nearest the entrance
of the air being first converted into peroxide, whilst the
air in travelling through the tube gradually becomes
deprived of oxygen, so that the metal at the air-exit end
undergoes oxidation very slowly in an atmosphere con-
taining very little oxygen. As the finished product is
drawn out at one end of the tube a fresh charge is inserted
at the opposite end, the tram carriages being pushed
along the tube to admit of fresh trays being placed in it.
— H. S. 1'.
Improvements in and Apparatus far the Manufacture of
Alkaline or Earthy-Alkaline Bases, and of their Salts
or Compounds by the Electrolysis of Saline Solutions.
E. Hermite and A. Dubosc, Paris. Eng. Pat. 21,957,
December 15, 1891.
See under XI., page 1015.
An Improved Process for the Preparation of Pure Nitric
Acid. E. Edwards, London. From O. Guttmann and
L. Rohrmann, Muskau, Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,181,
December 23, 1891.
Nitric acid prepared in the usual way by distillation,
contains a varying proportion of lower oxides of nitrogen,
such as nitrous acid, depending upon the amount of chlorine
in the nitrate of soda used. These lower oxides have
always been removed from the finished acid by heating it
and blowing air through. This improved process effects
the removal of the nitrous acid by blowing air into the
gaseous acid before it is condensed. In this way the
nitrous acid in the presence of the water in the acid, and
air, is converted into nitric acid, the abstraction of the
water resulting in a stronger distillate being formed, whilst
the creation of a slight vacuum and the more rapid carrying
forward of the acid vapours causes a more rapid distillation.
— H. S. P.
Improvements in the Production of Salts of Ferrici/anogen.
A. M. Clark, London. From the Deutsche Gold und
Silber-Scheideanstalt, Frankfort-on-Maine. Eng. Pat.
22,558, December 24, 1891.
In the manufacture of alkaline ferricyanides, such as red
prussiate of potash, by the oxidation of the corresponding
ferro-salt by means of chlorine or bromine, the ferri-salt is
obtained contaminated by the bromides or chlorides which
pass into solution with it ; or when an electric current is
used for effecting the oxidation, caustic alkali is formed,
and renders the ferricyanide impure. This invention
obviates this difficulty by conducting the oxidation in
presence of an alkaline-earth salt, preferably calcium
ferrocyanide.
The following is stated to be the reaction when potassium
permanganate is used for oxidising: —
3 CajFeCye + 7 K4FeCy6 + 2 KMnO, =
10 K-jFeCy,; + 2 MnO + 6 CaO
The manganous oxide and the greater portion of the
caustic lime remain undissolved. After filtering, the small
quantity of caustic lime in solution may be precipitated
by carbonic acid. The electric current may also be used
for oxidising, and an equally pure product obtained. If
chlorine or bromine be used, a better yield is obtained by
introducing the calcium ferrocyanide, although the resulting
product is not so pure. A double ferrocyanide of an
alkali and alkaline earth may be used instead of mixing
the two salts.— H. S. P.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Carbonates oj
Strontium and Barium. J. Brock and J. T. Marsh,
Widnes. Eng. Pat. 22,541, December 24, 1891.
In the usual method of manufacturing these carbonates,
the bases are obtained in solution as sulphides or hydro-
sulphides. On treating this solution with carbonic acid gas
the base is precipitated as carbonate. But owing to the
presence of polysulphides in the solution and of traces of
oxygen in the carbonic acid gas, some free sulphur is
always precipitated with the carbonate of strontium or
barium, and, combining with the carbonate during the
subsequent operation of drying, spoils the product.
The patentees remove this sulphur by boiling the
precipitated carbonate suspended in water with the
corresponding hydrate of the base. About 2 cwt. of
strontium hydrate crystals suffice to remove the sulphur
from an amount of the precipitated carbonate of strontium
equal to one ton of the dry carbonate, and in the case of
barium about 2J cwt. of crystallised barium hydrate is
required. The sulphur combines with the hydrate, aud the
operation is usually effected after boiling for about half an
hour. The precipitated carbonate is then separated by a
filter-press or in any other way, washed and dried. The
solution of hydrate from the press may be used for dissolving
a fresh portion of sulphide, and after crystallising nut the
hydrate, treating the mother-liquor with carbonic acid gas,
by which means the strontium or barium in solution is
recovered without loss. — H. S. P.
in 16
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, 1892.
Improvements in Apparatus for Evaporating and Incine-
rating Spent or Used Alkaline Lyes or similar Waste
Products. A. S. Caldwell, Lasswade, N.B. Eng. Pat.
192, January 5, 1892.
The improved apparatus comprises a " splash " chamber
and incinerating furnace. The " splash " chamber has a
pan-shaped bottom upon which the more or less concentrated
lye is run from a tank. Over one end of the chamber is a
circular tower, whilst at the other end are three hearths
arranged in steps one below the other, the height of each
step being such as to enable a door to be placed at the end
of each hearth through which a tool may be thrust for raking
the drying material from one hearth down on to the next
one below it, and for raking the incinerated material out of
the lowest one. On either side of the end of the lowest
hearth is a small tire-grate for burning the fuel which dries
and incinerates the lye. The hot gases from these grates
pass over the hearths and through the splash chamber, up
the tower, and then down into a flue, where they are drawn
away to a chimney, an increased current being also obtained
by means of a fan or blower placed at the bottom of the
flue from the tower. In the splash chamber are a number
of paddles which throw up the liquor in spray, thus assisting
the evaporation of the liquid. When sufficiently dried in
this chamber the material is then raked on to the first
hearth, and afterwards on to the second, and finally on to
the third, where its incineration is completed. To prevent
particles of lye being carried away in the opposite direction
by the current of gases, screens are hung in the splash
chamber, and the object of the tower over the end of the
splash chamber is to further allow of the deposition of liquid
and prevent it being carried into the flue. By a modified
form of tower the deposition of liquid is further assisted by
the gases being caused to pass upwards in a helical manner,
so that the globules of liquid are thrown against the side of
the tower. There are other details of construction, including
air passages in the walls of the furnace, where air is heated
by radiated heat from the furnace. — H. S. P.
Improvements in Means or Apparatus for the Manufacture
of a Mixture of Hydrochloric Acid Gas and Air. La
Societe A. K. Pechiney et Cie., Salindres, France. Eng.
Pat. 8276, May 2, 1892.
This improvement refers to apparatus for the production of
a mixture of gaseous hydrochloric acid and air from
solutions of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.
The apparatus consists of a vessel where the acid solutions
mix and from whence they overflow into a tower packed
with flint. A current of air passes up this tower, liberating
the hydrochloric acid and eventuall}' mixing with the whole
of the gas given off. The resulting gas mixture may be
used for the preparation of chlorine by the Deacon process.
The mixing of the acids proceeds in a closed vessel
divided by means of a partition wall into two unequal parts,
which communicate on the tops and on the bottom. The
narrower part is provided with shelves to produce a better
mixture of the liquids, which then pass under the partition-
wall and rise to a certain height in the second compartment,
finally overflowing into the tower. On the other hand, the
hydrochloric acid gas given off in the first compartment
passes above the partition-wall into the second compartment,
and from thence into the tower, forming one stream with
the hydrochloric acid gas given ofi there. — H. A.
Improvements in the Method of and in Apparatus for
the Production of Carbonic Acid Gas. W. Stones,
R. Bardsley, and T. H. Hayes, Manchester. Eng. Pat.
15,275, August 25, 1892.
The apparatus is to regulate the supply of gas from a
carbonic acid gas generator (in which the gas is generated
by acid from a carbonate) according to the required rate of
consumption. The gas passes from the generator into the
lower part of a closed vessel containing water, whence it is
drawn away as required by a pipe at the top of the vessel.
There is also a pipe in the lower part of this vessel, which
connects it with an open vessel placed on a higher level.
The pressure of the gas on the surface of the water in the
closed vessel forces some of the water up into the open
vessel, and the level of the water in the latter vessel rises
and falls according as the pressure of the gas above the
surface of the water in the closed vessel increases or
diminishes. By means of a floating ball on the surface of
the water in the open vessel, to which a lever is attached, a
valve is opened or closed in a third vessel containing acid,
so that when the consumption of gas is increased and the
pressure in the closed vessel falls, causing a corresponding
fall of level of water in the open vessel, the valve in the
acid tank is opened, allowing more acid to flow into the
generator and thus increasing the supply of gas ; and on
the contrary, when the consumption of gas is decreased, the
ball-float rises and effects the closing of the acid valve,
thus diminishing or cutting off the supply of acid to the
generator. — H. S. P.
New Process for the Production of the Cyanides of the
Alkalis and Alkaline Earth by the Simultaneous
Employment of a Hydrocarbon and Ammonia Gases,
with the addition, if desired, of Free Nitrogen. H. J.
Haddan, London. From the Viscount of Lambilly,
Paris. Eng. Pat. 15,513, August 29, 1892.
The process consists " in the simultaneous decomposition
by heat of a mixture of hydrocarbon ga9 with ammonia
gas, to which it is of advantage to add also free nitrogen,
in the presence of an easily cyanisable alkali or alkaline
earth, such as the carbonates or oxides of potassium,
sodium, or of barium."
The free nitrogen is obtained by passing air over copper
at a red heat. The hydrocarbon gas may be obtained in
any of the known ways, by distillation of coal or animal
or vegetable matter, and the distillation should be carried
on at as low a heat so as to obtain a gas as richly carburetted
as possible. Two methods are described for increasing the
proportion of hydrocarbons in the gas, the one by passing
the gas over the copper oxide obtained in making oxygen-
free nitrogen at a red heat, thus removing a portion of the
free hydrogen and a part of the combined hydrogen ; and
the other, which forms one of the claims in this patent,
by passing the gas through a series of cylinders tilled with
pieces of carbon impregnated with a liquid hydrocarbon,
such as coal-tar or heavy oils, or a mixture of carbon and
powdered rosin, the cylinders being heated to a temperature
below that at which the hydrocarbons commence to distil
varying from 40° — 50° for petroleum oils up to 300° — 350°
for rosin. Gas already used for cyanisation may be
re-carburetted in this way and so used over and over
again. The ammonium gas may be obtained in any known
way. It is collected in a gasometer to be mixed either with
the hydrocarbon gases alone or with these and with free
nitrogen.
The material to be converted into cyanide is prepared by
adding " to a concentrated solution of carbonate or oxide
of potassium or sodium at least 100 parts of powdered
carbon for every 100 parts of alkali. This solution is
evaporated to dryness and 20 — 30 parts of powdered chalk
and 50 parts of iron filings added. It is useful to
agglomerate this mixture by adding pitch or tar" and
making it up into briquettes. This mixture is charged into
iron cylinders and heated until gases cease to be evolved,
the evolution being assisted by exhausting the cylinders
with a pump. When no more gas comes off, the mixture
of hydrocarbon, ammonia, and nitrogen gases is passed
into the cj'linders under slight pressure. After cyanisation
the mass in the cylinders is withdrawn and lixiviated as in
the ordinary processes to obtain the ferrocyanide of the
alkali used. The solid residue is used again in the process,
serving as an absorbent for a fresh solution of alkali. (See
also this Journal, 1891, 642, and 1892, 604).— H. S. P.
Dec. 81. 1893.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
I uo7
YIII.-GLASS, POTTERY, AND
EARTHENWARE.
PATENTS.
Improvements applicable to Furnaces or Retorts used in
the Production of Glass and for similar Purposes.
1). Rylands, Stairfoot, Yoiks. Eng. Pat. 18,230,
October 23, 1891.
The invention relates to utilisation of waste heat in the
process of glass manufacture by the action of superheated
steam upon sand mixed with chlorides. In the first place
a suitable floor is fixed over the crown of the melting
furnace, the heat from which evaporates to dryness the
solution of chloride of calcium which is brought from the
bleach-powder works. The calcium chloride is then
mixed with salt aud sand in a chamber which is kept at
a proper temperature for the dry-mixing of a hygroscopic
body by the waste heat from a flue and retort below. It is
in this retort where the chemical action takes place, super-
heated steam being admitted and glass " frit " and
hydrochloric acid formed. The frit is passed into the
melting furnace and the hydrochloric acid gas is carried
over by a pipe and condensed in the usual way. — V. ( '.
An Improved Process for the Electro-deposition of Metal
upon the Surface of Glass, Porcelain, China, Earthen-
ware, and other Materials. A. S. Ford, London. From
H. Pottier, Paris. Eng. Pat. 18,256, October 23, 1891.
TnK difficulty of obtaining a satisfactory metallic coating
by means of electro-deposition upon glass, porcelain, and
earthenware, is in this invention overcome by applying to
the surface of the article a paste containing borate of lead,
finely-divided silver, and oil. The article is then heated in a
muffle furnace, after which the surface will receive a firmly
adherent deposit by electro-deposition. — V. C.
Improvements in the Construction of Tank Furnaces for
the Manufacture of Glass. T. C. J. Thomas, London.
Eng. Pat. 19,777, November 14, 1891.
In a former patent granted to the inventor (Eng. Pat.
12,076 of 1886) a process is described for eliminating
impurities in the frit by the action of a blast of oxygen or
air.
The present invention relates to the construction of a
tank furnace for carrying out this process, the wall of the
furnace being provided with one or more downward inclined
gas passages, having their outlet ends terminating below
the level of the frit. The passages, which are lined with
refractory material, are connected with a common supply
pipe provided with a regulating valve. — V. C.
A Netv Product to scree as a Substitute for Pottery for
Filtering Purposes, and for the Manufacture of Tobacco
Pipes and the like. J. E. G. Meran, Paris. Eng. Pat.
20,861, November 30, 1891.
Asbestos fibres are of smaller diameter than auy others,
whether of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, and yield
on pulverisation particles so fine that when agglomerated
and moulded into a suitable form a filtering medium is
obtained which will not allow bacteria to pass, and is
therefore eminently suitable for sterilising liquids. After
a filtration the material may be cleansed by heating. The
material is also suitable for the bowls of tobacco pipes and
may be used as a substitute for ceramic ware generallv.
— V. C.
An Improved Process for Producing Colours on Gluss
Surfaces. J. C. Dnntze, Frankfort. Eng. Pat. 16,241,
September 10, 1892.
Previous to this invention coloured designs produced upon
glass by mechanical means have never possessed sufficient
transparency to form a perfect substitute for stained glass.
In this invention the required transparency is obtained by
means of the following process : — The transfer colours are
taken off on transparent transfer paper, which before being
moistened, is pressed against the surface of the glass by
rubbing until the colours begin to adhere. It is then
moistened and further rubbed until the moisture has
nearly, but not quite, disappeared from the paper, where-
upon the paper is taken off. — V. C.
IX-BUILDING MATERIALS, CLATS.
MORTARS, AND CEMENTS.
Portland Cement and Portland Cement Concrete. H. K.
Bamber, E. A. Carey, and W. Smith. Proc. Inst. Civil
Eng. 107, Session 1891—92.
One of the meetings of the last session of the Institution of
Civil Engineers was devoted to the reading of three papers
upon the subject above mentioned, and two subsequent
meetings to the discussion which was taken on all three
papers at once, as they were of cognate import. The first
paper was by H. K. Bamber, on " Portland Cement, its
Manufacture, Use, and Testing." With regard to the
testing it is pointed out by the author in this paper, that
the usual method of ascertaining whether the cement has
been burnt hard enough, namely, the weight per bushel, is
fallacious, as many causes other than the true density of the
cement particles,"affect the results. He urges the substitution
of the determination of the specific gravity, stating that a good
cement, when new, will have a sp. gr. of .3*1 to 3" 15, while
if it fall below 2 • 9 the cement has either been improperly
burnt, or has become deteriorated by exposure to the
air. He details his method of taking the specific gravity
of cement, water being used instead of turpentine, which is
generally adopted because of the action of water on cement
even when the exposure is short. The alteration is made
on the ground that the expansion of turpentine by rise of
temperature is inconveniently great. He deprecates the
practice of aerating cement with a view of rendering it free
from tendency to blow, stating that with a well-burnt
cement of proper composition such a process is unnecessarj'.
The fineness should be such that the whole of the cement
would pass through a sieve having 2,500 meshes per square
inch, and not less than 90 per cent., through one with 5,625
meshes. Experiments were made on the proper proportion
of water with which to mix concrete. Blocks composed of
four parts of shingle, two of sand, and one of cement, were
used, the cement being newly ground. It had the following
composition : —
Silica 2S,33
Alumina and ferric oxide 12'13
Lime 61' 56
Magnesia 1*07
Sulphuric acid [sic) 1'28
Carbonic acid 0'30
Organic matter and loss 0*84
100 -oo
Three sets of blocks of the mixture given above were
made in duplicate with varying proportions of water. The
first were mixed with as much water as the cement would
take up, which proved to be 10 1b. for each block. The
second with 7 ■ 5 lb. of water, the third pair with 5 lb. After
standing for a fortnight one of each of these sets was placed
on a sea wall for 12 months, being constantly covered and
uncovered by the tide. On breaking them at the end of
1008
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. Llv<.3i,iss».
the test it was fouud that the one with 10 lb. of water was
hard and sound and dry throughout ; that with 7 • 5 lb. was
dry in the middle, but on every side the water had pene-
trated about 3 in. and had much weakened the block ; that
with 5 lb. was wet right through, the sea water having been
able to percolate through the block and remove much of the
lime. It was quite weak. The check experiments were
made on the remaining blocks of each set, fresh water
being, however, used instead of sea water, the penetration of
the water being similar to that observed with the previous
specimens. It was noticed that with No. 1 (that with 10 lb.
of water) the water in which it stood remained clear ; with
Xo. 2 the water became turbid from the presence of car-
bonate of lime ; and in the case of Xo. 3 the turbidity was
greater, and at the end of 12 months the whole block
being covered with crystals of carbonate of lime, ] to \ in.
iu thickness. The experiment on the blocks exposed to
the sea gave the same results when extended to three
years. The influence of the quantity of water in concrete
on its porosity was shown by the following experiments.
Blocks were made consisting of 5,184 cub. in. of shingle,
2,592 cub. in. of sharp sand, 1,296 cub. in. of cement
mixed with 30 lb. of water, and this amount sufficed to
exactly fill a box 18 iu. cube. Another mass, precisely the
same in composition save that 15 lb. of water were used
instead of 30 lb., more than sufficed to fill the same box,
only seven-eighths of the mixture being contained by it.
The obvious deduction is that the latter was more porous
than the former. The author concludes that it is necessary,
in order to secure sound concrete, to ensure its being
thoroughly wet so that it may be non-porous, and the water
with which it may be placed in contact be prevented from
washing in and out. In the case of sea water this is
especially important, because of the well-known destructive
action of the magnesium salts therein on the lime com-
pounds in the cement, should it obtain access to the heart
of the work. Attempts to make the concrete extra strong
by mixing it as dry as possible defeat themselves.
A paper was read on " The Inspection of Portland Cement
for Public Works," by A. E. Carey. Dealing with the raw
materials the author states that the average proportion of
coarse sand as determined by elutriation, is 3 per cent, in
gault clay, and in Gillingham mud 7 ■ 9 per cent. Grey chalk
is more easily washed than white, but needs greater vigilance
with the calcimeter owing to its more variable composition.
The fine state of division of the carbonate of lime left as a
waste product in Chance's sulphur recovery process, recom-
mends it as a raw material for the manufacture of cement.
The wash mill should be driven at about 22 revolutions per
minute, and the minimum of water should he used ; 25 per
cent suffices. Assuming the ordinary semi-dry process to
be used, the wet grinding after the cement comes from the
wash mill must be sufficient to reduce the raw materials to
a point at which the dried slurry leaves not more than 8 per
cent, on a sieve having 22,500 meshes per square inch. So
good a result is difficult to attain, and it is usual to pass a
handful of the slurry through a 1,000 or 2,500 mesh sieve,
testing the fineness by the absence of grittiness to the
touch. As has been shown by Le Chatelier the spontaneous
disintegration of clinker is due to the presence of dicalcium
silicate (this Journal, 1888, 567).
The picking out of the pink and yellow underburnt clinker
is most important, and in one specification mentioned it is
insisted that this shall be done by daylight. As long ago
as 1865 Sir H. Bramwell pointed out that the specific gravity
of cement is one of the data by which its quality can be
judged. The weight per bushel should be abandoned as too
inexact to be useful, and the determination of the specific
gravity adopted to its stead. With regard to the fineness of
cement the old demand for a residue not exceeding 10 per
cent, on a sieve with 2,500 meshes per square inch is fast
becoming obsolete, as it is really only the floury part of
cement that has any cohesive properties. The residue left
on a sieve with 32,257 meshes per square inch (5,000 per
square cm.) has practically no cementitious value. The
increased value of a finely-ground cement is more apparent
with sand than with neat tests. The practice of sifting the
cement as it comes from the stones does not necessarily
conduce to finer grinding, as the miller, trusting to his sieves
to reject the coarser particles, might set his stones so as to
produce a cement of coarser average than would be possible
if grinding without sieves. The following figures show the
effect of fine grinding. The cement used had a specific
gravity of 3 '125, and was gauged with three parts of
standard sand to one of cement, and 10 per cent, of water,
at a temperature of 46° F. The mean results for six
briquettes for each test at 28 days were : —
Tensile Strength
Lb. per sq. in.
Original cement, 9 per cent, on a sieve with
2,500 meshes 2'20
Cement with residue above mentioned removed 3»1
With residue on a 5,625 sieve removed .'ill
With residue on a 32,257 sieve removed 360
Cement, as it leaves the stones, has a temperature of
150° — 160° P., and in grinding to a fineness corresponding
to a residue of 8 per cent, on a 2,500 mesh sieve, a pair of
4J ft. stones running at 140 revolutions per minute produces
25 — 32 cwt. per hour, and absorbs 35 to 40 horse-power.
Edge-runuers do not appear to yield good results, from the
absence of the shearing action characteristic of stones.
Modern modifications of the edge-runner, however, may give
cement that is of higher strength for the same degree of
fineness than that from stones, while in one case mentioned
the power absorbed per ton per hour was 14-96 horse-power,
and the cement left the mill at a temperature of 77° — 75° F.
Iu the author's opinion aeration is desirable to remove the
baneful effects of free lime, and he suggests that in view of
the change that cement often suffers on long voyages, it
might in some cases prove convenient to export clinker and
grind it at its destination. With respect to testing he is in
favour of the 1 in. x 1 in. briquette ; even a half-inch size
might be useful for rapid testiug. He recommends the
Dietrich form of calcimeter, and doubts the advisability of
introducing compressive tests into ordinary specifications.
He deprecates the issue of standard regulations for the
testing of cement such as are in use in Germany, Prance,
Russia, and elsewhere, as it might tend to check the
progressive improvement in quality that has been so
marked a feature of late years when no such standard
existed in this country. There is, however, appended to
his paper a specification that might serve as a standard,
should one be adopted. Its chief point of novelty is the
insistence on the necessity of determining the specific
gravity, which is fixed at a minimum of 3"1. The Arnold
apparatus for making briquettes without hand-trowelling,
although ingenious, should not displace ordinary gauging by
hand, as the operator is better able to judge the quality of
the cement by actual manipulation. An objection to the
apparatus is that it is more favourable to a light than a
heavy cement, as owing to its greater volume the former is
more compressed than the latter. A quick setting cement
is put at a disadvantage, as the immersed face becomes set
before the water penetrates to all parts of the briquette.
Further, as the briquettes are dealt with in a series at one
operation, the weight of the water absorbed by each cannot
be accurately measured. Its results cannot usefully be
compared with those got by baud gauging. Although in
gauging briquettes for tensile tests the smallest proportion
of water that can be used gives the highest results, yet
higher figures are obtained in compressive tests when
plenty of water is taken. Thus a cube made of one part
of cement and three of normal sand gauged with 10 per
cent, of water had a crushing strain of 1,425 lb. per square
inch, while one with 20 per cent, of water crushed at a load
of 1,679 lb.
Silt in the water used for making concrete has a
deleterious influence on the cement. An experiment was
made to show how far this occurred. Six briquettes were
gauged neat with 20 per cent, of distilled water (the
cement having a specific gravity of 3-1), and took three
hours to set, and had an average tensile strength of 480 lb.
per sq. iu. Another test was made, in which the water was
mixed with one-fiftieth of its weight of Thames mud,
corresponding to about one-huudredth by volume, and took
four hours to set, and broke at 411 lb. Experiments were
also made to ascertain the effect of frost on the strength of
Dae. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1009
cement, and arc recorded in one of the appendices of
the paper. Briquettes panned with water at 55° — 60° K.
and immersed in water of the same temperature, had a
tensile strength of 540 lb. at seven days, and one of 585 lb.
at 14 and 28 days. Briquettes of the same cement, gauged
in the same manner, but subsequently exposed to a tempe-
tature ranging from 22° — 41° F. had a tensile strength id'
:;57 lb. at seven days, 552 at 14 days, and 595 at 28 days.
The deduction is therefore that exposure to frost only
delays the increase of strength of cement, but does not
affect the final result. (Th'is Journal, 1889, 393.) The
influence of frost on concrete may however be serious on
account of the disruptive force of the frozen water it
contains, and the best means for preventing it has occupied
the attention of the Kussian and American authorities. It
has been found that the addition of common salt to the
water, up to the proportion of 8 per cent., enables work to
be carried on even in severe weather. The contrary effect
to the retardation due to frost, is observed in work exposed
to a tropical or sub-tropical climate. The author calls
attention to the well-known phenomenon that the tensile
strength of cement may fall off while the compressive
strength continues to increase, and attributes it to a change
in the molecular structure of the cement.
With regard to the effect of magnesia in cement, the
author remarks that in the ease of notorious failures that
have occurred in cements from the presence of magnesia,
the percentage of that substance is far in excess of the
quantity existing is normal and marketable Portland
cements. (This Journal, 1889,781; also 1890, 943 and
1037.) He quotes the case of a failure of cement not
containing excess of magnesia, but over-limed and under-
burnt, in which a 6-in. flooring of concrete forced the
walls of a building which were 18 in. thick, out of line,
and eventually crumpled up the floor itself, causing it to
assume a serrated form and finally to disintegrate, as an
analogous instance of the blowing tendency of excess of
basic material in the cement, whether in the form of lime
or magnesia. He draws a clear distinction between the
magnesia originally present in cement, due to the use of
dolomitic raw materials, and that found in disintegrated
concrete which has been exposed to the action of the sea,
and has been derived from the sea water by the precipitating
action of the lime in the cement, maintaining that the white
deposits arising from the latter cause, are themselves harm-
less, and are only evidence that damage has already been
done by the reaction with the lime of the cement aforesaid.
Experiment made to test the porosity of concrete and the
diminution in porosity by the application of a coat of
cement or cement mortar, showed that concrete mixed in
such proportions as one part cement, three parts beach, and
three parts coarse sand, was fairly porous, an average
leakage of one gallon a day through a plug 12 in. thick
taking place under a head of 30 ft. of water. Stirring
cement into the water resting on the plug, and allowing it
to settle, had little effect in diminishing the leakage, as the
cement did not set, aud acted much as a similar amount of
clay might have done. When the surface of the concrete
was rendered with a layer of neat cement or of cement
mortar laid evenly on, however, the leakage practically
ceased. Cement grout run on to the surface of the concrete
had little effect. In conclusion some results are given of
the influence of sugar, carbonate of soda, and common salt
on the strength of cement. The cement used had a specific
gravity of 3 '03, and left a residue of 9' 5 per cent, on a
2,500-mesh sieve. It had a crushing strain at three months
of 7,392 lb. per sq. in when tested neat, and one of 2,112
when mixed with three times its weight of sand. The
addition of 5 per cent, of common brown sugar caused
three of the test-pieces prepared with it to fall to pieces
before they could be placed in position in the testing
machine ; three others gave an average breakage strain of
2,557 lb. per sq. in. A similar experience is recorded
with the sand tests, three of the test-pieces crumbling
spontaneously and the remaining three giving a result of
1,358 lb. Twelve test-pieces containing 25 per cent, of
sugar, with and without sand, all went to pieces ; the |
contraction was more marked than with those containing |
5 per cent, of sugar. In all cases a large quantity of
a tasteless gelatinous substance exuded from the blocks ;
they also contracted greatly on setting, especially the neat
samples. With 2 ■ 5 per cent, of washing soda, a com-
pressive strength of 2,862 lb. was observed with the neat
cement, and 855 lb. with the sand, the figures becoming
2,841 and 1,241 respectively when the amount of soda was
doubled. 2'5 per cent, of common salt gave a strength of
3,590 lb., and 932 lb. with neat and sand test-pieces.
The third paper was by W. Smith on " The Influence of
Sea Water upon Portland Cement Mortar, and Concrete."
The author recounts the nature of the damage done at
Aberdeen, where a failure of concrete work occurred some
years ago which has been the immediate cause of the
anxiety that has been displayed in this country, both as to
the effect of the presence of magnesia in Portland cement,
and that of the action of the sea on its chemical ami
mechanical stability. The matter was reported upon by
the late Prof. Brazier. The deduction drawn by engineers
from this case and others is that it is of paramount
importance to make concrete structures exposed to flowing
water, and in particular sea water, impervious, so that
in- and out-percolation may not take place and pro-
duce the destructive effects that have been observed
when this condition has not been fulfilled. Accordingly
the author carried out some experiments to ascertain
what was the permeability of concrete mixed in different
proportions. The apparatus shown in the Figure was
Pipe leading to'
cistern, &tft-- above
top of block.
Apparatus for Testing the PEintKAniLiTV op
Concrete.
used. It consists of a cast-iron box ,in which to mould
and contain a cubic foot of concrete. It is provided with
a conical bottom, ending in a square pipe, and is fitted with
a water-tight cover, having a socket for the reception of
the end of the pressure pipe connected with an overhead
tank 24 ft. above the top of the block of concrete, and
containing sea water. The results of the experiments,
which are given in the form of an appendix at too great
length to transcribe, show that to obtain an impermeable
concrete (1) the cement must be fiuely ground, leakage
occurring with a cement that left a residue of 10 per cent,
on a 2,500-mesh sieve, while one that left only 2*5 per cent,
on a 5,800-mesh sieve, made up in the same way was much
less pervious. Coarse Boman cement was also very far
from impermeable. (2.) That the cement should not be
present in a smaller proportion than 1 to 6 of sand and
stones. (3.) That the concrete should have sufficient time
(at least three months) to set before the application of the
pressure. If any of these conditions are made less favour-
able to the impermeability of the concrete, the remainder
must be altered in the opposite direction. The author
emphasises the innocuosness of the quantity of magnesia
1010
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. 31, 189S.
present in Portland cement of good quality, and with regard to
that deposited by the double decomposition of the magnesium
salts in the sea water with the cementitious lime compounds
in the concrete, points out that the continuance of the -re-
action, and the consequent destruction of the work, can only
take place where, on account of the influence of a head of
water or the extreme porosity of the concrete, the sea water
has constant access to it, and thus continually introduces fresh
quantities of magnesium salts. The rate of hydration of
magnesia has been determined |by H. T. Jones of Aberdeen
University, who found that in 24 hours it absorbed 36 per
per cent, of water, in 48 hours 38" 74 per cent., and in nine
days 44-3 per cent., theory demanding 45 per cent,
calculated on the original magnesia, showing that the rate
of hydration was more rapid than that of Portland cement.
No information is given as to the temperature at which the
magnesia had been burnt. Analyses are given of a sample
of Roman cement containing 2 '47 per cent, of " sulphuric
acid," the quotation of the figures being apropos of the
alleged effect of quantities of sulphuric anhydride of this
order of magnitude on the stability of cement concrete.
In this instance no ill effects could be traced to its presence.
Dealing with preventive and remedial measures, the
author demonstrates the futility of trusting to the imper-
meability of a film of calcium carbonate on the concrete,
whether produced by exposure to air or more rapidly by
washing the blocks with a solution of ammonium carbonate,
as this is not sufficient to resist the entrance of sea water
under pressure. He considers that the exclusion of the
water by a film of Portland cement mortar cannot be
permanently effective. Any accidental imperfection in the
impervious coating will admit water and allow the destruc-
tion of the concrete beneath it. A lining of fine concrete
2 — 3 feet thick is more satisfactory, but again mischief
may arise from the penetration of sea water through
accidental openings to the porous hearting of the work. He
concludes that the only certain way of building large
masses of concrete or masonry for immersion in sea water
under variable pressure, is to make the entire mass
impermeable. It then becomes a question of expense
whether Portland cement concrete may be more suitable
for any work in sea water than masonry. Taking local
prices (Aberdeen), he estimates the cost per cubic yard of
the former at 1/. 0*. 2d., and of the latter, using cement
mortar, at 19s. Sd. The forcing out of place of massive
blocks of concrete may be traced in some cases to the
presence of cavities in the work, which allow of sudden
compression of the air in them by the waves and subsequent
release, the action being purely mechanical, but sufficiently
vigorous to eject blocks whose adhesion has been weakened
by previous chemical decomposition.
A lengthy discussion on the three papers took place,
certain portions of which are suitable for abstraction.
II. Hayter endorses the necessity of adopting the determina-
tion of the specific gravity of cement in place of that of the
weight per bushel. He quotes the ease of the destruction
of concrete at Belfast, in which analysis showed that the
creamy deposit found in the damaged portions contained
80 per cent, of magnesium hydrate, and draws attentii a to
the utility of the Deval hot test for excess of lime (this
Journal, 1891, 255). L. Williams points out that as a rule
Thames and Medway cements are to be preferred to those
from the North country. T. 1'evan mentions a case of a
sample of cement weighing 112 lb. per bushel when shipped,
and only 102 lb. on its arrival in the interior of Australia.
K. W. Young contributes some figures obtained in testing
cement at Cockatoo Island, New South Wales, in which the
effect of a long sea voyage in lowering the specific gravity
is evident. The highest observed was 3' 15 and the lowest
2-63 (sic), while the mean was :_!ti75. H. Faija demurs to
tli- snpposition that magnesia in cement can be regarded as
a passive diluent, and is of opinion that it should be
regarded as so much lime. An instance of the decom-
position of blue lias lime by sea water is given by
I . Harrison. At West Hartlepool, concrete composed of
1 '."p parts of blue lias lime, 1'5 of clean sand, and 0'5 of
forge cinders was used for the construction of dock walls
and entrance locks. After being in place fur seven years
from the time when water was admitted to the docks, the
whole of the mortar below high water-mark was found to
have become soft. Commenting on this, J. W. Barry
observes that such failures are due to the omission of
thorough slaking of the hydraulic lime before use. At Barry
Docks the lime, after having been drawn from the kilns, was
completely wetted in sheds, and covered up with sand for
not less thau seven nor more than 14 days before being
used. H. C. Seddon mentions an instance of the decom-
position of concrete by ferruginous water, which percolated
through comparatively porous mixtures, and in so doing
became coloured green (due to the presence of ferrous
sulphide), and contained sulphuretted hydrogen.
In the correspondence upon the papers the following
views are worth recording. W. Sowerby states that in
India certain lime nodules, supposed to be remnants of
broken up coral reefs, are calcined, mixed with burnt
clay, calcined ironstone and sand iu about equal proportions,
and incorporated iu a mortar mill, the mixture serving as
hydraulic mortar. The same purpose has been served
by mixing calcined iron ore with lime. Iu Madras, where
shells are used as the raw material for mortar, coarse sugar
is added with good effect (this Journal, 1889, 545).
W. Matthews suggests the precipitated calcium carbonate
produced by the Clark process for softening water, as a raw-
material for cement. P. J. Neate contributes the following
figures for the expenditure of energy iu grinding clinker.
Taking the specific heat of cement as 0'155, a ton of
cement raised in temperature by grinding from 60° to
200° F., would require the expenditure of 37,500,000 ft. lb.
A pair of mill stones, 4" 5 ft. in diameter and running at
140 revolutions per minute, would grind 25 cwt. of cement
per hour and absorb 40 I.H.P., of which 23 '7 horse-power
would, from the above calculation, appear as sensible heat
in the cement. A better result has been obtained with
a large four-runner mill, having all its runners acting on the
same inclined path in succession, 14 horse- power being
used, and the cement delivered at a temperature of 70° F.
The thermal economy of a cement kiln is considered by
B. H. Thwaite. Taking the specific heat of the raw
materials as 0-18, and the clinkering temperature as
3,000° F., the theoretical expenditure of heat necessary to
raise them to this temperature is 1,209,600 heat units.
The actual expenditure is fiom five to 10 times as much,
so that the degree of economy is very poor. H. K. G.
