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Team of Pekcherons.'

'Counesy of "TLb Field. I

FARMING FOR PROFIT

LIVE STOCK

AND

DAIRY FARMING

A NONTECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THE SUCCESSFUL BREED-
ING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS, THE
DAIRY HERD, AND THE ESSENTIALS OF DAIRY PRODUCTION

FRANK D. GARDNER

* §

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

ASSISTED BY

W. H. TOMHAVE

Professor of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania
State College

DR. H, S. GRINDLEY

Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois

SLEETER BULL

Associate Professor of Animal Nutrition, University

of Illinois

E. H. HUGHES

Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of
Agriculture, University of Missouri

W. A. COCHEL

Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricul-
tural College

JOHN M. EWARD

Chief in Swine Production, Animal Husbandry Sec-
tion, Iowa Experiment Station

T. C. STONE

Instructor in Animal Husbandry. Ohio State
University

M. C. KILPATRICK

Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Ohio State
University

F. S. PUTNEY

Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsyl-
vania State College

C. W. LARSON

Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State

College

GEORGE C. HUMPHREY

Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of

Wisconsin

ERNEST L. ANTHONY

Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsyl-
vania State College

illustrated:

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• .• ••
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• • ••••_• ••- • • • •

• ••••• • • . • ••• • •• • •«*

THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY

PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO

LUh ' ^' ' V.MLTURE DL' <K

«, m v » • • • >»

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PREFACE

This book is written for amateur as well as professional livestock and
dairy farmers. It makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in animal
and dairy husbandry.

Ages of farm experience have given us a vast store of practical knowl-
edge on the raising of crops and animals. This knowledge is scattered
through many volumes on different phases of the subject, in experiment
station bulletins, agricultural journals and encyclopedias. The important
facts on which the most successful livestock and dairy farming is based
are here brought together in orderly and readable form. Not only are
directions given for the management and care of farm animals but the
business end of the problem is fully discussed, showing why some achieve
success and why others fail.

The subject-matter is arranged in several parts of a number of chapters
each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be quickly
found. Each department has been prepared by a specialist in the subject
presented. The name of the author appears at the beginning of each
chapter. Those unacknowledged have been prepared by myself.

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit
has been given these.

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and
the other volumes in the series for its conception, and for many helpful
suggestions in the presentation of the subject-matter.

I wish also to especially acknowledge the valuable editorial assistance
of my wife in the preparation of the manuscript.

Frank D. Gardner

415292

(5)

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CONTENTS

PART I. LIVESTOCK FARMING (ANIMAL HUSBANDRY)

Chapter 1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE

STOCK 15

Value and importance of livestock.

Advantages of Livestock.

Animals furnish food, labor and clothing — Animals make use of land otherwise
unproductive — Animals utilize crops that would be wholly or partly wasted —
Animals transform coarse, bulky products into concentrated form — Animals
return fertility to the soil — Livestock facilitate good crop rotations— Capital more
fully used — Livestock call for higher skill — More land may be farmed with the
same labor.

Disadvantages of Livestock.

Animals require larger capital — Capital of perishable nature — Products cannot
be indefinitely held— Crop failures may cause loss on livestock.

Chapter 2. BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS. . 21

Breeding pf Livestock.

History of animal breeding — Lines of breeding — Selection of a breed — Pedigree —
Gestation period.

Care of Livestock.

Preparation of feeds — Feeding condimental stock feeds — Care of the breeding
herd— Care of work animals — Assist animals at time of riving birth to their young.

Management of Livestock.

Open sheds — Arrangement of labor — The kind of farm animals — Regularity in
feeding and watermg — Observing individuals — Keep up records — Preparation
and shipping livestock.

Chapter 3. FEEDS AND FEEDING 30

Introduction — Chemical composition of feechnMtuffs — Water — Mineral matter —
Crude protein— Carbohydrates — The fats — Digestion of the nutrients — The
nutritive ratio — The energy value of feeding-stuffs — Feeding-stuffs — Concen-
trates — Roughages — The requirements of farm animals — The balanced ration —
The Wolff-Lehmann standards — The Armsby standards — The Haecker standard
for dairy cows.

Chapters HORSES AND MULES 41

Development of type — The light horse — Draft type — The mule — Market require-
ments — The age of the horse — Horse feedings — Feeds for the horse — Grain —
Roughages — Watering — The work horse — The foal — The orphan foal — The brood
mare — The stallion.

Standard Rations.

Foals — Work horses — Brood mare — Grooming.

Chapter 5. BEEF CATTLE 52

Sources of profit — Breeding pure-bred cattle — Producing stockers and feeders —
Grazing cattle — Fattening cattle — Fitting show animals.

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CHAPTER 1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Keeping Livestock

Without the aid of domestic animals as beasts of burden, man would
have a sorry existence. The horse, ass and camel have been of great service
in past ages in aiding man to conquer new regions, and by their aid he has
been enabled to very materially increase his productive power.

Animals have also been a great aid to man as a source of food and
clothing. Those countries that depend upon animals and animal products
the most are, as a rule, the most productive and highly civilized. In
North America animal products, such as meat, milk, butter, cheese, lard,
eggs, etc., constitute fully one-half of the value of the products of human
consumption.

A large part of the vegetation on the earth is unsuited for human
consumption. Of this, such by-products as straw and stover are converted
into milk, butter, cheese, meat and animal fats. It is estimated that 80
per cent of the corn produced in the United States is consumed by livestock
in the county where produced. This conversion of crude farm products
adds greatly to the quality of man's diet.

The essential characteristics of domesticated animals are: (1) their
ability to convert food into energy and animal products for human use,
(2) the readiness with which they become subject to the will of man,
and (3) their prolificacy or ability to breed abundantly.

Value and Importance of Livestock. — The United States and Canada
with 28,000,000 horses, 63,000,000 cattle, 51,000,000 sheep and more than
62,000,000 swine, is pre-eminently a livestock country. South America
leads in the production of sheep with 115,000,000 and ranks third in cattle
with 48,000,000. It falls to India to lead in cattle production, which,
including the water buffalo, numbers 125,000,000 head. The United States,
however, far outranks all other countries in its numbers of horses, mules
and swine. It is second in production of cattle and sheep.

During the past half century, the livestock in the United States has
increased about three times in numbers and about six times in value.
While numbers have not quite kept pace with increase in population, the
value per capita has steadily increased. This increase in value has been
due chiefly to two factors: (1) the improvement in livestock, and (2) the
increased value per unit of weight of animals and animal products. In
1850 the average fleece of a sheep weighed 2.4 pounds; in 1900 it had
increased to 6.9 pounds. During the fifty years sheep nearly doubled in
number, while the yield of wool increased five times. This increase was
due chiefly to breeding rather than feeding. If statistics were available,

• o •

_ •

• •

„• •

• -•

.VSPP0ESSFUL FARMING

• ' •

we j¥pjiid^ob"tleffiifinii*tltat % -the increase per cow in milk, and particularly
in butterfat; ^oulcf not be fess striking.

Thirty-five years ago, the usual work-team in the corn belt consisted
of two 1000-pound horses. Today, the prevailing team is three 1500-pound
horses. This increase in the size of the team has been an important factor
in increasing the man unit of production on the farm, and has undoubtedly
been one of the factors instrumental in the increase in land values in that
region. The following table gives the numbers, value per head and total
value of the principal classes of livestock in the United States for 1880 and
1915, as reported by the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture:

Numbers and Value op Livestock on Farms in the United States

in 1915 as Compared with 1880.

fToaa r\f

1880.

1015.

\jlnB9 O*

Animals.

Number.

Value
per Head.

Farm Value.

Number.

Value
per Head.

Farm Value.

Horses

Mules

11,202,000
1,730,000
12,027,000
21,231;000
40,766,000
34,034,000

$54.75

61.26

23.37

16.10

2.21

4.28

$613,297,000
105,948,000
279,889,000
341,761,000
90,231,000
145,782,000

21,195,000
4,479,000
21,262,000
37,067,000
49,956,000
64,618,000

$103.33

112.36

55.33

33.38

4.50

9.87

$2,190,102,000
503,271,000

Cows

1,176,338,000

Other cattle. . . .
Sheep

1,237,376,000
224,687,000

Swine

637,479,000

Total

$1,576,908,000

$5,969,253,000

From the above table it will be noted that the total value of livestock
in the United States increased from a little more than $1,500,000,000 in
1880 to nearly $6,000,000,000 in 1915. During that period, horses and
mules doubled in number and quadrupled in value. The increase in num-
bers of cows and other cattle did not quite double, while the value per head
of the former considerably more than doubled and the latter slightly more
than doubled. The increase in numbers of sheep and swine was slightly
less marked, but in both of these classes the value per head slightly more
than doubled.

ADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK

Animals Furnish Food, Labor and Clothing. — Even when not profit-
able to rear anmals for market, the cost of living on farms may be greatly
reduced by the judicious production of livestock and livestock products
for the home food supply. The difference between the purchase price of
animals and animal products and the price which the producer receives has
materially increased during recent years. The value of these products to
the farmer for his own consumption is equal, whether bought or produced
on the farm. Furthermore, animals and animal products may be produced
on a small scale on most farms on what otherwise would be wasted.

KEEPING LIVESTOCK 17

The acres of land cultivated by each horse depends on the size of the
horse, character of farming, the type of soil and the topography of the land.
In England, two horses are generally required for 80 acres of light, sandy
soil or 60 acres of heavy, clay soil. In the United States, there is about
one horse or mule of working age to each 30 acres of improved land. For-
merly, many oxen were kept for work, but these have been largely replaced
by the horse and mule because of their more rapid movements and conse-
quent greater efficiency. The draft of the ox is larger in proportion to his
weight, but his slowness has caused his displacement with the increase in
the value of human labor.

With the introduction of cotton and silk, the value of animal products
as sources of clothing decreased relatively. The value of leather, wool and

UraLiziNQ Woodland jor Pasture. 1

hair is very large, however, and plays an important part in the clothing
of the human race.

Animals Make Use of Land Otherwise Unproductive. — According to
the last census, only about one-half of the farm area in the United States
was improved land, and only about two-thirds of the improved land was in
farm crops, including meadows. The other one-third, together with
considerable of tbe unimproved portion, is utilized as pasture for animals.
On most farms there are areas more or less extensive which may be steep,
stony, partly wooded, undrained or otherwise unprofitable for cultivated
crops, that may be utilized for grazing purposes.

Animals Utilize Crops that would be Wholly or Parity Wasted. — The
straw of the cereals, the stover of corn, have little value on most farms
except as ro ughage and bedding for livestock. Low grades of hay, d am aged

> Courtesy of E. K. Hibshmanu, Pennsylvania State CoUafB.

18 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

by rains or delay in harvesting, often are unsalable, but may be utilized
for feed for stock. In the same way corn and small grains are sometimes
damaged by exposure to the weather or early frosts, and may have con-
siderable feeding value, but no value on the market.

Animals Transform Coarse, Bulky Products into Concentrated Form. —
Animals convert coarse, bulky, raw materials into a more concentrated
and valuable finished product, and one that may be marketed with less
cost and to much better advantage. It requires about 10 pounds of dry
matter to produce 1 pound of beef or 30 pounds of dry matter to produce
1 pound of butter. The farmer in transfo rmin g such coarse products to
a more refined one not only reaps the profit in the process of manufacture,
but the pound of butter may be sent to a market a thousand miles away,
when the material from which it was made could not be profitably sent to
a market ten miles distant. One cent a pound for transporting butter

would be but a amall percentage of its value, but one cent a pound for
transporting hay would be prohibitive.

Animals Return Fertility to the Soil. — In the manufacture of these
finer products on the farm, animals leave much of the fertilizing material
to be returned to the soil. The manure of farm animals is unquestionably
the most valuable bi-productof American farms. In considering livestock
farming from this standpoint, it is only necessary to determine whether
it has been successful in maintaining soil fertility. A study of the crop-
producing capacity of the soil in different regions shows conclusively
that crop yields are largest where large numbers of livestock are main-
tained.

Livestock Facilitate Good Crop Rotations. — A good crop rotation
should include inter-tilled crops, small grains and grasses and clovers.

t. Prnil, Minn. From "Field Management and Crop

KEEPING. LIVESTOCK 19

Livestock make possible the production and profitable utilization of grasses
and clovers. When these are fed to livestock and the manure is returned
to the land, the fertility of the soil is increased. Goodsods, plenty of manure
and animals to utilize by-products extend the range of crops that may be
grown on the farm and thus provide for better crop rotations.

Capital More Fully Used. — The wheat farmer in the Northwest is
very busy from spring until fall, but is generally idle from September to
March. When livestock is kept, labor of men and teams is more fully
employed and equipment more fully utilized.

Livestock Call for Higher Skill. — Animal husbandry, including keep-
ing of dairy cattle, poultry, etc., may be made to require higher skill than
ordinary extensive production of crops. It calls for the same requirements
so far as the care of the soil and the production of crops are concerned, and
there is added to this the skill of the breeder and the feeder. The products
of skilled workmen command a higher price than do those of the unskilled
workmen. In this country those communities that have given most atten-
tion to livestock are in general the most prosperous. There are, of course,
some exceptions to this.

More Land may be Farmed with the Same Labor. — This is true
only in the extensive grazing of livestock, as exemplified in the ranches of
the West, notably in the breeding and rearing of cattle and sheep. When
these are brought to the farm of the feeder, they really reverse the process
and call for increased labor and skill on the unit of area.

DISADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK

Animals Require Larger Capital — This is especially true when kept
in connection with the production of hay and grain. On a 160-acre farm
40 head of cattle worth $1500, 40 sheep worth $300 and 20 hogs worth
$300 may be kept, and the farm made to raise all the necessary food for
them. This would increase the capital of the farm by $2100. It would
also call for additional capital in buildings, and this would all be an increase
over what would be required if the same land were used only for cash crops.
On a farm that supplies all the feed for livestock, $10 per acre invested in
livestock may be considered as moderate. If only the coarse feed is grown
it may carry stock to the value of $25 to $30 per acre. This is exemplified
in many dairy farms close to market, and sometimes on farms where stock
are fattened for market.

Capital of Perishable Nature. — Animal diseases, such as tuberculosis
or foot and mouth disease in cattle, cholera in hogs, and internal parasites
in sheep, may quickly wipe out the animals on any particular farm. This
entails a loss not only of the product for a single year, but also of all the
capital that may have been invested in feeds and labor to bring the stock
to that stage of maturity at which it was destroyed by disease.

Formerly, it was not uncommon in the corn belt to find farmers keep-
ing 100 or more head of hogs in a single herd, but it is now deemed best to

20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

keep them in herds of small units, not more than 20 or 30, as protection
against cholera. More recently, of course, methods of control have been
developed, which, if properly administered, hold the disease in check.

Products Cannot be Indefinitely Held. — The holding of livestock for
a considerable time after reaching the proper stage of fattening for the
market entails considerable loss. It may sometimes result in actual
decrease in quality with little or no increase in weight, and a loss of both
food and labor for maintenance. In this respect livestock for meat is
sharply contrasted with wheat and some other cereals that may be held
almost indefinitely with very little deterioration. It is true that the
development of better markets, systems of cold storage and methods of
preserving meat have lessened somewhat this difficulty.

Crop Failures may Cause Loss on Livestock. — A low production for
the staple crops used largely for livestock food results in a marked advance
in price. This frequently causes a loss to the farmer on his livestock.
This is especially true in case of swine that depend so largely on concen-
trates for their production. A decrease of one-quarter in the yield of a
staple crop for the whole country often causes an increase in price so marked
that if the whole crop were sold it would bring more than a normal crop
or an extra large one. Since, however, so large a percentage of the crop
is fed, this does not mean much to the farmer unless there is a correspond-
ing increase in price of meat animals. A number of instances may be
cited whan a marked advance in price of corn without a corresponding
advance in hogs has induced farmers to sell their hogs before fully
ready for market, thus causing the hog market to decline in the face of
advancing prices on corn. This condition once under way will often con-
tinue for a full year before normal prices again prevail.

The advantages and disadvantages of keeping livestock have been
presented without prejudice, and it must be apparent that the advantages
seem to outweigh the disadvantages, especially from the standpoint of
permanent systems of agriculture. It is, of course, recognized that with
increasing population there should be a tendency for people to depend
more and more upon the direct products of the soil in the form of cereals,
vegetables and fruits rather than to depend so largely upon animal prod-
ucts; and doubtless the increase in land values and high prices of animal
products will gradually tend in this direction.

CHAPTER 2

Breeding, Care and Management of Farm Animals

By W. H. Tomhave
Professor of Animal Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

BREEDING OF LIVESTOCK

History of Animal Breeding. — The first systematic work in animal
breeding was done among the Arabians. This is indicated by the character
of the Arabian horses that were developed during the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. Following the Arabians, the French did the next con-
structive breeding of animals, which was at that time encouraged by the
French Government in the developing of their breeds of horses. The most
important animal breeding from the point of view of the American farmer
of today was done by the people of the British Isles during the last half of
the eighteenth century, and throughout the entire nineteenth century.
Robert Bakewell is known as the foremost early breeder of livestock,
having begun his work about 1764 and continued it until the time of his
death. He was followed by noted men such as Collings Brothers, Booth
and Bates, all of whom were early breeders of Shorthorn cattle. Amos
Cruickshank was probably the most noted breeder of recent years, and was
recognized as the peer among the Shorthorn breeders of Scotland during
the nineteenth century. Great interest was then shown in developing
the various classes of livestock and this has resulted in giving us our present
breeds of pure-bred livestock.

The foundation work in animal breeding in America was done largely
during the last half of the nineteenth century. The foundation animals
used by most of the noted breeders were imported into the United States
and Canada from Europe. Large importations of well-bred animals were
made into the United States from 1880 up to 1900. Since that time only
limited importations have been made into this country, as most of the
noted animals in America at the present time are the product of American
breeders. While a great deal of work has been done in both Europe and
America, less than two per cent of all the farm animals in the United States
and Canada at the present time are of pure breeding. This seems to indi-
cate that there is a fertile field for livestock breeding for the American
farmer.

Lines of Breeding. — There are three distinct lines of breeding that can
be followed by the American farmer. These may be enumerated as
follows : breeding of pure-breds, grading and cross-breeding. The breeding

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of pure-bred animals is by far the most important system of breeding, and
the one that should be followed to a greater extent by farmers in the United
States and Canada. The greatest improvement can be made in a herd
of livestock by this system of breeding. The use of both pure-bred sire
and dam enables the fanner to follow a more rigid system of selection and
cull out undesirable individuals, which is not always possible in grading
and cross-breeding. There is one weakness, however, that every breeder
of pure-bred animals is apt to encounter, and that is a certain degree of

hesitation about elim-
inating an animal
from his herd that
may be pure-bred and
yet not up to the
standard which he
has set for building
up his herd.

Grading is an-
other means of mak-
ing a marked improve-
ment on the average
farm herd. By grad-
ing is meant the mat-
ing of a common or
relatively inferior
animal with one that
' is more highly im-
proved, usually a pure-
bred. This pure-bred
may be either the sire
or dam, but it is usually the sire, as the sire can be used upon a number
of females in the herd and thus exercise greater influence in making the
improvement. If the pure-bred dam and a grade sire are used, very
little improvement is made; besides, such improvement is restricted to
one mating. If a pure-bred sire is used for five generations, it will mean
that at the end of that time the herd is practically pure-bred, but can
never be registered. Rigid selection and the use of a pure-bred sire
should always be continued.

By cross-breeding is meant the mating of two pure-bred animals of
different breeds. Nothing is to be gained by such method of breeding, as
it destroys the pure lines that may have been established and also has a
tendency to cause a greater variation. Cross-breeding is sometimes
profitably carried on in producing market animals, but it should never be
carried beyond the first generation. Cross-bred animals should never be

1 Courtesy of Dept. of Animtl Husbandly, Pennsylvania State Colleg

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 23

retained as breeders in the herd, as this has a tendency to cause sterility
in the breeding animals, besides retarding progress in building up the herd.
Selection of a Breed. — The selection of the breed of animals must be
determined by the farmer or livestock grower, as there is no such thing as
the "best breed." All breeds of livestock have been developed for a
definite purpose and among all breeds are found desirable and undesirable
individuals. In deciding upon a breed, the farmer should secure all data
available about the breeds in which he is interested and adopt the one that

Pdbe-bhed Shobthobn Bull. 1

will best suit his conditions. It is highly important that he select good
individuals of the breed adopted and that he continue with that breed
indefinitely. To change breeds at the end of one or two years is not con-
ducive to improvement, and means a loss of time. It is important to select
representative animals that possess pronounced characteristics of the breed,
and if possible to secure animals with a known ancestry. In the selecting
of a brood sow as an illustration, such sow should come from a prolific

i Courtesy oi V. 8. Dept. of Agriculture.

24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

strain. The same thing is true in the selection of a herd boar or any other
animal that is to be used for breeding. It is a wise precaution to visit the
herd from which the animals are to be selected, in order to study the prepo-
tency of the sire that is at its head. It is also very important to avoid the
introduction of barrenness or sterility in the herd. The sires selected should
be strong, vigorous and in thrifty condition. Since the sire will be used on
a number of animals, it is important that he be given the greatest considera-
tion, both as to individuality and pedigree.

Pedigree. — The mere fact that an animal is pure-bred and has a
pedigree is not an indication of its being a desirable animal. The pedi-
gree is not a guaranty of excellence in the animal. There are many poor
pure-bred individuals as well as desirable individuals. A combination
of good individuality, together with a pedigree tracing back to known
ancestry, will usually result in the securing of desirable animals.

Gestation Period. — The farmer or livestock breeder must keep a
record of the breeding dates of his animals. This should be done so that
he may know at what time they are to produce their young. The gesta-
tion period varies with the various classes of animals. For cows, it is
about 9 months, or approximately 280 days; for mares, 11 months, or
approximately 340 days; for ewes, 5 months, or about 150 days; for sows,
4 months, or about 112 days. The gestation period for all animals as
stated is only approximate, and has been known to vary a number of
days from this period. It is well, however, to watch the animals closely
at the end of the number of days given for each class of livestock.

CARE OF LIVESTOCK

The breeding, feeding and management of livestock must be combined
for the greatest success. Each class of livestock must be given special
care and attention, and a system worked out to meet the needs of the
farm. The feeding of the young animals, for instance, should not begin
at the time of birth, as is so often the case, but should be properly carried
on during the gestation period. The young life begins at the time of breed-
ing and for the greatest development must be properly nourished throughout
the gestation period. A well-bred animal does not guarantee the pro-
duction of a desirable individual unless the animal is properly fed, so that
the growing foetus may be properly nourished. Young growing animals
must have an abundance of food that is rich in protein and mineral matter
for the development of muscle and bone rather than fattening material.
This, combined with proper exercise and plenty of fresh air and sunlight,
will result in a properly developed individual.

Preparation of Feeds — In feeding livestock, it is necessary to econo-
mize on the use of grains; yet at the same time, it is not a wise plan to carry
this economy to an extreme. The method of preparing the feed for stock
will vary with the different classes of livestock and the different kinds of
feeds used. Cooking feed for hogs was at one time considered a desirable

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 25

practice, but hog-feeding experiments conducted in Canada and the
United States for the purpose of comparing the merits of cooked and
uncooked grain all show an actual loss from cooking. There was a saving
of labor and larger gains for uncooked feed.

The grinding of grain for farm animals will depend upon the kind and
price of grain and the animals to which it is to be fed. Small grains, such
as wheat, barley and rye, should always be crushed or ground before they
are fed. The kernels of these grains are hard and some of it, if fed whole,
will pass through the system of an animal without being masticated or
digested. There is a saving of about six per cent in feeding value of corn
when fed ground or cracked instead of whole. Generally speaking, when
corn is worth more than 75 cents per bushel, it will pay to grind it or have
it cracked for all classes of farm animals, except when fed to cattle where
hogs follow in the feed lot.

Feeding Condimental Stock Feeds. — The feeding of proprietary stock
foods or condition powders should be avoided. These preparations usually
cost from ten to thirty cents per pound and contain nothing that cannot
be secured by using standard feeds. They are usually made up of ground
screenings, weed seeds, bark of trees, a little oil meal, and such materials
as charcoal, copperas, epsom salts, etc. The feeding of such "foods" will
do more harm than good. When animals are out of condition, the addition
of a little oil meal to the regular feed will usually give fully as good results.
Salt, usually found in these preparations, should always be supplied to
farm animals in liberal amounts.

Care of the Breeding Herd. — The breeding herd must be properly
cared for if the best results are to be secured. It is not necessary to keep
the animals fat, but they should be kept in a thrifty condition, so that they
can supply the nutrients necessary to properly develop their young during
the gestation period. Breeding animals should have exercise, plenty of
nutritious feed and good water. They should be fed largely on farm-
grown feeds where the right kind can be produced cheaply.

Care of Work Animals. — The term work animals applies usually to
horses and mules. These animals are the principal beasts of burden in the
United States and Canada. The best results can be secured only through
proper feeding and care. Work horses and mules should receive the largest
portion of grain ration during the morning and noon meals, and be allowed
the bulk of their roughage at the evening meal. The reason for this is
that the horse and mule do not possess large stomachs, and thus cannot
carry a large amount of bulky feed without seriously interfering with their
ability to work. The amount of grain and roughage to supply depends
upon the work that is being done. For a horse doing heavy work, about
134 to 13^ pounds of grain to 100 pounds liveweight daily should be allowed,
and approximately the same amount of roughage. This amount should
be reduced to about one-half the regular allowance when the horses stand
idle over Sunday or any other day. Over 90 per cent of all cases of azoturia

26 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in horses taking place on Monday morning result directly from carelessness
in over-feeding. Work horses should not be watered when overheated,
but a horse accustomed to drinking water from which the chill has been
removed will usually suffer no injury if allowed to rest a short time before
watering. The usual and common practice is to allow the horse all the
water he cares to drink before feeding in preference to heavy watering
after feeding.

Assist Animals at Time of Giving Birth to Their Young. — There is
probably no time when breeding animals require assistance and watching
as much as at the time of giving birth to their young. It is well to watch
the animals at this time and provide them with comfortable quarters and
the proper feed. It is a good practice to allow only a limited ration at
this time. The system will be in a much better condition to give birth to
the young than where full allowance of feed is supplied. If the animal
has difficulty in giving birth to its young, assistance should be given, which
in case of horses and cattle, can best be secured by calling in a competent
veterinarian.

MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK

The management of livestock increases in importance with the rise
in the value of livestock and the increase in the cost of feeds, labor and,
building materials. The three most important factors to be kept in mind
in the economical production of livestock is to keep down the cost of shelter,
labor and feed. The buildings or housing facilities for all classes of farm
animals should be adequate, yet not expensive. If they can be made con-
venient and comfortable, that is all that is necessary. Too many farmers
insist on making their buildings too warm. This is seen in many cases
where large basement barns are built that become extremely hot during
the winter. Such barns favor the development of livestock diseases, rather
than keeping the animals in a healthy condition. Farm animals will
thrive much better and be healthier if they are put in open sheds that offer
protection from cold winds, rain and sleet. This is especially true in case
of cattle and sheep. Hogs and horses can also be kept in open sheds the
same as cattle and sheep if they are given plenty of bedding and are kept
dry. The sleeping quarters for all farm animals should be kept well bedded.

Open Sheds. — A number of experiments have been conducted to com-
pare open sheds and warm barns for cattle and sheep. In nearly every
case it has been found that beef cattle fed in open sheds made greater daily
gains, consumed less feed per pound of gain, and were in healthier and
thriftier condition than those kept in warm barns. The housing of cattle
and sheep in open sheds is a saving to the farmer, as it does not require as
much capital to construct a shed as it does to construct the usual expensive
barn. It is'also a saving of labor, as the cattle are not tied like they are
in the barn. Open sheds should be built to face the south so the interior
will not be exposed to the severe north winds. They should be built high
enough so that the manure can be taken out by driving into the shed with

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 27

the wagon or manure spreader. Peed carriers should also be provided in
order to save carrying a large amount of feed.

Arrangement of Labor. — The amount of labor necessary to care for
the livestock should be reduced to a minimum. This can be done by
arranging convenient quarters in which to feed the livestock. The farmer's
and livestock producer's business should be so arranged that the bulk of
the labor connected with the livestock comes during the winter. If this
is done it means that the labor employed upon the farm can be distributed
more equally throughout the entire year. It can be used to work the fields
during the summer and care for the livestock during the winter. Very-

Shelter of this character is less expensive than warm barns, and wherever the climate is
not too severe steers make better gains for feed consumed than when sheltered
in warm bams.

little labor is required during the summer if plenty of pasture of the proper
kind is provided. Such distribution of labor also makes it possible to secure
more competent help than where it can be employed only during a portion
of the year.

The Kind of Farm Animals. — The class of farm animals to keep will
depend entirely upon the location and equipment of the farm. On farms
where a large amount of pasture and rough feed is produced, beef cattle
and sheep are best adapted. This is also true of farms where there is no

1 Coui-Ksy of Dspt. of Animal Husbandry. Pennsylvania State College.

28 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

adequate means of transportation. With good transportation facilities or
near cities where there is a good demand for dairy products, dairying may
be advisable. In many sections of the United States and Canada where
cream only is sold from the dairy, hogs make an admirable addition to the
dairy. Hogs, on the other hand, are well adapted to most all types of
farming, and provide a source of quick returns from the feeds fed. The
number of farm animals to keep upon a farm depends entirely upon the
size of the farm and the feeds that can be grown. It is a good practice to
produce as much as possible of the feeds necessary to maintain or fatten
the livestock produced on the farm. This does not mean that feeds should
nojb be purchased. The purchase of nitrogenous supplements to feeds
grown on the farm is not as universally practiced as it should be.

Regularity in Feeding and Watering. — The best results from farm
animals cannot be secured unless the feeding and watering is done with
system and regularity. Plenty of clean water should always be supplied.
The more water consumed by an animal, the more of the feeds supplied
will it consume, thus producing heavier gains or larger amounts of milk.
The cost of the feeds supplied is a factor of importance. The cost of the
feed bill should be kept as low as possible. This can be done only by the
use of farm-grown feeds. In many cases a large amount of roughage or
grain is grown that does not have a ready sale, possibly on account of being
slightly damaged by weathering or improper curing. Such feeds can best
be used upon the farm. Not only does it provide a desirable place to dis-
pose of them, but the fertility which would be lost if the feeds are sold from
the farm is thus saved. Such practice makes the land more fertile and
more productive than where such crops as hay, stover and corn are sold
from the farm.

Observing Individuals. — Every owner of livestock should study the
individuals in the herd and see that they are in good condition of health.
It frequently happens that animals are not doing well, and upon investi-
gation it is found to be due to internal or external parasites. Usually an
unthrifty animal is infested with internal parasites, which, if noticed in
the early stages, can often be destroyed. External parasites, such as lice,
are a source of annoyance and should be destroyed. In the case of sheep,
it is an excellent practice to dip all of the flock in a coal-tar dip at least
once a year. This is usually done following shearing in the spring. It is
also well to provide new pasture for young lambs at weaning time, as at
that time they are more subject to stomach worms than at any other time.
This is due to the fact that they become more easily the prey of worms on
account of the change from nursing the dam to depending entirely upon
food supplied for their maintenance. Hogs should frequently be sprayed
or dipped with a coal-tar dip so as to destroy lice that are often found on
their bodies. Hogs are also often unthrifty as the result of stomach worms.

Keep up Records. — It is highly desirable for a farmer or livestock
breeder who is breeding pure-bred animals to keep his records up to date.

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 29

It frequently happens that desirable pure-bred animals are grown on the
farm, but their registration is not completed. Such practice is well enough
where only market animals are being produced. There may come a time,
however, when the breeder will desire to sell animals as breeders. Buyers
of pure-bred cattle require the registration to be complete in order that
they may sell any offspring produced from such animals for breeding pur-
poses. Registration involves only a small amount of time and expense,
but is a practice that is well worth while.

Preparation and Shipping of Livestock. — All livestock, whether
breeding animals or market animals, should be in the very best of con-
dition when shipped. If pure-bred stock is shipped by express, it should
be properly crated. If shipped by freight, it should be properly tied
and bedded. If the animals arrive in good condition, the purchaser will
gain a good impression of them upon first inspection. If they arrive in
poor condition due to careless preparation, the buyer as a rule will not be
satisfied and probably will not make another purchase. In selling pure-
bred livestock by mail, it is always a wise plan not to praise too highly
the animals that are offered for sale. It is much better to have the pur-
chaser find the animals that are shipped him better than he expected.
Such practice usually makes more sales and is a good means of advertising.
If a customer is not satisfied with the animals shipped, the breeder should
always make it a point to satisfy his customer either by refunding the
purchase price and the expense of shipping or by shipping another animal.

Cattle, hogs or sheep when shipped to market should be started in as
near normal condition as possible. Some farmers salt heavily before ship-
ping in order to get the proper "fill" on the market. Cattle salted just
before they are shipped will arrive on the market in poor condition. They
will be feverish, will drink very little water, will not eat much hay and will
also be apt to scour. Cattle in such a condition usually sell at a discount.
The car in which the livestock is to be loaded should be well bedded and
in the case of cattle, the racks should be filled with hay so they can eat
while en route. Always ship the livestock so as to reach the market early
in the week, as there is usually more active buying at that time than later
in the week.

REFERENCES

Manual of Farm Animals." Harper.
"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Plumb.
"Beginnings in Animal Husbandry." Plumb.
"Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll.
"Animal Breeding." Shaw.

"Feeding and Management of Farm Animals." Shaw.
Farmers Bulletin 350, U. S. Department of Agriculture. "Dehorning of Cattle."

CHAPTER 3

FEEDS AND FEEDING

By Dr. H. S. Grindley and Sleetbr Bull
Professor and Associate of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois

Introduction. — A knowledge of the scientific principles of stock
feeding is important to the stockman. This knowledge is not absolutely
essential, as many have achieved success in feeding as a result of years of
experience. However, "experience is a dear teacher" and if one combines
a study of the scientific principles of feeding with the experience gained in
the barn and feed lot, he will learn the art of successful feeding more quickly,
more thoroughly and with less expense than if he depends upon experience
as his only teacher.

Chemical Composition of Feeding-stuffs. — All feeding-stuffs are
composed of a great number of different compounds which are grouped
into five classes, viz., water, mineral matter, crude protein, carbohydrates
and fats. These classes of compounds are usually spoken of as " nutrients,"
because they are used for the nutrition of the animal.

Water is found in large amounts in such feeds as green pasture, silage,
beets and milk, while such feeds as hay, bran, corn, middlings, etc., contain
from 10 to 20 per cent water. A knowledge of the water content of feeds
is important for two reasons: (1) feeds high in water content are lower in
feeding value, pound for pound, than feeds low in water; (2) feeds contain-
ing more than 18 or 20 per cent water usually ferment and spoil when
stored in bulk.

Mineral Matter, or ash as it is sometimes called, is that part of the
feed which remains as ash when the feed is burned. In the animal body,
mineral matter is used principally for the repair and growth of bone. It
is also used in the growth and repair of the muscles and vital organs. It
is found in the blood and other body fluids. A certain amount of it is
absolutely essential to proper growth and development, or even for life
itself.

Most of the roughages, especially the legumes, as clover, alfalfa and
soy beans, are quite high in mineral matter. Also such feeds as tankage,
middlings, cottonseed meal, linseed meal and bran are high in mineral
matter. The cereal grains, especially corn, are low in mineral matter.
Consequently, in feeding horses, cattle and sheep, little account need be
taken of the mineral matter of the ration, except to provide salt, as these
animals are nearly always given feeding-stuffs, some of which are high in
mineral matter. However, in case of hogs, the ration may be deficient in

FEEDS AND FEEDING 31

mineral matter, especially if considerable com is used in the ration. The
hogs should have access to a mineral mixture consisting of charcoal, air-
slaked lime, salt, wood-ashes and rock phosphate or " floats."

Crude Protein includes all the compounds of the feed which contain
the element nitrogen. Familiar forms of protein are egg albumen (the white
of the egg) and casein (the curd of milk). Protein is found in all living
matter and is absolutely essential to life. It is found in every plant cell,
but in larger amounts in the seeds. It also occurs in every animal cell and
makes up a large part of the solid matter of the blood, muscles and organs
of the body. Thus the crude protein of the ration is absolutely essential
to the animal for the repair and growth of the muscles, bones, organs, etc.
It is also essential for a pregnant animal for the formation of the foetus
and, later, for milk production. If there is any surplus of protein in the
ration above the requirements of the animal for the purposes just mentioned,
the surplus may be used to produce energy or to liberate heat. If there is
still a surplus, it may be used for the production of body fat. However,
protein is not an economical source of energy or body fat, as it usually
is the most expensive nutrient and the one which it is most often necessary
to buy. Hence, no more protein should be fed than needed by the animal
for repair, growth and milk production. Tankage, cottonseed meal,
Unseed meal, gluten feed, distillers' grains, brewers' grains, bran, middlings
and soy beans are high in protein. The legume hays are also relatively
high in protein. Corn, timothy hay, the straws, fodder, stover and silage
are low in crude protein.

Carbohydrates are the chief constituents of all plants. However,
they are not found to any large extent in animals. Familiar forms of the
carbohydrates are starch, sugar and vegetable fiber, such as hemp, paper
and cotton. As the carbohydrates contain such a variety of compounds
which differ considerably in nutritive value, they are often divided into two
sub-classes: "nitrogen-free extract" and "crude fiber."

Nitrogen-free extract includes those carbohydrates which are high in
feeding value, as starch and sugar. In the animal body these substances
are used as a source of energy to do work or for heat to keep the body warm.
If there is any surplus, it may be used for the production of energy and the
formation of body fat. As carbohydrates are considerably cheaper than
protein, it is more economical to use them for these purposes than to use
protein. Feeds high in nitrogen-free extract are corn, wheat, barley, rye,
rice and oats. The flour by-products, the oil meals, the straws and hays
contain medium amounts: while the pastures, silage and packing house
by-products are low.

Crude fiber includes the tough, woody, fibrous portion of the plant.
Owing to the fact that it is not very digestible, the nutritive value of crude
fiber is less than that of the other nutrients. In the animal the digested
crude fiber is used as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. Feeds
high in crude fiber are the hays, straws, fodders, stovers and roughages in

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

general. The cereal grains, the oil meals and most mill feeds are low in
crude fiber.

The Fats, sometimes called "ether extract," include all the fats and
oils found in the feed. Practically all plants contain some fats, although
usually in only small amounts. In animals, fats occur much more abun-
dantly, occurring in nearly every organ and tissue. Fat animals often
contain 40 or 50 per cent of fat. The fat of the ration is used in the animal
as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. It is about two and one-
quarter times as valuable as protein and carbohydrates for these purposes.
Tankage and the oil meals contain the largest amounts of fat of the ordinary
feeding-stuffs.

The DiGESTivm Tract of a Cow. 1

Digestion of the Nutrients. — Before the nutrients can be of any use
to the animal they must be digested and taken up by the blood. Digestion
is the process of separating the useful constituents of the feed from those
that are useless, and changing the useful constituents to such form that
they may be taken up by the blood. These processes take place in the
mouth, stomach and intestines. Inasmuch as only the digestible nutrients
of a feed are of value to an animal, the amount of digestible components
of the feed are of special interest to the stockman. Table I shows the per-
centages of the digestible nutrients in the ordinary feeding-stuffs. (See
Part IV.)

The Nutritive Ratio. — Proteins are used primarily for growth and
repair, while carbohydrates and fats are used for energy and fat production.
The nutritive ratio expresses the value of a feed or ration as a flesh pro-

i CuurMiiy of torn State College .

FEEDS AND FEEDING 33

ducer or as an energy and fat producer, i. e., it is the ratio of digestible
crude protein to digestible carbohydrates and fat in the feed or ration.
Inasmuch as fat is two and one-quarter times as valuable as carbohydrates,
the amount of digestible fat is multiplied by two and one-quarter and added
to the amount of digestible carbohydrates. The sum is then divided by
the amount of digestible protein. The first term of the ratio is always
"1," while the second term is obtained by the following formula:

digestible carboh ydrates + 2H X digestible fat _ ^^ term of ^ ratio

digestible protein

The nutritive ratio is written as "1 : 6" or "1 : 14," or whatever it
may be. It is read as "one to six," or "one to fourteen," Thus one finds
the nutritive ratio of corn as follows: from Table I it is found that 100
pounds of corn contain 7.8 pounds of digestible protein, 66.8 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and 4.3 pounds of digestible fat. Then, substi-
tuting in the above formula:

66.8 +2KX 4.3 = 9g
7.8

Therefore, the nutritive ratio of corn is 1 : 9.8. The nutritive ratio
of a ration containing two or more feeds may be calculated in a similar
manner.

Ordinarily, a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 or less is called a narrow ratio;
t. e., the feeding-stuff or ration contains a relatively large amount of pro-
tein and a relatively small amount of carbohydrates and fat. A ratio of
1 : 7 to 1 : 9 is called a medium ratio; i. e., there is present a medium
amount of protein and a medium amount of carbohydrates and fat. A
ratio of 1 : 10 or greater is called a wide ratio; i. e., the proportion of pro-
tein to carbohydrates and fats is relatively small.

The Energy Values of Feeding-stuffs. — One of the functions of the
ration of an animal is to act as a source of energy to do work or form heat.
Also the formation of body fat may be looked upon as a storage of energy,
because it may be used as a source of energy to do work or for heat at any
time when the ration is insufficient for these purposes. Hence, in addition
to a knowledge of the digestible nutrients in feeds, the scientific stock-
feeder should have a knowledge of the energy values of feeds, i. e. t the
value of different feeding-stuffs for doing work, storage of fat, milk pro-
duction, etc. Energy values of feeding-stuffs are expressed in "therms."
A therm is the amount of energy in the form of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1000 pounds of water 4° F. The energy values of some of
the common feeding-stuffs are given in Part IV, Table II.

Feeding-stuffs. — In general, feeding-stuffs may be divided into two
classes, concentrates and roughages, according to the amounts of digestible
nutrients and their energy values.

34 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Concentrates are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively large
amount of digestible nutrients and energy in a small bulk. They usually
are highly nutritious in nature. Concentrates usually have an energy
value of 60 or more therms per 100 pounds. Concentrates may be sub-
divided into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous concentrates.

A nitrogenous concentrate is one which is relatively rich in protein-
It usually contains 11 per cent or more of digestible protein. Common
examples are tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, dried
distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, soy beans, bran, middlings and
shorts. As a rule, but few nitrogenous concentrates are produced on the

The Respiration Calorimeter in Use for an Experiment. 1

farm and therefore they must be purchased. Nitrogenous concentrates
are almost essential in the rations of all growing animals in order to furnish
protein and mineral matter so essential to the proper development of
muscle and bone. Likewise the milk cow requires nitrogenous concentrates
in order to provide the large amounts of protein and mineral matter which
she excretes in her milk. Fattening animals and work horses often need
small amounts of nitrogenous concentrates, especially if they are still
growing.

A non-nitrogenous concentrate is low or only medium in protein con-
tent, but is usually rich in carbohydrates. It generally contains less than

i Year-Book. U. 8. Dept. of A*rkultui*. 1910.

FEEDS AND FEEDING 35

11 per cent of digestible protein. Examples are corn, barley, oats, wheat,
rye, molasses and dried-beet pulp. Ordinarily the farmer raises all the
non-nitrogenous concentrates necessary, and usually it will not pay him
to buy such feeds on the market. All classes of fattening animals require
large amounts of non-nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish the
carbohydrates and fats which, as has already been stated, are the cheapest
sources of body fat. Also work horses must have large amounts of non-
nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish energy for doing their work.
Milch cows need medium amounts, while they should be used more spar-
ingly in the rations of growing and breeding animals.

Roughages are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively small
amount of digestible nutrients, or net energy in a large bulk. They usually
contain less than 40 therms of energy per 100 pounds. Roughages contain
a large amount of crude fiber which lowers their feeding value considerably.
Roughages, like concentrates, may be sub-divided into nitrogenous and
norir-nitrogenous.

Nitrogenous roughages usually contain 6 per cent or more of digestible
protein. Examples are clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy-bean hay and alfalfa
meal. In general, all the legume hays fall under this sub-class. Nitro-
genous roughages should be grown on nearly every farm, not only for their
feeding value but also for their fertilizing value in the crop rotations. It
will rarely pay to buy nitrogenous roughages on the market, as they can
be produced more cheaply at home. The nitrogenous roughages are valu-
able in the rations of nearly all classes of animals except hogs, and even
they make valuable use of some of them at times. Fattening animals,
with the exception of hogs, should have nitrogenous roughage. Unless
they do, it will be necessary to feed large amounts of nitrogenous concen-
trates, and even then the results will be only fair, unless corn silage is used.
Growing animals should have nitrogenous roughage, as it furnishes much
of the protein and mineral matter so essential to their proper development.
Even pigs may make use of some alfalfa or clover hay. It is almost
impossible to produce milk economically unless nitrogenous roughages
are used. Breeding cattle and sheep need little or no other feed than
nitrogenous roughages in winter. Brood sows and boars will eat consider-
able of the leaves. Horses may have nitrogenous roughages if they are
clean, well cured and free from dust. Often, however, they are too dusty
for horses.

Non-nitrogenous roughages usually contain less then 6 per cent of
digestible protein. Examples are timothy hay, corn silage, corn stover,
oat straw, wheat straw, barley straw and rye straw. Silage is the best
form in which to get all the feeding value of the corn crop. It may be used
to advantage in the rations of practically all classes of animals except hogs,
if it is properly supplemented with other feeds. The other non-nitroge-
nous roughages have. little value except in the rations of mature breeding
animals, stackers and work horses.

36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Requirements of Farm Animals. — Knowing the digestible nutri-
ents and the energy in the different feeding-stuffs and the amounts of
nutrients and energy required by farm animals, one can formulate
approximately a proper ration for different farm animals under different
conditions.

The Balanced Ration. — A balanced ration is a ration which contains
all the nutrients in such proportions, forms and amounts as will nourish
properly and without excess of any nutrient, a given animal for one day.
Extended study of the amount of each nutrient required by the different
farm animals for the various purposes for which they are kept has led to
the formation of so-called "feeding standards." Theoretically, feeding
standards may be looked upon as formulas which tell at a glance the amount
of each nutrient necessary to produce a given result. In practice, however,
feeding standards cannot be regarded as such, but only as a guide to be
used in connection with one's practical knowledge of the amounts, propor-
tions and combination of feeds which are used in stock feeding. Although
there are a number of valuable feeding standards, the limits of this chapter
will permit a discussion of only a few.

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards show the requirements of farm animals
under different conditions, expressed in pounds of total dry substance,
digestible crude protein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat per
1000 pounds live weight. The nutritive ratio required by the animal also
is given.

The calculation of a ration according to any feeding standard consists
essentially of three steps: (1) Having given the requirements for an
animal of a given weight, usually 1000 pounds, the requirements of the
animal under consideration are determined. (2) A "trial ration" is
assumed, using the amounts and proportions of concentrates and rough-
ages which, in the opinion of the feeder, are necessary. (3) The trial
ration is modified by adding or deducting concentrates or roughages of
such composition as to furnish approximately the required amounts of
nutrients.

Thus, for example, one calculates a ration according to the Wolff-
Lehmann standard for a 1200-pound horse at light work as follows:
According to the standard (see Part IV, Table III) the requirements
of a 1000-pound horse at light work are as follows: dry substance, 20
pounds; digestible protein, 1.5 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 9.5
pounds; and digestible fat, 0.4 pounds. The. first step is to calculate the
requirements of a 1200-pound horse, which are found to be as follows:
dry substance, 24 pounds; digestible protein, 1.8 pounds; digestible car-
bohydrates, 11.4 pounds; and digestible fat, 0.5 pound. The second step
is to assume a trial ration which will meet approximately the requirements
as determined in the first step. From the amount of dry substance required
and from practical experience, one judges that a ration consisting of 12
pounds of oats and 14 pounds of timothy hay will about answer the pur-

FEEDS AND FEEDING

pose. Calculating the dry substance and digestible nutrients of this ration
from Table I, the following results are obtained:

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat,
pounds.

Oats, 12 pounds

10.8
12.2

23.0

1.1
0.4

1.5

5.9
5.9

11.8

0.5

Hay, 1 4 pounds

0.2

0.7

Comparing the nutrients of the trial ration with the requirements of
the standard, it is seen that the trial ration is a little below the standard
in dry substance and protein, and a little above it in carbohydrates and fat.
Thus the third step is to modify the trial ration so that its nutrients con-
form to the standard. Consequently, a feed which is high in protein and
low in carbohydrates should be substituted for part of the ation. Inas-
much as it is not desirable to lessen the bulk of the ration as the dry
substance is already a little low, one may substitute two pounds of linseed
meal for two pounds of the oats of the ration. The ration then contains
the following nutrients:

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat,
pounds.

Oats, 10 pounds

Oil meal, 2 pounds

Timothy hay, 14 pounds.

9.0

1.8

12.2

23.0

0.9
0.6
0.4

1.9

4.9
0.6
5.9

11.4

0.4
0.1
0.2

0.7

The nutritive ratio is:

11.4 + 2.25 X 0.7 Qr 1:6g
1.9

This ration, except that it is a trifle low in dry substance, comes very close
to satisfying the standard. Of course, in many cases, especially until one
has had considerable practice in the calculation of rations, the trial ration
may have to be modified several times before the ration conforms with
the standard. However, by applying his practical knowledge, the stock
feeder should not have much difficulty in calculating balanced rations.

In view of modern investigations, certain modifications must be made
to the Wolff-Lehmann standards to adapt them to American conditions.
In practically every instance the amount of dry substance prescribed is
10 to 20 per cent too high. The protein prescribed is from 10 to 40 per cent
too high, the greatest difference being in the case of fattening and working
animals, and, consequently, the nutritive ratio is too narrow. Very little
attention should be given to the fat content of the ration, it being con-
sidered satisfactory if the requirements for protein and carbohydrates are
fulfilled.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Armsby Standards express the requirements of farm animals in
pounds of digestible protein and in therms of energy. Instead of giving
separate standards for all the different classes of farm animals, Armsby
gives standards for maintenance and growth. Inasmuch as any excess
of feed above maintenance may be used for fattening or milk production,
he gives the amount of nutrients above the maintenance requirements
necessary to produce a pound of gain or a pound of milk. Thus, the stand-
ards for fattening and for milk production vary with the amount of gain
or with the amount of milk produced. To determine the standard for a
fattening animal, one adds 3.5 therms per each pound of daily gain to the
energy requirement for maintenance, as all the energy above the mainte-
nance requirement may be used for the production of flesh and fat. Armsby
recommends that a 1000-pound ruminant should receive 20 to 30 pounds,
or an average of 25 pounds of dry matter per day. A horse should have
somewhat less. The amounts of digestible protein and of energy in the
common feeding-stuffs as presented by Armsby are given in Table II.
His feeding standards are given in Table IV. For example, if one desires
to calculate a ration for a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day,
the first step is to determine the requirements. From Table IV it is seen
that the requirements of a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day
are 1.8 pounds of digestible protein and 13.0 therms of energy. As the
second step, we will assume a trial ration consisting of 10 pounds of corn
and 8 pounds of clover hay. Referring to Table II, it is found that the
digestible protein and energy in this ration are as follows:

Corn, 10 pounds

Clover hay, 8 pounds

Total ration

Dry

Substance,
pounds.

8.91

6.78

15.69

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.68
0.43

1.11

Energy
therms.

8.88
2.78

11.66

Comparing the trial ration with the standard, we find that it is low
in both protein and energy. As the third step, we will add 2 pounds of
cottonseed meal, as it is high in both protein and energy. The ration then
contains the following nutrients:

Corn, 10 pounds

Clover hay, 8 pounds

Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds

Total ration

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

8.91
6.78
1.84

17.53

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.68
0.43
0.70

1.81

Energy,
therms.

8.88
2.78
1.68

13 .34

This ration, although a trifle low in dry substance, fulfils the requirements
of the Armsby standard.

FEEDS AND FEEDING

In calculating a ration for a dairy cow according to the Armsby stand-
ard, one adds to the requirements for maintenance, 0.05 pounds of digest-
ible protein and 0.3 therm of net energy for each pound of milk produced.
For example, one wishes to calculate a ration for a 900-pound cow giving
22 pounds of milk. According to Table IV the requirements are as follows:

Digestible
Protein, pounds.

Energy,
therms.

For maintenance of 900-pound cow

Total requirement

0.45
1.10

1.55

5.7
6.6

12.3

The ration is then calculated in the manner previously described.

The Haecker Standard for Dairy Cows holds that the requirements
of the dairy cow vary not only according to her weight and the quantity
of milk yield, but also according to the quality of the milk. According to
Haecker, a 1000-pound cow requires for maintenance 0.7 pound of digestible
crude protein, 7.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 pound of
digestible fat. For each pound of 4 per cent milk the Haecker standard
requires the addition of 0.054 pound of digestible crude protein, 0.24 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.021 pound of digestible fat in addition
to the maintenance requirement. If the milk contains less than 4 per cent
of fat, smaller amounts of nutrients are prescribed. The amounts of
digestible nutrients to produce one pound of milk containing various per-
centages of butter fat are given in Table V.,

For example, to calculate a ration according to the Haecker standard
for a 900-pound cow giving 20 pounds of milk daily containing 5 per cent
of butter fat, the process is as follows: (1) determine the maintenance
requirement for a 900-pound cow; (2) add to the maintenance require-
ment the requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk; and (3)
calculate a ration to conform with this standard. Thus a cow weighing
900 pounds requires 0.63 pound of digestible protein/ 6.30 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and 0.09 pound of digestible fat for maintenance.
According to Haecker, to produce one pound of 5 per cent milk requires
the consumption of 0.060 pound of digestible crude protein; 0.28 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.024 pound of digestible fat, in addition
to the maintenance requirements. Thus the total requirement to produce
20 pounds of 5 per cent milk is calculated as follows:

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat,
pounds.

For maintenance

0.63
1.22

1.85

6.30
5.60

11.90

0.09

To produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk
Total

0.50
0.59

The ration is then calculated in the same manner as described under the
discussion of the Wolff-Lehmann standards.

40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

"Principles of Stock Feeding." Smith.

"Feeds and Feeding." Henry.

"First Principles of Feeding Farm Animals." Burkett.

"Principles of Animal Nutrition." Armsby.

"Feeding of Animals." Jordan.

"Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll.

"Profitable Stock Feeding." Smith.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 256. "Value of Barley for Cowb Fed Alfalfa."

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Study of Digestion of Rations for Steers."

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 140. "Investigations in Milk Production."

Missouri Research Bulletin 18. "Maintenance Requirements of Cattle."

Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 151. "Corn Silage and Alfalfa for Beef Production."

New Hampshire Expt. Station Bulletin 175. "Analysis of Feeding-stuffs."

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 160. "Silage and Grains for Steers."

Texas Expt. Station Bulletin 170. "Texas Feeding-stuffs, Their Composition ana

Utilization."
Wisconsin Expt. Station Circular 37. "The Feeding Unit System for Determining

the Economy of Production by Dairy Cows."
Wisconsin Research Bulletin 26. "Studies in Dairy Production."
Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 106. "Cottonseed Cake for Beef Cattle."
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 111. "Feeding."
Farmers , Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

346. "Computation of Rations for Farm Animals."
655. "Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle."

CHAPTER 4

Horses and mules

By E. H. Hughes

Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture,
University of Missouri

The horse even today plays a very important part in moving mer-
chandise and performing other labor. The work on our farms is largely
accomplished by the horse, and in spite of the motor truck the horse is

Morgan Staujon, "General Gates." 1

considered indispensable in a large amount of business in the city. Modern
methods of transportation move enormous quantities of freight, yet the
demand for the work horse does not diminish.

Development of Type. — The usefulness of a horse depends upon his
power of locomotion and the characteristics which adapt him to the different

» Courtt»y of U. 9. Dept. of Agriculture.

42 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

kinds of service determine his type. Whether he moves with power,
speed, extreme action and style or to carry weight, will determine whether
he is a draft, a race, a show or a saddle horse.

Our modern breeds of light horses have probably been developed with
the Arabian horse as foundation stock. The Arabians developed a light
horse with endurance and courage for desert travel, and intelligence and
friendliness for companionship on the long journey.

The low-lying, luxuriantly vegetated Flanders led to the development

of the patient, sluggish Flemish horse with plenty of power to accomplish
the heavy work required of him. The Flemish blood is the most important
basis of the draft types.

The Light Horse. — It is essential that the horse of this class show
refinement in all his parts. His conformation, action, style, finish and
endurance should be such that he can meet the requirements for a distinct
purpose.

Action is essential in this class. The coach horse should show high
action; the roadster must be able to haul a light vehicle at a rapid trot;
and the saddle horse is required to give the rider satisfaction.

i Courtesy of U. S. Dept . of Agriculture. From Fanners' Bulletin 491.

HORSES AND MULES 43

Weight is not so important. The carriage horse must necessarily
be heavier than the roadster, because he is required to draw a heavier
vehicle and the saddle horse must be able to perform the gaits of his class.
Size will depend upon the use to which he is put.

Draft Type. — Horses of this type are used in hauling heavy loads at a
comparatively slow gait, and should possess strength and endurance. A

Perchehon Stallion. 1

draft horse should be massive, relatively close to the ground and weigh at
least 1600 pounds. He should have a heavy body; a short, strong back; a
strong constitution; a sloping shoulder and a long, level croup. He should
also have plenty of bone of good quality and large, sound feet. His legs
should set properly under him and his pasterns should be long and sloping.
The important gait of the draft horse is the walk. The stride should be
long and straight. A combination of weight, muscle and good feet and

1 Courtesy of Tin Field, New York City.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Light Horses.

Breeds.

Native
Country.

Origin.

Height,
hands.

Weight,
pounds.

Color.

Other Characteristics.

Arabian.

Arabia

Native horses.

14-15.2

850-1000

Bay, brown, chestnut,
occasionally black or gray.

Good action; intelligent

Thorough-
bred.

England.

Arabian mixed
by English peo-
ple.

14.2-16.2

900-1100

Bay, brown, chestnut,
black or gray.

Running horse; great
speed; intelligent, some-
tunes difficult to manage.

Standard
bred
horse.

America.

English horse.

14-16.2

900-1200

Bay, brown, chestnut
or black; few grays and
roans.

Fastest of harness horses;
remarkable endurance; in-
telligent.

Morgan
(branch
of stand-
ard bred)

America.

Thoroughbred
(Justin Morgan
foundation
horse).

14.3-16

950-1150

Bay, chestnut, brown
or black.

Not extreme action or
speed; noted for endur-
ance; intelligent.

Saddle.

U. S.:
Virginia,
Kentucky,
Missouri.

Thoroughbred.

15-16

900-1200

Chestnut, black, bay,
brown, gray and roan.

Action, style, manners,
five gaits, walk, trot, can-
ter, rack, running-walk,
foxtrot or slow pace.

Hackney.

England.

Arabian; thor-
oughbred native
horse.

13.2-16

750^1200

Chestnut, bay, brown,
black, and roan, white
markings common.

Extreme high action.

German coach, French coach and Cleveland bay horses have not greatly influenced the horse business in this country.

Draft Horses.

Breed.

Native
Country.

Origin.

Height,
hands.

Weight,
pounds.

Color.

Other Characteristics.

Percheron.

France.

Native horses,
Flemish,
Arabian.

15.3-17

1600-2200

Gray, black, bay,
brown, roan, chestnut.

Good action; intelligent.

Belgian.

Belgium.

Flemish.

15.3-17

1600-2400

Roan, chestnut brown,
black, gray. '

Compact, deep and wide;
heavily muscled.

English
Shire.

England.

Native horses,
Flemish.

16-17.3

1700-2400

Bay, black, brown,
gray, chestnut, roan,
white on legs and face.

Largest of draft breeds;
heavy feather on legs.

Clydesdale.

Scotland.

Native horses,
Flemish.

16-17

1600-2100

Bay, black, brown,
chestnut, roan, gray,
white on face and legs.

Very good action; in-
telligent; feather on legs.

Suffolk-
punch.

England.

Native horses.

16-16.2

1600-2000

Chestnut.

Smallest of the draft
breeds.

Mules.

Class.

Height,
hands.

Weight,
pounds.

Color.

Other Characteristics.

Draft.

16-17.2

1200-1600

Bay, brown, gray
or dun. Most desir-
able color is black
with a tan nose and
flank.

Large, heavy boned, heavy set mules.

Sugar.

16-17

1150-1300

Tall, with considerable quality and finish.

Cotton.

13.2-15.2

750-1100

Small and compact, with quality.

Mining.

12-16

600-1350

"Pit" mules, small; "miners," large and rugged.

Farm.

15.2-16

1000-1350

Plain and thin, with good constitutions.

HORSES AND MULES 45

legs should be an indication of a horse's ability to haul a load at a fair rate
of speed.

The Mule is a hybrid, having for parents a mare and a jack. Because
of this fact it shows many parental characteristics which are common to
both ancestors. It has longer ears than the horse, a Roman nose, heavy
lips, clean legs, small, narrow feet of good quality, and a scanty growth of

English Shirk Stallion. 1

hair on the tail and a scanty mane. The sexual organs of both mare and
horse mules are undeveloped, consequently they do not breed.

The mule is generally smaller than the draft horse, being from 14 to
17 hands high, and weighing from 600 to 1600 pounds. Mares of good
quality weighing about 1350 pounds when bred to a heavy-boned jack with
long ears produce mules which have good size, quality and action. As a
rule, mare mules bring better prices on the market than do horse mules.

America has done more towards the economical development of the
■ Courtay ol The FleU. New York City.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

mule than any other country, and more than one-half the mules in the
world are in the United States.

Due to his hardiness and his ability to take care of himself, the mule is
adapted to most climates and to kinds of work for which it would not be
practical to use a horse. In most contagious and infectious diseases,
however, the mule has no more resistance than a horse.

Market Requirements. — The market requires that a horse shall fill
some definite purpose. There is a demand for good horses that fill a definite

Classification

of Market Classes of Horses.*

Class.

Sub-Class.

Height,
hands.

Weight,
pounds.

Other Characteristics.

Draft.

Light draft.
Heavy draft.
Loggers.

15.3-16.2

16-17.2

16.1-17.2

1600-1750
1750-2200

Heavy, rugged, compactly built, denoting strength and
endurance.

Chunks.

Eastern Ex-
port.
Farm.
Southern.

15-16

15-15.3
15-15.3

1300-1550

1200-1400
800-1250

The same type as draft, except that he is more compact and
lighter in weight.

Low down, blocky horses not as heavy as the Eastern
chunk. Possess quality finer and not so heavy as the other
sub-classes.

Wagon.

Expressers.

Delivery.
Artillery.

Fire horses.

15.3-16.2

15-16
15.1-16

15-17.2

1350-1500

1100-1400
1050-1200

1200-1700

Upstanding, deep-bodied, closely coupled, with good bone
quality, energy and spirit.

Conformation similar to express; not so large.

Sound, well bred, with quality; prompt action in walk, trot
or gallop. Free from vicious habits, without blemish, and
broken to harness and saddle.

More rangy in conformation than expressers; ability to
take long runs.

Carriage.

Coach.

Cobs.
Park.
Cab.

15.1-16.1

14.1-15.1

15-15.3

15.2-16.1

1100-1250

900-1150
1000-1150
1050-1200

Smoothly turned, full-made horses with high action com-
bined with beauty of form.

Small horses of stocky build with p.enty of quality.

Excellent quality; high act : on.

Similar to coach horses; calk in finish; good feet and legs
and endurance.

Road.

Runabout.
Roadster.

14.3-15.2
15-16

900-1050
900-1150

Not so stockily built as cob, having more speed.
Conformation more angular than runabouts, denoting
speed, stamina and endurance.

Saddle
horses.

Five-gaited.

Three-gaited.

Hunters.

Cavalry.
Polo Ponies.

15-16

14.3-16

15.2-16,1

15-15.3
14-14.2

900-1200

1100-1250

950-1100
850-1000

Conformation denoting style, action, with strong back;
possesses five distinct gaits under the saddle.

Size depending on weight to be carried with ability to
walk, trot and canter.

Large, strong; must be jumpers; stand long country
rides.

Sound,wellbred; have quality; broken to saddle; easy gaits.

Smallest saddle class; used for playing polo.

purpose, but misfits sell at a low figure. The horse should be sound, at
least serviceably sound, with a conformation adapted to the work required
of him. He should be in good condition in order to look well and be ready
for hard work. Condition is also an indication of the health and feeding
quality of the horse. The market requires that a horse be broken and of
good disposition. Horses between five and eight years old sell the best.
Solid colors are preferred because they can be matched more easily, and
many firms use their teams of two, four or six horses and equipment as a
part of their advertising.

* Tllinnia Experiment Station Bulletin No. 122.

HORSES AND MULES

Fig. 1. — Atone year of age the
jaw is narrow, the temporary teeth
are small and the corner incisora are
not yet in contact,

. 3. — At three years of
jermanent incisora above
iw are in wear. Note the
width and length in coin-
to the temporary teeth.

Fig. 4. — At four years
of age the permanent and in-
termediate incisora on lower
and upper jaws are in wear.
The corner pair of temporary
teeth have not been dis-
placed; they appear very
small in comparison with the
permanent teeth.

Note. — Photographs showing teeth at various agea, by courtesy of Prof. ;
faimpson, Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri Experiment Station.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Fio. 5. — Complete Bet of lower

permanent incisors showing deep cups
at five years.

Flo. 6. — The cups in the lower
central i n cisors ha ve nearly disappeared
and the tables are smooth at six years.

Flo. 7. — The cups in the lower in-
termediate pair of incisors have dis-
appeared at seven years.

Fio. 8.— The cups in the lower
corner pair of incisors 1
and the tables are all
eight years.

Fra. 9. — The cups in the central
incisors above have practically dis-
appeared at nine years.

Fro. 10.— The cups in the inter-
mediate incisors above have dis-
appeared at ten years.

Fio. 11. — At eleven years the
tables on the upper jaw are nearly
smooth.

Fio. 12. — Note the smooth tables
and the length of the teeth showing
considerable wear at fifteen years.

Fio. 13.— Showing a comparison

of the angles of the iaw at five and
twenty-one years. Note the acute
angle of the teeth at twenty-one.

Fio. 14.— Showing order of appearance
of the permanent incisors. The central pair
at 2J to 3 years. The intermediate pair at
31 to 4 years. The corner or outside pair at
4$ to 5 years.

Photographs showing teeth at varioi
., Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri

HORSES AND MULES 49

The Age of the Horse. — The teeth form the most accurate basis for
estimating the age of a horse. The first teeth which appear are called
colt, milk or temporary teeth. As the horse grows older these are replaced
by broader, thicker, darker-colored permanent teeth.

The central incisors in the upper and lower jaws usually appear within
two weeks after foaling. The intermediate incisors, one on each side of
the central incisors, make their appearance between the second and
fourth week, and the corner or outside incisors are in at six months of
age (Fig. 1).

The central pair of permanent incisors will displace the temporary
incisors and be in use at three years of age. (Fig. 3). The permanent
intermediate ones will be in use at four (Fig. 4) and the corner pair of
permanent incisors will displace the temporary corner or outside incisors
at five years of age.

The five-year-old horse has a full mouth of permanent teeth (Fig. 5).
These have large cups that wear smooth as the age of the horse advances.
The cups or tables of the central incisors below have worn smooth at six
years of age, the intermediate incisors below are smooth at seven and the
corner pair at eight. (See Figs. 6, 7 and 8.)

The cups of the central pair of incisors on the upper jaw have dis-
appeared at nine, the intermediates above are smooth at ten and the
cups in the corner incisors are worn smooth when the horse reaches his
twelfth year. (Sfee Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12.)

There is no accurate method of estimating the age of a horse after he
is twelve years old; however, the angle of the teeth becomes more acute
as he becomes older (Fig. 13).

HORSE FEEDINGS

Proper management in feeding and caring for the horse is an essential
for his best health and development. The digestive system of a horse
is not large, therefore a comparatively small amount of roughage and a
relatively larger amount of grain is required. Sudden changes in feed
should be avoided, as the digestive system requires time to readjust itself
to the new conditions.

Grinding or soaking of feed is not economical except in the case
of colts or horses doing exceptionally hard work; however, many
horsemen favor rolling the oats they feed. Salt should be accessible at
all times.

Feeds for the Horse. — It is economical under most conditions to use
the feeds at hand. The most common feeds for horses are oats with timo-
thy hay, or a mixture of timothy and clover. In many sections corn is
substituted for a part or all of the oats in the ration and prairie hay or
alfalfa is substituted for the timothy.

A combination of oats and timothy hay forms an excellent ration for
work horses. The nutrients are in about the proper proportions and the

50 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

bulk seems to fit the needs of the horse. Both are usually free from dust.
For the light horse that is required to make long, hard drives no satisfactory
substitute for oats and timothy hay has been found.

Grain. — Corn and barley are used extensively in some sections for a
part or all of the grain ration. Because of its hardness the barley should
be ground or cracked.

Bran and oil meal are often used to supplement corn or barley, and
for growing animals or brood mares corn, oats and bran form an excellent
ration. The bone and muscle-building elements in bran and its laxative
effect are considered indispensable by many horsemen.

Roughages. — A mixture of timothy and clover is considered an excel-
lent roughage for horses. Either clover or alfalfa hay is good, except for
horses doing heavy or rapid work. Oat hay, when cut a little green, forms
an excellent roughage and sheaf oats are often fed with good results. Millet
hay is considered unsafe to feed by most horsemen.

Corn stover and oat straw are used with success when properly bal-
anced with a grain ration.

Good clean silage that is not too acid is an excellent feed for brood
mares, idle horses and growing colts, though it should be fed in limited
quantities and with some dry roughage. It has been fed with good results,
but great care must be exercised in feeding. No mouldy or musty silage
should be fed.

Watering. — Horses, under natural conditions, drink frequently. The
most common practice among horsemen is to water the horses before
feeding, although many practice watering before and after feeding. Horses
that are heated should be compelled to drink very slowly. The value of
good running water in the horse pasture cannot be overestimated.

The Work Horse. — A horse at work should receive ten to eighteen
pounds of grain daily, depending upon the kind of work performed and
the size of the horse. On days when idle the grain ration should be reduced
and the roughage increased. The addition of a small amount of bran is
recommended.

The Foal. — The foal should be taught to eat grain and hay as early
as possible. Oats and bran with some clover or alfalfa hay of good quality
are the best feeds because they contain the muscle and bone-forming
elements required for growth.

While the mare and colt are in the pasture some grain can be fed very
satisfactorily in a small creep. After weaning, at about five or six months
of age, feed for growth rather than condition.

The Orphan Foal. — Milk from a fresh cow, one whose milk is low in
butter-fat, is well adapted to raising an orphan foal. To a dessert-spoonful
of granulated sugar should be added enough warm water to dissolve it.
To this three tablespoonsful of limeVater and enough fresh milk to make
a pint should be added. A small amount, one-half pint, should be given
each hour. In a short time the amount should be increased and feed should

HORSES AND MULES 51

be given every two hours, more being given gradually and the time between
feeding lengthened.

The Brood Mare, used for breeding purposes only, does well without
grain when on good pasture. In winter, if she is in foal, she should be
given feeds high in protein and mineral matter for the best development
of the foetus. She should receive plenty of exercise at all times.

The Stallion. — Good whole oats and bran with plenty of clean timothy
hay is a very good ration for the stallion. The addition of corn or barley
to the ration lends variety and increases its palatability. Exercise is at
all times absolutely essential for the best results with any stallion. When
standing for service he should be required to walk six to ten miles per day.

STANDARD RATIONS

Foals: Parts. Pan*. Parts.

Ground oats 6 Oats 4 Oats 4

Ground corn 2 Corn 4 Bran 4

Bran . . 2 Bran 2 Corn 2

Whole oats ]

Shelled corn - equal parts.

Bran J

With either of the above rations, feed clover, alfalfa, or timothy and clover
mixed.
Work Horses:

Oats 5 Oats. Corn 9

Corn 5 Hay. Oatmeal 1

Hay. Hay.

Timothy and clover mixed or just timothy is recommended as roughage.
Brood Mare:

Corn 4 Corn 7 Corn 8

Oats 4 Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1

Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1

Clover or alfalfa of good quality, or timothy and clover mixed are good

l roughages to feed with the above grain rations.

Grooming. — For the best health of the horse he should be groomed
before he is harnessed and at night after the harness has been removed.
A good currycomb, a stiff brush and a soft woolen cloth are the only uten-
sils ordinarily needed. The currycomb is used to loosen the dirt and sweat
in the hair and skin over the body and is followed by the brush. The
woolen cloth is then nibbed very firmly over the entire body to take up
the fine dust and to put the coat in good condition.

REFERENCES

"Productive Horse Husbandry." Gay.

"The Horse Book." Johnston.

"The Horse." Roberts.

"Breaking and Training Horses." Harper.

"Management and Breeding of Horses." Harper.

Farmers , Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

451. "Draft Horses and Care of Horses."

667. "Breaking and Training Colts."

CHAPTER 5

BEEP CATTLE

By W. A. Cochbl
Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural College

Beef production is associated with the best type of farming in every
country. A careful survey of any community shows that the cattlemen
are leaders in public matters, are financially responsible, farm the best
land and are considered among the best citizens. Counties and communi-

Pure-bred Hereford Bull. 1
A hardy, early maturing, beef breed of good quality.

ties noted for their production of beef are also noted for their large yields
of agricultural crops and their great productive wealth. There never has
been a permanent and profitable system of farming established on an
extensive scale in any country where beef cattle have been eliminated from

' Courteey of The Held, New York City.

C52)

BEEF CATTLE 53

the farms. Beef cattle make the greatest and most profitable use of rough-
age and grass, are comparatively free frQm disease, require less shelter and
attention than other farm animals, enable the farmer to distribute his
work uniformly throughout the year and are easily marketed.

Sources of Profit. — The cattleman has four sources of profit: (1)
from growing crops; (2) from feeding crops; (3) from using by-products
which otherwise have no market value, such as straw, stover, damaged
hay and grain; and (4) from increasing soil fertility and the yield of crops.
It frequently happens that the greatest profit comes from the use of farm
by-products and the increase of soil fertility. The successful cattleman of
the future must be as good a farmer as the man w;ho produces grain and
hay for the market, and also have the ability and judgment to select and
feed animals that can convert grain and hay into meat profitably.

There are four distinct methods of handling beef cattle, dependent
upon the amount of capital available and the kind of crops adapted to the
farm, as follows: (1) breeding pure-bred cattle, (2) producing stockers and
feeders, (3) grazing cattle, and (4) fattening cattle.

Breeding Pure-Bred Cattle.— This is the highest type of beef produc-
tion and requires the investment of a large amount of money for a series
of years. The breeder must not only understand and practice the best
methods of breeding, feeding and developing livestock, but must also follow
the best methods of farming. He should keep the buildings and grounds
neat angl attractive to impress customers with the fact that breeding pure-
bred livestock is profitable and attractive.

Excellent pasture should be available for summer grazing and the best
methods of feeding must be practiced during the winter to develop the
inherited type and form to the maximum. More breeders fail because of
poor feeding than of any other one factor. In addition to the ability to
select the approved type of the breed and to feed successfully, the breeder
of pure-bred cattle must be a business man and a salesman so that he can
successfully dispose of what he produces. It is usually better for the
beginner to start with grade or market cattle and, if he succeeds, to purchase
a few pure-bred animals and go into the business gradually, than to invest
all his capital in a specialty with which he is unacquainted.

Producing Stockers and Feeders. — The production of stockers and
feeders should be confined to those parts of the country where the larger
part of the land cannot be plowed profitably, and grass is the principal
crop. This class of cattle is kept on grass during the summer season and
fed on roughage, with little or no grain, during the remainder of the year.
Lying east of the Rocky Mountains is a large area which is peculiarly
adapted to the production of grass and roughage, such as Kaffir and sor-
ghums on the uplands, and alfalfa on the bottom land, and which logically
should be the great stocker and feeder producing section of the United
States. Where both legumes and silage crops are produced, little or no
commercial feeds are required. If it is impossible to grow legumes, protein

54 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

should be supplied in the form of linseed meal, cottonseed cake or some other
protein concentrate.

It is essential that cattle of the best beef type be used in producing
stockers or feeders, because the chief profit comes from producing animals
of superior merit for which there is always a keen demand. It is very
important that the herd of cattle used for this purpose be uniform in type,
color, size, breeding and quality and that the animals have large feeding
capacity, because buyers prefer to buy feeders or stockers as nearly alike
as possible.

Grazing Cattle. — The business of grazing cattle is generally followed
in those sections where the area of land in cultivation is very small compared
with that which must be left in grass. The cattle are seldom produced in
the grazing sections, but are usually shipped in by the train-load about the
first of May, and are pastured on grass until they are fat enough to be
marketed as grass-fat cattle during the late summer and early fall.

The cattle used to convert grass into fat are usually older, coarser and
plainer than cattle selected to convert corn into the same product. Not
so much attention is paid to quality and breeding as in pure-bred cattle,
stockers or feeders, because the profit comes from the increase in value
secured by fattening rather than in the final price per hundredweight.
Very thin steers, three years old or older, make much larger gains than
younger or fatter cattle. However, it frequently happens that when
fleshier cattle are used, they may be shipped from grass earlier in the
season, thus avoiding extreme heat, flies, water shortage or a heavy run
of cattle on the market, which will more than overbalance the larger gains
made by thinner cattle.

Fattening Cattle. — This has proven profitable in sections where corn
is the leading crop and the area devoted to permanent pasture is relatively
small. The kind of cattle selected for the feed lot depends upon the season
of the year, the feeds available, the probable demand for the cattle when fat
and the experience of the feeder. Young cattle make cheaper gains than
older cattle, but they require a longer feeding period to become fat, because
they use a large part of their feed for growth.

Calves that are to be fattened should show quality and breeding.
They should have short legs and blocky, broad, deep bodies, otherwise
they will grow rather than fatten. It will require from eight to nine
months from the time calves are weaned to make them prime even when
on full feed. An excellent ration is ten pounds of silage, five pounds of
alfalfa hay, one pound of linseed meal or cottonseed cake per head daily,
and all the corn they can eat. Older cattle consume more roughage in
proportion to the grain and are fed where corn is relatively scarce.

To fatten cattle successfully and to secure satisfactory gains, the
ration should be improved as the animals become fat. The customary farm
practice is to start the cattle on roughage, such as silage, hay and fodder,
with about six pounds of corn per thousand pounds liveweight daily, and

BEEF CATTLE 55

to increase the amount of corn as they become fatter. This makes the
period when they are really on full feed very short.

Fitting Show Animals. — The production of show animals is in reality
a form of advertisement, and is restricted largely to the breeders of pure-
bred cattle. Every art known to the feeder is utilized to develop such
animals. The ration is quite similar to that fed to fattening animals
during the last part of the feeding period, and is improved by grinding
the grain, cutting the hay and adding a greater variety of feeds. Some-
times barley is boiled and fed at the rate of one gallon per day and sugar
or molasses is mixed with the grain to increase the palatability. In fact,
everything possible is done to keep up the animal's appetite.

THE SELECTION OF CATTLE FOR THE FEED LOT

The selection of cattle for the feed lot is probably the most vital
question before the cattle feeders today. Upon this one problem depends
the ultimate financial success of those who make a business of converting
grain and roughage into beef. There are three factors which should always
be given consideration: (1) the purpose for which the cattle are to be
used, (2) the ability of the individuals to consume feed over and above that
required for maintenance, and (3) the probable demand for beef when the
cattle are returned from the feed lots.

Methods of Feeding. — Cattle feeders may be divided into different
groups according to their methods of feeding: (1) those who produce
market-topping animals, (2) those who handle shortfed cattle, and (3)
those who produce the great bulk of beef which usually finds its way to
market after a period of grazing or roughing followed by a finishing period
of either short or long duration.

Characteristics of Good Feeders. — It makes little difference which
method is followed. The essential characteristics of a good feeding steer
remain constant. He must have good constitution and capacity associated
with as much quality and type as it is possible to secure. A wide, strong,
short head; short, thick neck; and deep, wide chest indicate constitution,
and a deep, roomy barrel indicates capacity. These characteristics may
be found in steers of plain as well as of excellent breeding, which accounts
for the fact that individual dairy and scrub steers frequently make as
rapid gains in the feed lot as beef-bred steers. The type, quality, form
and finish as indicated by the deep covering of muscle, even distribution
of fat, high percentage of the higher priced cuts of meats, high dressing
percentage, smoothness and symmetry of carcass, and quality and texture
of meat, are always associated with beef blood.