Bamber gives a table showing the decrease of specific
gravity of cement on keeping, but as no information is
given as to the conditions of exposure of the samples to the
air, no end can be served by quoting it. W. G. Margetts
has experimented with the Deval hot test (this Journal,
1891, 255), but has adopted the boiling point of water
in place of 80° C. (176° F.) prescribed by its originator,
and endorses the results obtained by him. H. X. Draper
recalls the work of Le Chatelier (this Journal, 1888, 567,
847). and from the results arrived at by the French chemist,
calculates that the theoretical quantity of water for the
complete hydration of the tricalcium silicate and tricalcium
alumiuate present in a sample of cement of normal
composition, is 41 per cent., an amount greatly in excess of
that generally used in gauging test briquettes. The
supposed disintegration of concrete exposed to sea water
by the expansion of the magnesium hydrate resulting from
the double decomposition between the lime compounds in
the cement and the magnesium salts in the water, is
proved to have no foundation in fact from the following
considerations. The specific gravity of freshly formed
calcium hydrate is 2 ■ 12, and that of freshly formed
magnesium hydrate in its bulkiest form 1 ■ 65, and so far
the figures favour the above-mentioned theory. But the
molecular weight of calcium hydrate is 74, and that of
magnesium hydrate 58, whence it follows that the space
occupied by one molecule of magnesium hydvate is to that
occupied by one molecule of calcium hydrate as 35' 14 is to
34-8. As magnesium hydrate may exist in denser terms,
e.g., as brucite, sp. gr. 2-35, it is possible that it may
occupy even less space relative to that taken bj the lime.
W. F. Reid insists upon the necessity of drying turpentine
to be used for taking the specific gravity of cement by
allowing it to stand over fresh Portland cement before use,
and also on the futility of giving the percentage of total
]>v i,i89-.'.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
loll
silica only iu a clay when it is to be employed for cement
making, as it is of importance to know what proportion is
present as sand. Japp's volumeter (this Journal, 1891, 1029)
or Lunge's new nitrometer (this Journal, 1891, 1031 ; also
1892, 1083) is preferable to the older calcimeters for testing
the slurry for its percentage of calcium carbonate. The
addition of salt to concrete to allow of work being carried on
at low temperatures, is not advisable, as it sometimes leads
the deterioration of the cement. The mixture of crushed
limestone with concrete has been known to hinder the
action of sea water upon it. A criticism that may be
urged to the experiments of H. T. Jones, upon the
absorption of water by magnesia, is that the hydraulic
properties of that substance depend wholly upon the
temperature at which it has been calcined. At the
clinkering temperature of cement it becomes almost devoid
of hydraulic properties, and absorbs water very slowly.
The apparent strength of a concrete mixture must always
be considered in the light of the fact that, on accouut of
its coarse grinding, English cement contains only about
50 per cent, of matter that has cementitious properties, so that
a nominal 1 : X mixture is really only about 1:16. R. Feret,
commenting on Bamher's assertion that the lime in the
cement acts upon the silica of the sand grains with which
it is mixed, remarks that actual experiment and observation
of the grains of quartz embedded in Portland cement
mortar, prove that they remain quite unattacked, and that
the alleged action does not take place. He gives the results
of experiments in which the portions of cement removeable
b}* sifting through a sieve of 5,800 meshes per square inch
and through one. of 32,300 meshes per square inch were
replaced by an equal amount of sand, which shows that,
except in the case of neat cement, the substitution of sand
for the coarser cement does not decrease its strength, while
even with the finer cement the decrease in compressional
strength is not proportional to the amount of undoubtedly
inert matter substituted, and the tensile strength is even
slightly higher when sand is used in place of the com-
paratively coarse cement. The results bear out Reid's
statement that about half the weight of English cement is
practically inert on account of its coarseness. The most
economical degree of fineness is . indicated by the work of
the same author, recorded in Aunales des Fonts et Chausses,
6, 19, 346. There is for any given mixture of a definite
cement and sand, a proportion of water which gives the
greatest strength, and another somewhat iu excess of this
which gives the most plastic consistency. The same
relation holds good for maximum impermeability. A
table, too voluminous to transcribe, contaius the results of
experiments on which these statements are based.
W. Kidd, dealing with the cost of tine grinding, concludes
that an extra cost of 3s. per ton in grinding only adds 8d.
to the cost of a cubic yard of 5 : 1 concrete, while increasing
the strength of the mortar about 50 per cent. As the eight
pennyworth of cemeDt is only half a cubic foot, or about
10 per cent, of the total amount used, a reduction of the
quantity of cement might be made to this extent, and still
give a stronger concrete than the coarser cheaper cement.
C. Colson raises the question of the size of the wire of
which the sieves for testing the fineness of cement are
made. Strictly, the size of the wire must be specified as
well as the number of meshes per square inch. Standard
sand must not only be sized but washed with hydrochloric
acid to free it from calcareous matter, which tends to raise
the strength of the cement tested with it. The injurious
action of oils upon cement is mentioned by Dyckerhoff
The addition of slaked lime to Portland cement helps it to
withstand the action of sea water. The experience of
M. Fitzmaurice in the building of the Chignecto Ship
Railway in Nova Scotia, leads to the belief that concrete
can be made and used in severely cold weather, provided
that it is mixed under cover, and is kept thawed by the
use of jets of steam and similar means at the time of its
being put into place. If these precautions be disregarded,
the concrete will not set and harden at all, even after the
frost has ceased. YV. Shield, trying the effect of exposing
test-pieces of cement to the action of boiling water, finds
that well aerated cement, such as that which is slightly
caked at the surface of a heap, does uot crack, while those
made from cement from the heart of the same heap fail,
pointing to the need for aeration on a large scale to' avoid
the evil effects of underburut and overtimed cements. — B. B.
The Building Stones of Great Britain. T. H. Beare.
Proc. Inst. Civil Eug. 107, Session 1891 — 02.
The following data for the stones examined were ascertained.
Crushing strength, density (by which is meant apparent
density, as determined by weighing a block of known size,
as opposed to true specific gravity), absorptive power,
effects of low temperature, and alteration of the modulus
of elasticity with increasing pressure. The experiments
were made on 2j-in. cubes, as larger specimens could
not, by the testing machine available, be crushed. The
test-pieces were cut at the quarries whence they came,
and were allowed to become air-dry in the laboratory
before being tested, to allow the quarry-water to evaporate.
The pressure was applied, unless expressly stated to the
contrary, perpendicular to the planes of the quarry bedding,
an important difference in the capability of the stone to
resist weathering dependent on the preservation of this
position, leading builders to take care that it is laid with
its surfaces in this direction. The surface of the stone in
contact with the dies of the testing machine was covered
with a thin film of pilaster of Paris to ensure even bedding.
The use of compressible material such as sheet lead and
soft wood in place of the plaster of Paris, was eschewed,
as it was found that the lateral flow of such materials
under the crushing strain produced tensile strains in the
test-pieces, and induced their frajture at a smaller load
than would otherwise have been the case. Proof of the
existence of this influence was afforded both by the actual
crushing loads of test-pieces which had been mounted in
this manner, and by the character of their fracture, which
departed from the ideal one consisting of six pyramids with
their apices in the centre of the cube, and became that of
a series of prisms parallel to the axis of pressure. The
adverse effect of the presence of a sheet of lead ranged
from 35 '5 per cent, to 52 '6 per cent, calculated on the
strength determined without the use of lead, the difference
being, as was to be expected, greatest in the case of the
hardest stones, that is to say, when the total load was greatest.
The result is of much practical importance, as illustrating
the serious decrease in resistance to crushing strains that
may be caused by bad bedding in structures. The mean
crushing strengths in tons per square foot for the various
classes of stones tested are as follows: — Granite, 11 12 '2
tons, mean of 13 varieties and -19 samples; oolites, 141-3
tons, mean of 18 varieties, 57 samples : sandstones, 489 -8
tons, mean of 25 varieties, 88 samples ; dolomites, 500-5
tons, mean of 4 varieties, 16 samples. The results are,
generally speaking, higher and more coucordaut than those
of previous experimenters. The " density," as stated
above, was really a translation of weight per cubic foot,
the weight of a cubic foot of water being taken as unit}-,
as no attempt was made to estimate the true volume of
stone free from air and moisture, in the blocks that were
measured and weighed. The amount of water absorbed
was estimated by weighing the blocks before and after
immersion, New River water being used for a few of the
earlier tests, and distilled water for the later members of
the series. Some slight action by the water was per-
ceptible in the case of the oolites, the water in which they
had been immersed being turbid, and containing a distinct
sediment. The author is of opinion that the absorptive
power of the specimens " must be a very good guide to
the relative weathering power of stones, since it shows to
what extent deleterious agents in raiu water and fogs will
penetrate the stone, and furthermore a very absorbent
stone must be very liable to the destructive action of
frost." The mean results were that the average absorption
of 27 oolites was 8 '96 per cent, of their dry weight;
dolomites, 4 samples, 5'43 per cent.; sandstones, 26
samples, 4-68 per cent.; granites, 14 samples, 0-27 per
cent.
Fig. 1 shows the relation between compressive strength
and absorption of 10 samples of Bath stone. The specimen
marked " Wcstwood (floated) " has been treated with
E 2
1012
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Doc. 31, 1892.
Scale r-4e Tons per Sip Foot
£
s
O
£
CD
>
CORNCf
I"\
/
/
/
.
COOMBF
/
f*
WESTW
ooo\
1
•
rod
\
\
FLUA7C
°) \
COR SUA
M
\
/
)
WlNSLE
L /
.s
\
/
STOKE
\
*
,1
f
v
BOX
/
/•
\
\
/■
/-
FA RLE
CH
\
--/
Scale
1=10%
Curve A, crushing strengths ; Curve B, ditto, after immersion in
water for seven days and re-drying. Curve C, percentage oi water
absorbed.
Kessler's preservative solution, which is said to have proved
very successful in France in checking the decay of oolitic
and other limestones. A few specimens were tested by
exposure after saturation with water to the low temperature
prevailing last winter, the temperature varying from 20'
to 32 F. Thawing and freezing were alternated 10 to 12
times, and the cubes' were afterwards left exposed to the
rain and weather for some two or three weeks. The loss
of weight of the granites by this treatment was inappreciable,
while with the other stones it was quite small, amounting
to 0-002 Hi. as a maximum, the original weight of the
cubes being about 1 lb. There was also no loss of
strength. The determination of the modulus of elasticity
was difficult, owing to the small quantities to be measured,
and a special form of gear was devised by A. G. Ashcroft
for the purpose, which multiplied the actual alteration in
height 2,358 times. It was found that there was a com-
paratively large permanent set, and the figures for the
test first made are therefore lower than those obtained in
repeating the test when this factor had been eliminated.
The mean value for all the sandstones tested was, for the
first test, 108,040 tons per square foot, and for the
second test 132,280 tons, corresponding to 1,680,600 anu
2,057,700 lb. per square inch respectively, — about -Jj to ■£*
the value for steel. The mean values for the magnesian
limestones were 254,500 and 321,000 tons per square foot
respectively. For limestoues the figures are 133,530 and
150,750 tons, while for granites they were 479,009 and
522,100 tons, or about one quarter the modulus of elasticity
of steel.
The following table gives a few typical figures selected
from the results recorded by the author : —
Xame of Stone.
Locality of Quarry.
Remarks.
Mean
Crushing Load.
Weight. Absorption.
fPrudham , Hexham, Northumber-
land.
Sandstones. -j Poltnaise Bannockburn. . ,
Linlithgowshire
Fine yellow stone used in
Hen'iot Watt Colli - .
Universityof Edinburgh,
fce.
I ine white rock
Fine red-grey used for
Scott monument.
Jl> imand Midlothian Hard grey rock
Dolomites.
Oolite. ...
Granites.
( Yellow magnesian lime- Mansfield Woodhouse True dolomite
! stone.
I
Portland
"Kenmay.
Rubislaw .
Aberdeen .
Quarry.
Kiveton Park, Sheffield. Used for Souses of Parlia-
ment.
I Portland White oolitic
Aberdeenshire Fine whitish-grey, Forth
Bridge '
Fine dark grey. London
Bridge
453-3
551 '5
669'1
4.-,M
:-■• I
3U1-9
287'0
] 088 5
1,211-,1
098-8
1,289-7
Per Cu. Ft.
142-6
141-5
135-1
142'0
145-4
132-2
137-6
164-1
ioi-o
Per Cent.
I 4 -01 1
"(4-33
f.-s
5 a
4-70
4-62
7-50
6-84
0-42
0-21
-B.B.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Processes/or makiitt/ Plastic Compound*
or Composition. J. U. Robertson, Willesden Green.
From C. W. Kennedy, Philadelphia, T'.S.A. Eng. Pat.
17,050, October 7, 1891.
Waste products such as " salt hay, grass straw, reeds,
rushes, common hay, leaves, twigs, husks," are utilised
in their green or dried state. Wood chips, splinters, saw-
dust, hair, waste paper, junk and scraps of fibre, sueli as
hemp, jute, tlax, coir, &c., may also be employed. Long
fibres of the latter class of material are placed in a tank
with water, and " a quivering or vibratory " motion
in.] arted to the mixture, causing the fibres to fall together.
'•'Finely-powdered silica or lime cements" are added.
though "glutinous (sic) cements may also be used if
desired." Any suitable waste scraps are incorporated as
filling and the mass taken from the tank and moulded by
pressure. With the addition of sand and hydraulic cement,
or by enclosure in a ••frame of molten metal," or by coating
with approximately equal parts of " gluten, gelatin, pitch,
resin, or silicates of sodium or potassium " and subsequent
immersion in a bath of calcium chloride, the composition
may be rendered fit for use as paving or flooring. The
manufacture of artificial wood and railway sleepers, and the
renovation of worn-out sleepers, are also among the purposes
contemplated by the patentee. — B. B.
Making Coloured Stucco, Coloured Concrete Blocks, and
Tiles. 1). Ward, Hewton. Eng. Pat. 19,106, Novem-
ber 5, 1891.
The patent is for "the mixing together of colours with
cement or lime, sand, or rubble with water to form stucco,
concrete blocks, or tiles of a permanent colour, as the
colour will permeate the coloured mixture and when dry
and hard will be imperishable." — B. B.
Dao.si.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1013
Improved Process for Producing Liquid Clay or Slip for
I \isting in Moulds. E. Edwards, London. From K.
Goetz, Karlsbad, Bohemia. EDg. l':tt. 15,911, Septembers,
1892.
Slip, from which articles of porcelain or stoneware are to
be prepared by casting in moulds, is mixed with " an
aqueous solution of one of the bases of soda, potash, litliia,
oxide of ammonium " or with au aqueous solution of "a
carbonate or rnultiearbonate of three bases — but not includ-
ing the carbonates of soda — as also the silicates and tluor
^ilis of these bases." Three parts by weight of such a
solution suffice for 100 parts by weight of clay. Cinnabar
sufficient to give the solution a weak rose tint may be
added to prevent the formation of a grey colour sometimes
observed on porcelain after burning. The patented mixture
contains less water than is usually necessary, is said to cast
1 letter and allow the moulds to be used oftener and dried
sooner. The east articles may be burned at a lower tem-
perature than is generally necessary, and the grinding of
the slip takes 16 hours instead of 22 or 24 hours. Colours
ear, readily he burned in. — B. B.
X.-METALLURGY.
The Estimation of Manganese in Spiegel Iron and Ferro-
iiianiiiiin.se. M. C. Bastiu. Monit. Scient. September
1892,689.
Sec under XX 111., page 10:57.
Nickel Analysis. S. H. Emmens. Eng. and Mining J.
November 2(5, 1892, 510—51 1.
See under XXIII., page 1035.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Adding Metallic and Non-Metallic
Substances to Steel and Iron or any other Liquid
Metals. J.Colley, Bilstou. Eng. Pat. 18,990, November 4,
1891.
The improvement consists in adding carbon, enclosed in a
box or receptacle, preferably of wood, to the charge, after
the blowing is completed, or nearly so, and before it leaves
the furnace or converter. The carbon may be added all at
once or in separate portions, and ferro-manganese may be
added with it when necessary. — J. H. C.
A Process of Separating Cobalt from Nickel. G. Selve,
Altena, Germany. Eng. Pat. 19,5":!, November 11, 1891.
Cobalt is separated from nickel when in hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid solution, after separation of other bodies by
well-known methods, by adding to the solution a precipitat-
ing liquid prepared as follows : —
To an aqueous solution of hypochlorite of soda — composed
of 100 kilos, of chloride of lime and soda, 60 kilos, of
calcined soda dissolved iu water are added. When the
precipitated carbonate of lime has settled the liqnid is
drawn off for use. The cobalt and nickel solution is boiled
and stirred and the precipitating liquid is slowly added
until a sample shows that the whole of the cobalt is
separated in the shape of a black deposit (of Co2< ),), the
nickel remaining iu solution.
Small quantities of nickel oxide precipitated at the same
time may be redissolved by means of dilute sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid. — J. H. C.
Improvements in Gas Furnaces. II. E. Newton, London.
From B. X. Oakman, jun., Greenfield, U.S.A. Eng.Pat.
21,634, December 10, 1891.
TlIK furnace described ill this patent is adapted for heating
pipes for welding the longitudinal seam, and also for heating
iron or steel bars for forging and welding. The principal
objects aimed at are to ensure a uniform heating of the
pipes, bars, or blooms, and to utilise the waste heat from
the furnace.
The welding furnace chamber may be described as some-
what pear-shaped in longitudinal section. It is heated by
a series of nozzle burners fixed in inlet flues which are
built into the top of the narrower end of the furnace ; these
burners are fed with a mixture of fuel-gas and air, both of
which are supplied under pressure. The flames and pro-
ducts of combustion Hist pass along the crown of the
furnace ; they are then deflected downwards by the arched
crown and side, and are caused to pass over and in contact
witli the pipes, bars, or blooms, which are arranged on the
hearth; finally they escape by a narrow outlet flue, placed
parallel to and underneath the inlet flue, whence they pass
into a second chamber The advantage of this method of
heating is that the outgoing flames or currents pass through
the furnace chamber between the materials to be heated
and the inflowing flames, so that the latter are not chilled
by the cool pipes or other materials. As, moreover, the
pipes, &c, are introduced into the furnace near the outlet
flues and are then gradually moved along the hearth to the
other end of the furnace, their temperature is gradually
raised to a welding heat, whereupon they are withdrawn
and welded in the usual manner.
The outlet flues for the gases from the welding chamber
pass directly into a heat-restoring chamber, iu which the
skelp is raised to the requisite temperature for rolling ; in
order that the flame may be prevented from impinging upon
the skelp the flues are made to incline upwards just before
they enter the heat-restoring chamber.
The waste gases from the heat-restoring chamber are
Anally passed into a second chamber, in which the air
necessary for the combustion of the fuel gas is heated.
— F. S. K.
Improvements in ("wis Puddling Furnaces. H. E. Newton,
Londou. From K. N. Oakman, jun., Greenfield, Mass.,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 21,633, December 10, 1891.
The claim is for a double-hearth furnace consisting of two
separately-heated chambers with curved walls communi-
cating with each other by an inclined or tangential flue, and
each supplied with a valved escape flue. The heating is
effected by the combustion of gas and air introduced near
the crown of the chambers or furnace, and under pressure.
The waste gases from the working -operations in the first
chamber are used for heating up the second, and thence
pass to a heater where they are used for heating the air
blast which supplies the burners. — J. H. C.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Ingots, liars, Rods,
Wire, and the like from Bronze. G. G. M. Hardingham,
London. From C.Berg, Evekiug, Westphalia, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 22,337, December 21, 1891.
Compound ingots for electrical conductors and similar
purposes are made by casting soft bronze projections or
coverings around hard bronze cores and vice versa., or tho
combinations may be threefold, and of brass, copper,
aluminium, or other alloys and metals. The contact sur-
faces are formed with ribs or projections, to facilitate the
uniting or welding. — J. H. C.
Improvements in or relating to the Purification of Steel or
of Iron during its Conversion into Steel. E. H. Saniter,
Wigau. Eng. Pat. 8,612, January 21, 1892.
Iron is purified from sulphur during its conversion into
steel by adding, while it is molten and in the furnace, a
mixture of chloride or fluoride of an alkaline earth with the
oxide, hydrate, or carbonate of an alkaline earth ; the latter
in sufficient quantity to form and maintain a slag having
from 50 to 60 per cent, of lime.
Chloride of calcium and limestone are recommended in
general, but other corresponding substances may be used
in special cases.- J. II. C.
L014
THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Deo. 31,1892.
Improoemements in or relating to the Purification of Iron.
E H. Saniler, Wigan. Eng. Pat. 8612a, January 21,
1892-
Thk molten iron is brought into sufficiently prolonged
contact with a mixture of chloride of calcium and lime, or
their chemical equivalents. — J. II. C.
Improvement in the Weans for Tempering and Hardening
Metals. J. S. Darning, Emsworth, Pa., U.S.A. Eng.
Pat. 12,965, July 14, 1892.
The metals are first coated with a mixture of flour,
prussiate of potash, and a liquid concoction from the laurel
plant ; then heated and plunged into water or into a similar
liquid concoction. — J. H. C.
Improvements in lite Process of Reducing Vnsmelted Ore,
including Roasted Ore, Furnace Cinders, and like
Material. J. T. Wainwright, Chicago, U.S.A. Fug.
Pat. 16,173, September 9, 1892.
The improvement consists in operating on the ores by
generating gases at successively increasing temperatures,
passing these gases downward through the ore, and main-
taining it in an unreplenished condition.
In general a shaft furnace is used, having a collecting
space or slag hearth at the bottom, and an inverted syphon
outlet or gas flue at the side. The furnace is fed from the
top through an aperture which is then securely closed,
intermittent heats being made, and the furnace re-charged
for each heat. Operating on iron ore, and commencing with
an empty furnace, the lower contracted portion of the furnace
is bridged over with an open mass of charcoal or other solid
carbonaceous fuel. On top of this is placed a charge of
mixed ore, flux, and fuel, in suitable proportions, and above
this carbonaceous fuel, which may be cheaper or different
in grade to that charged with the ore, and may be mixed
with suitable flux. A hot or cold blast of air or other gases
containing free oxygen is then thrown on the top of the
ignited fuel layer, the cover is closed, and the blast is main-
tained. The gases resulting from the fuel combustion are
forced downwards through the mixed charge and fuel, so
producing a gradual!}- increasing temperature which, besides
facilitating reduction, prevents scaffolding and congestion.
The effect produced upon the ore by forcing the gases
downwards through it is to maintain a reducing action, and
also to keep the upper parts of the ore-charge in a hotter
and more reduced condition than those below ; consequently,
when the reducing action reaches that stage when the cinder
separates from the spongy metal and gravitates from the
same, this isolation of the metal will progress from above
downwards, so that the slag will collect in the hearth
without having been in contact with the metal at a high
temperature. In this way the impurities of the ore remain
in the cinder, and do not contaminate the metal. When
the slag is more fusible than the metal it may be drawn off
at an early stage through a tap-hole, after which the blast
may be continued for the purpose of maintaining the tem-
perature of the metal which has collected in the hearth, and
also for scouring the shaft. In other cases, the metal, being
more fusible, may be run out first, and the slag afterwards
run out at a higher temperature.
To facilitate working, the hearth may have a series of
tap-holes at different heights, and also a large opening with
a cover at the side, through which fuel, fluxes, or metals for
alloy may be added in certain cases.
Another mode of operation is to use two shafts placed
side by side and communicating at the top. The first is
charged with cheap solid fuel and used with an upward
draught as a gas producer ; and from this the ignited gases
pass into the second and downwards through the ore-charge,
as already described.— J. II. C.
XL-ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
The Influence of Arsenic, Antimony, and Silicon on the
Ductility, Absolute Strength, and Electrical Conductivity
of Copper. \Y. Ilampe. Chem. Zeit. 16, 726 — 728.
The pure copper employed by the author was prepared by
adding caustic potash to copper sulphate solution until a
considerable precipitate was obtained ; the solution was
then heated for some time, filtered, and the filtrate electro-
lysed. The deposited copper, after treatment with boiling
water and repeated washing, was dried and fused with
copper oxide, first in a current of carbon dioxide, whereby
any residual copper sulphate is dissociated and the sulphur
expelled as S( >,. and finally in a stream of dr}' hydrogen,
whereby any oxide is reduced to metal. The copper so
obtained contains no impurity beyond traces of antimony.
Pure arsenic is prepared by adding ammonia and
magnesia mixture to potassium arsenate solution ; the pre-
cipitated ammonium magnesium arsenate is filtered otf,
washed, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and re-precipitated
by ammonia. After washing, the precipitate is converted
into magnesium pyro-arsenate by heating; pure arsenic
sublimes from this salt on heating it in a stream of hydrogen.
Pure antimony is prepared by heating an intimate mixture
of tartar emetic (5 — 6 pts.) and nitre (1 pt.) in a porcelain
crucible. The residual antimony is washed with water and
fused in a current of hydrogen.
An alloy of silicon and copper (silicon-copper) has been
previously prepared by the author by heating a mixture of
silica, fluorspar, purified lampblack, and copper in the
proportions required by the equation —
2 CaF., + 4 SiO.. + 2 C + ..Cu =
SiF, + 2CaSi03 + 2CO + Cuj,Si
The yield of silicon in the alloy is frequently only one-
half of that indicated b}' the equation, and is not appreciably
increased by the employment of more silica. Practically,
no reduction of silicon occurs if carbon be excluded from
the mixture. Silicon copper is not obtained by heating
copper in a stream of hydrogen containing silicon tetra-
fluoride. On melting a mixture of fluorspar and silica,
silicon tetrafluoride is at once obtained —
2 t'aF., + 3SiO.: = SiF., + 2 CaSi03
The alloys were prepared by fusing the pure copper with
arsenic, antimony, or silicon copper, in a closed crucible under
a layer of lampblack free from manganese. The following
table gives the absolute strengths, relative conductivities,
and densities of the various alloys examined : —
Absolute
Strength Rela-
perl tive
sq. li i in. 1 'oii-
Density.
cross-
llllc-
sectional
tivitv.
Area.
Kilos.
34"6
41-6
100
61-05
8-9563
8-944
Alloy I. cont
ainingO'210]
per cent. As
II. .
0-351
»
51-1
50-15
S'1'17
„ III. „
0-808
»
48-9
29-96
s-!U2
„ IV. ,.
0-260
Sb
52-0
08-07
8-918
V. ..
0"52!l
„
r,f.<
-,.; :,
8-946
„ VI. „
tr 520
Si
;,:)-u
28'H
B-870
., VII. „
S-472
„
95-3
6-5
8-471
The ductility of the alloys was about the same as that of
pure copper with the exception of sample Xo. III., which
was somewhat less ductile. The toughness and ductility of
copper seems hence to be little affected by the presence of
very appreciable quantities of arsenic or antimony.
Deo. 81. 1892.1 THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1015
The sample No. VI. of silicon copper resembles pure
copper ia appearance and properties.
When tlie percentage of silicon reaches 1'5 — 2'0 the
metal has a reddish-yellow colour, and, though still ductile,
is harder than pure copper. Sample No. VII. has almost
the composition CuJaSi, possesses a light bronze colour, and
a glistening fracture ; it is very ductile aud malleable.
Copper containing C per cent, of silicon shows a light grey
crystalline fracture, is hard and brittle, and dissolves
completely in nitric acid ; the solution gelatinises when
concentrated. An alloy containing 8 per cent, of silicon is
silver-white and very brittle ; it may be readily crushed to
powder. Copper containing 1 1 ■ 1 per cent, of silicon is as
brittle as glass ; it is white in colour and rapidly tarnishes
brown in the air. It is almost completely soluble in nitric
acid.— W. J. P.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus for Use in Electro-Metallur-
gical Operations. C. Hoepfher, Giessen, Germany. Eng.
Pat. 13,7:15, September 1, 1890. (Amended.) (This
Journal, 1891. 8:19.")
The inventor wishes it to be understood that he does not
claim anything which is described or claimed in Eng. Pat.
12,208of 1888.— J. C. C.
An Improved Process for the Electro-Deposition of Metal
upon the Surface of Glass, Porcelain, China, Earthen-
/'(//(, and other Materials. A. S. Ford, London. From
H. Pottier, Paris. Eng Pat. 18,256, October 23, 1891.
See under VIII., page 1007.
A Depolarising Liquid forOalvanir Batteries. 0. Schlesinger,
Bow, Middlesex. Eng. Pat. 18,477, October 27, 1891.
Tins liquid is for use in two-fluid cells and consists mainly
of a sulphuric acid solution, crystals of chromic acid, and
nitrous acid solution. The following is a suitable example
of making up the liquid: 20 oz. of sulphuric acid (1'8
specific gravity) are diluted with 11 oz. of water, and,
while the solution is still hot, from 2 to 3 oz. of chromic
acid crystals and from 15 to 25 oz. of nitrous acid solution
(sp. gr. about 1 ' 360) are added. The mixture is ready
for use when cool. If the carbons of a zinc-carbon battery
are immersed in such a solution, and the zincs immersed in
water or acidulated water, the current developed is of great
constancy. The liquid may be used in gutta-percha cells
without injury to the cells. — D. E. J.
Improvements Relating to the Application of Dcpolarisers
in Electrolysis. J. C. Kichardson, London. Eng. Pat.
19,704, November 13, 1891.
The object of this invention is to maintain the depolarising
action of a compound, such as an insoluble oxide, next the
cathode in electrolytic work. The cathode consists of a
broad band of any desired construction and surface, upon
which as it enters the electrolyte a depolarise! is introduced,
and as it leaves, the spent depolariser is removed ; or instead
of the cathode itself moving, the depolariser may be made to
move on it. This patent is adapted to the process descril ed
in Eng. Pat. 2296, 1890 (this Journal, 1891, 699), in which
oxide of copper is employed in the electrolysis of salt ; the
oxide of copper in this case being introduced next the
cathode at one point, and the reduced copper being removed
at another.— G. II. E.
Improvements in and relating to Ike Construction of Elec-
trodes of Large Dimensions for Accumulators, and to
supporting the same in their Cells. W. P. Thompson,
Liverpool. From A. V. Kerekhove, Brussels, Belgium.
Eng. Pat. 21,702, December 11, 1891.
The invention consists in the adaptation of electrodes of
normal dimensions to cases or rigid gratings so constructed
as not easily to be put out of shape, and which are neutral
as regards their chemical reactions. The normal electrodes
are arranged in successive rases of the frame, and soldered
at two points by one of their Bides in such a way as to
preserve between their three other sides and the cross-bars
of the frame a sufficient space to allow of dilation and
extension. Small projections on the opposite sides of the
edges of the plate or of the cross-bars of the frame, and
east thereon, at the same time prevent the electrodes from
becoming displaced during working. The squares, gratings,
or frame may be of any suitable form aud composed of any
suitable material which offers sufficient rigidity, conducti-
bility, and neutrality to the action of electrolysis. Large
electrodes are allowed to rest at a greater or smaller number
of points throughout their entire length on strips of glass,
ebonite, or any other insulating material, or even on a series
of insulating pegs or wedges arranged in the same plane j
the strips or wedges are placed in the bottom of the cells,
and are of a height corresponding to the space which it is
desired to leave free betweeu the bottom of the cells and the
lower edges of the eleotrodes, — G. H. R.
Improvements in and Apparatus for the Manufacture of
Alkaline or Earthy Alkaline Bases and of their Salts or
Compounds by the Electrolysis of Saline Solutions.
E. Hermite and A. Duboseq, Paris. Eng. Pat. 21,957
December 15, 1891.
" Ir is known that when an electric current is passed
through a solution of any salt of any alkaline or earthy
alkaline base, the acid and oxygen pass to the positive pole
and the metal passes to the negative pole." It has been
proposed to utilise this principle for the purpose of separat-
ing the alkalis and bases of the alkaline earths (for example,
potash and caustic soda), from their compounds, but in
order to do so it is necessary to provide some means of at
once removing the separated base from the acid to prevent
recombination. Two methods have been adopted to do
this, of which the first was abandoned. In the second
method mercury is employed as the negative pole, which
forms an amalgam with the deposited metal. It is, how-
ever, necessary to devise some means of removing the
amalgam thus formed, as otherwise re-combination will
take place and the energy of the current will be expended
uselessly. The object of the present invention is to provide
such a means. The inventors describe the principle of
their arrangement by reference to an ideal electrolytic cell
impossible to realise in practice. In this imaginary cell the
negative pole is of mercury floating on the surface of the
electrolyte, the positive pole being at the bottom of the
vessel. Floating on the mercury is pure water. Suppose
the electrolyte be a solution of a sodium salt. When the
current passes, an amalgam is formed at the surface of the
mercury, which, being lighter than the mercury, rises to the
surface of the latter, where it comes into contact with the
water aud is decomposed into caustic soda and mercury, the
soda remaining in solution. Such a cell, if it could be
constructed, would be all that is required, and it is to a
means capable of realising the conditions of this theoretical
arrangement that the invention relates.
The new arrangement is as follows : — Mercury is made to
drop from a suitable tank through a series of fine tubes on
to two inclined iron plates which form the negative pole.
The object of the tubes is to distribute the mercury in a
thin flat sheet over the surface of the plates, which are
amalgamated to ensure an even flow of the mercury, which
would otherwise roll down in globules. The positive pole
consists of two plates of platinum parallel and very close to
the iron plates. When the current passes an amalgam is
formed which flows to the bottom of the iron plates into a
suitable trough containing bisulphide of carbon or other
1016
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec si, 1892.
liquid lighter than the amalgam and denser than the
electrolyte, which screens it from the action of the acid.
Now an amalgam of mercury and another metal becomes
lighter in proportion as it contains more of the metal.
Hence the mercury containing little of the metal sinks to the
bottom of the trough and is discharged through a tube into
11 reservoir. The richer amalgam rises to the top of the
trough aud passes through a suitably-placed tube into a
cistern of water, where it is decomposed into the base and
mercury. The base remains in solution, while the pure
mercury sinks to the bottom of the cistern and passes into
the reservoir. From the reservoir it is lifted by means of
any suitable elevator (such as a series of buckets on an
endless rope) and returned to the distributing tank to be
discharged once more on to the negative plates. — D. E. J.
The negative electrodes are U-shaped perforated sheets of
copper amalgamated with mercury and plated with zinc.
Sheets of zinc are placed between each pair of copper plates
to maintain the supply.— G. H. R.
Improved Jar or Cell for Galvanic Batteries. W. P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From O. Hirseh, Weiswasser,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,145, December 18, 1891.
In batterv jars hitherto employed it has been necessary to
adopt special devices for the purpose of securely insulating
the two electrodes from one another, such as, for instance,
the insertion of special porcelain pieces between zinc arid
carbon, which were firmly retained in their places by india-
rubber hands. Such bauds, however, rotted away, and
moreover, crystals were deposited on the porcelain pieces.
Various attempts to remove these drawbacks have been
made by forming on the square jar an almost circular
projection connected with the remaining space only by a
narrow opening, into which projection would be inserted the
zinc bar. Such cells are both inconvenient and costly, and
have therefore not been much used. This invention relates
to a glass jar or cell having none of the above drawbacks.
The cell is square in form, and while in a semifluid
condition, impressions, projecting towards the inside of the
cell, are made at a suitable distance from the corner
destined to receive the zinc bar, which serve to enclose the
zinc bar and prevent all possibility of its coming into
contact with the carbon plate. — 1). E. J.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Porous Carbon for
Batteries and for Filters. W. Hellesen, Copenhagen.
Eng. Pat. 22,708, December 29, 1891.
This invention relates to a method of manufacturing porous
carbon suitable for batteries and filters. To increase the
porosity of the carbon for galvanic batteries, it has been the
custom" to mix with it such organic substances as sawdust,
fat, flour, or the like. For filtering carbons, the carbon-
producing substances have been mixed with clay, finely-
divided silica, or the like. It has been recently proposed
to use a mixture of lignite, clay, and chaff. The inventor
has found that infusorial earth mingled with hydrocarbon-
yielding substances, such as tar, produces when highly
heated a more efficacious porous carbon than any of the
mixtures above referred to, aud which is suitable both for
batteries and for filters, with or without the addition of
graphite or of animal substances. A satisfactory mixture
may be composed as follows : — 40 to 50 parts of infusorial
earth, the same quantity of coal-tar or some similar hydro-
carbon-containing material, and 5 to 10 parts of horn or
some similar substance. If graphite is to be'added the
quantity of infusorial earth must be reduced. — D. E. J.
Improvements in /he Means for ami Metllod if Melting
Metals and other Materials bj Electricity. A. V. W.