The success of a feeder buyer depends largely upon his ability to see
in thin cattle the possibility of improvement which results from the deposit
of fat. As a general rule, there is little change in the skeleton proper. A
feeder with a low back will finish into a fat steer with a low back. A feeder
with a high tail; head or prominent hook-bones will finish into a fat steer

Ill

fir.

aa-a

s 111.
a Nl]

■ 2 a! g f

■2 g« 9
fjlj

f|l

"III

BEEF CATTLE 57

with these same deficiencies. A feeder with a long, narrow head, long legs,
or shallow body will not alter his type in the feed lot. The greatest
improvement comes in those regions of the body where the natural covering
of muscle is thickest, in the shoulder, crops, back, loin and round. The
body will increase more in width than in length and will decrease in apparent
paunchiness due to the greater proportional increase in the width of the
upper half of the body than in the lower half. The quality of meat will
be improved by the deposit of fat within the bundles of muscle fiber, and
the tenderness of meat will be improved because of the distention of all cells
with fat, and the proportion of edible to non-edible parts of the animal
will increase during the fattening period. These are potent^ reasons for
the immense industry represented by the cattle feeders.

Kind of Feed Related to Class of Cattle. — In addition to these factors
which are inherent in the steer, the successful feeder buyer must give
attention to the kind of feeds at his disposal. If he intends to use a large
amount of grass or roughage in proportion to grain, he should select thin
steers carrying some age. Older and thinner cattle will make better use
of roughage than those which are younger and fleshier. If the feeder has
a large acreage of corn and comparatively little pasture and roughage, he
should select either heavy, fleshy feeders which he can return to market
within a comparatively short time, or fancy calves of the best possible type
and breeding which will develop into prime yearlings. If heavy fleshy
feeders are selected, their quality and type should determine their market
value, as compared with that of the plainer sort. The probable demand for
the various grades of beef at the close of the feeding period is also a deter-
mining factor. The feeder should limit his selection to those cattle which
will make the greatest improvement in value per hundred pounds while
in the feed lot.

Calves and Yearlings. — Quality and type are essential in the selection
of calves for feeding purposes. They should be bred for early maturity,
otherwise they will grow rather than fatten and the cost of production
will exceed their market value. The majority of yearlings are marketed
from sixty to ninety days before they are fat, which indicates that it is
essential to secure calves of the type that will fatten. The feeder should
realize that he is entering into a proposition that requires eight to twelve
months to complete and that he must feed the best of feeds in a concen-
trated form to secure satisfactory gains and finish.

Time to Market. — The time to market fat cattle is when further gains
will not result in an increase in the value per hundredweight. For this
reason plain, rough steers which will not produce attractive carcasses
should be sold before they are thoroughly fattened. When fancy cattle
of quality and type are fed, it is a general rule that they are more profit-
able the fatter they become, because there is usually a demand for fancy
finished beef.

The season of the year also controls to some extent the quality of

58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

■

cattle that should go into the feed lot. Where grain-fed steers are to be
marketed from the middle of July to the first of December, a better grade
of cattle and a higher finish are demanded than at any other season of
the year. In the late summer and early fall the markets are usually well
supplied with beef that has been produced cheaply on grass with which
the half-fat grain-fed cattle cannot compete profitably. After the Christ-
mas holidays all the cattle come from dry lots and have been fattened
on expensive feedstuffs so that the plain, rough cattle can be marketed
to better advantage than during the grazing season, because the com-
petition of grass-fed cattle is eliminated.

The reasons for feeding beef cattle are that they reduce farm crops
into a more concentrated market product and they are a means of per-
manently maintaining the soil fertility. All feeding operations should
be conducted with these facts in mind. The selection of feeding cattle
which will serve the purpose and at the same time oroduce an immediate
profit is the mark of the successful cattle feeder.

THE DEFICIENCY IN THE MEAT SUPPLY

Statistics need not be presented to substantiate the assertion that
there is a decided deficiency in the supply of meat. The shortage is the
result of a long-continued series of years during which the final value of
the finished animal was less than the market value of the crops necessary
for its production. During the early development of the country there
were a considerable number of meat animals bred and fed in the Atlantic
states. When the territory west of the AUeghenies and east of the
Mississippi River was settled, the breeding industry moved to this section
because cattle were the only means of marketing the grass, grain and
forage. When transportation facilities were provided for the shipment
of grain and other farm products, the breeding industry moved on to
Missouri, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, where more favorable conditions
existed. Here it dominated the agricultural practice until the free range
in the West was made available through the suppression of lawlessness.
The trend of the cattle-breeding industry has been westward toward the
less expensive grazing lands, until there is now no cheap land available.
With the decline of breeding operations, finishing or fattening for market
became a well-established practice in those sections where the breeding
of livestock was unprofitable. The result of this condition is that the
demand for animals suitable for the feed lot has finally become so great
that the West is no longer able to furnish an adequate supply of feeders,
with subsequent high prices.

In recent years the papers and magazines have kept up an almost
continual agitation against the high price of meat. The high price has
been attributed to the avarice of the farmer, the packer, the stockyards
or the retail dealer, rather than to the laws of supply and demand. It has
discouraged many from entering into a legitimate business venture for

BEEFCATTLE 59

fear that unfavorable public opinion might at any time crystallize into
the form of laws of such restrictive nature as to obliterate profits.

Reliable data in regard to methods of meat production are insufficient
to enable us to recommend practices which can be substantiated by records
of unquestioned reliability. There is, however, so great an abundance
of information as to methods of fattening that it is possible for one familiar
with the publications and the general farm practices to recommend rations
which are certain to produce rapid and economical gains in the feed lot
with acceptable dressing percentages.

Tenant Fanning Unfavorable to Beef Production. — The rapid growth
of tenant farming has eliminated the production of meat from thousands
of acres of land which should never have been plowed, and will probably
continue to exert a depressing influence upon the business until the value
of farm lands is based upon production rather than upon speculation.
Under the present system of renting, it is almost impossible to handle
beef cattle profitably on a tenant farm. The cattle business requires a
number of years to develop and a system of farming that will produce
the feeds necessary to maintain a herd of cattle during the winter. A
further reason is that the chief profit in cattle farming is the increase in
the fertility of the soil and the yield of crops which comes from using the
manure on the land. Where land is rented annually there is no incentive
to build it up and increase crop production when a different renter may
farm it the next year. A system of longer leases must result which will
give the tenant an incentive to increase rather than exhaust the fertility
of the soil.

Breeding Cattle Requires Capital. — If means of financing breeding
operations were provided, the supply of breeding animals on both farms
and ranges would be increased tremendously. It is possible for a farmer
who has produced a crop of corn or has pasture, to go to almost any bank
and secure funds with which to purchase steers to consume these products.
Money is loaned for ninety to one hundred and eighty days with the
privilege of renewal. It is impossible, however, for him to borrow the
same money with breeding females as security, because three to five years
must elapse before the increase will be marketable. This is probably
the greatest problem to be solved if breeding operations are to be materially
increased in the near future.

Breeding herds should be established in the South, the East and in
the cut-over districts near the Great Lakes on the land that is adapted
to the production of pasture grasses. More attention should be given
to pastures to increase their carrying capacity by fertilizing them with
manure or fertilizers, by thickening the stand of grass by natural or artificial
means and by using silage during unfavorable periods. While grass is
the most important crop produced in the United States, more land being
devoted to its production than to all others except trees, there is not an
important investigational project on the subject reported which the meat

60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

producer can use in a practical manner. Throughout the great grazing
areas of the country something of definite permanent value must be done
to re-establish pastures or the supply of feeding stock will diminish rather
than increase in the next few years.

The tremendous waste of the farm by-products of the cereal crops,
corn, oats and wheat, which takes place annually throughout the entire
country is sufficient to maintain thousands of animals in good breeding
condition. This material has not, as yet, been successfully used on a large
scale, but recent investigational work indicates that the use of a succulent
feed during the winter makes these dry, coarse feeds palatable to a large
extent. Refinement in the methods of feeding will in the future enable
us to utilize other waste products which are now considered almost
worthless.

In the sub-humid sections, the use of the silo to preserve drought-
resisting crops, such as Kaffir, milo, feterita and sorghums, and the intro-
duction of new crops, such as Sudan grass, will make it possible to more
than double the livestock production of that area. In all parts of the
United States at least 300 pounds increase in weight can be secured on
the average two-year-old steer by furnishing him an abundance of grass
in the summer and an abundance of roughage in the winter. A limited
amount of high protein feed should be used to make up the deficiency cf
the ordinary roughages usually produced where legumes cannot be success-
fully grown.

It is probable that the loss of livestock from infectious and contagious
diseases will be greatly reduced by the practice of sanitary measures, that
a more careful study of breeding will result in the production of animals
of greater efficiency, that a better knowledge of feeding will result in
decreasing the cost of production, but the most potent remedy for the
present deficiency in the meat supply is now being administered in the
form of market values which leave a reasonable profit to the man who
has courage to invest his capital in breeding cattle and the feeds necessary
to maintain them. The farmer, as a business man, increases his operations
along those lines which promise to return the greatest profit.

REFERENCES

"Beef Production." Mumford.

Indiana Expt. Station Circular 29. "Livestock Judging for Beginners."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

588. "Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt."

680. "Beef Production in the South."

612. "Breeds of Beef Cattle."
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 133. "Steer Feeding Experiments."

CHAPTER 6

Swine

By John M. Ewahd

Chief in Smne Production, Animal Husbandry Section,
Iowa Experiment Station

The hog is one of the most valuable and profitable domestic animala
the farm can produce.

In the selection of the herd these factors need to be considered:
1. Personal Preference is a most important consideration.

Chester White Boar.*

2. The Feeds Available. — In the corn belt lard type hogs are best
because of their adaptation, whereas in Canada a bacon type will utilize
the northern grown feeds to better commercial advantage.

3. Location and Climate. — The hog that is best for a certain county in

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

62 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

' Courtesy of The HeU. New York City.

SWINE 63

Iowa may be ill-adapted to a county in Maine because various community
conditions, such as customs, pasture range and cattle raising have their
unmistakable effects. The climate in the South, because of the hot, long
hours of piercing sunshine, puts the white hog at some disadvantage,
whereas in the northern country he gets along exceptionally well.

4. Distribution. — A large number of swine of one type in a certain
district usually indicates that they are well adapted. When in doubt,
that breed which is well distributed in the community should be adopted.
To raise Poland Chinas in a county where practically cone but Tam-

Chester White Sows. 1
Lard Type Hogs.

worths were raised, may result in disappointment, this being especially
true if one depends upon local buyers for the sale of hogs.

5. Markets. — A nearby market which demands the bacon type,
discriminating against the lard type, pound for pound, would have much
influence in determining the kind of swine to raise in that particular
section.

Breeds of Swine. — The two principal types of hogs are the lard and
the bacon. Lard hogs are noted for their great depth, breadth, general
compactness, smoothness, short legs, large hams, heavy jowls, relatively
heavy shoulders, mellow finish (due to heavy fat layers) and docile

'Courtesy of The Hold, New York City.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

> Coiirtwy of The Held, Now York City.

SWINE 65

temperament. Bacon hogs stand in marked contrast in that the typi-
cal representatives have greater relative length, medium depth and
breadth, similar smoothness but more trimness, long legs; small, trim,
tapering hams; very neat, tidy jowls; very light and trim shoulders;
exceptionally firm finish (with slight external fat layers) and active
temperament.

The general or dual purpose breeds are a combinaton of the bacon
and lard types, emphasis being placed upon the development of suitable
market hams, bacon, ribs and loin, as well as the tendency to produce
marketable animals suitable for lard.

The most typical lard type representatives are the Poland Chinas,
black with white markings or spotted black, white and sandy; the Duroc
Jerseys, entirely of a cherry red; and the Chester Whites, wholly white.
These three breeds are especially popular in the corn belt, and deservedly
so. Other lard type breeds are the Mulefoots, black, sometimes with white
markings; the Victorias, white; the Cheshires, white; the Suffolks, white;
the small Yorkshires, white; the Essex, black; and the Sapphires, blue
(sometimes white markings).

The typical bacon type representatives are the large Yorkshires,
white; and the Tarn worths, red; both being especially prominent in Can-
ada and the northern United States.

The dual purpose representatives are the Berkshires, black with white
markings; the Hampshires, black with white belt; and the middle white or
middle Yorkshires, white but little known in this country.

Of Jhe breeds mentioned, seven are white, six all black or black with
either white of sandy markings, two red and one blue. The most widely
distributed pigs in the Canadian country are white, whereas in the corn
belt and southern districts they are either black or red. This probably
represents climatic adaptation.

Grading Up the Herd. — An ordinary farm herd composed of native
individuals may be advantageously graded up by using successive pure-
bred sires of the same breed. The first-cross animals are especially vigorous
for market as well as for breeding purposes; they gain very rapidly and
economically, and likewise make very good mothers.

In a grading-up program, assuming that a Duroc Jersey is used for the
first cross and the offspring of the first cross are again bred to Duroc
Jersey sires, it is surprising how quickly the offspring approach the Duroc
types. In a few years, providing gilts only are kept each year for breeding,
a typical Duroc Jersey herd, resembling closely the typical pure breed,
will be a reality. The same grading-up process may be followed with any
pure breed. This is an excellent practice and one to be followed with
profit in the production of a uniform, dependable market type.

The crossing of breeds already crossed is to be discouraged, largely
because of the heterogeneous individuals which result, these being of
various types, sizes, colors and so on; this dissimilarity of offspring being

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

■Courtesy of Tho Field, New York City.

SWINE 67

all the more marked if the original pure-breds used are very different and
less true if they are very similar.

Age of Breeding Stock. — Mature sows as compared to gilts enjoy
some very marked and practical advantages, as follows:

1. A larger number of pigs at farrowing time.

2. Heavier, stronger, bigger-boned new-born pigs.

3. More pigs usually saved to each sow up to weaning time, hence more
reach the market.

4. They are tried mothers, the undesirable brood sows being naturally
eliminated.

5. Less high-priced protein feeds are needed to supplement the cheaper
carbohydrates.

6. More rough feeds may be used, such as alfalfa hay and pasture.

7. Matured and tried-out sires can be used to advantage; this
ofttimes not being feasible with young gilts unless a breeding crate is
used.

8. Immunized, cholera-proof sows may be continuously kept, and the
expense and bother of the annual immunization of young sows thus
eliminated.

9. Two litters a year are raised with less difficulty. All young gilts
cannot raise two litters successfully the first year.

10. Less loss in condition during the suckling period.

11. More dependable as breeders.

The disadvantages of sows older than gilts are not to be overlooked,
and are as follows:

1. Require more feed.

2. More house room necessary.

3. If the "one Utter a year" practice is followed these sows must be
carried through a six months' unproductive period, which is relatively
expensive.

4. Greater capital investment imperative.

5. Greater risk involved because of the greater capital invested.

6. Swine money not turned so often because the sows are kept longer
and not sold annually as are the gilts.

7. Docked more on marketing, ofttimes twenty-five cents per hun-
dred, than " trim-bellied' ' gilts.

8. Gains while "fattening off for market" more expensive.

9. Usually need an older, mature boar, because the younger ones
are not so handily used; hence, the breeding more difficultly managed.

10. Apt to become overfat, clumsy and awkward, and hence overlie
the new-born pigs. This tendency to overfatness must be carefully
guarded against.

11. More difficult, generally speaking, to manage.

In profitable practice, a happy combination of both gilts and old
sows may be kept to good advantage. The breeder of pure-bred swine

68 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

obviously may well keep more old sows proportionately than does the
market man.

In the selection of individual sows for the herd it is well that they show:

1. Trueness to the particular type and breed wished, having a desi-
rable ancestry and being preferably from a prolific, tested family.

2. A well-formed udder with active teats and no blind ones.

3. Feminine characteristics of refinement.

4. Roominess and capacity.

5. A kindly disposition.

6. Good breeding record as manifested in their offspring.

7. Absence of overfatness and flabbiness.

8. A good, healthy constitution free from vermin and diseases.

The boar should possess most of these general requirements, emphasis
being placed upon his masculinity as indicated in the well-developed
crest, shield, tusks and general ruggedness. A mature, tried boar is more
acceptable than an immature, untried one.

Housing. — In the housing of swine emphasis should be placed upon
warmth, dryness, abundance of light and direct sunlight, shade, ventila-
tion, sanitation, safety, comfort, convenience, size, durability, low first
cost, minimum cost of maintenance and pleasing appearance of the struc-
ture to be used. This applies to the large centralized community or the
small movable individual type.

The selection of a correct site for the location of the hog house is very
important. Emphasis should be placed upon the economy of labor and
time in management, drainage, exposure, slope, windbreaks, nearness to
pasture and shade, elevation, prevention of odors reaching home dwelling
and risk from disease infection. To place any hog house in an undesirable,
ill-adapted place is to invite loss, dissatisfaction and possible failure.

The large community house as compared with the small movable
one has some advantages in that the time and labor required for some
operations is less; durability is usually greater; lighting from direct and
diffuse sunlight better arranged; ventilation made more simple and
systematic; general equipment usually less and more compactly arranged;
close attention to the herd easily and practically possible; herdsman
experiences minimum of exposure; feed storage, water supply and general
rooms may be conveniently arranged; sanitation in some respects may
be more encouraged; vermin more largely eliminated; site selection is
simplified because only one site is needed; the heating problem is compara-
tively easy; common feeding floor and water wallow may be more handily
arranged; danger of loss less than with large number of houses in common
yards; provides headquarters for the swine farm; fire and other risk may
be minimized through masonry construction; a number of swine under
one cover become better acquainted; makes possible adjustable pens;
facilitates collection of liquid manure; and advertising value may be
greater.

SWINE 69

On the other hand, the community house is a disadvantage in that
location is not easily changed; isolation is practically impossible; sanita-
tion may be sometimes discouraged; construction is more complex; it is
not so practical for beginners; the first cost is somewhat high; more fencing
is required to provide similar range conditions; it is likely to be used
solely for a farrowing house and thus decrease serviceability; and fire
and other hazardous risks may be greater if it is built of wood and is in
close proximity to other buildings.

A combination of the two types of houses, i. e., the large centralized
or community one supplemented with the small movable one, deserves
favor in practice. Each type has its own peculiar advantages and dis-
advantages, whereas the two together counterbalance each other so as to
make a very complete efficient practical combination system.

Feeds for Swine. — Feeding swine has to do with the balancing of
the grain ration to make it most efficient. The shortcomings of corn as
feed for swine have their counterpart in other grains used less extensively
in pork production, namely, barley, wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kaffir corn
and milo maize.

The predominating deficiencies of corn as a grain for growing swine are:

1. Low in Protein. — A young growing pig should have a pound of
protein with every three to four pounds of carbohydrates. Corn has
only one pound of protein to about eight and one-half pounds of
carbohydrates.

2. The Quality of Protein is Only Fair. — Corn products alone, partly
because of the protein content being of low quality, are inefficient in dry
lot feeding, even though an abundance of protein be supplied as in the
form of gluten meal.

3. Lacking in Mineral Elements. — Corn is particularly low in cal-
cium, which comprises 40 per cent of the dry ash of bone. The young
pregnant gilt would have to eat something like thirty pounds of corn a
day in order to get enough calcium to supply the growing foetus. Common
salt and calcium and potassium phosphate have been found beneficial
when added to a corn diet. The deficiency of minerals in corn has been
largely responsible for the widespread general use of condimental material,
such as wood-ashes, charcoal, bone phosphate, rock phosphate, cinders,
slaked coal and others being used in practical hog feeding.

4. Presents an Acid Ash. — When corn is high in protein this acidity
is especially marked. To make corn more productive this acidity should
be counteracted. This is made possible by the judicious use of efficient
and proper supplements.

The most acceptable, practical supplements to corn and the other
similar starchy grains may be briefly enumerated as follows: skimmed
milk, buttermilk, tankage, blood meal, linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal,
gluten meal, wheat middlings, Canada field peas, soy beans, alfalfa and
clover hay.

'p
70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The production of pastures is an economical proposition and is to be
encouraged on every American as well as Canadian swine farm in order
to obviate the necessity of purchasing high-priced protein concentrates.
The most profitable supplemental pastures in the corn belt in the order
of merit are: alfalfa, rape, red clover, blue grass and sweet clover of the
first year's growth. In the South cowpeas, soy beans, Spanish peanuts
and Lespedeza clover may be added, inasmuch as these plants give excellent
success in warm climates and on soils that are sandy and relatively unpro-
ductive as compared to the corn belt soils of Iowa and Illinois.

Swine feeding and dairying, along with judicious use of green forages
in a good corn, barley or other similar grain country, is a most excellent
swine-farming proposition. If alfalfa can be raised, so much the better.

Preparation of Feeds. — Hard, tough, fibrous-shelled seeds such as
Kaffir corn, sorghum, milo maize and millet will be much more efficient
if fed in the ground condition. If grinding is impossible, soaking is the
next best possible procedure.

Wheat, rye and barley likewise give better results when ground, and
can also be soaked as an alternative. Some experiments show as much
as 20 per cent increase in the efficiency of wheat through the grinding
as compared to feeding the grain dry and whole.

The general herd, young pigs and sows on a maintenance ration do
better on ear corn than any other form. However, fattening sows and
heavy fat hogs in the final stages of fattening make more economical gains
on the soaked shelled grain. If any preparation should be used other
than dry ear, it should be shelled soaked corn rather than the ground
grain dry or soaked.

Corn-and-cob meal has little to commend it to any class of swine
except possibly the brood sows on maintenance, and even with these the
ear corn is the most profitable.

Hays, such as ground alfalfa, may be ground ofttimes in order to
facilitate their mixture with the grain rations and to encourage their
consumption.

Wetting and cooking of feeds is not ordinarily profitable, although
to produce rapid gains these procedures are sometimes permissible, this
being especially true in the production and finishing of show stock.

Hand vs. Self-Feeding. — Better results will be secured by the self-
feed method than by hand-feeding twice daily. However, feeding three
times a day is the most efficient, considering rapidity of gains and economy
in feed required for 100 pounds of gain. Under our ordinary high-priced
labor conditions, thrice a day is not enough better to excel self-feeding.

The " Free-Choice" scheme of feeding consists of allowing acceptable
feeds before swine in such a manner that they can balance their own
rations. In 1914 a group of pigs fed at the Iowa station according to
this scheme, receiving shelled corn, linseed oil meal, oats and meat meal
(or tankage), limestone, charcoal and salt in separate feeds, weighed 316

SWINE

pounds when 8 months 7 days old. They did as well as if they had been
fed according to accepted feeding standards. Tests now in progress (1915)
at the Iowa station indicate that pigs can feed themselves better than a
trained animal husbandman can feed them if he follows the customary
feeding standards.

When pigs are allowed starchy corn and high-protein meat meal
(tankage) in separate feeders, this feed being kept before them from wean-
ing time until they reach a weight of 300 pounds, they will eat of these
two dry lot fed feeds approximately as follows:

Weanling

Shote

Fattening hog

Fat marketable hog

Approximate
Age, days.

60
120
180
240

Approximate
Weight,
pounds.

35
100
210
300

Pounds 60 Per Cent

Protein Meat Meal

(Tankage) Eaten

with Every 100

Pounds Corn.

Pounds Protein
Eaten with
Every 100
Pounds Starches.

3.38
3.84
4.79
6.50

The self-feeding method is excellent in dry lot feeding, on pastures
and where skim milk or buttermilk is used.

Feed for the Brood Sows. — The brood sow should have good feed in
order to produce strong, healthy pigs. Skim milk, tankage, alfalfa pas-
ture, etc., combined with corn or other grains, often increase the litters
as much as one pig over corn alone.

To demonstrate the advantage of supplementing the starchy grain
feeds such as corn with the proper protein supplement, the resulting average
weight and strength of the pigs secured is given for a few typical rations:

Ration Fed.*

Average Weight
per Pig,
pounds.

Strong Pigs,
per cent.

Cost of

New-born Pigs,

cents.

Corn only

1.74
2.01
2.23
2.12

68
92
93

Corn dIus 4 per cent tankage

Corn plus 16 per cent tankage

Corn plus alfalfa in rack

These gilts were charged at the rate of 50 cents a bushel for shelled
corn, $2.50 for meat meal and $15 a ton for the alfalfa hay; yet in spite of
the comparative high cost of the supplements, the pigs produced were not
only cheaper but much better pigs were secured, the animals being much
larger and stronger than where corn only was fed.

* Animal Husbandry Section — Iowa Experiment Station Results.

72 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The unborn pig must be well fed indirectly through its host the brood
sow if a strong, vigorous, active pig carrying big bone and strong muscle
at the time of farrow is desired.

In general, it is well to emphasize in brood sow management:

A. Acceptable balanced feeds in sufficient quantity.

B. Maximum growth without excessive fattening.

C. Abundant exercise, especially the latter two months of

gestation.

D. Riddance of lice and worms.

E. Moderate laxativeness, because constipation is a menace.

F. Gentleness in handling the herd.

The suckling sow and litter should be fed better than any other class
of swine. The demand for growing feeds by both the sow and pigs at
this time is great. Such feeds as corn, barley, skim milk, buttermilk, tank-
age, wheat middlings, alfalfa, rape, clover, blue grass and other pastures,
and similar feeds equally as good are to be particularly commended.

Feeding the Pigs. — From time of weaning to maturity pigs should
have plenty of suitable forage. Nothing is better than pastures of clover,
alfalfa, rape, etc. Here they may be given a full or limited ration, depend-
ing on circumstances.

If the usually better early fall markets are the goal, full-feeding will
be in order; whereas if the later but somewhat lower markets are most
acceptable, the grain ration can be limited. Ordinarily, it is not a paying
proposition to feed less than three pounds of grain with every 100 pounds
of pig daily. A lesser amount, especially if the pasture be poor, will cause
the pigs to become stunted.

The fall pigs which are raised in winter dry lot must be fed a relatively
high-priced ration; in other words, one high in protein. The fall pigs
need warm shelter, and it is best to feed them inside the shelter. They
must be protected from the cold winds, snows, hails, and general wintry
conditions, while the spring pig should be protected from the hot sun and
the flies. The fall pig lives at a time when attacks from worms are at
low ebb and are not readily passed from one host to another.

The "hogging-down*' of corn deserves much emphasis. It is prac-
ticed profitably in all of the corn belt states. It may be likened to dry
lot feeding if the field is clean and free from weeds, and supplemental pro-
tein feeds should be supplied accordingly. It is well to have an alfalfa,
rape or similar pasture field adjoining in order to supply this protein
at the lowest cost.

Rape, winter rye or winter wheat in the northern corn belt may be
sown in the corn at the last cultivation or shortly thereafter with excel-
lent success; in the more southern districts cowpeas and soy beans
may be included with profit.

Successful swine rations for general American conditions, and suitable

SWINE

for the various sizes, ages and classes of hogs are suggested in a ready
reference table presented herewith:

The Swine to be Fed.

I. Growing and Fattening for Market.

1. Suckling pigs (a creep) 5-40 pounds

2. Weanling pigs, 30-100 pounds

3. Shoats, 100-175 pounds

4. Hogs, 175-250 pounds

5. Fat Hogs, 250-350 pounds

II. Fattening Sows for Market.

1. Yearlings (gilts) after weaning.

A. In poor condition, run-down . . .

B. In good condition, thrifty

2. Two years or older.

A. In poor condition, run-down . . .

B. In good condition, thrifty

III. Stags f Fattening.

A. Young

B. Old

IV. Carrying Sows, Breeding.

1. Breeding swine, flushing.

A. Gilts

B. Yearlings and older

2. During pregnancy.

A. Gilts

B. Yearlings and older ,

V. Suckling Sows.

A. With large litters

B. With small litters ,

Pounds of Tankage* (60 per cent Protein) to be

Fed along with every 100 Pounds of Corn to

Swine of Various Classes in

Dry Lot.

25-18
18-10
10-4

4r-l

11-8
9-5

6-4
2-0

9-4
5-0

14
11

14r-10

10-6

25-18
20-8

Low-Protein
Pasture.!

23-16

16-9

9-4

4r-l

11-8

8-5

6-4
2-0

9-4
5-0

14
11

10-7
6Ht

25-18
20-8

High-Protein
Pasture. X

20-12

12-5

5-2

2-2

5-0

4-0

0-5
0-4

10
3-5

* If corn is not available, it may be substituted pound for pound in these proportions with barley,
wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kaffir corn, milo maize, or feterita, or a combination of any of these. If 60
per cent protein tankage is not available, linseed oil meal or soy bean meal may be substituted, 2 to 2\
times as much being used. For example, the suggested dry lot ration for growing and fattening shoats
is "corn 100, tankage 18 to 10;" now substitute oil meal 2 times as much and we have corn 100, linseed
oil meal 36 to 20. To substitute wheat middlings, allow 17 times as much, skim or buttermilk 20 times,
and blood meal 60 per cent as much, or almost two-fifths less. Blood meal runs about 85 per cent protein
and but little is required, but blood meal is not so good a supplement as tankage, everything considered.

"f Low-Protein Pastures. — Dry, hard, fibrous blue grass: sorghum; feterita; millet; Sudan grass;
milo maize; timothy when over four inches high; rye or wheat over eight inches; or oats and barley
over five inches, or beginning a couple of weeks before beginning to joint; and sweet clover of second
year's growth after two feet high.

% High-Protein Pastures. — Alfalfa; rape, Dwarf Essex; medium red, mammoth, alsike, and white
and other clovers; young, tender, sweet clover, first year's growth; quite early, tender, new coming
timothy, rye or wheat; short, "shooting," tender, green, succulent blue grass, cowpeas; and soy beans.

74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

"Productive Swine Husbandry." Day.

"Swine in America." Coburn.

"Swine." Dietrich.

"Forty Years' Experience as a Practical Hog Man." Lovejoy.

"The Hog Booky Dawson.

Alabama Expt. Station Bulletin 185. "Dipping Vat for Hogs and Dips;" "Hog Worms,

Lice and Mange;" "Hog Lot, Houses and Water Supply."
Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 4. "Mai-Nutrition of Hogs."
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 147. "Pork Production."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 268. "Fattening Swine with Substitutes for Corn."
South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 157. "Rape Pasture for Pigs in Cornfield."
Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 107. "Swine Feeding."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 225. "Swine."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
411. "Feeding Hogs in the South."
438. "Hog Houses."

CHAPTER 7

SHEEP AHD GOATS

By T. C. Stone
Instructor in Animal Husbandry, Ohio State University

Early Importance of Sheep. — There is evidence that sheep were under
domestication in Europe in prehistoric times. The primitive man used the
skin for clothing and the meat and milk for food. As man has advanced
in civilization, sheep farming has become an important branch of agricul-

A Typical Cotswold Ewe.'

ture. Sheep and their wool were very early acknowledged to be the founda-
tion of the national prosperity and the wealth of Great Britain and other
European countries. The more recent introduction of silk manufactures
and the establishment of the cotton trade have lessened the demand for
woolen goods; still, the sheep and its fleece are of great importance.

< Courtesy of The Field. New York City,

76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Sheep of Spain. — The Spanish Merino, the only type of sheep in
Spain, are noted for: (1) the production of a very fine wool, (2) hardiness
and ability to travel, and (3) the disposition to stay close together when
feeding, resting and traveling. These characteristics have had an impor-
tant influence on their later history.

The Sheep of England. — In England were developed several types of
sheep, and each type or breed was adapted to a certain locality. These
breeds were quite unlike in fleece. The wool found favor on the market
because of its variety in length and quality, which made it adaptable to

A Typical Lincoln Ewe. 1

different uses. The Royal Agricultural Society of England in its show
catalogue recognizes twenty-five breeds. These were all developed on the
British Isles. Some were developed in the lowlands, some in the hills and
others in the midlands. They were developed principally for meat; fresh
meat in England, with its great population, being of greater consequence
than wool. The various breeds were divided into four classes, namely, the
long-wool breeds, the middle-wool breeds, the highlanders or mountain
breeds and the upland breeds.

Breeds of Sheep. — Two distinct types of sheep have been produced,
namely, the mutton and wool types. The former are valued chiefly on

i Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

SHEEP AND GOATS 77

account of their ability to make mutton economically, although the wool-
producing ability of the mutton sheep constitutes no small part of their
value to the farmer. The wool type, however, is raised mainly for the wool
it produces.

In conformation, the mutton sheep are compact, with a short head and
neck, a broad, level back, a full leg of mutton, a deep body and short legs.
The wool ranges in length from 2J inches in the middle-wools to 10 inches
in the long-wools. The fleece does not cover the body so compactly as
does the fleece of the fine-wool sheep. The medium-wool breeds greatly

A Typical Shropshire. 1

excel the long-wools in this respect. The fleece of the medium-wool breeds
is much less fine in quality and has much less yolk or oil in it than does the
fleece of the Merino sheep.

LONG- WOOL BREEDS

Leicester. — Very large sheep, wool 6 inches long at 12 months, being
bright and lustrous; face and legs white; no wool on head. Weight of
mature rams ranges from 225 to 250 pounds; ewes from 175 to 200 pounds.

Cotswold. — Wool 8 inches long at 12 months ; pronounced tuft of wool
on forehead; face and legs white. Rams weigh from 250 to 275 pounds;
ewes from 200 to 225 pounds.

'Courtesy of The Field. New York City.

78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Lincoln. — No breed furnishes so long a fleece as the Lincoln. It
ranges from 8 to 12 inches; tuft of wool on forehead. Bams weigh about
385 pounds; ewes about 275 pounds.

MEDIUM- WOOL BREEDS
Southdown.— They are smallest of the middle-wools, very low-set and
compact, with steel-gray or mouse-brown markings on face and legs.
Fleece is 2£ inches long at 12 months. Earns weigh from 185 to 200 pounds ;

A Typical Cheviot,*

ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. Criticised for lack of wool production and
insufficient size. Much improvement has been due to this breed.

Shropshire. — They are stylish sheep with pronounced extension of
wool over face and legs; color marking is a deep, soft brown. Wool 3
inches long at 12 months. Rams weigh about 225 pounds; ewes from 140
to 160 pounds. Rank high as a dual purpose breed.

Oxfords. — They resemble the Shropshire, but are larger and do not
have as great wool extension over face and legs. Lighter brown is the color
marking, and usually are more upstanding. Wool is 4 inches long at 12

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SHEEP AND GOATS 79

months. Heavier than Southdowns and Shropshire, equal to Hampshires.
Rams weigh from 275 to 300 pounds; ewes about 175 to 200 pounds. They
give size and weight when crossed on short-wools and quality and better
mutton when crossed on the long-wooled breeds.

Hampshires. — They have darker color markings than the Oxfords,
and a very pronounced Roman nose. Wool is 2\ inches long at 12 months.
Very early maturing sheep.

Dorset Horn. — Have white color markings; very little wool on face

A Typical Merino. 1

and legs and it does not extend well over lower parts of the body. Both
ewes and rams have horns. Wool at 12 months is 3 inches long. Weight
of rams from 250 to 275 pounds; ewes 175 to 185 pounds. A mutton breed
of merit; valued as early lamb raisers.

Cheviot— They are very alert, stylish sheep with white markings.
Face and legs are free from wool. Wool is 4 inches long. Rams weigh
from 200 to 225 pounds; ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. It is a very hardy
breed and individuals graze independently of each other.

Fine-Wool or Merino Sheep. — This type is the result of efforts to

> CourMay of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

produce a fleece of finest quality. In developing this type some breeders
did not overlook the mutton qualities, while others did. The Spanish
Merino was the foundation of the three classes of Merinos as they exist
today. The three classes are A, B and C. This classification is based on
differences in conformation, character of fleece, and number and disposition
of wrinkles or folds on the sheep.

The Merino blood must predominate on our western ranges because of
the gregarious nature of this breed. They have great constitution and
vigor and are much less susceptible to parasitic trouble than the breeds of
the mutton type. They can be kept in smaller quarters and the ewes do
not need as much care at lambing time as ewes of the mutton breeds. They
are lacking greatly in mutton qualities, and there is a strong demand for

A Typical Flock of Sheep in Pastures. 1

the dual purpose animal. The Merino will not be supplanted, but as the
demand for mutton becomes stronger, they will no doubt be supplemented
very largely by the mutton breeds.

Establishing a Flock. — Sheep may be kept profitably on either high
or low-priced land. On the high-priced lands of England sheep are found
in great numbers and they would certainly not be kept if they were not
profitable. Sheep do best on slightly rolling land where dry footing pre-
vails. They get more sustenance and at the same time do the land more
good than any other class of livestock. The manure from sheep contains
more fertilizing value per ton than any other kind of farm manure with
the exception of poultry.

ompany, N. Y. Fram "Crops and Methods for Soil Improve-

r SHEEP AND GOATS 81

Very little capital is needed to start a flock of sheep. They need not
be housed in expensive buildings. Nature has fitted them to endure cold
weather. A small flock requires very little labor, especially during the
busy summer. These advantages, along with the fact that sheep destroy
weeds, thereby helping to beautify the farm, make the sheep a valuable
asset to the American farmer. These advantages are not mentioned with
the view of urging the farmer to give up other classes of farm animals,
but to remind him of the advantage of supplementing his stock with a
small flock of, say, forty ewes or even less.

Essentials to Success. — One should choose the breed best adapted
to local conditions, especially the climate and market. There is no best
breed for all conditions. It is best that a man gain his experience with
grade stuff. One may purchase either Merino or mutton breeds and then
grade them up by using a pure-bred ram. The latter is of great importance.
A ram having a good pedigree and good individuality should be selected.
He should be purchased from a reliable breeder and the stockman should
not hesitate to pay a good price for a desirable ram. The ram should
possess good breed type and be masculine. An effeminate ram should
have no place in a flock. Masculinity is indicated by a short, broad head,
large, broad nostrils, ruggedness in appearance and a lack of too great
refinement throughout. Rams should have a good conformation, and
those which have been very highly fitted should be avoided, as they often
prove non-breeders. There are only a few instances where it would be
permissible to use a ram lamb to head the flock. This is done more often
in the case of the Hampshire breed than others. Older rams usually make
the best breeders. A ram of the middle-wool breeds is sufficiently devel-
oped and fit for service at the age of 1% years.

Only ewes that are sound in their mouths and udders, and that possess
feminine characteristics and good general conformation should be pur-
chased. It must be remembered that the ewes are half the flock.

One should not make the mistake, after establishing a flock, of allow-
ing the sheep to care for themselves. Suitable but inexpensive shelter
and plenty of forage should be provided and plenty of salt and water
should be kept before them. It is necessary to be on the lookout for
internal parasites, especially in lambs, during the summer months.

The Breeding Season. — The breeding season of the year in this
country commences in September or just as soon as the cool nights begin.
The heat periods of the ewes last from one to two days and normally
appear at intervals of 16 days. The Dorset Horn and Tunis will breed
at any time.

Period of Gestation. — The usual period is 146 days. Ewes, however,
are very irregular about bringing forth their young. Shepherds in the
old country figure on 140 days. The period of gestation is often longer
for Rambouillets than for other breeds.

Care of Ram During Breeding Season. — Not more than 40 ewes should

> Courtesy of U. 8, Dept of Agriculture. "J
(82)

SHEEP AND GOATS 83

be allowed to one ram. The last born lambs are often weaker than those
born earlier in the season. This indicates that it is not advisable to
breed the ram to too many ewes. In a large flock, the ram should be put
with the ewes for an hour at the end of each day. In a small flock, he may
be allowed to run with the ewes all the time. Where hand coupling is
not practiced, one should paint the brisket between the ram's fore-leg with
paint. Red lead and linseed oil make a desirable paint for this purpose.
This mark will indicate that the ewes have been bred. After 16 days
the ram may be painted another color. By this means the breeder may
know whether the ewes are returning. The ram should be fed liberally
during the breeding season, but not too well. A mixture of equal parts
of oats, bran and oil-cake, say one pint, both mornings and evenings, will
prove a good ration.

Winter Care of Ewes. — A lamb gets its start on the right or wrong
way before it is born. The pregnant ewes should be sufficiently fed, but
not overfed during winter. They should be given plenty of exercise; the
more they get, the healthier the lamb crop will be. The feeding of too
much grain just previous to lambing time should be avoided. Bran, oats,
oil meal and clover make an ideal ration for the breeding ewe. Silage and
roots are good succulent feeds, but must be fed in small quantities and
must be of good quality.

Care of Young Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned when 3}4 to 4
months old, and put on fresh pasture. The secret of successful and profit-
able lamb raising is to keep them growing and in good condition from
birth to maturity. Lambs should be given grain as soon as they can
thoroughly digest it. In order that they may eat at will, it is necessary
to build creeps for them. The feeds given and the amount will depend
largely on the purpose for which they are being prepared. These being
fitted for the market should be fed liberally with grain until they are of
market age. Their ration may consist almost wholly of corn. A good
grain ration for lambs just beginning to eat is ground corn, one part;
crushed oats, one part; linseed oil meal, one part; and wheat bran,
two parts.

All lambs should be docked and all males intended for the open market
should be castrated. Lambs that are not castrated often sell for at least
$1.50 per 100 pounds less than castrated lambs. This does not take into
consideration the loss of flesh due to activity of ram lambs. The lamb
that is not docked gets filthy around the dock and presents a poor appear-
ance on the market. They may be docked and castrated when about
two weeks old. It is much more convenient to do both at the same time,
and no evil results will follow if the operations are performed in the right
way.

Marketing the Lambs. — It is usually best to market the lambs at
weaning time. This will occur about July 1st. There is great demand
for lambs weighing from 65 to 70 pounds. They furnish a superior prod-

84 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

uct for the consumer and make very economical gains for the producer.
There are other reasons for marketing lambs at this time. First, lambs
gain very little during hot summer months; second, there is risk of losing
them through the internal parasites; third, one avoids heaviest run of
western lambs; and lastly, one gets the use of his money earlier.

Shearing the Flock. — Time of shearing depends on the weather, the
season and the locality and equipment. It is advisable to shear as soon
as warm weather begins in the spring. Late shearing is unadvisable, as
the sheep will lose in weight if compelled to carry heavy fleeces. They

An Angora Bock. 1

are also liable to lose some of their wool during the later months. Well-
fed ewes with comfortable sheds may be sheared fairly early. They will
not suffer if the days should become a little cool. Wethers fed under
the same conditions may often be sheared as early as March. They will
gain faster when fleeces are removed. Care should be exercised to see
that they do not overeat at this time.

Both hand shearing and machine shearing are practiced.

Dipping the Flock. — All sheep should be dipped for three reasons.
First, to promote healthy condition of the skin; second, as a remedy for
scabies in sheep; third, to kill the lice and ticks.

' From Farmers' Bulletin E73, V. S. Dept. of Agrl culture.

SHEEP AND GOATS 85

The time for dipping depends upon the time of shearing. It is best
to dip five or six days after shearing. The ticks and lice leave the shorn
ewes and go to a more sheltered place on the bodies of the young lambs.
If one delays dipping for any length of time after shearing, the lambs will
suffer a great deal with these pests. A second dipping should take place
during the fall.

Any of the recommended coal tar dips may be used. In using these,
one should see that they have the approval of the Department of Agri-
culture and should follow the directions carefully.

A flock thus handled will afford the owner much pleasure and profit
for capital and labor invested. The earnings from sheep will compare
very favorably with those of any of our domestic animals.

GOATS

Goats are very valuable as a renovator of brush lands. They are
not naturally grazing animals, but rather browsers. In some states, the
cost of clearing large tracts of land has been greatly reduced by pasturing
with flocks of goats.

Besides this, many goats, especially the representatives of the breeds
of milch goats, are noted as milk producers. They have held a recognized
place as such for a great many years among the poorer people of the world.
In some countries varieties of goats are bred especially for their milk-
producing qualities.

In this country, the Angora goat and the common goats give milk,
but milking families have not been produced.

The Angora goat yields a fleece which is valued highly on the market.
It is commercially known as mohair. It is coarser than fine wool, but
longer and stronger.

When sold on the market, goats bring a lower price than sheep. The
mutton from goats is not considered nearly as good as mutton from sheep.

Angora and common goats are found in almost every state in this
country . They seem to do well under a wide range of climatic conditions.
A dry climate, however, seems most favorable for them.

REFERENCES

"Sheep Farming." Craig and Marshall.

"Sheep Farming in America." Wing.

''Productive Sheep Husbandry." Coffey.

"Sheep Farming." Kleinheinz.

"Sheep Feeding and Farm Management." Doane.

"The Winter Lamb." Miller and Wing.

"Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats." Thompson.

Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 153. "Fattening Lambs."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 68. "Information

Concerning the Milch Goat."
Farmers' Bulletins. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

573. "The Angora Goat."

676. "Breeds of Sheep for the Farm."

652. "The Sheep Killing Dog."

CHAPTER 3

The Farm Flock (Poultry)

By M. C. Kilpatrick
Instructor in Poultry Husbandry ', Ohio State University

Improved methods of production and the establishment of large
specialized poultry farms have greatly increased the supply of poultry and
eggs during recent years. The demand for these products, however, has
been increasing even more rapidly than the supply. This increasing demand
is due both to the rapid increase of the consuming population and to a
growing preference for these products as food. The increase in the demand
for eggs is especially marked, due largely to the increased price of meats
and the fact that modern transportation facilities, storage warehouses and
improved methods of handling eggs have resulted in a better distribution of
the supply throughout the year and a higher standard of quality upon the
large city markets.

Importance of the Farm Flock. — The farm flocks of the country
furnish 90 and possibly 95 per cent of the total supply of poultry and eggs.
It is natural that the general farms should be the principal source of supply,
because poultry husbandry is essentially a livestock industry, and for this
reason, best adapted to development under farm conditions. The farm
provides those conditions which are essential to profitable poultry produc-
tion, viz., ample range and pasture at low cost, cheaper feeds, the oppor-
tunity to make use of waste materials and convert them into marketable
products, low labor cost, and of greatest importance, natural conditions
which tend to increase rather than to decrease the health and vigor of
the flock.

Unf ortunately, the average farm flock falls far short of its productive
possibilities. This is due largely to the fact that fowls are kept on the farm
primarily for the purpose of supplying the home table with fresh meat and
eggs and have not been regarded as an important source of income. This
has resulted in flocks of small size and poor quality, inadequate equipment
and a general indifference toward poultry on the farm. The increasing
demand for poultry and eggs, and the general increase in the farm price
of these products have resulted in making the farm flock of good size and
quality, and properly equipped and handled, an important source of
income. In addition it performs its primary function in supplying poultry
and eggs for the home table.

The Size of the Farm Flock. — The size of the farm flock is an important
factor in determining whether poultry is to be a profitable farm enterprise

(86)

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) «

or not. The optimum size of the flock for a particular farm depends upon
a number of conditions. These conditions are so variable that it is impos-
sible to set a definite standard which will be applicable to all farms. It is
evident, however, that the flock should number at least 100 fowls, and,
except under very favorable circumstances, should seldom exceed 500
fowls. As many fowls should be kept as possible without allowing the
poultry work to come in direct competition with more important farm enter-
prises. For the average farm, this will mean a flock of 300 to 500 fowls.
Sources of Income. — The principal sources of income from the farm
flock are poultry and eggs for market. The production. of eggs for market
is the more important because of the relatively greater demand for them
and the greater convenience with which they may be produced and mar-

A Typical Fabm Flock.

keted. It is impossible to separate the two and, under some conditions, the
production of market poultry may become the more important. Other
possible sources of income are the sale of eggs for hatching, fowls for breeding
purposes, day-old chicks, and the production and sale of pullets for egg
production. The relative importance of each of these sources of income and
the extent to which they may be combined will be determined by the
personality of the poultryman and the organization of the farm business.
Advantages of Pure-Bred Poultry. — A second factor of greater impor-
tance in determining the value of the farm flock is the quality of the fowls.
Pure-bred poultry is superior to mongrel, cross-bred or grade fowls because
of greater reliability in breeding, more attractive appearance, ability to
feed more efficiently, greater uniformity in the size, shape and color of the
eggs, and greater uniformity in the appearance and condition of the
dressed fowls. The first cost of pure-bred fowls is greater than of inferior
stock, but no greater investment is needed. The best practice in starting

White Plymouth Rocks. 1

Bdjt Orpingtons. 1

First Prize Exhibition Pen, Madison Square Garden, N. Y., December 31, 1915-

January 5, 1916.

if Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Man., Maurice F. Dolano, Proprietor.

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 89

a flock of ptire-bred fowls is to purchase a pen consisting of a male and four
to ten females. These should be housed apart from the main flock and all
of the good eggs laid during the breeding season should be incubated. Pure-
bred fowls of good quality may be purchased in the late summer or early
fall for $3 to $5 each for males and $2 to $4 each for females. Yearlings or
two-year-old stock should be bought. After the pure-bred flock has been
established, the many advantages of the pure-bred fowls are obtained
without additional cost.

Grading Up a Farm Flock. — While pure-bred poultry are always to be
preferred, it is possible to improve the quality of the average farm flock
by the use of a pure-bred male. If a pure-bred male of the desired variety
is mated with ten or twelve of the best hens on the farm, the offspring will
carry one-half the blood of their sire. If the male is a strong, prepotent
individual, a large percentage of the offspring will resemble him in many of
his characteristics. Ten or a dozen of the best pullets resulting from the
original mating should be selected and mated to their sire for the second
season. The offspring from this mating will carry 75 per cent of the blood
of the pure-bred male. For the third season, ten or a dozen of the best
of these pullets should be mated to another pure-bred male of the same
variety and of similar breeding. It is advisable to obtain the second male
from the same breeder as the first one. If the fowls used have been care-
fully selected, the offspring from this third mating will be practically as
uniform in size, shape and color as pure-bred fowls.

The Choice of a Variety. — The choice of a variety for the farm depends
upon the purpose for which poultry is kept and the type of product most
in demand in the best available market. The efficiency of the various
varieties depends more upon the breeding and handling of the fowls than
upon breed or variety differences.

The most popular fowl for the production of white eggs is the Single
Comb White Leghorn. It is not a good market fowl, however, because
of its small size, nervous temperament, and greater loss in dressing. The
cockerels make good broilers at weights of 1J^ to 13^ pounds, but do not
make good roasters or capons.

The Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Wyandottes are the
most satisfactory breeds for the production of both eggs and meat. The
solid-colored varieties of the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, particularly
the white and buff, are preferable on account of the absence of dark-
colored pin feathers. The Columbian varieties are rapidly increasing in
popularity. The most popular farm fowl in the past has been the Barred
Plymouth Rock. It is slowly being replaced by some of the newer vari-
eties. The three breeds mentioned are good layers, hardy, easily handled;
the chicks grow rapidly, making them well adapted to the production of
broilers. They make superior roasters and capons. Where the market
prefers brown eggs or will not pay a premium for white eggs, one of the
many varieties of these three breeds should be chosen.

White Wtandottko. 1
First Prize Pen, Chicago Show, December, 1912.

Single Comb Rhode Island Reds. 1
First Prize Young Pen at Boston Show, January, 1915.

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 91

Selection of the Breeding Stock. — It is seldom necessary and never
desirable to use all of the fowls on the farm for breeding. Special matings
are necessary each season in order to make any definite improvement in
the quality of the flock. It is seldom necessary to use more than 20 per
cent of the entire flock for breeding. The fowls used for this purpose
should be the choicest on the farm. They should be strong, healthy and
vigorous, above the average in size for the variety, good layers and fully
matured. Hens are always preferable to pullets, because the eggs from
hens are larger, hatch better and produce larger and more vigorous chicks.
Strong, vigorous, early-hatched cockerels may be used, but yearling or
two-year-old cocks of proven breeding ability are to be preferred. Care
should be taken to avoid using for breeding purposes any fowl which has
had any sickness at any time, no matter how well it may appear to "have
recovered.

Housing the Breeding Stock. — It is not necessary to house the breed-
ing flock separately during the entire year. The fowls to be used for
breeding should be separated from the main flock three or four weeks
before it is necessary to save eggs for hatching. They should be housed
in portable colony houses during the breeding season, and may be returned
to the main flock as soon as the last eggs needed for hatching are gathered.
The colony houses may then be used for the growing chicks or for some
other purpose.

INCUBATION

Selection of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should weigh not
less than two nor more than two and one-half ounces each. They should
be of a medium type, neither very long and pointed nor very short and
rounded. The shells should be clean, smooth and strong, free from ridges,
cracks, transparent spots or lime deposits. The eggs selected should be
as uniform in color as possible. Dead chalk-white or uniform brown eggs
are to be preferred. Careful selection of the eggs to be incubated will aid
greatly in improving the general quality of the eggs produced by the flock.

Care of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should be gathered
frequently, two or three times daily, and immediately removed to a clean,
dry place where the temperature is less than 68° F. A temperature of
50° to 60° F. is best. Eggs for hatching should not be held longer than
two weeks, as there is a rapid loss of vitality after that time. They should
not be washed. Eggs hatch better if they are turned once daily from the
time they are laid until set.

Natural or Artificial Incubation. — Whether hens or incubators should
be used depends upon local conditions. If chicks are wanted before
April 1st, or if non-setting varieties are kept, or if more than 150 chicks are
to be reared each season, incubators should be used. There is no apparent
difference between the vigor and vitality of hen-hatched and incubator-
hatched chicks.

Hatching with Hens. — Hens of medium weight, from five to seven

92 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

pounds, arid of quiet disposition should be selected. They should be
kept where they will be comfortable, easily controlled and free from
annoyance by other fowls. A small brood coop is advisable for each hen
during warm weather. These coops may be placed in a cool, shady location
and the nest made upon the ground, a bottomless box about five inches high
being used to confine the nesting material. During cool weather, a com-
fortable room should be provided. The nests used should be approximately
14 inches square. They should be constructed so that each hen may be
confined to her own nest. In this way a number of hens may be set in
the same room, all being released for food and water at the same time.
It is necessary to see that each hen returns to her nest as soon as through
feeding. Several hens should be set at the same time. This will save
labor and allow the chicks hatched by two or three hens to be given to
one for brooding. Hens should be removed from their regular nests to
the nests in which they are to be set after dark. If handled quietly and
given a few decoy eggs they may usually be moved without difficulty.
The hen should be allowed to become accustomed to her new surroundings
before setting her. This usually requires two to three days.

Setting hens must be kept free from lice and mites. The nest box
and the walls of the coop or room should be painted or sprayed with a
good lice killer a few days before the hens are set. The hen should be
well dusted with a good insect powder two or three days before the eggs
are placed under her and again two or three days before the chicks hatch.

The feed for setting hens should consist of hard grains. No wet or
dry mashes should be given. A constant supply of fresh water, grit and
shell should be provided.

One hen should not be given more than twelve eggs during cold
weather or more than fifteen during warm weather.

Should any eggs become broken in the nest, the nesting material
should be renewed and all badly soiled eggs washed in water at a tem-
perature of 90° F.

Hatching with Incubators. — There should be no difficulty in hatching
chicks with incubators if a good machine and good eggs are used. Different
types of incubators require different care. Each manufacturer has com-
piled a set of directions for the operation of his incubator under average
conditions. These directions should be carefully followed and an exact
record kept of the operation of the machine throughout the hatch. If
results are not satisfactory, variations should be made in the operation
of the incubator during the following hatch as the judgment of the operator
indicates. Poor hatches are more often due to poor eggs than to any
failure on the part of the incubator.

BROODING

Importance of the Brooder. — The greater part of the mortality among
young chicks occurs during the first four to six weeks. The losses during

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 93

this period are very great, careful observers placing the total mortality
as high as 40 to 50 per cent of all chicks hatched. The greater part of
this loss is due directly or indirectly to poor brooding. In order to reduce
the mortality among chicks to a minimum , good brooders must be
used.

Qualifications of a Good Brooder. — A good brooder for farm use should.
be capable of maintaining a temperature of 90° to 100° F. under the hover
and a temperature of 70° to 85° F. outside of the hover. The chicks should
be allowed to choose the temperature in which they are most comfortable,
and should not be com-
pelled to submit to any
given temperature.

The brooder must
be well ventilated, pro-
viding an abundant sup-
ply of pure, fresh air
without drafts striking
the chicks. Fresh air is
as essential for growing
chicks as good food and
water. A two-compart-
ment brooder is advis-
able, as it permits of
feeding the young chicks
in fairly cool, fresh air
and they are not re-
quired to pass directly
from the warm hover ,
into the outside atmos-
phere.

The brooder for
farm use should be por-
table. Chickens should A Bhooder Heated by Oil Lamp.*
not be reared on the

same ground year after year. The most satisfactory results will be
obtained by rearing them in the orchard, in the cornfield after the last
cultivation, or on the hay and grain fields after the crops are harvested,
moving the brooders from place to place frequently. If handled in this
manner, the chicks will make use of a large amount of waste material and
will be more healthy and vigorous and make more rapid growth than
if confined to small yards.

The brooder should be usable for some purpose during the entire
year. Any brooder which can be used only for brooding chickens is
unsatisfactory for farm use. It should be capable of housing the chicks

■Courtesy of JJnixiv 8 fate Incubator Company. Homer City, Pa.

*± SUCCESSFUL FARMING

from the time they are hatched until fully matured, and should be readily
convertible into a breeding house or fattening pen.

The brooding device which best meets these requirements is a portable
colony house 6 by 8 feet to 8 by 15 feet in size, equipped with portable
hovers, gasoline brooder heater or a coal-burning brooder stove.

Management of the Brooder. — During the first two weeks a tem-
perature above 90° and below 100° F. should be maintained two inches
above the floor in the warmest part of the brooder, that is, beneath the
hover. After the second week the temperature should be gradually
reduced, the exact temperature to be maintained being determined from
the actions of the chicks. If the temperature is right, the chicks when
at rest will be spread out around the outer edge of the hover. Any evidence
of crowding is an indication of a lack of heat. If the temperature under
the hover is kept a degree or two higher than the chicks actually need,
there will be very little crowding.

The brooder must be kept absolutely clean at all times. The floor
should be covered to a depth of several inches with clean, dry litter, such
as short-cut clover, alfalfa, straw or chaff. The Utter should be removed
whenever it becomes damp, dusty or soiled/

Ration for Chicks. — A good ration for chicks consists of a grain mix-
ture of 30 pounds finely cracked corn, 20 pounds cracked wheat and
10 pounds pin-head or cracked hulled oats. With this should be fed a
mash consisting of 30 pounds wheat bran, 30 pounds tyheat middlings,
30 pounds corn meal, 20 pounds fine beef scrap or granulated milk and
10 pounds of bone meal. This ration should be supplemented by a liberal
supply of succulent food such as alfalfa, clover, sprouted oats or beets.
Fine grit, finely crushed oyster shell, charcoal and clean fresh water should
be before the chicks at all times. If skim milk is available, the chicks
should have all they will consume.

The grain should be scattered in the litter on the floor of the brooder
in order to induce the chicks to exercise. Grain should be fed early in
in the morning, at noon and later in the afternoon. As much should be
fed as the chicks will clean up from one feeding time to the next. If any
considerable amount remains in the litter, a feed should be omitted and
the amount reduced. No definite information can be given as to the
exact amount to feed, as the needs of the chicks vary from day to day.
The poultryman must study the appetite and actions of the flock in order
to feed intelligently.

The mash should be fed dry. Shallow pans may be used for feeding
the mash while the chicks are small. Small feeding hoppers should be
used as soon as the chicks are large enough to feed from them. Chicks
should never be without the dry mash.

This method of feeding should be continued until the chicks are large
enough to do without artificial heating or are weaned from the hen, with
the exception that the cracked wheat should be gradually replaced by

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 95

whole wheat, and the finely cracked corn by the coarse cracked corn,
when the chicks are six to eight weeks old. After the chicks have free
range, the grain mixture may be changed to equal parts of cracked corn
and whole wheat. The same dry mash should be continued until the
chicks are mature. The grain may also be fed in hoppers after this time.
The Care of Growing Chicks. — The age at which chicks may be
deprived of artificial heat will depend upon weather conditions and the
condition of the chicks. This should not be done until all danger of sudden
changes in temperature is past and the chicks are well feathered out.
During the brooding period the brooders may be kept close to the farm-
stead and small, portable runs provided for the chicks. As the chicks
increase in size, the brooder should be moved farther away and the size
of the yards increased. As soon as the chicks no longer require artificial
heat they should be given free range. They must have plenty of shade,
abundant pasture, be kept free from lice and mites and protected from
their natural enemies. The brooder should be proof against rats, weasels,
etc., and should be closed every night. The chicks should be confined to
the house in the morning until the grass is well dried off. This practice
should be followed at least until they are half grown. The cockerels should
be separated from the pullets as soon as the sex can be determined. It is
advisable to caponize all males except a few of the most promising to be
reserved for breeding purposes. The pullets will be hindered in their
development if the cockerels are allowed to remain with them. The
cockerels, if not caponized, should be put together in a separate field or
on another part of the farm.

The Care of the Pullets. — The pullets should be transferred from
the colony house on the range to their permanent winter quarters as soon
after # the first of September as possible. This will give them an opportunity
to become accustomed to their new surroundings before cold weather sets
in. Careful attention must be given the pullets at this time. There is
usually a tendency for them to crowd on the roosts at night or to roost
above the open doors and windows. This should be prevented, as it may
result in colds which will hinder egg production. The bulk of the eggs
received from October 1st to March 1st are produced by the pullets.

Feeding Mature Fowls. — The principal object in feeding should be
to use the poultry on the farm for the purpose of converting grains, mill
by-products and waste materials not suitable for human consumption
in their raw state into concentrated, easily handled, nutritious food
products. For this reason the farmer should make use of grains grown
on his own farm and of mill products which are easily obtained at com-
paratively low prices, supplementing them with the necessary protein
concentrates.

Suitable rations may be made from a great many combinations of
grains and mill feeds. There is no one combination which is superior to
all others under all conditions. For this reason it is possible for the farmer

96 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

to adjust any suggested ration to meet his own conditions without seriously
impairing its efficiency.

The ration should contain in proper proportions the various food
elements required by the fowl. It should be easily digested and assimilated,
palatable, economical, suitable for its intended purpose, easily obtained,
easily handled and conveniently fed. It should be a two-part ration
consisting of a grain mixture of scratch feed and a mash. It is not possible
to obtain a maximum of production with either grain or mash alone.
They should be fed in combination with grain constituting approximately
two-thirds of the ration.

The following ration and method of feeding is particularly adapted
to farm conditions. The ration as given is based on feeds at normal
prices and may be varied with a variation in the price of any feed. The
grain mixture consists of 200 pounds corn, preferably cracked, 200 pounds
wheat, and 100 pounds heavy oats. If buckwheat is available, 100 pounds
may be added during cold weather. The mash consists of 200 pounds
corn meal, 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds wheat middlings and
100 pounds of beef scrap containing not less than 55 per cent protein.

The grain should be fed by hand, being scattered in clean litter six
to twelve inches deep. The grain should be fed at least twice daily, prefer-
ably early in the morning and late in the afternoon. If it is necessary
to keep the fowls confined to the house, it is advisable to give additional
light feeds in the middle of the forenoon and in the middle of the afternoon
in order to keep the fowls busy.

The amount to be fed will vary with the variety, the weather condi-
tions, the egg production and various other factors. It should be deter-
mined by the actions and appetites of the fowls. They should be well
fed. Endeavor should be made to regulate the feeding so that they will
consume approximately twice as much grain as mash. Fowls of medium
size when in full lay will consume from 2 to 2J^ ounces of grain daily.

The mash should be fed dry. Self-feeding hoppers should be used.
For Leghorns and similar varieties and for pullets of the dual purpose
varieties, such as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc., the hopper should
be open during the entire day. For yearlings and older hens of the dual
purpose varieties, the hopper should be opened at noon and closed when
the evening feed is given.

This ration should be supplemented by a constant supply of clean,
fresh water, grit and oyster shell. Sour skim milk should be fed as a
drink if it is available, allowing the fowls to consume all they will. Succu-
lent feed of some sort is necessary. During the late fall and winter,
mangels, sprouted oats, unsalable cabbage, beets, apples, potatoes,
steamed clover or alfalfa, or any other succulent food available may be
used. The yards should furnish all the green feed required during the
spring and summer.

The Care of Market Eggs. — The quality of market eggs is determined

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 97

by their size, shape, appearance and freshness or interior quality. AH of
these factors may be controlled by the poultryman to a considerable
degree through breeding and the care with which the eggs are handled,
Improvement of the quality of the eggs produced is fully as important
from a financial point of view as increased production. If the following
suggestions are observed, there should be no difficulty in producing eggs of a
quality that will meet the requirements of the best grades in any market.

Breed only from hens which lay eggs of the desired size, shape and
color.

Provide for at least one clean, convenient, well-ventilated nest for
every four or five hens in the flock.

Renew the nesting material whenever it becomes damp, dusty or
soiled. Planer shav-
ings make excellent
material for nests, but
soft hay and clean
straw may be used.

Gather eggs at
least twice daily and
more often if conve-
nient. This is par-
ticularly important
during cold weather
to avoid freezing, and
during warm weather
to avoid the develop-
ment of the embryo
and to retard evap-
oration. Shipping Cases for Eggs.'

From the time
eggs are gathered until marketed, keep them in a clean, cool, dry place.
Fertile eggs will begin to develop at any temperature over 68° F.

Do not put eggs into a box, basket, carton or case until all the animal
heat has escaped. When gathered, place them on a wire tray similar
to an incubator tray for ten to twelve hours and then grade and pack
them in standard cartons or cases.

Market eggs at least once weekly and more often if possible. Nothing
is ever gained by holding eggs for a rise in price. The egg is a perishable
food product and should be marketed as soon as possible in order to avoid
deterioration and loss.

Market eggs in standard egg packages. The standard thirty-dozen
egg case is preferred. If production is not great enough to enable a case
or two of graded eggs to be shipped weekly, use the smaller, returnable
cases which may be secured from any dealer in poultry supplies.

> Courteey of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Mt. Qrove. Ma.

98 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

When eggs are being transported from the farm to the market or
shipping point, they should be protected from the rays of the sun.

Do not wash eggs. The washing of eggs greatly impairs their keeping
qualities and spoils their appearance. Market eggs should never be allowed
to become wet. Moisture dissolves the protective bloom or covering of
the shell, opens the pores and allows bacteria and moulds to enter. Avoid
the necessity for washing by providing sufficient nests and keeping the
house and yards clean.

Remove all males from the flock as soon as the hatching season is
over and keep them away from the hens during the warm weather. The
male has no influence on the number of eggs produced. His only function
and use on the farm is to fertilize the eggs to be used for hatching. Fertile
eggs spoil very quickly during warm weather. Approximately 18 per cent
of all eggs produced upon farms become unfit for food before reaching
the consumer. At least half of this loss could be avoided if only infertile
eggs were produced.

REFERENCES

"Productive Poultry Husbandry." Lewis.

"Turkeys." Reliable Poultry Journal Co.

"Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture." Robinson.

"How to Keep Hens for Profit." Valentine.

"The Beginner in Poultry." Valentine.

"Farm Poultry." Watson.

"Races of Domestic Poultry." Brown.

"Poultry Production." Lippincott.

"Poultry Breeding." Purvis.

"Our Domestic Birds." Robinson.

North Carolina Expt. Station Bulletin 233. "Common Diseases of Poultry."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 284. "Rations for Roosters and Capons."

Purdue Expt. Station Bulletin 182. "Poultry Investigations."

West Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 102.

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

189. "Farm Poultry."

193. " Tuberculosis in Fowls."

217. "Farm Poultry."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

309. "Incubation of Eggs:" "Causes of Young Chicks' Death:" "Snow for
Chicks."

317. "Water Pans and Catching Hook for Poultry."

357. "Methods of Poultry Management at Maine Station."

452. "Capons and Caponizing."

528. "Hints to Poultry Raisers."

530. "Important Poultry Diseases."

585. "Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen's Eggs."

624. "Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chicks."

656. "The Community Egg Circle."

682. "A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry."

CHAPTER 9

Bees

Many farmers are unaware of the great service rendered them by the
honey bee; especially in horticulture and vegetable raising is he a necessary
asset. Estimates from reliable data show that bees in the United States
produce $25,000,000 worth of honey and beeswax annually. Their value
as agents in the pollinization of fruits and vegetables is many times their
worth as producers. Many small fruits are entirely dependent upon
insect visitors for fertilization. Cucumbers, squash, melons and tomatoes
are also dependent upon the bees for the production of fruit. [_Pear trees
especially need the bees for cross-pollinization.

Aside from the service rendered as pollinators, bees, if properly
handled, make a most profitable side line in the business of farming.
While they need intelligent care, and care at the proper time, yet much of
this can be given at odd hours and at times when the regular farm work
is not pressing. Even the time of swarming can be anticipated and to some
extent regulated.

Bee keeping furnishes a most pleasant recreation and one that pays
its own way as well as produces a profit. There is so much of marvel in
the economy of the honey bee that the most casual observer becomes an
enthusiast.

One disadvantage may be mentioned, however. Many orchard and
garden diseases are easily spread by means of spores carried by insects.
The bee plays no small part in the distribution of plant contagion. Pear-
tree blight, the brown rot of plums and the wilt of cucumbers and melons
are diseases spread through the agency of bees and other insects. The
danger of infection may be reduced to the minimum by exterminating all
diseased plants and trees; thus giving the bees no opportunity to carry
contagion.

Breeds of Bees. — The German bee is the most common in the United
States. Although not very attractive in color, being black, they winter
well and make whiter honey combs than any other race. At times they are
inclined to be cross and frequently use their stings. They are not easily
handled by the novice.

The Cyprian bees are handsome, being yellow in color, but have not
come into wide popularity on account of their extreme sensitiveness.
When once aroused, they will not even be subdued by smoke.

The Carolina bee is one of the most gentle of all bees. It is gray in
color and very prolific. The chief objection to this bee is its ever-ready
tendency to swarm.

100 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Caucasian bee has only recently been introduced into this country
and has not yet established wide popularity. It is prolific and so gentle
that some report it to be without sting. This, however, is not the case.

The Italian bee is the most satisfactory and profitable. It is more
gentle than either the German or Cyprian, and quite prolific. It is hand-
some in color, having yellow bands, and is an energetic worker in gathering
honey. It is also most active in defence of its home against marauders.
In order to winter well, the Italian bee must be well protected.

Personnel and Activity of Colony. — A bee colony consists ordinarily
of one queen bee, who is the mother of the colony, and a multitude of
females (sexually undeveloped), who carry on the work of the hive. The

Tbe Homer Bee.'
A — Wo'rker. B — Queen. C — Drone. Twice natural size.

queen bee lays all the eggs. The female workers lay no eggs at all. It is
their duty to gather honey, feed the young, keep the hive clean; in fact,
perform all the labors of the hive.

_ During some parts of the year, hundreds of males, commonly called
drones, live in the colony. These perform no labor. Their mission is to
mate with the young queens. Their number should be restricted by the
keeper.

The bee hive permits of no idlers after the young queens are mated.
The drones are then destroyed by the workers. Even the queen bee is
killed or superseded by a younger queen as soon as she lays no more eggs.
In fact, any individual in the colony who ceases to be useful is immediately
put to death or thrown out to perish.

The length of life of any bee depends much upon the time of year and
amount of labor performed. In summer, which is the working season, a
worker bee will live about 45 days. During the winter months, while

1 Courts 3j of U. 3, Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 147.

BEES i ; :■ :■;■. , .■ ,-•-:;- 101

dormant, time of life will extend from 6 J to\8: months, ; •!*„»- thereforei
necessary to maintain a strong, prolific queen -in -order-* tcC tepqpt&ite the
colony.

Size and Location of Apiary. — Authorities agree that for the most
intensive bee culture, 100 colonies are all that can be managed with profit.

The beginner will do well to start with a colony or two and gradually
build up as he becomes more familiar with the work. A year or two will
prove his success or failure. While the necessary initial capital is small,

General View or an Apiary. 1

still a plunge into the bee business without previous experience and a
thorough knowledge of bee habits is very apt to end in disaster.

The ideal location for an apiary is in an orchard or near fields where
bloom is plenty; although colonies have been successfully maintained in
city back yards and even on housetops.

Although bees travel a distance of two miles in search of nectar, it is
best to provide for it nearer home. The time wasted in transit is negative,
as the bee flies very rapidly; but if far from home, sudden rain or wind
storms bewilder the bees and cause loss of life. In rainy or cold weather,
bees do not travel far from the hive. Should the nectar be far afield, con-
tinued unfavorable weather necessarily decreases their activity.

The hives should be placed a few feet apart so that in working with

'Courtayof U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. FiuineiV Bulletin 447.

102

SUC£E$SFUL FARMING

• • • •• • • •

one, the adj$ce«t.hivc is &ot.disfeirbed. They should be far enough away
from roectsrte .wfelks acf a? not *to annoy passersby.

In the North, hives should be placed on a sunny slope, facing away
from the prevailing winds. Some shade is desirable, but the hives should

be so placed as to catch the
morning sun. This encourages
bee activity early in the day,
thus gathering the best of the
nectar.

The colony must be located
in a dry place and kept free from
weeds, each hive being raised a
few inches from the ground by
means of a stand. These stands
may be of wood, stone or con-
crete, and serve to keep the
hive dry.

Shade and Ventilation. — A
reasonable amount of shade is
beneficial, although dense shading
of the apiary is disastrous. It
promotes dampness and encour-
ages disease. If a natural shade
is not possible, a temporary
shade of boards or canvas should
be used during the heated por-
tions of the day. Newly swarmed
hives should be kept well shaded
and cool. Temperature influ-
ences the swarming habit; a
colony subjected to the burning
rays of the sun will swarm much
sooner than one well shaded.

Roomy, well-ventilated hives
are necessary for comfort and
health. During warm weather,
ventilation is improved by
raising the front of the hive
two or three inches by supporting it upon small blocks of wood. Care
must be taken, however, to lower the hive in case of a change in
temperature. Most authorities do not approve of opening the upper
part of the hive. It is apt to cause a draft through the hive, and also
encourage robber bees. A wide entrance at the bottom is much preferred
for ventilation purposes.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 503.

A Modern Bee Hive. 1

BEES 103

Stocking the Apiary. — Bees may be secured more easily at swarming
time and the colonies are apt to be stronger at that time. Usually the
purchaser provides a hive into which the apiarist puts the new swarm.
This may be moved at night and, if taken a distance of a mile or more,
there is no danger of the bees returning. A good strong colony purchased
at this time will yield a second swarm if the season is favorable.

Introducing a New Queen. — The prosperity of the colony depends
much upon the strength of the queen. Bees from a strong queen winter
better than those from a weak one, and are more prolific in spring. If the
queen becomes weakened, it is best not to wait until the workers destroy
her, but to make away with her and introduce a new one at once. Queens
may be purchased from any dealer in bee-queens. They are sent through
the mail in a small cage, accompanied by a few workers.

Many methods of introducing a new queen are used, but if the queen
is a valuable one, it is best to use a perfectly safe method. Remove the
old queen in the evening. In the morning lay the cage containing the
new queen and attendants, wire side down, on the frames under the quilt.
Close the hive and leave it alone. In a short time the bees will have
eaten their way into the cage and released the queen. The wait over
night is necessary on account of the excited condition of the bees when
their queen is removed. This excitement might cause them to destroy
the new queen. Queens introduced in this manner are generally at work
in two or three days laying eggs.

Some introduce by first blowing tobacco smoke down the hive to
drive the bees down, then: release the queen and allow her to run down
between the combs, blowing a little smoke after her. This not only obscures
all strange odors about the queen, but stupefies the bees.

Introducing a queen makes the opportunity to change breeds of
bees, as the new queen is usually mated when purchased. Queens are
sold under one of three labels: tested queens that are mated with a
drone whose race is known; untested queens mated with an unknown
drone; and breeding queens, those that have shown superiority for breed-
ing purposes before leaving their home. The bees in the colony have no
influence on the progeny of the new queen already mated. By the time
the new brood hatches out, the old ones begin to die, and soon the race
is changed.

Uniting and Transferring Colonies. — It often becomes advisable to
unite two weak colonies, making one strong one. Some fundamental
facts about bees must be understood in order to make this a success.
Every colony has a distinct odor and resents bees from other colonies.
It is necessary, therefore, to obscure this odor by using smoke. Smoke
also stupefies the bees and renders them more docile. Both colonies
should be smoked, but care should be taken not to use too much smoke,
or the bees will be completely overcome. One queen should be destroyed;
the one saved should be caged for a day or so to prevent the bees killing

104 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

her. At swarming time when the bees are full of honey, it is a simple
matter to unite colonies. If the two colonies are not near each other,
one should be moved nearer the other, a few feet each day, that the bees
may not notice the changed location. When side by side the change can
be made without difficulty.

Transferring a colony from a box hive to one with movable frames
often becomes necessary. This should be done during the honey season
and while the larger number of bees are in the field. The two hives should
be adjacent. The new hive should contain combs or sheets of foundations.
Turn the box hive upside down and fit over it a small empty box, inverted.
Then drum on the hive until most of the bees desert their combs and go
into the empty box above. These may be carried to the new hive and
put at the entrance. Care must be taken to secure the queen, as the
bees will not remain without her. If there is brood in the old hive, turn
it right side up again and after twenty-one days this will be hatched out.
These bees may then be gathered in the same manner and, by smoking
both colonies, reunited in the new hive.

General Methods of Handling. — Certain general rules will apply
at all times in handling bees.

Hives should never be jarred or disturbed more than necessary.
Rapid movements should be avoided. Bees have a peculiar eye structure
which enables them to see movements more readily than objects. Quick
movements irritate them, causing them to sting. Stings are not only
painful, but the odor of the poison irritates the other bees, thus making
them difficult to manage. The novice should wear a veil over a broad hat,
and use a good smoker. A few puffs are sufficient to subdue the bees.
Gloves generally prove a nuisance, but rubber bands on the arms prevent
the bees crawling up inside the sleeves. Black clothing is particularly
objectionable to bees. Do not handle bees at night or on cold, wet days,
unless absolutely necessary. The middle of the day, particularly during
the honey season, is the best time to manipulate bees. Always stand to
the side or back of the hive, never in front of the entrance. In handling
frames, care should be taken not to let the bees drop off on to the ground.

Swarming. — Swarming is the exit of the original queen with part
of her workers to seek a new home. In this manner, new colonies are
formed. An abundant supply of honey and a crowded condition of the
hive are the immediate causes of swarming. Swarming may occur in
May, but is more apt to occur during July and August, or when the honey
flow is at its best.

The only outward indication preceding swarming is a partial cessation
of field work and the loafing of many bees about the entrance, as if waiting
for some signal. Suddenly the bees all rush forth, accompanied by the
old queen, and after circling about for a time, cluster on a nearby limb.
This is the critical time for the bee keeper. If he has made no previous
preparation to house his departing swarm, he may lose them altogether.

BEES 103

A wise keeper will have clean hives in readiness. These should be
kept in a shady place, so as to be cool as possible for the incoming swarm.
Newlj swarmed colonies will not remain in overheated hives. For this
reason the hive should be kept well shaded and well ventilated for several
days after the swarm goes into it. Some recommend giving a frame of
brood to the newcomers, as bees are less apt to desert this.

Bees rarely fail to cluster after swarming. If they light on a limb
that can be spared, it may be sawed off and the bees carried to the new
hive. If this is not practical, the bees may be shaken off into a basket
or box and taken to the hive. A box with a long handle is useful for swarms
on high limbs. It is not necessary to secure all the bees. If the queen
is hived the rest will follow. If she is not hived,
however, the bees will leave the hive and join
the cluster again. Bees are usually peaceful at
swarming time, having filled themselves with
honey before starting out. A little smoke blown
into the cluster usually subdues them.

Great care must be used in handling the bees
that none be crushed. The odor from a crushed
bee excites the living bees and makes them diffi-
cult to handle. ■

Soon after hiving the bees resume their
normal duties. The queen begins to lay eggs
and the workers store honey in anticipation of
the new brood. Extra frames should now be
placed for the storage of honey. If there were
incomplete supers on the parent hive, these
should be lifted over on the new hive.

The departing swarm leaves behind several
queen cells which will hatch in a few days. All Queen Cells. 1

but one of these will be destroyed by the workers.

Two or three days after the remaining queen bee has been fertilized she
begins to lay eggs and the colony resumes its normal routine.

How to Prevent Swarming. — A reasonable amount of swarming is
desirable, as in this manner new colonies are Btarted. However, much
swarming weakens the colonies. Weak colonies do not store an abundance
of honey or winter well. Neither do they resist moths and disease. An
overcrowded colony is the most common cause of swarming. As a pre-
ventive, plenty of room should be kept in the hive by removing the
honey supply often and furnishing extra supers. The hives should be
kept well shaded and ventilated.

One queen to a colony is the rule. Too many queens cause swarming.
If the queen cells are carefully watched and cut out, the number can be
regulated. The queen cells are readily recognized by the keeper, as they

• Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 447.