Kreinsen, Ottensen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 15,477, August
29, 1892.
According to these improvements, the fusion of the
material is effected in electrically heated carbon or plum-
bago crucibles consisting of insulated or non-insulated
pots, surrounded by platinum conductors, or it may he
primarily fused by being brought into contact with a
carbon electrode through which a sufficient electric current
is caused to pass. The material to be melted forms the
negative electrode. Both of the electrodes are moveable and
adjustable so that the}' may be moved towards or withdrawn
from each other as may be required. They are arranged
above the centre of the crucible, and are covered by a shield
to prevent the escape of sparks and splashes from the
fusing material, which drops into the cavity of the crucible,
and is there either re-melted or kept in a state of fusion by
the heat generated by the passage of a shunted portion of
the curreDt through a spiral of platinum wire embedded in
the walls of the crucible, or the crucible may have an outer
lining of very thin platinum similarly maintained at a
high temperature. — G. H. I!.
An Improvement in Galvanic Batteries. K. Nuuau and
J. W. Nelson, London. Eng. Pat. 15,7:19, September 2,
1892.
Tins is a zinc carbon battery, the zinc forming the outer
case of the cell. The carbon is partially coated with tin
foil and is embedded in a mixture consisting of the following
ingredients : —
Parts.
Pulverised carbon 35
Pulverised peroxide of manganese 3d
Sal ammoniac 10
Chloride of zinc, or analogous material that has the
power of readily absorbing moisture from the atnio-
sphere 1
Water 2.0
The zinc cylinder is lined with a compound prepared as
follows : —
Parts.
1 blonde of zinc 10
Sal ammoniac 10
Plaster of Paris 30
Water 211
Starch or flour {J,-;
Pulverised alum J-
which are poured in after the coated carbon has been placed
in position. Suitable means are provided for making
contact, and the cell is closed with a mixture of Egyptian
pitch and plaster of Paris.— G. II. R.
Improvements in Secondary Batteries. W. Main, Brooklyn,
i'.S.A. Eng. Pat. 16,461, February 15, 1892.
In this cell the positive electrodes consist of vertical com-
pound plates formed of thin sheets of lead, and the room
necessary for the increase of thickness of the plates due to
oxidation is provided by coating the thin sheets with a
soluble material which is afterwards dissolved out. The
material preferred for this purpose is a mixture of oxide of
zinc and graphite; as the former dissolves dining charge and
yields a deposit of zinc on the negatives where it is required.
d«m. 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTEY.
1017
XII.-FATS, OILS, AND SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
PATENTS.
An Improvement in what is commonly called Dry Soap or
Soap-Powder and intended for Usefor certain Purposes,
W. If. Ilorton, Bowden, and E. M. Taylor, l'restwieh.
Eng. Pat. 16,018, September 7, 1892.
A suitable quantity of " blueing powder " such as
" lteckitt'sblue " is incorporated with ordinary soap powder
with a view to enable articles to be washed ami blued in one
operation. — K. E. M.
Improvements in and relating to Apparatus for Expressing
Liquids from Vegetable, Animal, or Mineral Substances.
H. H. Lake, London. From La Societo Anouyme du
Compresseur Jourdan, Paris. Eng. Pat. 17,886. Octo-
ber 19, 1891.
With the view of dispensing with bags or sacks for extracting
purposes, the inventor makes use of an apparatus essentially
characterised by the employment of removeable or non-
removeable tubes constituting channels in the thickness of
the walls of the cylinder of the compressor, one of the faces
of each tube being provided with saw cuts, and covered by
joining wires of any section between which the liquid,
resulting from the compression of the material, filters. A
tiller cloth in certain cases may be placed between the wires
and the exterior surface of the outflow tube, or channel.
In combination with this a preparatory press serves as a
lifter, and has two small pistons, one at the top and the
other at the bottom of the apparatus for the introduction of
the material, and a third piston of larger diameter for its
removal. The cylinder is provided with wheels to render it
portable. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Candles a/id Night-Lights. F. G.
Griffith, Cowbridge. Eng. Pat. 21,378, December 7,
1891.
1 it order to prevent any waste in the burning of a candle,
each caudle contains a cup-shaped socket at the end, which
has a tube surrounding the wick. This tube extends to the
top of the socket and has a slit down one side. When,
therefore, the candle is burned down to the socket the
remaining part will burn as an ordinary night light till all
the grease is consumed.— K. E. M.
XIII.-PAINTS, PIQMENTS, YARNISHES,
RESINS, INDIA-RUBBER, Etc.
Manganese Borate, its Constitution and Properties.
W. N. Hartley and H. Ramage. Proc. Chem. Soc. 116,
-ill — 20^.
Particulars are given of the properties of manganese
borate, prepared in various ways from manganese sulphate
and alkaline borates. Manganese borate dried in vacuo
over sulphuric acid is found to lose water to the extent of
11 • 84 per cent, of its weight when heated at 100" ; when
heated from 100° to redness, it loses 19-65 per cent., which
is water of constitution, the compound being a tetrahydric
orthoborate, thus : —
BO-
Mn
11H
llll
B03.H20, B03
r Mn
\ mi
[mi
BO,, Mn(BOs)i
Dried in vacuo.
Dried :il 100°.
Ignited to bright
redness.
The solubility of manganese borate in various saline
solutions was investigated : it was found to possess a maxi-
mum solubility at or about 18°, and a minimum at 80°,
so that when cold saturated solutions are heated, they
deposit the salt at the latter temperature.
It is believed that this is caused by the dehydration of
the salt in solution, namely, MnH4(B03)2, HoO, which
becomes MnF,( !!( ).,).,, and this, being less soluble, is
deposited: such a change being known to occur, and to be
complete at 100° when the salt is heated in air.
PATENTS.
Improved Composition applicable as a Dressing for
Belting and other Purposes. S. Keuyon, Warrington
Eng. Pat. 17,811, October 17, 1891.
Refuse india-rubber or gutta-percha is incorporated by the
aid of heat with vegetable tar, with or without the addition
of varnish foots. — F. H. L.
Improvements in and relating to Paints and Lacquers.
A. O. and W. S. Gill, Aberdeen. Eng. Pat. 22,610,
December 28, 1891.
This patent refers specially to gold, silver, and bronze
paints, as the varnish for which the inventors use collodion.
— F. II. I,.
Improvements in the Construction of Moulds for 1 'itl-
canising India- Rubber Tyres and other Rings.
H. 11. Waddington, Hyde, Chester. Eng. Pat. 10,171,
May 28, 1892.
These moulds are built up by the super-position of a
number of metal discs, having in their adjacent faces a
series of semicircular annular groves, in which the tyres to
be vulcanised are placed, and having also a number of
apertures through which the steam can circulate, The
steam is prevented from reaching the tyres by the discs
having smaller groves running parallel with the larger, in
which asbestos packing rings can be placed.— F. H. L.
An Improved Solvent for Gums and Resins, and Method
of making the same. W. Read, Needham, Mass., U.S.A.
Eng. Pat. 11,174, June 14, 1892.
Equal parts of coal-tar, naphtha, and petroleum-naphtha
are taken, and about one-eighth of alcohol added. A
precipitate consisting of the creosote oil and carbolic oil of
the former and the dead oil of the latter is thrown down,
and the clear spirit, which may be " deodorised " by a
suitable essential oil, forms the improved solvent. The
precipitate is valuable as it is suitable for use as an oil for
dissolving gums. — F. H. L.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of
While Lead. A. .1. Smith, Kingston-ou-Thames. Eng.
Pat. 14,656, August 13, 1892.
Leah cuttings of suitable dimensions, after preparation by
dipping in " basic cream," are placed upon trays or grids
and inserted in the converting chamber, and there alternately
subjected to the action'of acid vapour, mixed with steam and
atmospheric air, and to the action of carbonic acid gas ;
from time to time applying to the charge a spray of " basic
cream " as occasion may require. The " basic cream " is
prepared by digesting to the consistency of thin cream
lead oxide in weak pyroligneous, acetic, or other suitable
acid. — J. C. C.
1018
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1S92.
XIV -TAMING, LEATHEE, GLUE, AND
SIZE.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Apparatus or Appliances for Use in
Drying Sheets of Glue, Gelatin, and the like. W. P.
Thompson, Liverpool. From F. Krauseder and A.
Lentseh, Muuich, Germany. Eng. 1'at. 20,755, November
28, 1891.
The drying chamber is provided with adjustable trays having
longitudinal strips upon which the sheets of glue, &c, to be
dried, are placed. The trays are made thicker in cross
section towards the exit end, and in consequence the air
spaces are narrowed ; by this means the speed of the air is
accelerated as it is drawn through the apparatus by tbe fan
and in consequence a uniform amount of evaporation takes
place over the whole surface.— J. C. C.
.-1 New Process forTanning and Apparatus relating thereto.
( ,. V . Haecht and C. Obozinski, Brussels, Belgium. Eng.
Pat. 21.774, December 12, 1891.
The apparatus consists of a vat containing a perforated
casing the lower part of which forms a false bottom to the
vat ; the lid of the vat fits air-tight and carries a pressure
gauge, a vacuum gauge, and an escape cock. Through
openings in the sides of the vat pass pipes, provided with
cocks and connected with a pressure pump, a vacuum pump,
a high level tank for supplying liquor, and a low level
tank for receiving liquor, respectively. An attached water-
gauge indicates the level of liquid in the tank.
The skins are arranged in the perforated casing as
follows : — a layer of wood-wool, previously impregnated with
tannin, is placed on the bottom ; a sheet of wool or other
fabric, also impregnated with tannin, is spread upon the
wood-wool ; the skin to be tanned follows ; on this is
another sheet of wool and then another layer of wood-wool.
This order of layers is repeated until the vat is full. The
wood-wool forms a very porous material which serves to
keep the layers apart, but to avoid unequal actionof the
tanning liquor due to the direct contact of the skin with
the inequalities of the wood-wool, the sheet of fabric is
interposed. When the vat is full of skins, the air in it,
together with that in the pores of the skins, is pumped out
by the vacuum pump. The tanning liquor is then allowed
to flow in from the high level tank and pressure is applied
by the pump for that purpose. After a sufficient time the
liquor is allowed to run into the low level tank, whence it
can he pumped into the high level tank, to be strengthened
up or used again far a fresh batch of skins. — A. G. B.
XV.-MANUEES. Etc.
Interaction of Ferrous Sulphate with the Phosphates oj
Calcium employed in Agriculture. P. Cazeneuve and A.
Nicollc. Monit. Scient. May 1892, 334—337
Since the application of ferrous sulphate of " copperas "
has been found advantageous in the case of the vine and
eei tain other plants, it has become the custom of
manufacturers of manures to mix this salt with the other
ingredients of a manure, more especially in the case of
phosphates. The object of this investigation was to ascer-
tain whether the solubility of the phosphates is modified by
the addition of ferrous sulphate in such a way as to render
them less readily assimilated.
It was found that ferrous sulphate, which in contact with
moist air is oxidised to ferric sulphate, does interact with
some of the various phosphates of calcium which are
employed in agriculture, bringing about the formation of
ferric phosphate ; as the last-named compound is soluble in
ammonium citrate, and slightly soluble in water containing
carbonic acid, it should, theoretically, be capable of being
assimilated by plants, but whether it is so or not has yet to
be ascertained experimentally. It would seem probable,
therefore, that the addition of ferrous sulphate may have a
deleterious action on superphosphates, that is to say on
mono- and bicalcium phosphates, especially when the iron
salt is present in a very finely-divided condition.
When precipitated tricalcium phosphate is treated with
ferrous sulphate, a considerable portion of the phosphoric
acid is rendered soluble in ammonium citrate, so that in this
case the action of the iron salt would appear to be beneficial ;
ferrous sulphate seems, however, to have no action on
tricalcium phosphate in the form of bone-ash, mineral
phosphates, &c. — F. S. K.
PATENT.
A Composition for Fixing Ammoniacal Nitrogen used in
Agriculture. J. T. Knowles, London. From L. Buioni
and P. Marchand, Piacenza, Italy. Eng. Pat. 12,432,
July 5, 1892.
It is proposed to prevent the loss of ammoniacal nitrogen
from animal excreta by means of sulphuric acid, which is
employed in the form of a composition termed " azotol."
The composition is obtained from organic substances
containing hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportion in
which they are contained in water, such as dry straw,
sawdust, &c. 25 — 50 per cent, of these are mixed with
50 — 75 per cent, sulphuric aeid, allowed to stand until cold,
and reduced to powder. The charred mass contains in this
state up to 75 per cent, free sulphuric acid, and may be
scattered upon dunghills or left exposed in stables. — H. A.
XVI.-SUGAE, STAECH, GUM, Etc.
Identification of Xylose and Distinction from Arabinos
G. Bertrand. Bull. Soc. Chim. 7- 8, 1892, 499.
See under XXIII., page 1038.
The Estimation of Invert Sugar by Solduini's Solution,
Striegler. Zcirs. Ltubenz. Ind. 42, 1892,457.
See under XXIII. , page 1038.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and connected with Pans for Boiling or
ladling Sugar or Compounds thereof or similar Su/i-
stances. It. Morton and T. Morton. Eng. Pat. 19,762,
November 14, 1891.
The patentees claim that they effect a great saving of heat
by the combination of a high and low pressure steam pan
in such a manner that the exhaust steam of the high pressure
pan is utilised in the low pressure pan. They likewise claim
the insertion of a perforated coil between the jacket and pan,
and of a non-perforated coil within the pan to expedite the
boiling in the case of tbe high pressure pan. — A. U. L.
Improvements in Evaporating or Concentrating Saccharine
Liquids and in Apparatus therefor. 1). Stewart,
Glasgow. Eng. Pat. 20,887, December 1, 1891.
The patentee describes a new form of apparatus in which
saccharine solutions are drawn up an exhausted feed-pipe
which passes within a " main pipe " through which latter
steam is introduced at its lower portion, to accomplish the
Deo. si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1019
heating. The " main pipe " is curved at its upper portion
and is connected by another pipe, which descends, to a con-
denser or receptacle, and leads the condensed vapours
thereto, the whole system being|exhausted h_y a vacuum-pump.
The feed-pipe terminates within a chamber forming the top
portion of the " main pipe," and the heated liquid overflows
into this chamber, passing downwards through gratings
in the form of a shower. These gratings lead to a series
of pipes which are also in direct communication with the
vacuum pump; they arc placed within the " main pipe "
and ale packed round the feed-pipe running parallel to it.
As tin- liquid descends, this series of pipes, the heat of the
Steam circulating in the "main pipe" causes rapid evapora-
tion, which is accelerated by the diminished pressure. The
vapours or gas;s give out their heat as they rise. The
" main pipe " is preferably encased to diminish loss of heat
by radiation. — A.K.I,.
Improvements in Apparatus for Evaporating Saccharine
or other Solutions or Liquids. P. Laberie, Paris, France.
Eng. Pat. 22,089, December 17, 1891.
The patentee claims the combination with an evaporating
(vacuum) apparatus of a pipe passing into the pan and
terminating within it near the upper portion, for continuously
supplying the liquid to be evaporated, and of a second pipe
of lesser diameter placed within the first for carrying off
the vapours to an exhauster. The space between the two
pipes is sealed off at the upper portion, and the liquid, already-
heated by having passed over the exterior surface of the
inner pipe at the same time as the hot vapours are passing
through it, is delivered into the pan by a small descending
pipe joined to outer pipe. The termination of the inner
pipe within the pan is above that of the outer one, and its
end is open to receive the vapours. The invention may be
applied to existing apparatus. — A. K. L.
Improvements in Refining Sugar. E. Langen, Cologne,
Germany. Eng. Pat. -120, January 9, 1892. (Amended.)
(This Journal, 1892, 4-18.)
The amendment forms no part of the invention, but relates
to a more minute description of the Wulil' or Bock process
the. eif.).— A. It. L.
A New or Improved Process and Apparatus for the Treat-
ment and Purification of Raw Sugar and its Conversion
into Blocks or Ingots. C. M. Lafontainc, London. Eng.
Pat. 15,816, September 3, 1892.
Raw sugar crystals are subjected to the action of steam in a
closed centrifugal machine for about 15 minutes, to free
them from molasses, so far as to allow of their being subse-
quently converted into a " malleable " mass by pressure.
About 3 per cent, of a solution of gum tragacanth (0*5
per cent.) and syrup (5 per cent.) is now added, and
the mixture rotated in the centrifugal machine for a further
3 or 4 minutes. Iu this state the mass is conveyed to a
consolidating apparatus to be moulded by pressure. The
claims refer chiefly to the invention of this apparatus, which
is minutely described. — A. K. L.
Process and Apparatus for the Production of Invert Sugar
and Dextrose. A. Eumpler, Tschauchelwitz, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 15,897, September 5, 1892.
This invention relates to a process for the inversion of
sugar or the saccharirication of starch by means of volatile
or gaseous acids in such a manner that the acids maybe
recovered and used over again. The plant described consists
of two or more vessels or autoclaves, heated by steam
coils, and capable of withstanding a pressure of 12 — 15
atmospheres. Sugar (100 parts) is dissolved in water (25
parts) and after introducing the syrup iuto one of the
vessels, it is treated best with such a quantity of SO., that a
5 per cent, solution of the acid is obtained. The whole is
now heated for about 30 minutes at 100 (.'. The invert
sugar solution thus produced has the consistency of honey,
and is ready for use. The saccharirication of starch is
effected by similarly heating a mixture of starch and water
(equal parts) at a temperature of 120° C. for three hours. The
vessels are connected together with a condensing apparatus
by means of which the acid may, after the inversion is
effected, be distilled from one vessel into the other. — A. R. L .
XYII .-BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Jay.
The Li.riviatiun of Apples in Cider-making. M. H.
Monit. Scient. September 1892, 636—039.
Thk author has analysed the liquids obtained by pressing
apples and afterwards treating the pressed residue with
water, pressing this and adding the filtrate to fresh-pressed
apples and again pressing, treating the first pressed residue
with water, again pressing it, rejecting the residue, and
treating the second-pressed residue with the filtrate, pressing
the residue and adding the filtrate to fresh-pressed apples,
and so on.
He finds that working iu this way he is practically able to
exhaust the apples without obtaining the extract in an
inconveniently dilute condition.
A curious fact was noted, viz., the juice of pressed
apples is hcvo-rotatory, but the extract obtained after
treating the pressed residue with water and again pressing is
dextro-rotatory — A. L. S.
The Hops of the Year 1891. M. Levy.
1892, 839—840.
Chum. Ztg. 16,
Morphological Examination. — Fifty hop cones were dried
at 50°— 60° C. for half a day.
The cones were picked to pieces by pincers, and the
leaves, perigous, seeds, and lupuliu separated by sieves of
appropriate mesh. This is easy to do if the cones have
been properly dried. The various portions were then
weighed, aud the results are shown in the following
table ;—
Saaz, Town
si.i Suburbs
Baaz, Neighbourhood
Spalt, Town
Spall, Country (heavy land)
13-2
19 '8
17'0
13-82
15-71
W36
71-88
13-27
72-53
12-12
71--JS
13-08
73-23
10-32
9'58
15-7!
J 1-12
3-6
2-9
2 -:.2
3-32
Per Cent.
0"64
0-68
0'5S
0'51
0-08
LO20
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
Description of Hops.
Weight of
100 Cones.
Eupulin.
Hop Leaves.
Stalk.
Perigon.
Sc (Is.
19-2
13-8
13 i:
IV 4
14-7
13 9
19-2
10-0
15-37
19-4
Pel- Cent.
9 7
9-78
0'8
13-28
13-78
8-9
93
12-28
11-96
11-35
12-72
Per Cent.
74-88
68-6
70 '5
73-79
7C31
71-33
70-51
76-93
71-23
72 li.'.
71-65
Percent.
15-64
10-21
12-12
9-43
9-93
15-37
15-49
8-57
10-78
1145
11-89
Per Cent.
1-98
n
2*S6
col
3-83
4-6
4-01
4-23
2- 13
3-92
3'8
Per Cent.
0"
c-
0-4
o-
(.-■J
C ' 59
1 1 ' 53
1-37
0'70
ir i
< hemical Examination. — The hops were dried for G hours
at go" — 100° in a drying oven, weighed, and then dried again
until they ceased to lose weight. Five grins, of hops were
boiled with 250 grins, of water for \ of an hour ; the hops
were filtered off and dried and the aqueous extract calcu-
lated from the loss in weight. Five grms. of hops were
extracted for 2 hours in a Soxhlet apparatus witli 9-1 per
cent, alcohol. The alcoholic extract is calculated from the
loss of weight of the hops, aud also from the weight of the
extract obtained on drying at GO — 70° for 3 hours. In
this way some hops yield fiue yellow crystals. The
ethereal extract was obtained in the same way. The ether
used was dried over sodium.
The hop oil was determined by boiling 10 grms. of hops
in a reflux condenser with 150 ce. of water. The whole
is then extracted with ether, the ethereal solution separated,
the ether evaporated, the residue dried at 5o° — 60° C,
and weighed. The colour communicated to the worts by
boiling with the specified hops was determined by boiling
1 grm. of hops with 300 grms. of water for \ hour ;
100 ce. of this solution were placed in a cylinder and
distilled water in another cylinder was brought to the same
colour by adding - io liae solution.
The following results were obtained : —
Description.
Thesame
Aqueous calculated Alcoholic
"Water. ! from the
Extract. Dry Extract.
I Residue.
The same
calculated
from the
Drj
Residue.
Ether
1 eta-act.
The same
calculated
from t tie
Dry
Residue.
Hop Oil.
Colour
Li terms of
N
In I
Iodine
Solution.
Per Cent.
s;i.i/. Town 9-30
Saaz, Suburbs 911
Saaz, Neighbourhood — 9*39
Spatt. Town , 9'88
Spalt, County (heavy land.) 9'57
Spalt County (light land) 9-9
Bavarian Mountain Hops. 9"8S
Kindinger 7*57
Wohnzachor 10*5
Auer 7-93
Holledauer 9- 1^
Both Aiim'I :uier 7*66
Baden 9 :;:•
Wurtcmberg 9*45
Alsace 12-18
Posen H'77
Per Cent.
31-98
3C73
32-60
28-93
20 -13
20-99
26'78
2.5- :v. i
22-23
211-91
19 -7S
1712
30-5
27-53
31-43
25-93
35-28
34-97
36-04
32-1
28-88
23-29
29-69
27-47
24-84
22-71
21-15
18*64
33-06
30-4
35-81
29-89
Per lent.
26'34
20-53
25-12
22-72
20-73
20-59
23-5
21- IS
2.-. -1 12
20-119
18-72
10-21
22 47
21-36
24-06
23-72
29-00
29-2
27 ' 72
25-21
22-92
22-85
20-05
2T24
2S-U7
21 -82
20-68
17-55
2179
23-59
27-39
20-3
Pee Cent.
23-08
23-24
22-93
19-53
IS -34
21-12
111-23
16-99
15 -3S
1C72
11-12
13-98
17-25
16-26
17-35
19-23
25-46
25*58
25-33
21-67
20-28
23-11
2C79
18-38
17-18
1.V99
15*59
15'lt
W03
17-95
19-70
21-79
Percent.
0-521
U - 537
0-501
0-325
0-496
0-470
0-483
0-438
0-412
II 372
0-413
0-352
(I 102
1 1 -397
ir ! .2
0*398
4*63
4'59
4-32
4*07
3-93
3-S
2-7
2-9
1*8
3-S
3-0
3-06
4-04
8*0
CO
4-5
As the amount of moisture present in hops varies greatly,
it is important that the results be expressed in terms of
the dry mi!. stance.
li is evident that the percentage of alcoholic extract is
the important factor in the chemical examination of hops;
in the best Imps this lies between 21 and 29 per cent., in
medium quality hops, between 20 — 24 per cent., and in
poor hops, below 20 per cent.
The samples of Auer, Holledauer, aud Roth-Auschauer
were badly dried, whilst the sample of Wohnzacher appears
to bave suffered from rain.
Decsi,i892j THE JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1021
General Examination'.
Description.
Cleanliness,
Sizeof the Hop
Cones.
Colour.
Lustre.
Taste.
Power
of Adhering.
Moderate amount
of stalk and leaf.
Medium
Yellow-red
Very bright
S ightly bitter
Strong
Little stalk
Large
Yellow
Saaz, Neighbourhood
Moderate amount
of stalk.
Xellow-green
»
Harsh and bitter
-
Spalt, Town
Bright
Slightly bright
Slightly aromatic
Strongly bitter
Spalt, i'nii ii try (heavy land)
Little stalk
Medium
Yellow iv I
Spalt, Country (lk'lit land)
.,
Small
Red-green
Dull
Slightly aromatic
Slight
Bavarian Mountain Hops ,
Moderate amount
oi stalk.
Medium
Green-yellow
Slight
Aromatic and bittei
Strong
Dull
Slightly aromatic
Harsh and bitter
Slighl
Little stalk
8 mall
Red
Slight
n
Moderate amount
of stalk.
M
»
Very dull
Slightly aromatic
Snail
Little stalk
Very small
Medium
Red-green
Grean-yellow
Slight
Slightly harsh
Baden
Little stalk and
Bright
Strongly bitter
leaf.
!»
Red-yellow
Green
Slight
Slightly bitter
Strong
»
)»
Green-yellow,
some red.
Bright
Strongly aromatic
Small
—A. L. S.
On the Formation of Dextrose from Starrh by Ferments.
C. J. Lintner. Zeits. ges Brauw. i892, 15, 123.
Whilst Cuisinier (this Journal, 1887, 820) found a ferment
(glycase) in barley, which converts starch into dextrose,
yet the author (this Journal, 1889, 560) has previously
denied the existence of this, since although he found maltose,
he found no dextrose.
Further experiments have shown Lintner that he is
wrong. Barley and wheat contain a little glycase, but
maize contains it in quantity.
To prepare dextrose, a boiled or unboiled starch con-
version is made into a thin paste with coarsely-ground
maize and kept at 60° C. for 30 — 48 hours ; the optical
activity will then have sunk to [o]„ — 53 J and the nitrate
when concentrated will crystallise.
Glycase, although it only exists in an iusoluble condition
in maize, exists in a soluble condition in malt. Amongst
the conversion-products of starch, dextrose can be recog-
nised, although the amount is but small when compared
with the amount of maltose. — A. L. S.
20 per cent, solution and yeast added— in order to destroy
the maltose and dextrose. This is found to have taken
place in about 20 hours. The fermented solution is filtered,
decolorised with animal charcoal, evaporated to a syrup
and precipitated with 8.3 per cent, alcohol ; there must be
100 cc. of 85 percent, alcohol for every 5 grms. of dry
substance. The solution is evaporated and the syrup
treated in the same way but with 90 per cent, alcohol, so
that 100 cc. of alcohol are present for every 3 grms. dry
substance. The clear alcoholic solution contains iso-maltose
with at the most but a trace of dextrose. This may be
removed by fractionation with alcohol. To obtain the
iso-maltose in a solid condition it is preferrable to mix the
syrup with powdered glass and dry at 100° C. In this way
20 per cent, of the starch are obtained as iso-maltose.
—A. L. S.
The Estimation of Glycerin in Fermented Beverages.
I!. Proskauer. Pharra. Centr. H. X. P. 13, 1892, 369.
See under XXIII., page 1038.
On tin' Preparation of Iso-Maltose from Starch Trans-
forntation Products obtained In/ Diastase. C. J. Lintner
and G. DilU. Zeits. ges. Brauw. 1892, 15, 145.
One of the authors has previously (Zeits. ges. Brauw. 1892,
15, 6 ; this Journal, 1892, 627) given a general method for
the preparation of iso-maltose ; he now gives a detailed
account of its preparation as follows : — 250 grms. of potato
starch are mixed with 500 cc. of diastase solution at 55° C,
containing 0*5 grm. of diastase (this Journal, 1887, 296),
and 2 litres of water at 75 C. After complete solution,
another 0-5 grm. of diastase is added and the reaction
allowed to proceed for three hours at 65° — 69° C.
The iodine reaction is reddish-brown, [a]„ = 170° approxi-
mately.
The solution is evaporated to a syrup, saturated with
SO per cent, alcohol and poured into hot alcohol. Sufficient
alcohol must be used, so that every 100 parts of 80 per
cent, alcohol do not contain more than 10 parts of dry
substance. After cooling, the clear solution is decanted
and the alcohol distilled off. The residue is diluted to a
The Determination of Glycerol in Sweet Wines. M. T.
Lecco. Ber. 25, 1892, 2074.
See under XXIIL, page 1038.
The Estimation of the Intensity of Colour of Beers and
Malt Extracts. C. J. Lintner. Zeits. ges Brauw. 1892,
15, 213-
See under XXIII., page. 1038.
The Hydrolytic Functions of Yeast. (Part II.) James
O'Sul'livan. Proc. Chem. 8oc. 1892, 147. (This Journal,
1892, 628.)
A further series of experiments on the hydrolytic activity
of healthy yeast cells are described, the following being a
summary of the conclusions arrived at : —
1. The hydrolytic action of yeast at ordinary temperatures
(12° to 20° C.) follows the same course as that of a simple
L022
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31,1592.
chemical interchange, and is not influenced by either air or
carbon dioxide.
2. A time curve representing the action would correspond
with that given for invertase under the most suitable
conditions of acidity by ( ('Sullivan and Thompson (this
Journal, 1890, 816 and 1049). The rate, therefore, differs
from that at which the alcoholic fermentation of yeast takes
place, which would be represented by a straight line (Dumas,
AnD. Chem. Phys. [3], 1874, 81; and A. J. Brown, this
Journal, 1892, 2a').
3. Any interference involving either an increase or a
diminution of the natural acidity of the yeast cell diminishes
its action. This is a very important matter, and should
always be considered when dealing with organisms or
cellular membranes possessing the power of hydrolysing
cane Migar. Dumas observed that both acids and alkalis
interfered with alcoholic fermentation, and that in the case
of alkalis the yeast possessed the power of overcoming the
alkalinity, the liquid again becoming acid and fermentation
recommencing. It is found that a quantity of potassium
hydrate which completely arrested the hydroI> tic action of
yeast for three to six hours was neutralised by the yeast
in about 24 hours, the solutions eventually becoming acid
and hydrolysis recommencing.
4. It is inferred from experiments on the effect of
rupturing the cell on the velocity of the hydrolytic action,
and also from the rate at which the change proceeds, that
the whole of the invertase of the yeast cell comes into
action as soon as the cane sugar is added to the yeast, and
that it continues to act during the progress of the hydrolytic
action.
5. The power which yeast possesses of producing alcoholic
fermentation is not influenced by the yeast having first
hydrolysed cane sugar, this being the case whether the
hydrolytic action is brought about in the first instance in
the presence of air or carbon dioxide.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Production of Alcoholic Ferments
and of Fermented Liquids thereby. J. Takamine,
Chicago, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,374, October 12, 1891.
The basis of the invention is the convenient use of a mould
which the inventor proposes to call Aspergillus Koji, which
has the power of secreting a diastatic ferment and also of
producing the alcoholic fermentation of sugar. There are
other meukls which likewise possess these properties.
Aspergillus Koji is well knowu in Japan and is called
Moyashi or Tane-Koji. To prepare this in quantity, any
suitable cereal is ground and steamed, until the starch cells
are burst, cooled to 20° — 30° C , and a small quantity of the
mould spores well mixed with it.
When the mould has fully matured, the product may be
used, or if it is required to preserve it, the spores are sifted
out, dried and mixed with gypsum or roasted starch, when
tiny will keep for a long period.
To produce the diastase, any convenient cereal is ground,
steamed, and cooled to 30° C. The mould is mixed with
this and allowed to grow on it. When sufficient growth
lias taken place, the mass is extracted with water. The
liquid contains the ferment cells in suspension and the
diastase in solution; they are separated by filtration.
The cereals to be converted are heated with water until
the starch is thoroughly gelatinised and then cooled to
eo°— 75° C. ; the solution containing the diastase is added
and in about one hour complete conversion has taken
place.
When cold the ferment cells, which were previously filtered
out, are added, and the usual alcoholic fermentation takes
place. This ferment will grow iu solutions containing
considerable quantities of alcohol, so that it is possible to
obtain a fermented liquid containing about three times as
much alcohol as usual. — A. L. S.
Improvements in the Manufacture of Beer and Porter or
like Beverages. J. Hillyard, Liverpool, and E. Dugdale,
Liverpool. Eng. Pat. 17,395, October 13, 1891.
Malt with or without other flavouring matter, is mashed at
a high temperature and after standing two hours is boiled
with hops until the malt . " breaks." The boiling liquor is
then run into casks and the casks shived. When the liquid
has become fine it is ready for consumption and forms a
non-intoxicant beer. — A. L. S.
An Improved Processfor Filtering Beer and other liquids,
and Apparatus therefor. J. Sutton, Islip, New York,
I.S.A. Eng. Pat. 18,488, October 27, 1891.
Between the vat and the filter is placed a tall stand-pipe
up which the liquid may be forced by pressure ; this pipe is
bent over at the top and continues downwards to the filter,
the liquid is only forced part way up the stand-pipe by
pressure, it being drawn over the bend by the siphoning
action of the descending pipe. By this means the inventor
claims that the liquid is freed from much of its sediment and
heavy matter before entering the filter. Several methods
and apparatus for employing this system are described in
detail in the specification. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Pneumatic Malting and in Machinery or
Apparatus therefor. R. H. Leaker, Bristol. Eng. Pat.
DS538, October 28, 1891.
Axattemperating coil is placed in the vessel which contains
the drum usually emploved in pneumatic malting. By
means of this the temperature of the grain in the drum may-
be regulated as required. Over the drum is fixed a trough,
containing an attemperator, and the edges of a fibrous
blanket dip into the water in this. The air supplied to the
drum has to pass through this blanket, and thus may be
supplied to the grain with any degree of moisture or heat
required. — A. L. S.
Improvements Relating to the Manufacture of Beer.
P. A. Roche, Paris. Eng. Pat. 19,849, November 16,
1891.
The invention has for its objects the rendering of beer
ferruginous. This is done by passing an electric current
through beer, into which iron in the form of thin wire has
been introduced. — A. L. S.
Improved Process for the Production of Yeast and Spirit
by the Employment of Ozonised Air or Oxygen.
W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From U. E. Nycander and
G. Eraucke, Hamburg and Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat.
20,566, November 26, 1891.
Br the employment of ozonised air the use of crude
materials is rendered possible for the production of German
yeast and a commercial spiiit.
Such materials are molasses, bran, malt-combs, linseed
cake, animal refuse, &c. — A. L. S.
A Method of and Appliances for the Collection, Purifica-
tion, and Utilisation of the Carbonic Acid Gas given of
during Fermentation of Saccharine and other Substances.
J. Pullman and H. S. Elworthv, Loudon. Eng. Pat.
22,248, December 19, 1891.
In applying this process to an open fermenting vessel, the
latter must be provided with a wooden or metallic cover,
having a deep flange or rim which fits into a corresponding
deep gutter fixed round the outside of the vat and a little
below the top. This channel is partially filled with some
liquid, such as water, mercury, &c, which prevents the
escape of gas or the entrance of air. One cover may thus
serve for several vats, being transferred from one to the
Dee. si. 1898.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1023
other l)j' means of an overhead railway and a system of
pulleys and ropes. In the case of large fermenting vessels
the cover may be formed of waterproof or oiled canvas,
suitably secured at the edges. The gas escapes from the
vat through a valve, which is set to open at a certain
pressure (2—3 inches of water), and is then preferably
collected in a gasometer. Subsequently the gas is sub-
mitted to the following purifying processes. It is passed
through —
1. A cylindrical scrubber containing coke, pumice, &c,
over which a slow stream of water is made to flow by means
of an automatic sprinkler. Soluble impurities, such as
alcohol, acetic ether, &c, are thus removed from the gas.
2. A similar scrubber, in which the gas encounters,
instead of water, a current of melted paraffin wax, or
vaseline, &c, which absorbs the ethereal impurities.
3. A desiccating chamber charged, preferably, with
potassium carbonate or calcium chloride.
4. A series of pipes maintained at a red heat. The first
of these pipes contains coke, metallic copper, iron, or zinc,
and is intended to retain any free oxygen present in the
gas. The remaining pipes are charged with copper oxide or
some other suitable oxidising material, and serve to oxidise
any organic impurities still present. By these means the
carbonic acid gas is rendered perfectly pure, and after
cooling, may be compressed or liquefied in the usual way.
— H. T. P.
Improvements in or in the Preparation of Extracts for
use in the Manufacture of Yeast and Spirits. W.