106 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

are larger than any other cells. They are rough on the outside and hang
vertically on the comb, having much the shape of a peanut. The supply
of queens should not be entirely cut off, however, as a vigorous colony
needs requeening at least once in two years.

Artificial swarming is sometimes resorted to by dividing an over-
crowded colony and furnishing a new queen to the queenless portion.
This process is expedient, however, only after indications of swarming
are observed. Otherwise, the bees may swarm naturally later on.

Clipping the queen's wings to prevent her flying is sometimes resorted
to to prevent swarming. In this event, she will be found near the hive
when the swarm issues and can be recaptured and put into a new hive. The
parent colony should be removed and the new hive put in its place. The
swarming bees will then enter the new hive. The bees afield at the time
of swarming will also return to the new hive, thus strengthening the new
colony and relieving the congestion of the parent colony. The same
shifting of hives should take place in event of a natural swarming.

Wintering of Bees. — Queens showing lack of vitality as winter
approaches should be replaced, in order that the colony may begin the
inactive period with young and vigorous bees. Cellar wintering is not
advisable unless under the direction of an experienced bee keeper. The
dangers from moths, sweat and other bee troubles make the practice
doubtful. A dry, well-ventilated cellar with an even temperature is
imperative.

Throughout the South, where the winters are mild, no packing is
needed for outside wintering. The entrance should be closed enough,
however, to keep out cold drafts and prevent the entrance of mice and
other enemies. Enough space must be left for the passage of the bees.

In the North the hives must be well packed to retain the heat gener-
ated by the bees. Heavy building paper tacked around the hive, leaving
the entrance open, makes a good winter protection for bees. A piece of
burlap, tacked over the front of the hive and hanging over the entrance,
makes a good shield from snow and wind. This may be lifted on fair days
to permit the passage of the bees. Dark wrapping paper should be avoided,
as it absorbs the rays of the sun. This creates a rise in temperature within
the hive, resulting in too much bee activity. Dampness is more fatal
than cold to bees. It is advisable to place burlap or other absorbent
material on top of the frames to absorb the dampness which otherwise
might condense and dampen the cluster of bees.

Bee Feeding. — A colony of bees should enter the winter with from
25 to 40 pounds of honey stored for food. The quantity depends upon
the length and severity of the winter.

Fall and spring feeding is often resorted to in order to continue activity
in the colony late in the season and stimulate it early in the spring. Honey
from unknown sources should not be fed, on account of introducing
disease. Syrup made from granulated sugar makes a satisfactory food.

BEES 107

A small pan filled with shavings or excelsior saturated with the syrup
may be placed on top of the frames.

Hives. — There are many good hives on the market, but the one most
widely used is the Langstroth hive. Unless one is skilled in making hives,
it is best to purchase them ready-made. All hives in the apiary should
be of the same style and size, so that the frames are interchangeable.

Foundation Combs. — Foundation combs should be furnished either
as starters or as entire sheets. The finished product will then be beauti-
fully uniform. If the bees are left to furnish their own wax, much time
is consumed and the resulting comb is irregular. Full sheets of foundation
produce the finest quality of comb. When one super is half full or more,
it should be raised and an empty one put under it. Care must be taken
not to furnish too many sections at once or some will be left unfinished.

Handling and Marketing. — In handling the honey combs, care must
be taken to keep the frames in a perpendicular position. If placed on
their sides, the combs will be broken. The same caution applies in packing
for market or in handling foundation or brood frames.

Honey should not be stored in a cool, damp cellar, but kept in a warm,
dry room. Honey taints easily and care must be taken to use as little
smoke as possible in the hives in handling the bees.

The home market is the best for the small honey producer. The
product deteriorates rapidly in shipping, and much care is needed to pack,
so as to ship without loss. Unless handled in large quantities the added
expense of packing will offset the higher price at a distant market.

Wax from extracted honey and that scraped from frames can be
melted and made into beeswax. Beeswax not only has a market value
as wax, but if sent to a foundation factory, new foundations can be made
from it at a cost much less than the purchasing of new foundations.

Diseases of Bees. — Moth is not a disease, but is a common enemy
of the bee. The presence of moth denotes a weak colony, for a strong
colony will destroy moth webs and keep them out. Once in, not much
can be done save to so strengthen the colony, that it rids itself of the
moth.

Foul brood is the most common bee disease. It is a germ disease,
much to be dreaded, as it spreads rapidly from one apiary to the other,
the first trace is noticeable in the grubs. They turn yellow and stretch
out in their cells instead of being white and curled up. Later a stench
arises from the hive. Drastic measures must be taken at once to keep the
disease from spreading. The bees should be removed to a clean hive with-
out comb and kept for thirty-six hours with the hive closed. At the end
of that time they may be put into a new hive with clean comb and a fertile
queen. Sugar syrup must be furnished them for a time. The infected hive
and all its parts must be burned.

So serious has this disease become that many states have passed
laws governing its control, and provide inspectors to see that the laws

108 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

are enforced. It is to a bee keeper's advantage to co-operate in every
way possible with these inspectors in controlling this disease.

REFERENCES
"Bee Keeping." Phillips.
"How to Keep Bees for Profit." Lyon.
"Bee Book." Biggie.
Canadian Dept. oiAgriculture Bulletins:

213. "Bee Diseases."

233. "Natural Swarming of Bees; How to Prevent."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Entomology, Bulletin 14. "Diseases of Bees."
Farmers' Bulletins. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

442. "Treatment of Bee Diseases."

447. "Bees."

603. "Comb Honey."

652. "Honey and Its Uses in the Home."

695. " Outdoor Wintering of Bees."

PART II
DAIRY FARMING

(Dairy Husbandry)

« 109

CHAPTER 10
The Dairy Herd; Its Selection and Improvement

By F. S. Putney
Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry , The Pennsylvania State College

The dairy cow of today has been so long domesticated that it is
impossible to identify her exact origin. Several possible origins have been
written about, but one thing we are sure of is that the original cow gave
milk only for her young for a few months. The modern dairy herd is the
result of selection and improvement by man.

Scrubs, Grades, Crosses and Pure-Breds. — A dairy herd which is the
result of accident and which has never been improved is called a common
or scrub herd. Such a herd usually has the blood of several breeds, but has
been bred without thought. Occasionally a scrub dairy cow is profitable,
but it is rare indeed to find a scrub herd that is profitable. A large per-
centage of the dairy cattle in the country today are high-grades. A grade
animal carries over 50 per cent of the blood of some particular breed. The
pure-bred sire is now believed to be an essential of a good dairy herd, hence
the result is that most of the cows are now high-grade, carrying over 75
per cent of the blood of one breed. A cross-bred animal has the blood of
two pure-bred animals of different breeds in its veins. Such breeding is
good to produce vitality, but is not good for milk production; especially
is this true in the crossing of such distinct breeds as the Holstein-Friesian
and the Jersey. Comparatively few pure-bred dairy herds exist. However,
the number is sufficient to permit of every one owning a pure-bred sire,
and the number of pure-bred animals is on the increase. A pure-bred
animal does not have the blood of any other breed since the founding of
that breed.

Value of Pedigrees. — A pedigree is a list of the names and registry
numbers of the ancestry of an animal. A dairy farmer who keeps pure-
bred animals should exercise care in keeping his animals registered in the
herd-book of the breed association. This is profitable because pure-bred
animals sell better than grade animals, as the offspring are more uniform,
especially in type and color. The latter fact adds a great deal to the
selling price. Further, the pure-bred dairy animals have been developed
to higher milk production than any other class of farm animals and natu-
rally the dairyman is willing to pay for their production ability. The more
high producing animals in the ancestry of an animal, the better is that
pedigree.

Ill

112 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Breed Differences. — Within dairy cattle are several definite strains
of a special type. These definite strains are called breeds. Some breeds
have been developed for the large amount of milk they give, other breeds
for the large percentage of fat which the milk contains. The size of the
different breeds also varies a great deal. These breeds are quite largely
the result of conditions that exist in different countries. Great as is the
difference in the quantity and the quality of the milk and size of the breeds,
the individual variations within a breed are nearly as great.

The following table, from Bulletin No. 114 of the Pennsylvania Experi-
ment Station, shows the difference in percentage of fat of breeds:

Per cent.

All Jerseys or Guernseys of high-grade . 5.0

Mixed herd with some Jersey or Guernsey animals 4.5

Common mixed herd 4.0

Mixed herd with some Holstein animals 3.5

All Holsteins 3.0

A Standard of Production Necessary. — In order to select and improve
animals for the dairy herd, it is necessary to have a standard of production.
The standard is, of course, the lowest limit for profitable production. Since
production of milk varies with the age of the animal, it is necessary to have
a standard for the first few lactation periods. A heifer with first calf
usually gives about 70 per cent of her future production as a mature cow.
A cow makes her maximum production at about seven years of age. The
standard of production varies with each community, but in a very general
way, where up-to-date dairying is followed, a cow should produce between
6000 and 8000 pounds of milk and 250 to 300 pounds of fat to stay in
the herd.

Individual Selection. — If it is necessary to have a standard of produc-
tion for each cow, it is equally necessary to have some way of selecting
animals that should come up to this standard. This will be discussed in
the paragraphs on Records which follow. In order to improve a herd
properly, one must keep more than records of production. The individuals
must be selected for size, vigor and trueness to type. This selection must
begin with the calf. Only calves of the right type and vigor should be
raised. Size in the animal is important, but vigor is even more essential.
Vigor and lung capacity are essential to enable the cow to resist all the
diseases to which the dairy cow is heir. It is desirable to raise farm
animals that have shown prolificness, as this quality is reproduced to a
marked degree in dairy animals. Having decided to raise a particular
breed, it is necessary to know the characteristics of that breed better than
any other.

In starting a new herd, the females should be selected for uniformity
of type, and should be typical of the breed they represent. In selecting
a bull, some breeders prefer one that is strong, where the females in the
herd are weak. If possible, this is a good practice. The bull should always

THE DAIRY HERD

113 <

be from as long a line of high producing animals as is possible to secure.
In starting a herd, do not allow passing fads to have undue weight. To
illustrate, the Jersey cattle have been greatly hurt by the solid color fad
that went over the country. The breed was not solid colored at its founda-
tion, and whatever fad comes into a herd after it has been founded reduces
the number of animals to select from for production and hence weakens the
herd instead of strengthening it. The Guernsey fad of light-colored noses
and the white color of the Holstein-Friesian and Ayrshires are illustrations

mmw:

A Typical Cow, Marked to Show Points in Judging. 1

1 — Head. 2 — Muzzle. 3 — Nostril. 4 — Face. 5 — Eye. 6 — Forehead. 7 — Horn.
8— Ear. 9— Cheek. 10— Throat. 11— Neck. 12— Withers. 13— Back. 14— Loins.
15— Hip Bone. 16— Pelvic Arch. 17— Rump. 18— Tail. 19— Switch. 20— Chest.
21— Brisket. » 22— Dewlap. 23— Shoulder. 24— Elbow. 25— Forearm. 26— Knee.
27— Ankle. 28— Hoof . 29— Heart Girth. 30— Side or Barrel. 31— Belly. 32— Flank.
33— Milk Vein. 34— Fore Udder. 35— Hind Udder. 36— Teats. 37— Upper Thigh.
38— Stifle. 39— Twist. 40— Leg or Gaskin. 41— Hock. 42— Shank. 43— Dew Claw.

of this fad. In order to select animals wisely, one should be a good judge
of the breed in which he is interested.

Records. — While a breeder can select cows by the eye for many good
and desirable points, the only real test of a dairy cow is the record of her
milk and butter-fat yield. This should be kept for every year that a cow
stays in the herd. If the farmer has the time, he should keep other records,
such as list of offspring, feed records and the like. The greatest improve-
ment is possible only when complete records have been kept.

In order to ascertain the production of a cow, a pair of scales, a Bab-
cock testing outfit and milk sheets are necessary. The most popular
scale today is the Chatillon Improved Spring Balance, which can be hung

i Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. B. A. 1. 15th Report.

114 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in some handy place in the barn or milk room. The two hands on the
dial enable one to read the amount of milk directly. The milk sheet can
be made for the month, week or any convenient length of period. The
monthly record is the most popular. It is desirable to have a space for
tabulating ten-day periods for the reason that grain is usually fed in
accordance with the yield of milk. The amount fed should be adjusted
at least as often as every ten days. Some adjust it every week, but when
added for ten days the amount can be read directly without division.

Records show that about one-third of the cows in the United States
are "boarders," or cows that do not even pay for their feed. When it
is remembered that so many cows are unprofitable, and that if records are
not kept, the daughters of these same unprofitable cows will be retained in
the herd, and in turn more than likely become unprofitable, the value of
records in dairy herd improvement is readily understood. Records show
that one-third of the dairy cows in the country should be killed. The net
profits of the herds remaining would then be greater than is now
the case.

Cow-Testing Association Records. — Since it takes time to keep
records, groups of farmers find it economical to organize and employ a
man to keep records for them. This man is called a supervisor, and his
services enable a group of both small and large farmers to practice selection
based on production. Since the supervisor must visit each farm at least
one day in a month, only about twenty-five farmers can co-operate in
the hiring of one man. A supervisor can be had for from $500 to $600 a
year with board and room. If these twenty-five farms keep 500 cows,
the expense of keeping records by the supervisor method is less than though
the owners paid themselves for the time that they would take to keep
the same records. The supervisor weighs all feed given to the cows during
the day on which he visits the farm. From this data he figures the cost
of the feed by the month. In the same way he weighs the milk from each
cow and tests it for butter-fat. This enables him to calculate the pro-
duction for a month. He figures for the owner the value of the product
from each cow for the month at the price that the owner is receiving.

Each cow-testing association is bound together by by-laws, contracts
and some sort of articles of confederation. In some cases the association
buys feed in carload lots so as to reduce the cost to the members. Such
an association must be gathered from a community covering a small area.
Some cow-testing associations stretch over considerable territory.

Bull Associations. — One of the outgrowths of the cow-testing associa-
tion is the bull association. These associations are often formed from a
group of men within the cow-testing association. It is necessary that
the members keep the same breed of stock. These men own a bull, or
several bulls, together. The bull is kept in the community as long as he
is a good producer. A good producing bull is one that is a sure getter,
and whose heifer calves prove to be better producers as cows than their

THE DAIRY HERD 115

dams. Such a bull should be given a herd as long as he will breed.
Through the bull associations, it is often possible to bring into a community
a bull of better breeding than any single member of the community could
finance alone. It is not the cost of the bull that determines its value, but
rather the producing ability of his daughters.

The bull association, to be of value, needs records, and the cow-
testing association assures the records. They work well together.

Advanced Registry Records. — Any daughter or son of a registered
dam and sire can be registered in the herd-books of that breed association.
Unfortunately, many registered animals are no better producers than
scrubs. In order to improve the animals within a breed, the different
breed associations have started Advanced Registry Requirements. These

requirements are based upon performance, and hence only worthy animals
find their names on its lists. The different breeders have different names
for the books in which such animals are listed, but all serve the same
purpose. Representatives from the different experiment stations vouch
for the production of the animals after personal visits. Such records
have done much toward developing the modern, wonderful milking cow.
Pure-bred sires should have some near relatives whose names appear in
the advanced registry of the particular breed. All breeders of pure-bred
stock should be encouraged to make advanced registry tests so as to improve
the sale of bull calves from their herds.

The Bull is Half the Herd.— It is one of the sayings of breeders that
"the bull is half the herd." Where in-breeding is practiced, he is even

I Courtesy of the Department of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State Co11g£b.

1 From Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177.

THE DAIRY HERD 117

more than half. Even if the cows are scrubs, there is no place in the herd
for a grade or scrub bull. Only a pure-bred bull should head a herd of
cows. The bull should possess quality and type and come from a long
line of good producing females. In order to be sure that a bull can improve
a good herd of cows, only tested bulls should be used. In order to test
a bull he should be bred when young to a few of the good cows in the herd
and the resulting heifer calves watched. If they are better than their
dams, a good herd sire is indicated.

Professor W. J. Fraser, of the University of Illinois, calculates that
in a herd of thirty-five cows it costs $3 per heifer more to have them sired
by a pure-bred bull than by a scrub. This, then, is the total cost of pro-
viding each heifer calf with one good parent. If this same heifer calf
produces only three pounds of milk more a day than her dam, this, at 80
cents a hundred pounds, means that in six years of milking, for 300 days
a year, she would bring the owner $43 more than her dam. On this basis
the rate of interest on the investment is better than anything else on the
farm. Professor Fraser believes his figures to be conservative.

The University of Missouri has a Jersey herd that has had the fortune
of having some excellent bulls at its head and the misfortune of having
had some sires of very poor quality. To illustrate: ten daughters from
Lome of Meridale, one of their bulls, would have produced in six years
$900 more than their dams, while ten daughters of Missouri Rooter in the
same time would have produced $980 less than their dams. This shows
that two farmers of equal ability living on farms side by side, and of the
same size, would differ $2000 in wealth at the end of six years with only,
ten daughters from such different character bulls. The necessity of
records is seen when it is remembered that the "bull is half the herd."

Buying Cows or Raising Calves. — One cannot build up a dairy herd
and continue to improve it by buying cows. The only way to improve
a herd is by raising calves that are better than their dams. Near large
cities it is a common practice to buy cows to replenish the herd. In this
country, far from large cities, an excess of calves is raised. If all the cows
in this far-removed section had good records this method could continue.
The farmer who gets his herd free from tuberculosis and contagious abor-
tion can hope to keep it so, providing he raises his own calves. It can
never be done if he buys cows.

The new-born calf must be well fed and made to grow. The feeding
of the calf undoubtedly has some effect on the later usefulness of the cow.
A stunted calf will never be as good a cow as though she had never been
stunted.

For purposes of record it is necessary that every calf be marked before
being taken from its mother. This often seems unnecessary, but when
the young heifer spends her first summer on pasture, the owner is liable
to forget the particular animal unless he visits the pasture frequently, or
unless the heifer has some very distinguishing mark. If the habit of

118 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

putting a tag in the ear, or some other good system of marking is estab-
lished, trouble is avoided.

The calf should be fed so as not to develop scours or disorders of any-
kind. The best way is to feed the mother's milk for a few days, and see
that all milk is warmed to blood heat. It should be fed only from clean
pails. For the first few days it is well to feed three times a day; after
that, twice a day is sufficient. The calf should be fed liberally, but more
danger comes from over-feeding than under-feeding. Modern milk sub-
stitutes grow good dairy calves.

Developing the Young Animal. — Dairy cows are developed success-
fully in several different ways. The essential point is that the bone must
be nearly grown at the time of dropping the first calf. Some feeders simply
give large amounts of roughage to heifer calves during the winter after
weaning from milk. In this way the frame grows, but little fat is put on.
Other feeders give some grain, up to four pounds per animal per day, and
this assures the heifer being in good flesh. When pastures are excellent,
the first method is all right, but when pastures are only good or fair, better
results are obtained by feeding some grain to heifers. A well-developed
growing heifer gives more milk than one poorly developed, since she
requires less feed for growth.

Open Stables for Heifers. — Heifers over one year old are today kept
in open sheds facing the south. It is believed that this open-air method
develops a stronger constitution and more hardiness, two qualities of
great value in warding off disease later. This method of housing is much
cheaper than housing in expensive closed quarters, and the results are
at least equally good.

REFERENCE
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 149. "Raising the Dairy Calf."

CHAPTER 11
Dairy Herd Management

By C. W. Larson
Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania Stale College

The dairy cow is more sensitive to her treatment than any other of our
productive animals. By care and breeding she has been developed into an
animal of habit, and upon the care she receives depends largely the profits
of the herd. The feed is an important item in the cost of milk production,
but the systems practiced also materially affect the profits of the herd.
It is no longer profitable to keep a cow all the year for the small amount
of milk that she produces during the summer months while on pasture.
The cheapest method of keeping a herd is not always the most profitable.
This chapter deals only with the heifers from breeding time.

Age to Breed. — The age at which a heifer should be bred depends
largely upon her size, but in general, an animal that has grown well can be
bred to have her first calf when two years of age. During the last three
months of the gestation period a heifer grows very little, so that it is not
advisable to breed a small heifer too young, and some prefer to wait until
the heifer is two and one-half years old before she has a calf. A heifer bred
too young will not attain a large size, which is desirable in a dairy cow.

Gestation period. — The gestation period of a cow is from 280 to 285
days. It is a gopd practice to keep a record of service, so that the cow can
be properly taken care of before calving time.

Regularity. — A regular routine of work should be planned for the herd
so that the cows will receive the same treatment each day. Any disturb-
ance or irregularity affects both the amount and quality of milk. The
cows should be milked at the same time each day. The milker should start
at the same end of the row and be as regular in the treatment of the cows
as possible. There are a number of points to keep in mind in planning
the routine of the cow stable. Grain may be fed before milking, but hay
should not be, because of the length of time it takes to eat it and because
of the dust it will raise. Silage also should not be fed immediately before
milking, because of the effect in the flavor of the milk. . The stable should
be cleaned before milking, if possible, and if the cows are kept in the stable,
the grooming should also be done before milking. The cows need not be
watered until after the morning feed is given. Hay should be fed late in
the evening.

Care of Cow at Calving Time. — A cow should be carefully watched and
fed during calving time. She should be provided with a clean, well-bedded

119

120 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

stall. For several days previous to calving she should be fed a bulky
ration and one that is laxative. She should not be given heavy grains. A
mash of ground oats and bran is good. For two or three days before calving
time she should be given slightly warmed water. Do not give cold water.
After two or three days the cow can gradually be put on the regular grain
and roughage feed, but the feeding should not be too heavy to start with.
Rest for Dairy Cows. — It is desirable to give a cow at least six weekB
of rest each year. Most cows dry off before this time, but occasionally
persistent milkers give a considerable supply up to the tune of their next
calving. When this is allowed, it is at the sacrifice of the milk in the next

A Good Cow Stable.'

lactation period, and alsoeometimes at the sacrifice of the calf. It is some-
times difficult to dry off a cow, but usually by cutting down the grain and
giving straw or timothy hay she can be reduced to a sufficient amount to be
safe to stop milking her. It is sometimes desirable to milk once a day for a
while and then stop altogether. It is not safe to stop milking her if she is
giving too much, although cows producing as much as six to eight quarts
have been dried off without injuring them.

Care of Cows when Dry. — A cow should be well taken care of when
dry, for she is then preparing for her next milking period, besides growing
the calf. Nearly all of the development of the calf takes place during the
last few weeks. She should be given succulent and laxative feeds and should
be well fed.

'Courteaj'ofthBPepartmMit of Dairy Hiubandry, Pemuylvinta SUt* Colleje,

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 121

Exercise. — Many dairymen believe that a cow receives all the exercise
she needs ih producing milk, but on many farms it is desirable to turn the
cows out for a part of the day. It not only gives a better opportunity to
clean out the barn, but also gives the cows an opportunity to rub them-
selves, and their feet and legs keep in better condition. Too much exercise,
of course, requires energy at the expense of milk production. Cows that
are required to walk long distances do not do as well as those that are
more confined. Cows should not be turned out during bad weather and
exposed to rains and cold winds.

Grooming. — Cows kept in the stable all, or nearly all, of the time
should be carefully groomed at least once a day. It is believed by many
that grooming has an effect upon the milk flow. Cows seem to do better
for having been groomed.

Milking. — A good milker has a fairly rapid, uniform stroke which he
continues throughout the milking period. The whole hand should grip the
teat and the pressure should come from the whole hand. The practice of
using the thumb and first finger is not recommended. The milking of
diagonal teats is thought to give best results. The Hegelund method of
the manipulation and milking has been found to stimulate milk production.
A cow milked by this process gives more milk. The steps are described as
follows:

"First Manipulation: The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a time is
taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in front
on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the udder
and the forefingers in the division between the two halves of the udder.
The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same time lifted
toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is repeated three
times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked out, and the
manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this way, when the
left quarters are treated in the same way.

"Second Manipulation: The glands are pressed together from the
side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand,
with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in
the division between the right and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed
against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is
obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing
a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and
turned upward, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter.
The hands are lifted and grasped into the gland from behind and from
the side, after which they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipulation
is repeated until no more milk is obtained.

"Third Manipulation: The fore teats are grasped with partly closed
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the
game time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands

122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and the body; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the
fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner."

Difficult Milking. — Occasionally cows are difficult to milk because
of defective teats. Sometimes the openings are too small, in which case
an instrument known as the bistoury may be used, but there is danger of
greatly injuring the teat, and it should be used only by those experienced
in its use. Only with especially good animals does it pay to spend much
time with such cows. Sore teats, caused sometimes by teats becoming
wet and exposed to the cold, can best be treated by rubbing them with
vaseline or some antiseptic grease. A cow that has developed the kicking
habit is a great annoyance. Sore teats and abuse, however, are often the
cause. Most cows, by gentle treatment and care of the teats, will cause
little trouble. Some, however, are naturally vicious, but these are few in
number. A strap tied around the body of the cow just in front of the
udder, and drawn fairly tight, will prevent most cows from' kicking. A
clamp made of wood with two straps, long enough to reach around the
leg of the cow, will prevent her from bending her leg, making it impossible
for her to kick.

Abuse.— A dairy cow should always be handled gently, for any dis-
turbances affect her. Loud noises or any unusual disturbances should
be avoided. A cow should never be struck or mistreated, nor should
she be talked to in a loud voice.

Water and Salt. — A cow requires considerable salt, and this should
be given regularly. One practice is to mix it with the grain, but the maxi-
mum requirements should not be given in this way, for a cow may be
required to eat more than she wants of it. A little in the grain is all right,
but a small amount should be given regularly, perhaps once a week, so
that she can get all she wants. A cow will eat about one-half pound of
salt a week.

An abundance of good water should be provided for dairy animals.
A cow producing large quantities of milk will consume as much as one
hundred pounds, or more, per day. Heavy milkers should be watered
twice a day. The water should not be too cold, but at the same
time it is well not to have it too warm. A uniform temperature is
desirable.

Stabling. — With most large dairy herds it is customary to have
regular stanchions in which the cows can all be tied up in rows. This
seems the best system where high-class milk is being produced. For the
small herd, the practice of allowing the cows to run in an open shed is
being followed. This method of housing, however, makes it possible to
keep the cows in a more healthy condition and to produce milk more
economically. An experiment has been conducted by The Pennsylvania
State College of housing cattle in an open shed as compared with a closed
stable, and is summarized as follows:

"1. From the data presented it appears that cows kept under an

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 123

open shed have keener appetites and consume more roughage than those
kept in stables.

"2. There was sufficient protein consumed when either Van Norman's
or Eckles' Standard was used to account for the yield of milk in addition
to maintenance.

"3. Figured on Eckles* Standard, there was a slight excess of energy-
consumed above maintenance and milk production the first two years,
and a small deficiency the last year. When computed on Van Norman's
Standard, there was a deficiency in energy consumed for maintenance
and milk production, except for one group the second year.

"4. The milk yield of the outside group decreased more rapidly each
winter than that of the inside group.

"5. Sudden drops in atmospheric temperature caused corresponding
decreases in milk yield for both groups, the outside group having a slightly
greater decrease.

"6. More bedding was required outside, but less labor was necessary
to keep the animals clean.

"7. Both groups finished each winter's trial in good health with the
exception of one that reacted to the tuberculin test in April, 1914. She
had shown no reaction in two previous tests. The hair of the animals
kept outside was longer and coarser the first two winters. The third
winter this was noticeable in only one ainmal."

Flies. — In the management of a milking herd, the problem of flies
is a difficult one. Not only are they annoying to the cow and the milker,
but they also carry disease. They should be reduced to as small a number
as possible. It is believed that they do not travel a great distance, so that
a farmer may have them fairly well under his control. Manure should
not be allowed to accumulate, and if it does, it should be treated with
some spray or disinfectant that will kill the flies. There are a number of
sprays on the market that can be used for killing flies in the barn. Some
have found traps to be practical.

Marking the Cow. — For the purpose of identification, dairy animals
should be marked. Some have a system of clipping the ears with certain
notches to represent the various figures and thus of keeping records.
This, however, is not very satisfactory. An ordinary hog ring with a
metal or composition tag fastened to it makes a satisfactory marker.
Occasionally these are torn out, but if they are properly put in and the
tag is small and round, they will stay a long time. The tattoo is also
being used successfully when good tattoo material is used.

Dehorning. — In the general milking herd all cows should be dehorned.
There is more or less pain connected with the operation, but it does not,
in the estimation of the writer, compare with the pain due to the cows
being gored day after day. It prevents the possibility also of one animal
that may be "boss" depriving others of their rightful share of food and
water. The dehorning, however, should not be done until the animal has

124 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

reached the age of two years, for if it is done before this, growth takes
place and ecure will be formed. The dehorning should be done in cold
weather and when there are no flies. The horns should be cut or clipped
as quickly as possible.

CASE OP THE BULL
A young bull should not be used too much for breeding purposes.
He should be kept growing and should be well cared for, but not overfed.
A good, thrifty young bull may breed six or seven cows before he is one

Leasing a Bcll. 1

year old with no injury to him. Even during the second year he should
not be used too much. Often a young bull is injured by overuse. A cow
should be served only once during a period of heat. A bull should never
be allowed to run with the herd, but should be kept in a separate inclosure.
He should be given exercise and be kept out in the open as much as possible.
Where two bulls are needed in a herd, it is a good practice to dehorn them
and then turn them together, or even train them to drive. A yard in which
a bull is kept should be strongly fenced, for they are powerful, and once
they break through a pen, it is very difficult to get anything that will hold
them. They should be sheltered from the winds and rain, but can stand
the cold. Bulls sometimes become vicious, due to treatment, although

1 Courtesy of Oranfft-Judd Company. N. Y. From " The Young Fanner," by Hunt.

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 125

some bulls are naturally cross. In any case, great care must be take
with them. They should never be trusted. They should always have
a ring in their noses and be led by a stock from the ring. Bulls seem to
know when a man is afraid and are more apt to attack such a one than one
who is more courageous. A bull that becomes vicious is often subdued
by being thrown with a rope. He then learns that he is under the control
of man. The amount of service that a bull may have depends upon his
age and condition. During the second year, a good, thrifty bull can be
used once a week. A mature bull may serve one hundred to two hundred
cows a year if the periods are distributed well throughout the year. In
general, however, because of the variation in the intervals in which cows
come in heat, a bull should be provided for each forty to fifty cows.

REFERENCES

"Dairy Cattle and Milk Production." Eckles.

Iowa Expt. Station Circular 16. "Care, Feed and Management of the Dairy Herd."

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 130. "Feeding Dairy Cows."

CHAPTER 12
Dairy Breeds of Cattle

By George C. Humphrey
Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of Wisconsin

Dairy Breeds Essential. — Choosing a dairy breed of cattle is funda-
mental to successful dairying. The modern improved breeds of dairy
cattle are the result of high ideals, carefully laid plans and systematic
effort on the part of many generations of dairymen who realized there
were great possibilities in the development of breeds of cattle especially
adapted for large and economical production of milk and butter-fat.
Cattle which are true representatives of the recognized dairy breeds are
very distinct from ordinary native cattle and cattle of the improved beef
breeds, both in conformation and production of milk. They also tend to
reproduce themselves from generation to generation with such marked
degree of uniformity that one familiar with their history and character-
istics would reject any other kind if he were engaged primarily in dairying.
Natural laws that govern the reproduction of plant and animal life and
preserve forms of like character from generation to generation and the
experience of a vast number of dairymen teach the value of preserving and
utilizing the distinct dairy breeds of cattle for dairy purposes.

Dairy Type Common to All Dairy Breeds. — The development of dairy
breeds has established a distinct dairy type that is naturally correlated
with extensive milk production. Dairy type refers to the conformation
and peculiarities of the body that are characteristic of animals capable of
producing large and economical yields of milk and includes the following:

1. Medium to large size of body for the breed.

2. Large feed capacity, as indicated by a roomy and capacious abdom-

inal cavity, a large mouth and sufficient strength of body to
consume and utilize a large quantity of feed.

3. Dairy temperament or a disposition to convert the larger portion

of feed consumed into milk rather than body flesh. It is
indicated by the absence of surplus flesh and a comparatively
lean and refined appearance of the entire body.

4. An udder that is large, carried well up to the body, evenly and

normally developed in all quarters and of good quality.

5. A strong, healthy flow of blood to all parts of the body, giving

vigor, alertness and constitution. These characteristics are
indicated by prominent facial, udder and mammary veins,
abundant secretions in the ears, skin of the body and at th§
end of the tail and a coat of fine straight hair.

126

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 127

Ignorance of breeds and breeding and of proper feeding and manage-
ment cause a great many cows to fall below the standard embodied in the
foregoing qualifications for dairy type. This fact, however, is no argument
against the merit of improved breeds and should not cause one to question
the value of well-established dairy breeds.

Recognized Dairy Breeds of America. — Ayrshire, Brown Swiss,
Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian and Jersey breeds of cattle are recognized and
have been exhibited at the National Dairy Shows of America as specific
dairy breeds. Dairy cattle of the Dutch Belted, French Canadian and

A Typical Ayrshire Cow. "Auchenbrain Hattie."

Medium in raze, usually red and white, horns upturned and pointed.

Kerry breeds are bred and maintained in America in comparatively small
numbers. The unimportance of these breeds in well-developed dairy
districts, however, does not warrant more than mention and a very brief
discussion of them in the limited space of this article.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE

Origin and Development— The County of Ayr in southwestern

Scotland is the native home of the Ayrshire breed. The land in this section

is rolling and more or less rough, the climate moist and the winters extremely

cold, except for being somewhat tempered by the Irish Sea. The hills

128 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

produce rolling pastures in most parts, while the better lands grow grain
crops and grass in abundance. The conditions, on the whole, demand a
hard yrustling breed of dairy cattle, and Ayrshires have been developed to
suit the needs of their native country. Early history records the use of
several different breeds of cattle which undoubtedly have contributed to
the establishment of the Ayrshire breed. Teeswater, Shorthorn, Dutch,
Lincoln, Hereford, Devon and West Highland breeds are mentioned by
various authors as having been used. Whatever the true origin may have
been, the breed has been bred pure for many years, and its character
fixed after the manner of other pure breeds of livestock developed by the
Scotch people. The production of a breed of .cattle suited to the condition
of environment of that country, and especially adapted for the production
of large yields of milk, was the standard which guided the breeders in fixing
the characteristics of this breed. The breed has found favor in other
countries and to a greater or less extent in all dairy sections of America,
especially in the New England states and the provinces of Canada.

Characteristics of Ayrshire Cattle. — Ayrshire cattle are medium in
size. Cows should weigh on the average 1000 pounds and bulls 1500
pounds. The color is a combination of white, red, brown and black.
White predominating with red or brown markings is the more popular
color. There are black and white Ayrshires in Scotland whose purity of
blood is not questioned. A neat head with horns of medium length, inclin-
ing upward, a body with straight top line, well-developed chest, arched ribs,
deep flank, and comparatively smooth hind quarters and an udder. that is
symmetrical and well balanced in form and well carried up to the body
characterize the typical Ayrshire cow. The size of teats in many cows is
subject to the criticism of being too small and one will do well to bear this
in mind in making selections. The milk production of mature cows has in
a few instances, under official tests, exceeded 20,000 pounds of milk per
annum. An Ayrshire cow should be expected to yield 6000 to 8000 pounds
of milk under ordinary conditions. The milk tests in the neighborhood of
four per cent butter-fat. The highest official yearly production for an
Ayrshire cow to date was made by Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 27943,
owned by Percival Roberts, Jr., Narberth, Pa. Her yearly production
amounted to 23,022 pounds of milk testing 3.99 per cent and 917.6 pounds
of butter fat.

BROWN SWISS CATTLE

Origin and Development. — The Brown Swiss breed of cattle has its
origin in Switzerland and the cattle by virtue of their native home are
strong, rugged and hardy. In this country they have been developed
with reference to their dairy qualities to the extent that they have become
recognized as one of the distinct dairy breeds. Up to 1907 they were
bred and largely advertised as a dual purpose breed. In the meantime,
however, the American breeders have given careful attention to selecting

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 129

types and developing strains which excel more particularly in yield and
economy of milk production. In the eastern and middle sections of the
United States the breed is gaining favor and promises to have a place
sooner or later of equal rank with older and better recognized breeds of
dairy cattle.

Characteristics of Brown Swiss Cattle. — The breed is noted for its
large size and ruggedness. Due to comparatively large bones and robust
appearance, it is sometimes regarded as too coarse for economy of pro-
duction. Cows will vary from 1200 to 1400 pounds in live weight at

A Bbown Swiss Cow. 1

maturity, and bulls quite frequently exceed 2000 pounds in weight. There
is a tendency toward refinement and less size where dairy type is sought
and selected to take the place of the former dual purpose type. Breeders
aim, however, to maintain good size and large capacity for milk production
in their efforts to develop herds of this breed.

A dark-brown or mouse color with a line of gray along the back, a
mealy ring about the muzzle, a light fringe of hair on the inner side of
the ear and more or less light hair on the under side of the body, constitutes
the characteristic color of the cattle of this breed. Quite frequently the
lighter gray color covers the entire body.

' Courteiy of Tb» Field, New York.

A Guernsey Bthl. 1

> Court«y of ThB Hail, New York.
130

A TmcAi Guubnset Cow.

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 131;

The head and neck are comparatively heavy; the males, and quite
frequently the cows, carrying more or less dewlap. Well-developed udders,
proportionate in size to the size of body, are sought in the selection of
mature cows. A register of production for animals of superior merit has
been formed by the American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association
and there is a loyal effort on the part of breeders to make records that
will compare favorably with records of other breeds. The breed has
demonstrated its ability to make very profitable productions of milk and
butter-fat. The milk tests on the average about 4.0 per cent. The high-
est official yearly record for a Brown Swiss cow at the present time is
19,460.6 pounds of milk, testing 4.1 per cent and 798.16 pounds of butter-
fat. This record was made by the cow College Brauvura 2d, 2577, owned
by the Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Mich.

GUERNSEY CATTLE

Origin and Development. — Guernsey cattle take their name from
Guernsey Island, located in the English Channel not far from France.
This island and two smaller ones, Alderney and Sarnia, belong to the
Channel Islands group, and is where the Guernsey breed originated and
has been developed. These islands, of which Guernsey is the largest,
contain only 2600 acres. On Guernsey the land is more or less hilly and
rough, and the farms are small and devoted exclusively to horticulture and
dairying. Many of the crops, such as grapes, melons and flowers, are
grown in greenhouses. The cattle are owned in small herds and, in order
to make the best use of the available pastures, are tethered or staked
out when allowed to graze.

The people devote their attention to the one breed of cattle and
exclude all other cattle from the island, except those which may be imported
for immediate slaughter. The breed undoubtedly has its origin in stock
of early French varieties known as Brittany and Normandy cattle. The
production of a rich quality of high-colored milk and butter has always
been the principal object in breeding and developing this breed, and
naturally this has resulted in excellence of performance on the part of
well-grown cattle of the breed.

Guernsey cattle were introduced into America early in the nineteenth
century, but not until 1893, when the dairy qualities of Guernsey cattle
were brought to the attention of the general public by records made at
the World's Columbian Exhibition at Chicago, did Guernsey interests
develop to the extent they deserved. The American Guernsey Cattle
Club was organized in 1877, and of late years many importations of
Guernsey cattle have been made and much enthusiasm has been aroused
on the part of dairymen in exploiting and developing the interests of the
breed. The breed ranks at the present time as one of the most popular.

Characteristics of Guernsey Cattle. — The standard weight for Guern-
sey cows is 1050 pounds, and for bulls 1500 pounds. Standards which

A Holotelv-Friesian Bull. 1
The largest of dairy breeds — color, black and white.

A Typical Holstein Cow. 1

1 Court™? at The Field. New York.
132

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 133

demand excellence in conformation and characteristics pertaining to
dairy type are fulfilled by many cattle of the breed. Development for
usefulness rather than for beauty of form has resulted in a lack of refine-
ment and neatness of outline in a good many of the cattle. The compara-
tively few Guernsey cattle in the country encouraged breeders to retain all
pure-bred animals and this accounts for much of the lack of uniformity
that exists. The American Guernsey Cattle Club was first to establish
an advanced registry for official annual productions of milk and butter-fat
and this again has been a standard toward which breeders have worked
to a greater extent in many instances than they have for excellence of
form. Marked improvement, however, in uniformity and excellence of
dairy form has been noted in the show herds exhibited during the past
few years.

In color the Guernsey is a shade of fawn, varying from dark-red to
light-yellow with white markings. The color of the muzzle in most
instances, which is regarded as most desirable, is buff or flesh color. A
dark muzzle is permissible but undesirable on the part of critical judges.
More emphasis is laid upon rich yellow secretion in the skin, especially
in the ear and at the end of the tail, together with a yellowish appearance
of the horns and hoofs than is laid upon the color markings. The rich
orange secretions of the body are believed to indicate a rich yellow color
of the milk, which is regarded as a most important Guernsey characteristic!
Guernsey milk is not only yellow but of good quality, testing in the neigh-
borhood of five per cent. The yield of milk under ordinary conditions
should be 6000 to 7000 pounds per annum. Under official tests, many
Guernseys have far exceeded this amount. In three instances Guernsey
cows have held the world's championship record in butter-fat production.
The highest official yearly record of milk and butter-fat production held
by a Guernsey cow was made by Murne Cowan, 19597, owned by O. C.
Barber, Akron, Ohio, her production amounting to 24,008 pounds of
milk, testing 4.57 per cent and 1098.18 pounds of butter-fat.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Origin and Development — Holstein-Friesian cattle, commonly called
Holsteins in America, have their origin in Friesland, a province of Holland
bordering on the North Sea, where low, fertile dyke lands have been
favorable for the development of a large breed of cattle capable of making
large productions of milk. History records that for a thousand or more
years these cattle had been bred and utilized for dairy purposes. Since
1885 they have been extensively introduced into most of the dairy sections
of America and because of their large size and the large quantity of milk
which it is characteristic of them to produce, the breed ranks as one of
the most popular.

Characteristics of Holstein-Friesian Cattle. — The type and size of
the cattle of this breed varies considerably and the terms "beef," "beef

134 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and milk," "milk and beef," and "milk forms" are used to describe the
different types. The milk and beef form is the most generally accepted
type and should be the aim of men engaged in the breeding of these cattle.
Extreme milk form is usually the result of improper growth on the part
of young animals or selection of breeding stock which produces too much
refinement. The following quotation characterizes true Holstein type
and owners and breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle base their claim for
the superiority of this breed on the following points:

1. "That the Holstein-Friesian is a large, strong, vigorous cow, full

of energy and abounding in vitality.

2. "That her physical organization and digestive capacity is such

that she is able to turn to the best advantage the roughage
of the farm, converting the same into merchantable products.

3. "That she produces large quantities of most excellent milk fit

for any and all uses, and fit especially for shipping purposes.

4. "That heredity is so firmly established through her long lineage

that she is able to perpetuate herself through strong, healthy
calves.

5. "And that when, for any reason, her usefulness in the dairy is

at an end, she fattens readily and makes excellent beef."
Cows of this breed should weigh 1200 to 1400 pounds. Mature
bulls ordinarily weigh 1900 to 2000 pounds or over.

Black and white is the characteristic color in America. More or
less white should extend below the knee and at least some black should
be present where white predominates. The two colors should be
distinct from one another. In Holland red and white is characteristic
of many cattle of this breed and occasionally in America there are cattle
born of this color; Such cattle, however, are not eligible to register in
the herd books of the American Holstein-Friesian Association.

The breed excels in quantity of milk rather than quality, the fat
in the milk under ordinary conditions being 3 to 3.5 per cent. A
higher test is unreasonable to expect where the large flow of milk
characteristic of this breed is maintained. In some instances, the fat
falls below 3 per cent, which is regarded as too low, even in cheese
districts where this breed is very popular. A low percentage of fat should
be avoided by the careful selection of sires whose dams yield milk of a
higher percentage of fat. Naturally this breed with its large size and
natural tendency to produce milk of low percentage of fat has always
excelled all other breeds in milk production. Cows of this breed have
in four instances won the championship record for both milk and butter-
fat production, and hold the world's record at the present writing, with
a production amounting to 28,403.7 pounds of milk testing 4.14 per cent
and 1176.47 pounds of butter-fat, made by the cow, Finderne Pride
Johanna Rue, 121083, owned by Somerset Holstein Breeders' Company,
Somerville, N. J,

Holstein-Fkiesian Bull a

in
i

H
Ot

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 135

JERSEY CATTLE
Origin and Development — Jersey cattle were originally developed
on the Island of Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands group, where
a delightful climate, a rich soil and a people united in their effort to excel
in the production of a single breed of dairy cattle combined to make con-
ditions most favorable for perfecting and preserving the breed. In 1793
enactments began restricting the importation and maintenance of cattle
other than Jerseys, which finally resulted in its being a crime to keep
cattle of other kinds on the island for a longer period than twenty-four
hours when they had to be slaughtered for beef.

A Jehsbt Cow. 1

Jerseys, as nearly as history reveals, share with Guernseys the blood
of the old Brittany and Normandy cattle of France, in which they undoubt-
edly have their principal origin.

The Jersey breed early attracted the attention of England's aristoc-
racy, who introduced them into England to beautify parks and furnish
the rich milk that it was characteristic of them to produce. Beauty of
form has been as much a part of the standard of excellence that guided
the breeders in the development of their cattle as has production of milk,
and has resulted in cattle of marked refinement and beauty.

' Courtecy of The Field. New Tort

136 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Remarkable herds were produced in England, From the herd of
Philip Dancey of that country, the bull Rioter, 746E, was brought to
America and to him the St. Lambert family of Jersey cattle, so prominent
in this country, all trace.

The American people have imported many Jersey cattle both from
the Isle of Jersey and from England, and have always regarded cows of
the breed most excellent butter producers. Practical dairymen whose
choice of breeds has been the Jersey, have favored the larger-sized cows
and persistently worked to secure large productions of milk and butter.
As a result, many of the American-bred Jerseys are larger and more robust
and productive than the so-called island type. The greater size and pro-
duction of the American type of Jerseys has enabled the breed to hold
a popular place in dairy states and districts with other dairy breeds.

Parallel with the development of the American-bred type of Jersey,
many people have taken great pride and pleasure in maintaining and
preserving the refined and smaller sized island type. Jersey cattle have
been quite universally distributed over the world and under proper care
and supervision give excellent satisfaction.

Characteristics of Jersey Cattle. — Jersey cattle conform to a dairy type
that is usually extreme. They are regarded as most economical producers of
butter because of the marked dairy capacity they possess in proportion to
their size. The size varies according to the strain or family and for cows
ranges from 700 to 1000 pounds. Bulls will range from 1100 to 1500 pounds.
The American-bred families, more especially the St. Lambert's, are larger
than the imported stock from the Isle of Jersey or from England.

The breed matures early and as a result many mistakes have been
made in carelessly and intentionally having young heifers produce their
first calves at too young an age. This practice, together with scant feed
rations, not only reduces the size but the constitution and usefulness of
any breed and, for a breed that is naturally small, results in severe criti-
cisms that are unfair when they apply to a breed rather than to individuals.
Jersey [cattle that are properly reared and well cared for tend to be long
lived and very satisfactory dairy cattle. They have ranked high in
economy and production tests at many shows and expositions and the pro-
duction of cows admitted to the Jersey register of merit verify the fact that
cows of this breed have highly developed powers for dairy production. The
milk is of rich quality, testing ordinarily around 5 per cent. It is reason-
able to expect a production of 300 pounds of butter-fat annually as an
average per cow in herds that are well selected and managed. Jacoba
Irene, 146443, an American-bred cow, owned by A. O. Auten, Jerseyville,
111., in three consecutive years produced 42,900 pounds of milk and 2366.1
pounds of butter-fat. The present highest yearly record of butter-fat
production made by a Jersey cow is 999.14 pounds, the amount of milk
being 17,557.8 pounds testing 5.69 per cent, a record made by Sophie 19th
of Hood Farm, 189748, owned by C. I. Hood, Lowell, Mass.

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 137

OTHER DAIRY BREEDS

The Dutch Belted, French Canadian and Kerry breeds of cattle
heretofore mentioned rank as dairy breeds, but representatives of them
are comparatively few and in many sections unknown.

Dutch Belted cattle are so-called from their peculiar marking which
is black with a white band about the middle of the body. This character-
istic color is uniformly found in all pure-bred herds of the breed, and is
the result of scientific breeding experiments in Holland where the breed
had its origin, and was known as Lakenfeld cattle from the word "Laken,"
meaning blanket or sheet about the body.

The usefulness of the breed was not a primary object in its develop-
ment and for that reason it does not enjoy a popularity common to more
prominent breeds.

Marked general improvement in type and production and an increase
in the number of cattle is the ambition of those who are promoting the
breed in America.

French Canadian cattle are a local and popular class of dairy cattle
in the somewhat rough country and severe winter climate of the province
of Quebec, Canada, Here the breed has beeji developed from early French
stock and bred for over two hundred years. The characteristics of the
cattle resemble very much the Jersey breed and lead to the belief that they
have the same origin in blood. Their hardiness and adaptability to with-
stand Canadian winters and make economical yields of rich milk are
commendable.

A production of 5000 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent or more is
regarded as a fair average annual production for cows of this breed.

Kerry cattle originated in the Kerry mountains of Ireland under most
adverse conditions of soil, climate and people. They have been called
"the poor man's cow." They are very small as a natural result of their
poor environment, bulls weighing 800 to 1000 pounds and cows 400 to 700
pounds. There are two types of the breed resulting from a cross which
resulted in the type called the Derter-Kerry, which is smaller and more
beefy than the original true Kerry. The economic value of Kerry cattle
is best appreciated in its native home, where its adaptability, hardiness
and ability to rustle and thrive recommend it. The novelty of the breed
has led to a very limited distribution of the breed, a few herds having
been introduced into Canada and the United States.

DAIRY BREED ORGANIZATION IN AMERICA

The welfare and preservation of breed interests are secured by respon-
sible national breed associations that are recognized and approved by
the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and
the Canadian Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. All the dairy
breeds of cattle except the Kerry have such organizations which are sup-
ported by a membership composed of the cattle breeders whose interest

138

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

prompts them to become members, and by all who register pure-bred
cattle of the respective breeds. Each association registers only cattle
that are eligible by virtue of their purity of breeding, proper identification
and being formally and regularly presented for registration on forms of
application furnished by the association and certified to by the breeder
or owner. Certificates of registry are furnished the breeders or owners
and all transfers of ownership of registered animals where the identity of
subsequent offspring is to be preserved must be formally reported. Upon
being reported it is recorded and a certificate of transfer issued to the
owner.

The associations all publish herd books containing a complete list
of all registered animals and in most instances also publish literature that
is useful and helpful in promoting its cattle interests. One who is particu-
larly interested in a given breed will do well to avail himself of such litera-
ture, which is usually furnished gratis to those who apply for it. The
location of the office and the secretaries of the respective associations can
be readily determined by writing the national departments of agriculture,
heretofore mentioned, if not by acquaintance with breeders of registered
stock.

In addition to a registry of the names of pure-bred animals, the five
more important breed associations maintain an advanced registry or
register of merit for cattle which have excelled in production and made
official records of milk and butter-fat equivalent to or surpassing definite
standards fixed for periods varying from seven days to one year.

Following is a tabulated statement of the requirements for respective
breeds, ages and periods of production:

Age.

2 years

3 years

4 years

5 years

6 years

• •

Atbshibid.

Year Record.

Pounds
Milk.

Require-
ments
increase
each day
by pound

6000
6500
7500
8500

1.37
and
2.74

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

214.3
236.0
279.0
322.0

0.06
and
0.12

Bbown Swiss.

Year Record.

Pounds
Milk,

6000*

6430

7288

8146

9000

2.35

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

GUBBNSBY.

222.0*

238.5

271.3

304.2

337.0

0.09

Year
Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

250.5

287.0
323.5
360.0

0.1

HOLSTKIN.

7-Day
Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

7.2
r 8.8

10.4
12.0

Jbbsey.

7-Day Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0

0.00439

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

14.0
14.0
14.0
14.0

Year
Record.

* Two and one-half years.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

250.5

287.0
323.5
360.0,

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 139

Great advancement in the appreciation and breeding of pure-bred
cattle has been and is being brought about by volunteer state and com-
munity organizations. The closer contact which these associations have
with the masses engaged in dairying make their opportunity greater than
that of national associations for giving encouragement to men to use the
very best breeding animals, especially sires, that it is possible to secure.
In fact, such organizations cannot be encouraged too much, for in the
work of local breeders and community effort lies the success of maintaining
high standards of excellence and the preservation of all breeds.

REFERENCES

"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Plumb.
"Study of Breeds." Shaw.

CHAPTER 13
Clean Milk Production

By C. W. Larson
Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

More than half of the milk produced in the United States is used for
direct consumption. Pure, clean milk is an excellent food and is cheap.
It contains all the essential elements for a complete and balanced ration
for man. On account of its being used by infants, children and invalids
who are least able to resist the effects of unclean food, and because milk is
so easily contaminated, it is essential that great care be taken in its pro-
duction and handling.

CLASSES OF MILK

Sanitary Milk is no definite class of milk. It is simply a term used to
designate good, clean milk produced with extra care. It is usually sold at
a price somewhat above prevailing milk prices.

Guaranteed Milk is milk that the producer guarantees to be produced
under certain conditions and usually with some standard of fat and bac-
terial content.

Standardized Milk is milk which has been altered in its amount of
butter-fat by skim m ing or the adding of cream.

Certified Milk is milk that has been produced under certain conditions
prescribed by a commission, usually consisting of a veterinarian, a physi-
cian, a chemist and a bacteriologist. The prescribed conditions include
scrupulously clean methods, healthy cows, healthy milkers and carefully
sterilized utensils. Such milk should not contain over 10,000 bacteria per
cubic centimeter. It is usually sold at a considerably higher price than
ordinary milk.

Inspected Milk is produced from healthy cows that have been
inspected. The inspection involves an examination by a city or state
inspector of premises and methods.

Pasteurized Milk is milk that has been heated to a sufficiently high
temperature to kill the harmful bacteria, or germs, and then immediately
cooled. The temperature to which it is heated varies with the length of
time it is held. For market milk, it is customary to heat to 140° to 145° F.
for twenty minutes.

Modified Milk is high-class milk, such as certified or sanitary milk,
altered in composition to suit certain uses. Such milk is used for infants
and invalids.

140

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 141

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS

Clean, Healthy Cows. — The first essential in the production of clean,
healthy milk is to have cows that are clean and free from disease. The milk
from emaciated animals, or those suffering from any disease, should not be
sold. The milk from cows having inflamed udders or sore teats should not
be put into the general supply. The cows should be comfortable in order
to produce normal milk. Any unusual condition or disturbance will cause
them to produce abnormal milk. They should be kept in dry, clean,
properly-bedded stalls. The food should be free from mustiness and no
decomposing silage or wet foods should be given after they become mouldy.
The drinking water should be clean and fresh.

Most of the dirt that finds its way into the milk pails falls from the
bodies of the cows. It is essential, therefore, that the cows be kept clean.
One of the most important factors in keeping cows clean is to have the
platforms on which they stand the proper length, so that the manure will
drop into the gutter. Adjustable stanchions are also desirable, so that the
proper alignment can be made on the platform. Cows kept in the stable
should be groomed at least once a day, but this should be sufficiently long
before milking time to permit the dust to settle. Wiping the udder and the
flanks with a clean, damp cloth requires only a short time and will do much
to remove dirt that would otherwise fall into the pail. It is practical,
where clean milk is being produced, to clip the udder and flanks occasion-
ally. This prevents the dirt from sticking, and makes it possible to keep
the cows cleaner.

Stables. — Expensive barns are not essential to the production of clean
milk. The health of the cows and the methods of the milker are of greater
importance and have more effect upon the finished product. Good con-
struction and convenient arrangement of the stable may lessen the work,
keep the cows more comfortable and have a beneficial effect upon the
milkers.

The barn should be located on well-drained land and be free from
contaminating surroundings. Horses, chickens, stagnant water and
manure piles, when near the stable, may pollute the air. Odors are easily
absorbed by milk. The stable floor should be of concrete or seme other
material that does not absorb the liquid manure, and at the same time
should be sufficiently smooth to be easily cleaned. The walls should be
smooth and free from ledges to avoid collecting dirt. The occasional use
of whitewash on the walls and ceiling is recommended.

The barn should not be overcrowded and at the same time should not
have an excessive amount of space in cold climates. From 500 to 1000
cubic feet per cow is satisfactory. Too much light cannot be provided.
Sunlight destroys bacteria and also makes a healthy atmosphere for the
cows. The more light the better, and it is well that it be evenly distributed
and that -the windows be located, if possible, so that the light can shine into
the gutter.

142

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The dairy barn should be well ventilated. Experiments at the
Pennsylvania Experiment Station have shown that cows will do well even
in an open shed, providing they are kept dry and out of the wind. Since,
therefore, it is not necessary to have the dairy barn warm, the problem
of ventilation is greatly lessened. It is not difficult to get fresh air into the
barn, but it is difficult to get sufficient fresh air without cooling the atmos-
phere. The air in the barn should be changed, even if it does become cold.
Cows must have fresh air in order to produce their maximum of milk and
keep healthy. Have many and small intakes and few and large outlets.
The capacity of the intakes and the outlets should be equal and provide
about one square foot in cross section for each four or five cows.

i » 1 1 ■ * i * ,

Milk Pails of Best Design. 1

Milkers. — A clean and careful milker can produce clean milk in a
poor barn, but an unclean milker cannot produce clean milk in any barn.
The milker must be clean and healthy and, above all things, should milk
with dry hands. The practice of wetting the hands with milk is deplorable.
It is unnecessary. The milker should always wash his hands before start-
ing to milk. The air, during the milking, should be kept free from dust
and odors. Manure should not be removed from the barn, nor should any
dusty feed be given during the milking time. Silage or other feeds that
have an odor should be fed at least three hours before milking, so that
the odor will not be taken up by the milk.

Small-top Milk Pails. — Most of the dirt that gets into the milk
drops from the cows during milking time. If, therefore, the opening at
the top of the pail is closed to one-sixth the size of an ordinary pail, only

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 143

one-sixth as much dirt gains access to the milk. With a little practice,
the small-top milk pail can be used as easily as the large-top pail.

Clean Tinware. — All the cans and pails that are used for milk should
be of metal, and all of the joints and corners should be completely filled
with solder. Wooden pails should not be used. To wash the tinware,
it should first be rinsed with lukewarm water, then thoroughly scrubbed
with brush, hot water and washing powder, and finally, either steamed
or rinsed with boiling hot water. It should not be wiped with a cloth,
but should be allowed to drain and dry. The heat of the steam or boiling
water will soon dry the tinware.

Strainers. — Where milk is produced in a clean way it is not necessary
to have a strainer. It is usually not desirable to have a strainer on the
milk pail, for the dirt collected will have all the injurious effect washed
from it into the pail during the milking. A strainer may be used on the
can or milk cooler. For this a cloth strainer, made especially for that
purpose and used only once, is satisfactory. The cheesecloth strainer
that is used from day to day contaminates the milk instead of purifying
it. A metal strainer is satisfactory.

Handling the Milk. — As soon as the milk has been drawn it should
be removed from the stable so that it will not absorb odors. A convenient
milk-room should be provided. This room should be clean and free from
dust and odors. The milk should be cooled at once. Under the best of
conditions, some bacteria or germs get into the milk, and the problem,
therefore, is to prevent these bacteria from increasing in number. At a
temperature of 70° F. one bacterium may increase to two in twenty min-
utes, but at 50° F. or lower it requires a much longer time. One bacterium
at 50° F. may increase in twelve hours to six or seven, while at 70° F.
it may increase to six or seven hundred. Since, therefore, there are several
hundred bacteria in every cubic centimeter of good milk, some realization
may be had of how many thousands of bacteria will be developed in ten
or twelve hours at 70° F. The following table, prepared by Stocking,
shows the importance of cooling milk at once to a low temperature. The
milk that was used in this experiment contained a low percentage of bac-
teria when produced.

Effect of Different Temperatures Upon the Development of Bacteria

in Milk.

Temperature Maintained Bacteria per c.c. at

for 12 Hours. end of 12 Hours.

40° F 4,000

47° F 9,000

60° F 18,000

64.5° F 38,000

60° F 453,000

70° F 8,800,000

80° F 55,300,000

Coolers. — There are various styles of apparatus on the market for
cooling milk. These are called coolers. They are arranged so that the

144 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

water passes on the inside of the tubes and the milk passes over them.
By haying a supply of cold water passing through the tubes, the milk
can be cooled to within two or three degrees of the temperature of the
water. Unless the cooler is placed in a room free from dust, the milk
may become contaminated. Coolers with a hood or covering are preferred.
Those having few joints so that they may easily be cleaned are also pref-
erable. When it is not necessary to cool the milk immediately for ship-
ment, or otherwise, it may be cooled by. placing the can in a tank of cold
water. Unless the water supply is plentiful and the water cold, it is desir-
able to have ice.

Suggestions for Improvement — A list of suggestions and instructions
of good methods and practices placed in a conspicuous place in the barn
does much to improve the quality of the milk. A list of twenty-one
suggestions, composed by Webster, gives the essential points to be fol-
lowed in the production of clean milk. These suggestions are as follows:

11 1. Cows.

"1. Have the herd examined frequently by a skilled veterinarian.
Remove all animals suspected of not being in good health. Never add an
animal to the herd unless it is known to be free from disease.

"2. Never allow a cow to be abused, excited by loud talking or other
disturbances. Do not unduly expose her to cold and storm.

"3. Clean the under part of the body of the cow daily. Hair in
the region of the udder should be kept short. Wipe the udder and sur-
rounding parts with a clean, damp cloth before milking.

"4. Do not allow any strong-flavored foods such as cabbage, turnips,
garlic, etc., to be eaten except directly after milking.

"5. Salt should always be accessible.

"6. Radical changes of food should be made gradually.

"7. Have plenty of pure, fresh water in abundance, easy of access
and not too cold.

"II. Stables.

"8. Dairy animals should be kept in a stable where no other aninmls
are housed, and preferably one without a cellar or storage loft. Stables
should be light — f our feet of glass per cow — and dry, with at least 500 cubic
feet of air for each animal. The stable should have air inlets and outlets
so arranged as to give good ventilation without drafts over the cows. It
should have as few flies as possible.

"9. Floors, walls and ceilings should be tight and the walls und ceiling
should be kept free from dust and cobwebs and whitewashed twice a year.
There should be as few dust-catching ledges and projections as possible.

"10. Allow no musty or dirty litter or strong-smelling material in
the stable. Store the manure under cover at least forty feet from the
stable and in a dark place. Use land-plaster in the gutter and on the floor.

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

143

"IIL Milk House.

"11, The can should not remain in the stable while being filled.
Remove the milk from each cow at once from the stable to a clean room.
Strain immediately through absorbent cotton or cotton flannel; cool to
50° F. as soon as possible. Store at 50° F. or lower.

"12. Utensils should be of metal with all joints smoothly soldered.
If possible, they should
be made of stamped
metal. Never allow
the utensils to become
rough or rusty inside.
Use them for nothing
but milk.

"13. To clean the
utensils, use pure water.
First rinse them with
warm water, then wash
them inside and out in
hot water in which a
cleaning material has
been dissolved. Rinse
again and sterilize in
boiling water or steam.
Then keep them in-
verted in pure air, and
in the sun as much as
possible, until ready to

A Clean Milker r
Milku

Note the clean suit, sanitary milking stool, small-top
pail, cow with clean flanks and udder, and sanitary
stable construction. Under these conditions clean milk
can be easily produced.

"IV. Milking and
Handling Milk.

"14. A milker
should wash his hands
immediately before
milking and should
milk with dry hands.
He should wear a clean
outer garment, which should be kept in a clean, place when not in use.
Tobacco should not be used while milking.

- " 15. In milking be quiet, quick, clean and thorough. Commence milk-
ing the same hour morning and evening. Milk the cows in the same order.

"16. If any part of the milk is bloody, stringy or not natural in
appearance, or if, by accident, dirt gets into the pail, the whole should
be rejected.

i From Fustsn' Bulletin 602, D. S. Dipt, of Ajricultun.

146 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

" 17. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow.

" 18. Never mix warm milk with that which has been cooled. Do
not allow milk to freeze.

11 19. Avoid using any dry, dusty feed just previous to milking.

"20. Persons suffering from any disease, or who have been exposed
to any contagious disease, must remain away from the milk.

"21. The shorter the time between the production of the milk and
its delivery, and between its delivery and its use, the better will be the
quality."

REFERENCES
" Dairy Chemistry." Snyder.
" The Milk Question." Rosenau.
" Bacteria and Country Life." Lipman.

" Modern Methods of Treating Milk and Milk Products." Van Slyke.
"Practical Dairy Bacteriology." Conn.

Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 6. " Inexpensive Appliances and Utensils for Dairy."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

348. "Bacteria in Milk."

366. " Effect of Machine Milking and Milk Supply of Cities."

413. " Care of Milk and Ite Use m the Home.''

602. " Production of Clean Milk."

608. " Removal of Garlic Flavor from Milk."

CHAPTER 14

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

By Ernest L. Anthony
Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

Farm dairying has attracted public attention to an uncommon degree
in the last few years. This is due largely to the modern development in
the dairy field as well as to the adaptability of dairy farming or certain
phases of it to average farm practices.

Adaptation. — Dairy farming is especially adapted to farms located
near markets, because of the regular demand for fresh dairy products.
Dairy products are, as a whole, perishable and must be marketed soon after
being produced. For this reason easy and frequent access to markets is
very desirable. Dairying is also adaptable as a side line in general farming,
fruit raising and poultry farming. It provides for the utilization of
waste products on the farm as feed for cows and aids in the continuous
and economical employment of labor.

It is also particularly adapted to the person starting in to farm on a
small scale, as it is possible with a comparatively small capital to start a
dairy business which enables the dairyman to live while his business grows.

The Need of Dairy Farming. — According to late authorities, the
people of the United States consume over seven-tenths of a pint of milk per
capita daily. To this should be added the enormous consumption of
butter, cheese, ice cream, condensed milk and other minor dairy products.
This gives an idea of the possibilities which are before the American dairy-
man today.

Types of Dairy Farming. — Several types of dairy farming are pursued
in the United States; they are: (1) the production of milk for wholesale
and retail trade; (2) the production of cream for creameries and ice cream
factories; (3) the manufacture of cheese on the farm; (4) the manufacture
of butter upon the farm, or farm butter-making.

Market Milk. — The production of market milk is one of the leading
types of dairy farming. It requires easy access to reliable markets, and is
most successful when conducted on a fairly extensive scale. It requires
less labor than most other types of dairy farming. Clean milk production is
discussed in the preceding chapter.

Farm Cheese-making. — This type is especially adapted to dairy
farms not located close to dairy markets. Cheese is less perishable than
the other dairy products and this enables the farmer to engage in dairying

147

US SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and market his products at his convenience. Farm cheese-making is most
extensive in the eastern part of the United States, especially in the rougher
sections. Cheddar and brick cheese are largely made. Much soft cheese,
such as schmier kase, cottage and Dutch hand is also produced in many
localities. Successful farm cheese-making requires some special cheese
apparatus, as well as a fair understanding of the principles which govern
cheese manufacture.

Farm Butter-making. — On the general farm more attention is paid
to the making of farm
butter than to any
other phase of farm
dairying. This is true
because of the large
marketforthe product
and the adaptability
of farm butter-making
to average farm con-
ditions.

Control of Prod-
ucts. — The production
of good butter of uni-
form quality starts
with the cow. Milk
from unhealthy cows
can never be made
into first-class prod-
ucts. Neither can
cows that are kept in
unclean, unsanitary
places produce clean
milk.

. _ _ „ One making but-

A Good Type of a Dairy Houbb. 1 . „_ ,, »„„_ „„„

ter on the farm can

have complete control
of his milk from the time that it is drawn from the cow until it is made
into butter. This is not true of the creamery man or manufacturer, who
* has to secure his product from outside sources over which he has no
supervision. This advantage means much to the farm butter-maker if he
realizes it and makes the most of it.

Cleanliness Necessary. — The cows should always be brushed off and
kept clean at milking time. Care should be taken that all utensils be kept
clean and in good condition, so that the cream, whether skimmed or sepa-
rated, shall be good, sweet and not absorb any undesirable taints or odors.
Much butter which would otherwise be good is damaged in flavor because

' Hygienic Laboratory, Washington, D. C,

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING 149

care is not taken to keep dirt and impurities out of it. Milk not separated
by a cream separator should be at once cooled by some suitable method
and held as cold as possible until the cream has risen. Cream should be
cooled as soon as it is separated.

Percentage of Fat in Cream. — If a separator is used the percentage

A Good Type of Cream Separator. 1

of fat in the cream may be regulated. When it is impossible to test the
cream for its percentage of fat, the separator so regulated that about 12
to 14 per cent of the total milk is separated and comes out as cream, will
give approximately the proper richness to the cream. The best results

1 Courtly of the 8tuupl» Separator Company, Weet Charter. P«.

160 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

will be obtained when the cream has about 28 to 30 per cent of fat. Cream
with too high a percentage of fat has a tendency to adhere to the sides of
the churn, which causes difficult churning and increases the danger of loss
of fat in the buttermilk.

Thin Cream Undesirable. — When cream is too thin or has too small a
percentage of fat in it, as in the case of hand-skimmed cream containing
from 12 to 20 per cent of fat, good, uniform churning is hard to secure.
Such cream loses too much fat in the buttermilk and also requires longer
churning.

Methods of Ripening Cream. — Poor quality in farm butter is most
frequently due to a lack of proper ripening of the cream previous to churn-
ing. On the farm it is often necessary to store the cream from two or
or more days' milkings in order to secure a sufficient amount for a churning.
The common method now in use on most farms is simply to collect in a
cream can or jar successive creamings, until enough has been secured
for a churning. Meanwhile the cream is held in the cellar, milkhouse,
back porch or springhouse. The temperature at which it is held varies
with the weather, season of year and other conditions. Under these
conditions the cream usually ripens or develops acid until at the end of
three or four days it becomes sour and is then stirred and churned. If
it is kept too cold for ripening during this holding period, it is warmed
for several hours and allowed to sour before churning.
\ This is a bad practice and is responsible for many of the taints and
off flavors found in farm butter. The reason for this is that the temperature
of the cream is usually about 55° F., which is a little too low to secure
a good growth of the lactic or acid-forming bacteria which produce the
proper flavors in the cream. Some claim that this average cellar tem-
perature favors the proper conditions for the growth of the bacteria that
produce objectionable flavors and taints in cream. These undesirable
bacteria produce no acid, will not grow well in the acid medium and seem
to grow best at a temperature of 50° to 60° F.

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station, Bulletin 135, has conducted
some experimental work to determine the best way to ripen cream on the
farm. This work indicates that there are three other methods, any one
of which will give better results than the storing of cream at cellar tem-
peratures. They are: (1) holding or storing the cream at a very low
temperature (below 45° F.) until enough is secured for a churning, and
then warming it up to 70° to 80° F. and ripening; (2) ripening the first
collection of cream at once and adding each skimming to it, from day to
day, until a churning is secured; (3) adding a portion of buttermilk to
the first cream gathered and then adding each skimming until enough
is secured for a churning.

The first method is a good one for butter-tnakers who have ice for
keeping the cream cold. Immediately after separating each day's cream,
it should be cooled to 45° F. or below, and held at this low temperature

DAIRY BUTTER- MAKING 151

until enough is secured for a churning. It is then warmed up to 75° F.
and held at that temperature until the proper amount of acid is developed
in it. At this temperature about twelve hours is required to develop the
proper percentage of acid.

The second method is to ripen the cream of the first separation that
is to form the new churning at about 75° F. until 0.3 per cent of acid is
developed. It is then cooled to the temperature of the springhouse or
ceUar, and each subsequent creaming, after it has been cooled, is added
to this lot until enough is secured for a churning. Under average conditions
this will give enough acid development in the whole churning for best
results. The ripening of the first separation of cream develops a large
number of lactic acid bacteria and produces some acid, which serves to
hold in check the undesirable types of bacteria.

The third method is to add a portion of buttermilk of good quality
to the first separation, and then add each succeeding creaming and
hold the whole amount at cellar or springhouse temperature until a
sufficient quantity is secured for a churning. If the ripening has not
sufficiently developed by that time the temperature can be raised to
75° F. and the cream allowed to ripen until the proper amount of acid
has developed.

The object in the last two methods is essentially the same, namely,
to hold in check the undesirable bacteria by having developed or intro-
duced into the cream a preponderance of the desirable bacteria and a
small amount of acid. The last two methods are simple, handy and
require no special apparatus. Care must be taken, however, in the last
method to make sure that the buttermilk comes from butter of a good
flavor and quality. The using of buttermilk of medium or poor quality
is very likely to produce butter of much the same kind as that from which
the buttermilk was secured.

Amount of Acid to Develop, or Degree of Ripening. — Large amounts
of farm cream are ripened or soured too much before churning. Because
of this, an old and tainted or stale flavor is developed. Cream ripened
until it is sharply sour usually contains from 0.6 to 0.8 per cent of acid,
which is too much. The best flavors and keeping quality are secured when
it is ripened so as to contain about 0.4 to 0.5 per cent of acid. Where
no acid test is used, this amount of acid may be approximated. The cream
should taste only very mildly sour. Cream naturally ripened at 70° to
75° F. will develop about this amount of acid if held ten hours.

The Use of Starters. — Starters are not much used on the farm and
when used are generally of the natural kind, that is, made up of buttermilk
or good sour milk. They are very desirable, if care is taken to use only
good buttermilk or sour milk, and in most cases will improve the quality
of the butter produced. They are especially desirable when cream is
hard to churn because of improper ripening, and where it is difficult to
secure proper ripening. The amount to use varies with the con-

152 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

dition of the cream, but in most cases from 10 to 20 per cent is a suitable
quantity.

Natural Starter. — The natural starter made from sour milk is perhaps
the best for farm conditions. To make it, set several samples of good,
clean skim or whole milk in small jars until the milk becomes sour. The
holding temperature should be about 70° F. When the samples have
become sour they should be examined. They should have formed a good,
smooth curd, free from gas bubbles. The flavor and taste should be clean
and sharply sour. The sample showing the best flavor and condition of
the curd should be selected for the starter. It may be built up in larger
quantities by adding the sample to about ten times its volume of clean,
sweet skim milk and allowing the mixture to stand at about 70° F. until
it has coagulated. The coagulated milk is then the starter to use in the
cream-ripening process. It contains a preponderance of the desirable
lactic bacteria which are necessary for that process.

The Amount of Starter to Use. — The amount of starter to add to
cream varies from 8 to 50 per cent. If the starter is a good one, the more
added the better, but if too much be added it will dilute the cream too
greatly and make it hard to churn. About 10 per cent is a common
amount to use.

Churning Temperatures. — The temperature at which cream is churned
is very important. Properly ripened cream should be cooled down to the
temperature at which it is to be churned and held at that temperature
at least two hours to allow the fat to become cool and firm enough to churn.

The churning temperature varies widely. It is affected by the seascn
of the year, kind of feed given the cows, condition of the cream and tem-
perature of the churning room.

Variations in Churning Temperature. — In the spring and summer,
when the cows are fresh and the feeds succulent and soft, the butter-fat
is naturally softer than later in the season. Under average conditions
temperatures ranging from 52° to 56° F. will give best results for these
seasons. This temperature should be increased to about 56° to 60° F. in
the winter. Much cream is now churned on the farms at above 60° F.
Experiments seem to indicate that the lower temperatures are to be pre-
ferred, as butter is much firmer when coming from the churn, does not so
easily incorporate buttermilk, and will stand more working, thus producing
a better body and a more uniform quality. Because of the cream being
poorly ripened or abnormal in some way, it is often necessary to use higher
temperatures than are here given. When difficulty in churning is expe-
rienced, the cream should never be raised in temperature by adding hot
water to the churn, but should be poured from the churn into a can and
gradually raised a few degrees in temperature by setting the can in a
pan of warm water.

Care of the Churn. — The proper care of cream in the ripening process,
although very essential, does not insure good butter, Good cream can

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING 153

easily be spoiled in churning. Unless the churn is kept in good condition
it is impossible to make good butter with it. The churn should always
be well scalded out and well cooled down before using. There are two
reasons for this: first, the hot water will scald out and kill all moulds that
may be growing in the wood and will close the pores of the wood bo that
the cream or butter will not adhere to it; second, the churn should be
cooled so that the temperature of the cream will not be raised while churn-
ing and yield soft, greasy butter.

Length of Time to Churn. — The length of time best for churning
varies with the condition of the cream, but ranges from 15 to 30 minutes.

Farm BcTTER-MAKINa APPARATUS. 1

If the cream churns in less than 15 minutes, the butter is very likely to be
too soft to work well and will have a poor body when finished. Cream
that requires much longer than 30 minutes may be improperly ripened
or abnormal in some way. Taking the cream from the churn and raising
the temperature in the manner suggested above will in most cases over-
come the trouble.

The churning should stop when the butter begins to collect in the
buttermilk in granules from the size of a pea to that of a grain of corn.
Granules of this size do not contain so much buttermilk as do larger ones.
The butter is easier to wash, salt and work.

Washing Butter. — It is a common practice on the farm to wash butter
through several wash waters. This is unnecessary if the churning has
been stopped at the right time. If the granules are about the size of peas

' CottrUny of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment SUtion.

154 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

or grains of corn, one washing will remove all the buttermilk. Too much
washing has a tendency to remove the finer flavors and give the butter
a flat taste. The amount of wash water should be about equal to the
volume of cream churned.

Temperature of Wash Water. — The temperature of the wash water
may vary considerably, but it should not be much above or below the
churning temperature. Very cold wash water is to be avoided. Cold
water absorbs the flavors of the butter readily, causes brittleness of body
and lowers the quality.

When a low churning temperature is used, the washing temperature
may be the same, and should never be more than 4 to 6 degrees less. Where
a higher temperature is used for churning, the washing temperature may
differ as much as 4 to 10 degrees from that of the churning. The wash
water should be pure and clean and free from odors or taints, as these
will be readily absorbed by the butter.

Preparation of Working-Board. — After the wash water is drawn from
the butter — unless a combined churn and worker is used — the butter
should be taken out in the loose, granular form and placed on the working-
board or table. This table should be clean and thoroughly wet with
cold water. Butter will stick to a dry, warm or dirty board. .

Salting. — Fine dairy salt of the best quality should be used. The
quantity varies with the taste of the maker and the markets on which
the butter is sold. Under average conditions where the butter is
worked on a hand-worker, three-quarters of an ounce of salt to each
pound of butter-fat is a desirable amount to use. Butter made in a
combined churn requires heavier salting, and as much as one and one-
quarter ounces of salt per pound of butter-fat may be required. This
larger amount is necessary because of the wash water which is held in
the churn.

The salt should be evenly distributed over the granules of butter on
the working-board, and the working may begin at once. It is a common
practice to let the butter stand with the salt on it for a while before working.
This is unnecessary if the butter is in a good granular condition, firm in
body and the salt fine and of a good grade.

Working of Butter. — The working should begin by first using the
sharp edge of the worker to cut and flatten the butter out into a thin
sheet. This sheet should then be folded to the center of the working-board,
and the process repeated.

The working of butter accomplishes three important things: It
evenly incorporates the salt, removes the excess water and makes the
body compact. The working should be continued until the excess water
no longer appears and the salt is worked evenly through the mass. The
texture of the body may be ascertained by breaking off a piece of the
butter. The break should show a brittle, grainy appearance, similar to
that of broken steel.

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING 155

When the butter has been sufficiently worked it should be printed
into some desirable shape. The common rectangular one-pound mould is
the best, as it makes a neat, attractive print and is easy to handle.

Wrapping of Butter. — After the butter is printed it should be wrapped
in a good grade of parchment butter paper. This is very essential. Much
butter is wrapped in cloth or oiled paper. This is a very bad practice,
as the cloth holds moulds, which readily grow and produce taints and odors.
The oiled paper, if kept for any length of time in a warm place, becomes
very rancid and imparts undesirable flavors.

Value of Standard Product — It is always advisable to have the name
of the producer or his farm name on the wrapper of the butter, if it is
sold on the market. If the butter
is of good quality, this will tend to
increase the sales and be an in-
centive to the highest effort for
maintaining uniformity in quality.
The attractiveness and neatness of
the package always helps to sell the
butter, often at much above the
average market price.