Thompson, Liverpool. From O. E. Nycander, Berlin,
Germany. Eng. Pat. 22,399, December 22, 1891.
The object of this invention is the production of a yeast-
food suitable more particularly for use in distilleries and
yeast manufactories, from various nitrogenous materials
hitherto not ernploytd for this purpose, such as raw and
dried slaughter-house and fish refuse, oil-cake and meal, &c.
The nitrogenous bodies are rendered assimilable (peptouised)
by heating the material employed under pressure, with or
without the addition of organic or inorganic acids. Or
pc-ptonisation may be effected at 30° — 50° C. by treatment
with pepsin, malt, malt-extract, lactic acid, &c. The
extract thus obtained is added to worts, saccharine solutions,
&c.; which are then fermented in the usual way. — H. T. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Cooling and Attemperating
Beer during Fermentation. H. Prior, Linton, Cambs.
Eng. Pat. 301. January 6, 1892.
The apparatus consists of a shallow, closed, circular vessel,
in the interior of which are placed one or more cooling
coils. The ends of the coils extend through the shell of
the vessel, the inlet end being provided with a tap for
regulating the flow of water. The tray, being filled with
water, is lowered into the vat, level with the surface of the
beer, and cold water is circulated through the coils. The
water in the tray is cooled to an even temperature, and a
large and uniform cooling surface is thus exposed to the
beer. It is claimed that by this means a more uniform
distribution of temperature is obtained and greater control
over the beer, as well as a larger development of yeast than
hitherto possible.— H. T. P.
Improvements in Apparatus for Drying Brewers' Grains
and similar Substances. H. II. Lake, London. From
E. M. Parker, New York, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 15,559,
August 30, 1892.
Tin: apparatus consists of a cylinder made of three curved
plates which do not quite meet, and leave a longitudinal
opening for the escape of steam, &c. Through tbe axis of
the cylinder passes a hollow screw for conveying the grains
and furnished with longitudinal paddles to prevent the grains
lying at the bottom of the cylinder. The walls of the
screw cylinder are pierced, and hot air being injected into
the screw passes through tbe perforations into the grains
and thence through the opening in the top of the cylinder.
—A. L. S.
Improvements in Malt Beverages. E. Adam, Philadelphia,
U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 17,258, September 27, 1892.
Boiled, hopped, aud cooled wort prepared in the ordinary
way from high-dried malt or other suitable material, is
stored in an airtight vessel in which it is fined and allowed
to deposit its suspended matters. The wort is then mixed
in a suitable apparatus with some fermented or distilled
liquid, such as alcohol, wine, cordial, &c., and at tbe same
time charged with carbonic acid gas. Finally, the liquid is
filtered under pressure and stored for consumption.
— H. T. P.
XYIII.-CHEMISTRY OP FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTEY, AND DISINFECTANTS.
(A.)— CHEMISTRY OF FOODS.
Is Milk Acid or Alkaline .' L. Vaudin. Bull. Soc. Chim.
7—8, 1892, 483—492.
The author has examined the milk of various animals, and
gives the following summary of his investigations : —
1. The milk of mammals has an acid reaction at the
moment of its escape from the mamma;.
2. The acidity of normal milk, furnished by animals of
the same species, undergoes relatively little variation.
:}. All influences (gestation, parturition, food, &c.) which
can cause disturbance of the lactic secretion bring about a
change in acidity.
4. The acid reaction of milk is due principally to the
proteid constituents which it contains.
5. The variations in the acidity, which take place in the
course of lactation, depend on the modifications, both in
nature and in proportion, which the various proteids and
mineral constituents of the milk undergo at the same time.
— F. S. K.
A New Colour Standard for Natural Waters. A Ilazen.
Amer. Chem. Jour. 14, 300.
Sec under XXIII., page 1037.
PATENTS.
Improvements in the Preparation of Mineral Salts for
Bathing and Drinking Purposes. C. W. Vincent,
Holloway. Eug. Pat. 18,700, October 29, 1891.
Object of this invention is to " imitate, at pleasure, the
various celebrated sodio ealcareo, magnesio, sulphuretted,
aerated, ferruginous and other waters of France (including
Savoy), and Germany, Bohemia, Austria, &c," To this end
various proportions of sodium sulphate, coal, aud calcium
(magnesium or iron) carbonate are roasted together. The
product containing chiefly the sulphate, carbonate, aud
sulphide of soda, and calcium sulphide, is ground up and
used in the proportion of 1 oz. to 15 gallons of water. If
desired, it may be exposed on shelves to the action of
carbonic acid gas, until sufficiently biearbonated. — H. A.
Improvements in Detection of Foreign Fats in Butter.
W. Johnstone, London. Eng. Pat. 20,956, December 1,
1891.
See under XXUL.page 1039.
L02J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dee. si, ism.
Improvements in the Smoking or Curing of Fish, Mutts,
and other Articles of Food. B. PiiTard, Hemel Hemp-
stead, Herts. Eng. Pat. 21,305, December 5, 1891.
The inventor prepares an antiseptic liquid by burning wood
in a suitable furnace and conducting the smoke into a tube
or chimney through which steam is propelled from a boiler.
The vapours are then condensed in a suitable apparatus.
The woods employed vary according to the nature of the
food and the flavour it is desired to impart. The patentee
usi s oak for pork, peat for fish, birch for tongues, and
so on.
The length of time which the food is immersed in the
liquor varies according to the nature of the article and the
strength of the antiseptic. When the liquor is of a dark
straw colour, the time is from three to six days for pork, a
few hours foi fish, and one minute for imported preserved
meat. — L. de K.
Process for Preserving Organic Substances and for Dis-
infection. ( ). Imray, London. Prom "the Farbwerke
Meister, Lucius, and Briining, Hoeehst-on-the-Main.
Germany. Eng. Pat. 21,706, December 11, 1891.
The inventors have noticed that formaldehyde possesses
remarkable antiseptic properties, and that putrefaction
bacteria, ferment germs, mildew fungus, and the like, are
completely impeded in their development by the said
substance.
Meat and similar substances are immersed for a few
seconds in an aqueous solution of formaldehyde ; liquids
are mixed with 77^777777 part of it. Solid substances may also
be exposed to the formaldehyde vapour. Considering the
minute quantity employed, there seems not the slightest
objection to its use ; moreover, meat, vegetables, and
similar articles of food, when treated with it, do not lose
anything of their appearance or freshness, or suffer in any
other respects. — L. de K.
Improvements in Gelatinous Food Products. G. Parker,
Birmingham. Eng. Pat. 14,349, August 9, 1892.
Tin: object of the invention is to provide a gelatinous
product or mass in which a portion, or all, of the flavouring
material required for the mass will be contained, without
being mixed with the gelatin, and which will require only
water or milk to prepare it for use.
The flavouring ingredients are placed in a cavity inside
the jelly. As regards the composition of the mass, or its
final shape, the inventor does not limit himself to any
particular description, but a desirable formula is : glucose,
1 lb. ; sugar, 5 lb. ; gelatin, 1 j lb. ; citric acid, 1 oz. In
preparing it, the gelatin is dissolved in a suitable quantity
of water, the glucose and sugar boiled, the citric acid
added, and the whole mixed so as to form a solid mass,
bod}% or compound. — L. de K.
Improved Process for Preserving Meat and other Articles
of' Fund. (i. Hartmann, Frankfort a M., Germanv. Eng.
Pat. 14,601, August 12, 1S92.
This process dispenses with the use of antiseptics, and
consists in three steps : preliminary sterilisation, germi-
nating period, and final sterilisation. The first step consists
in subjecting the preserves to a temperature of 100= — 120'
for a short time ; the second, to keep them for some days
at a temperature of 20" — 30".
This will develop any germs or bacteria which have not
been destroyed in the primary sterilising process, but they
are too weakly and too poor to rapidly multiply and form
colonies, and if no time is given them to properly develop,
the) will be utterly destroyed by a second sterilisation
process (3rd step).
Preserves of almost unlimited durability are thus
obtained. — L de K.
A Process for the Disacerbation of Kola-Nut Powder.
H. Hoffmann, Berlin, Germany. Eng. Pat. 16,765,
September 20, 1S92.
The invention has for its object the removal of the bitter
taste of kola nuts so as to render them fit for food.
Hitherto the disacerbation has been usually effected by
treatment with alkalis, but now hydrogen peroxide is
proposed.
The ponder obtained from the slightly-roasted kola nuts
is moistened with water and mixed with *' 10 per cent,
(ten-hundredth parts) of peroxide of hydrogen." The
reaction is somewhat energetic, and the temperature rises
to 35 . After a few hours the reaction is completed, and
the bitter principles, chiefly tannins, are oxidised and
destroyed. The resultant pulp is then dried at a slow heat
and is ready for use. — L. de K.
(B.)— SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
Microscopic Examination of carious Forms of Carbon ;
Identity of Lung-Pigment with Soot. J. Wiesner.
Monatsh. 13, 1892, 371—410.
The authoi has examined microscopically the behaviour of
various forms of carbon on treatment with potassium
bichromate and sulphuric acid at the ordinary temperature ;
the following is a summary of his observations : —
The principal constituent of lignite is a brown transparent
substance, which becomes colourless when treated with a
mixture of sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate,
being converted into a web-like skeleton of an indefinite
histological character, and which shows the reactions of
cellulose ; as this residue does not withstand the action of
chromic acid, the lignite, excluding mineral constituents, is
finally completely oxidised.
All the other kinds of carbon which were investigated,
namely, anthracite, coal, charcoal, soot, and graphite,
contain as a rule only a small quantity of substances which
are readily oxidised by the chromic acid mixture : the
residue behaves like amorphous carbon, and is only
extremely slowly acted on by chromic acid at the ordinary
temperature.
Anthracite consists for the most part of a black substance
which is practically unacted on by the chromic acid
mixture ; it also contains a dark brown transparent sub-
stance, which is slowly oxidised, but which does not yield
cellulose.
Coal behaves like a mixture of lignite and anthracite,
and on treatment with chromic acid gives a small quantity
of cellulose.
Bed charcoal, obtained by carbonising wood at a
relatively low temperature, is completely decomposed by
sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate ; at a certain stage
in the decomposition process there is formed a well-preserved
woody skeleton, in which are seen long dark threads and
delicate rings ; by this behaviour it can be distinguished
from lignite. Black charcoal is hardly acted on by the
chromic acid mixture.
Soot, freshly deposited from a flame, consists partly of
exceedingly small black particles of carbon, which are not
oxidised by the chromic acid mixture, and partly of oily
drops. Soot deposited from the air consists partly of fine
particles, partly of dendritic or irregular aggregates, of
carbon.
The black pigment which collects in the human lung,
especially in the interlobular connective tissue, consists of
smaller or larger particles of soot, which, on treatment
with chromic acid, are simply resolved into small granules
without any further action taking place. Melanines can
be readily distinguished from the particles of lung-pigment
as they are rapidly destroyed by the chromic acid mixture.
Chemically pure, amorphous carbon, prepared from soot,
and containing 99 "3 per cent, of carbon, behaves towards
chromic acid like the other substances consisting of amor-
phous carbon, which have been mentioned ; it is, however,
much more readily oxidised, probably owing to its fine state
of division. — F. S. K.
1' n, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1025
PATENT.
Improved Apparatus for the Purification of Caseous
Fumes, Air, and the Like, and the Deposition of
Solid Particles therefrom. M. F. Purcell, Dublin, and
(i. Parcel, Los Angeles, California. Eng. Pat. 21,730,
December 11, 1891.
Tiik apparatus described in this patent may be employed
for the purification of smoke or of other waste gases con-
taining solid particles, as, for example, the air containing
dust from screened grain ; also for the purification of
deleterious gases from various manufactures,
It consists of an ordinary exhaust fan, into the casing of
which a number of nozzles are introduced ; water mixed
with suitable chemicals or not, as the case may be, is caused
to impinge on the vanes of the rotating fan, and in this way
is immediately broken up into a fine mist in contact with
the gaseous fumes. This method of treating the fumes not
only cools them and reduces their volume, but removes all
solid matter; in case ammonia or any other readily-soluble
gas is present in the mixture it is dissolved, and the
escaping gases are transparent and innocuous. — F. S. K.
( C.)— DISINFECTANTS.
Formaldehyde (" Formol"~). M. Trillat. Monit, Scient.
July 1892, 490—494.
IIuhkuto it has been thought that the most powerful
antiseptic bodies belonged to the bydroxyl compounds of the
aromatic series of hydrocarbons and to the metallic salts.
Formaldehyde is, however, a very powerful antiseptic, the
author finding it to be superior to bichloride of mercury in
this respect. This result is unexpected, as acetaldehyde
does not possess this property.
It had been previously noticed in 1888 that the presence
of a minute quantity of this substance in urine effectually
preserved it from putrefying. Similar results having been
obtained with other bodies, the author was led to the further
study of this aldehyde, with special reference to its probable
use in the preservation of fermentable products.
Preparation and Manufacture of Formaldehyde. —
Fischer and Low prepare small quantities of formaldehyde
by allowing the vapours of methyl alcohol to come iuto
contact with a spiral of platinum, previously heated. Tne
platinum remains incandescent, whilst in its vicinity the
alcohol is oxidised to aldehyde.
The industrial apparatus is constructed to work out the
following principle : — A conical jet discharges the alcoholic
vapour from a narrow opening. The proportion of air
mixed with alcohol increases in proportion as the base of
the rune is enlarged, i.e., in proportion as the distance
increases from the apex of the cone. In the different parts
of the jet a zone is found in which the mixture of air and
alcohol is in the most favourable condition for oxidation,
which is stimulated by the presence of a red-hot porous
surface. It is easy to understand that the portions of the
alcoholic jet near to the summit of the cone, and which only
contain little oxygen, will only undergo imperfect oxidation,
whilst those very far away, but very rich in oxygen, will be
almost completely burned. But between the two extremes
is the portion best adapted for the oxidation, the process
being regulated by estimating the distance which should
separate the orifice of the jet from the red-hot porous body.
Methyl alcohol, heated under pressure, escapes from a
horizontal jet which operated in a copper tube, the opening
of which is conical, so as to allow of the in-draught of air.
After the passage over the oxidising substance the vapours
are at once condensed by various processes. Thus a mixture
of water, methylic alcohol, and formic aldehyde is obtained,
and also traces of formic and acetic acids. A rational
process of purification is next proceeded to. Low, Fischer,
and Tollens propose as oxidising agents platinum, platinised
asbestos, and oxide of copper. The author also find-, many
metals and most porous bodies, as coke, retort-carbon,
porcelain, &c, similarly efficacious.
Mention is made of the formation oc" trioxymethane
when a solution is evaporated to a greater strength than
30° — 40° C. In noticing its action on wines the author
proposes to found a method of analysis on the results
obtained ; the tannin and colouring matters being preci-
pitated by the aldehyde.
It is found that the addition of 1—50,000 of meat extract
has a decided preservative action, while with 1 — 25,noo no
change could lie noticed in the extract after the lapse of
four days. Bichloride of mercury in these proportions has
no effect, the extract showing change in 24 hours. With
1 — 12,000 the extract is kept good for several weeks, while
change takes place in five days when using equal weight of
bichloride of mercury.
Several kinds of bacilli are destroyed by a solution of
1 — 25,000, among which may be mentioned that of the
saliva, &c.
Preservation of Me<(t.— Three methods are described : (1)
by immersion in the aldehyde solntion ; (2) by means of the
vapour of the aldehyde ; (3) by wrapping the meat or other
perishable goods in coverings soaked in aldehyde solution.
The following results were obtained by (1) : —
Strength of Solution 1 — 500.
Time of Immersion.
Time of Preservation.
(30 minutes.
25 days.
40 „
18 „
30
lfi „
15
13 „
10
12 .,
5
8 .,
and
Strength of Solution 1 — 250.
Time of Immersion.
Time of Preservation.
o minutes.
30 seconds,
20 (lays.
16 „
12 .,
10 „
10 „
The above experiments were performed on ribs of beef,
which were allowed to remain exposed to the air, at a
temperature of 23° — 30° C.
The vapour of aldehyde was found to stop all decomposi-
tion, keeping meat fresh for months and stopping fermenta-
tion in orgauic liquids.
Pieces of veal were wrapped in coverings soaked in
1 — 250 solution with success.
Analyses of the meat juices and microscopical examination
of meat tissues showed that no alteration had taken place
from the action of the aldehyde. — W. P. D.
1026
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. SI, 1692.
XIX.-PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture or
Production of Paper Pulj> and Textile Fibre. C. G.
Hagernann, Ludwigshafen, Germany. Eng. Pat. 18,470,
( >etober27, 1891.
It is found that the rush Arundo Donax is sufficiently
purified by a relatively weak solution of caustic alkali at the
ordinary temperature for utilisation as a cellular substance
or paper pulp. Thus this particular vegetable fibre is not
"weakened and turned brown by the alkali, as are other fibres,
which can only be purified by such strong solutions of
alkali and at such high temperatures as have the deleterious
effects indicated. The Arundo Donax is comminuted and
immersed in a solution of caustic soda of 4'J — 6" B., for 4 — 6
days : the fibrous mass is then washed, crushed by rolls,
edge-runners, or stampers, ground with water, but without
chemicals, in a rag-engine, and finally bleached, washed,
and dried in the known manner. To produce a textile fibre
the rush is split into long strips b3- light rolling ; the strips
are treated with alkali as described above, washed, and
beaten with wooden beaters upon wooden supports ; carding,
beating, or thrashing, as applied to hemp, complete its
conversion into a fibre which can be spun. To obtain a very
soft fibre the beaten strips are allowed to rot in water in the
same manner as is carried out in the case of hemp, flax. &c,
the finishing processes being the same as those described
above. The waste from the conversion into textile fibres
may be made into paper-pulp as detailed. — A. G. B.
XX.-FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS.
Transformation of Gallic Acid into Pyrogallol; Milling
Point of Pyrogallol. P. Cazeneuve. Bull. Soc. Chim.
7—8, 1892', 549— 351.
When gallic acid is heated with twice its weight of aniline,
carbonic anhydride begins to be evolved at about 120 . and
the whole of the gallic acid can be decomposed without
raising the temperature much above this point. If the
heating be continued until the evolution of gas is at an end
crystals of aniline pyrogallate C6H603, 2 C6H5.NHa are
obtained on cooling ; this compound is very unstable and
melts at 35 — 56 ; when treated with benzene or toluene it
is decomposed, aniline passes into solution, and pyrogallol
remains in a practically pure condition.
Pure pyrogallol melts at 132", not at 115 as generally
stated.— F. S. K.
Improvements in the Method of and Apparatus for making
Parchmentised Fibre Tubes. 1!. P. Frist and C. G.
Ruper, Newcastle, Delaware, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 22X2S,
December 28, 1891.
Heretofore parchmentised paper tubes have been made
by winding the paper strips, which have been immersed in
tin parchmentising liquid, on a mandrel. The ease with
which the wet paper is torn renders this process a difficult
one. By this invention the dry strips are wound on the
mandrel and subsequently parchmentised by being passed,
on the same mandrel, through a bath of the parchmentising
liquid; the moist paper is then consolidated by passage between
pressure rollers. Thicker tubes are made by winding fresh
paper over the first layer as soon as this has passed through
the bath and then passing both layers through a second bath
before consolidating. There are also claims for other
methods for applying the liquid, such as contact with a
roller surmounted by a drip-pan, and for various com-
binations of apparatus. — A. G. B.
Improvements in Pulp-Catchers or Savers. A. J. II
Fiillncr, Warmbrunn, Prussia. Eng. Pat. 13,893, July 30,
1892.
Tin; pulp . catcher described consists in an inverted
truncated conical vessel having an annular channel above
its upper edge, from which the water containing the pulp is
caused to How down the sides of the cone by means of an
inner conical ring. In doing so the water deposits the pulp,
the clear liquid rising up the centre and is drawn off by a
second annular channel, a sieve being, if necessary, interposed
to catch any remaining pulp. The pulp deposited is drawn
off by a pipe which enters about half way down and
terminates at the bottom near the centre of the vessel. The
■ niter portion of this pipe may be raised or lowered in order
to regulate the rate of discharge.— J. C. C.
On some Ferruginous Medicinal Preparations. H. Le
Chatelier. Compt. rend. 115, 1892, 124—125.
The author finds that many mineral ferruginous waters,
as thev occur in commerce at the present time, contain little
if any iron. Also that many pharmaceutical preparations
of iron are of very uncertain composition, both as regards
the presence of iron and the condition of oxidation in which
it is present. — A. L. S.
Investigations on Coca Leaves. O.Hesse. Annalen, 271,
1892, 180—228.
Five kinds of coca leaves are to be distinguished, viz.: —
(1) Broad-leaved coca from Peru and Bolivia QErythrorylon
coca, Lamarck) ; (2) small-leaved coca from Northern Peru,
and exported from Trujillo, hence known as " Trujillo," or
" Truxillo coca " (Erythro.rylon coca, var. novagranatense,
Morris) : (3) a coca from South America, formerly sent to
Paris, and which stands between the above two varieties in
its physical character. This variety has not been an article
of commerce for the last five or six years. (4.) Broad-
leaved coca from British Iudia and Ceylon (Erythro.cylon
Bolivianum, Burck), only occurring to a small extent in
commerce ; (5) small-leaved coca from Java (Erythroxylon
coca, var. spruceanum, Burck.) ; 20,000 kilos, of this variety
were imported last summer. The last two varieties have
been cultivated from seeds, and it is uncertain whether they
are indigenous or not.
The Coca Alkaloids (this Journal, 1889, 566) :—
1. Cocaine. — Reference is made to Einhorn's work on this
alkaloid in regard to the decomposition of the alkaloid into
benzoyl eegonine and methyl alcohol by means of water
(this Journal, 1886, 40; 1887, 605). This decomposition
appears to take place in coca itself when it is not quite dry,
and when damaged by water, the leaves were found to
contain considerably less cocaine than fresh coca. Eegonine
itself,when heated to 140" — 160CC. with 25 per cent, sulphuric
acid, is converted into anhydro-ecgonine, the hydrochloride
of which, C0HI3XO:;.HC1 + HO;, melts at 238°— 240° C.
when dehydrated.
2. Iso-cocaine. — This dextro-rotatory cocaine does not
occur in ccca, aud Liebermann's statement to the contrary
is incorrect. It has only been obtained synthetically.
3. Cinnamyl-cocaine. — This alkaloid is seldom found in
the broad-leaved coca from South America, aud then only
in small quantity, but always occurs, and often in consider-
able quantity, in the small-leaved Truxillo coca; it is an
especially prominent constituent of the East Indian cocas.
Java coca, yielding 1<) — 2'1 per cent, of alkaloids, was
found to contain about 1 per cent, of cinnamyl-cocaine.
Deo. 81,1898.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1027
In order to isolate it from the mixture of alkaloids obtained
from Java coca, the whole is precipitated from acid solution
with a small excess of ammonia and the resinous precipitate
covered with alcohol or ether in the cold, when crystals of
cinnamyl-coeaine separate, which can he re-cr3rstallised
from hot alcohol. They dissolve with difficulty in alcohol,
ether, acetone, and petroleum ether, and melt at 121° C.
Of the salts of the alkaloid, the hydrochloride and the
platinum and gold double chlorides are characteristic; it
also forms a methiodide, C'|,,Hl;lN04.CH:l.I. Cinnamyl-
coeaine was first obtained synthetically by Liebermann.
4. Cocamine was obtained by the author in 188G from the
South American variety formerly sent to Paris, and was
found to form about one-half of the total alkaloids present.
To separate it, the mixture, dissolved in acetic acid, was
treated at 50c C. with ammonium and petroleum ether, and
this treatment repeated with the precipitate obtained, until
it wis finally obtained in a micro-crystalline, flocculent form.
When heated the alkaloid is decomposed, but the decom-
position is effected better by means of dilute acids, when
ecgonyl-coca'ic acid, CmHs9N06, results as the first product
of decomposition, which is itself readily decomposed further
into eegonine and cocaic acid. This last acid is best purified
by converting it into the ammonium salt ; it melts at 266° —
267° C, and is regarded as a polymeride of cinnamic acid.
The molecular weight of cocamine as determined by Raoult's
method corresponds to the formula C,.,Il.v,X< >, . \ rl20
5. Iso-cocamine occurs in all varieties of coca, but especially
in Truxillo coca, and is contained in the fixture of bases
which is precipitated from the acid solution that results
after the removal of cocaine and cinnamyl-coeaine by
means of ammonia or of sodium carbonate. It could not
be isolated successfully owing to lack of material, but its
properties are known owing to its having been synthetised
by Liebermann under the name of jS-truxillin. It is isomeric
with cocamine and closely resembles the latter in all pro-
perties and reactions, being decomposed by acids with the
formation of ecgonyl-iso-cacoic acid and iso-cacoic acid
successively. The iso-base is somewhat more soluble in
petroleum ether than cocamine. Cocaic and iso-cocaic acids
can be readily distinguished by. the action of barium or
calcium chloride on their ammoniaeal solutions, when the
salt of the latter is precipitated, that of the cocaic acid
remaining in solution. The iso-cocaic acid can then be
isolated from the precipitate by decomposing it with hydro-
chloric acid and extracting with ether.
6. Homo-cocamine occurs in small quantity in Truxillo
coca and in the broad-leaved South American co;a, judging
from the formation of homo-eocaic acid as a decomposition
product of the mixed alkaloids by means of acids. The
properties of this acid and its method of separation from
cacoic and iso-cacoic acid are detailed. It has the same
empirical formula as caco'ic and iso-cacoic acids, (_',,II,< >■_.,
which formula also represents its molecular weight, whilst
that of the two other acids corresponds to 013H16O4. The
salts of homo-cacoic acid are all amorphous ; a methyl-
ester and a mononitro-derivative are described.
7. Homo-isococamine only exists to a very small extent in
coca, and was detected by the formation of homo-iso-cacoic
acid as a decomposition product. The properties and method
of isolation of this acid are given. It is isomeric with
homo-cacoic acid.
P-cacolc acid, CiaH]604, is formed by fusing cacoic acid
with caustic potash ai a high temperature. It is isomeric
with cacoic acid, and crystallises in needles from alcohol
or from hot water, which melt at 180D C. The acid is
hardly attacked by potassium permanganate ; of its salts
the copper and silver salts are amorphous precipitates, the
potassium salt is crystalline and readily soluble. A methyl-
ester and a mono-nitro-derivative are described. 0-iso-
cacoic acid is obtained in a corresponding way from iso-
cacoic acid ; ii is identical with Liebermann's 8-truxillic
acid. It melts at 172° C, and is best crystallised from
dilute acetic acid. The barium salt is crystalline and
soluble with difficulty. The molecular formula is C,SH16U4 ;
the acid yields a mono-nitro-compound.
8. Benzoyl-pseudo-trope'ine is contained in Java coca, and
is separated from the other alkaloids by precipitating the
latter from acid solution by a slight excess of ammonia,
when the benzoyl-pseudo-trope'ine remains in solution and
can be separated by the addition of caustic soda. After
extraction with ether the base is converted into the hydro-
chloride, which can be purified by reerystallisation from
alcohol. Its properties as described by Liebermann are
confirmed except in regard to the nature of the base
formed by decomposition with hydrochloric acid, which the
author does not consider identical with I.adenburg's Pseudo-
tropine. In opposition to Geisel's results the author was
unable to detect the presence of Hygrine in any of the
varieties of coca (Pharm. Zeit. 36, 419).
Indifferent Constituents of Coca Leaves. — A red colouring
matter, probably Carotin, was isolated six years ago from a
sample of Bolivian coca, but owing to the ease with which
it undergoes decomposition no analysis of the product
could be made, and the author has been unable to isolate
it since from any of the varieties he has examined. The
presence of Coca wax was first pointed out by Niemann,
and was regarded as probably identical with " Grass wax "
and with Mulder's " Syringa wax," but the present investi-
gation has shown that the wax contained in Truxillo coca,
the broad-leaved South American coca, and in the small-
leaved Java coca is not identical. To extract the wax the
finely-ground coca is moistened with sodium carbonate
solution, and then extracted with petroleum ether. The
resulting solution is treated with sulphuric acid to remove
the alkaloids and then distilled with the addition of water.
The wax remains behind and is purified by repeated
crystallisation from hot alcohol. That obtained from
Truxillo coca consists of palmityl-fi-amyrin, and melts at
75J C, whilst the wax from the broad-leaved South
American coca contains a ketone CilHmp-l3-Ceretinone in
addition to the above ester. The wax melts at 69° — 70° C.
Java coca wax melts at 77° C. and contains in addition to
the above two substances which are readily soluble in cold
ether, a mixture of bodies insoluble in cold ether, which
was found to contain a hydroxy-cerotinic acid C2?H540:l,
cerin, the ceryl ester of cerotic acid, and Mijristyl-0 -Amyrin,
the first of which most probably occurs as an ester. (This
Journal, 1889, 131, 132, 133, 305, 567 ; 1890, 100, 541, 543,
599, 64G, 1060; 1892, 177 (Geisel).)— C. A. K.
Carotin. O. Hesse. Annalen, 1892, 271, 229—230.
The author throws doubt upon Arnaud's statement that
carotin always accompanies chlorophyll (Compt. rend.
104, 1293), and considers his method of determining the
colouring matter colorimelrically unreliable, especially as
rubidin, another red colouring matter, has been shown by
Negri to exist in various plants (Gazz. Chem. 9, 5061.
The insufficiency of the analytical data on which the
proposed formula C,,;H,3 is founded, is also referred to.
— C. A. K.
Antiseptics and Medicinal Products derived from Coal
Tar, or from Aromatic Oils. A. Trillat. Monit. Scient.
May 1892, 338—351.
At the close of a series of articles on autiseptics and
medicinal products the author gives the following table,
in which a scientific classification is adopted, the phenols of
the benzene series appearing first, being followed by
naphthalene and the naphthols. Then come antiseptics,
containing the carboxylic group, &c. Subsequently appear
autiseptics containing nitrogen, commencing with acetanilide
(antifebrin), these pass into pyridine, quinoline, and similar
derivatives : —
]•■:>,
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec, si, 1892.
Commercial Xame.
Scientific Name and
Formula.
Method of Formation.
Distinctive Properties.
Carbolic acid, phenol.
phenic acid.
Aseptol.
Phenol—
C«H5.OH
By distilling tar .
Thymol.
An ill-defined mixture of
phenyl ethers and
Bulphonated phenols.
Propylmetacresol —
/I'll,
C6H3f-C3H7
3\
OH
Sozoiodol .
Bristol, Annidaline.
Sri. ii I, in di-iodoparaplieno]
sulphonate—
OH
C6HoI /
XSO,X:l
Di-iododithymol—
Clt;.C.III
C.HT
OH
CjH,
Europhen
Resorcin.
CH3.CCHI<^
XOH
I si ibutylcresol hydrii id id( —
O.CtH,(C,H,).CH,
HI. |
O.C6H3(C4H9).CH3
Resoreiuol-
C6H4
OR
OH
Guaiacol
Monomethylpyro atechol
,OH
<\h.
/
(X'H,
Pyrogallol ,
Naphthalene .
p-Naphthol....
a-Naphthol
i\ rogallol. (-'• rogallic acid,
/OH
C,H3 ^<)H
^OH
Naphthalene -
CioHg
p-Naphthol
i II i "H
C6H, (
\
CH=CH
a-Naphthol—
OH
c-CH
CH=CH
By the action of
sulphuric acid oq
phenol in presence
of alcohol.
Extracted fro in essence
of thyme.
By the combination
of sodium para-
phenols u lphonate
with iodine.
By the combination
of thymol with
iodine.
Melts at 44°. Slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol,
ether, and alkalis. 20 parts of phenol and 10 parts o!
alcohol give with one part of ferric chloride 8 green
colouration, which becomes violet on adding water.
"With lead acetate an abundant precipitate. \\ tth sulphuric
acid no coloration; when the acid contains nitric acid a
reddish-brown or greenish coloration. On introducing
vapours of bromine into an aqueous solution cf phenol,
tribromophenol (m.p. 95J) is precipitated in colourless
crystals.
Melts at Mr*. Very sparingly soluble in water, soluble in
alcohol and ether. 5 mgrms. of thymol, 1 cgr. of sodium
nitrate, and 2 CC. of sulphuric acid, give a yellow
coloration (nitrosothymol) which, after an hour, changes
into a stable green coloration. When 1 part of thymol
and 1 part of soda is treated with 10 parts of chloroform, a
red unstable coloration. A caustic soda solution of thynu il
gives, when poured into a solution of potassium iodide
in potassium iodate, a reddish-brown precipitate of
aristol.
Soluble in alcohol, sparingly soluble in ether. Suspended
in water and exposed to light gives a deposij of iodine
after an hour, when warmed with nitric acid and the
solution evaporated, -rues picric acid and sulphuric acid.
Melts at 60°. Insoluble in water, soluble in chloroform with
a red coloration. Heated in a closed tube, vapours of
iodine evolved. Its alcoholic solution gives no coloration
with ferric chloride in the cold: on evaporating, a black
residue, solnble in chloroform with a brown coloration.
By the combination of Begins to soften at 70D. Insoluble in water and alkalis,
isobutylorthocresol soluble in alcohol and ether; in its alcoholic solution
with iodine. water produces a yellow flocculent precipitate. Separation
ol iodine on prolonged boiling with water, and on treating
with sulphuric acid. Warmed with zinc dust gives Iodide
of zinc.
By fusing sodium Very soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, sparingly soluble in
i nzenedisulphonate chloroform. Violet coloration with ferric chloride. No
. caustic soda. coloration with ferrous sulphate (distinction from pyro-
gallic acid). Sulphuric acid containing a trace of nitric
acid gives a violet coloration. With chloral hydrate and
caustic soda a red coloration.
Extracted from the
creosote obtained
from beech wood.
By heating gallic acid
Extracted from coal-
tar.
By fusing a-naphtha-
lene-0-sul phonic
acid with caustic
soda at a high tem-
perature.
By fusing naphthalene
a-sulphonic acid
with caustic- soda.
Boils at 200°. Very sparingly soluble (I in 200) in water
but soluble in alcohol, ether, ami alkalis. In aqueous
solutions ferric chloride produces a brownish turbidity ; in
alcoholic solutions a fine blue coloration. Warmed with
sulphuric acid it gives an orange coloration. On shaking
4cc. of guaiacol with milk of lime, containing 0*1 grm. of
bin-' in 10 cc. of water, colourless crystals of a calcium
dci ivative are formed.
Fairly soluble in water and alcohol, only sparingly in benzene
and chloroform. Gives with ferric chloride a yellow
col* 'ration, and with ammonium vanadate a yd low
coloration which changes to brown. Potassium ferri-
cyanide give crystals of purpurogallin on keeping for a
day. Does not precipitate salts of quinine.
Melts ;ir 80 . Insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and
ether. Gives with sulphuric acid containing a trace of
nitric acid a brown coloration. On gently warming a
mixture of 1 cc. of sulphuric acid, 1 cc. of chloroform, and
U'Oogrm. of naphthalene the sulphuric acid is coloured
red, whilst the chloroform remains colourless. Gives with
an alcoholic solution of picric acid crystal-; of naphthalene
picrate, which are sparingly soluble in acids.
Melts at 123 . Sparingly solul.de in water, soluble in alcohol,
ether, and alkalis. Gives with sulphuric acid a reddish-
yellow coloration. When agitated with milk of lime
gives. after filtering, a highly fluorescent solution. When
warmed with an alcoholic solution of picric acid, orange
crystals are deposited on cooling. On adding 5 drops ol
caustic soda al 50° to a solution of 0*01 grm. of /3-naphthol
in 5 drops of chloroform the alkali turns blue.
Melts at 94°. Gives most of the reactions of £-naphthoI. Its
distinctive characters are :— On filtering a mixture of
a-naphthol and milk of lime and then adding bromine-
water there is produceda lilac coloration, which ci angi
to violet. Two ports of a-naphthol, and 2 parts of mercuric
chloride give a bright red precipitate when warmed with a
solution of] part of sodium nitrate; under the same con-
d l Ol s 0-naphthoI gives an amorphous reddish brown
compound.
Dec.Si.1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1029
Commercial Name.
Scientific Name and
Formula.
Method of Formation.
Distinctive Properties.
Mioroidine
Benzoic aeid.
Salicylic acid
Salol.
Chiefly composed of the
sodium derivative of
p-naphthol ; also con-
tains phenols.
Benzoic acid—
CfiH5.COOH
By the action of
caustic soda on
0-naphthol ai a high
temperature.