Care of the Farm Churn. —
After the butter is taken from the
churn, the latter should be rinsed
out with warm water and the rinsing
followed by a thorough washing
with very hot water. The rinsing
out with warm water will remove
any buttermilk which may remain
in the pores of the wood. The hot

water will remove any fat which Butter Printer

may be left in the churn.

It is never well to use soap powders on the interior of the churn, but
the occasional use of a small amount of dairy washing powder or lime-
water is beneficial.

To keep the churn sweet and free from odors and taints a small handful
of lime placed in some water in the churn or in the last rinsing of the churn
is very effective. It is essential in good butter-making to see that all
apparatus used is absolutely clean and free from undesirable odors and
taints, as these are quickly absorbed by the butter.

Dairy Apparatus. — In the selection of dairy apparatus there are
several things which must be taken into consideration. They are: Sim-
plicity of construction, ease of cleaning, durability and first cost.

Care of Other Dairy Apparatus. — All other dairy apparatus should
at all times be kept scrupulously clean and free from rust. Pails, buckets,
crocks, etc., after being used should be rinsed out and washed well with

156 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

a brush and a dairy washing powder. After they are carefully cleaned
they should be rinsed out and then either scalded with very hot water
or steamed if steam is available.

The cream separator should be taken apart and well cleaned after
each milking and left apart until its next use. If it is left unclean, or
is not well aired, bad taints and odors will develop in the cream, causing
a poor quality of finished product.

All dairy apparatus should be placed in the sun after it is washed,
as the sun will quickly dry it. Sunlight also acts as a powerful disin-
fecting agent. However, care should be taken to see that the appa-

Butter Ready for Market. 1

ratus is so placed that there is no- danger of dust and dirt blowing in
on it.

Churns. — The farm churn should be of ample size for the largest
churning made during the year. The common barrel churn is the most
practical for farm use, as it is simple, easy to clean and very durable as
well as economical in the first cost. On farms where large amounts of
butter are made a small combined churn, as illustrated, is very desirable.

On farms where more than three cows are kept a cream separator,
of a size depending upon the number of cows kept, is advisable. It is best
to select a make of separator that is sold in the community, so that the
purchaser can always quickly secure necessary repairs. Cream separators
have been so well perfected that there is practically no difference in the
skimming efficiency of the several machines. They all skim sufficiently

'Courteny of Hinde A Daucb Paper Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

157

clean, but one should look to simplicity of construction and
durability of wearing parts.

Buckets and Tinware. — All buckets should be made of
heavy stamped metal, heavily tinned and with all joints and
corners smoothly soldered so as to leave no place for dirt or
impurities to collect. Buckets like those shown in the pre-
ceding chapter are desirable for milking purposes, as they
admit the smallest amount of dust and dirt and are still
simple in construction.

Wooden Apparatus. — Wood is best suited for the con-
struction of certain dairy apparatus such as butter ladles, butter
moulds, workers, etc., because, by proper treatment, butter
will not adhere to wood as it will to other materials.

Wooden
Ladle.

REFERENCES

"Principles and Practice of Butter Making." McKay and Larson.

"The Business of Dairying." Lane.

"Milk and Its Products." Wing.

"Dairy Farming." Michels.

"First Lessons in Dairying." Van Norman.

"Science and Practice in Cheese Making." Van Slyke and Publow.

"Farm Dairying." Laura Rose.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 135. "A Study of Manufacture of Butter/ 5

"Methods of Making Farm Butter."
Purdue Expt. Station Circular 51. "Producing Cream for Good Butter."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

349. "Dairy Industry in South."

541. "Farm Butter Making."

part m

ANIMAL DISEASES, CROPPING AND

FEEDING SYSTEMS

(159)

CHAPTER 15
Diseases of Animals and Their management

By Dr. S. S. Buckley
Professor of Veterinary Science and Pathology, Maryland Agricultural College

"You say you doctored me when lately ill;
To prove you didn't, I'm living still."

Domestic animals contribute largely to the benefits of country life,
and, aside from house pets, these pleasures are denied the residents of towns
and cities. Farms devoted to trucking and fruit growing may prove
financially profitable, as do mercantile pursuits, but they fail to make the
farm a home as do those which possess a varied assortment of species of
live stock.

Domestic animals share our labor, contribute to our food supply and
furnish the means for improving our soil and maintaining its fertility.
While the different species of domestic animals are materially unlike in
some respects, yet the general scheme on which their conformation and
action is planned makes it possible to apply similar broad rules for the care
and management of them all.

Animals in health are by nature intended to serve man's purposes
and, according to the degree of impairment of health, so is the degree of their
usefulness to man affected.

Strictly considered, there are not different degrees of health, since
health signifies a normal condition of the body. Abnormal conditions of
the body occur, however, which are variable in degree, and these constitute
disease.

Disease, therefore, may range from slight unrecognizable disturbances
of the body functions to extremely complex modifications which terminate
life in death.

An animal is most highly profitable to its owner when in a normal or
healthy condition, and its value to him diminishes according to the degree
of abnormality or disease. It is for the stockman, therefore, to interest
himself in maintaining animals in health, rather than in the study of the
nature and treatment of their diseases, if he is to derive the greatest benefits
from them.

The Essentials for Health. — In order to be most successful in the
management of animals, a study should be made of the efficacy of sound,
wholesome food and pure water; the necessity for pure air and proper
exercise; the effects of proper dieting, over-feeding and abstinence; the)

» 161

162 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

necessity for comfortable quarters, and lastly the benefits of humane and
intelligent treatment. This means familiarity with the laws of hygiene
and as far as possible with the structures (anatomical parts) and the
functions (normal actions) of the animal body. There is a general simi-
larity of the organization of animal bodies and of the human body, and what
is bad for mankind is most likely bad for animals.

Knowledge of Disease Should Precede Treatment. — No one should
undertake the treatment of a disease of animals whose nature he is not
familiar with, nor to administer medicines whose effects are unknown to
him, any more than he should attempt to treat similar disorders in the
human. The mere fact that one is animal and the other human does not
alter the chances for success, nor prove more creditable to his intelligence.

Stockmen should exercise common sense in the management of animals
in health and disease, and remember that there is always to be regarded
the powerful effort on the part of nature to combat bodily disturbances
and disease. Intelligent assistance would frequently restore, where indis-
creet meddling will destroy.

There is a strong propensity on the part of stockmen to resort to the
use of powerful remedies for all diseases without first deliberating on the
nature of the disorder, its cause, its symptoms, its course, its normal duration
and, finally, its rational treatment. Such deliberation would frequently
indicate that the disorder was due to some lapse in management; that some
of the symptoms were mere evidences of nature's effort to overcome the
disorder; that its normal cause and duration was dependent upon the
duration of mismanagement and that rational treatment should be directed
towards assisting rather than in opposing nature's efforts. For example,
an animal has been over-fed and diarrhea results. More frequently than
otherwise, such a case is treated with opium preparations or astringents,
to check the diarrhea, possibly with serious consequences; while on the
other hand, rational treatment would consist in restricting the diet, perhaps
modifying it, and administering a mild laxative, mashes, flaxseed tea, or
raw linseed oil, to assist nature in her efforts at the expulsion of the offending
material as shown by the condition of diarrhea. After the desired result
has been secured, the animal is brought back, by gradually increased
amounts of food, to the usual ration which had been fed.

Intelligent and judicious management is essential, both in preserving
health and in restoring it when impaired.

GENERAL RULES FOR MAINTAINING HEALTH

1. Feed only sound, wholesome grain and fodder. Supply abundantly
pure water, at short intervals.

2. Supply salt regularly to all animals. Rock salt is preferable to
purified salt, as it contains other needed elements than soda. Hogs and
poultry need little salt compared to other farm animals, excessive amounte
being Doisonous to them. -

DISEASES OF ANIMALS 163

3. Charcoal may be given occasionally with benefit to all animals,
and may be fed with salt.

4. Feed with extreme regularity, and according to the requirements of
animals, in quantity and nutritive value.

5. Developing or growing animals, females with young, pregnant
females, males for breeding purposes, work animals and animals not at
work require different feeds, in quantity and quality.

6. Animals at pasture require, attention. Pasturage may be adequate
or it may need to be supplemented with additional feed.

7. Make all changes in rations gradually. Add any new variety of
feed to the ration in small and successively increasing amounts until the
desired addition is secured.

8. Unwholesome food is frequently produced on farms, and, being
unmarketable, is kept for feeding purposes. Such foods may be fed safely
if proper methods are employed.

Damaged grain, soft, rotten, mouldy, worm-eaten and otherwise
unwholesome, may be made safe for feeding if it is first shelled from the
cob or threshed from the straw and then carefully fanned to remove the
light, badly damaged and unwholesome grains. By the same process, the
spores of mold and poisonous dust are largely eliminated.

Damaged fodder and hay may be made less objectionable and safer
by shaking out as much as possible the dust and must as it is removed from
the stack. It should then be nm through a cutting box and cut into con-
venient lengths. This cut fodder should be mixed with a proper amount of
grain and salted at the rate of one pound of salt to the hundred pounds of
chop. Moisten the entire mass and after macerating for several hours, it
can be fed. Where this is practiced, the chop box should be kept scrupu-
lously clean.

Comfort. — Animals may be well bred and well fed and yet not develop
nor thrive properly if kept in uncomfortable surroundings.

Stables which are comfortable should be well lighted, but the light
must be admitted into the building in such a way as not to subject the
animals to a constant glare of bright sunlight and they should not face dark,
unlighted walls. Stables, however, should be so arranged that all parts
of the enclosure are well lighted with diffuse light. They should be devoid
of dark recesses which might serve for the accumulation of filth, as breeding
places for vermin or for the decomposition of feed and fodder.

Mangers and racks for feed should be convenient alike for feeder and
animals and easy to clean. Refuse must not be allowed to accumulate,
as when moistened with saliva it sticks to the mangers and affords an ideal
place for decomposition processes and the development of attendant poisons.

Floors must be kept with even surfaces, and be clean. If hard and
impervious, they should be well bedded. If porous, they must not be
permitted to become foul. Foot and hoof troubles, lameness and foul
skins develop in dirty stalls.

164 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The air of stables must be pure. Any ventilating system which admits
an abundance of pure air and allows the escape of foul air is a proper one.
There is no one system suited to all stable designs. Muslin stretched across
window openings, instead of glazed sash, makes a desirable covering. It
at thv, same time allows the passage of air through its meshes and subdues
the light from without.

Animals must be kept well groomed. It is an old adage that "groom-
ing is half the feed." The skin of animals becomes dirty with dust from
without and from the dried sweat and skin emanations from within the
body. Unless accumulations are removed through grooming, the natural
function of the skin is impaired and debility results. Dirty coats of animals
afford desirable breeding places for vermin.

Proper light, pure air, suitable mangers and floors, together with
cleanliness of stables and bodies, all tend toward the comfort of animals,
and the less perfect these are, the more likely is it that the animals will be
affected with abnormal sight, unhealthy skin, disordered respiration and
impaired digestion, with all their consequent ills. It is necessary, therefore,
to study carefully the comfort of animals, to insure good condition or
physical fitness of their bodies.

Exercise. — Regularity of exercise in the open air is necessary for the
health of all classes of animals. Animals closely confined in stables, even
though well fed and watered, properly groomed and otherwise well cared
for, will become soft, their body tissues more or less watery. They become
less resistant to disease and less vigorous in every way.

The proper assimilation of food and bodily comfort is dependent upon
proper exercise. The appearance of animals is deceptive in this respect.
If a lot of young animals with similar treatment is divided and one part is
allowed a paddock for exercise and the other part confined to stalls, the
latter will usually appear to better advantage. They will be well rounded,
smooth and apparently in prime condition, compared with the other lot,
which is rough, rugged and more or less angular. As they mature, however,
the lot which has been allowed to exercise in the open will continue a steady
development to maturity, while the stalled lot will undergo a period of
arrested development and fail totally in becoming large,- robust, resistant
animals. It is in the young and developing animals particularly that
opportunity for exercise in the open should be given.

Failure to provide this has resulted, among other things, in the
unnecessary susceptibility of horses to heaves, or cattle to tuberculosis,
and of hogs to thumps, etc.

General Management. — Intelligent management of animals, there-
fore, may be said to consist of the following essentials:

1. An abundant supply of pure air at all times.

2. Proper food and water, regularly and judiciously provided.

3. Good grooming for all animals when stabled.

4. Proper exercise in the outside air.

DISEASES OF ANIMALS 165

Nursing. — In spite of intelligent management and due regard for the
laws of hygiene, disorders and disease of the animal system will occur.
Sick animals require intelligent care and greater attention to details of
management even than do animals in health. Good nursing is of prime
importance in the treatment of disease.

Sick animals should be placed in detached, well-ventilated and clean
box stalls, conveniently located. Such stalls should be roomy, clean,
cool and dry. In certain cases body clothing — blankets and bandages — :
are necessary.

All utensils, buckets, brooms, etc., used in the care of sick animals
should be kept clean and should not be used in other parts of the stable.

All food not eaten should be removed from the sick animal and under
no circumstances offered to other animals.

Bedding must be clean, sufficient in amount and comfortable for the
patient.

Sick animals should be seen frequently, but should not be disturbed
more nor oftener than is absolutely necessary.

Sick animals are more comfortable and improve more rapidly when the
bowels are in a lax state. Mashes and soft feed tend to keep them in this
condition. In addition to having laxatives, mashes, flaxseed tea, apples,
carrots or potatoes are serviceable in catering to their appetites. Exposure
for a short while daily to sunlight acts as a tonic to convalescent animals
and enables them to regain strength rapidly.

Disease. — With the appearance of disease in an animal, it is essential
that its true nature be speedily recognized or diagnosed. , To this end there
are observed the modifications in the external visible or otherwise acces-
sible parts of the body which indicate the nature of the internal changes
occurring.

These modifications are perceived through one or more of the special
senses: sight, revealing alteration in size, conformation, color, etc.; sound,
differentiating cavities and solid parts; touch, the texture, sensibility to
pain, temperature variation, etc.; smell, the natural or modified odor and
even the sense of taste, in milk examination for instance, serving an
important end.

In addition to the immediate employment of the senses, the clinical
thermometer gives accurately the internal temperature, and various
tests are at the command of veterinarians for special examinations. It is
necessary for the stockman to recognize health and the earliest approach
of disease and be capable of applying the treatment prescribed. To do so,
he must acquaint himself with a system of examination which will enable
him to fairly well approximate the condition of the animal, as well as to
secure information which, compared with later examinations, will show the
progress of disease.

The modifications in form and function of the body are known as
symptoms. By observing these the disease is located, and by them also

166 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

its character is shown or a diagnosis made. For correctly diagnosing disease
it is necessary that all changes be noted.

The following procedure is recommended to the stockman who should
make written rather than mental notes, in order to have positive and
complete information about the patient prior to a veterinarian's exami-
nation, if such proves to be necessary.

Examination of Sick Animals. — 1. Description oj Animal. — This refers
to the kind of animal, the sex, color, age, size and breed. This serves not
only as a mark of identification, but such information may limit the
diagnosis to certain diseases or may eliminate certain diseases from
consideration.

2. Characteristic Pose. — The attitude of the patient, whether standing
or lying down, and the particular positions assumed are to be noted. The
mere pose of an animal is more or less significant in some diseases, e. g., by
rigidity of muscles, dilated nostrils, slightly extended tail and extension
of the haw over the corners of the eyes in the standing horse, picture
tetanus or lockjaw; the recumbent cow with muzzle at the flank, dull eyes,
slow respiration and grating teeth, with history of calving within a few hours
or days, designates calving fever or paralysis, etc.

The physical condition of the animal suggests the possibility of certain
diseases, e. g. } azoturia, while conformation and temperament may point
equally well to other diseases; e. g., long-coupled, thin-barreled and long-
legged horses are liable to scours.

3. The Skin. — The condition of the skin indicates in an accurate way
the condition of the body. In its examination we must take into account
the disposition of the hair, the action of the sweat glands, presence of
enlargements or growths upon the skin, any changes in the color of skin
and whether these are confined to the skin or are evidences of general
disease.

4. The Eye. — An examination of the eye will indicate the volume and
character of the blood, as seen in the visible capillary vessels. The color
of the conjunctiva shows the condition of the animal and the character of
its blood. The discharge of tears and swellings about the eyes should be
noted as important to diagnosis.

5. Temperature. — The internal body temperature in health varies
within certain narrow limits, the average being for —

Horses 100.0M01 .5° F.

Cattle 100.5°-102.5° F.

Sheep 102.5°-105.0° F.

Hogs 100.5°-104.0° F.

In diseases, these temperatures may range for —

Horses 102.0° F. and over

Cattle 103.5° F. and over

Sheep 104.0° F. and over

Hogs 104.0° F. and over

DISEASES OF ANIMALS 167

In all animals the temperature may rarely reach as high as 110° F.,
but life will soon terminate at such. The temperature must be accurately
gotten with a thermometer inserted into the rectum for at least three
minutes. The clinical thermometer registers only from 95° to 110° F. and
is self-registering. This allows ample time for accurate reading and does
away with the errors of estimating fever by the sensation of touch.

Temperatures should be taken throughout the course of the disease
and should be taken at about the same hour, once or twice daily.

Fevers are measured by temperature and, in addition, by noting the
accompanying chill, the uneven surface temperature, the alteration of pulse
and respirations, the alteration of appetite and the general depression
produced.

6. The Pulse. — The pulse or blood force in the arteries indicates the
frequency or rapidity of circulation, its rhythm or regularity and its quality
and character.

The normal pulse rate for animals is for —

Horses 30-40

Cattle 40-60

Swine 60-80

Sheep 70-80

The rapidity of circulation or pulse frequency varies and is easily
influenced by age, sex, external temperatures, exercise, the digestive
processes, and by disease.

The regularity of the pulse beat is greatly modified according to the
state of health.

The quality or character of the pulse is determined by the resistance
to pressure by the finger tips when placed over the accessible arteries.

7. The Respirations. — The examination of the respiratory system
should be complete and thorough. The respirations are to be noted as to
frequency, the manner in which they are produced and by the various
chest sounds. The normal respiration of animals is as follows:

Horses 8-16

Cattle 10-30

Swine 10-20

Sheep 12-20

In health, the respirations are carried on noiselessly. There are certain
physiological or normal noises, as the snort and the blowing sound made by
horses when galloping.

On the other hand, with abnormal conditions, there is the snoring
sound produced with the mouth partially open in semi-comatose Animals
from any cause; a wheezing sound from the nostril when polyps, tumors
or thickening of the bones occur; gargling or gurgling sounds are produced
when mucus is present; and, finally, grunting sounds occur when the
abdomen is greatly distended.

168 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 1

The breath of animals in health is inoffensive. In disease it may
become l intensely disagreeable. It may indicate bad teeth, pus in the
sinuses or chronic catarrhal conditions. Septic and gangrenous pneumonia
is accompanied by foulness of breath.

The nasal discharges signify various conditions by their quantity,
color, consistency, odor, and by the presence of particles of food, blood, etc.

They afford an excellent opportunity for examination of the quantity
and the character of capillary blood circulation and characteristic evidences
of particular diseases.

The cough is indicative of various conditions such as heaves, bronchitis
or pneumonia.

8. The Mouth. — An examination of the mouth is of particular impor-
tance, inasmuch as it exposes to view mucous surfaces which are altered in
some diseases. It allows an opportunity for judging age, by the characters
upon the teeth; and further, the amounts of secretion present indicate the
degree to which the secretory glands are disturbed.

9. The Kidneys and Bowels. — Direct examination of the kidneys and
bowels is only safely conducted by experienced and trained men, but the
stockman has an opportunity to examine the urine and the excrement. He
should note the amount, color, consistency and any unusual odor of either.
He should observe the frequency of the evacuations and whether they were
made without causing distress.

Rational Measures for Treatment. — Not until after having made a
critical examination of the sick patient is the stockman or attendant
justified in the attempt to supply remedial measures.

If the condition of the patient justifies it, the services of a veterinarian
should be secured promptly. If, on the other hand, there is no necessity
for professional services, it is advisable that a comparison be made of the
symptoms presented by the animal and the symptoms described in books
on diseases of animals. When these are found to closely correspond, then,
and only then, should the administration of medicines be begun. Many
animals are destroyed or permanently ruined by unwise treatment. The
eagerness "to do something" for these animals prevents proper deliberation
and proper judgment, and the result is that the "cure is worse than the ill."

REFERENCES/

"Common Diseases of Farm Animals." Craig, j
"Care of Animals." Mayo.
"Diseases of Animals. 11 Mayo.
Kentucky Expt. Station Circulars:

5. "A Remedy for Clover Bloat."

7. "Blackhead of Turkey."
Montana Expt. Station Bulletin 105. "Intradermal Test for Bovine Tuberculosis"
Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 280. "Important Animal Parasites."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin. "A Plain Statement of Facts Concen*-'" -

Tuberculosis."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture;

351. "Tuberculin Test."

DISEASES OF ANIMALS 169

Fanners' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
366. "Hookworm Disease of Cattle."

379. "Hog Cholera."

380. "Loco-Weed Disease."
439. "Anthrax."

449. "Rabies or Hydrophobia."

473. "Tuberculosis*"

669. "Texas or Tick Fever."

666. "Foot and Mouth Disease."

CHAPTER 16
Cropping and feeding Systems

The character of cropping and feeding systems on a farm determines to
a considerable extent the success of the farm. Cropping systems from the
standpoint of crop production and maintenance of soil fertility will only
be discussed here in a general way. The discussion will pertain more
especially to the farm management phase of it and its relation to the
other enterprises of the farm.

Feeding systems pertain to the rations and methods of feeding live-
stock and will be discussed especially from the farm management stand-
point.

The Farm Scheme. — Success in farming does not rest on the results
of a single year. It is not enough to be successful in the production of one
crop, but one must continually grow a satisfactory crop at regular intervals.
This calls for a cropping system in order that the chief crop or crops may
be rotated with other crops to avoid the numerous difficulties mentioned
in the chapter on rotations.

From the crop standpoint the two dominant factors are how to main-
tain the yield of cash crops year after year and at the same time prevent
any decline in soil fertility. When animals enter into the farm scheme
the cropping system must also meet the needs for animal feed, including
necessary bedding. Profits necessitate considering the enterprises as a
whole. The order in which crops may be grown and the feeding system to
be adopted is a local question. It will be determined by a great many
factors, such as character of soil, climatic conditions, price of land, markets,
transportation and the personal preferences of the farmer. No definite
system can be laid down that will be best under all conditions, but there is
a philosophy underlying the question that will aid every farmer in working
out the system best suited to his conditions.

Crops Related to Farm Management. — Crops are grown either to sell
or to feed to livestock. One farmer may desire to grow corn principally,
another cotton, a third one potatoes, and still another some other crop.
Usually, several crops are grown. The problem from the standpoint of
farm management will be that of determining how much of each of the
different crops should be grown. From the standpoint of crop production
the farmer is interested only in the method of growing the crop, and when
the crop is harvested the task is completed. As a farm manager, it will be
necessary for him to decide what to do with the crop. Will he profit more
by feeding it or by selling it? If so, when should it be sold or to what class
of livestock can it be most profitably fed?

63 ' 170

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 171

Animals Related to Farm Management. — Most farmers raise some
livestock. They should know the nature of animals and their require-
ments. The care, the character of feed and the breeding that will give best
results are generally questions of animal husbandry. From the standpoint
of farm management, farmers must decide what classes of stock they will
raise. This will be determined by many factors. The class of livestock
to be kept will depend largely upon the character of the crops to which the
farm is best adapted. On some farms, horses, sheep and poultry may be
most desirable. On others, dairy cows for market milk will prove most
profitable. The problem resolves itself into making plans for a specific
farm, arranging it into fields, selecting the kinds of crops and the classes of
livestock that are best adapted to it, and deciding upon the proper propor-
tion of each. The buildings, equipment and capital must all be considered
in this connection.

Cropping and Feeding Systems are Related. — When crops are of prime
importance on the farm, the livestock kept is generally selected chiefly
for the utilization of by-products. Statistics show that four-fifths of the
farms in the United States keep dairy cows. Two-thirds of the farms make
butter. The small dairies are maintained largely on cornstalks, straw and
hay of poor quality, and the cows are pastured on land that is not well
adapted to the growing of crops.

On most farms a few swine and 50 to 100 head of poultry are kept
largely as scavengers to utilize what would otherwise be wasted. In some
instances a few sheep are kept in the same way, and more might be kept in
small flocks at low cost, to the advantage of both the farmer and the
consumer of meat.

On farms where livestock predominates, crops become subsidiary and
the crops grown are those that meet the needs of the livestock.

Adaptation of Cropping and Feeding Systems. — Crop adaptation must
take into account the texture and structure of soils as well as the rotation
of crops, but there is a further adaptation involved in the cropping system
as well as in the feeding system. These two are dependent upon each
other. If crops are grown chiefly for livestock, consideration must be
given not only to yields, but also to feeding values. Corn generally pro-
duces more digestible nutrients per acre than any of the small grains,
clovers or grasses. For example, 12 tons of ensilage, a fair yield on an acre,
contains approximately 3600 pounds of digestible nutrients. An acre of
timothy yielding 2 tons contains only about 1700 pounds of digestible
nutrients. An acre of clover yielding 2| tons of hay contains about 2300
pounds of digestible nutrients. The clover also contains much more
protein than the timothy. Crops for feed must be compared in this way,
and definite information from the standpoint of yield and feeding value
may be ascertained from the tables given on "Feeding Values of Different
Crops" in Part IV. V

Adaptation must also be considered from the standpoint of cost of

172 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

production and the relation to the labor problem of the farm as a whole.
The relative cost per unit of digestible nutrients is the safest basis for
comparison.

Usually the farms Bhould provide sufficient pasture or the number of
animals should be regulated in accordance with the available pasture.
Generally the cropping system should provide all of the necessary pasture
and roughage for livestock. To secure these from the outside usually
entails much additional expense. In most cases the farm may also produce
the major portion of the concentrates, and in many cases will produce all
of the concentrates. This will generally be true in case of the production
of swine, beef cattle and sheep. It is less frequently true in case of the

Hogging Down Corn. 1

production of dairy products. There are many factors that determine
the proportion that should be produced and that should be purchased.

Cropping System Related to Future. — The plan of the cropping system
should take into consideration the future productivity of the soil. Humus
and nitrogen are most important in this connection. No cropping system
will prove satisfactory for a long term of years that does not include at
intervals of four to five years a leguminous crop such as clover, alfalfa or
some of the annual legumes. Nitrogen in commercial form is much more
expensive than that secured through the production of legumes. There is
about $11,000,000 worth of nitrogen in the air resting on each acre of land.
It is of prime importance to secure the soil nitrogen for crop production
from this abundant supply. The humus will be maintained largely

' Coustay of South Dakota Kiperimsnt Station. BrocWna, S. D.

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 173

through the return of crop residues in the form of barnyard manure. This
calls for the feeding of a considerable portion of the general farm crops.

Crop Rotations. — From the standpoint of the farm scheme, a rotation
should ordinarily provide the roughage and pasture for the number of
animals that are to be kept. It should include a sod and a legume for the
supply of organic matter and nitrogen. It. should also include as large an
area of the profitable cash crops as can be produced advantageously. In
nearly every region there is one cash crop or sometimes several that pay
better than other crops. In the South it is cotton; in the corn belt it is
corn; in the New England states it may be hay; in some other districts it
is apples. These crops should dominate both from the standpoint of area
and the care which they are given. Agricultural surveys show that the
most successful farmers follow this practice.

Crops for Cash or for Feed. — The cash products may be either soil
products or animal products. When animals dominate, the cropping system
should be adjusted to meet their needs. Many small factors should be
considered. The amount of bedding required should not be neglected.
A crop that is of low value as a cash crop may be grown particularly for the
straw it supplies for bedding.

Milk may be produced more cheaply by allowing the liquid excrements
of the cows to go to waste rather than by going to the expense of securing
sufficient bedding to absorb it. If, however, the saving of the liquid by the
use of straw will increase the yield of corn for ensilage and result in 12 tons
per acre instead of 8 and a corresponding increase in the other crops that
are grown for feed, the enterprise as a whole will undoubtedly be much more
profitable by providing the necessary straw for bedding purposes.

Straw contains a considerable part of the fertilizer constituents removed
from the soil by a crop of grain. Prices for straw seldom justify selling it.
If it cannot be used as bedding for livestock and returned to the fields in the
manure, it should be returned in some other way. The practice of burning
straw should be universally condemned. In cereal farming, the grain
should be cut as high as possible, thus leaving the major portion of the straw
on the land.

In some localities a cash crop may be grown, marketed and the pro-
ceeds enable the farmer to purchase twice as much of a given stock feed as
he could produce on an equal area of land. Under such conditions the
exchange is justifiable. In dairy districts farmers are often able to produce
potatoes, and with the potatoes purchase more cow feed than they could
possibly produce on the land devoted to potatoes.

Crops Related to Feed Requirements. — When grown chiefly for live-
stock, the proportion of the different crops should be determined to con-
siderable extent by the requirements of the stock. One can ascertain how
much of each crop should be produced by establishing what seems to be the
best feeding system for the animals in question and calculating the year's
requirements of silage, clover hay and grain as concentrates. Knowing the

174 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

yield for these crops on the farm in question, the relative acreage of each
can then be approximately determined.

Plenty of pasture may reduce the requirements for hay. Where corn
does well, it is generally cheaper to feed than oats. A horse or mule without
pasture generally requires about 3 tons of hay or its equivalent annually.
He needs approximately 70 bushels of com or 100 bushels of oats. Some of
each is better than either alone.

Cows usually require about 1 to 1J^ tons of grain, 1 ton of hay and 4
tons of silage per year. If silage is not available, about 2J-£ tons of hay per
cow is needed.

Seven sheep require about as much feed as one cow. Hens eat about
twice as much in proportion to their weight as other farm animals; 100
hens are equivalent to a 1000-pound cow and are considered an animal unit.

Buildings on a Dairy Fabu.'

Changing Cropping System. — The development of the livestock
enterprises on the farm will often necessitate changing the cropping system
to meet the feed requirements. This will often require increasing the area
of crops that produce the roughage. Such a change may be effected by
substituting forage crops for cash crops or by increasing the length of the
rotation. For example, the amount of hay produced could be very mate-
rially increased by increasing the ordinary four-crop rotation of equal areas
of corn, oats, wheat and hay to a five-years' rotation of the same crops in
which hay would remain for two years. This would increase the proportion
of total cropped land in hay from cne-f ourth to two-fifths.

Two Rotations on the Same Farm. — The best development of the
cropping system often calls for two rotations. This will be determined
chiefly by the nature of the crops grown and the sequence that gives best

'Courtesy of Board's Dairyman.

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 175

results. Potatoes give good results when grown in a three-years' rotation
consisting of potatoes, small grain and clover. At the same time a longer
rotation of general farm crops may prove more advantageous for the major
area of the farm.

On dairy farms where soiling crops are used, a subsidiary rotation on
small fields close to the farmstead may prove advantageous for the produc-
tion of a succession of suitable soiling crops. These will be supplementary
to the general farm rotation that occupies the large fields for the remainder
of the farm. The two systems can usually be worked together, so that a
field is sometimes in one and sometimes in the other rotation.

Combining Fields. — Some farms are laid out in many small, irregular
fields that cannot always be satisfactorily combined. The number and
size of fields may not fit the most desirable rotation. This will involve a
plan of cropping the fields in the most advantageous way to meet the desired
cropping system.

Having decided upon the length of the rotation, ascertain the acreage
of all fields and divide by the years in the rotation. This will give the area
of each crop for each year. With this data, select the fields that are to be
cropped the same in any given year in such a way that the acreage of two or
possibly more, may equal as nearly as possible the desired acreage of the
crop to be grown.

Fixed Rotations with Unequal Areas. — The livestock requirements
often call for an unequal acreage of the several crops. This makes the
cropping system more complicated, but never impossible of solution.
Fields of equal area may be maintained without growing an equal area of
each crop. Suppose the farmer wishes to grow 8 acres of potatoes, 20 acres
of corn, 28 acres of oats, 16 acres of wheat and 40 acres of hay, making a
total of 112 acres of crops. It will be necessary to decide on the number of
fields that give best results in accommodating these crops. If the area is
divided into four fields of equal size, there will be 28 acres in each. The
following rotation and arrangement might be used:

Field.

1914.

1915.

1916.

1917.

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

Rotations for Dairy Farms. — The rotations on dairy farms will depend
chiefly on the location and the relative cost of producing the dairy feeds as

176 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

compared with purchasing. The cost of production may be relatively
low, because the manure from the dairy is an important factor in the crop
yields, and because labor will be available for a certain amount of field work
and still fully meet the needs of the dairy. Cora as ensilage will prove an
important crop wherever it can be successfully grown. Hay for supplemen-
tary roughage, and oats or wheat for the sake of the straw, will frequently
be found advantageous.

Careful investigations of the success of dairymen show that a combina-

A Feed Lot Rack tor Both Grain and Roughage. 1

tion of dairy products and cash crops is generally more successful than
dairying alone.

Corn, wheat, clover or clover and timothy mixed is a very common
rotation. Where wheat does poorly, oats generally succeed and may
supplant the wheat. In other districts both oats and wheat are advanta-
geously grown. Alfalfa in limited acreage is generally advisable. It
affords a most excellent crop, both for hay and soiling purposes.

Feeding Systems. — The feeding system for any particular farm should
be based on the class of animals, their age and the chief purpose for which
grown. The feeding system for the rearing of young stock is quite different
than for dairy cows or stock that is being fattened. Many farmers find it
advantageous to raise young stock and sell it for feeding purposes, while
others are better equipped to purchase feeding stock and fatten it for

1 Omutwy of The Pennaylvini* Firaa.

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 177

market. The cheap feeds should be utilized to the fullest possible extent.
Waste should be avoided.

Economy in feeding often calls for two or more classes of stock. Swine
will follow steers and secure much feed from the droppings that otherwise
would be wasted. They will also utilize the skim milk and buttermilk on
farms that make butter. Under these conditions one may be justified in
feeding steers whole grain in greater abundance than he would in the
absence of swine.

The rearing of young stock generally necessitates depending chiefly
on roughage and cheap feed. The roughage develops bone, and so long
as the animal is kept thrifty and develops a good frame, the fat required
for marketing can be secured by the use of concentrates dining the feeding
period. In this connection stockmen are cautioned to avoid the stunting
of young stock by insufficient feed. The higher the grade and value of
stock, the greater the necessity for quality in the feed consumed.

Feeding System Depends on Type of Farming. — Types of farming
differ greatly in different sections of the country, depending on many
factors previously mentioned in the chapter on this subject. Consequently,
the feeding systems will vary greatly, depending on crops available. A
type of farming that includes intensive crops, like tobacco, that respond
abundantly to animal manures, may be justified in adopting a feeding
system in which concentrates predominate. This results in more valuable
manure which may increase the value of the cash crop to such an extent
that stock can be fed on such a basis, even though there is no direct profit
in the feeding enterprise.

The type of farming, however, will regulate the feeding system more
largely from the standpoint of the products that are available for feed.
On the grain farms in the corn belt, roughage in the form of stover and
straw, supplemented with corn and oats, together with small amounts of
hay, should constitute the chief products in the feeding system. In the
cotton belt, corn and annual legumes which can be grown advantageously
with cotton, should constitute the major portion of the livestock ration.
This may be supplemented with cottonseed meal.

In the semi-arid belt, grazing combined with alfalfa and Kaffir corn
would doubtless dominate the feeding system.

Feeding System Related to Cost of Production. — Agricultural surveys
show that crops generally pay better than livestock for the time put upon
them, but a combination of crops and livestock is generally more profitable
than either alone. The feeding system for livestock produced in combina-
tion with cash crops will generally be more economical than that used when
livestock alone is sold. When full time is spent upon crops, the waste
products are not utilized and there is absence of manure to maintain yield;
and when one devotes full time to livestock, time is spent in a line of produc-
tion that is carried on at a very low margin of profit. It is a mistake either
to overstock or understock on general farms. It is a good policy to keep

178 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

enough livestock to consume all the by-products. When a farm is so heavily
stocked that all the farm products are consumed, in years of low yields
feed will have to be purchased, generally at such a high price as to make
livestock an unprofitable enterprise.

Feed Units. — Feeds of different kinds are most readily compared by
using a standard. Corn, being the leading crop in America, is the best
standard to use. When com is taken as 1, the equivalent value of a few
other products is as follows: mixed hay .4, alfalfa .5, cottonseed meal

The Scale is a Necessary Adjunct to Profitable Feeding. 1

1.25, wheat bran, oats, malt sprouts and similar feeds .91, corn silage .17,
root crops .08. These equivalents vary somewhat, depending on the
quality of the product in question. The value of other products is more
definitely given in the feeding tables. Roughly, a cow or horse requires
about 25 pounds of dry matter daily. This will generally contain from 18
to 20 feed units. The relation of protein, carbohydrates, etc., will depend
on the work that the animal is doing or the product that is made.

Profits from Cheap Crop Products. — The cheapest stock feeds are
products on which little labor has been expended and the cheapest way of

1 Couitetjy of Tho PonuByl vania Firmer.

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 179

feeding is to allow animals to harvest their own feed. The grazing of
grass lands and the pasturing of cornstalk fields is typical of this process.
It is further illustrated by chickens and pigs in small numbers that are
allowed to forage for themselves about the farm premises. The farmer
who produces pork on concentrates alone is at a disadvantage with the one
who depends partly on hog pasture.

Livestock Gains in Relation to Feed. — Swine gain about 10 pounds in
weight for each bushel of corn; steers require about 1000 pounds dry
matter to make 100 pounds of gain; sheep require somewhat less food per
pound of gain than steers; 100 pounds dry matter in dairy rations will
produce about 74 pounds of milk containing 33^ per cent of fat.

Better gains are made with given amounts of feed during the early
portions of the feeding period than toward it"r close. Young animals make
a more profitable use of feed than older on^s. It is seldom that the value
of gain in fattening cattle is equal to the cost of the feed consumed. The
profit is usually made on the increase in value of the total weight of the
animal. Generally, a feeder weighing 1000 pounds can be purchased for
from 1 to 3 cents per pound less than he will bring when in prime condition
and weighing 1200 to 1400 pounds.

Corn Silage as Base for Ration. — In the corn belt, corn silage should
form the base for feeding rations. It should be supplemented with dry
roughage and nitrogenous concentrates in such a way as to meet the require-
ments of the stock raised. It has a wide adaptation and may be extensively
used, either for the production of dairy products, the fattening of steers or
the feeding of horses and young stock.

The following are a few rations which include corn ensilage as taken
from an article by J. G. Grigsdale, published in the Tribune Farmer:

For yearling heifers: Pounds.

Corn silage 25 to 35

Straw or chaff 4 to 6

Clover hay 4

Bran 2

For dry cows:

Corn silage 50 to 60

Straw 8 to 10

Clover hay 4

Bran 1 to 2

For cows in milk:

Corn silage 45

Straw 6

Clover hay 4 to 6

Meal mixture: Bran, oats, gluten or oilcake or cottonseed

meal, equal parts. One pound of meal to three or four

pounds of milk produced per diem.

For steers running over winter (1000 pounds weight) :

Corn silage 60 to 75

Straw 8 to 12

Clover hay 2to 4

180 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

For fattening steers (1000 pounds) : Pounds.

Corn silage 50 to 60

Straw 6 to 10

Hay 3 to, 6

Meal, starting at one pound, go up to 10 pounds per diem.

Balanced Rations. — Animals require not only a sufficient amount of
feed, but also enough of each of the different food elements as well. This
pertains to the relationship of protein to carbohydrates and fat, and is
spoken of as the nutritive ratio. The nutritive ratio is determined, as
above indicated, by the character of animal and the work performed. It
may vary somewhat within reasonable limits without seriously affecting
the yield of animal products. The relative cost of protein and carbohy-
drates often justifies some modification in the ratio.

Standard rations for different classes of livestock will be found in the
chapters pertaining to each class of animals. Methods of calculating
rations are given in the chapter on "Feeds and Feeding," in Part I.

REFERENCES

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 125. "Thirty Years of Crop Rotation on a Prairie Soil."
Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletins:

104, 109. "The Rotation of Crops."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 102. "Planning a

Cropping System." (In three parts.)
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Year-Book 1902, pages 342-364. "Systems of Farm Management in the

United States."
Year-Book 1907, pages 385-389. "Cropping Systems for Stock Farms."
Farmers' Bulletin 337, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Cropping Systems for New England
Dairy Farms."