By Hit- action of nitric
and on chlorinated
toluene.
Orthohydroxybcnzoic acid By the action of dry
carbon dioxide on
.Oil sodium phenate.
NCOOH
Phenol salicylate—
OH
(VII
\
COOCGH5
Betol ; naphtha1 ol
By the combination of
phenoi and salicylic
acid.
I!,\ the combination of
salicylic acid and
/3-naphthol.
t-Naphthol salicylate—
OH
CgH,/
xCOO.C,oH7
Ilydroxynaphthoicacid Hydroxy naphthoic acid— By the action of dry
'OH carbon dioxide oil
,, „ / the sodium derii i-
t,oti6\ tiveof naphthol.
NCOOH
Dermatol . .
Sub-gal late of bismuth-
C-H-O-Bi
By the action of bis-
muth nitrate on
gallic acid.
Soluble in water witha slight fluorescence. Strongly alkaline
reaction. When treated with sulphuric acid gives a pre-
cipitate of 0-napbthol.
Meltsatl21°, X-ry sparingly soluble in cold water, more
readily in alcohol and ether. Sublimes. Melted with
caustic soda yields benzene and sodinm carbonate. Gives
formic acid on treatment witli sulphuric acid and
manganese dioxide.
Melts at 156°. Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol
and ether. With ferric chloride gives a violet coloration. No
coloration with cold sulphuric acid, but on adding sodium
nitrate, a red coloration is produced. With nitric ami,
on warming.il gives a red coloration (nitrosalicylic acid).
A solution of 0'16 gnu. of salicylic acid and O'U grin, of
borax in 1 cc. of water deposits crystals.
Melts at 42°. Insoluble in cold water, bu1 soluble in alcohol
and ether. Gives with warm sulphuric acid a yellow
coloration, but no reaction with nitric acid. When
warmed with ammonia it gives a solution which is coloured
violet by ferric chloride. A mixture of 0*05 grin, of salol
and 0"OS grm. of sodium nitrate gives a greenish- blue
coloration with 1 ce. of sulphuric acid; with sodium
nitrite, instead of the nitrate, there is produced a red
coloration, which first changes to brown and then to
greenish blue.
Melts at 95°. Almost insoluble in water, and sparingly
soluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether. With sulphuric
acid and sodinm nitrate it gives a greenish coloration;
with sodium nitrite a reddish coloration. Is insoluble in
warm caustic soda (distinction from salol). Gives witli
warm milk of lime, after filtering, a blue fluorescent solu-
tion which, after acidifying, is turned violet by ferric
chloride.
Melts at 186°. Sparingly soluble in water. soluble in alcohol
and ether. "With nitric acid gives a yellow coloration and
liberation of carbon dioxide. Its potassium salt gives, a
blue coloration with ferric chloride.
Insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether,
it gives a residue containing bismuth.
When ignited
Hypnone .
Aeolophenone,
phenyl ketone-
methyl
CH;j.m.< ,11,
Produced by the dry
distillation of a
mixture of benzoate
and acetate of cal- ;
cium.
Melts at 20*5°. On oxidation with sulphuric acid and
potassium bichromate gives benzoic acid and carbon
dioxide. Warmed with sulphuric acid it yields benzoic
acid. Warmed with ammonium Bill phi de it gives phenvl-
acetic acid.
Benzosol
Benzoylnaphthol .
Benzovltmaiacol—
,0011,
CeH^
XO.CO.C6H5
Benzoylnaphthol—
C1(JH7O.CO.C6H5
By the combination
of benzoyl chloride
awlguaiacol.
By
the combination
jf benzoyl chloride
nnl /3-iiftphthol.
Melts at 50°. Almost insoluble in water, and only sparingly
soluble in acetic acid, but soluble in alcohol and chloro-
form.
Melts at 1I0\ Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol.
Aidifebrin .
Exalgin.
Phenacetin .
Ph( ■ oi oil hydrochloras
Lcetanilide—
<\,II,.NH.CO.CH3
Methylacetanih'de—
/CH3
i ii, .n/
^CO.CH3
Acetylparaphenetidine-
•7,11,
OC2H5
^NH.CO.CH3
Amidoacetiparaphcneti-
dinehvdrochloride—
CO.C II,
c6h/
nnh.co.ch2.nh
J 11**1)
By the action of acetic
acid on aniline.
By the action of acetyl
chloride on mono-
methylaniline.
By the combination
of paramidophene-
toil and acetic acid.
By the action of am-
monia on the com-
poi od obtained 1 1 1 \m
paraphenetidineaud
acetyl chloride.
Melts at 11S°. Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol
and ether. On warming a mixture of 0"1 grm. uf acct-
anilidc. 1 ec. of caustic soda, and 3 drops of chloroform the
disagreeable smell of phenyl isocyanide is emitted. With
nitrate and nitrite of sodium a red coloration. No
reaction with cold nitric acid, an orange coloration on
warming.
Melts at l(i2°. Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol.
Docs not yield phenj I isocyanide when warmed with chloro-
form and caustic soda. Its solution in sulphuric acid
gives a yellowish green coloration on the addition of
sodinm nitrate-
Melts at 135°. Very sparingly soluble in cold water, more
readily in alcohol. No coloration with ferric chloride.
Dissolves in sulphuric acid, giving, when [Hire, a colourless
solution. A mixture of equal parts of phenacetin and
sodium nitrite eives with sulphuric aeid a violet colora-
tion, which changes to green. When warmed with zihe
dust yields salicylic acid. With caustic soda and chloro-
form it gives phenyl isocyanide.
Carl ionises at about 200°, Soluble in 18 parts of water. Gives
most of tin- colour reacrionsof phenacetin. Dissolves m
sulphuric acid witha yellow coloration ; on adding sodium
nitrate a brownish-red col oral ion. its solutions are pre-
cipitated by a solution of iodine. Gives with mercuric
chloride and sodium nitrate a yellow amorphous
precipitate.
103d
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. si, ik>2.
Commercial Name.
Salojmen ,
Scientific Namcand
Formula.
i,ll
/
acetylparaididophenol
salicylate—
oil
Suiphauiiuol .
Sncrliarine
Benzoylamidophenyl-
acetic acid.
Hydracetin, pyrodiu . .
Iodol .
Pyridine,
Quinoline
Thallii
Ka:nn.
Orezin,
(no. i 11, .Ml. i o.cll,
Thiohydroxydiphenyl-
amine —
<;>
Saccharine—
CfiH4/ J>NH
NSO>
Acetylpbenylhydrazine-
CfiH5.NH.NH.CO.CHa
Tetriodopyrroline—
CI: CI
N CI : CI
Pyridine—
C5H5N
Quinoline—
C,H-N
Sulphate of tetrahydro-
paraquinanisol—
C9H10>\OCHS
Distinctive Properties.
Salicylic acid is treated Melts at 188°. Sparingly soluble in cold, more readily in hot
with phosphorus
oxychloride and
paranitro-phenol ;
t iie product is re-
duced and then
acetylated.
By the combination
of sulphur with
metahydroxydi-
phenyiamine.
By the oxidation of
toluenesulphon-
amide.
Ey treating amido-
phenylacetic acid
with benzoyl
chloride.
By i In- combination of
phenylhydrazine
and acetic acid.
By the combination
of iodine and pyrro-
linc.
Formed by the dry
distillation or nitro-
genous matter.
Ey heating aniline
with glycerol anil
sulphuric acid.
By reducing paraquin-
anisol.
C,H,N (
1 !l
/
Phenyldihydroquinazoline By reducing ortho-
hydroehloride— uitrobenzylform-
anilide.
C1UN. CCII5
\ I
N : til
1IC1 + 2 11,0
Tetrahydrohydroxymethyl- By reducing hydroxy -
quinoline— quinoline with tin
OH and hydrochloric
/ acid and then
\ methvlating.
NCHS
Antipyrin
Dimethyl phenylnyr-
azolout —
C6H5
water; soluble in alcohol and ether*
Melts at 155°. A yellow, amorphous, tasteless, odourless
powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, alkalis,
and facial acetic acid. Gives a blue coloration with
nitric acid. The presence of sulphur can be easily detcote I.
Mel's at 2?.0°. Fairly soluble in hot water, soluble in alcohol
and ether. No coloration with ferric chloride. When
.warmed with potassium carbonate gives a smell of bitter
almonds. Treated with lime it gives ammonia. When
heated with solid sodium acetate vapours are evolved
which blacken paper moistened with lead acetate; the
residue, after solution in nitric acid, gives a precipitate of
barium sulphate on the addition of barium nitrate.
Melts at 175*5°.
Melts at 128°. Sparingly soluble in water. Reduces Fehling's
si. lotion ni the cold. Gives a blue precipitate with lim.-
chloride and potassium ferricyanide. With sulphuric
acid containing nitric acid it gives a carmine-red
coloration.
Decomposes at 140°. Insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol
and ether. Gives a black precipitate with mercuric
chloride. When treated with hydrochloric acid, iodine is
Liberated. With alcohol and ferric chloride it gives a
greenish-blue coloration.
Boils at 114 "8°, Miscible with water. Gives a crystalline
precipitate with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide,
and abundant precipitates with bromine water and with
tannic acid. With inercurous chloride in the cold it
viclds a crystalline substance.
Boils at 23$^. Sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol.
Gives with mercury cyanide a crystalline precipitate,
soluble in hydrochloric acid. Gives with meroui'ous
chloride a grey coloration, and with bromine water an
abundant precipitate. Precipitates the hydrates of the
metals from solutions of copper sulphate and of alum.
Melts at 100°. Gives with chlorine water a green coloration
and a flocculent precipitate ; after a very short time the
coloration becomes violet. No coloration with sulphuric
acid and nitric acid. Is precipitated from its solutions by
ammonia. "With ferric ch'oride it gives, after an hour's
time, a green coloration which Jirst changes to red,
then to brown. Potassium ferricyanide produces first a
green and then a red coloration.
Gives the same reactions as thallin.
Melts at S0°. Fairly soluble in methyl alcohol, sparingly in
ether. Gives precipitates with ammonia and with acids.
When treated with sodium nitrite and sulphuric acid, it
gives a brown coloration which chancres to green; with
sodium nitrate, first a red and then a yellow coloration.
By methvlating the Melts at 113?. Fairly soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble
CO-N
product of the
action of phenyl-
hydrazine on ethyl-
aceto acetate.
N til
in earl urn bisulphide. Dissolves in acids yielding colourless
solutions. Gives with sodium nitrite and acetic acid a
greenish-blue coloration, and then nitrosoantipyrin.
With ferric chloride a flocculent precipitates which
dissolves in alcohol with a red coloration.
« if r
CH;
— F. S. K.
Dec. SI. 1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
103]
A Simple Extraction and Condensing Apparatus
K. Farnsteiner. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1030.
See under XXIII., page 1031.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Obtaining or Separating Oxygen from
Atmospheric Air. J. H. Parkinson, Stretford. Eng.
Pat. 14,923, September 22, 1890.
A reprint of a former specification (this Journal, 1891,
9 17) in consequence of an amendment made by the
Comptroller, the inventor now claiming the use only of a
spongy mass of potassium or sodium permanganate " or
lower oxides thereof" for this purpose. — J.'G. W.
Manufacture of I 'anilloyl Carbonic Acid and of Vanilline
by its Transformation. O. Imray, London. From La
i. de Laire ef Cie., Paris. Eng. Pat. 17, 137,
i letober 8, 1891.
When acetj lengenol —
CaH3.(CH2.CH=CHs)OCH3.OCO.CH3
or aeetjl-iso-engenol —
C,;lI,.(CH = CH.t II 3)OCH ,.()(•(). ()CH3
is oxidised for the produetion of vanilline, a substance to
which the name of vanilloyl carbonic acid is given, is formed.
Crude vanillin often contains this body which can be
separated by agitating an ethereal solution of the mixture
with water containing magnesium carbonate or a carbonate
of the alkaline earths in suspension, or with a solution of
sodium or of potassium bicarbonate, when a soluble salt
of the acid is formed. Another method of separation is to
fractionally precipitate the aqueous solution of the com-
pounds of the two bodies with alcohol, when that of the
acid separates first. The acid dissolves in ether and can be
crystallised from benzene. It melts at 134° C. and has the
formula CeH3.(CO.CO.OH.)OCH3OH. When heated
vanillin and carbonic acid result. — C. A. K.
Improvements relating to the Manufacture of Perfumes.
R. A. Chesebrough, London. Fug. Pat. 20,851,
November 30, 1891.
The invention consists in forcing perfume-laden air sur-
rounding flowers, growing plants or other odoriferous
substances into vessels containing a suitable absorbent such
as alcohol. The perfume is thus obtained free from the
contaminating effect of the scent of any juices or decay
that mav have taken place amongst crushed or dead leave0.
3 -C.A.K.
Improvement in tin- Production of Pur, Saccharine.
C. Fahlberg, Salbke, near Magdeburg, Prussia. Eng.
Pat. 22,787, December 30, 1891. '
Crude saccharine, as prepared according to the inventor's
previous patent (Eng. Pat. 6626, 1885; this Journal, 188."),
608), consists of a mixture of 60 per cent, anhydro-
orthosulphamine-benzoic acid (ortho-acid) and 40 per cent,
parasulphamine-benzoie acid (para-acid), the sweetening
power of the former being 40 per cent, greater than
that of the latter. The separation of the two has hereto-
fore presented considerable difficulty owing to the solubility
of the acids and their salts, in water and other solvents,
being nearly the same.
This is a method for effecting the separation of the two,
based on the fact, discovered by the inventor, that the
ortho-acid has a greater affinity for the alkalis and
alkaline earths than the para-acid. The process may be
conducted in two ways ; first, to a concentrated solution ot
the alkaline salts of the two acids, a mineral acid (HC1), or
the ortho acid, or a mixture of the ortho- and para-acids
(crude saccharine) is added in quantity sufficient to displace
the para-aeid from its salt. The para-acid separates out,
leaving the salt of the ortho-acid in solution. In the other
method, dry, crude saccharine is added to a solution of an
alkali or an alkaline carbonate, containing a sufficient
quantity to neutralise the ortho-acid, which dissolves,
forming its alkaline salt, and leaving the para-acid unacted
upon. From the solution of its alkaline salt, the ortho-
aeid. or pure saccharine, is obtained by acidulation with a
mineral acid. — J. G. W.
Improved Process for Extracting Iodine from Natural
Saline Waters, Mother Liquors, or other Liquids
containing Iodine. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool. From
J!. Campani, Pisa, Italy. Eng. Pat. 16,942, September
22, 1892.
A process for extracting pure iodine from saline liquors,
without previous concentration, by means of iodide of
starch. Starch paste is added to the liquor and then a
sufficient quantity of bleaching-powder solution to liberate
the whole of the iodine. After standing ten hours, the
precipitate of iodide of starch is filtered off, washed and
treated with sulphurous anhydride, forming hydriodic acid
and leaving a deposit of starch, which can be used again.
The solution of hydriodic acid, containing a little sulphuric
aeid, is neutralised with sodium carbonate, and the iodine
then liberated by potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid
in a sufficiently pure state to dispense with sublimation.
—J. G. W.
XXI.-PHOTOGMPHIC MATERIALS
PROCESSES.
AND
A New Process for Photo Dyeing. A. Villain. L'Amateur
Photographe, 1 892.
This process is based on the experiments of Kopp. The
sensitive salt used is bichromate of ammonia, to which is
added a little meta-vanadate of ammonia, this being a more
energetic mordant.
The composition of the sensitising bath is as follows : —
Water 1,00
Bichromate of ammonia 50 grms.
Meta-vanadate of ammonia S grins,
After immersion the tissue is dried at a low temperature
25' — 30° C, away from all white light. After exposure
under a negative the details appear clearly defined, the
print is then thoroughly washed to remove all traces of
the unaltered salts, and in this state it may bt dried and
preserved, it being merely sufficient to steep in warm water
before'dyeing. The print having been placed in the dyeing-
bath, which is heated to boding for 10 or 15 minutes, is
taken out and washed; if the whites are then not pure the
print is passed through a warm bath of carbonate of soda,
or a cold bath of chloride of lime to which a few drops
of hydrochloric acid have been added. After a thorough
washing the print is finished.
The colouring matters chiefly used are : artificial alizarin,
alizarin blue S, alizarin black S, alizarin black K, gallo-
rlavin, purpurin, anthracene blue, alizarin orange, cerulein S,
gallein, alizarin green, alizarin yellow, alizarin maroon, &c.
The prints thus obtained offer great resistance to the action
of light, alkalis, and acids. — J. C. C.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Deo. 31, 1892.
PATENTS.
The Preparation and Employment of Aromatic Amido
( 'ompounds as Developing Means in Photography.
J. lluuff, Stuttgart, Germany. Eng. Pat. 15,434,
September 11, 1891.
The amido phenols used for developing have to be used in
caustic alkali solution, which is in man; ways unsuitable
in practice. By substituting the hydrogen of the amido
::roup by alkyl groups this objection is avoided, as the
resulting bodies can be employed in solutions of the alkaline
carbonates. The specification covers the preparation of
the following bodies :— Mono- and cli-methyl and ethyl
derivatives of para-amidophenol, ortho-amido-meta-ciesol,
meta-amido-ortho-cresol. ineta-amido-metaxylenol, meta-
amido-para-xyleno!, ortho-amido-ortho-xylenol and ortho-
amido-meta-xylenol (Sym.), also mono-, di-, and tetra
methyl or ethyl derivatives of para-pheuylenediamine, para-
toluylene diamine, para-xylylenediaruine, a-/3-naphthylene
diamine and a-a-naphthylene diamine. Suitable developing
mixtures containing the above substances are given.
— C, A. K.
A Sew Apparatus for Developing, Fixing, and Washing of
Photographic Dig Plates without the use of a Dark
Room. L. Nievsky, London. Eng. Pat, 17,860, October
19, 1891.
The plate after exposure is dropped from the camera into
a light tight tank provided with red glass windows ; the
bottom of this tank is connected by three or more tubes to
india-rubber balls containing developing solution, washing
water, fixing solution, &c. To develop the plate, the tap
opening to the ball containing the developing solution is
opened and the ball compressed so as to cause the liquid to
rise in the tank and cover the plate, when developed the
pressure on the ball is relieved and the solution so with-
drawn. The plate is then treated in a similar manner with
fixing solution, &c. — J. C. 0.
Apparatus for Developing, Firing, and washing Photo-
graphs. J. Wagnei and 6. Bredig, Leipzig, Germany.
Eng. Pat. 19,471, November 10, 1891.
Tins apparatus is in the form of a shallow rectangular box,
placed upright on its narrow side, and divided into two
parts by a perforated division. The front and back are
provided with red glass windows and a lid closes it hermeti-
cally. The liquid is admitted through a tap-funnel placed
at the top of the box and communicating with the lower
division yvhich has in addition a draw-off cock. The plate
having been introduced into the box, rests with its lower
edge on the division plate and the cover is put on: the
developing solution is then poured into the lower division
by means of the funne and the tap closed. The box is
then turned upside down, the solution running over the
plate. In order to examine the plate or run off the solution
the position is reversed. In the same manner the plate
may be fixed and washed. — J. C. C.
Improvements in Apparatus or Applianees for lrse in
Drying Sheets of Glue, Gelatin, and the like. VY. P.
Thompson. Liverpool. From P. Krauseder, and A.
Lentsch, Munich, Germany. Eng. Pat. 20,755, November
28, 1891.
See under XIV., page 1018.
XXII.-EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
PATENTS.
Improvements in Explosive Compounds. II. E. Newton,
London. From A. Nobel. Paris, France. Eng. Pat.
4179, December 2, 1875. (Second Edition.)
l!v this invention nitroglycerin or other analogous substance
is gelatinised by dissolving in it collodion cotton. The
solution of this body may be effected directly by heating
the two substances together or the collodion cotton may be
first dissolved in a "promoting" solvent, such as acetone
&c, and the solution mixed with the nitroglycerin. ( )n
evaporating the solvent an explosive jelly is left. Suitable
proportions are seven parts of collodion cotton and 93
parts of nitroglycerin. The rate of explosion of this gelatin
may be decreased and regulated by incorporating with it
from half to thirty per cent, of acetic ether or nitrobenzol
&c.
< heaper explosives may be made by mixing the gelatin
with, for instance, sawdust and a nitrate. — W. M.
Preparation of Explosive Compounds. A. V. Newton,
London. From A. Nobel, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 226,
January 20, 1879. (Second Edition.) (Provisional
protection only.)
It is proposed to produce powders of any desired quickness
of explosion, by mixing a comparatively slow gunpowder
with a quick powder in such proportions as to produce the
quickness of explosion needed. — W. M.
Manufacture of Explosive Compounds. II. E. Newton,
London. From A. Nobel, Paris, France. Eng. l'at.
2i>99, June 17, 1879. (Second Edition.)
" Tuts invention relates to a method of imparting to highly
compressed mealed, in contradistinction to grained, gun-
powder, that quickness of explosion which it needs to
become useful as a blasting agent, and which also facilitates
its adaptation as a propelling agent in heavy guns."
Special primers consisting of a small charge of barium or
lead picrate, or analogous fulminate equally insensible to
percussion, are used in conjunction with cartridges of
compressed mealed powder. The firing of such primer
serves to explode the sluggish mealed powder which cannot
be exploded in the ordinary way. — W. M.
Improvements in or relating to the Manufacture oj
Explosive Substances. W. P. Thompson, Liverpool.
From E. Landener, Paris, France. Eng. Pat. 19,267
November 7, 1891.
The improvements consist in coating chlorates with fatty
substances, hydrocarbons and their nitric derivatives, for
the purpose of rendering them less sensitive to concussion,
and insoluble in water, whilst entirely preserving their
shattering properties. — W. M.
An Improved Explosive Compound. W. E. Gedge,
London. From the United States Smokeless Powder
Company, San Francisco, U.S.A. Eng. Pat. 12,415,
July 5, 1892.
The new explosive is a mixture of picrate and nitrate of
ammonia with or without nitroglycerin. The proportions
are varied according to the explosive force required. One
i\c. si. 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1033
part of picrate of ammonia with one part of nitrate of
ammonia will form a very quick and powerful explosive,
and the violence may be varied by increasing the proportion
of nitrate of ammonia up to nine parts to one of picrate.
For blasting purposes, nitroglycerin is added ; if 4 parts
of picrate of ammonia and 6 parts of nitrate of ammonia
have been used, six parts of nitroglycerin will make an
effective mixture. The picrate and nitrate arc mixed in any
suitable manner, and the nitroglycerin added and mixed in,
—A. G. B.
Addendum.
In the No. 3 of this Vol. XI., page 235, col. 2, the article
on the Preparation nf a-Trinitrotoluene, C. Haussermann,
should be referred to under XXII., Explosives, to which
Group tlie substance properly belongs.
XXIII.-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
G. Lunge, lier. 25,
APPARATUS.
Improvements in the Gasvolumeler.
3157—3164.
I.N this article the author describes some improvements
that he has made in his well-known " gasvolumeter " which
was described in the Berichte, 1890,440 (this Journal, 18110,
S47— 549; and 1891, 1031).
Having found that every form of glass tap to the
" reduction " tube that he has tried, sooner or later ceased
to be gas-tight, and that the alternative plan of sealing off
the drawn-out end of the reduction tube is somewhat
inconvenient, if through some mishap, or for other reason it
becomes necessary to readjust the volume of air in the
reduction tube, he has now devised two plans of closing the
reduction tube, in such a manner as to ensure a permanently
gas-tight closure under either increased or diminished
pressure, whilst at the same time they allow of the ready
opening of the tube for the purpose of readjusting it when
desirable. The first method consists in drawing out the
upper end of the reduction tube to a capillary7 with a stout
wall, and with a slight bulge on it (see Fig. 1). The end of
the tube is ground square, and a piece of glass rod of the
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
< 40
76.
li
same thickness as the tube and with a slight bulge on it
also is ground square to meet it. A piece of india-rubber
tube is slipped over the bulge on the capillary leaving an
equal length projecting above the top of the capillary, and
the level of the mercury in the reduction tube is then
brought to the division on the tube that allows of 100 cc. of
dry air at the temperature and pressure of the day entering
the tube. A drop of mercury is then poured into the
india-rubber tube, the glass-rod is inserted and the india-
rubber tube tied with wire and varnished. Fig. 2 shows the
second method of closing the tube, which the author
considers even more satisfactory than that already described.
The reduction tube in this case is widened out at the top
into a cup, a stout-walled neck forming the connection. A
somewhat conical, thin, glass stopper is accurately groaud
into this neck. This stopper is well coated with vaselin or
paraffin so that it does not seize, and so that it may also
close the tube more perfectly. In the lower half of the
stopper a vertical groove is cut, so that on turning the
stopper this groove may be made to connect with a
corresponding groove cut in the upper part of the neck.
When the two grooves connect together a small air channel
is formed, but on turning the stopper round the passage is at
once closed. After adjusting the volume of air in the tube
and closing it by turning the stopper, mercury is poured
into the cup. To make the seal still more secure and to
prevent mercury in the cup from being thrown out by any
chance, a cork with a small tube passing through a per-
foration in it is inserted into the cup and pressed down
upon the top of the glass stopper, and bound down, the
small tube through the cork, allowing the mercury to enter
it and so giving room for expansion and contraction under
changes of temperature.
The author further states that he uow has the reduction
tube graduated somewhat differently to the usual form.
Instead of making the tube so that the 100 cc. division
comes immediately below the wider part of the tube it is
made so that the 9.5 cc. division comes there and the
graduation is continued down the narrow tube up to 125 cc,
the length of tube for each cubic centimetre being as nearly
as possible 10 mm. By this arrangement a volume of dry
gas can very readily be measured against a volume of damp
gas in the reduction tube, and vice versa, — operations which
are frequently convenient.
The author pointed out how this might be done some
time ago (Zeits. angew. Chem. 1891, 410 ; this Journal,
1891, 1031), viz.. by placing the reduction tube filled with
damp air, when measuring a volume of dry gas, lower, and
when filled with dry air for measuring a volume of damp
gas, higher than the normal position by as many millimetres
as correspond to the tension of water vapour at the existing
temperature. To do this, however, requires the use of a
measure which by the new arrangement is avoided. For
instance, if it be desired to measure a volume of dry gas at
a temperature of 15" against a moist reduction tube, the
levelling tube is so placed that the mercury in the reduction
tube stands at 100°, but instead of bringing the mercury in
the gas-measuring tube on a level with this point it must be
brought on a level with the division 98' 7° of the reduction
tube, the difference between 100° and 98 '7° being 13 mm.
which is approximately the tension of water vapour at the
temperature of 15° (more exactly 12" mm.). There is,
therefore, in the gas measuring tube a column of mercury
13 mm. higher than that in the reduction tube, in other
words the dry gas is compressed more than the damp air in
the reduction tube by an amount exactly corresponding to
the tension of the water vapour in the latter. Obviously,
if it be desired to measure a damp gas against a dry-
reduction tube, the level of the mercury in the measuring
tube must be brought as many millimetres lower than the
level of the mercury in the reduction tube as corresponds to
the existing tension of water vapour. Moreover, the same
result can be arrived at by adjusting the mercury in the
reduction tube at so many millimeters higher or lower than
100° as corresponds to the tension of water vapour at the
time and then bringing the mercury in the gas measuring
tube on a level with the 100° division on the reduction
tube.
laU
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec.si,i89a.
The new method of graduation from 95 cc. to 125 cc.
suffices for all ordinary purposes as a tension of water-
vapour exceeding 30 mm. has never to he dealt with. If,
however, it he desired to read off directly the weight in
milligrammes instead of the volume of gases, the reduction
tuhe must be graduated from 90 cc. to 150 cc. In a tube
so graduated the operation is conducted as follows : —
Instead of bringing the level of the mercury in the reduc-
tion tube to the 100° division, it must be brought to the
division corresponding to the weight of 1 litre of the gas to
be measured x 1 00, e.g. —
o
For air il must be brought to 129'4
For oxygen „ „ 143"0
For nitrogen „ „ 125-5
For nitric oxide „ 184-8
When the graduations of the tube do not extend far
enough, the mercury in the reduction tube can be placed at
the division corresponding to one-half or one-third the
product, e.g., in the case of carbonic acid, instead of
adjusting the mercury to 196-6°, it must be adjusted to
98-3 "', o,nd then each cubic centimetre in the gas-measuring
tube = 2 mgrms.
This principle can be further extended. Instead of taking
into account the weight of one litre of the gas to be
measured, the weight of the substance actuallysought for
by the analysis may be read ; as, for instance, in the case
of bleaching powder when decomposed by hydrogen
peroxide, each molecule of oxygen, 02, generated corre-
sponds to one molecule of available chlorine, CX,. By
adjusting the reduction tube to the division corresponding
to one-third the weight of 1 litre of chlorine x 100 = 105' 6
then each cc. of oxgen generated = 3 mgrms. of
chlorine. In the azotometricai estimation of nitrogen, the
usual correction of 2>- per cent, must be made, so that
the reduction tube must be adjusted to the division
125-5 x inn _ 12g- 7 ; or if it he desired to read off the
lJ7'5 •
corresponding weight of ammonia, then it must be adjusted
to the division l&'\^\y™ = 156-3 j in the case of
urea the correction of 8 per cent, must be made and the
product divided by 2, thus 12^ l| ^"° = 146-2, when
each cc. of gas = 2 mgrms. of urea. In order to read off
the weight of calcium carbonate directly from the volume
of carbonic acid, the reduction tuhe must he adjusted to the
division 1!)0''; ' 'm = 111-7°, when each cc. of CO., corre-
sponds to 4 mgrms. of CaCO., ; or again, if the weight of
carbon is required (as in iron analysis), the reduction tube is
adjusted according to the calculation ' " — - = 107 '2,
in which case each cc. of C<\, = 0-5 mgrm. of C.
The author remarks, however, that this lengthened form
of reduction tube is not so convenient as the shorter form,
and moreover the same results can he arrived at more
readily with the latter, by taking certain deliuite weights of
the substance to he examined and reading off at once the
percentages sought for, as he has already shown (Zeits.
ang. Chem. 1890, 143); whilst for any special kind of
determinations, such as vapour density determinations and
nitrogen estimations in organic substances, specially-
graduated forms of the instrument may be advantageously
used.
He calls attention also to a modified form of levelling
tube, shown in Fig. 3, which effects an economy of mercury,
and to a new iron stand by which, through a combination
of a thin steel cord, a pulley, drum, and handle, the
levelling and reduction tubes can be readily raised or
lowered. (See also this Journal, 1891, 1029—1030.)
— H. S. P.
A Simple Extraction and Condensing Apparatus,
K. Farusteiner. Chem. Zeit. 16, 1030.
The extraction apparatus depicted below may be readily
constructed by the chemist.
The bent tube B B has a total length of 60 cm. and is
0-5 cm. wide; it serves as a condenser, a stream of water
passing through it. The tube C, in which the substance to
be extracted is contained, is 10 cm. long and 2 cm. wide,
and rests on the wire spiral placed in the neck of the large
tube A. This latter is 32 cm. in length and 3 cm. broad.
The holder C is widened at four points at its upper part a,
in order more effectually to catch the liquid falling from 1!.
— \V. J. P.
Apparatus for Fractional Distillation. M.
Chem. Zeit. 16, 958—959.
Ekenberg
The author has devised an apparatus for the fractional
distillation of liquids boiling between 100° and 250°. The
construction of the apparatus will be understood from the
Figure on next page.
The fractionation column, 900 mm. in length and 4 — 5 nun.
in diameter, is contained iu a closed air-bath and is coiled
round the glass cylinder which serves as a chimney. The
temperature of the bath is regulated by a Stuhl's contact
thermometer connected with an electrical thermo-rcgulator.
The temperature of the jacket may be controlled within
0-2° C, and the difference in temperature between its upper
and lower parts is only 0-5°. Sample distillations are quoted
to demonstrate the great efficiency of the apparatus. It is
especially recommended in technical laboratory estimations
of xylenes, cumenes, solvent naphthas, anilines, nitro-
benzenes or petroleums, &c. — W. .1. P.
D II, 1892.]
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
in;;:,
vA Pf
PATENT.
An Improvement in Analytical and other Delicate Balances
also applicable In other Beam Weighing Machine*.
G. P. Bidder, London. Eng. Pat. 21,186,' December 4,
1891.
The object of this invention is to supersede the use of
" riders " on analytical balances. The invention consists in
employing a flexible filament, thread, or light chain, of as
nearly as possible uniform section throughout, one end of
this chain being fixed to and suspended from one arm of
the balance, preferably near the fulcrum, from which point
the chain hangs in the form of catenary, the other end
being led up through the top of the case and attached to
an appliance for raising or loweringit; this may coiiM-t of
a cylinder around which the chain is wound, and to which
is attached a milled head and graduated circle moving past
a fixed index ; or the end of the chain may be attached to a
vertically sliding bar marked with a scale, and worked by a
rack and pinion, or by any suitable means. — J. C. C,
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.—
QUANTITATIVE.
Nickel Analysis. S. H. Emmens. Eng. and Mining. J.,
' November 26, 1892, 510—51 1.
The substances usually submitted to analysis for the
determination of the contained nickel may conveniently be
classified as follows : —
1. Regulus and minerals containing arsenic, viz., speiss
and arseniferous ores of nickel. 2. Regulus and minerals
Table I.
Metallic Nickel, Nickel Matte, Nickel Oxide, &c.
Substance.
Matte (Swedish)
Dn. (Sudbury)....
Do. do
Bessemerised (do.)
Bes8emerised (New
CM.)
Fonle" (do.)
Nickel oxide (Sud-
bury).
Nickel oxide (New
CM.)
Artificial nickel ore
Nickel (German) ..
Do. do.
Do. (English) ..
Do. (New CM.) .
Disc do. do.
Cast do
Sheet do. (German)
Rolled anode (do.)
Manufacturer.
Hate.
Analyst or Authority.
Percentage of Composition.
Ni
( nnadian Copper Co.
Orford Copper Co..
Societe de Nickel .
1891
1891
1S91
Crristollc
Fleitman
do.
Wagner's cheni. Tech.
8th ed.
P. L. Sparry 14'84
13-04
1889
1839
1892 Canadian Copper Co..
Thorpe's Diet, of
Applied Cheui.
Hunt and Clapp .
Ledoux
E. F.Wood
Lassaigne
Diet. I
(Watts'
1881 ] Christ oflo and Bouilliet
Thorpe (Diet of Ap-
plied Chem.)
Gard (Wagner, 1.1th
ed.).
ls'.n F. P. Dewey
1891
56-75
54-60
73-30
97-4 1
97-050
97-03
Co
Total
Ni and
Co
Fe
Cu
26-00
16-33
31-67
0-27
W71
31-00
27-06
0-20
14-04
31-47
26-76
:;.-,•<.':;
1-09
40-98
'.7 17
11-90
..
67"9S
25-87
..
74-60
1-51
1-25
77 ■'.<■:
0-23
0-09
..
48-23
23-87
Trace
..
56 '73
12-55
27 -SO-
54-60
11-30
SO -10
22-10
95-40
roo
Trace
97-75
98-83
0'36
(Mill
0-72
Trace
97-41
0-301
..
1-858
iis-ios
0-829
0-49S
1-19
98-82
0-75
0-15
('.Sill,
and other
Impurities.
26-00
26-90
27-00
19-71
17-llS
1-95
(V264
0-104
o-cia
004
..(') -
0'92
0-95
2-29(«)
3-85
2-90
1 45
27-636
(inc. 0)
3-70
4-00
3-00
1-79
0-43
2-155
0-&42(3)
0-24C)
(') Average of three assays. (2) Ditto.
(») - li shoved by qualitative analysis slight traces of arsenic, antimony, and Muminium, and a perceptible amount of silicon. No other
metal or phosphorus was found." Note by Mr. Dewey.
(') ■' Showed some silicious residue." Note by Mr. Dewey.
[036
THE JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Die. 81, 1892.
Table I.
Metallii Nickel, Nickel Matte, Nickel Oxide, &c. — continued.
Date.
Percentage of Composition.
Substance. Manufacturer,
Analyst or Authority.
Ni Co
Total
Ni and
Co
Fe
Cn
C. SiO,
S and other
Impurities
Sueietc de Xitliel...
II. Wiggms and Co..
1891
1891
F. P. Dcwev
97*38 1-20 99 -OS
o-in; o-r.s
0-32 0-113
0-013 0-107(5)
98-757
94-986
96-2J
88-68
82-776
1-586 98-348
Trace 1-221
1891
1892
1892
1891
0-856
093
'i rece
1-133
95-844
97-22
83-68
83-909
0-354
0-047
Trace 3,755(<i)
Orford Copper Co....
Hans in and Van
Winkle 1 i.
Zuckerand Lsvett ..
1-92 0-21
O'lOt G-S58f'l
Cast nickel (anode] .
"■111 0'15
12-091 j 0-103
0-05 3-847C)
('■) • .V small amount of hard, gritty grains left on dissolving the metal." Note by Mr. Dewey.
(») "It showed by qualitative examination the slightest traces of arsenic and antimony, some aluminium, and considerable silicon
anil calcium. Distinct grains of slag were found. No oilier metal phosphorus was found." Note by Mr. Dewey.
e There is some Si and considerable As in this sample." Note by Mr. Dewey.
i "I ■ It contained a considerable amount of tin. probably 76. There is also considerable silicon present." Note by -Mr. Dewey,
(9) " It showed on qualitative analysis slight traces of arsenic and antimony, some aluminium and calcium, and considerable silicon.
No other metal or phosphorus was found. Note by Mr. Dewey.
containing no (or but little) arsenic, viz., matte, nickeli-
ferous, pyrrhotite and non-arseniferous ores of nickel.
a. Metallic nickel, nickel steel, German silver, and other
alloys of nickel.
lii the absence of any generally recognised and accepted
system of accurate nickel analysis, Mr. Charles T. Mixer,
the chemist of the Emineus Metal Company, has, in con-
junction with the author devised the following methods,
which were found to be sufficiently trustworthy fur all
technical and commercial purposes.
Method A. — For Substances High in Nickel and
Low in Copper and Iron, e.g., Metallic Nickel,
Bessemerised Matte, Nickel ( Ixihe. &c.
Operation.
1. Dissolve (about 2 srrnis I
and evaporate.
2. Dissolve and filter
3. Precipitate and filter
4. Dissolve tin- washed pre-
cipitate and evaporate
till white fumes are
piodnced.
:,. Dissolve and electrolyse ..
6. Boil, nitrate from 3 and
peroxidise.
7. Cool and make solution up
I" I'lOCC.
8. lied half of 7. precipitate
and filter.
9. Itedissolvc the precipitate
10. Precipitate and filler
11. Dissolve ami reduce the
well-washed precipitate.
1\ Titrale
13. Precipitate and Biter one-
tenth I to ce.l of 7.
1 1 Dissolve the washed pre-
cipitate.
15. .Make alkaline
ir,. Electroylse
Kea'-enl.
HN03 + HC1. or
lusion with KHSO,
1IC1 + H,.< I
H,S
HXn;i+H:so,
H,0 + HNf ).,
HX03
1 1 .<>
NH3
HC1
MIi
H,SO, + Zn
KM„0,
NaHO
Dilute II ,S< l,
Ml.
Separation.
SiO.,, C. &c.
CuS
Cu
Fe
Xi 4 Co
Method B.— Foe Substances High in Iron and Low-
in Nickel, e.g., Ptbrhotitb and once-run Matte.
Operation.
Reagent. Separation
1.1
■ Same as in Method A .
Cu
Precipitate and filtrate .
NH3 Fe,0,II.,,
3. Boil the wastied precipi- H20 made faintly acid ' FcoOoII.O
9. Precipitate and filter NH.C1 + JNH3 Fe^UlX)
in.
Add together the filtrates
from 7 and 9 ; evaporate
to small bulk ; precipi-
tate and filter.
10. Dissolve the washed pre-
cipitate.
11. Make alkaline
12. Electrolyse
with H«S04orHCl
NH4CI + NHS
NaHO in large excess
Dilute H, SO,
NH„
Xi 4- Co
Method C. — Qualitative examination of pyrrhotite and
other lean ores of nickel.
1. Reduce to fine powder.
2. Dissolve in aquareyia; evaporate to dryness; dissolve
in HC1 and H20 ; filter off from gaugue and insoluble
matter.
3. Pass H;S through the solution to remove Cu.
4. Boil free of H>S ; peroxidise with HN( >3.
5. Precipitate the Fe with NH3 ; boil ; add HC1 until the
supernatant liquid is faintly acid; boil sharply for 10
minutes.
G. Make strongly alkaline with NH:l and note the colour
of the supernatant solution. If it be distinctly blue the
percentage of nickel in the on is commercially important.
7. If the solution be colourless, filter and boil down to a
small bulk free from the odour of Nil,. Then add a few
Dec.ai, 1892.] THE JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTliY.
1037
drops of a solution of potassium sulphocarbonate, which
will give a pink coloration if there be any trace of nickel
in the ore.
N.B. — Test 7 is also useful for determining when the
electrolytic separation of the Ni is complete in methods A.
and B. It was found that the reactien is best observed
when the solutions are neutral instead of being alkaline as
recommended in the text-books.
A distinguished feature of the process is the treatment
of the precipitated ferric hydroxide with a minute quantity
of acid. This has the effect of dissolving any Nj or Co
hydrate that may have been carried down with the iron ;
and it is more efficient than the numerous tedious and
troublesome repetitions of solution, precipitation, filtration,
aud washing necessitated by the older methods. At first
sight, indeed, it may be doubted whether sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid will unite with nickel in preference to
iron, seeing that the latter metal oxidises more energetically
than the former; but the .following thermo-chemieal data
will make the matter clear: —
. Reaction.
Fe + O I SOaAq
Xi + O + SOjAn
Pe + CI. + Aq . .
Xi + Cl3 + Aq . . ,
Fe + 0 + H20..,
Xi +0 + 1UJ..
Heat generated per
Formula Weight,
Units.
93,200
S6.950
90,950
93,7011
68,280
00,840
It results from these figures that the heat of formation
of one molecule of ferrous sulphate by the union of ferrous
hydroxide and dilute sulphuric acid is 93,200 - 68,280 =
24,920 units ; while that of nickel sulphate formed by the
union of nickel hydrate with dilute sulphuric acid is
86,950 ^60,840-- 26,110 units. Under these conditions,
therefore, Berthelot's law of maximum work calls for the
formation of nickel sulphate in preference to ferrous
sulphate. If HC1 be the acid, the figures are : —
Formation ot nickel chloride 93,700 - 60,840 = 32,860 units.
Formation of ferrous chloride. . . 99,950 - 68,280 = 31,670 units.
In the particular case under consideration, the replacing
power of nickel is still more marked, as, owing to the iron
being peroxidised, its basic efficiency -is lessened. The heat
values per formula weight of acid, as given by llerthelot
( Meeanique Chimique, tome 1, 384) are : —
Units.
Formation of ferric chloride 11,800
Formation of ferric sulphate 11,400
The text-books contain very few examples of the analyses
of commercial nickel, matte, &c. The Table I., above, is
therefore added, which will serve to indicate the general
character of the substances that the nickel analyst is
called upon to examine nowadays. — W. S.
.4 New Colour- Standard for Natural Waters. A. Hazen.
Amer. Chem. Jour. 14, 300—310.
The colour of water has been measured by comparing it
with the colour produced, by Xesslerisiug water containing a
measured quantity of ammonia. This is open to the
objections, that the numbers expressing the colours are not
directly proportioned to the colours themselves, and that it
is not applicable to very slightly coloured water.
The author suggests in place of this a platinum colour
standard which is defined as follows : — " The colour of a
water is the amount of platinum in parts per ten thousand,
which in acid solution, with so much cobalt as will match
the tint, produces an equal colour in distilled water."
To prepare a standard having the value five on this scale,
1'246 grms. potassium-platinum chloride (containing 0'5
gnus, platinum), and 1 grm. cobalt-chloride is dissolved in
water; 100 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid added, aud
the solution made up to 1 litre. Standards for use are
made by diluting 1, 2, 3 ce., &c. of this solution to 50 cc. in
Nessler tubes, giving colours 0' 1, 0"2, &c. ; in closed tubes
these standards will keep unaltered for a long time.
If the colours do not exactly match the waters, more or
less cobalt may be added. With waters of low colour
longer tubes may be us^d. The numbers obtained by this
method are practically identical with those obtained by the
Nesslerised ammonia standard for colours 1 to 2, but the
platinum standard gives numbers proportional to the
colours, and may be used for all waters. — A. L. S.
The Estimation of Manganese in Spiegel Iron and Fevro-
manganese. M. C. Bastin. Monit. Scient. September 1892,
639.
From 0'25 to 1 grm. of the material is dissolved in a tla>k
of about 150 cc. capacity, by 50 cc. nitric acid sp. gr. 1*20;
8 — 10 grms. potassium chlorate are added and the solution
boiled for 15 minutes. It is diluted, filtered, aud 100 ce. of
a solution added containing 6 '300 grms. oxalic acid per
litre, and 25 cc. sulphuric acid. The mixture is warmed to
80° C. for 10 minutes made up to 1 litre, aud the excess of
oxalic acid titrateoVwith potassium permanganate solution.
One equivalent of oxalic acid decomposes one equivalent of
''7 '5
manganese, or Mn = oxahc acid decomposed x ~, '=oxahc
acidxO'4365. The permanganate solution is made by
dissolving six grms. of permanganate in one litre water.
The results yielded are very fairly accurate. — A. L, S.
The Estimation of the Intensity of Colour of Beers and
Malt Extracts. C. J. Lintner. Zeits. gos. Brauw. 1892,
15, 213 ; Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1892, 16, 234—235.
The author finds it impossible to prepare a single
staudard solution for eolorimetric purposes, owing to the
different tints which occur in beers made from kiln-dried
and the so-called patent malt, and in those made from
ordinary black malt, a yellow tint occurring in the former
and a red one in the latter. Iron-ammonia alum is the only
substance which complies with both requirements ; the
addition of sulphuric acid to the aqueous solution giving the
yellow tint and 1 he addition of acetic acid the red one. The
author describes and figures a simple " Dilution colorimeter,''
in which the depth of colour of the liquid under experiment
is compared with that of the standard. If they are exactly
equal, the number 1 is assigned to the liquid as its colour
intensity. The apparatus consists of two equal rectangular
glass vessels having parallel sides, and fitting side by side
into a case of black enamelled tin, which is furnished with
two longitudinal slits in the front and in the back which
are covered with milk glass. When in use the apparatus
is placed against a window, and the depths of colour of the
liquids placed in the two vessels are compared with the
eye on looking through the slits.
Method oj Use: 1. Beer. — The standard solution is pre.
pared by dissolving four grms. iron-ammonia alum in 100
cc. distilled water, with the addition of 2 cc. normal
sulphuiicacid. 5 to 20 cc. of the beer, according to its colour,
are placed in one vessel, and water added from a burette
until the intensity of colour equals that of the standard
solution which is placed in the other vessel. The intensity
of colour, F, then= — .where a is the volume of beer
a
used, and b that of the water added.
2. Malt. — (a). Kiln-dried malt. 50 grms. of malt are
mashed in the usual manner with 200 cc. water, made up to
265 cc. and filtered, and the colour of the wort compared
with the above standard solution. (6). Patent colour-malt.
5 to 25 grms. of the malt, according to its colour, are finely
ground, boiled with 400 cc. water for ten minutes, cooled,
made up to 500 cc. and filtered. The colouring power of
the malt is reckoned as 1, when the colour-intensity of the
Ju38
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 81, 1S92.
extract of 100 grins, of mall in 500 cc. water is equal to 1
a- calculated above.
3. Ordinary Black Malt.-The standard solution in this case
consists of 1 grin, iron-ammonia alum iu 100 cc. water, with
the addition of 7 cc. of 32 per cent, acetic acid. 2-5 grms.
of the finely -ground malt are digested with 400 cc. water for
ten minutes, cooled, made up to 500 cc. and filtered. The
colouring power of the malt is calculated as in the preceding
case.— J. G. W.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUALITATIVE.
Identification of Xulose and Distinction from Arabinose.
ti. liertrand. Bull. Soe. Chim. 7—8, 1892, 49U— 502.
Since xylose occupies an important position in the vege-
table kingdom, being always found amongst the products of
hydrolysis of the incrusting substances of the angiosperms,
it is necessary to have some means of identifying it ; the
author gives a summary of the properties and reactions of
xylose, "most of which have, however, been described by-
other chemists.
One hundred parts of water at 20-3° dissolve 117-05
parts of xylose ; or, in other words, 100 cc. of a saturated
aqueous solution of xylose at 20-3° contain 64 "2 grms. of
the sugar. Xylose seems to he insoluble in absolute alcohol,
but 10 cc. of 90 per cent, alcohol, saturated at 19°, contain
0-329 grin, of the sugar.
The specific rotatory power of xylose is [a]„= 20-2 to
21° according to Koch, [a]„ = 1S'6 to 1'." <. according to
Wheeler and Tollens ; the author's determinations give
[a]D = 19- 4'.
Xylose does not ferment with yeast ; its reducing power
for Folding's solution is 109-6, when that of dextrose is
taken as 100.
A characteristic reaction of xylose, and one by means of
which it can lie distinguished from arabinose, is the following :
— A little xylose is treated with 30 — 50 times its weight of
saturated bromine water, and after keeping for 24 hours
the solution is boiled to expel the excess of bromine ; after
adding excess of cadmium carbonate the solution is filtered,
evaporated to a small volume, and mixed with an equal
volume of alcohol, when xylobromide of cadmium—
C5H306CdBr + H20
is gradually deposited in crystals ; this compound is almost
insoluble in dilute alcohol, but much more readily in water,
and has no sharp melting point.
Both xylose and arabinose give, as is well known, a violet
blue coloration when warmed with hydrochloric acid and a
trace of orciuol ; the hexoses, on the other hand, give a
reddish-orange coloration. — F. S. K.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— QUANTITATIVE.
The Determination of Glycerol in Sweet Wines. M. T
Lecco.' Ber. 25, 2074—2075.
By using a large amount of lime, the method of estimating
glycerol in wines described by the author (Chem. Zeit. 16,
1892, 504 ; this Journal 1892, 550) may be applied to
sweet wines.
The following method may also be used : — 10 cc. wine is
mixed with 1 grm. dry powdered calcium hydrate, 10 grms.
quartz sand added, and the whole evaporated to dryness on
the water-bath. The residue is extracted 4 or 5 times with
9 6 per cent, alcohol, and the alcoholic solution filtered into
a 100 cc. flask. The solution is evaporated on the water-
bath and the residue dissolved in 5 cc. absolute alcohol and
7-5 to 10 cc. ether added. When the solution has become
clean, it is decanted off, filtered, evaporated, and dried one
hour iu the water-oven and weighed. — A. L. S.
On the Estimation of Glycerin in Fermented Beverages.
B. Proskauer. Pharm. Central-H. X.F. 1892, 13, 369 ;
Chem. Zeit. Rep. 1892, 16, 228.
Good results are given by the following method ; — 100 cc.
of wine are evaporated to 30 cc, mixed with a few drops of
sulphuric acid and G cc. of phosphotungstic acid (50 per
cent.). The precipitate is filtered off and washed, the filtrate
evaporated down on a water-bath with the addition of dry
calciuin hydrate, and of quartz-sand. The mass in the
evaporating dish is then powdered and introduced into a
Soxhlet's apparatus. After extracting well with 96 per cent,
alcohol, the extract is evaporated in a flask to a syrupy
consistence, 25 cc. alcoholic ether (2 : 3) added, the whole
shaken vigorously and allowed to settle. The clear liquid is
poured into a long-necked 50 cc. flask, washed with 10 cc.
alcoholic ether, evaporated, and dried in a water oven.
—J. G. W.
The Estimation of Invert Sugar by Soldaini's Solution.
Striegler. Zeits. Riibeuzuckerind. 1892, 42, -457 : Chem.
Zeit. Eep. 1S92, 16, 227.
Some difficulty is experienced in the removal of calcium
salts from syrups and molasses prior to the estimation of
the invert sugar in them, potassium and sodium bicar-
bonates when used alone for this purpose presenting
certain objections. The author recommends the use of a
solution of sodium oxalate and bicarbonate prepared by
dissolving 25 grms. oxalic acid in the smallest possible
quantity of water, adding sodium carbonate until a heavy
precipitate of sodium bicarbonate falls out, and making up
to 500 CC. An excess of this reagent has no prejudicial
action and in using it, it is only necessary to heat just to the
boiling point.
The author also recommends the preliminary clarification
of molasses with blood charcoal as otherwise a too great
reductiou of copper is obtained, due to matter which is not
invert sugar, and which is removed by treatment with
Dep.si.M98.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1039
charcoal. The use of lead acetate is, however, objected to,
on the ground of its giving a precipitate with the invert
sugar itself.
The following is bis complete process: — Dissolve 20 gnus,
of the substance in Nil — 150 cc. water, add 10 — 30 ec. of
the calcium precipitating solution, heat to boiling and allow to
boil up a few times, cool, make up to 200 ce., shake up with
blood charcoal, titter and treat 50 cc. with 100 cc. Soldaini's
solution, which is best prepared by dissolving 150 grms.
KHCOj and 101-4 grms. K2C03 in 600 cc. water at- 50 ( '.,
adding 100 cc. of a solution of 34 '639 grms. CuS04 in
500 cc. water and making up to a litre.— J. G. W.
The Hops of the Year 1891. M. Levy. Chem. Zeit. 16,
1892,839.
See under XVII., page 1019.
PATENT.
Improvement in Detection of Foreign Fats in Butter.
W. Johnstone, London. Eug. Pat. 20,956, December 1,
1891.
Tin: invention is based on the fact, discovered by the
patentee, that genuine butter does not contain triolein and
tributyrin, but a peculiar fat called oleo-vaceio-butyrate of
glycerin. The ratio between the liberated oleic and butyric
acids is therefore constant, and any excess of the first is
proof-positive of an admixture of animal fat, whilst an excess
of the latter shows adulteration with a vegetable oil.
The inventor thus describes the actual process: — First,
the amount of butyric acid is estimated by any suitable
means and calculated to oleo-vaceio-butyrate of glycerin by
multiplying by ^ . Second, the iodine absorption of the
butter, or of its fatty acids, is ascertained by any suitable
means, and this is also calculated to the said glycerin
compound by multiplying first by and then by — . If
the two estimations agree the butter is pure ; if not there
has been adulteration. The inventor claims great delicacy
for his process, from three to five per cent, of foreign fat
being readily detected. — L. de K.
ANALYTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.
Slow Combustion of Gaseous Mixtures. P. Askenasy and
V. Meyer. Annaleu, 269, 49—72.
In a paper published a short time ago (this Journal, 1891'
752), Krause and Meyer described experiments, the object
of which was to try and determine the rate at which com-
bination takes place between oxygen and hydrogen. In the
present communication further experiments of the same kind
are described, additional precautions having been taken to
ensure the purity of the electrolytic gas. In order to try
and obviate the influence of the glass surface, to which the
irregularities in the earlier results were assigned, various
devices were adopted ; in some eases the glass bulbs were
etched on the inside, in others the electrolytic gas was passed
for many hours through the bulbs heated to 518° C. in order
to try and obtain an unchangeable surface ; experiments
were also made with bulbs which had been protected from
the light.
These attempts to eliminate the action of the glass surface
were, however, entirely unsuccessful, the irregular character
of the results being just as pronounced as in the earlier
experiments. The effect of coating the inner surfaces of
the bulbs with silver was then investigated ; although when
such bulbs are used combination takes place at a much
lower temperature than in the case of the unsilvered vessels
the same irregularities are observed, and it is impossible to
establish any relationship between the duration of the heating
and the quantity of water formed
The conclusion to be drawn from these experiments is
that, even when every imaginable precaution is taken to
ensure equality of conditions, it is impossible to determine
the relation between the amount of water produced from
electrolytic gas and the duration of the heating ; the cause
of this is doubtless to be sought for in the action of the
surface of the containing vessels.
Further experiments will be undertaken in order to try
and arrive at a solution of this problem ; in the first place
the authors iutend to modify their method of procedure by
employing capillary tubes or silver vessels instead of the
glass bulbs, and also to try the effect of heating the
electrolytic gas under pressure. — F..S. K.
Photo-Chemical Notes. P. Askenasy and V. Meyer.
Annalen, 269, 72—73.
When pure, dry electrolytic gas is exposed to direct
sunlight from May to October in sealed glass bulbs, it
undergoes no change, as is proved by the fact that on
opening the bulbs under water the original volume of the
gas is found to have undergone no diminution. Even when
moist electrolytic gas is exposed to the concentrated light of
a July sun, and at the same time heated to 606° C., no
explosion occurs.
When chlorine aud hydrogen are separately exposed to
bright sunlight for 3 to 4 hours and then immediately mixed
in the dark they do not combine ; this experiment proves that
Draper's statement to the contrary is untrue, and confirms
the results obtained byBunsen and Roscoe. — F. S. K.
The Itesius of Ficus rubiginosa ami F. Macrophylla.
E. H. Rennie aud G. Goyder, jun. Proc. Chem. Soe.
1892,115, 146.
An account is given of the results of an examination of
the resin of F. rubiginosa by De la Rue and Midler,
contained in a paper published in the Phil. Trans, of 1860,
and the somewhat different results of the authors are then
recorded. They have separated a crystalline substance
from both resins externally closely resembling De la Rue
and Midler's product, but giving numbers for carbon about
3 per cent., and for hydrogen about 1 per cent, higher ;
the numbers are most in accordance with the formula
(':<i|I,:,i,,)..- This substance is resolved by alkaline hydro-
lysis into acetic acid and a crystalline substance melting at
114°, of the formula GeH540, very closely resembling the
substauce described by be la Rue and Midler, which they
obtained in a similar way. — W. S.
i^eto 3Soor$.
The Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in
Gold. A practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen,
compiled from the experience of thirty years' workshop
practice. By Geore E. Gee. London : Crosby, Lock-
wood, & Son, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill,
1892. 7s. 6d.
This is an 8vo. volume bound in cloth, with Preface, Table
of Contents, Subject-matter containing 228 pages, and
Alphabetical Index. The book is divided into 17 chapters ;
I. The Chemical and Physical properties of Gold, deals
shortly with Fine Gold, Action of Fluxes on Gold, Dissolving
Gold, Testing Gold in solution, Granulating and parting
alloyed Gold, Various Gold precipitants, Zinc and waste
gold solutions. II. The Precipitation of Gold in waste
MIo
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
solution-. III. The Different Colours of Gold.. IV. The
Mixing and Melting of Gold. V. The Dry-Colouring of
Gold. VI. The Wet-Colouring of Gold. VII. The Melting
and Casting of Gold. VIII. Electro-Gilding. IX. Some
other Modes of Gilding. X. Practical Manipulations, such
as gildiug plain surfaces. Frosting, metal work, &c.
XI. Mixing Alloys. XII. Useful Imitation Alloys.
XIII. Hints and Helps, Instructions upon Hall-marking,
Gold-testing X'eedles.Gold Lacquer, Soldering fluid free from
Aeid, Cold and Silver Solders, Polishing Powder, Gilding
Steel, Aluminium Silver, Gilders' Wax, &c. XIV. Collecting
and Refining Scrap Gold, Lemel, Wet and Dry Pro-
cesses for the Recovery of Gold, &c. XV. Sundry Gold
Alloys. XVI. Choice Recipes. XVII. Gold Values and
Alloys, giving tables of the relative Values of the different
Carats of Fine Gold, the Proportions of Alloy and Fine Gold
to make any Quality, &c.
A Hanky Rook for Brewers, being a Practical
GurDE TO THE AliT OF BREWING AND MALTING.
Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research which
bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By Herbert Edwards
Wright, M.A. London : Crosby. Locknood, and Co.,
7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, 1892. 12s. 6d.
Octavo volume bound in cloth, containing Preface, Table
of Contents, text covering 503 pages. Alphabetical Index,
and, just preceding it, a Synoptic Table of the various
Processes in Malting and Brewing. The work is illustrated
by a few engravings, and is subdivided into chapters devoted
to the consideration of the following branches of the whole
subject : — I. Introductory, Chemical Changes and Prelimi-
nary Processes. II. Barley, Malting, and Malt. III. Water
for Brewing. IV. Hops and Sugars. V. The Brewing Room.
VI. Chemistry as applied to Brewing, VII. The Labora-
torv, it-? requirements, and the methods. VIII. Mashing,
Sparging, and Boiling. IX. E'erments in General. X. Fer-
mentation with Commercial Yeast, its Science and Practice.
XI. Culture from a Single Cell ; Wild Yeasts. XII. Treat-
ment of Beer. XIII. The Brewery and Plaut. In the first
part of the Appendix is given a list of the hop-growing
parishes of Kent.
Farmyard Manures its Nature, Composition, and
Treatment. By C. M. Airman, M.A., BSc, Lecturer
on Agricultural Chemistry, West of Scotland Technical
College, &c. William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh
and London, 1S92. Is. 6d.
Small 8vo. volume, with Preface, Table of Contents, and
65 pages of subject-matter. The treatise opens with a brief
introduction in a couple of pages, treating of — i. What Fer-
tility of Soil depends on ; and ii. The Function of Manures.
Farmyard Manures. — Solid excreta and urine. Litter.
Horse Manure. Cow Manure. Pig Manure. Sheep Manure.
Methods of Calculating Amount of Manure produced on the
Farm, l'ermentation of Farmyard Manure. Conditions
influencing Fermentation. Products of Fermentation.
Analysis of Farmyard Manure. Comparison of Fresh and
Rotten Manure. Methods of Application of Farmyard
Manure to the Field. Value and Functions of E'armyard
Manure. Appendix, relating to a variety of analyses and
experimental trials.
Chemistry of the Organic Dyf.stfffs. By R. Xietzei,
Ph.D., Professor of the University of Basel. Translated,
with additions, by A. Collin, Ph.D., and W. Richardson.
London: Gnrney & Jackson, 1 , Paternoster Row, 1892.
15s,
Tins work is the English translation of the well-known
German work of Nietzki, and consists of an octavo volume
bound in cloth, and containing Author's preface, Translators'
Preface, Table of Contents, Introduction, and text occupy-
in; 271 pages. This is followed by a most useful and well-
arranged Table of References on the diA'erent classes of
Dye-tuffs, covering 15£ pages, an Appendix containing
information concerning the most recent colours, and Alpha-
betical Index.
The matter is classified as follows :— I. Colour. Chromo-
phors, Chromogens, &c. II. Nitro-compounds. Azo-
dyestuffs. Amido-azo-compouods. Oxy-uzo-compounds.
Azo-dyes from Diazo carbonic acids. Azo-dyes from
carbonic acids and diazo compounds. Tetrazo- or Diazo
dyes. III. Oxyquinonesand Quinone-oximes. IV. Ketone
imides and Hydrazides. V. Triphenylmethane Dyes. VI.
Quinone-imide Dyes. VII. Azine Dyes. VIII. Aniline
Black. IX. Indulines and Xigrosines. X. Quinoline and
Aeridine Dyes. XL Indigo Dyes. XII. Euxanthic Acid
and Galloflavine. XIII. Canarine. XIV. Murexide. XV.
Dyes of Unknown Constitution.
Chemical Lecture Experiments. Non-Metallic
Elements. By G. S. Xewth, F.I.C.j Chemical Lecture
Demonstrator in the Royal College of Science, South
Kensington. London and Xew York : Longmans, Green,
& Co., 15, East 16th Street, 1892. 10s. 6d.
This work, as the Preface announces, is designed, firstly,
to supply chemical lecturers and teachers with a useful
repertoire of experiments, which may be undertaken on the
lines laid down with confidence, as resting upon a founda-
tion of solid experience ; and secondly, to furnish the
chemical student with a book to serve as a companion to
the lectures he may attend. The volume is octavo iu size,
and though the concise table of contents following the
preface might have served, yet an alphabetical index at the
end forms an additional guide to all details of experiment.
The text of the subject proper covers 276 pages. Then
follows an article on lantern illustrations, and this is
succeeded by an Appendix with useful tables for experi-
menters, which might be admirably reproduced and embodied
in wall diagrams.
'Ihe work is illustrated by 224 well-executed woodcuts.
Technologists may find specially interesting the experimental
treatment of the following subjects : — Ammonia, Oxides of
Nitrogen, Diffusion, Combustion, Phosphorus, Sulphur,
Sulphur Dioxide, Dissociation and Liquefaction of Gases.
Manual of Qualitative Blow-pipe Analysis and
Determinative Mineralogy. By F. M. Enih.ich,
S.X.I)., Mining Engineer and Metallurgist, late
Mineralogist Smithsonian Institution, and United States
Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories.
The Scientific Publishing Co., 27, Park Place, XTewYork,
1892. 18s. (4-00 dollars).
This large and complete treatise is dedicated to Professor
Theodor Bichter, of Freiberg i S., the former teacher of
the author. It is as a book, large 8vo. in size, and cortains
Preface, Table of Contents, List of Illustrations, numbering
some 26, List of Abbreviations, introduction, Text, filling
436 pages, and a copious Alphabetical Index. A note-
worthy sentence in the Introduction, referring to such
matter as fills the pages of this volume, is this: — "No
amount of memorising will impress the various reactions
upon the student's mind in such a way that he will always
recognise them when he see* them." " Practice alone can
do this."
Pages 13 — 32 are devoted to an account of the Appliances
and Reagents required for quantitative blow-pipe analysis.
This includes a description of " Blast and Flames," pages
2G— 32. Chapter II. deals with the Methods of Qualita-
tive Blow-pipe Analysis. i. Examination of Minerals
without the application of heat or reagents, ii. I^xami-
nation of Minerals with the Application of heat only,
iii. Examination of Minerals with the blow-pipe with
Deo 31.1892.] THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1041
Borax and Salt of Phosphorus. IV. Treatment with stih-
stances with Soda before the blow-pipe. V. Treatment
of Minerals with Soda and Borax before the Blow-pipe,
with Nitre, with Potassium Bisulphate, with Potassium
Iodide and Sulphur, with Cobalt Solution, &c. Spectrum
Analysis. Chaftkk III. Tables giving Reactions for the
Oxides of the Karths and Metals. Chapter IV. Promi-
nent Blow-pipe Reactions for the Elements and their
Principal Mineral Compounds. Chapter V. Systematic
Qualitative Determination of Compounds. Chapter VI.
Determinative Tables and their Application. This latter
portion of the work furnishes a complete and systematic
method of determining minerals by means of blow-pipe
and other dry, as well as so-called wet processes of
qualitative mineralogical analysis.
Printers' Colours, Oils, ami Varnishes: a Practical
Manual. By George H. HurST, F.C.S., Member of
the Society of Chemical Industry; Lecturer on the
Technology of Printers' Colours, Oils, and Varnishes at
the Municipal Technical School, Manchester. Loudon :
( 'has. Griffin & Co., Limited, Exeter Street, Strand,
1S92. 12s. 6,1.
The writer states in his preface, "The information given
as to the properties and preparation of pigments is either
based on my own experience or drawn from the most
trustworthy sources." His chapter on " Varnishes " has
been revised by a personal friend practically engaged in
their manufacture. The book is thns not a mere compile-
nieut from other works. It is of 8vo. size, is handsomely
bound in red cloth, and contains Preface, Table of Contents,
and subject-matter filling 450 pages. An Alphabetical
Index concludes the work. The text is embellished by
some 67 wood engravings and contains various useful
tables. The work is sub-divided as follows into chapters
treating of the subjects of this industry : —
Introductory on Colour and Colour Theories. II. White
Pigments. III. Red Pigments. IV. Yellow and Orange
Pigments. V. Green Pigments. VI. Blue Pigments. VII.
Brown Pigments. VIII. Black Pigments. IX. Lakes.
X. Assay and Analysis of Pigments. XI. Colour and
Paint Machinery. XII. Paint Vehicles. XIII. Driers.
XIV. Varnishes.
Destructive Distillation, A Manualette of the Paraffin,
( 'oal Tar, Rosin Oil, Petroleum, and Kindred Industries.
By Edmund J. Mills, D.Sc., F.B.S. 4th Edition.
London : Gurney and Jackson, 1, Paternoster Row,
1892. as.
Tnis 8vo. volume is bound in strong waterproof cloth, and
so can be used safely on the laboratory table. The contents
are the substance of a course of lectures delivered in
Anderson's College, in 1875 — 6, but enlarged upon since
that date. The subject-matter covers 183 pages. Then
follows a diagram showing the various forms of shale retorts
used since the old vertical type largely employed by Young's
Paraffin Company, up to types used in 1889 (Stanrigg's),
with an explanatory Appendix. Appendix B. comprises a
Bibliography on Destructive Distillation, and the book
concludes with an Alphabetical Index. The work is well
illustrated with tables.
Crane Report*
EXTRACTS FROM DIPLOMATIC AND
CONSULAR REPORTS.
Fertilisers' in the West Indies.
Jamaica.
The American Vice-Consul reports that there was
imported into Jamaica during the year ended March 31st,
1891, fertilisers to the value of 2,758/., of which 2,375/.
in value came from the United Kingdom, 81/. from the
United States ; while for the year ended March 31st, 1892,
the total importations amounted to 3,918/., distributed as
follows: From the United Kingdom, 3,905/.; from the
United States, 49/. ; and the remainder from the West Indies.
It will he seen from this, says the Consul, that although
the use of imported American fertilisers is exceedingly
small, it is on the increase.
The explanation of the practical monopoly of the United
Kingdom in this trade is explained by the fact that the
English manufacturers of commercial fertilisers hold them-
selves in readiness to analyse samples of the soil, in order to
arrive at the chemical deficiencies thereof, and then compound
the fertilisers to meet such deficiencies. Intelligent and
practical users of fertilisers assure him that if American
manufacturers will hold out the same inducements in
regard to analysing the soils and manipulating the manure
to supply the requirements thereof, and in addition thereto
will sell at the same price fertilisers of the same commercial
value, the item of freights being so much in favour of the
United States, her manufacturers can turn the tide in their
favour.
Although the area of Jamaica is only 4,193 square miles,
it contains a great diversity of soils, and it would therefore
require the honest and intelligent preparation of fertilisers
on the part of American manufacturers to obtain and hold
this trade. And he remarks that the principal crops (cane
and bananas) being very exhaustive to the soil, it is a well
recognised fact that in a few years at most fertilising must
be largely resorted to, as the lands are virtually worn out,
and the system of the past in turning out old lands and
taking in new can be no longer resorted to, as the lands
have all been under cultivation, that is, the kind adapted
to the crops named, which as before stated, constitute the
principal cultivated crops.
He has been unable to ascertain the chemical value of
the fertilisers imported, the quantity, or their selling price.
Martinique.
There is annually imported 20,000 to 25,000 tons of
nitrates, phosphates, and ammonia. About one half is in a
prepared state, the rest in crude form, which is mixed here
by a firm engaged in that business with a capital of
320,000 francs. The firm is entitled Compagnie des
Engrais de la Martinique. The factory is in the city of
St. Pierre.
The material is all imported from the United Kingdom,
and is packed in strong bags or barrels. The finished
product is used for sugar cane only. Its analysis is as
follows : —
Cross's Special Cane Fertiliser. — Nitrogen, equal to
9 per cent, of non-volatile ammonia, 19 to 20 per cent, of
soluble phosphates, and 3 to 5 per cent, of insoluble
phosphates, besides 3 to 4 per cent, of soluble salts of
potash and alkaline salts.
C7-oss's Early Potassie ( 'one Fertiliser. — Nitrogen in
various forms equal to 6\ per cent, of ammonia ; phos-
phoric acid, soluble equal to 15 to 16 per|cent. of phosphate
rendered soluble ; phosphoric acid, soluble, in finely
prepared form, equal to 5 per cent, of phosphate of lime ;
potash equal to 10 per cent, of sulphate of potash.
L042
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [Dec. 31,1892.
There are no duties on fertilisers, and wharfage is
nomiual. Small lots of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of
potash have been recently imported from the United States
through a commission house.
The price laid down at Martinique is about 230 to 235
francs per ton of 2,240 lb. for Cross's and other English
manufacturers' fertilisers.
The quantity used per acre varies. The soil in the
uplands being loose and rains frequent, 250 lb. to the acre
is used ; the lowland being more compact and clayey,
200 lb. to the acre is all that is required. If subsoiling
was more practised by planters, a less quantity would be
necessary.
The terms on whiah the business is carried on are as
follows : — Drafts of Colonial Bank of London agency at
Martinique of New York or London at 5 25 francs to the
dollar on delivery.
It would appear that, with cheap material in the United
Slates and the short distance to transport the finished
article, the United States should command the market, as
they do for yellow pine lumber, flour, corn, lard, and meat
products.
St. Thomas.
There is no demand for fertilisers.