PART IV

TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL

STATISTICS

(181)

Table I. — Percentage op Total Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients

in Feeding-Stuffs.

grains and seeds.

Total Dry

Matter,

per cent.

Digestible Nutrients.

Feeding-stuff.

Protein,
per cent.

Carbohydrates,
per cent.

Fat,
per cent.

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

Cereals:

Corn meal

89.4
85.0
84.9
89.5
89.6
89.2
91.3
87.6
92.0

85.0
85.4
88.3
92.5

90.8
89.7
91.4

7.8
6.1
4.4
8.8
8.8
8.4
9.5
6.4
10.0

19.7
16.8
29.1
25.1

20.6
12.5
14.8

66.8
64.3
60.0
67.5
49.2
65.3
69.4
79.2
' 70.3

49.3
54.9
23.3
13.7

17.1
30.0
29.7

4.3
3.5
2.9
1.5
4.3
1.6
1.2
0.4
2.0

0.4

1.1

14.6

35.6

29.0
17.3
18.2

9.8
10.8

Corn and cob meal

15.1

Wheat

8.1

Oats

6.7

Barley

8.2

Rye

7.6

Rice

12.5

Emmer (Spelt)

Legumes:
Field Dea

7.5
2.5

Cowoea

3.4

Sov bean

1.9

Peanut

3.7

Oil-bearing seeds:

Max seed

4.0

Cotton seed

5.5

Sunflower seed

4.8

CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS.

Gluten meal

Gluten feed

Germ oil meal

Corn bran

Hominy feed

Corncobs.

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings (standard)

Wheat middlings (flour)

Red Dog flour

Oat hulls

Oat dust

Dried brewers' grains

Wet brewers' grains

Malt sprouts

Dried distillers' grains

90.5
90.8
91.4
90.6
90.4
89.3
88.1
88.8
90.0
90.1
92.6
93.5
91.3
23.0
90.5
92.4

29.7

21.3

15.8

6.0

6.8

0.5

11.9

13.0

16.9

16.2

1.3

5.1

20.0

4.9

20.3

22.8

42.5
52.8
38.8
52.5
60.5
44.8
42.0
45.7
53.6
57.0
38.5
32.8
32.2
9.4
46.0
39.7

6.1
2.9
10.8
4.8
7.4

• • •

2.5
4.5
4.1
3.4
0.6
2.3
6.0
1.7
1.4
11.6

1.9

2.8

4.0

10.5

11.3

89.6

4.0

4.3

3.7

4.0

30.6

7.5

2.3

2.7

2.4

2.9

OIL BY-PRODUCTS.

Linseed oil meal (O. P.)

Linseed oil meal (N. P.)

Cottonseed meal

90.2
91.0
93.0
89.3
91.4

30.2
31.5
37.6
42.8
15.8

32.0
35.7
21.4
20.4
38.8

6.9
2.4
9.6
7.2
10.8

1.6
1.3
1.1

Peanut cake

0.9

Corn germ cake . .

4.0

183

184

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table I. — Percentage of Total Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients

in Feeding-Stuffs (Continued) .

PACKING HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS.

Feeding-stuff.

Dried blood
Tankage....
Meat scrap .

Total Dry
Matter,
per cent.

91.5
93.0
89.3

Digeetible Nutriente.

Protein,
per oent.

70.9
50.1
66.2

Carbohydrate!,
per oent.

....
• . . .
• • . •

Fat.
percent.

2.5
11.6
13.4

Nutritive
Ratio. 1:

0.09
0.52
0.45

MISCELLANEOUS

concentrates.

Beet molasses

79.2
74.1
92.0
91.6
90.9
12.8
9.4
9.9

4.7
1.4
6.1
4.1
9.8
3.4
2.9
3.8

54.1

59.2

68.7

64.9

40.8

4.8

5.3

3.9

• • •

• ■ •

0.9
3.7
0.3
1.0

11.5

Cane molasses

42.3

Molasses beet pulp

11.3

Dried beet duId

15.8

Molasses alfalfa feed .

4.4

Cows' milk , , T . , . T .

3.9

f^lcim milk . . , ,

2.1

Buttermilk

1.6

HAYS.

Legumes:

Red clover

Mammoth clover

Alsike clover

Alfalfa

Soy bean

Cowpea

Grasses:

Timothy

Redtop

Blue grass

Bermuda grass . .

Prairie grass ....
Cereals:

Oat

Barley

Millet

84.7

7.1

78.8

6.2

90.3

8.4

91.9

10.5

88.2

10.6

89.5

9.2

86.8

2.8

91.1

4.8

86.0

4.4

92.9

6.4

90.8

3.0

86.0

4.7

85.0

5.7

86.0

5.2

37.8
34.7
39.7
40.5
40.9
39.3

42.4
46.9
40.2
44.9
42.9

36.7
43.6
38.6

5.9
6.4
5.0
4.1
4.1
7.3

16.2

10.2

9.5

7.6

15.5

8.6
8.0
7.8

Corn fodder.
Corn stover.

FODDER AND STOVER.

83.3
81.8

2.4
1.9

50.4
43.9

1.2
0.5

22.1
23.7

STRAWS.

Oat

Wheat

Barley

Rye

90.8
90.4
85.8
92.9

1.3
0.8
0.9
0.7

39.5

0.8

31.8

35.2

0.4

45.1

40.1

0.6

46.0

39.6

0.4

57.9

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

185

Table I. — Percentage op Total Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients

in Feeding-Stuffs (Continued).

PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS.

Feeding-stuff.

Grasses:

Blue grass

Timothy

Orchard grass v

Bermuda grass

Green corn

Sorghum

Rye

Rape

Legumes:

Red clover

Alsike clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soy bean

Total Dry
Matter,
per cent.

34.9
38.4
27.0
28.3
21.0
20.6
23.4
14.3

29.2
25.2
28.2
16.4
24.9

Digestible Nutrients.

Protein,
percent.

2.8
1.5
1.2
1.3
0.9
0.6
2.1
2.0

2.9

2.6
3.6
1.8
3.1

Carbohydrates,
per cent.

19.7
19.9
13.4
13.4
12.2
11.6
14.1
8.2

13.6
11.4
12.1
8.7
11.0

Fat,
percent.

X).8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.2

0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.5

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

7.7
14.1
12.1
11.0
14.6
20.5
7.1
4.3

5.7
4.8
3.6
5.1
3.9

SILAGE.

Corn

Corn and soy bean.

26.4
24.0

1.4
1.6

14.2
13.2

0.7
0.7

11.3
9.3

ROOTS.

9.1

1.0

11.4

1.0

13.5

1.3

11.4

0.8

20.9

1.1

Mangel...
Rutabaga.
Sugar beet

Carrot

Potato. . .

5.5
8.1
9.8
7.7
15.7

5.9

8.5

7.7

10.5

14.5

186

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table II. — Dby Matter, Digestible Protein, and Net Energy per 100

Pounds of Feed. (Armsby.)

Feeding-stuff.

Green fodder and silage:

Alfalfa

Clover, red

Corn fodder, green

Corn silage

Hungarian grass

Rape

Rye

Timothy

Hay and dry coarse fodders:

Alfalfa hay

Clover hay, red

Corn forage, field cured . .

Corn stover, field cured . .

Cowpea hay

Hungarian hay

Oat hay

Soy bean hay

Timothy hay

Straws:

Oat straw

Rye straw

Wheat straw

Roots and tubers:

Carrots

Mangels

Potatoes

Rutabagas

Turnips

Grains:

Barley

Corn

Corn and cob meal

Oats

Pea meal.

Rye „

Wheat...

By-products:

Brewers' grains, dried

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat middlings

Cottonseed meal.

Distillers' grains, dried:

Principally corn

Principally rye

Gluten feed, dry

Gluten meal, Buffalo

Gluten meal, Chicago

Linseed meal, O. P

Linseed meal, N. P

Malt sprouts

Rye bran

Sugar beet pulp, fresh

Sugar beet pulp, dried

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings

Total Dry Mat-

Digestible Pro-

Net Energy,

ter, pounds.

tein, pounds.

therms.

28.2

2.50

12.45

29.2

2.21

16.17

20.7

0.41

12.44

25.6

1.21

16.56

28.9

1.33

14.76

14.3

2.16

11.43

23.4

1.44

11.63

38.4

1.04

19.08

91.6

6.93

34.41

84.7

5.41

34.74

57.8

2.13

30.53

59.5

1.80

26.53

89.3

8.57

40.76

92.3

3.00

44.03

84.0

2.59

26.97

88.7

7.68

38.65

86.8

2.05

33.56

90.8

1.09

21.21

92.9

0.63

20.87

90.4

0.37

16.56

11.4

0.37

7.82

9.1

0.14

4.62

21.1

0.45

18.05

11.4

0.88

8.00

9.4

0.22

5.74

89.1

8.37

80.75

89.1

6.79

88.84

84.9

4.53

72.05

89.0

8.36

66.27

89.5

16.77

71.75

88.4

8.12

81.72

89.5

8.90

82.63

92.0

19.04

60.01

24.3

3.81

14.82

88.2

22.34

75.92

91.8

35.15

84.20

93.0

21.93

79.23

93.2

10.38

60.93

91.9

19.95

79.32

91.8

21.56

88.80

90.5

33.09

78.49

90.8

27.54

78.92

90.1

29.26

74.67

89.8

12.36

46.33

88.2

11.35

56.65

10.1

0.63

7.77

93.6

6.80

60.10

88.1

10.21

48.23

84.0

12.79

77.65

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

187.

Table III. — Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards.
(Showing amounts of nutrients per day per 1000 pounds live weight.)

Animal.

Oxen, at rest in stall

Fattening cattle:

First period

Second period

Third period

Milch cows, when yielding daily

11.0 pounds of milk

16.6 pounds of milk

22.0 pounds of milk

27.5 pounds of milk

Sheep:
Coarse wool.
Fine wool. . .

Breeding ewes, with lambs.

Fattening sheep:

First period

Second period

Horses:

Light work

Medium work

Heavy work

Brood sows

Fattening swine:
First period . . .
Second period .
Third period . .

Growing cattle (dairy breeds) :
2-3 months, 150 pounds . . .
3-6 months, 300 pounds . . .
6-12 months, 500 pounds. .

12-18 months, 700 pounds. .

18-24 months, 900 pounds. .

Growing cattle (beef breeds) :
2-3 months, 160 pounds. .
3-6 months, 330 pounds. .
6-12 months, 550 pounds .

12-18 months, 750 pounds.

18-24 months, 950 pounds.

Growing sheep (mutton breeds)
4-6 months, 60 pounds. . .
6-8 months, 80 pounds. . .
8-11 months, 100 pounds.

11-15 months, 120 pounds.

15-20 months, 150 pounds.

Total Dry
Matter,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.7

30
30
26

2.5
3.0
2.7

25
27
29
32

1.6
2.0
2.5
3.3

20
23

1.2
1.5

2.9

3.0
3.5

20
24
26

1.5
2.0
2.5

2.5

36
32
25

4.5
4.0
2.7

24
27
26
26

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.8
1.5

23
24
25
24
24

. 4.2
3.5
2.5
2.0
1.8

26
26
24
23
22

4.4
3.5
3.0
2.2
2.0

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat,
pounds.

8.0

0.1

15.0
14.5
15.0

0.5
0.7
0.7

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8

10.5
12.0

0.2
0.3

15.0

0.5

15.0
14.5

0.5
0.6

9.5
11.0
13.3

0.4
0.6
0.8

15.5

0.4

25.0
24.0
18.0

0.7
0.5
0.4

13.0
12.8
12.5
12.5
12.0

2.0
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.3

13.0
12.8
13.2
12.5
12.0

2.0
1.5
0.7
0.5
0.4

15.5
15.0
14.3
12.6
12.0

0.9
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

11.8

6.5
5.4

6.2

6.7
6.0
5.7
4.5

9.1
8.5

5.6

5.4
4.5

7.0
6.2
6.0

6.6

5.0
6.3
7.0

4.5
5.1
6.8
7.5
8.5

4.2

4.7
6.0
6.8
7.2

4.0
4.8
5.2
6.3
6.5

188

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table III.— Wolpf-T

iBHMANN ']

[Teeding Standards (Continued).

Animal.

Total Dry
Matter,

Digestible
Protein,

Digestible
Carbohydrates,

Digestible
Fat,

Nutritive

pounds.

■Ratio, 1:

Growing sheep (wool breeds) :

4-6 months, 60 pounds

3.4

15.4

0.7

5.0

6-8 months, 75 pounds

2.8

13.8

0.6

5.4

8-11 months, 80 pounds

2.1

11.5

0.5

6.0

11-15 months, 90 pounds

1.8

11.2

0.4

7.0

15-20 months, 100 pounds. . .

1.5

10.8

0.3

7.7

Growing swine (breeding stock) :

7.6

28.0

1.0

4.0

4.8

22.5

0.7

5.0

3.7

21.3

0.4

6.0

6-8 months, 200 pounds

2.8

18.7

0.3

7.0

8-12 months, 250 pounds

2.1

15.3

0.2

7.5

Growing fattening swine:

2-3 months, 50 pounds

7.6

28.0

1.0

4.0

3-5 months, 100 pounds

5.0

23.1

0.8

5.0

4.3

22.3

0.6

5.5

6-8 months, 200 pounds

3.6

20.5

0.4

6.0

9-12 months, 300 pounds . . . .

3.0

18.3

0.3

6.4

Table IV. — Ahmsby Feeding Standards.*

FOR MAINTENANCE.

Cattub.

Horses.

Sheep.

live

Digestible

Net

Digestible

Net

Live

Digestible

Net

Weight,

Protein,

Energy,

Protein,

Energy,

Weight,

Protein,

Energy,

pounds.

therms.

pounds.

therms.

pounds.

therms.

150

0.15

1.7

0.3

2.0

0.03

0.30

250

0.20

2.4

0.4

2.8

0.05

0.54

500

0.30

3.8

0.6

4.4

0.07

0.71

750

0.40

4.95

0.8

5.8

0.09

0.87

1000

0.50

6.0

1.0

7.0

100

0.10

1.00

1250

0.60

7.0

1.2

8.15

120

0.11

1.13

1500

0.65

7.9

1.3

9.2

140

0.13

1.25

FOR GROWTH.

Cattub.

Sheep.

Age,
months.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy

Value,

therms.

Age,
months.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy

Value,

therms.

3
6
12
18
24
30

275
425
650
850
1000
1100

1.10

1.30
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.65

5.0
6.0
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.0

110

130

145

0.30
0.25
0.23
0.23
0.22

1.30
1.40
1.40
1.50
1.60

• Modified from Armiby's original table for the sake of simplicity.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

189

Table IV. — Armsby Feeding Standards* (Continued).

FOR FATTENING.

Cattle.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

250

1.1

425

1.3

500

1.5

650

1.7

750

1.7

850

1.7

1000

1.8

1100

1.7

1250

1.6

1500

1.5

Net Energy,
therms.

2.4+(3.5Xdailygain)

3.4+

3.8+

4.5 +

5.0+

5.4+

6.0+

6.4+

7.0+

7.9+

Shbbp.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

100

110

120

130

140

145

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.30
0.28
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.22

Net Energy,
therms.

0.54+(3.5Xdailygain)

0.70+

0.79+

0.87+

0.94+

1.00+

1.06+

1.13+

1.19+

1.25+

1.28+

♦Modified from Armsby's original table for the sake of simplicity.

Table V. — Haecker'b Standard for Milk Production.
Digestible nutrients for the production of one pound of milk.

Fat in

Milk,

per cent.

Protein,

Carbohydrates,

Fat,

Fat in

Millr

Protein,

Carbohydrates,

Fat,

pounds.

1VJ.11K,

per cent.

pounds.

2.5

0.0446

0.176

0.0151

4.8

0.0591

0.276

0.0236

2.6

0.0451

0.180

0.0155

4.9

0.0597

0.280

0.0240

2.7

0.0455

0.185

0.0159

5.0

0.0604

0.284

0.0243

2.8

0.0460

0.190

0.0163

5.1

0.0611

0.288

0.0247

2.9

0.0464

0.194

0.0166

5.2

0.0618

0.291

0.0250

3.0

0.0469

0.199

0.0170

5.3

0.0625

0.295

0.0253

3.1

0.0474

0.203

0.0174

5.4

0.0632

0.299

0.0256

3.2

0.0478

0.207

0.0178

5.5

0.0639

0.302

0.0259

3.3

0.0483

0.212

0.0181

5.6

0.0644

0.307

0.0263

3.4

0.0486

0.216

0.0185

5.7

0.0651

0.310

0.0266

3.5

0.0492

0.221

0.0189

5.8

0.0656

0.314

0.0269

3.6

0.0501

0.225

0.0193

5.9

0.0663

0.318

0.0273

3.7

0.0511

0.229

0.0196

6.0

0.0668

0.322

0.0276

3.8

0.0520

0.234

0.0200

6.1

0.0679

0.326

0.0279

3.9

0.0530

0.238

0.0204

6.2

0.0689

0.330

0.0283

4.0

0.0539

0.242

0.0208

6.3

0.0700

0.334

0.0286

4.1

0.0546

0.247

0.0211

6.4

0.0710

0.338

0.0289

4.2

0.0553

0.251

0.0215

6.5

0.0721

0.342

0.0293

4.3

0.0558

0.255

0.0218

6.6

0.0724

0.345

0.0296

4.4

0.0565

0.260

0.0222

6.7

0.0728

0.349

0.0299

4.5

0.0572

0.264

0.0226

6.8

0.0731

0.353

0.0302

4.6

0.0579

0.268

0.0230

6.9

0.0735

0.357

0.0305

4.7

0.0584

0.272

0.0233

7.0

0.0738

0.359

0.0308

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table VI. — Percentage Composition op Agricultural Products.

Crop.

Corn, dent

Com, flint

Corn, sweet

Corn meal

Corn cob

Corn and cob meal

Corn bran

Corn germ

Hominy chops

Germ meal

Dried starch and sugar feed

Starch feed, wet

Maize feed, Chicago

Grano-gluten

Cream gluten

Gluten meal

Gluten feed

Wheat, all analyses

Wheat, spring

Wheat, winter

Flour, nigh grade

Flour, low grade

Flour, dark feeding

Bran, all analyses

Bran, spring wheat

Bran, winter wheat

Middlings

Shorts

Wheat screenings

Rye

Rye flour

Rye bran

Rye shorts

Barley

Barley meal.

Barley screenings

Brewers' grains, wet

Brewers' grains, dried

Malt sprouts

Oats

Oat meal

Oat feed

Oat dust

Oat hulls

Rice

Rice meal

Rice hulls

Rice bran

Rice polish

Buckwheat, .._. . . ..........

Buckwheat flour

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat shorts

Buckwheat middlings

Sorghum seed

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Crude
Fiber.

Nitrogen-
Free
Extract.

Ether
Extract.

10.6

1.5

10.3

2.2

70.4

5.0

11.3

1.4

10.5

1.7

70.1

5.0

8.8

1.9

11.6

2.8

66.8

8.1

15.0

1.4

9.2

1.9

68.7

3.8

10.7

1.4

2.4

30.1

54.9

0.5

15.1

1.5

8.5

6.6

64.8

3.5

9.1

1.3

9.0

12.7

62.2

5.8

10.7

4.0

9.8

4.1

64.0

7.4

11.1

2.5

9.8

3.8

64.5

8.3

8.1

1.3

11.1

9.9

62.5

7.1

10.9

0.9

19.7

4.7

54.8

9.0

65.4

0.3

6.1

3.1

22.0

3.1

9.1

0.9

22.8

7.6

52.7

6.9

5.8

2.8

31.1

12.0

33.4

14.9

8.1

0.7

36.1

1.3

39.0

14.8

8.2

0.9

29.3

3.3

46.5

11.8

7.8

1.1

24.0

5.3

51.2

10.6

10.5

1.8

11.9

1.8

71.9

2.1

10.4

1.9

12.5

1.8

71.2

2.2

10.5

1.8

11.8

1.8

72.0

2.1

12.2

0.6

14.9

0.3

70.0

2.0

12.0

2.0

18.0

0.9

63.3

3.9

9.7

4.3

19.9

3.8

56.2

6.2

11.9

5.8

15.4

9.0

53.9

4.0

11.5

5.4

16.1

8.0

54.5

4.5

12.3

5.9

16.0

8.1

53.7

4.0

12.1

3.3

15.6

4.6

60.4

4.0

11.8

4.6

14.9

7.4

56.8

4.5

11.6

2.9

12.5

4.9

65.1

3.0

11.6

1.9

10.6

1.7

72.5

1.7

13.1

0.7

6.7

0.4

78.3

0.8

11.6

3.6

14.7

3.5

63.8

2.8

9.3

5.9

18.0

5.1

59.9

2.8

10.9

2.4

12.4

2.7

69.8

1.8

11.9

2.6

10.5

6.5

66.3

2.2

12.2

3.6

12.3

7.3

61.8

2.8

75.7

1.0

5.4

3.8

12.5

1.6

8.2

3.6

19.9

11.0

51.7

5.6

10.2

5.7

23.2

10.7

48.5

1.7

11.0

3.0

11.8

9.5

59.7

5.0

7.9

2.0

14.7

0.9

67.4

7.1

7.7

3.7

16.0

6.1

59.4

7.1

6.5

6.9

13.5

18.2

50.2

4.8

7.3

6.7

3.3

29.7

52.1

1.0

12.4

0.4

7.4

0.2

79.2

0.4

10.2

8.1

12.0

5.4

51.2

13.1

8.2

13.2

3.6

35.7

38.6

0.7

9.7

10.0

12.1

9.5

49.9

8.8

10.0

6.7

11.7

6.3

58.0

7.3

12.6

2.0

10.0

8.7

64.5

2.2

14.6

1.0

6.9

0.3

75.8

1.4

13.2

2.2

4.6

43.5

35.3

1.1

10.5

3.0

12.4

31.9

38.8

3.3

11.1

5.1

27.1

8.3

40.8

7.6

13.2

4.8

28.9

4.1

41.9

7.1

12.8

2.1

9.1

2.6

69.8

3.6

190

191

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

Table VI. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Continued).

Crop.

Broom-corn seed

Kaffir seed

Millet seed

Hungarian grass seed

Flaxseed

Flaxseed, ground

Linseed meal, old process

Linseed meal, new process

Cotton seed

Cotton seed, roasted

Cottonseed meal

Cottonseed hulls

Cottonseed kernels (no hulls)

Cocoanut cake

Palm nut meal

Sunflower seed

Sunflower seed cake

Peanut kernels (no hulls) ,

Peanut meal

Rape seed cake

Pea meal

Soy bean

Cowpea

Horse bean

Corn fodder, field cured

Corn stover, field cured

Corn husks, field cured

Corn leaves, field cured

Corn fodder, green

Dent varieties, green ,

Dent, kernels glazed green

Flint varieties, green

Flint, kernels glazed green

Sweet varieties, green

Leaves and husks, green

Stripped stalks, green

Hat from Grasses:

Mixed grasses

Timothy, all analyses

Timothy, cut in full bloom

Timothy, cut soon after bloom

Timothy, cut when near ripe

Orchard grass

Redtop, cut at different stages

Redtop, cut in full bloom

Kentucky blue grass

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed

is in milk

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed

is ripe

Hungarian grass

Meadow fescue

Indian rye grass

Perennial rye grass

Rowen (mixed)

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Crude
Fiber.

Nitrogen-
Free
Extract.

11.5

3.4

10.2

7.1

63.6

9.3

1.5

9.9

1.4

74.9

14.0

3.3

11.8

9.5

57.4

9.5

5.0

9.9

7.7

63.2

9.2

4.3

22.6

7.1

23.2

8.1

4.7

21.6

7.3

27.9

9.2

5.7

32.9

8.9

35.4

10.1

5.8

33.2

9.5

38.4

10.3

3.5

18.4

23.2

24.7

6.1

5.5

16.8

20.4

23.5

8.2

7.2

42.3

5.6

23.6

11.1

2.8

4.2

46.3

33.4

6.2

4.7

31.2

3.7

17.6

10.3

5.9

19.7

14.4

38.7

10.4

4.3

16.8

24.0

35.0

8.6

2.6

16.3

29.9

21.4

10.8

6.7

32.8

13.5

27.1

7.5

2.4

27.9

7.0

15.6

10.7

4.9

47.6

5.1

23.7

10.0

7.9

31.2

11.3

30.0

10.5

2.6

20.2

14.4

51.1

10.8

4.7

34.0

4.8

28.8

14.8

3.2

20.8

4.1

55.7

11.3

3.8

26.6

7.2

50.1

42.2

2.7

4.5

14.3

34.7

40.5

3.4

3.8

19.7

31.5

50.9

1.8

2.5

15.8

28.3

30.0

5.5

6.0

21.4

35.7

79.3

1.2

1.8

5.0

12.2

79.0

1.2

1.7

5.6

12.0

73.4

1.5

2.0

6.7

15.5

79.8

1.1

2.0

4.3

12.1

77.1

1.1

2.7

4.3

14.6

79.1

1.3

1.9

4.4

12.8

66.2

2.9

2.1

8.7

19.0

76.1

0.7

0.5

7.3

14.9

15.3

5.5

7.4

27.2

42.1

13.2

4.4

5.9

29.0

45.0

15.0

4.5

6.0

29.6

41.9

14.2

4.4

5.7

28.1

44.6

14.1

3.9

5.0

31.1

43.7

9.9

6.0

8.1

32.4

41.0

8.9

5.2

7.9

28.6

47.5

8.7

4.9

8.0

29.9

46.4

21.2

6.3

7.8

23.0

37.8

24.4

7.0

6.3

24.5

34.2

27.8

6.4

5.8

23.8

33.2

7.7

6.0

7.5

27.7

49.0

20.0

6.8

7.0

25.9

38.4

8.5

6.9

7.5

30.5

45.0

14.0

7.9

10.1

25.4

40.5

16.6

6.8

11.6

22.5

39.4

Ether
Extract.

3.0

4.0

4.7

33.7

30.4

7.9

3.0

19.9

27.7

13.1

2.2

36.6

11.0

9.5

21.2

9.1

39.6

8.0

9.6

1.2

16.9

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.1

0.7

1.4

0.5

0.9

0.7

0.8

0.5

1.1

0.5

2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
2.2
2.6

1.9
2.1
3.9

3.6

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

192

Table VI. — Percentage Composition op Agricultural Products (Continued).

Crop.

Hat from Grasses (Continued):

Mixed grasses and clovers

Barley nay, cut in milk

Oat hay, cut in milk

Swamp hay

Salt marsh hay

Wild oat grass

Buttercups

White daisy

Johnson grass

Fresh Grass:

Pasture grass

Kentucky blue grass

Timothv, different stages

Orchard grass, in bloom

Redtop, in bloom

Oat fodder

Rye fodder

Sorghum fodder

Barley fodder

Hungarian grass

Meadow fescue, in bloom

Italian rye grass, coming in bloom.

Tall oat grass, in bloom

Japanese millet

Barnyard millet

Hat prom Legumes:

Red clover

Red clover in bloom

Red clover, mammoth

Alsike clover

White clover

Crimson clover

Japan clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soy bean

Pea vine

Vetch

Serradella

Flat pea

Peanut vines (no nuts)

Sainfoin

Fresh Legumes:

Red clover, different stages

Alsike clover

Crimson clover

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soy bean

Serradella

Horse bean

Flat pea

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Crude

Nitrogen-
Free

Ether

Fiber.

Extract.

12.9

5.5

10.1

27.6

41.3

2.6

15.0

4.2

8.8

24.7

44.9

2.4

15.0

5.2

9.3

29.2

39.0

2.3

11.6

6.7

7.2

26.6

45.9

2.0

10.4

7.7

5.5

30.0

44.1

2.4

14.3

3.8

5.0

25.0

48.8

3.3

9.3

5.6

9.9

30.6

41.1

3.5

10.3

6.6

7.7

30.0

42.0

3.4

10.2

6.1

7.2

28.5

45.9

2.1

80.0

2.0

3.5

4.0

9.7

0.09

65.1

2.8

4.1

9.1

17.6

1.3

61.6

2.1

3.1

11.8

20.2

1.2

73.0

2.0

2.6

8.2

13.3

0.9

65.3

2.3

2.8

11.0

17.7

0.9

62.2

2.5

3.4

11.2

.19.3

1.4

76.6

1.8

2.6

11.6

6.8

0.6

79.4

1.1

1.3

6.1

11.6

0.5

79.0

1.8

2.7

7.9

8.0

0.6

71.1

1.7

3.1

9.2

14.2

0.7

69.9

1.8

2.4

10.8

14.3

0.8

73.2

2.5

3.1

6.8

13.3

1.3

69.5

2.0

2.4

9.4

15.8

0.9

75.0

1.5

2.1

7.8

13.1

0.5

75.0

1.9

2.4

7.0

13.1

0.6

15.3

6.2

12.3

24.8

38.1

3.3

20.8

6.6

12.4

21.9

33.8

4.5

21.2

6.1

10.7

24.5

33.6

3.9

9.7

8.3

12.8

25.6

40.7

2.9

9.7

8.3

15.7

24.1

39.3

2.9

9.6

8.6

15.2

27.2

36.6

2.8

11.0

8.5

13.8

24.0

39.0

3.7

8.4

7.4

14.3

25.0

42.7

2.2

10.7

7.5

16.6

20.1

42.2

2.2

11.3

7.2

15.4

22.3

38.6

5.2

15.0

6.7

13.7

24.7

37.6

2.3

11.3

7.9

17.0

25.4

36.1

2.3

9.2

7.2

15.2

21.6

44.2

2.6

8.4

7.9

22.9

26.2

31.4

3.2

7.6

10.8

10.7

23.6

42.7

4.6

15.0

7.3

14.8

20.4

39.5

3.0

70.8

2.1

4.4

8.1

13.5

1.1

74.8

2.0

3.9

7.4

11.0

0.9

80.9

1.7

3.1

5.2

8.4

0.7

71.8

2.7

4.8

7.4

12.3

1.0

83.6

1.7

2.4

4.8

7.1

0.4

75.1

2.6

4.0

6.7

10.6

1.0

79.5

3.2

2.7

5.4

8.6

0.7

84.2

1.2

2.8

4.9

6.5

0.4

66.7

2.9

8.7

7.9

12.2

1.6

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

193

Table VI. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Continued).

Crop.

Straw:

Wheat

Rye

Oat

Barley

Wheat chaff

Oat chaff

Buckwheat straw

Soy bean

Horse bean

Silage:

Corn

Sorghum

Rea clover

Soy bean

Apple pomace

Cowpeavine

Cow and soy bean vines mixed .

Field pea vine

Barnyard millet and soy bean. .

Corn and soy bean

Rye

Roots and Tubers:

Potato

Common beets

Sugar beets

Mangels

Turnip

Rutabaga

Carrot

Parsnip

Artichoke

Sweet potato

Miscellaneous :

Cabbage

Spurry

Sugar beet leaves

Pumpkin, field

Pumpkin, garden

Prickly comf rey

Rape

Acorns, fresh

Apples

Cow's milk

Cow's colustrum

Mare's milk

Ewe's milk

Goat's milk

Sow's milk

Skim milk, gravity

Skim milk, centrifugal

Buttermilk . . . ,

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

~_ , Nitrogen-
gru de Free

Ether

Fiber

Extract.

Extract

9.6

4.2

3.4

38.1

40.4

1.3

7.1

3,2

3.0

38.9

46.6

1.2

9.2

5.1

4.0

37.0

42.4

2.3

14.2

5.7

3.5

36.0

39.0

1.5

14.3

9.2

4.5

36.0

> 34.6

1.4

14.3

10.0

4.0

34.0

I 36.2

1.5

9.9

5.5

5.2

43.0

I 35.1

1.3

10.1

5.8

4.6

40.4

37.4

1.7

9.2

8.7

8.8

37.6

> 34.3

1.4

79.1

1.4

1.7

6.0

► 11.0

0.8

76.1

1.1

0.8

6.4

15.3

0.3

72.0

2.6

4.2

8.4

11.6

1.2

74.2

2.8

4.1

9.7

6.9

2.2

85.0

0.6

1.2

3.2

\ 8.8

1.1

79.3

2.9

2.7

6.C

) 7.6

1.5

69.8

4.5

3.8

y . c

; n.i

1.3

50.1

3.5

5.9

13. C

) 26.0

1.6

79.0

2.8

7.5

\ 7.2

1.0

76.0

2.4

2.5

7.2

\ 11.1

0.8

80.8

1.6

2.4

5. J

\ 9.2

0.3

78.9

1.0

2.1

o.e

> 17.3

0.1

88.5

1.0

1.5

O.t

) 8.0

0.1

86.5

0.9

1.8

o.<

) 9.8

0.1

90.9

1.1

1.4

o.<

> 5.5

0.2

90.5

0.8

1.1

1.5

\ 6.2

0.2

88.6

1.2

1.5

\ 7.5

0.2

88.6

1.0

1.1

1.5

\ 7.6

0.4

88.3

0.7

1.6

l.(

) 10.2

0.2

79.5

1.0

2.6

O.t

\ 15.9

0.2

71.1

1.0

1.5

J 24.7

0.4

90.5

1.4

2.4

1.1

> 3.9

0.4

75.7

4.0

2.0

4.1

) 12.7

0.8

88.0

2.4

2.6

2.5

I 4.4

[0.4

90.9

0.5

1.3

1.4

r 5.2

0.4

80.8

0.9

1.8

l.i

I 7.9

0.8

88.4

2.2

2.4

l.(

5 5.1

0.3

84.5

2.0

2.3

2.(

> 5.4

0.5

55.3

1.0

2.5

4.4

I 34.8

1.9

80.8

0.4

0.7

1.5

I 16.6

0.4

87.2

0.7

3.6

• • i

4.9

3.7

74.6

1.6

17.6

k •

2.7

3.6

91.0

0.4

2.1

• 4

5.3

1.2

81.3

0.8

6.3

» •

4.7

6.8

86.9

0.9

3.7

* a t

4.4

4.1

80.8

1.1

6.2

9 %

4.4

7.1

90.4

0.7

3.3

* • 1

4.7

0.9

90.6

0.7

3.1

t • i

5.3

0.3

90.1

0.7

4.0

•

4.0

1.1

194

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table VI.— Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Continued).

Crop*

Miscellaneous (Continued):

Whey

Dried blood

Meat scrap

Dried fish

Beet pulp

Beet molasses

Apple pomace

Distillery slops

Dried sediment from distillery
slops

Water.

93.8
8.5
10.7
10.8
89.8
20.8
76.7
93.7

5.0

Ash.

0.4
4.7
4.1

29.2
0.6

10.6
0.6
0.2

11.3

Protein.

0.6

84.4

71.2

48.4

0.9

9.1

1.4

1.7

27.4

Crude
Fiber.

9
6

8.0

Nitrogen-
Free
Extract.

5.1

• • •

0.3

• • •

6.3
59.5
16.2

2.8

36.1

Ether
Extract.

0.1

2.5

13.7

11.6

1.3
0.9

12.3

Table VII. — Composition and Amounts of Manure Produced by Different

Kinds of Farm Animals.*

Analysis.

Amount per 1000 Pounds
Live Weight.

Kind of Animal and
Kinds of Food Fed.

Water.

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-
phorus.

Potas-
sium.

Pounds

per

Day.

Pounds

per

Year.

Pounds
Absorb-
ents
per
Year.

Total
Tons
Farm
Manure
per
Year.

Sheep. — Fed hay, corn, oats;
or nay, wheat bran, cotton-
seed meal and linseed meal

Swine. — Fed skim milk, corn
meal, meat scraps; or corn
meal, wheat bran and lin-
seed meal

59.52

74.13

75.25
48.69

0.77

0.84

0.43
0.49

4.10

0.17

0.127
0.114

0.59

0.32

0.44
0.48

34.1

83.6

74.1
48.8

12,446

30,514

27,046
17,812

5,000

3,000
3,000

8.7
17.7

Cattle. — Fed hay, silage,
beets, wheat bran, corn
meal and cottonseed meal

Horses. — Fed hay, oats, corn

15.0
10.5

Note. — The analyses and amounts of manure produced by farm animals, as shown in this table,
are from the Cornell Experiment Station, and the estimates of pounds absorbents per year from " Farm
Management," by Andrew Boss. It is estimated that under average farm conditions 60 per cent of the
elements of fertility in farm manures is lost by leaching and fermentation. Direct hauling of manure
to the field or composting in concerete pits will prevent much of this loss.

* From " Field Management and Crop Rotation," by Parker.

AORIC0LTURAL STATISTICS

Table VIII. — List op Agricultural Colleges as
in the United Status.

tj Exnauacmn

Stations

—

Una or Imrmjnon.

■ssi.-

Location or

Alabama

A burn

Auburn

j^_i — u — .1 a_fc__i _■ .1- m__i m 1 ^jj XzuJoB^jnal

Toaksje* loatjtote

FeyetteriBe . ..

(rainer..*-

TiBiliaaiii

Fl rNnrw. ....

rtnriS?

Tl Ha to Coknd

Frankfort

Baton Rocjge

Scotland Heighta,
Raton Rouge

!»**»»

Louisiana BUte University and AcnouHan] *ad Mechanical

Southern Unileraty And AjrimHwal And Menharteal CoOtfe

NewOrleu-IeutK)
Crowley frioe)
CaIhonii,North

Ma»

Princea Anne Academy, £aftarn Branch of lie Maryland

Unnenity Farm,
Agricultural

g|g%.

lfUai ,1

Mia' ' A -cult.md.nl M 1 • " i

College

Montane State College of Asricnltore and Mn-W:!: Art!

Mountain Grove,

(fruit)

B—gSS***

New Rnrawirh .
Start Coital

New Merico. . .

BUt>(UUfi

North Caroline

The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Ana

WatRafeigb

Graraaboro

Aai-.:-j:tu<w)
■'.1 v-

tienera ;Btet*)
Resign and W«t
RaJat*

Col>«e

Langeton

PenDiyJvnnin , .
Porto Hi»

Rtatt Cottega

College of AinciiltuR and Mechamo Arts of Dmiecmty of

Mayaguet (Federal)
Rio Prtdras Or*

196

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table VIII.— List of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations

in the United States {Continued).

Btatb.

South Carolina.

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia. .

Wisconsin.
Wyoming.

Namx of Institution.

The Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina

The Colored Normal Industrial Agricultural and Mechanical
College of South Carolina

South Dakota State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts

College of Agriculture, University of Tennessee

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College

The Agricultural College of Utah

College of Agriculture of University of Vermont

The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Poly-
technic Institute

The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute

State College of Washington

College of Agriculture of West Virginia University.

The West Virginia Colored Institute

College of Agriculture of University of Wisconsin

College of Acriculture of University of Wyoming

LOGATIOK or

Collwh.

Clemson College. .

'burg
BrooF
Knoxvuie
College Station
Prairie View

Logan

Burlington. . . .

Blacksburg....

Hampton

Pullman

Morgantown. .
Institute

Madison

Laramie

Location or

EXFERIiaNT

Station.

Clemson College

Brookings
Knoxville
College Station

Logan
Burlington

Blacksburg(College)
Norfolk (truck)

Pullman
Morgantown

Madison
Laramie

Table IX. — How to Estimate Amount op Grain in Bins and Hat in

Mow or Stack.

SMALL GRAIN AND SHELLED CORN.

Length multiplied by width multiplied by average depth in feet gives the cubic
feet of grain. This multiplied by 8 divided by 10 equals the bushels.

Example: — A bin of wneat is 8 feet wide by 16 feet long and the average depth of
wheat is 6 feet.

8X16X6X8
10

=614.4 bushels.

FOR BUSHELS OF EAR CORN.

Multiply the cubic feet occupied by ear corn by 4 and divide by 10.

FOR TONS OF HAY.

If hay has stood for 60 days or more and mow or stack is deep, divide cubic con-
tents in feet by 400. For shallow mows or stacks that have stood only 30 days or
less, divide by 600. For intermediate conditions, divide by 500 more or less, depending
on conditions. The cubic feet in a stack may be obtained as follows: Subtract the
width from the over (the "over" is the distance from the ground on one side over the
stack to the ground on the other side), divide by the height, then multiply successively
by the over, the width the length, and by ,225.

TTvrni;RaT"-v ny fA'

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

BERKELEY

Return to desk f rpm which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

13NOT»49HB

5/ V%

jUHl5l f ^W

LD 21-100m-9, , 481B899sl6)47e

YC 11574

415292

* *

UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY

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