The consular agent at Santa Cruz reports that —
Many years ago there were some guano and patent
fertilisers imported from England; but of late years, owing
to the low price of sugar, the planter has been satisfied if
he could provide sufficient manure.
This island is non-productive, and very little cultivation is
carried on in the island of St. John ; but there may be a
field for trade in fertilisers in the island of Santa Cruz if a
proper canvass be made by dealers.
St. Christopher.
The greater part of the commercial fertilisers used on this
island are imported from Great Britain for various reasons.
The two strongest reasons are the following : First, nearly
all the landowners reside in Great Britain and are largely
controlled by home influence ; second, a few years ago the
English fertiliser companies sent out a chemist who analysed
the soil and prepared a special formula of a fertiliser for the
sugar-cane plant, which is very popular here and sells at
the highest price, 12/. per ton.
In referring to prices, the showing is largely in favour of
the United States ; and the freights from Xew York to
St. Christopher are only one half of what they are from
London. Now, with a little enterprise and industry on the
part of fertiliser manufacturing companies iu the United
States, they could very soon have all this trade. They
must not forget that the island of St. Christopher is
apparently one sugar-cane farm. The different estates are
not divided by any fences, simply turning rows and
ditches.
Having travelled all around the island several times
it stems to be nothing but sugar-cane plantations, all well
cultivated.
The farms require a good sugar-cane fertiliser, and if our
manufacturers will send down a chemist, analyse the soil,
and prepare as good a fertiliser as the special fertiliser
imported from London, they will control this trade, as the
freights from Xew York, as heretofore stated, are only
one-half what they are from London.
The freights should be very cheap from Savannah and
Key West, as it is only 800 miles from the former and
600 miles from the latter place to this island.
The United States should establish a weekly mail from
Key West to these islands. We are here over 600 miles
from America, and cannot get a regular mail, owing to the
employment of the (Quebec line of Canadian vessels hailing
from London, which is all the time fighting for freights and
is perfectly indifferent about the United States mails.
At times (twice) we have had two mails within 48 hours,
at other times not a mail in a month.
Trinidad.
Pursuant to instructions contained in Department
Circular, dated June 2, 1892, calling for a report upon the
trade in commercial fertilisers in this consular district, it
has been observed in respect to the three islands consti-
tuting the district, that the only substantial opening for
American trade in fertilisers is in the island of Trinidad.
The industry of Grenada is principally limited to cacao,
and the sugar industry iu both Grenada and Tobago is
comparatively of not much importance.
Trinidad, however, imported in 1890 fertilisers (or
manures, as is the Custom house designation) to the value
of 40,892/. The importations last year (1891) were
considerably less, being valued at 19,867/.
The value of importation for 1890 and 1S91 was as
follows : —
From
.1S90.
1891.
W,682
5
2(10
5
19,136
S
j5s
166
Total
40,892
19,867
While it will be seen that the United States got some-
what of a foothold last year, it is still not fairly in the
market. Within the last few months several American
manufacturers of fertilisers have made inquiries of this
consulate and have otherwise indicated a disposition to
extend their trade to Trinidad, and it is reasonable to
expect that, within a Few years, the above figures will
undergo a great change in favour of the United States.
The only crop of Trinidad worthy of consideration in
this connection is the sugar-cane crop. Imported manure
might be of service in promoting the growth of cacao trees
and cocoa-nut trees ; it has not transpired that any has been
used for that purpose, except in the way of experimenting
however.
About seven-eighths of the sugar-cane crop belongs to
residents of the United Kingdom, who obtain their fertilisers
through their own agents.
The largest local planter uses principally a mixture of his
own, composed of two-thirds ground phosphate and one-
third ammonia. Both ingredients are imported in casks.
The first cost, net, of ammonia in London is, say, about
10/., and delivered on wharf in Port of Spain (Trinidad),
say, 12/., including freight, casks, lighterage, and all other
expenses. The ammonia is guaranteed to be 24^ per cent.,
which is understood here to be about as pure as is cvei
manufactured for fertilising purposes. The ground phos-
phate costs, net, in London about 1/. 18s. 2rf., and delivered
here on wharf, including all expenses and charges, say
3/. 14.«.
There are no tonnage or lighthouse dues at this port, and
all manures are entered free of duty.
Bahamas.
There is no importation of fertilisers into this colony from
Europe. A considerable quantity of guano or cave earth —
a rich bat deposit found in eaves on the out islands — exists
iu this colony. Prior to 1885 from 2,400/. to 3,000/. worth
of this deposit was exported annually, most of it going to
the United States to be mixed with other fertilisers. Since
185 the policy of the colonial government being opposed to
the removal of any fertilisers from the islands, exportations
of this guano have been prohibited by law, with a view to
encourage its use by local agriculturists. It is not, how-
ever, much used, being, perhaps, too rich in its natural
state.
Dee. si, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1043
Within the last three or four years, however, a demand
has arisen for fertilisers in the cultivation of pine apples,
and foreign fertilisers have been introduced with excellent
results, the fruit being larger and of hetter flavour, and old,
worn fields developing new life and vigour.
These fertilisers come entirely from the United States,
and the trade is rapidly increasing. In 1S91 fertilisers to
the amount of 2,175 barrels, worth about 2,400/., were
imported from the T'nited States and used during the year.
There will probably be a decided increase in the amount
imported in 1892.
There is no reason to anticipate that manufacturers of
fertilisers will meet with any European competition here.
I r.fif. Consular Reports.
Chinese Ijn'oirrs of Glassware,
The German Consul at Chefoo writes that, although the
manufacture of glass may have been known in ( hina for
centuries, it is far from having arrived at a state of
perfection. Chinese glass is thin, defective, and not wholly
transparent; window glasses are also imported from abroad.
Decanters, bottles for wine and beer, also find a market,
and are sold to the natives at very good prices.
Adulteration in Agriculture.
The Board of Agriculture, in March last, appointed a
Departmental Committee to inquire into and to report upon
the representations made by Chambers of Agriculture, and
other bodies or persons, with reference to the adulteration
of artificial manures and fertilisers and feeding stuffs used
in agriculture. The committee consisted of Mr. J. S.
Gathorne Hardy, M.P. (Chairman), Sir Jacob Wilson,
Dr. James Bell, Mr. J. F. ltotton, Q.C., Mr. F. A. Chanuing,
M.P., Mr. Peter M'Lagan, M.P., and Mr. Albert Pell.
The Committee examined a number of witnesses, whose
evidence, together with their own report, was issued yester-
day. There is a preponderance of evidence to the effect
that a considerable amount of fraudulent dealing (especially
in the case of compound manures), exists, and that there is a
system of selling unguaranteed and comparatively worthless
articles at an excessive price. These frauds are, however,
the Committee remark, less practised than formerly, and
have a tendency to diminish. But, in view of this state of
things, the Committee think that, in the interests of agricul-
ture, some legislation is desirable which shall render it
more easy for the purchaser to ascertain the real value of
the article he is being supplied with. They recommend —
That all home-manufactured artificial manures and fertilisers,
both simple and compound, should be sold with a guaranteed
analysis in writing stating the percentages of fertilising
ingredients; that all imported artificial manures and
fertilisers he sold with a copy of the import analysis, and
that such import analysis be, within reasonable limits,
binding on the seller ; that the Board of Agriculture should
issue clear and simple instructions for taking samples, and
that no sample be taken for analysis except after due notice
to the vendor, that he may be present by himself or his
agent ; that where there is any deficiency in any of the
items guaranteed the vendor shall be held liable upon civil
proceedings to pay the purchaser, in compensation, the
value of the article deficient, setting against it, however,
the value of any item which may be in excess of the
guarantee; that any deficiency due to fraud be made an
offence punishable upon summary conviction by fine or
imprisonment ; that no criminal prosecution be undertaken
unless it is the opinion of an analyst appointed by the
Board of Agriculture, or of an analyst authorised by them
to act for this purpose, that the case is one for such
proceedings to be taken ; and that the Board of Agriculture,
county councils, agricultural societies, chambers of agricul-
ture, farmers' clubs, co-operative societies, and like bodies
be empowered, if they think fit, to institute prosecutions
under this clause.
With regard to feeding stuffs, the Committee find that
the trade in oil cakes is a field in which the practice of
adulteration is particularly prevalent, and that there is a
large quantity of articles more or less impure or adulterated
sold as genuiue or pure products. They recommended that
all simple feeding cakes composed of one substance or the
product of one seed, and called after the name of such
substance or seed, be required to be sold under the distinc-
tive name of such substance or seed, and be thereby
guaranteed "pure and suitable for feeding purposes" ; that
all other cakes be sold as mixed or compound cakes, or by
some designation fixed by the Board of Agriculture ; but
this should not exclude the use of any trade description or
fancy name for such cakes, provided that one of the two
words " mixed " or " compound," or some other term to be
fixed by the Board of Agriculture, be affixed to such
description or fancy name : that the presence of deleterious
ingredients in any article sold for feeding stock be prohi-
bited under a penalty ; that the addition of any worthless
material undeclared in any article sold for feeding stock be
treated as an offeuce subject to a penalty ; that any
guarantee or analysis voluntarily given be binding on the
vendor ; and that the same penalties apply in the case
of feeding stuffs as of manures.
Mr. Channing makes a supplementary report on feeding
stuffs. He explains that he signed the report of the Com-
mittee both as regards manures and feeding stuffs, but
while agreeing that the recommendations of the report as to
feeding stuffs will give some protection to the purchaser, he
dissents from certain paragraphs, and is of opinion that the
frauds shown to be prevalent in the manufacture and sale
of cakes and other feeding stuffs will be most effectually
checked by a general system of sale under guaranteed
analysis. He makes the following recommendations :— That
all feeding cakes and stuffs be sold with a guaranteed
analysis giving the percentages of the nutritive elements
and the percentages of indigestible fibre, mineral elements
(including sand), and moisture ; that all simple feeding
cakes composed of one substance or the product of one
seed, and called after the name of such substance or seed,
be sold under the distinctive name of such substance or
seed, and guaranteed " pure and suitable for feeding pur-
poses " ; that all other cakes or feeding stuffs bs sold either
as " mixed " or " compound," or under designations to be
fixed by order of the Board of Agriculture; that the
presence of deleterious ingredients in any article sold for
feeding stock be prohibited under a penalty ; that the
addition of any worthless material undeclared in any article
sold for feeding stock, or wilful misrepresentation either as
to the designation of any cake or stuff, or as to any of the
percentages required to be stated in the guaranteed analysis,
be treated as an offence subject to a penalty ; that the Board
of Agriculture should prescribe from time to time, by order,
margins of deviation within which fraud shall not be
presumed, and scales of indemnity for deficiencies, and also
make regulations from time to time to secure uniformity of
sampling and analysis ; and that the same penalties apply
in the case of feeding stuffs as of manures.
GENERAL TRADE NOTES.
The Petroleum Industry at Baku.
The Veutsches Handels Archiv for November states that
owing to the over-production of crude naphtha this industry
is now passing through a severe crisis at Baku, several firms
of producers and refiners having either stopped payment or
come to some arrangement with their creditors.
The yield of oil from both old and new naphtha fields has
been exceptionally plentiful, notwithstanding the prognosti-
cations as to their exhaustion. Quantities of crude naphtha
are going to waste owing to the overflowing of the collecting
reservoir. Some springs are yielding as much as half a
million ponds per day (poud = 36 lb. avoirdupois), and as
soon as one becomes exhausted fresh ones are discovered.
At Bibi-Abad superfluous naphtha is allowed to flow into
the sea.
Twelve months ago a poud of crude naphtha was worth
from 8 to 10 copecks from 5rf. to b\d. per cwt.). The price
is now fluctuating between 4 copecks and 1 copeck the poud,
and naphtha is said to be even given away.
0 'i.
1044.
THE JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31,1892.
Apart from the more careful process of refining to which
it is subjected, American petroleum (according to the report)
is somewhat superior to Russian as regards quality, conse-
quently Americans have been able to keep their prices
somewhat in excess of those for Russian oil.
The Baku naphtha industry possesses an advantage oyer
that of North America in consequence of the large proportion
of valuable residues contained in Russian oils. Even now
the Russian markets can absorb more than 1,600,000 tons
of residues, the use of which as fuel is daily becoming more
extended in industrial establishments. So profitable a
commodity arc the residues that refilled petroleum may be
treated as a side product and sold at low prices for lighting
purposes.
The average price at Baku of a poud of pure petroleum
is 28 copecks. Russian naphtha yields about 33 per cent,
of petroleum. Supposing the price of one poud of naphtha
to be 2 1 copecks, the cost of manufacturing one poud of
petroleum would be as follows : —
Copecks.
3 pouds naphtha :ii -': copecks 7'5
Cost of refining, acids, soda, chemicals 3*0
HV.j
Residue of l! pouds, now worth about S copecks
the poud value to be deducted 4'5
Cost of production of 1 poud of petroleum C'O
When the price of residues is higher (it sometimes exceeds
6 copecks the poud), the cost of production of pure
petroleum is still smaller.
America, however, possesses the great advantage of cheap
sea freights, whereas the cost of transporting one poud of
petroleum from Baku to Batoum is 19 copecks, apart from
charges for frequent reloading, and finally sea freight.
Meanwhile the proposal for laying down pipes between Baku
and Batoum for conveying crude naphtha hardly seems
likely to be carried out, although there can be no doubt as
to its technical feasibility. Besides, the project of pumping
naphtha to Ba:oum is opposed by the powerful interest of
Baku refiners.
The Russian Oil Ihdustrx.
The sittings of the eighth Congress of naphtha producers
were recently concluded at Baku. Obligatory sorting of
illuminating oils according to their degree of refinement,
and the alteration of their classification for purposes of
taxation, constituted two important subjects of discussion.
A majority cf the Congress approved of the suggestions of
a special commiitee of members recommending that all
illuminating oils sent out from the works at Baku should
be tested as to the degree of their transparency, the extent
of their purification by sulphuric acid and caustic soda, and
the degree to which they become turbid when water is added.
The recommendation of the committee as to the retention
of the present temporary classification of oils for excise
duty was also approved by the Congress.
The improvements of the conditions affecting the export
of kerosene to the far East and the reduction of the Hashing
point of kerosene destined for export abroad, were questions
which also engaged the attention of the Congress. In
connection with the former it was proposed that pipes should
be laid down for the conveyance of kerosene from Enzeli to
the Persian Gulf. It is computed that by this means a
saving of from Is. to Is. 6</. per cwt. would be effected in
the delivery of this product in the far East. Russian
kerosene would then be secured against competition with
America, and a market for about '.1,600,000 cwt. per annum
obtained. This question has been referred to a committee,
which will present its report at the next Congress.
The advocates for a lower flashing point for oils destined
for export urged that the present compulsory high flashing
point and specific gravity of Russian oils place them at a
disadvantage with those of the United States. The proposal
was, however, negatived in consequence of the evidence of
representatives of the hailing firms, who maintained that
the high flashing point which was so distinctive a charac-
teristic of Russian oils, as compared with the dangerous
products of America, was essential for ensuring the continued
preference to the latter. — Industries.
Russian Chemical Manufactures.
The value of the native manufactures of such articles as
oils, soap, lac, matches, alizarine-aniline dyes, white lead,
barytes, oxide of zinc, dye extracts, ochre, &c, was
22,300,000 roubles in 1888, and the number of factories
engaged in their manufacture was 1,046. The foundation
of pursly Russian industries has, however, been laid as
regards soap, matches, bichromate of potash, and a number
of mineral dyes. The new Customs tariff does not merely
aim at the protection of Russian raw materials, but is also
designed to foster those branches of the chemical industry
which furnish the materials required in the primary and
final stages of a flourishing industry. The soda factories
which obtain soda from salt belong especially to this
category, owing to the large quantities of valuable acids
and alkalis obtained in the process. There is a great
demand for these substances in Russia, especially in glass
factories, kerosene refineries, soap-boiling and bleaching
establishments. — Ibid.
Lithographic Stone Deposits in the Ourax
Mountains.
The Journal de St. Petersbourg for the 15th October
states that to the number of mineral riches of the Oural not
yet worked are to be added important quarries of litho-
graphic stone, situated in the district of Krasnoouiimsk,
province of Perm. These deposits have been known for
fifteen years, and the lithographic stone which they yield
has been recognised as excellent, but until recently nobody
has ventured to work the quarries in question. East
winter the quarrying of the lithographic stone was com-
menced, and according to the Novoe Vrenu/a it will be sold
in depots established in St. Petersburg for the purpose.
Wmting Pens made of Celluloid.
The Handels Museum is responsible for the statement
that in Eranee pens for writing are now being made from
celluloid, &c, in the following manner : — Thin sheets
manufactured from celluloid, ebonite, vulcanite, &c, corre-
sponding with the outlines of a pen, are stamped out,
punched, and finally laid in a softened condition in a press
that has been heated, by which means they receive the
desired shape. After being cooled in a water-hath the
pens thus obtained are split with a knife.
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED
STATES FOR 1891.
The United States Geological Survey, Division of Mining
Statistics and Technology, has sent us an advance proof of
the next edition of the chart showing the total mineral
products of the United States, which will be issued in a
short time. The figures for 1891 are here reproduced : —
1891.
Quantity.
Value*
.Metallic :
Pig iron, value at Phil-
adelphia.
Long tons
Troy oz.
8,279,790
68,500.000
Dols.
128,337,985
75,416,565
»
1,604,840
33,176,000
Copper, value at New
York City.
Lead, value al New York
City.
Zinc, value at New York
City.
Lb.
295,810,076
38,455,300
Short tons
'202. UK]
17,(509,322
80,:W7
8,033,700
Dec.si.iaw.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L045
1891.
1891,
Tro DUCTS.
Quantity. Value,
Quicksilver, value a1 San Flasks
Francisco,
Nickel, value at Phila- Lb.
delphia.
Aluminium, value at
Pittsburg.
Tin
Antimony, value at San Short tons
Francisco,
platinum, value (crude) Troy oz.
at San Francisco.
Total value metallic products
Non-metallic (spot values):—
Bituminous coal Long tons
Pennsylvania anthracite. „
Building stone
Petroleum Bbls.
Lime „
Natural gas
) lement Bbls.
Salt
Phosphate rock Long tons
Limestone for iron flux...
Mineral waters Gallons sold
Zinc-white Short tons
Potters' rlay Long tons
Mineral paints ,,
Borax Lb.
Gypsum Short tons
Grindstones
Fibrous tale Short tons
Pyrites Long I ons
Soapstone Short tons
Manganese ore Long tons
Asphaltum Short tons
Precious stones
Bromine Lb.
Corundum Short tons
Barytes (crude) Long tous
Graphite Lb.
Millstones
Novaculite Lb,
Marls Short tons
Flint Long tons
Fluorspar Short tons ;
Chromic iron ore Long tons
Infusorial earth Short tons
Feldspar Lsng tons
Mica Lbs.
Ozokerite refined
Cobalt oxide
Slate, ground as apigment Long tons
Sulphur Short tuns
22,904
IMs.
1,036,386
118,408
71,099
150,
100,1
123,289
25,058
278
17.HH7
100
500
, ,
302,307,922
05,291,721
117,106,483
(5,236,992
73,944,735
47,294,746
54,291,980
82,675,188
60,000,000
35,000,000
• ■
18,000,000
8,222,792
6,680,951
9,987,945
4,716,121
5S7.9S8
3,651,150
5, ."'"i
2,800,
18,392,732
2.996.259
l.i mo.
400,000
900,000
47,652
658,478
13.380,000
869,700
208,126
628,051
476,113
53,054
493,068
119,320
338,880
1(1,314
243,981
23,416,
239.129
45,054
242,264
235,:SOO
313,000
54,880
8,247
88,430
31,069
118,363
110.000
..
16,587
1,375,000
150,000
135,000
67,500
15,000
60.000
10.044
78,330
1,372
20,580
..
21,988
10,000
50,000
75,
100,000
50,000
7.000
7,200
18,000
2.IIIIU
20,000
1,200
39; 00
Prodfcts.
Quantity.
Value.
Untile
Short ions
Lb.
. Short luus
06
300
Dols.
3,960
SHU
Total value non-metallic products 356,216,615
Total value metallic products 302,307,922
Estimated value mineral products unspecified . 10,000,000
Grand total 668,524,537
-Engineering and Mining Journal.
The Scottish Oil Trade.
The Standard Oil Company has intimated another
reduction of \d. per lb. in the price of paraffin scale, and
producers have been obliged to follow the cut on all their
scale products. Scotch hard scale is now no better than
1 fd. to 1 fjrf. per lb. ; some sellers have offered to deal at
the former figure without finding buyers. This latest
reduction has been mainly brought about by the demorali-
tion which exists in the candle trade by the underhand
dealing whioh is alleged in that connection, and by the
difficulty which some importers and some local concerns
experience in getting rid of their stock of scale. Running
contracts participate in the reduction, which came into force
on December Hth. Since the break up of the producers'
combination paraffin scale has been lowered l^d per lb.,
nearly 40 per cent. On the ton of scale that represents a
loss of over 10/. per ton, and on the Scotch make alone the
difference to the trade compared with what would have been
the yield for one year had the price been maintained at its
old level is between 200,0002. and 250,000/. Following on
the reduction in the price of paraffin scale, the candle-
makers have reduced their list prices for white candles by
Gi/. and the yellows by 3d. — each per dozen pounds. The
reduction in whites is equal to double what has been taken
off wax. One ot the Scotch companies connected with the
associated companies has taken $d. per gallon off burning
oil, although the demand at present is reported good. —
( 'hemical Trade Journal.
BOARD OF TIIADE RETUHNS.
Summary of Imports.
Metals
Chemicals and dyestuffs
Oils
Raw materials tor non-textile in-
dustries.
Total value of all imports . . . .
£
£
•.'.loii.nr.
1,563,76!
400,841
331.M7I
OlN.083
658,952
3,484,450
3,505,2 1 1
13,861,389
38,898,373
mir,
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1802.
Summary of Exports.
Month endins; 80th N
1891.
1898.
Metals (other than machinery) ....
£
2,733,043
7 45,082
2,488,026
£
2,619,483
716,487
2,478,898
18,790,949
18,549,310
Imports of Metals for Month ending 30th November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
Conner :—
10,192
6,891
£
76,236
£
33,233
7,508
9,575
191,788
253,700
Unwrought .... „
6,058
2,486
293,199
1 0,589
Iron :—
248,804
B,830
277,855
6,524
181,806
83,497
190,097
Bolt, bar, &c
57,857
Steel, unwrought.. „
745
70s
7,»7ii
7,578
Lead, pig and sheet „
14,841
18,506
175,363
188,176
46,954
89,959
84,742
72,872
57,494
75,380
5,863
0,533
63.363
89,913
288,322
186,477
174,162
5,356
B.999
122,630
Other art icles . . . Value £
••
581,899
270,193
Total value of metals
i ■
••
2,100,415
Imports of Chemicals and Dyestufes for Month
ending 30th November.
Articles.
Alkali Cwt.
Bark (tanners, &c.) „
Brimstone ,
Chemicals Value £
Cochineal Cwt.
Cutch and gambler Tons
Dyes :—
Aniline Value £
Alizarine „
Other ,
Indigo Cwt.
Nitrate of soda
Nitrate of potash . „
Valonia Tons
Other articles. . . Value £
Total value of chemicals
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
6,099
6,683
£
3,678
£
1,6 hi
81,686
17,785
1.8,887
5,974
42,376
31,I4<
12^58
10,808
• •
.-
124,895
154,870
77:1
1,098
1^860
6,764
B58
2,350
26,890
i-.:;:.:
650
50,906
16,025
1.617
8,223
128,499
28,822
1,483
19,210
29,585
899
8,264
22,912
1 1,267
27,180
92,484
12,642
88,466
117
18,928
57,052
25 2'l2
19,212
SIS, 433
400,844
Imports of Oils for Month ending 30th November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892. 1891.
1892.
Cocoa-nut Cwt.
8,326
1,129*
95,058
12,772,516
2,692
1,782
40,691
6,880
1,243
85,551
14,472416
2,068
1.97S
75,467
£
9,952
45,182
109,754
230,141
78,554
34,301
53,208
71,993
£
7,617
45,206
S6.S57
267,512
54,145
38,889
Other articles . . Value £
Total value of oils . . .
83,724
75,612
*'
••
028,083
658,992
Imports of Raw Material for Non-Tkxtilk
Industries for Month ending 30th November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
£
£
Bark, Peruvian . .
Cwt.
7,839
9,125
17,065
19,607
Lb.
262,173
192,769
36,591
28,959
Cwt.
23,539
27,557
273,355
888,281
Gum :—
w
5,865
7,816
13,090
21/439
Lac, 4c
»t
8,313
2.7-:'
35,930
Gutta-percha ....
..
3,620
3,083
43.161
26,270
Hides, raw :—
„
28,110
21.9S2
78,972
Wet
„
47,707
00,963
107,778
111,731
77li
1,041
11,326
49,135
Manure : —
Tons
800
6,219
1,890
5,628
2,868
211,434
11,856
25,046
. Cwt.
Tons
36,126
3,424
62,816
250
56,510
34,209
71,582
2,841
17,981
13,5111
85 139
71.1CH
Pulp of wood . . .
„
18,882
17,22:i
84\8S8
90,220
Cwt.
89,976
177,931
24,770
I2.S98
Tallow and stearin „
80,022
94,428
1115,352
10S.5I9
. Barrels
. Loads
11,107
162,316
126,949
14,458
213
161,679
166,708
11,269
7,9 40
849,530
883,589
51,421
6S
Wood:—
3:13,321
1,036,107
56 014
. Tons
1,610
1,189
12,787
35,307
Other articles...
Value £
1,083,465
938,395
Total value
..
3,484,450
3.505,244
531,374
Besides the above, drugs to the value of 73,8511. were imported,
as against 7 :. ;V7. in November 1891.
Deo. 81, 1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1 1 47
ExrOBTS of Metals (otiier than Machinery) for
Month ending DOtii November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
7,299
62,095
36,992
37,! 26
221,1115
3,591
8,181
9,891
69,601
26,191
29,529
230,018
2,788
9. 15:!
£
35.41S
163,914
S9.353
73,889
218,492
108,960
1,802,447
49,271
89,216
26,1 13
38,872
11,232
81,818
. £
87.706
168,772
70,319
09,668
193 260
108,405
1,753,669
33,703
Copper : —
Unwrought „
Mixed metal ,
Implements ,
Plated wares. . . Value £
Telegraph wires, &e. „
31,561
39,993
10,818 10.S81
13,675
Other articles . . Value £
75,019
2,733,013
8,6411,483
Exports of Miscellaneous Articles for Month
ending 30th November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
728,100
869,100
£
23,541
£
21,227
Military stores.
Value £
..
..
62,381
121,774
Caudles
. Lb.
1,468,700
1,693,800
27,813
30.961
Value £
..
..
102,996
107,565
34,611
39,084
68,046
69,271
Products of coal
Value £
..
..
114,676
110,299
Earthenware ..
»j
..
..
167,323
179,157
Stoneware
„
..
..
9,769
9,924
Glass: —
Plate
. Sq.Ft.
279,811
193,021
ls,517
ln.013
Flint
. Cwt.
9,275
7,467
21,327
19,779
55,212
55,629
25,719
20,11.1',
Other kinds..
■ H
18,696
24,538
17,326
20,243
Leather : —
Unwrought . .
• >■
13,612
12,028
126,211
107,280
Value £
..
..
29,: 130
26,603
. Tons
5,377
5,123
lll,5l'5
106,375
Sq. Yds.
1,876,600
1,181,800
72,251
50,355
Painters' materials Val. £
..
..
116,105
[26,393
80,793
4,799
47,103
67 07.",
140,805
118,271
12,7 17
5,91 1
42.937
53,631
••
••
2,488,026
2,478,398
Exports of Drugs and Chemicals for Month ending
30th November.
Articles.
Quantities.
Values.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1892.
£
£
517.1S5
151,738
543,74?
131,747
199,895
51,323
183,848
53,338
Bleaching materials „
Chemical manures. Tons
26,291
25,151)
173,133
152,208
..
..
89,394
86,666
Other articles
••
228,387
210,527
••
"
745,032
710,187
iflontblp patent li*u
* Tho dates given are the dates of the Official Journals in
which acceptances of the Complete Specifications are advertised.
Complete Specifications thus advertised as accepted are open to
inspection at the Patent Office immediately, and to opposition
within two mouths of the said datos.
,~- -^ s\_^ .l_r» .-v
I.— GENERAL PLANT, APPARATUS, and
MACHINERY.
Applications.
20,541. J. Whyte, H. Whyte, and A. W. Cooper. Im-
provements in evaporative condensers. November 14.
20,595. F. W. Scott, E. G. Scott, and F. W. Scott, jun.
Improvements in or connected with evaporating or concen-
trating apparatus. November 14.
21,264. E. Hesketb and A. Marcet. Improved apparatus
for producing cold. November 22.
21,275. J. H. Lewis. Improvements in npparatus for
the absorption of chlorine and other gases (applicable also
to the washing or scrubbing of gases). November 22.
21,451. J. C. Caivert. Improvements in apparatus for
controlling the flow of fluids under pressure. November 24.
21,495. C. Musker, A. Musker, and A. Webster. Im-
provements in apparatus for evaporating salt water or
other liquid. November 25.
21,744. J. Laidjaw. Improvements in centrifugal
machines for separating fluids of different densities.
November 2'.(.
22,OOS. J.J. Hicks and G. H. Zeal. Improvements in
hydrometers and saccharometers. December 1.
L'2,157. .1. J. Melville. Improvements in or relating to
apparatus for treating solid, semi-solid, or liquid substances
with gases. December 3.
22,407. D. G. Sinclair and J. V. Dunlop. Improvements
in and relating to machinery for the manufacture of fuel
briquettes, firebricks, silicious blocks, and the like. Decem-
ber 7.
22,531. W. Dcigbtou. Improvements in and connected
with furnaces or kilns using solid or gaseous fuel for burn-
ing or calciuing limestone, ore, and like substances. Decem-
ber 8.
1018
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
23,217. J. C. Eno ami R. Jackson. Improvements con-
nected with machinery for drying powdered substances
particularly applicable for the manufacture of fruit salt.
December 1C.
23,281. T. Mudd. Improvements in condensers. De-
cember 17.
23,287. B. J. B. Mills.— From A. Gilliard, P. Monnet.and
J. M. (_ 'artier, France. Improvements in means or receivers
for the preservation and application of chloride of ethyl ami
other volatile liquids, to be employed principally in the
production of cold. December 17.
23,297. Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart. Improvements in
evaporating brine and other solutions. December 17.
Completk Specifications Accepted.*
1891.
20,413. G. Bamberg. See Class XI.
22,639. E. 8. Arrighi. Improvements in and in the
manufacture of clinical and other thermometers, and in
apparatus therefor. December 7.
1892.
54!. L. Roumieu. Filtering receptacle for substances
from which oil or other liquid is to be expressed by
hydraulic and other presses. December 14.
836. A. M. Strathern and A. S. Strathern. Apparatus
for governing or regulating the pressure or flow of illumi-
nating gas or other fluids. November 23.
84S. H. E. Newton. — From R. N. Oakman, jun. Gas
furnaces. November 23.
1172. A. T. Rapkin and F. Cossor. Thermometers.
November 30.
118). \V. J. Lomax aud C. J. Lomax. A combined
refuse furnace and gas apparatus. November 30.
1991. J.Wright. Apparatus for heating water and fluids
of all kinds ; also applicable to ammoniacal and other liquids
for distillation for steam boilers or any other purposes.
December 14.
2790. J. W. Rowley. Apparatus for producing cold in or
freezing liquids. December 21 .
19,213. I. Levinstein. Sue Class VII.
II.— FUEL, GAS, and LIGHT.
Applications.
20.709. L. Van Vestraut and M.Graham. Improvements
in apparatus for charging inclined gas retorts. Noveml>er 16.
20.710. L. Van Vestraut. An improved apparatus for
charging inclined gas retorts. November 16.
20,769. T. Bauer. Improvements in coke furnaces.
Complete Specification. November 16.
20,783. T. F. Ennis and G. F. M. Ennis. Improvements
in the manufacture of coal-gas. November 16.
20,860. J. Love. Improvements in apparatus for ear-
buretting or enriching gas or air. November 17.
20,869. V. B. Lewes. Improvements in apparatus for
the manufacture or production of gas. November 17.
21,008. J. D. Hall. Improvements in or connected with
apparatus for producing illuminating gas. November 19.
21,028. W. S. Sutherland. Improvements in and apper-
taining to gas producers. November 19.
21,1.31. W. Henry and J. Henry. An improvement in
the manufacture of Irish peat into fuel for steam and
household purposes. November 21.
21,444. R. Adcock. An improved smoke consumer for
destroying the carbon products of gas combustion and
increasing the power of the gas light. November 24.
■ Set Note (*) on previous page.
21,511. J. S. Muir. Improvements in and relating to the
manufacture of cyanogen compounds. November 25.
21,647. P. Dvorkovitz. Improvements in apparatus for
the manufacture of gas and of by-products from liquid
hydrocarbons. November 26.
21,048. P. Dvorkovitz. Improvements in and apparatus
for the manufacture of gas and of by-products from liquid
hydrocarbons. November 26.
21,649. R. O. Paterson. Improvements in and apparatus
for the manufacture of gas for illuminating or other
purposes. November 26.
21,871. II. Fourness. Improvements in valves and appa-
ratus employed in the manufacture of illuminating and
heating gas. Complete Specification. November 30.
21,914. H. Pazolt. The manufacture of an improved
artificial fuel. Complete Specification. November 30.
22.079. S. V. Shoubridge. Improvements in apparatus
for charging gas retorts. December 2.
22,174. H.E.Newton. — From R. N. Oakman, jun., United
States. Improvements in gas-producing plant. December 3.
22,767. T. Cross. Improvements in distribution of liquor
in ammonia scrubbers or washers. December 12.
22,780. G. Moss. Improvements in means for increasing
the illuminating power of lamp flames. December 12.
22,941. W. Willis, E. J. Humphery, and W. H. Smith.
Improvements relating to the production and use of light,
and to apparatus therefor. December 13.
23,236. H. H. Lake. — From E. Clareubach, Germany.
Improvements relating to the smokeless combustion of fuel
and to apparatus for effecting such combustion. Decemberl6.
23,299. A. M. Chambers and T. Smith. An improved
process and apparatus for separating fine coal slack from
impurities. December 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
864. J. Ruscoe. Apparatus for charging gas retorts.
November 30.
'.164. C. Allina. Solidifying petroleum and the carbo-
hydrates contained in same for facilitating transportation
and use as fuel, also reliquefying same. November 23.
1 137. I. S. McDougall and J. T. McDougall. Treatment
of oils for rendering them capable of transport or storage,
and of use as fuel, or as illuminants with greater safety aud
convenience than hitherto. November 30.
1575. A. Klonne. Manufacture of illuminating and
heatiug gas, and in apparatus therefor. November 30.
1G47. J. Mitchell. Coke ovens. December 7.
2n7;. W. H. Wilson. Manufacture of illuminating gas.
December 14.
5620, F. A. Tagliaferro, A. A. Moore, and R. Campion.
Manufacture of fire-lighters and artificial fuel. December 7.
8949. T. J. Barnard. Manufacture of fuel, together
with the means and combinations in connection therewith.
December 14.
9114. It. N. Oakman, jun. Gas-producing plant.
November 23.
9854. H. Birkbeck. — From E. B. Muller. Process for
manufacturing compact pit coal out of pit coal dust, -lark,
or small pieces of pit coal. December 7.
14,862. C. R. Poulsen. New or improved apparatus
for the production of ozone by means of phosphoruf.
December 7.
16,750. P. Grein. Charging machine for gas retorts.
November 30.
17,484. P. Jensen. — From H. Stiemcr and Ziegler.
Process of and apparatus for preparing tar, oil, paraffin,
pitch, heating and illuminating gases, and large coke from
fibrous organic materials such as peat and lignite.
December 21.
ii . :i,iso2.j THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1049
19,477. R. Campion. The employment of certain ingre-
dients and means for the manufacture of fire-lighters
therefrom. December 7.
1 9.630. H. Gulopin. Apparatus for using liquid fuel for
lighting and heating purposes. December 21.
1 '.>,('>,">,">. H. G. O'Neill. Improvements in and relating to
:i method of and means for heating by electricity.
December 21.
III.-
-DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, TAR
PRODUCTS, Etc.
Arr-LicATiONS.
21,343. W. J. Wisse and A. Schneller.
unproved treatment of hydrocarbons (or of
New or
. analogous
substances composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon)
to decompose them and obtain various products.
November 23.
21,809. G. J. Epstein. Improvements in the treatment
of pitch or tar and like residues resulting from the
manufacture of oils or fats, or wax, or from gas or the
like. November 29.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
17,484. P. Jensen. — From H. Stiemer and M. Zicgltr.
See Class II.
IV.— COLOURING MATTERS and DYES.
Applications.
21,139. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbeufabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. Improvements in
and relating to the manufacture and production of
diphenylnaphthylmethane dyes, and of materials therefor.
November 21.
21,154. H. H. Lake. — From Wirth aDd Co., agents for
A. Leonhardt and Co., Germany. Improvements in the
manufacture of colouring matters. November 21 .
21.166. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and Bruning, Germany. Application of
nou-sulphonated azo-colouring matters insoluble in water
as body-colours, and in substitution for mineral colours for
printing on textile fabrics. November 21.
21.167. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke voruiah
Meister, Lucius, and Bruning, Germany. Manufacture of
blue colouring matters from orthodinitro-anthraquinone.
November 21.
21.168. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Meister, Lucius, and liruning, Germany. Improvements in
the production of blue colouring matters from amido-nitro-
anthraquinone. November 21.
21,440. Read, Holliday, and Sons, and K. B. Elbel.
Improvements in the manufacture of azo-colouring matters.
November 24.
21,968. A. Lembaeh and C. J. Wolff. Improvements
in and connected with the manufacture of oxyquinoline-
phenolsulphonic-oxyquinoline aid its homologues. Com-
plete Specification. December 1.
22,443. 0. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals
Miistrr, Lucius, and liruning, Germany. Improvements
in the manufacture tetra-nitro-anthrachrysonc. December 7.
22,572. S. Pitt.— From L. Cassella and Co., Germany.
A new group of basic colouring matters, and means for
producing the same. December 8.
23,211. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture
or production of new colouring matters. December 16.
23,212.11. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture or
production of new basic colouring matters. December 16.
23,213. H. E. Newton. — From The Farbenfabriken
vormals F. Bayer and Co., Germany. The manufacture
or production of new derivatives of triphenylmethane and
dipheuylnaphthylmethane. December 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
802. J. Y. Johnson. — -From The Badische Aniliu una
Soda Fabrik. Manufacture of dyes of the rosaniliue series
and of leuco-compouuds thereof. November 30.
1390. H. H. Lake.— From Wirth and Co., agents for
Leonhardt and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters.
November 30.
1657. B. Willcox. — From The Farbwerke vormals
F. Bayer and Co. Manufacture of colouring matters derived
from anthraquiuone. December 14.
2408. C. D. Abel.— From The Actiengesellchaft fitr
Analin Fabrikation. New manufacture of bases and of
colouring matters therefrom. December 7.
2617. O. Imray.— From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, und Bruning. Manufacture of ethoxyphenylmethyl-
pyrazalone and of para-ethoxy 1 phenyl- 2.3 dimethyl- 5
pyrazalone. December 21.
2789. S. Pitt.— From L. Cassella and Co. Production of
azo dyes. December 21.
2953. C. D. Abel.— From The Actiengesellschaft fur
Aniliu Fabrikation. Manufacture of new bases and
colouring matters therefrom. December 14.
4109. A. Bang. — From G. A. Dahl. A new black azo
dyestuff, and the production of the same. December 14,
V.— TEXTILES, COTTON, WOOL, SILK, Etc.
Applications.
20,839. A. Ambler, S. Ambler, and F. Ambler. Im-
provements in the cleansing, treating, or washing of wool
and like animal fibres, and in apparatus employed therein.
November 17.
22,736. F. Lehner. Improvements in the process and
machinery for producing a thread or filament similar to
silk. December 10.
23,156. T. B. Greenwood. See Class VII.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
15,808. A. S. Oetzmann and S. J. Narraeott. Manufac-
ture of coverings for floors and other surfaces, and apparatus
therefor. November 23.
20,625. W. Bottomley. — From G. E. Armstrong. Appa-
ratus and processes for treating fibrous material.
December 21.
22,303. F. Reddaway. Manufacture of oil baizes,
American leather, cloth, and other waterproof fabrics.
December 14.
1050
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dee. 31,1892.
1892.
10,834. A. Bayer aud K. Heroltl. A process for freeing
sheep's wool from pitch and other impurities. December 14.
19,776. lr. Doller aud It. Wolffenstein. Process and
apparatus for waterproofing woven fabrics. December 7.
VI.— DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, PAPER
STAINING, and BLEACHING.
Applications.
20,553. C. S. Bedford. Improvements in dyeing.
November 14.
21,049. C. D. Abel. — From R. Koepp and Co., Ger-
many. Process for fixing mordants on fibre for dyeing.
November 19.
21,189. 1!. B. Archibald. A machine for dyeiug wool
yarns and similar material. November 2:2.
21,714. F. W. Hayward, A. 8. King, and A. W. Love-
land. Improved means aud apparatus for surfacing paper
or other material with colour, gum, oil, varnish, or the
like. November 28.
22,264. A. S. King. Improved means and apparatus for
wholly or partially coating or surfacing sheets of paper and
other material with colour, gum, oil, varnish, or the like.
December 5.
22,293. A. F. St. George. A method of and apparutus
for colouring and inlaying coloured designs upon and
through floor and wall covering materials. December 6.
23,262. J. Robb and J. Grime. Improvements in and
connected with the production of coloured patterns in
combination with aniliue black on woven fabrics. Decem-
ber 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
2S2. E. Woodcock, sen., N. O. Woodcock, and E. Wood-
cock, jun. Improved machine for dyeing, scouring,
bleaching, sizing, carbonising, and drying. December 14.
1506. J. Dawson. Method and apparatus for utilising
the heat of spent liquors or liquids for dyeing, manufac-
turing, aud other like purposes. December 7.
19.079. F. Schreurs. A new process aud apparatus for
printing and dyeing fabrics. December 14.
VII.— ACIDS, ALKALIS, and SALTS.
Applications.
20,921. F. II. Gossage and J. Williamson. Improvements
in the manufacture of sulphide of sodium or of sulphide of
potassium from their respective sulphates. November 18.
21,275. .1. 11. Lewis. Sec Class I.
21,294. T. D. Owen. Improvements in tanks for
containing hydrochloric acid. November 23.
21,298. A. McKenzie. A new or improved soldering
flux or acid. November 23.
21,476. C S. EUery. Improvements in the manufacture
of ammonium sulphate and other ^alt>. November 24.
21,520. The .Manchester Oxygen (Brin's Patent) Com-
pany, Limited, and W. M. Jackson. Improvements in the
manufacture ,of carbonic acid, lime, magnesia, and other
oxides. November 25.
21,702. E. Bouchaud-Praceiq. A process for utilising
waste acid sodium sulphate. November 28.
21,723. H. H. Lake. — From L. Sternberg, United States.
An improved process of obtaining ammonia and ammonia
salts from nitrogenous organic matters. Complete Specifi-
cation. November 28.
21,735. T. T. Best. Improvements in the manufacture
of chlorate of soda. November 29.
21,807. S. Z. de Ferranti and J. H. Noad. Improve-
ments in or appertaining to the manufacture of caustic
soda and chlorine. November 29.
21.824. W. C. Sellar. Improvements in the production
of cyanides of the alkali metals. November 29.
21.825. W. C. Sellar. Improvements in the production
of cyanides of the alkali metals. November 29.
22,078. T. Hughes. The concentration of sulphuric
acid. December 2.
22,139. I. Levinstein. Improvements in the manufacture
of persalts of iron. December 3.
22.237. H. Cosnett, B. C. Bennison, S. Hayes, and
P. Stuallwood. New or improved means and apparatus for
obtaining chlorine gas from the spent liquors produced in
the manufacture of soda ash, aud in means and apparatus
for the manufacture of chloride of lime therefrom.
December 5.
22.238. 8. Walker and S. S. Walker. Improvements in
the production of carbonic acid. December 5.
22,415. W. Mills. Improvements in the manufacture of
soda, and apparatus therefor. December 7.
22,455. C. P. Taylor. Improvements in the manufacture
of carbonate of soda, caustic soda, and chlorine, and in
apparatus employed in the said manufacture. December 7.
22,523. F. H. Gossage and J. Williamson. An im-
provement in the manufacture of bicarbonate of soda and
soda ash. December 8.
22,602. R. Dempster. Improvements in apparatus for
the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia and liquid ammonia.
December 9.
22,714. P. MarQuart. Improvements in the manufacture
of boric acid and borax. December 10.
22,817. E. Rotondi aud C. M. Miehela. A process for
manufacture of acetic acid. Complete Specification.
December 12.
22, si 9. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. Improvements in the
preparation of chromic acid. December 12.
22,844. T. H. Cobley. Improvements in treating waste
substances for the production of potash, potash salts, water
glass, founders' blacking and mauure. December 12.
23,156. T. B. Greenwood. A new or improved infusion
or solution for scouring and removing grease, size, or the
like from textile fabrics. December 16.
23,201. J. C. Butterfield. Improvements in the treatment
of brimstone and other sulphurised ores. December 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
21,464. 1'. M. Lyte. Production of chlorine in the
purification of lead, in the recovery of precious or other
metals with which the load may be associated, and means
or apparatus employed therein. November 30.
1892.
610. F. Valentiner. Process and apparatus for the
manufacture of concentrated nitric acid. November 30.
1439. I. S. JIcDougall and J. T. McDougall. Treatment
of certain corrosive or poisonons liquids to render them
capable of being transported, stored, or used with less
danger than hitherto. December 14.
1642. O. Imray. — From M. M. Rotten. Manufacture of
sodium and potassium bichromates. December 7.
Dec. 31,1892.]
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1051
19,180. .T. M. Millies and A. Millies. A new processor
means for the production of chloride of lime. December 21.
19,213. 1. Levinstein. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for concentrating sulphuric acid and other
liquids. December 7.
VIII.— GLASS, POTTERY, and EARTHENWARE.
Applications.
20,656. W. Oakes and J. Oakes. See Class IX.
21,9-15. E. P. Lee. Improvements in kilns for burning
bricks, tiles, and other clay goods ; also for burning sanitary
ware and for salt-glazing. December 1.
21,951. W.Allen. Improvements in the manufacture of
porous earthenware pottery articles for electrolytic purposes.
December 1.
22,376. W. P. Thompson. — From R. S. Pease, United
States. See Class X.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
20,-115. L. West. Manufacture of plate and other glass,
and apparatus therefor. November 23.
1892.
18,448. P. Sievert. Process and means for manufacturing
glass pipes. November 30.
19,395. P. A. Moreau. Production of ornamental stones
artificially coloured. December 7.
20,656. W. Oakes and J. Oakes. See Class IX.
IX.— BUILDING MATERIALS, CLAYS, MORTARS,
and CEMENTS.
Applications.
20,656. W. Oakes and J. Oakes. Improvements in kilns
for bricks, lime, and the like. Complete Specification.
November 15.
20,832. E. von Hunersdorff. Improvements in bricks or
blocks for building purposes. Complete Specification.
November 17.
20,963. II. Pfaehler. See Class X.
21,037. J. W. Stansfield. Improved composition suitable
for paving slabs, path surfacing, and for blocks, also stair
threads and the like. Complete Specification. November 19.
21,064. H. Lockwood. An improved composition for
flooring or covering iron bridges, arches, tanks, and other
structures. November 19.
21,105. P. J. Jackson. An improved system of street or
floor paving. Complete Specification. November 21.
21,486. H. Parry. Improvements in kilns for burning
lime. November 25.
21,640. K. S. Meyer. Process for the manufacture of
artificial building and other stone. Complete Specification.
November 26.
21,851. J. Ferguson. Improvements in or relating to
fireproof building construction. November 30.
22,004. F. W. Lohrmann. Improvement in the manu-
facture of artificial building materials. December 1.
22,784. J. Gaskell and W. Robinson. Artificial stone,
bricks, tiles, and the like. December 12.
23,181. J. Hamblet, jun. An improvement in paving
bricks. December 16.
23,192. J. H. Blakesley. Improvements in fireproof
floors, roofs, girders, joists, and the like. December 16.
23,235. O. J. Owen. Improvements in the utilisation of
slate. December 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
50. P. A. Moreau. Manufacture of artificial marble.
December 7.
736. T. J. Davey. Chamber oven for drying clay from
slurry or any other materials of a similar nature in brick
or cement works. November 23.
14,889. R. Kieffert and H. Thiron. Cements. Decem-
ber 21.
18,575. II. J. Haddan.— From F. D. Cummer. Process
of drying and disintegrating clay and similar materials.
November 23.
18,803. K. Alsdorff. Improvements in fireproof walls
and ceilings. November 30.
19,813. O. lioklen. Process for making cement or
cement mortar. December 7.
19,908. C. G. Picking. Fireproof buildings. December 14.
19,947. W. Gutmann de Gelse. Process for preserving
timber. December 14.
20,414. P. A. Moreau. Manufacture of variegated or
veined artificial stone and imitations of natural marble.
December 21.
20,656. W. Oakes and J. Oakes. Kilns for bricks, lime,
and the like. November 23.
20,832. F. von Hunersdorff. Bricks or blocks for building
purposes. November 23.
X.— METALLURGY, MINING, Etc.
Applications.
20,547. T. Harris and H. C. Sacre. See Class XIII.
20,608. J. H. S. Bradley and R. G. Henchley. A non-
corrosive metal alloy. November 1 5.
20,715. A. Macdonald. A new or improved process for
treating silver and lead ores. November 16.
20,879. C. King. Improvements in the extraction of
gold and silver. November 17.
20,900. E. Bailey and J. I). Massey. An improved
process of manufacturing and depositing spongy lead for
secondary or storage batteries or receivers. November 17.
20,963. H. Pfaehler. Improvements relating to binding
metal for use in constructions of concrete, cement, or the
like. November 18.
21,053. A. Guthrie and R. F Macfarlaue. Improve-
ments in the treatment of complex metallic ores.
November 19.
21,085. A. S. Ramage. Process for pickling metals,
especially iron for galvanising and tinning, whereby no
waste substance is produced and no iron lost. November 21.
21,108. C. Allen, J. Clark, and G. W. Clark. Improve-
ments in or relating to the manufacture of aluminium and
alloys thereof. November 21.
21,162. II. Haddan.— From F. Singer and H. Barthel,
Germany. An improved method of soldering aluminium
and other metals, and an improved solder therefor.
November 21.
21,202. P. Robinson. Improvements in the manufacture
or production of channelled or troughed iron, steel, and other
metals. November 22.
21,228. W. Tatlow. — An improved method of recovering
tin from tin scrap or waste tinned iron. November 23.
1".',-J
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
21,271. E. Norton. Improvements in the process of
tinning iron and steel plates. Complete Specification.
November 22.
21.S26. H. L. Sulman. Improvements in or relating to
the treatment of ores containing zinc and antimony.
November 29.
21,828. W. H. D'Avidge Cleminson. Improvements in
the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore. November 29.
22,324. A. E. Tucker. Improvements in iron and steel
manufacture. December 6.
22,369. W. J. Freeman and E. Freeman. Improvements
in the manufacture of soft metal castings. December 6.
22,376. W. P. Thompson. — From R. S. Pease, United
States. Improvements in apparatus for handling or working
molten substances, such as metal and glass. Complete
Specification. December G.
22, GOO. W. E. Benshaw. Improvements in the treatment
and hardening of armour plates, December 9.
22,601. W. R. Renehaw. — From F. G. Bates, United
States. Improvements in converting irou or low-grade steel
into high-grade steel. December 9.
22,672. H. H. Lake. — From H. A. Harvey, United States.
Improvements in the manufacture of armour plates.
December 9.
22,778. R. A. Carrasco. Improvements in galvanising
iron and other sheets and in apparatus therefor. Decem-
ber 12.
22.S43. W. R. Taylor. Improved application of aluminium
and its alloys. December 12.
22,907. S. Wood. Improvements in the method of and
apparatus for hardening and tempering steel wire for cards
and other purposes. December 13.
23,020. P. Fowler. An improvement in the manufacture
of iron and steel. December 14.
23,062. J. Moseley. Improvements in and connected
with the processes of hardening and tempering steel wire.
December 15.
23,1 G9. J. Johnson. — From T. S. Blair and T. S. Blair,
jun., United Suites. Improvements in desulphurising iron
and steel. December 16.
23,194. J. C. Bulterfield. Improvements in the treatment
of tinned iron for the recovery of the tin and other products.
December 16.
23,288. A. Longsdon.— From F. A. Krupp and Co.,
Germany. A new or improved process and apparatus for
or relating to the manufacture of armour plates. Complete
Specification. December 16.
23,28G. P. M. Justice. — From J. Meyer, Grand Duchy of
Luxemburg. Improvements in the manufacture of steel or
ingot iron. December 17.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
13,796. H. Pidot. Iron silver. November 23.
17,621. H. W. Wallis. Concentration of pyritic ores.
December 21.
19,860. Compagnie des Hauts - Fourneaux Forges et
Acieries de la Marine et des Chemins de Fer. The manu-
facture of steel. December 21.
19,928. A. Figge. Manufacture of iron, steel, or copper,
and a material to be used in the ;.aid manufacture.
November 23.
21,950. W. P. Breeding. — From the Ajax Metal Co.
Improvements in the cleaning and preparation of metallic
sheets and other articles, and in the coating of same with
lead or alloys of same. November 23.
22,504. I.S. McDougall. Furnaces for burning ores con-
taining sulphur and sulphur compounds. November 30.
1892.
1273. W. Hutchinson. Manufacture of iron and steel.
November 23.
1341. T. Twynam and J. Collev. Manufacture of steel
and iron. November 30.
1467. C. Moldenhauer. Process of recovering precious
metals from their ores. November 30.
1530. G.W.Clark. Manufacture of steel. December 7.
1654. C. Hopfner. Extraction of silver. November 30.
177G. W. Hutchinson. Manufacture of iron and steel.
November 30.
1901. T. C. Fawcett and T. C. Fawcett, jun. Cupolas or
furnaces for melting iron. December 7.
1907. W. Muir. Extraction of tin and other products
from the refuse slags and debris of tin-smelting furnaces.
December 14.
2261. B. Rosing and H. Foerster, and K. Eoerster.
Extraction of lead and apparatus therefor. December 21.
3237. R. A. Hadfield. Manufacture of cast-steel pro-
jectiles. December 7.
11,297. J. P. Bayly. — From J. J. Naef. I'rocess of
recovering tin from tin scraps. December 21.
18,082. C. D. Abel. — From Hoerder Bergwerks und
Hutten-vereic. Process for the removal of manganese
from pig iron, ingot iron, and steel. November 23.
20,208. W. A. Briggs.— From J. W. Richards. An
improved solder for aluminium. December 21.
XL— ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY and ELECTRO-
METALLURGY.
Applications.
20,598. C. Theryc and A. Oblasser. Improvements in
and relating to the manufacture of electric accumulators.
November 14.
20,900. E. Bailey and J. I). Massey. See Class X.
21,074. F. C. James. Improvements in galvanic
batteries. November 19.
21,193. G. E. Cassal and F. A. Kjellin. An improved
method of producing zinc from blende by means of electro-
lysis. Complete. Specification. November 22.
21,348. W.Wright and J. B. Hamond. Improvements
in the treatment of zinc produced by electrolysis. Novem-
ber 23.
21,554. R. E. Disher, R. H. C. Hall, and C. Crockford.
Improved manufacture of battery plates, and employment
of ingredients therefor. November 25.
21.69G. T. L. Willson. Improvements in electric smelt-
ing of aluminous and other refractory ores or compounds.
November 28.
21,701. T. L. Willson. Improvements in the reduction
or treatment of refractory metallic compounds by electric
smelting. November 28.
21,794. E. Andreoli. Improvements in the manufacture
of electrodes for ozonisers. Complete Specification.
November 29.
22,344. W. Walker and F. 11. Wilkius. Improvements
in galvanic batteries. December 6.
22,375. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin, United
States. Improvements in the method of welding or working
metals electrically. Complete Specification. December 6.
22,657. .1. (r. Lorrain. — From M. Dumont, France. A
new or improved electric accumulator. December 9.
22,7G0. J. A. Heap. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for electrolysing aqueous solutions of salts.
December 12.
Deo. 81,1892.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
L053
22,950. R. Haddan. — From R. Gabarro, Spain. An
improved galvanic dry battery or cell, and a composition
for use iu such cells. Complete Specification, December 13.
22,987. P. M. Justice. — From W. W. Griscom, United
States. Improvements in secondary battery plates or
elements, and in the process of preparing same. Complete
Specification. December 14.
23,007. W. Walker and F. R. Wilkins. Improvements
in galvanic batteries. December 14.
23,051. E. A. Mitchell and G. T. Tugwell. Improvements
in galvanic dry cells. December 15.
23,101. C. A. ,T. H. Schroeder and H. E. R. Scbroeder.
New primary batteries. December 15.
23,232. J. Y. Johnson. — From A. M. Michel, France.
Improvements in and relating to secondary or storage
batteries. Complete Specification. December 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
18,597. E. Andreoli. Electrolysis. December 7.
20,413. G. Bamberg. Electrolytic apparatus, more par-
ticularly applicable for manufacturing caustic soda and
other products from salt, but also applicable to other
purposes. November 23.
22,030. C. Hoepfner. Electrolytic treatment of copper
and silver ores. December 14.
22.854. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. Electrolysis of metals.
December 14.
22.855. E. Placet and J. Bonnet. A method of extracting
chromium by the aid of electrolytic baths with a base of
salts of chromium. November 23.
22,137. E. Gorg. Process for the manufacture of soda-
potash soap. December 3.
22,322. W. C. Shaw. Improvements in the method of
and apparatus for refining or bleaching oils and varnishes.
December 6.
22,605. P. Zacharias and J. Gruawald. Improvements
in the manufacture of soap. Complete Specification.
December 9.
22,681. S. Stanton. — From E. W. Stanton, United States.
Improvements in petroleum or naphtha soap and in the
method of and apparatus for producing the same. Com-
plete Specification. December 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,413. W. Saint-Martin. See Class XVII.
1892.
11,173. E. Noppel, B. Grosche, and T. E. Tack.
Apparatus for purifying oil and separating new oil from
drippings. Applicable also as an oil tank. December 21.
18,527. J. Brown. Manufacture of soft soap. Decem-
ber 7.
18,533. J. Brown. Manufacture of hard soap. Decem-
ber 21.
20,682. R. Haddan. — From J. W. Evaus. Improvements
in percolators for extracting oil. November 23.
1892.
1061. E. Hermite. Bleaching and disinfecting starch and
fecula by electrolysis. December 7.
1141. C. Vogt. Dry electrical elements. November 30.
1786. R. Pinna. Tanning by electricity. December 21.
16,262. C. A. Faure. Electrolytical decomposition of
alkaline chlorides for the production of chlorine and alkalis,
and apparatus therefor. December 7.
17,169. C. Kellner. Electrolytical decomposition of
metallic salts, and apparatus therefor. December 14.
17,224. W. P. Thompson.— From C. L. Coffin. Apparatus
for electrically heating and working metal. November 23.
18,516. E. N. A. Picard and J. A. Taniere. Electro-
deposition of metals. December 14.
18,844. H. Roller. Improvements in dry cells or galvanic
batteries. December 14.
19,655. H. G. O'Neill. See Class II.
XII.— FATS, OILS, and SOAP MANUFACTURE.
Applications.
20,082. R. Haddan.— From J. W. Evans, United States.
Improvements in percolators for extracting oil. Complete
Specification. November 15.
21,414. J. Kennedy. An improved soap. November 24.
21,809. G. J. Epstein. See Class III.
21,817. J. D. Barnett. Improvements in the process of
cleaning and extracting oil and grease from cotton waste
and other fibrous materials. November 29.
21,996. E. Hunter. An improved compound to be
applied to driving straps. December 1.
22,039. H. H. Lake. — From G. Schicht, Austria.
Improvements relating to the manufacture of soap. Com-
plete Specification. December I.
XIII.— PAINTS, PIGMENTS VARNISHES, and
RESINS.
Applications.
20,547. T. Harris and H. C. Sacre. The utilisation of a
certain waste oxide of iron in the manufacture of paints
and pigments, and for other purposes. November 14.
20,891. R. Matthews and J. Noad. Improvements in
the manufacture of white lead and coloured pigments.
November 17.
21,240. W. B. Lawson and H. Schofield. An improve-
ment in the manufacture of liquid black lead. November 22.
21,370. C. Carron. Improvements in apparatus for
mixing and automatically weighing white lead and similar
powdered substances. November 23.
21,424. F. G. Groenert. A new or improved cleaning
and polishing composition specially applicable for cleaning
and restoring furniture, leather and the like. November 24.
21,639. J. Horadam. Improvements in the manufacture
of water colours. November 26.
21,932. J. S. P. Stutley. An improved composition
paint. Complete Specification. November 30.
22.098. F. Crane. — From J. Crane, United States. Im-
provements in or relating to paints and driers therefor.
December 2.
22.099. F. Crane. An improved manufacture of tiller or
coating for wood surfaces. December 2.
22,175. W. Baker. The manufacture of an improved
composition for waterproofing and other purposes.
December 3.
22,322. W. C. Shaw. See Class XII.
23,206. R. Ripley. An improved or new manufacture.
of black lead. December 16.
1051.
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
[Dec. 31, 1892.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,391. R. B. Johnson and T. C. Palmer. Manufacture
of white lead and apparatus therefor. November 30.
22,809. M. Williams. Manufacture of oil paints and
paint medium. November 23.
1892.
790. W. Smith. Manufacture of white lead by the
acetate of ammonia process, more especially in respect of
the regeneration and recovery of acetate of ammonia from
the weak liquors and washings furnished in the process.
November 30.
1882. D. Swan. Obtaining pigments. December 7.
2201. R. I. Clark. Manufacture of varnish. December 21.
13,210, H. Pfanne. An improved method of and
apparatus for treating linseed oil to obtain a product
applicable as a varnish. November 23.
11,888. R. Kieffert and H. Thiriou. Paints. December 14.
XIV— TANNING, LEATHER, GLUE, and SIZE.
Applications.
20,677. M. Heftier and G. Benard. Improvements in or
relating to the extraction of tanning and dyeing materials.
Piled November 15. Date applied for May 17, 1892, being
date of application in France.
21,551. T. Cowburn. Improved process of and apparatus
for tanning and cleaning hides and skins. November 25.
22,480. A. Sinau and H. Sinan. A process for clarifying
or decolorising tannic extracts. December 7.
23,233. J. M. E. Fonteuilles and H. G. J. R. Baguenier-
Desormeaux. Improvements in purifying and clarifying
tannic liquids. December 1G.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
838. S. Thorn. " Substitutes for tannin of an article in
substitution of what is commonly known as tanned leather."
November 30.
11,521. L. Mnnk. New or improved manufacture of
material suitable for use as a substitute for whalebone.
December 7.
XV.— AGRICULTURE and MANURES.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
3806. E. Groc and E. Ramond. A composition for
ih. ssing vines and other trees. November 28.
XVI.— SUGARS, STARCHES, GUMS, Etc.
Applications.
21,038. L. E. Asser and L. A. H. Hartogh. Improve
merits in the manufacture of starchy material. November 19.
21,217. W: P. Thompson.— From F. Soxhlet, Germany
Improvements in or relating to refining sugar. Complete
Specification. November 22.
21,939. W. P. Thompson.— From F. Schiaflino, Italy. Im-
provements in the treatment of raw sugar for purifying and
drying the same. Complete Specification. November 30.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
3241. A. G. Brookes. — From. F. Paetow. Refining or
purifying sugar. December 14.
11,972. W. Hannah and F. Curtis. Improvements in the
method of manufacturing sugar in cubes or other forms,
and in means or apparatus to be employed therein.
December 14.
XVII.— BREWING, WINES, SPIRITS, Etc.
Applications.
20,684. F. W. Wright. Improvements in and apparatus
for effecting the raising and aerating of beer and other
liquids. November 15.
20,773. A.Jenik. Improved construction of dephlegmators
or apparatus for condensing and separating aqueous con-
stituents and impurities from alcoholic vapours. November 1 6.
20,787. F. M. Polsky. Improvements in the manufacture
of yeast. November 16.
20,825. H. Stock. Improvements in germinating appa-
ratus. Complete Specification. November 17.
20,903. R. H. Leaker. Improvements in distilling and
rectifying brandy, whisky, and other spirits, and oils,
essences, and the like, and in machinery and apparatus
therefor. Complete Specification. November 18.
21,284. H. H. Leigh.— From B. C. Batcheller, S. D.
Schuyler, and W. M. Cramp, United States. Improvements
in process and apparatus for drying brewers' grains.
Complete Specification. November 22.
21,661. H. Reid. Yeast fermenting cakes. November 28.
21,897. C. S. Meacham. Improvements in means
employed in the preservation of hops. November 30.
22,253. K. R. Geduld. Process for artificially acidifying
yeast-mash. December 5.
22,495. W. Shreeve. An improved method or process of
dressing and cleansing beer, wine, or other barrels or casks.
December 8.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
22,413. W. Saint-Martin. Means or apparatus for
maturing and improving fermented alcoholic liquids, appli-
cable also for oxidising oleaginous and other liquids
November 30.
1892.
911. R. H. Leaker. Method and apparatus for kilning
malt. November 30.
17,927. R. Ilges. Improvements in the method of and
apparatus for distilling mash for the purpose of obtaining
highly - concentrated fusel oil and purified alcohol.
December 21.
Dec. si, 18U2.] THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
1055
XVIII.— CHKMISTRY OF FOODS, SANITARY
CHEMISTRY, and DISINFECTANTS.
Applications.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
•21,091. J. Dudin. See Class XX.
21,111. P. F. Shaw and A. W. Orr. A new mode of
preparing extracts of meats and like substances. Novem-
ber 21.
21,488. W. Paterson. A new or improved process in the
manufacture of bread and the like with extract of malt.
Complete Specification. November 25.
21,1123. G. D. Dennis. An improved process of pre-
serving dried vegetables. November 2G.
21,637. G. Dierkiug. Improvements in or relating to the
enriching of milk and other beverages. November 2G.
22,068. J. J. Clark. Improvements in the manufacture
of starchless flour and bread. December 2.
22,1 15. M. J alien and A. Brin. A process of enriching
milk and producing cream and butter. December 2.
22,189. G. C. Legay. An improved process for the
sterilisation of milk. December 3.
22,733. J. H. Cayless. Improvements in or relating to
the manufacture of bread. December 10.
22,831. J. Swan. Improvements in preserving eggs.
December 12.
22,922. A. J. Boult. — From L. Fromm, Germany. A
method of preserving farinaceous products. Complete
specification. December 13.
23,230. E. J. Davioud. Process for removing bad flavours
and odours from vegetable or animal products without
affecting their active or nutritious qualities. December 16.
B. — Sanitary Chemistry.
21,215. J. Swallow. Improvements in or relating to the
means or process for treating and clarifying sewage and
other impure or polluted waters. November 22.
21,291. A. O. Jones. Improvements in the treatment and
utilisation of sewage and plant therefor. November 23.
22,458. J. Hanson. Improvements in apparatus for
or like objectionable matter.
refuse
burning town
December 7.
22,530. J. M. Allan,
and apparatus for the
December 8.
Improvements in the method of
treatment of sewage or the like.
22,766. T. Brown. An improved system of intercepting
and separating solid from liquid sewage. December 12.
C— Disinfectants.
20,785. S. Pitt. — From Schloesing Brothers, France. An
improved insecticide and anticryptogamic composition for the
treatment of plants. Complete Specification. November 16.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
A. — Chemistry of Foods.
1891.
20,436. VV. P. Thompson. — From Moser and Co. Im-
provements in and connected with the process of extracting
cocoa or rendering it soluble for the preparation of soluble
cocoa, or the manufacture of cocoa powder, chocolate, or
the like preparations. November 23.
1892.
1150. K. G. Krikorian. A new or improved method of
treating and roasting malt, and blending the same for
infusion together with coffee. November 30.
1717. S. Saker and W. C. Glover. The manufacture of
a compound for use in preparing infusions of tea.
December 14.
C — Disinfectants.
1891.
22,258. C. C. Leathers. A new or improved apparatus
for disinfecting or odorising purposes. November 23.
1892.
5036. J. B. Dewhurst. An improved compound for
disinfecting and other purposes. December 7.
XIX.— PAPER, PASTEBOARD, Etc.
Applications.
21,485. E. Cadoret and E. Degraide. A new or improved
process of manufacturing incombustible and inodorous
celluloid. Complete Specification. November 25.
21,795. E. N. Cummings. Improvements in toilet and
wrapping paper. Complete Specification. November 29.
21,948. J. P. H. Huesser. The new blotting and filtering
paper. December 1 .
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
3103. F. T. Jefferson. Manufacture of paper for the
copying books of manifold writers for making tracings and
for other like purposes. December 14.
XX.— FINE CHEMICALS, ALKALOIDS ESSENCES,
and EXTRACTS.
Applications.
Improvements in menthol cones.
20,548. F. Keller.
November 14.
20,903. R, H. Leaker.
.See Class XVII.
21,091. J. Dudin. Improved process or method for
the manufacture of tea extract and apparatus therefor.
November 21.
21,938. F. Krafft and A. Roos. A new process of
preparing methyl-ether, ethyl-ether, and their homologues
by the action of alcohols on benzenesulphonic acid and
other sulphonic acids or their esters. Complete
Specification. November 30.
22,442. O. Imray. — From The Farbwerke vormals Meister,
Lucius, und Briining, Germany. Manufacture of peptones
free from albuminous matters. December 7.
22,757. J. F. F. von Mering. Improvements relating to
the production of acetyl and propionyl compounds of
;>-oxyphenyIurethanes or their ethers. December 10.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1892.
1438. I. S. McDougall and J. T. McDougall. Treatment
of solutions of arsenic or of salts of arsenic for diminishing
the danger incidental to their transport. December 14.
1808. J. Berlinerblan. Manufacture of para-phenetol-
carbamide and para-anisolcarbamide. December 14.
1946. H. Boisselier. A new combination of eucalyptus
and its products. December 7.
2194. J. Y. Johnson. — From The Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik. The treatment of amido-guanidine for the
manufacture of a new compound and products derived
therefrom. December 21.
3147. A. Bang. — Kroin G. A. Dahl. An antipyretic and
anti-neuralgic chinolin derivative, and processes for the
production of the same. December 7.
1056
THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. [D«-.3i,iS92.
XXI.— PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES and
MATERIALS.
Applications.
121.4 12. F. lies. Improvements in toning photographic
prints and negatives. November 24
21,022. H. W.Vogel andJ. Weinberg. A new or improved
paste for the prevention of discoloration of photographs
mounted upon Bristol-board. November 2G.
22,576. J. Hauff. The employment of diamido-dioxy-
benzol in combination with sulphides of the alkalis for
developing the latent image in layers containing halogen
silver for photographic purposes. December S.
Complete Specifications Accepted.
1891.
21,381. .1. T. Sandell. Manufacture of sensitive plates
for photographic purposes. November 23.
1>92.
4198. .T. Hauff. A process for developing photographic
images. December 7.
22,739. II. Kolf. Improvements in the manufacture of
gunpowder. December 10.
22,992. H. C. Seddon. Improvements in percussion
fuses for projectiles. December 14.
23,105. ( ). Imray. — From C. Glaser and Co., Germany.
Process for manufacturing powder suitable for practice
ammunition, sporting caitridges, aad similar purposes,
December 15.
Complete Specification Accepted.
1892.
G258. I). Imray. — From M. M. Rotten and Co.
facture of explosives. December 7.
Manu-
XXI II.— ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Application.
23,109. W. lielgrove. An improved means of testing
the quality of milk. December 15.
XXII.— EXPLOSIVES, MATCHES, Etc.
Applications.
20,880. A. H. Durnford. An improvement in the manu-
facture of explosive and other compounds containing
dissolved nitrated cellulose. November 17.
21,058. A. McDougall. Improvements in the manufacture
of explosives. November 19.
22,023. A. Kramer. The "gigantic" explosive. De-
cember 1.
PATENT UNCLASSIFIABLE.
Application.
21,452. W. F. Greene. Improvements in the preservation
of perishable articles. November 24.
'
Printed and Published by Ethe and Spottiswoode, East Hardins Street, London, E.C., for the Society of Chemical Industry.
O
SiNJjjBftla utr i . man * sgoj
Societ:- of Chemica] ]
London
Journal
Bngineerin«
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
^0® sTotrfcGi